Elementary Grammar of the Old Norse Or Icelandic Language

ND N ATE’ T WILLIAMS A ORG S LIS .

tter gli y. ’ ’ E ugene s The Stu dent s Comparative G rammar of the r Lan u a e i an His to rical k c o f the F ench g g , w th S et h

rm a io n o f r . For the u se o f u c c o o F o t F ench P bli S h ls .

- W E r e . G . E E E CHT renc ith xe cis s By UG N FASNA , F h

a r We m i r o o . 1 1th E io t o ro u l M ste , st nste Sch l dit n , h gh y

u ar ro 8 o . 3 revised . Sq e c wn v clo th 5

O r G ra mm ar 3s E r is 2s 6d . , , xe c es , T h e appearan ce o f a G ramm ar like this is in itself a sign that great a dvan ce is bein g m ade in the teachin g o f m o dern as well as o f an cien t lan gu ages T he ru les an d o bservation s are. all scientiﬁcally clas siﬁed ”— x laine . E uca t/io na l M es a nd e p d d . “ In itself this is in m any ways the m o st sa tisfa cto ry G ramm ar fo r — b inn ers that we have as et seen . Athen

wens o lleg e M an ches ter. an d Litera ture, O C , ’ n a uat nc R a fo r u se o f T he Stude t s G r d ed Fre h e der, the

I . ir Y ar. A Ta u i o o . P bl c Sch ls F st e necd o tes , les ,

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n ro n 8 o . o 23 L o n do . C w v cl th ’ T he tu t s on c Rea am . S den Sec d Fren h der . By the s e 28 C ro wn 8 vo . clo th f r n o m a m istre nc o e s . Le a (J Fre h Begin r Less ns Syste tic ,

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ro w n o . 2 s d F ren ch B o o ks . C 8 v 6 ’

R F r n r . eo Little E ugene s French eader . o Begin e s An T E No tcs an d a co m lete a n d a e . te do tes l s di d , with p

lb s M A . C ro 8vo . lo t Vo a u a r o De o . c b l y , by Le n , wn c h , 13 6d

l to r R I t o uct on to O d . oget (F . F . ) n r d i French His y ,

' ram m a r C lu es to m a th G o a r . C o 6: G , y , l ss y l th

u a enc fo r ho o a n d Pr va e U s e. T arver . Colloq i l Fr h , Sc l i t

- - B a o f E o o e e. 328 . 11 . a rver . és L . C By T , , l te t n ll g pp n vc o 5, Cro w 8 . cl th ’ Willia m s a n d No rga te s S choo l Books a n d M ap s .

E L s Miserables . Les r n au x o e . Victor Hugo . e P i cip pis d s ' B ielle r E t e a n d o e J . o o di ed , with Lif N t s , by , Seni

r a er D u w C o e . 2 vo s . C ro w n 8 vo . F ench M st , l ich ll ge l clo th e ac h 33 6d o t fo r the u s e o f o o Notre Dame de P ari s . Ad p ed Sch ls

B J . o r ren a e r an d C o . lleges y Seni F ch M st ,

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A E V . e o n E o n . C o 28 o e G . U N t s by . N E S c d diti l th m si n h G amma Kru eger (IL) Short but Co prehen ve Fre c r r. o 2 s E 180 . l 2m o . 5 th diti o n . pp cl th

n A e c and no ntax . 2 n d Delbos (L. ) Fre ch ccid n e Mi r Sy l s 6d E n . n o o ditio C ro w 8v . cl th ’ Studen t s Fren ch Composition on an entirely n ew 6d r n o . o 3s pl a n . C o w 8 v cl th

rou ll A T atis on nch G n e s . l 2m o . St we e (Prof. .) re e Fre e d r clo th l s 6d m Dr a ulai e A ma a Sc t et t oc . t h id ( . H . ) P i V b r sys e tic lly l s a rran a u a r o . ged French V o c b l y . C l th ’ n s o n d Di o ues fo r E Ah French V cab u lary a al g , nglish s 6 o o . 2n d E o n l 2 m o o l d Sch ls diti . . cl th f r ra la n o R Cou s e ns . P e o o oussy . r d Vers io i ces t ns ti int i o e ro 8 o 2s 6d r C w vo . F ench , w th N t s . n cl th n A C estom ran a e o u C oi o rceau Vi et ( . ) hr athie F c is h x de M x

ré in ra ais 1lth E o . ti s des m eilleu rs E criva s F nc . diti n 8 o 3e 6d 35 pp . cl th

i liams T af nt. n Comm c a . and . o e c W l ( S .) J L Fr h er i l o rr o n A o t o o f o r rca t C esp d ence . C llec i n M de n Me n ile r ren an d E n e r ra a o Lette s in F ch glish , with th i t nsl ti n

. d o n o o a E 12m o . o 4 s 6 pp site p ges 2n d diti o n . cl th C ass f r E i I n ro French l i cs o E ngli sh Sch ools . dited w th t ’ o f K n u an d o O D E LBO S M . A . o d cti n N tes by LE N , , i g s l o . ro n 8 o C lege C w v . clo th

Ra n e. a u r 18 d 1. ci Les Pl ide s 6

C e. o ra l s 2 . orneill H ce 6d l s Co e. C a 6d 3. rneill inn e e o u r eo G o m m 18 4 . o 6d M li r . B g is entilh e i Co e. C d l s 6d 5 . rneill Le Les u R u 13 6 o e éc ses c s . 6d . M li re , Pr ie idi le A m 7 ; Chateau bri and . V o y a ge en é riqu e 13 6d

D a t . Les Pr o n r d u C au cas e an d le 8 . e M is re is n ie s , ’ Lépreu x d A o s te l s 6d ’

n ain s ct a s . 18 601 9 . La F o t e Sele F ble

(T o be con tin u ed . ) ’ Willia ms an d Norga te s S choo l Books a n d M ap s

’ l ur s isto - anc ra o n é a la. Jen n s e e t F e y H ire de Fr e, c t e e s , di ed fo r th e u se o f E n h Pu w G ra m m a a o glis pils , ith tic l N tes , n a d l am 3rd E o . 12m o . o o r s 8 6 by Be j e. diti cl th b d 3 n d M an drou French P oetry for E n glis h Schools . 2 2s 12m o . o E ditio n . cl th

rm an ﬁ e .

’ Weisse s Complete Practi cal G rammar of the G erman a u a e w E xer in Co v r a o s e r L ng g , ith cises n e s ti n , L tte s ,

2 . 4 th E o n . 1 m o o 3 &c. diti cl th 6 New Conversation al E xerci ses in G erm an C o m

o o n 2n d E on . l 2m o . o Ke 53 3s 6d p siti , diti cl th ( y , ) ’ k C o r Schl atter s G erm an Class Boo . A u s e o f In stru cti o n ’ o n eck r m an d so arr n ba sed B e s Syste , a ged a s to

exh th e S e - v o m en o f a u a e an d ibit lf de el p t the L ng g , its

A fﬁn ities w E n s . Fr . u r R o a ith the gli h By Schl tte , y l

A a m o o w . 4 h E ar t d o n . 2 . Milit y c de y , W l ich iti l m o clo th (Key 5 3) 5s

A G m a R adi ook. A o m a o Moller (A . ) er n e ng B C p ni n to ’ Schl a tter s G erm an Cla ss B o o k . With a c o m plete

12m o . o r 150 . V o c ab u la y . pp cl th 2s a t a amma of th Ravensberg (A . v. ) Pr c ic l G r r e G erman n a E x r D n u a . C o n ver a o e a o u a n d La g ge s ti l e cis s , i l g es

E n . 2 I a E re n . r 1 m di o m tic xp ssio s Thi d ditio o . cl o th Ke 2 3 5s ( y , ) ’ n Ro se s E nglish into G erman . A S electi o o f A n ec

&c. w o o u o e . n d E o e o r e 2 o n . d t s , St i s , , ith c pi s N t s diti o h Ke 58 4 s 6d Cl t ( y , ) m a R a Pro s e a n d Po r w ce io G er n e der, et y , ith p u s n r 8 n ers 2 n d E o . C o w vo . o N o tes fo r B egi n . diti n cl th 3s G man tall rass . st R Sonnenschein an d S yb Fir er eading Book. m h n er n ea r ra n s a o n o e E a Po e . sy s wit i t li T l ti s , N t s , etc

n 12 111 0 . o 4 s 4 th E diti o . cl th Gd ' New E o n o Ahn s G erman Method by R ose . A diti f th e en u n e o o k w a S u em en o n s s n o f M o d o ls g i B , ith ppl t c i ti g , o n u a o a Ta e o f a ll R e u a r D s s o n a n t an d o f C j g ti ns , bl g l i I u e o n he Pre o o n s 5 V er R t dw . 8 rre u a r . g l bs , l s p siti , 0

1 o . A V R o e . 2 C o u rs e in v l C o 33 6d By . . s s l th

r Co u r . C o R os &c . G erman Method by e, Fi st se l th 2 8 ’ l o t and a a G ma G amma for Ape s Sh r Pr ctic l er n r r Beginners,

o a a n d E xer e . 2 n d E w ith c o pi u s E x m ples cis s diti o n . clo h 2s d 12 m o . t G o Vo m Fo r Co nti n uatio n see the en d f the lu e . ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR

OF T HE

O LD NO R SE O R

L G ICE ANDIC LANGUA E .

BY T HE

L O E E O R G E BA Y D N. R V . G

WI IA A ND O R G A T E L L MS N ,

1 4 H I TT TR ET V NT L , ENR E A S E , CO E GARDEN , ONDON ;

A ND 2 0 S TH R RI K T T E I B R H , OU F EDE C S REE , D N U G .

i 7 18 0 .

PR E F A C E .

Th e varied an d vigo ro u s literatu re o f ancient Sca ndin avia will am ply repay the stu dent fo r the la b o u r which he ca n

o u o an d to a at a u t o o f the an ua best w p n it , f cilit e his cq isi i n l g ge

o o w o rk in which it is em bo died is the bj ect f this little .

t v I av a m e at the u tm o rev t co n With his iew , h e i d st b i y

e t o m et e an d r o avo n all o sist nt wi h c pl en ss p ecisi n , idi g th se elabo rate details which can o nly interest the ad vanced sch o lar .

S a m r o e ru e w m u s t ar be m a t r t ting e ely th s l s hich necess ily s e ed , I h ave endeavo u red thro u gh sim plicity o f arra ngem ent an d a practical system to p resent th e gen eral stru ctu re of th e Ice

’ au o u e e o r the ear er s o at o rd i ar l die t ng b f e l n s eye , th with n y applicati o n it will be easily co mp rehended ; pa rticu larly by him who p o ssesses the a dvantage o f an acq u aintance w ith o m o f o a e ra W er v r ru are a o s e its c gn t b nches . h e e les l id d wn , they are so enfo rced by anal o go u s examples sel ected fro m

a ar au o r a o rr t ra a o o f as st nd d th ities , with c ec t nsl ti n the p a as to o o r0 er a a o o f t m an d s ges , sh w b th the p p pplic ti n he ,

r m ea o f th e te e the ight ning sen nc s . The earliest p o etry an d histo rical sagas o f the N o rth fu rnish exh au stless so u rces o f intellectu al pleasu re to the a t u ar a n d a o o . ra io o f I e a car n iq i n phil l gist The t dit ns c l nd , IV PREFACE . ri ed into that island by em igrants fro m the Scandinavi an

e n u a o o n a er its o ver an d m er ha re p ni s l s ft disc y , i p is bly p

erve b th em in w r tte o u m en ts are s o o e co n s d y i n d c , cl s ly

’ n ected w ith th e h isto ry o f No rth ern E u ro p e as to ren der a kn o w e e o f it n w t e M a o f th e ka l dg i co m pl ete i h o u t th m . ny s lds

rav e o re n an b e o re th e w e th en u r an d a s t ell d in f ig l ds f t lf c t y , t e w ere n o an d w arr o r h e w ere re e ve th e h y bles i s , t y c i d by k to w o m h e w er o e re a e as r e an d o u ings , h t y e ft n l t d , f i nds c n oillet s ; thu s o n th ei r retu rn to th eir n ative l an d th ey bro u ght

th h m m u h h to r a m a ter h n e th e R o m a wi t e c is ic l t whic , si c n

ara er h ad e ro u e the C r t an re o ch ct s be n int d c d with h is i ligi n , w as mm te to r n T he va u e o f o m e o f e e o u co it d w iti g . l s th s d c m e to E h o r o n era e an d e e co n nts nglish ist y is c sid bl , b sid s ﬁrm in g o r adding to o u r sto ck o f fa cts du ring its darkest

r o d th e affo r u s ver er n v ew o f the ta e o f p e i , y d y int esti g i s s t

o t an d o f the m a r an d m o e o f v o f th e a e s cie y , nne s d li ing g in h whic th ey w ere co m po sed . A fter th e dep artu re o f th e R o m an l egi o ns fro m this

o u r th e Ju e S a o an d A n e wh o o u e re c nt y , t s , x ns , gl s , cc pi d s ectivel Ju a in Den m ark the r etw een th e E e p y tl nd , dist ict b lb an d the R er an d A n en in th e o u h— a t ar o f the yd , gl s t e s p t

D u o f Slesvik u e v o a n e e em n t Bri chy , s cc ssi ely bt i d s ttl e s in

a n T he a u a e w re u t ro m h en e o o t i . l ng g hich s l ed f t is bl d d c l n izatio n m arke h o w ever ro a e t var at o n , d by st ng di l c ic i i s , is

en era t e A o - Saxo n erm w as r n tro g lly s yl d ngl , which t ﬁ st i d u ce A e in o f A r re em a e d r e . by ss , his Lif lf ed The s bl nc

et en an d the O No r e as to e tr k b we it ld s , is be exp cted , is s i

o are the o ff r n o f ha r m t ve o n u e ing , since b th sp i g t t p i i i t g ,

the G o o ke the a to r o f all eu o tr e . thic , sp n by nces s the T t nic ib s

F o r a e the A n o - S axo et r (it o m m o to o h inst nc , gl n l te is c n b t

I e a an d E tho u h u n k o to m o t o f the a e c l ndic nglish , g n wn s lli d

e t h e o u n a t ve an d ro o u n a re a ke a . T e ar e di l c s ticl , n , dj c i p n li d eclinablc A o - Sa o n an d O No r e av fere t in ngl x ld s , h ing dif n

o rm s fo r the ree er fo r th e o u r a e an d fo r the f th gend s , f c s s E PREFAC . singu l ar an d pl u ra l n u m b ers ; b esides which the pro no u n

r a n d o r o h as a u a o r o rm e u o f the ﬁ st s ec nd pe s ns d l , f xcl

r a e to the u m er tw o T he a e t v has s ively appro p i t d n b . dj c i e two fo rm s o f i n ﬂ ectio n ; th e o n e em plo yed w h en th e adj ective

u w tho u a erm at ve the o t er w re is sed i t det in i , h hen it is p

a o r a ro o u a r o w th t o ceded by n a rticle p n n g eeing als i he n u n .

o rm are a e r t v the n t an d d eﬁ These f s c ll d , espec i ely , i deﬁni e

T h e ver ave o u r m o o the at ve s u b te . ni bs h f ds ; indic i , u ve m era v an d t ve and b u t tw o te es the j ncti , i p ti e inﬁni i , ns

o th a a e t e t a t pres ent an d the p ast . In b l ngu g s h deﬁni e r icle partakes very stro ngly o f its o rigi n al chara cter o f a dem o n

o u ave r e h s trative ro o u . r an d t e p n n The n ns h th e gende s , m ascu line an d fem inin e are o ften a ppli ed to o bj ects in ca pable

o f s ex .

u rt rm o r I e a ro m its o e re a o h to F he e , c l ndic , f cl s l ti ns ip

A o - S a o u r m o re a u a a a o e fo r the ngl x n , f nishes b nd nt n l gi s ill u stratio n o f o bsc u re E nglish etym o lo gical an d syntactica l " th n an o t r o f the k re to u e It b u t fo rm s a y he ind d ng s . is ” re n t a M ar e u r o n E Lan ce ly , s ys sh in his L ct es the nglish " u a e a a va u o f I a i o o has g g , th t the gre t l e cel ndic ph l l gy e o m k o to the o r ran o f the G o to k an d b c e n wn the b ches thic s c , o n e am ar t tr a u r s o f t at rem arka t ratu r f ili wi h the e s e h ble li e e , an d the w a o w er an d e t o f the a u a e w e lth , p , ﬂ xibili y l ng g hich o n ta it ee o a o n to r re a t o f a o ro u c ins , s s cc si eg t the w n th gh kn o w ledge o f it in E n glish an d A m erica n gram matica l

r er m o re re u t a o f a n o r a t a w it s , f q en ly th n y the t in m ent w hatever

T h e incu rsi o ns which the p i ratica l Dan es an d No r w e ian s o m I e a w as o o z m a u o n th g , by wh c l nd c l ni ed , de p e

o r o f r a u ou r o r t m a m o rta t sh es B it in , s pply hist y wi h ny i p n incidents du ring the two cen tu ri es im m edi ately p receding the No rm a C o u A o t e r n nq est . l ng wi h th i pecu liar cus to ms an d u r o t s ea—k n n ro u d v ra o n s pe stiti ns , hese i gs i t d ce se e l w rds a d ph rases into o u r l angu age w hich h ave left th ei r im press u p P v1 REFACE . to th e presen t tim e chi eﬂy o n th e n o rth ern dialects o f the

E h a n M a ro v a m are thu r a e nglis p e sa try . ny p inci lis s s et in d

. by them th e etym olo gy o f which can be tra ced to a Scan din avian o r n T h e o o w n e e ro m a ar e n u m igi . f ll i g , sel ct d f l g b er w u t a e a em e t e u r . , ill s fﬁci ntly ill s t this st t n

i r ism . n sh . Ice an i P ovincial s E gl l d c.

n ear

a cro ss beam

bro o k barley clo th kin dlin g m o u n tain

to rem o ve

waterfall fro g en clo sure (yard) half silly cleft to yearn cu cko o to dig to plun der bird- cherry co u gh m eado w kitten to play b arn

air

heather

du n g

ﬁs t

go blin wro n g back to tear in pieces PREFACE . V II

Provin cialisms .

In the m idland no rthern districts o f E ngland where the

Da an d o rw a m o a o ra b u m er nes N egi ns stly settled , c nside le n b o f a am o f S a av a n t are to o u pl ces with n es c ndin i n desce , be f nd , s u eli as

O ld No rs e

h b m ean n white villa e b r rst a a r m then W it y , i g, g y , ﬁ , f , ,

a to wn .

deta ched p iece of ern la n veit f d b ,

la n d .

no rth villa e o r lus ter o houses . g p p , c f

’

A n les is lan e is la n . g d y , d

n aze o Ca tuibh run s ro mo n to r . f , p y (its an cien t Gaelic n ame)

la r e woo ﬁ at oo d . g d , w

lo n el to t el near a a rm . gﬁ d f , ﬁ d f

m in a ﬁr u a r ou n ta rm ar en los re . f g , c , y d

ba in e vikr ba . p y , y

southern ort v rk o rtress . f i i , f

A tho ro u gh stu dy o f Scandin avian literatu re w o u ld elu ci

a m a o o u r ar o r are n o w o u r d te ny p ints in e ly hist ywhich bsc e , — p articu larly th at p o rti o n o f it co mprised in the A nglo S axo n perio d ; an d since the Icel andic langu age is s o clo sely akin to A o - S a o ar t o f o u r o wn m v e at ngl x n , the p en , it see s e id nt th PREFACE . so m e p ro ﬁci ency in it sho u ld be s o u ght by every ed u cated E n glishm an w ho w ishes to p o ssess a co m pl ete kn o wledge o f

s - n u e Sho u th e r en w o rk in an w a hi m o th er to g . ld p es t y y

ro ve an au x ar in s o u e u a u r u t o r n u e the p ili y s f l p s i , i d c stu den t to enter a c o mp aratively u nexpl o red regio n o f i n ter

h r w a a e hi r im es t n o re th e au o v s a a . i g l , t ill h e g in d p incip l I ND E X .

PAR T I. OR THOG R APHY etters an d Pro n u n at o n I . L ci i C o n so n an ts II . A en tu at o III . cc i n

V Vo we - han e I . l c g

E TY M OLOG Y T he A rticle T he No u n Declen sio n o f No u n s lst 2 n d

3rd 4 th 5th 6th 7 th 8th A nom alo u s No u n s Declen sio n o f No u n s with the Article In ﬂectio n o f Pro p er No un s h . Of t e A dj ective III ' C o mpariso n o f A dj ectives A n o m alo u s A dj ectives Of Pro n o u n s T he Num erals an d their Inﬂectio n s x INDE X .

er s VI . V b 1st Class rst Co n u at o n . Fi j g i

Seco n d d o .

Third d o .

Fo u rth d o .

Fifth d o .

Sixth d o .

S even th d o .

2 d C a rs d o t . n l ss . Fi

Seco n d do . Passive Vo ice R eﬂective A n o m alo u s

Un in flected Wo rds . Particles A dverbs Prep o sitio n s C o nj u n ctio n s In terj eetio n s Fo rm atio n o f Wo rds P x refi es . Affixes Co mp o sitio n

PART I II . SY NTA X N un s A t u . O o e ves an d Pro n o n s I f , dj c i , O n the erbs II . V III n e . O th Particles E ll s e IV . Of ip s

PAR T IV PR I . OSODY A ll er II . it atio n

III. A sso n an es c , R h m e IV . y th n k ers V . Of e differe t inds o f V e E R R A T A .

Line 1 [ f o r Is rea d Ice.

9 . 2 there r these.

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ﬂoe . 22 ﬂar r . , r 10 n h h 6 rt a r . artn a . , j j - - 17 i u ar n ar r. r n ar. , c g cigni

9 m r. o s 1 o r rm . , f f

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35 hu n ho vin n . vi r . , g gg 16 r gr r ad r r. , b a . b 32 h . r r r rihr. , i 24 , allter r . allt er. 8 89 4 , r. 8 . 12 s i , is r . ss . 3 1 in r n o . , .

P . 2 I . ORTHOGRA HY

u ro o u k ' is p n nced li e 0 0 in 7 0 0 d .

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a a o o u a are a ar vo an d 6 as e e , , , , , , c lled h d wels , , , , , 1 1 ca o , , , y , y , s ft .

u S o nd an d Po wer o f V o w els .

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a . k a br a in E x . e k I 0 e d o r a warm . n Li e in , , h ls c t a ns wers to the D an ish aa an d th e Sw edish 5 . In o r h r (i o o s v fo r a e va n wea o n w ds w e e f ll w ( inst nc , p p ,

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k in r r r orn ea le. r u u E x . i o r u i dle st m de s n . Li e g , ﬁ , , , g This letter is m o stly o n ly a vo w el ch ange o f a wh ich bel o ngs to th at cl a ss o f vo wels capabl e o f being s o ften ed t o r o r m o diﬁed by a ch ange o f heir igin al s o u nds . It D an o r a an d S e (5 an d o u n m u h is the ish sh t , w dish , s ds c a th It w as n tro u e at a co m s e French ea in p ea . i d c d arativel a r o o O No r a a the p y l te pe i d int the ld se lph bet , diphth o ng a n being w ritten fo r it in ancient m an u r sc ipts .

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ke e me E x elska to lo ve. Li in t.

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th e m ea o f a w o r s F o r vent co nfu sio n in ning m ny d . instance :

ll an d vel uile . let dissua dea an d let let. vel we , g , ' la e an d se r arm an d her here. ett tt seventh he y , s i p c d , i i ds an d Cl ha ils to rm . m od ern s ott . el fee , ( j ) a n lek e fenf ell an d fell fell lek le ks a d p lay d . '

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O k 0 no t o r . E L 0 Im ho . ! V Li e in , when sh t , h pp p , p hen o m w k o an d u a te a 0 0 oo l. E on l ng n ccen d , s e h t li e in p , o ve h l a ca . O vo ak a ee o u ra er roa r h a This wel t es d p s nd , th b de t n 0

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o a No rwa o f. bt ins in y , is ci ro n o u n e v r o rather ke ei in wa /i t b u t is p c d e y cl se , li g ; ' ver as th e G erm a e in S ee In O w h z tein B n. S e ne n , ld dis ei o u k is s nded li e e.

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als n u a an d a a . , li g ls , l bi ls S o m e are n u s h e th e n am o f u e au e disti g i d by e liq ids , b c s e rea u n te w th e m u o n o n a an d ﬂo w n to th y dily i ith te c s nts , i n their s o u ds . T he fo ll o wi n g is th ei r classiﬁcatio n G u t u ra s : k t l g , , j . ) 6 n u a : . Li g ls d , t , j , , s

ab a : v . L i ls b , p , f, u : m r Liq ids l , n , . m T he et r 0 a m u t b e a e as a r u te . l te s , g, , s cl ss d h d s ' ‘ 2 O NS O NANI S . . C 5

ra it n o rm e the rea m ere o The spi nt , bei g f d by b th ly , d es n to an f th e art u a n o r a art u ar n o t b elo g y o ic l ti g g ns in p ic l . T h e o o n a e s z are a o a a s ro m c ns nts , , ls c lled sibil nt , f the hissing n atu re o f thei r s o u nds .

as E B is p ro no u nced in nglish .

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never o ccu rs at the beginnin g o f wo rds . It is an as pi rated o r eak d o r db a n d a wa o u o t as (It this w , l ys s nds s f , in , v t h ba t/re E m oroi did . I e er o u b u a . , gj t is n d bled , is c nged to : la di b r dd as ee d r u d d i . in , gl , g , y , F is s o u nded at th e b eginni n g o f a syllable an d b efo re a as E fotr oo o fs i o t th n d o f e. . t a rr a nce : a e e in nglish ; g , f , g wo r ke ar e af ea a ro n o u e 0 . . h s d it is p nc d li h d , g , , when it is o ften written which is likewise the ease in the F ar ' o an : leva i ste st It has a s o the ar u a e e vn dz evn t. ese l g g , , l h d o u o r r u r as a r lie— oa t an d tw e all vo w e s nd bef e ( ) h f g , be e n ls the m e f a w h a e I n o o r e . a to Jui ce. e o r in iddl d , . g f B f , , 6 t at th e o f a a o u o f v a e o v r , , end syll ble this s nd p ss s e to o r i b 66 e. . a l ro abl n a fn u . . stren th a ; g , (p n ) g , (n bb )

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to m et its o r ar a o re v an u Q is be with in din y pl ce bef , d sed to alter a w t k bu t O o r e a a et it a n te i h , in the ld N s lph b is u u u t s perﬂ o s let er .

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th e e an er an d aro e e as a r e. . m a6 u r fo r m a6 r Ic l d s F s , g , , rku r fo r m erkr In o rm er t m e ten du r fo r sten dr m e . s , f i s e m to h ave ee s o u n e ar rar in No rwa it s e s b n d d bit ily ; y , o er : h e e w e o en ﬁn d w r te m a6 er o 6 er m stly nc ft it n , g ;

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ro n o u n e a t th e en d o f w o r ke s . T as in E n glish . Tns is p c d ds li e e an Tho rn an a ra e t th as 6 an 1? (call d in Ic l dic ) is spi t d ( ) , is a rate (1 db ro n o u e k th e G reek 0 an d sp i d ( ) It is p nc d li e , i in k a hin k ex e th e E n h th in th n k e. . e to t glis , g , b j , c pt in pro n o u n s o r p a rticl es wh ich are attracted like en clitics to ' a ﬁ n n in [b da s er a th e o re o n w o r e. . ae f g i g d ; g , bi i y y , b t ' fo r ir at h ere h as th e o u n o f 6 e en en h o w ( b ) , w it s d , d p d t , t r h o n n an o ev r o n th e recedin let e . o e , p g , T is c s t is nly o u n at the e n n n o f a o r an d o n e u t f d b gi i g w d , is c s q en ly u never d o bled . V h ar a o o n an a u an d o u as E . s nds in nglis It is p tly c ns t l , b ears the s am e rel atio n to this vo w el as j to i ; p artly an e en e o o n a w h to be re ar e as a o ind p d nt c ns nt , hic is g d d s ft en in o f o u rr n in o a e w o r e th er in the lan g f cc i g c gn t ds , i h f eren e u a e o r th e o th er a e . g g itself , in di l cts T is di f c , wh h e m o o a m o rta o e n o t o n er the ic is ty l gic lly i p nt , d s c c n

p ro n u n ci ati o n . h X as in E nglis . ! is to be m o stly regarded as an etym o l o gic a l sign which o m et m e re re e s t de o r ts u w e b o t beraz s i s p s nts , ; th s ﬁnd h an d oez r es an d beztr kvab s t kva z an d bera st , m6str l , b tr , , t

an kenz Pro er is o n u e t a o f 6 s an d ts d . p ly , it ly s d ins e d , n a n d is th en always so u ded like 3 .

. O TH PH 10 I R OGRA Y .

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th e r a v o u e. . ro m e is to la o u in i n ti e t ng es ; g , pistill f p , p st li ap ostulus . re o r are o ten o ra te m r o e. . e a tem F ign w ds f c nt c d , g , t p ' a r a e u p ero lin a lzne ; egl r g la . r u a n e a o te re e ta The ﬁ st n cce t d syll ble is f n ject d ; spi li , isco u o u ku e s . p st li , bis p p p A vo w el b efo re a sim pl e co nso n an t b eco m es s o m ewh at e th e e h eth er th e o o n a b e h ar o r o as : é k o r l ng n d , w c ns nt d s ft , 151 e o r u n é s et 8 . o re co n g , , Wh n the sh t s d is exp ssed the t hla o an o u e as : e ss . s n t is d bl d , gg , se t , o we are o u n h o r wh e a o n o n an a e as : V ls s ded s t n c s t is dd d . log h as a l o ng 6 l ogou m a sho rt o n e kef e kelj a V il i V ild l A ll co n so nants which fo ll o w a vo w el b el o ng to the syll able

as : ask- a m o - i r k - in - u e th e o n a . c t ining it , , ld g , s ip H nce n er ho rt at th f w o rds are re d ed s e en d o a lin e in p o etry . J an d c w e o n to the vo w e o o w th em o rm , hich b l g l f ll ing f

: — u m d h - va h m t a ex e o n as s r . T e er o r c pti s , py j , gg lett r is s ly e d w v w a : h am - r h th e e t o e s ar ha mm ers . it n x l , Pro er n am e as S i u rﬁr No re r w ere a w a w r te p s , g , g , l ys it n w a ta e er bu t u iS G o d d ofu ll devil ko n u n r hin ith c pi l l tt s ; g , j , g g , l an d u ke w th m a n t a arl ear s . j , ch li , i s ll i i i ls

C H A P T E R IV .

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1 . o e a f v 2 : ar . o h n d o d ra r t e . as int in the p st p t e bs in c nj , u m d re in n p , p ;

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O is ch an ged to a e o r en n s o a a as : akar aka in b f e di g which c nt in , s , s fro m s ok ; ' O h en n n I n to e e o re t e z a d r : as : erk m erkr i b f di gs b i , ; n to in d er va ve as : sm r a m o ro m s r . i g, i ti s , y j f j E i is ch an ged :

h e m o n o s m . f o t l. i 1s er . u r o v r int i in y p t p s pl . e bs in the th o ﬁu m 4 o . as : e bi c nj , b i , ; in r va ve a : h into i de i ti s s hiti fro m eitr . Ja an e o i as : b arn ar r an d o o is ch g d int , j , bi ni ; int j ,

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O th e O — a o f vo w e are an e 0 : f cl ss ls ch g d , o a s : so n s r o f ﬁr int g, , yni ; , y ; : hn tr h n ar o e a s n o e . a o f r e o u rr n e int , h t , This c ge is cc e c . U is ch an ged ar f ve he l st an d o in th e a . o r t t t 0 5 h o . in p st p t bs in c nj , u r u m bo r in n hru tu m hro tin n b g , g , , ;

n o as : u fS o a . i t y, g , gy j O is ch anged 1 o a; as : klo klaar int , ; a : f lki ro m o k 2 o er vat ve s . int g in d i i s , y f f l U is ch an ged : : m u m s an d er va v as : o m hu o as s . s ro 6 . int y , , y , in d i ti es hy f A u is ch an ged le s a 1 . n to e as : au i g, l s , y ; to u as : au k lu ku m 2 . in , l , ; v a d r m drau i o . 3 . to 0 i n er vat s : rO in d i i es , p f p

Jo i s han e n to as : b r ota br t. c g d i y , j , y u a i Ju h an e o as : l l . is c g d int y , j g , yg a m ate h o rt o r to tt as : a ba d t n t. is ssi il d in s w ds , b tt , N k a m a e h o rt o r to Mr as : s rakk g is ssi il t d in s w ds , p ,

Nr a m a e in o r o r to nn as : s n r is ssi il t d sh t w ds , synn , y . ' m a e in o r o r to ll as : heill hezl Lr a r . is ssi il t d sh t w ds , , V r e e o re 0 u an d r at the e n n o f o r is eject d b f , , g , b gi ni g w ds , as ro m vcr a o rm e va r h h in the fere a rt , f p is f d p , w ic dif nt p s ' h a n o r B o f the ver o r znn a r a m a n d i. e b is c nged i t p , p g p ' o r o r m m u to r vrczﬁi f e the w d , which sed be w itten , the k w e ro co nso nant v is li e is d pt . T 1 N T Wo a n s . Y . . II . E YMOLOG I FLEC ED 13

PA R T II .

E T Y M O L O G Y .

C H A PT E R L

D I N F L E C T E D W O R S .

The parts o f sp eech w hich are s u bj ect to i n ﬂ ectio n o r erm a o a h an e are art e o u a e t v ro t in ti n l c g , icl s , n ns , dj c i es , p

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T H E A R TIC LE

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P . SINGULAR . LURAL m a as c. F m . eut Fe . Ne t M e N . . o ein n ein s tt e n ar ein N m . i i e n s ein n ar e n s ein n a ein n a G en . i i e n u m ein n i ein u e n u m e n u m D a t. i i i ein n e n a eitt e n ar ein A cc. i i

U u ra u m er t w o r has m o th e e sed in the pl l n b , his d stly s nse f o some.

The deﬁnite article the is th u s declin ed : P SI . R NG LU . m Neat as c Fem t a s c Fe . . . . Nea M . M . o hin n hin h tt hin ir h n ar hin N m . i i G en h n s hin n ar h n s h n n a hin n a hin n a . i i i a t hin um h n n h n u hin u m hin u m hin u m D . i i i c hin n h n a h tt h n a h n ar i e h n . A . i i i i

This w o rd is als o u s ed a s a dem o n strative p ro n o u n in th e . e v significati o n o f tha t. When app nded to a su bsta n ti e it co n — stitu tes its e e e o rm as : m aor the m a n d finite infl ct d f , inn . eik—in the o ak d r—it the an ima l bu t h t e a w a t , y ; is h n l ys lef a n e he o u t n d o t t u ter . , in ne

The vo wel i its elf is dro pt w h en the w o rd ends in a m e vo e as : e n e tun a e te tun an n o t tun a si pl w l , ind ﬁ it g , d ﬁni g ( g ' in o r tu n zn bu t th e o u term a e a o o a t t e g ) if n n in t in c ns n n , h n i r a e e o m at ve u ra m a u n e an d is et ined , xc pt in the n in i pl l sc li , o m a v an d a u a v u ra m n in ti e cc s ti e pl l fe inine . E M . T 14 II Y OLOGY .

A pp ended to n o u ns it takes th e fo ll o wing endin gs

SI P . NG . LUR

a s c Fem . eut as c F em Nea t. M . N . M . . - in n - in - i o r - n i - n ar - in Nom . t iii r

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— — - - n in n a ii - - A ce. in a ) it o r i n a n ar in .

In th e dati ve plu ral th e m at the en d o f the n o u n is o m itted wh en th e ar e a e fo r th e ake o f eu h o n as o ta ticl is dd d s p y , ﬂ

- n um fo r fl o tu m n u m . T h e defin ite articl e is pl a c ed befo re a e ve in th e n t m a : hin n oiSi e e e o r s the o od . dj cti s d fi ite infl c d f , g g

HA E II C PT R .

T HE NOU N .

No u o r S u an ve h ave t ree e r M a u ns , bst ti s , h g nde s , sc line , em an d u ter an d tw o u m er S u ar an d Plu F inine , Ne , n b s , ing l ral i o u r a a o m n at v G en ve Da v , w th f c ses in e ch , N i i e , iti , ti e , an d A u at cc s ive . m o to ve a e ru fo r er bu t It is i p ssible gi inf llibl les gend , o l o w n rem ark a f u se the f l i g s m y be o . ' M a u n e o m m o n en d z r l n o r 3 o u all sc li s c ly in , , , , , th gh n o u h m n a re n o tn e ar f a er ns with t ese ter i tio ns a ec ss ily o th t gend . T h e n am es o f the du ties an d em pl o ym en ts o f m en are ’ ' ' m a u n e k n u n hotij in i chz in restr rzest e. r in ta . o h sc li , g , g g, g ef , p p , rwll thra ll b . ' ' o r s n n dom r un r zn r lei/tr sha r W d e di g in , g , g , , p , fir n a a rt an d andi are m a u n e . , sc li C o m o u n o r r ta n the e er o f t e r a ar p d w ds e i g nd h i l st p t , w hich is also th e cas e w ith th e n am es o f co u ntries an d to wns ; e i i arfir o ta n . No r a an d kl C ns . No re r No rve r w M g , g ( g ) y , g tin o le are m a u e th e r a m em er ve r an d a rfir b e p sc lin , i l st b s g g ing so Dan m ork D en m a rk S vi é d S weden an d Slesvik are ; , bj ,

‘ em n e as morh dd an d vile are o f h en r an d z f ini , , bj , t is g de ; by ka an G erma n as e a s S viariki S weden are eu r n l d y , w ll , n te si ce t e rm n a in n eu r o u n h y te i te te n s . The gen der o f Icelan dic s u bstanti ves m ay likewise be as certain ed to s o m e extent by th at o f n o u ns in the co gn ate lan a gu ges . 2 HE N T . . OUN 15

The nam es o f the du ties an d em pl o ym ents o f w o m en a re

in u e l é s a m i e am batt she- e m as d ro ttn en dw sta v . fe inine , g q , j if ,

u a ve are m n e e . a a a h aka A ll a . t s bst nti s in fe i in , g , g t p , h chin e e erra mas ter G rm a H err an d ra sire an d ; xc pt h ( e n ) , si , o m ro er am e are m a u e as S tu r a as e l s e p p n s , which sc lin , l , w l u m th eve t en as th e n eu ter n o n s co prised in e s n h decl sio n . M o st m o n o syllabic su bsta ntives w h o se ro o t- vo w el is 6 v ice- ho er . ro a dit h d k a n le a t a s r are m e . tai fe inine ; g , g f c , , l u t te e t or l s te th o u o m e e r m u t be e . . e p ; gh s n e s s xcep d ; g , j if s r d l ha e ro o re k b r ho ice kveld evenin t en th b l . g , , t ll g , j c , g ' Wo r e n u n in a n a 6 ska sla dtta an d ds ndi g in g , g , , , , , , , ' m o t a n m are m e s in , , fe inin .

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DE CLE NSIO N O F NO U NS .

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So m o f the a o v o u erm ate the ur om - r n . a e b e n ns t in in p l . in ' r - i r n f r o i dif e ently .

E T M . 18 II . Y OLOGY h ave a sim ple vo w el in th eir ﬁn al syllable are co n tra cted in a e w o e n e t o b e n w th a vo w e as c s s h s i ﬂ c i n gi s i l ,

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S o m e n o u n wh h o rm th e u ra in - ir n s ert e o re s ic f pl l , i j b f th e in ﬂ ectio n s wh ich b egi n w ith a vo w el ; bu t this j b efo re i h r h l a b o n as h lr a b s u r li en . ex res e a i s l . is p s d y l g , y y , p y , g y j , t m l u m . h A r n h a en o e da t. h acc . e a d k t e y j yli f g cc t is itt d , n d ren ir ren a d ren u m d ren i as d re r bo lu r . d g y , p g , gj , gj , g ;

kkr ck u r s ekkir s ekk a s ekk u m s ekki . s e sa l . , p , j , j ,

SECOND D ECLE NS I ON .

A ll m asculin e n o u n s wh ich en d in - r o r - n in the n o m in ative an d in - a r th e en t ve n u ar are o f h , in g i i si g l , t is e e o n d cl nsi .

- SI n o m . ro o t P . n om . ir NG . LUR

- - ar . gen . gen a — — m da t. i d a t u .

- a ce. ro o t. a ce. u .

Para m : s iiSr hr r a r vollr k olr dig s , ygg , b tt , , j . SI NGULAR .

ba ck A m o e. A . d hryggr b attr hryggj ar hatter h ryggi hatti hrygg hatt

PLURAL . sidir hryggir h aettir s iﬁa b r a hatta G . yggj s idum hr u m ha u m D . yggj tt bu hr u hat u A . si yggj t

Like s ib r are i n ﬂected

Bu bu s r m t rdr r en Kvi tr bra n h. M et ea . d . c i‘ o o he cl Lidr in t. S au ﬁr s Feldt ak . j ‘ E r m . Li r co lo u r S tabr s teaip ng in d t .

Like hryggr a re d eclin ed ‘ a ir w kkr rin k. ll b B rr in . D r Be r ed . y f d d ‘ ” B bro Bw a m E lk. r r . r e ekkr o k. I f g 2 T H E N . . OUN 19

a “ - V r wa ll. S tekk she en . e Friar p ea ce. r ep p gg

Verkr a i n . R eykr sm oke . p ‘ Vaan r win . S ekkr web. g g — Tho s e n o u n s which are m arked w ith an a sterisk ta ke a lso s

th sin . in e gen . g

Like hd ttr

abr t a m owi r hread . ttr n . D rzi ttr dra wing . Sl g b

at r e is o e . M attr m ight. b t p d

Like wi th a re d eclin ed

lr° a l Kd r ea t Bo l b l . tt .

Be kr a ii o th r b rk . M lr m .

d o . G 6 1tr hog . Své r s w rd

n or t - s K r ra ding ves el.

’ Like kj elr

F o dr o ha r M o dr mea . k o shie rt t. S ldr l . j r frith. Hj I j d j d

N o u n s which are w ith o u t th e m a scu line sign o f - r in th e o m n at v u ar r m a th e s am e th e o m n at ve an d n i i e sing l . e in in n i i accu s ati ve o f th a t n u m ber as :

L P URAL .

T he n o m inative pl u ral is fo rm ed fro m the da tive sin u ar as : g l .

S in . nom . s o u r o lu m r n o . s n r g a s n P . y i sons ‘

en . s o n ar o a son en s o n a 0 o n g f g . s s

da t. s n i to a so n a t s o n u m to y d . so ns

a ce. so n a son a ce. so n u so ns . — The accu sative plu ral alw ays ends in i when this vo w e l o e n o t rm n a th e a ve n u ar as : d s te i te d ti si g l , SINGULAR E T M . 20 II . Y OLOGY

PLURAL

— A ll d erivatives in - skap r an d na6 r fo llo w th e en dings o f fSr th e n u ar a o f bra r in th e u ra e bu si n d . . in si g l , g pl l ; g , s ka r ho u seho ld skiln aﬁr se ara tio n bu t the o rm er are rar p , p ; f ely

' to be m et with in th e plu ral : th e l atter term i n ati o n - n a6 r ‘ o ften u nd ergo es a vo w el - ch an ge o f n ; fo r in stan ce fogn u é r ’ fa n a cSr o as a n re o m e e o re r th e n o f th e ( g ) j y , if we itt d b f , sig m a u n e sc li .

TH IRD DE C LENS I ON .

M ascu lin e su bstanti ves wh ich h ave th e n o m inative ter m a o —in an d th a o f the n t ve - a are o f h in ti n in , t ge i i in , t is e decl nsio n .

(ICC .

Paradigm ﬂo ti .

Like ﬁo ti are d eclined

k a d tio r k a n - o - lu t t u D e m war lo . A i d i n . i f H i n l o w k. B n o a Dro i r . o s t o a i ( n ) ba n e. p d p H i c / B a pl E n H ﬁk i it. aut en w a r io r i en d . r s i f r . d p

Bo ca rv e . F dldi cro w ko rn i s u irrel. gi j d . l q u u b d G lt a llo w fi t. Br b mi ri e ro o m l i s . n e s g g . g g K fi ' fi e a o G eisl r . é ri in B i dw ller. i g Lj w d w

b i es t. a a ea l/i . G m e D ubl d o i p r Lo gi ﬂ . T HE N . 2 . OUN 2 1

Mani m oon . h- k Orri hea t co c . Po ki ba

go lin . i R isi g a n t. Skali f a rm - dicellin g

' in th e e lur . Uz i takes yana g n . p

D a o u o e e vo w a a a o issyll bic n ns , wh s chi f el is , ch nge int

a o erm a o n the da t. la n as : bef re the t in ti n in in p ;

o m . n a s irit Plu . no m . a ar rits S ing . n a di p r nd

en ds o a irit en . an da i irits gen . f sp g f sp

n d to a s i t dat. n d u m to t d a t. e s p ri o sp iri s

an d s a s irit ac . an a s rits . a ce. p e d p i

Like a ndi are declin ed ' N fii A r arn sku ll. a l rfi hei na ve . . H i - N l J ice o e. Bakki hill. a i f ag i - hj l he . a 0 m Skafii s th Drafii m i k c ese K ppi p ea . ' rn n l S kr t a K a ker e . z H ali t il. J i a ti wi a rd. ' m a w ta l o k Ma i S e . Hani c c . g pi ifl

M a u n o u e - in i a n d o m e o e sc li e n ns nding in g , s th rs , w are e r va ve w o r tak e r o u e hich chi ﬂy de i ti ds , e j in th i bliq a as : c ses ,

o . idin i a hea t lu . om . ibin S ing . n m he g hen P r n he gj ar hea then b . i in o th n b gen he gj a f a hea en ge . h ei in gj a qf hea the n in a t h idin to a hea the . d . e gj a n dat heib gj u m to hea then

a ce. heibin a a heathen a ce. h idin a hea gj e gj then .

In the sam e w ay are d eclin ed — Frelsin i ree m an . a in i ro bber. lllvirki g f d g evil deer .

Hefdin i h a . ie t in E ske i is la n er. Vil i g c f y g g d j will.

Leysin gi f reedma n .

Pa rticipi al s u bstan ti ves in é a ndi devi ate o n ly in th e u ra an d are e t w r a u m r w re r ro er y pl l , inﬂ c ed ith , , , , he p p l

an fo r ir an d ro u e a vo w e - a e as st ds , p d c s l ch ng ,

S i . om . k i a n n els an d er lu r. lsk g lov P n o m. e en dr lovers

- en . el k n d o k g s a a f a lover gen . els en d a ( an da) o lo vers — da t. l k t k e s an d a o a lover do t. els en d u m 6 n u m ) to lo vers k ace. ls an da a l er a l k e ov ce. e s en dr lo vers .

Th u s a re i n ﬂected

d an u e. Lesa di rea ce di j dg n der . S kj an di

- S aan di e e witn ess . Ver an di r r j y j wa de . E T . 2 2 II . YM OLOGY

T risyllabic n o u n s wh ich h a ve a in th e a n t ep e n u ltim ate a n d th e en u t m a e an e th e rs t n to a an d th e e o n p l i t , ch g ﬁ i , s c d t at v u a a n to a e o re u m o f h e e r as b kar ba ker da t. i b f d i pl l , i , u u m n o u rs in th e en u t m a e o n it ln r b Ok r . e a p . Wh cc p l i t ly , i a e n to a as fela i ello n r el u m o r n o s h w da t. l . f O c ng d i , g f , p g , i t

ikari u r t. r l ik 1 u m l n ar a le le da lu . e A l re e a s . , J gg , p u p s t p ti ciples acti ve a re d ecli n ed like els ka n di w h en th ey are u s ed an t ve : h e are m o s tl o u n th e al E ven s u bst i ly t y y f d in pl u r . h o e w h h h ave a n eu er s n at o n a re m as u n e th e t s ic t ig iﬁc i c li , if y o es th o rm an d take th e n ﬂ e t o n s ro er to th at en p ss s is f , i c i p p g d er u n d er this d ecl en sio n ; th ey a re s eld o m u s ed o therw is e h S n u ar a talan d i t a n in t e s t o s eech . h i g l , gif f p

F OURT H D E C L ENS I ON .

This decl en sio n i n clu d es all fem i n i n e n o u ns w ith n o m i — n ative an d gen itive term in a ti o n s in a an d a res pectively

- — in . o m a la r . n o m . u r S g n . P

- — n u en . n a ge . g ’ - — d a t. u d a t. li m

- — a ce. u a ce. u r.

Par m : t n a ata n a b l a a u . dig s g , g , li , y gj

SINGULAR . i o a th. A l n e. A t ngu e . A p u a l n a JV. t n ga g ta i o u lin u G . tu n gu g t u lin u D . tu n gu got linu A . tun gu gotu

PLURAL .

u O lin u r N . t n gur g tu r G tu n n a a tn a lin a . g g tu n um O tu m lin u ni D . g g tu n u r Otu r lin u r A . g g

Like tn nga are d ecli n ed ’

B m a E a ra n m o ther. G r ta o t. ytta s ll tab . dd g d y p - a H s hea lt eil a h . m a s a o tto n r ss . Di m a d rkn es . Fif c g — H m s u F u r ir t ee. ei ka s t i it Dré a ir e s r . d g . f p d y

G fi ta ri le. e ta hea t. Brekka drin k. dd H i l t- e ells. a s to n e. D G edda ik . H f

a s ha s . G n ss . e s D e ts. H p p

- e G r m e m a sk. O la a ve. Dyna f a ther bed . i H c 2 . . THE NOUN 23

Ko n rvéfa id . la d istri t. H u lda veil. gu sp er c Ts kin d o a lo a isa wh . ta K a c k. M ey f

ika k . u is t. w Kelila f oun ta in . M gga m V ee

isa e s . ee a tu n . v Kisa p u s s . N p r ip V r e

t a et. ista he t Pika i l. w K c s . g r

ak kre a wa llet. P ka o . Kr a crow . p o g

’ ‘ k i a as o sn llifa n ll. in la i l . S r gs li ow J Kr g c rc e p ( f ) . o Krukka a r j .

Like ga ta

k a he l da ba . A s a s s . H a rn

ak t . B alla bell. K a hin cake

Bla a m tu ar ma ca n . nd ix re . K

ak b o ad a vi . H a o k . N r p er

S a . H arp a ha rp . ag s tory

L ik lin a are in t d s ke n a crea aire an d tin n a int. e ﬂec e p , ﬂ

' n i t n s Th ese b elo w are like bgwa i th ei r n ﬂec io .

a l tut la irit Ske a axe B i . a s ryggj p er Fy gj e ry p . ggj ' '

E kk a wi . i k a hu h S k a ﬂ u rror j dow K r j c rc .

P . E skJa ash R ekkj a bed . y Ja th o ught

u n s n d in in — a w ere o r I: d s n o t re d d o No e g j h g oe p ce e , ' n o t tak in t u as br n a c mr fe a - a he cn . l r . : ass i en e g p , y j . j f y , lil a sm ifi tli whi h r h am in h lil a sm i a e t e t e . s en lu r . j y , j g , c e g p h a s t e m . m s ing . S om e n o u n s of this d ecle n s io n are u s ed chiefly in th e lu al as até lu r i n oraidin s aatu r ca a ttention lflm r like p r , g g , g re, , n ss fo rtO Iu r er B n n a bu rn i v ra bei an d th r suas i n . n n e , p o re g , e g , o e in fin itiv s i b n f e n a u s d s u sta tiv l are o this d l ns io n . , e e y , ec e

F IF T H S DECLEN ION .

Fe m in in e n o u n s which have vario u s term in atio n s in th e n m in ativ s in u lar an d whi h en d in - a r o r - r in th e o e g , c i n m in ativ lu ral are this d l n i n s . o e p , of ec e o

- - m . S in . n o r t Plu . n om . ar ir g oo r ,

- - gen . ar gen . a

— - - d a t. t u m i d a t. u roo , , or

- - - a cc. r t i a cc ar ir. oo , . ,

Pa adi m s : i a bruor v6 r d ro ttn in e G r h i6 i r g e g , , , g , gg , , e . a an dvar an f oﬁu r alin , p , j , . II G . 24 . ETYMOLO Y

A p rop erty .

G . s ign ar ei n D . g ei n A . g

Like sign are declin ed

Al a t G n kim a . sw n . b t m p rei bran ch. S p is m a b tt m a le la . ku S ld b . A f e s ve G ru n d grou n d . de t

A st l v . h S o kn a ish. o e elm . p r

A u ﬁn desert. S s o org rrow . Baun b a é n S tt s i kn . e . c ess

B r . L u n tu n d ort ess S hou . org a s redemp tion . r d i a i . B b th. L T a tim re re d eib wag . e — Bird b o th. Lin d i n t T iu n d tithe. o l n de ree .

B b . s ettl m n t L n ta T r a s u et . yg e e i d f ou n in . ygg r y B u n . Vé t . yrgr b rden . Pi sl tortu re ﬁ clo h

Dab d d S il . ee . e rop e ' é a Di dd . h V . s go es s S n s ig t. n hope

ou r . o . Ferd j n ey S 61 bowl. Vist f o d

G au n t. h ib . p ﬁs S e sp oon . Pj é b p eop le

G ipt gift.

“ From th e above exam ples it will b e s een that wh en n eith e r a

- n o r a n stitu t s th e r t v w l n o m d i ati n tak s la . co e oo o e , o ﬁc o e p ce

' Like vor are declin ed

bi . . O u he . Bj ork rch Hell ha ll S o k c au se . g c f ' h rb lo u hi r6r i h. 6 rd a . om b. n G l6 g rt 1 e rt m b w O p g g . ' e h Skomm ha x axe. b m . o n de n . H rd rd . s e V r f e ce Q

0 x hou ld . b kk . 1 n a in . Pe tha k s bfn ha ven . S g s y g n s er

No su bstan tive u n d e r this d ecle n s io n h as u n ifo rm ly pre rv d the u th e d ativ s in u lar x t a few whi h in s t s e e of e g , e cep c er o r v a n d all in in an d u n an d v n in th s it is s m j , g g , e e e e o e

- im t h an d a cc. u t rm in ati n a r is u s d T e nom . l . t e s d rop . p r e o e in all d rivativ s in in an d a n as d ro ttn in u n h brm u n e e g y , g q ee , g wo e a n d in all th s rim itiv s whi h in s t o r v as m e , o e p e c er j , y m a id O r a r w as w ll as in m n s llabl s n din in a v w l , r o , e o o y e e g o e h w v r ra ti n l can d t rm in whi h s u bstan tiv s o e e , p c ce o y e e e c e of i tak a r r ir in th as s this de cle n s o n e o o s e c e .

G . 2 6 II. ETYMOLO Y

an d var an ir N. p an d var an a G . p n d v r u n u m D . a o p an d var an ir A . p

A n d var an is d iv d m an d i b a th an d v a to as t p er e fro re , erp c d h or sen f ort .

L ik this n u n are d lin d d rkan mi ltiva tion an d e o ec e y , s kem tan kem tu n u em or s am s en t. A few of th o s e su bs tan tive s which in s ertj are u s ed o n ly the lu al as m n e in t k ns s ns . p r , e j r o e , ig S o m e n ou n s in i form th eir n om in ative an d a ccu s ative lu al in ir as leb i h ulness lli a e an d d o n o t tak p r , g c eerf , e g , e a r in th e ge n itive s in gu la r b u t are in d eclin able thro u gh o u t that n u m b r e .

D S IX TH ECLEN S ION .

m in in n u n s w h s n m in ativ lu al n d s Fe e o , o e o e p r e ll w thi d l n s i n fo o s ec e o . — n o m . . o m . r S ing . root Plu r n

- - - en . ar r en . a g , g

- a . u da t. root d t m

- . r. a cc root a ce.

Pa adi m in d ton n bé t m o k s b n s : r . r g gr , , , , p g

SING ULAR . l a t . A w . a . A gr e A to o th. A f ine . oo d A c sp n N. gri d td n n bé t m ork spon g

G . in d e tan n ar bétar m erkr m arka s en r s an ar gr r , r p g , p g in d té n u bét m o k s on D . gr r p g A in d té n u b6t m o k s on . gr r p g

PLURAL .

. rin dr ten n r b aetr m erkr m arkir s en r s an i r N g , p g , p g in d n n bé m a ka s an a G . gr a ta a ta r p g u m b n n u m bbtu m m a ku m s iin u m D . grin d t r p g

A . rin dr ten n r b actr m erkr m a kit s en r s an ir. g , r p g , p g

Like g rind are d eclin ed

- hi d h in d n . in n eck. ea G it she a t. H E rt p . e go K c

‘ Like ton n

O a rb n d 6 md d u k. rt te l. St stra n d . c 2 . . THE NOUN 27

' Like bo t

o . . n R t G lbb em bers H ot nut. root

Like mark

é . l M lk i t ak Vik ma l ba . m lk. St k s E ik o ak. j i e s e g

Like sp o ng

- m . . d le aan b d . R bn g ti bers of a ship . ISto ng po S g e ITting sea wee A s w ill be s een in the las t tw o parad igm s (m brk a nd s b n n u n s this d l n s i n w hi h t m in ate in o r k p g) , o of ec e o c er g , ' co m m o n l io rm the n itiv s in u la in r lik the n m in ative y ge e g r . e o lu al : bbk b k o n th e th han d a lw a s h as the n itiv p r oo , o er , y ge e k r bé a a . baakr l . , p r h s s u b sta n tiv s wh s n m in ativ s in u lar is d o r t T o e e o e o e g ,

m stl h av th e itiv - r s s t on e n s tran d ar ré t n in a a d . o y e ge e , r , g , , e ré tar Whils t th in u s u a ll m the n itiv in n . s k g , o e g or y for ge e the s am w a s t v u i s e . a th e n m in a l al as t n sin . e y o e p r , g , g g

a d n o m . u s n a an d m kr . n l . u r r in . no m . e . te r m rk en . s l p r g , , g g p M o st n o u n s in this d ecle n s io n w h ich ha ve 6 in the root- syl la l ca als l n i b n ll w the fth d s n. e , o fo o ﬁ ec e o

u n s whi h t m in at in a v w l a re d lin d lik bot No c er e o e ec e e , in s tan lb r ld a n r loer 16m 16 a h are l v en . l . su c for ce , p o e , g r , p , , ;

Bru ( u u b r r o r b u b id gen b r ar. p l r . y r r) r ge ' F lt) n ﬂ ar ﬂ ea . F ru n lu ru r m . e . sin an d n o m . f w an (g g p r . ) o Ha n n n

KlO l) n n n n cla w . ti n x n Kr com er . L a n n w l m wn j e y o grass . R 6 - (n o p lu r . ) iron p la te T a (gen . s ing . tar) toe. ix lu Tr (n o p r . ) h e n a kin d of boas.

S D EVENTH ECLEN S ION .

A ll n eu ter n o u n s w hich have the n om in ative- en d in g thi d n of s eclen s io .

- — S i . n m . a lu . u ng o P r n om .

- a - gen . ge n n a

— - t. a d a d a t. u m

- a - us e. (ICC . u . G 28 II. ETYMOLO Y .

Paradigm s eyra hj arta . _ SIN G ULAR

PLURAL . e u o tu N. yr r a G . cyr u s brtn ru m 6 rtu m D . ey

e u o tu . A . yr r T he radical a of the n o u n is chan ged in to a before i n a a l ﬁect o n s i u s in th e ab v x m . , o e e p e

Like ey ra are declin ed

A u e. ra kidn . ga ey H n o ba key . Ny ey '

B ii a sa us a . Lu n a lun j g ge g g .

E IG H T H DECLEN S ION .

M n s llabi n u t r n u n s an d th s th is n d r o o y c e e o , o e of ge e th at en d in n s n an ts o r in —i hav th e ll win in l ti n s co o , , e fo o g f ec o

in . om . lu n om . S g n root P r . root

- - en . a g s gen .

- - da t. i d a t. u m

a c t a cc. t c. roo roo

Paradi m s : o rb b a n s u m ar hofu b kvzeb i kn e k n g , r , , , , , y ,

rik i s ol. , G SIN ULAR . A h mm A su . c ild . er barn su m ar barn s su m ars b arn i s u m ri b ar n sum ar

PLURAL . o rb bo n s u m u é fu b N. r r h G bs rns su m a hO fb . or ba r a b m br m r b b D . o r u b n u s u m u m h f um b bo m u o r n s u hiifub. A . r r O n ly in tho s e n o u n s who s e te rm in ating syllable begin s with a v w l d s n t a ti n tak la e as in the las t two o e oe co r c o e p c , xam es : this lik wi a li s to the th r d l n s i n s e ﬂ e s e pp e o e ec e o . 2 T HE . . NOUN 29

Like orb are declin ed

Lae th h. ull o ld . r i A r yea r . G g

Har ir. M al m a su r s ech. Bal un a l il . f er p e e e , p e

Hau s a utumn d m u der. Bein leg . t . Mor r — . s ha a t. Bik pitch He l zel tree . My gn H ' é t . h et ne . Blek in k l w eel. N H l u l a 0 k . a . ke Blik s len dou r . p e p yo é a Hl R ic . B ob lo d . b s u n d b ad v l o j o . e

H t . a n . Blém ﬂo wer . o f hea hen temp le Regn r i

H . o a r i lt. o d d . R i Bl t s c g ce. o wo e height e p rop e H a o m Bly lea d . opp le p . R um ro H R s t h. k dus t. Bly orc orn horn . y

H . . a S ad eed B0 6 of er r u n la va . s - B6 a m . Hri u S alt s a lt. 1 f r m ho r f rost.

H S . B d b a d tabl . ro n s awn . ar w un d or o r , e g p o u d b a Hr s t Se Bra re d o ss eed . 1

ré t . Hu h . e B f let er s o us e Sillr s ilv r .

H S . Brj é st breas t. u sl ho use! (sacra in n time

a . Brubkau p wedding . Sk ld p oet l Bu a m . Skau irt. f r Hv sl whistling . t sh a Bygs J rn iron . Skin sheen . D el Jbl Chris tma s Ski g . chi - iht o m . Kal a bba Skrl «him . D p e c ge . n '

ii de th. Sku . Dj p p K aup p urchase. m da rkn ess é mu d . r Kid d . S D p r er ki lit ren t.

D re ba ttl . Kitl ti klin e c g . p ' ril K o t ﬂesh . ‘

u u . K D t d st if i . p l cliﬁ. St p ath

us o . D t d Korn corn . S tig s teep .

B r a n im a l. Ko S i t tta t . y co ge . tr b s rife E rr K o . S u . cop per v ld even ing . n d soun d

E ik v n m . Lan e o loa n . Sverb sword E l sh u S w . La o er f vin swin e .

F en m a sh. Lebr é r T r tea r .

F é s sta ll o r attle. L i j f c e r c y T in tin . Fé br Lif li fodder . iff Tro trough olk lk Lik . co r s e T r F f o p bﬁogre .

Fé str m a in t n a n . Lim lcme . T l e ce un en c os u re . Li st s t. n la x . Vé Fro f ro f pn weap o n .

G a n a n . L é s li ht. Vé r s rin r y r j g p g . o r G lf lo . f or Pin g cou n cil. G r (i t j t s on e .

Like barn declin ed

A ﬂ s t n th. B a mo unta in re g r g . G aﬂ gable .

A u ba it. Blab le a . g f G agn p roﬁt.

A x ea r o n . an as f cor F g gr p . G ap op en i ng . B ak ba k. F ar u rn c j o ey . Gj ald p ay men t.

Ban d ba n da . F ax m a n ge e . G ras g rass . B an n ba n . all m u n tain . Fj o Haf sea . I I. G 30 ETYMOLO Y .

S ax sho rt s wo rd .

Skap s hap e . S k t ha ap s f t.

Skard sherd .

Ne u ter n o u n s of m ore th an o n e s yllable term in atin g in a b a t a n are n o t n t a t d w ith th e x ti n am an , or co r c e , e cep o of g

k as h érab dis t i t ob al e t m an n likan im a o j o e, , r c , p rop r y , ge f hu ma ha n s p e .

S u b stan tiv s in i d o n o t ad m it an th i in th e d a tiv as e o er e ,

P u . in . n om . k wdi a o n l o m . kveebi o S g v s g . r n s ngs kvaé bis o a o n e k aeb o n gen . f s g g n . v a f so gs

k aabi to a s o n da t. kvzebu m to s d a t. v g on gs

k c zeb . . kv i o n s a cc vaebi a song a c. s g

Th u s a re d eclin ed

P k h . l i di t t. Hveiti w a t Belti belt. y s ric e

n n i o eh a G di h d . ili w d e. d . e g E f r e er e ge Ke ' — i o h lae bi l t . ki a h G ldi ba n u et. K s E s s tree . q c e

di de H ti ha o w . Ey sert. er rr H a u . h F i drildi butterﬂy ltP gi l g ter .

In s om e n o u n s o f this d eclen s io n j or v is in s erted before th e bli u a s s w hi h b in with a v w l bu t n v b o q e c e c eg o e , e er j efore i an l m hu s d s d v b u . , e o efore T

G SIN ULAR .

A lin eage . kyn kyn s kyn i kyn

L ike km} are d eclin ed

- lee ei h S é o ke. t Kl lo m w t. is ee . é o g I p j Tr r .

Like ky n

ba G ho un d . He ha . Nes a e. rkin g . rey y y c p

' S ubs tan tiv s wh s r t- l tt is k a d m it o l be e , o e oo e er g or , j 2 . . THE NOUN 31

he in ti n s a an d a m as w ll as n u n s with o n s fo re t ﬂec o , e o c o an tal n d i s whi h h av s im l v w ls as n e n g c e p e o e ,

l o m . iki kin d ms m i kin do m P u r. n . o r k S in g n . i a g r g o n a o kin d ms i o ki d m en . gen . r kis f a ng o g f g o i u m to kin d o ms iki to a kin do m d a t. r ( la t. r g g

i kin do m . i a ce. r s k d m . a cc. r i a king o g

Thu s are declin ed

- R if . . n in u rib Ber berry Ker dri k g c p . ’

lif cl Sk b a d . K iﬁ . egg e r

o e Stet bu d n a s o n . Nef n s . r e (of g)

S m n u n s w ith the d i hth n a l v w l 6 in s rt v be r o e o p o g o e , e fo e the in ﬂectio n s which begin with a vow el as '

m s o 6 a d Plu o . s aw ds o . 1 m 8 a s w . n l S ing . n e ee r e ee e 3 61 o a s aw d en s olva o a w ds n 8 . g . f e ee g f se ee

sol i to a s aw d do t. s nlu m to s aw ds da t. v e ee e ee

o . 1 s aw d ace. s l a w c . 8 6 s ds a c a e ee . e ee

Thu s are declin ed

- h M b . 0 e l m a l. Sm b bu a . Fj or life s tren gt . j e I j r tter 1 l

‘ F r o ree secd hrai r s an d he d eit are s imila rl j or f , co p e , ec , y i n ﬂected .

T he n o u n frzebi knowledge is fem in in e in the s in gu lar n u m b r an d is in d lin abl lik aaﬁ l bu t in the lu ral it e , ec e e ife ; p is n u t r an d is d lin lik kv ﬁi d . e e , ec e e aa

S om e n o u n s of. this declen s io n occu r bo th with an d — witho u t th e n om in ative e n din g - i as ;

en o r n i mea do w fu lltin fu lltin i h l ren s l o r g e g , g or g e p ren sli d a in sin n or sin n i r , time.

O M O A N A L U S NO UNS .

F S D IR T ECLEN S ION .

SING ULAR .

G o d A bla st. A da . A hi . A n u A kettl n e . . y c p o c . e — — G u b - N. blast r d ag r span n o r spbn n eyrir ketil l

- - - - G . s ar rar rs s s an n - , , p s is s — D . 1 blee sti degi s paen i - i A . G u b blast d ag span n - i II G . 32 . ETYMOLO Y

PLURAL .

G u oir —a blé s tar —r d a a au r- ar katla . r ar N , , g r r - - - la G . a a a a

- u d e m um ketlu m D . m u m gu

- - l k t a . A . ir ar d a a. a a , 8. g

sk6—r s ku—ar N. , G a . , a

D . m — A a.

D SECOND ECLEN S ION .

G SIN ULAR .

A wa . S n w y o . ve —r s n ee sn ér s n 6r g r , j , j — ar - s s n aevar sn avar s n 6ar sn 6s , , j , j , j — i sn azvi sn az s u a sn 6 sn 6 vi , , j , j , j n ae su e 6 , j , a

PLURAL .

- ar - ir sn aevar sn é var s n o ar va fuetr , , , J , a o r ’ - a sn aéva jva o a f6ta , a , a — - u m s n zevu m s n é vu m sn é m sn é um um , j , j , j , snj 6u m - a n m a s n éva o a s v , j , a

SING ULAR . l A ﬁz ken A brother . fa61r br6d—ir N. G a foour ears u r brte5r br66u rs fe r , , f , ,

D . fO Bu r

A .

G . 34 II. ETYMOLO Y

S IX T H DE CLEN S ION .

SING ULAR .

b . c n . n e e ro Nig A o w . A ewe A g w n 6tt n 6tt k r eer b im , y r ' ' n att—arm zetr kJf r fe r brtin - ar ’ kti é

PLURAL ’ ' hen dr n setr k f r f n n br /n br ' r N J e , j , j

han d mitt- a mo kua b im - G . a tta a , r hon d u m u m - m - u m D . , ' ’ ‘ ' k f r A . hen dr n wtr b n n b n e r. J ry , ry ,

uess N. g a — G . g s a - m D . u m s s A . guess i

’ L n i a u ike m us is d ecli ed h s lo se .

E IG HTH DECLEN S ION .

SING ULAR . t A emp le . vb

PLURAL . S u h o o n d . T e g ds . la ti in ei n e reg , r g — lat a rag n a — u m reg n um

liP tl in n . reg , rog A few n eu te r n o u n s ch an ge the ir ge n der to the fem in in e the lu a l n u m b as p r er ,

Sm o U LA n . lim twig m u n d lime tailf rau d 2 T HE . . NOUN 35

s r lativ s w ith d i n t t m in ati n s S om e n ame of e e , ffere er o , which in clu d e tw o o r m ore p ers o n s in o n e n am e are co n s o q u e n tly u s ed o n ly in the plu ral : if th e tw o p e rs o n s are of d iffere n t ge n d er s they take th e n e u ter h on m an a n d w m an ma rri d le j o , e p eop sys tkin brother a n d sis ter ; fefigin f a ther a nd da ughter ; m oefigin m other a nd so n fefigar f a ther an d s on ; m es ogu r mother a nd da ughter

DECLENSIO N O F NO U NS WIT H T HE

A R T ICLE .

A n example in each decle n sio n of a n o u n w ith the article a n d d a a s as ll w s ppe e , ppe r fo o DE C L S h FIF H E N T e r rt . L I h r e T . FI ST DE C S T e ho s . o e R EN ON. p p g

S G . P B G P . LU . SIN . LUR IN

- - - - hestr in n hestar n it s i n In . ci u a n ar N. N. g N g r

- - - - h sta in s G h s ta n n a s i n a in n ar G . ei n a n n a G . . e e g r g

- - - - i n in n i D . ei n u n u m b sti n u m D hes tu n u m D . e D . . e g g

- - - - A h st in n A h sta n a A . ei n in a A . ei n ir n ar . e . e g g

E LE S S IX T H DE CL SI . T E D D N . T he m he a S C C cus t t . ON o . EN ON gr e

S G . PLUB P . . SING . LUR IN

- d - rin d - in in d r- n d in n . si i n ir N. r ar si . N. r N r g N g

- - - - . r in d n G sida in s G sida n n a G rin dar in n a G . r s n a . r . g g

- - i d - in n i in u - u sidu n . n d n in sidi n u m D um D D . D . . gr gr

- - - - a d in A s idu n a A . in d in n rin dr n A i n A . ar . . gr g

S E D C S T H E E I . T HIR D DE CL I . et L T S The e he ea r . EN ON ﬂ . EV N N ON

S G . PL . U B. SING PLUR . IN

i- u - a - t - ﬂ o t n . ﬂo tar n ir . N. N eyr N eytu n

- — - - G . ﬂ n ﬂ ta n n a a n a G . e rn n n a o ta s G . o eyr y a

- m - a - n u - ﬂo ta n u . ﬂo tu u m r . e u n u m D . D n ey D yr

- - - - ﬂ . . ﬂo ta n A ra t u A o ta nn . e r n A a ey A . y

F T D HT HD C S UR H E L . h n . IG L C E S T e t u I T he o r . O N o g e E E EN ON. w d

S G . G S . P . IN PLUR . IN LUR

- - - - N. tun n u r rb i r a . tu n n a . o o b in g N g r N t N.

- - - - G . tu n u n n G a s ar tun n n n a G d in s . d n g . g . or G or a n a

- - - - D . tu n u mm u u n u m n D . di n . g i D . t g or u D o rBu n um

- - - - A . tun u n a A . tu n u n ar . rei . g g r A o t A o rd ia .

T he n u t r it u rs in s m b ks in the rm 36 s e e e occ o e oo fo , e p ciall a t a radi al t an d in all as s n di y f er c ; c e of Mod er Icelan c . 3 § G . 36 II. ETYMOLO Y

T he aspirate h app ears to b e of later origin ; th e old e st m an u s i ts hav i n in it o r v n n enn en cl . cr p e , , , e e , ,

h n thr n - eridin s m t th o n e is t d as W e ee g co e oge er rejec e , ’ ' u b r n n with the i l r n r fo r b n In b w l . art b n a eye ro , p r y ; c e , g ' - n a r bry nn .

a r m an add s to th e n o m u - t - l r an o h e acc . i M iS . i d t p r . ,

n —ir - n ir m n n - i — ir in et thu s m n n a . Pab i an d br66 s 3 , e , e r r — h en s in a s foﬁu rs in r - t i u i in t e . . s b 66 u r in A l d s s s . g g , , f er q i is d d as s alr hyalt da t i a n m hv ln u m l u a . . s n . s roppe , , , g , No u n s which en d in a diphtho n gic vowel reject the i of th e article w he n in oth er case s it wo u ld m ake tw o syllable s — a s e - u n i a- u n i ku n n i : in th e a u s ativ e - n a a- n a , y , , cc e y , ,

- ku n a . T h e ge n itive s in gular of m on o syllabic fem in in e s u b s tan tives is ge n erally co n tra cted wh en they are d eclin ed in deﬁn itely ; b u t it is alw ays len gth e n ed wh en th e article is ’ a n as : an m n e fn Ir fruar- in n ar t a iv d d w a n . e ppe e , o , g , ; y r er, a t ewe an d k r cow are x ti n s an d m ar- in n ar aar y e cep o , for ,

- in n ar an d k r- in mat , y .

I NFLECT IO N O F PR O PER NO UNS .

1 am s n s s . . N e of per o

as u lin s in - r are n all d lin d lik hestr fo r M c e ge er y ec e e , tan en e hi as s o r o r eir . t s l in s n . s o eirr s ce , p , g b r , b g , p g To c b l n als tho s e i n —a rr as G u n n arr F alarr whi h in the e o g o , , , j , c d ativ tak - a ri as G u n n ari F alari n o t b in n tra t d e e , , j , e g co c e lik k e ama rr .

n - ir a r r i e. H n ir H m ir I s n . aa a d . bg , g , ,

In - a ll - ill - u ll lik m m n n u n s th e s a m ter , , e co o o of e m in ati n a H a alls e H a al da H a li R e in n n i s n . s t. o , g , g g , g , g , Reg ,

E ill i Ketill in m u n d m tl m s - k an d E l . s s b ll g . g co po o y eco e e , in th e d a tive bo th po rka tli an d po rkeli H allkatli an d H all k li u e occ r .

’ “ as u lin s n din in - a n dr - u 6 r - u r6 r - vi6 r - r0 6 r M c e e g , , , , , — a 6 r - llr - a n - o n —u n a re in t d lik sihr n am l w ith , , , , flec e e , e y , th itiv in - a r —d ativ - a i r S i u rb ar e n i s S u fir en . ge e , e , g , g g , da t i r i O n u n d r O n u O n v r A rn vib . S u fi n d ar u n d i A rn ifia i g , , , , , , G u b rbb ar G u b rbb i Nib aor Nib aoar Nib ab i ll llu , . , , , U r , U r ,

' lli H im dall H eim d allar H eim d alli Hal da n H alld an ar U , e r , , , f , , 2 . THE NOUN . 37

alf an i Hak n H ako n ar H ako n i A u o u n A u b u n ar H d , o , , , , , A u b u n i ; of the s e as w ell as of appellative s in - na 6 r a fo rm v w — h a n is m tim s u n d in the n m in ativ as of o el c ge so e e fo o e ,

u ﬁr H eim d bllr Nib , . — - Where in s te ad of ur6 r th e origin al w arﬁr occ u rs th e

- l v hi u s d a s H allvarer H a l arb s . en . s is g c eﬂy e , ,

A l m a li s in - i ll w th e third d l n si n as l s cu n e fo o ec e o , m el i A tli S t i H . o r , g ,

m in in s in - r - n n a n d - dis are in t d m s tl lik Fe e , ﬂec e o y e ’ bru b r in th e 5th d l n s i n a s H ild r G b t a d all d i ( ec e o ) , , er n er vatives the refrom A n d Un n r o r Udr Si ribr J6ru n o dis N. r g r G A u bar Un n ar Si ribar J6 ru n ar ordisar . g D A u di Un n i Si ridi J6ru n i ord is i . g 6ru ord isi A u di Un n i Si ribi J n i . A . g

A ll th s n d in in —dis a e d lin d in th e s am m a n n o e e g r ec e e er , al h u h th w t h a t as s li ei n t o g e ord dis i s elf s i s c e ke g .

an l s llabi m in in s h ave th e n itiv in - a r M y po y y c fe e ge e , bu t the dativ an d a u s ativ in —u as e cc e ,

G u d un Si n em R an n vei N. r g y g . P — - ar - ar ar ar G . J D —u — u u - u . J — — - - u u u . A . Ju Mo n o syllab ic fem in in e s fo rm th e d ative an d accu sative lik th e n min ativ a Hlif e Hlifar an d ace Blit s n . da t. . e o e , , g , m st th s in s rt in th e n itiv i S it H e] o of e e e j ge e ; Fr gg , , ,

- en . ar g J . ’ A ll m in in s in - a ll w th e 4 th d l n si n as B a fe e fo o ec e o , er , m bla atla é rhall a . E , K , p S few n a s m en hav a m in in rm as S tu rla ome me of e fe e fo , , Stu rlu U raak a r k u k e h h a w h is U aa . S a i o n t e t r h n d hi , j , j o e , c a m al m n a is in t d lik o ti 3rd d l n s i n . fe e e , flec e e fl ( ec e o ) From the n am e s of m en tho s e of w om en are ch iefly fo rm ed by add in g a to the roo t- form as m H ’ asc . allr Ketill l o rkell P6ret u Brain H em . all a P rka r r s. tla o f K tla P6 arn a H efn a .

h n an a llativ is u s d a s a m a s u lin n u n W e pp e e e c e proper o , a m in in w d an sw rin to it b in u n d the latt r is fe e or e g e g fo , e als u s d as a s n din m in in n am b th s in l an d o e corre po g fe e e , o g y in m u n d s as : co po ,

m asc . Bj orn H allbj orn em B H . a all r f er be a . II G . 38 . ETYMOLO Y

Foreign n am e s take either a form which can b e in ﬂected d in to th e xam l s ab v add u d M ik all M ik a e. . ccor g e p e o e ce , g j , a r Lafran z Lafr n z tain th ir ls af an z e . i L n (la t. a j , , g , , or re e n ative form ; in th is ca s e they are in ﬂected e ither a s Icelan dic

’ n am a n a n a m r ar G i s s e . . s s s o r M s e g M g u M g u , g , regor u , ’ G re o riusar lias E lias ar A n A n s d lin d lik g , E , , ro ro . or ec e e L atin n a s as Ch is t h u s Christo h o ri Ju lian u s me r op or p , u lian i J .

m la . 2 . N a e s of p ce s

an y n u n s this las s are a llativ s an d can th M o of c ppe e , ere

’ b e in t d lik m m n n u n s as b h o t s taor fore ﬂec e e co o o , erg , , , v ollr h eim r ﬁt an d m u n d d as b é rsh o f 8 61 , , , co po e For erg , p , h eim r S v al are u s d in th e lu al as - sta6 i Faxstabir . e er e p r , r ( )

- - v lli M ooru vellir h im ar Sé lh eim ar it a a F it u m . e r ( ) , e ( ) , F j r , j l a ll v 16 S m w a a n o n as ati s e. d s . o e or pp e r o ger ppe e , g , t 16 a v n vin ar u . vin ar u e vei e n. r b a h i en . l ast g e c ; g j , p r j p r ; b a i n ar d t it r u t a s n am n sta L6 a . en . ve a m n t b s g b f r g e ; e , for ce , , m Vin a n m m iti n d viati n s m L6 r d Vi u . In s a t. , j , j co po o , e o fro th e ru les of in ﬂectio n s om etim es take pla ce ; thu s m an y form in L6 are in declin able ; vin s om etim e s take s vin ar for vinj a r a s B r r vin a h n vin in m siti n or vin a B o r. , j g for j g j W e co po o im m d iat l ll w s a n s n an t it b m s n n a e e y fo o co o , eco e g , g r or i o r : th u s B or n B or n ar Skob n Skob n ar an d in g g/ j gy , j gy j , y , y , — s u h as s th e abs b d 1) f ts a v w l h an thu s T ab c c e or e ef ec o e c ge , i 6 en d n v n T 6 n S an d vin S . , y , , y ’ ’ Whe n 7g o 6 r (a cle ared space) is u sed as th e n am e of a la it t n b m s rub as é s tolfsru o A u s u ru b et p ce , of e eco e , pj , ; y th e i in al m m a b e s v d as Bern r 66 r H ris tar or g for y pre er e , j , r 6 6 r j . T h e m s G u la A a dd a s ta an d th s are for , g , O , Fro , o er in lin l dec ab e . F ew n am e s of place s appe ar w itho u t th e d eﬁ n ite article ’ - - - a s aa in V a n r in n S kié an (la t. Skib u n n i llir n ir. , M r , g , . , Ve 3 O F M us eu m . . THE 39

CHAPTER III . C o r T H E A DJE TIVE .

tiv has two m s the in d n ite a s svartr T h e adjec e for , eﬁ , h s o r h es trin n er sea rtr the h rs is bla k an d hestr a bla ck or e o e c , n it as hin n sva rti hes tr the bla k h s w ith the the deﬁ e , c or e , a h u s u al cas e s in e c .

i i e T he Po s t v . I .

T h e in ﬂectio n s are the s e :

INDEFINITE FORM .

M a sc . - l n 8 t with v w l S in n o m . r g ( , , ) Roo ( o e chan ge of a) rat ri a

m - o t with v w l lu n o . ir P r . R o ! o e chan ge of u) —ra —u m Root (with vowel han c ge of m. D EFINITE FORM .

em . M as c . F

- - n om . i a S ing . — e - u g n . a

- — d a t. a u

- - acc. a u

h e in ti n s in th e l a r - T flec o p u r l a e u . T he defi n ite form in th e s in gu lar is thu s in flected like th e rd 4 h n 5 n u n s 3 t a d th d l n s i n . o of , , ec e o

Parad i m h vatr u iclc g g . D INDEFINITE . EFINITE .

G . SIN SING .

em . F e m F Nea t.

hvat- r hvot hvat—t hvat—a hvat—a N. G hvat- s hvat—rar hvat—s hvot- u hvat- a — D hvot- um h at ri h o - u - u — . v v t hvot hvat a — h at a h - — - - A . v n vat a hvat t hvot u hvat a

P . B LUR PLU .

- — - . hvat ir h at ar h o u N v v t hvo t u thro ghou t. — G h - h a - r r . vat ra v t a hvat a

D hv - m o - h — . ot u hv t u m vot u m — — A . hvat a hvat ar hvot 4 0 II . ETYMOLOG Y .

Thu s are declin e d

h r ha . r . n a t. gj arn greedy . arb rd krank ill s r swif

h s ha . . kr i . hagr a ctive . va s s rp ran gt wrong spa w se A djective s take th e d eﬁn ite en din gs whe n th e article is a n d d to th e n u n as sv r i he tr va e a t s in n s ta h stinn . pp e e o , , r T he m as u lin s i n —r is l st wh n the r t is rr ss c e g o e oo , , n n kn rn a s u dr h vass sha a n ev n sk n f , g , , , , b rr y , rp , j f e , ygg

- h d froekn b ld arn i e d l a s t w llin . c e r ig e , o , gj g , gr e y T h e fem in in e form h as in th e n om in ative s in gu lar th e root w ith u - vow el- ch an ge o n accou n t of th e om is s io n of u in th e m as u lin t m in ati n as s vert r m s vartr swa t 166 c e er o , , (f o r ) , g l b d (from g a r g la ) . T he n u t rm h as in th e n m in ativ s in u la t with e er fo o e g r , whi h 6 an d n are as sim ilat d to tt in stan b r tt c e , for ce go , go

d san n r s att t u . goo , r e P l s llabi w rd s in inn an d th e ad tiv s m ikill o y y c o , jec e m u h litill little rm th ir n u t rs in it if th e r t en d with c , , fo e e e ; oo a d u bl c n s n an t th e latt r is m ad sin l b r t as o e o o e e g e efo e , ls u au t s lt ss l s , aall sze .

' Paradi m s : bII iu n r a d litill little lau ss l s smllha . g e y, , oo e, pp y

INDEFIN ITE

litl—ar

DEFINITE .

SING . ' bIIn - i biIn - a N. ' - v G . him a bIIn u

blin - a btm- u D . ’ ' bIIn - hti n - u A . a

PLUR . ' - - btIn u . litl u .

II. 4 2 ETYMOLO G Y .

P . LU B LUR P . '

- — - — bla ir bla ar lé. trLi ir ru N. b t ar — — ' ' — é l - G . bl rra bla rra bla rra trii rra trii rra — ' a — — — - D . bl u m bla u m bla u m tr ii u m tru u m ' a- - A . bl a bla ar bla tr ii D EFINITE .

SING . la— a- u- N. b i bl a tr i

- - G . bla a bla u

a— é - D . bl a bl u

a- é— A . bl a bl u

P . PLUR . LUR — bla u .

Thu s are d eclin ed

' ‘ frat i - a u a m hl r l ke . n r . s wf tf o o ted . gr r grey . j w r y n ew fr r a or u hi m m ll. a . é r i u l. r u r j f tf h gh . j s a br r en d in g S om e adjective s w hich have a d istin gu ishin g radic al co n s o n an t in s ert j or as in th e in ﬂectio n of n o u n s s im il a l h a a t riz r y c r c e ed .

Paradi m s m ior middl kkr thi k. g e, by c

INDEFINITE .

D EFINITE . G SING . SIN .

— — - — - - N m ifi i m iO j a m ib j a bykk vi bykk va bykk va ’ - — m (5- id- u m ifl- a kk- va kk u kk va G . i j a m j j by by by — - — m ib- a m id- u m ill- a kk va kk u kk va D . j j j by , by by — - - ifi- u m id- a kk- va kk u kk va A . m id j a m j j by by by P P LUR . LUR .

L ike byklcr are d eclin ed all adjective s with th e root v w l o as d é kkr l m ld r vid n t olt wa n rﬁskr brisk o e , g oo y , g gg e e , f , ; A 3 O F . . THE DJECTIVE 4 3

r the d ativ t rm in ati n u m u is r u n tl d r t as 1) befo e e e o , f eq e y op , lO vu kku m lo u m et w e als fin d m & c. by , g gg , y o g gg , S o m e m o n o s yllabic n o u n s w ho s e cha ra cteris tic lette r is ' ' o t n in s ert b th e n al l tt r as m é r In é fr fr o r , of e f efore fi e e , j , j , j , l ofr d u H ei r can b th a m it an d dis n s w ith fr é fr s l or s ll. d j , j , j o pe e , th e in s t d v an d v n r t the v w ls the in e ti n s er e , e e ejec o e of fl c o hav ham hava ha in an d u as u m . a , , , ,

In rm s in l n r w h the m as u lin si n r is d t fo , , , ere c e g ro p , the vowel- rejectio n ta ke s pla ce in the s am e cas e s as in s u b tan t v hi r th u s am all O mlum m s i es t s m da t. . acc . a of fo ; , g , g , g

l n in th e min in n d r am la n u r . mas m i a . a l r o l . , fe e ge e g , m p c g , d lik w is alin n oln a m aln ir A s im ila c n an so o n : . o e e g , g , g r t a ti n t n tak s la in w rds in - a r - i r - u r fo r r c o of e e p ce o g , g , g , in stan heila r h el r heila rar h el rar : h eila u m h l u m ce , g g ; g g g , e g

h l . L ik w is ofu r of r O fu rar of rar ba kwa rd the a o y e e g g , g g c ; h breviated m h w v r is n rall u s d n l wh r e for , o e e , ge e y e o y e e th in ﬂ ectio n — n din b in s w ith a v w l e g eg o e .

Paradi m s : am all o ld alin a s g g ; g illy .

I INDEF NITE . S G IN . F em eat. . N gom ul gam al- t gamal- lar gam al—s geni al- Ii goml- u gain - la gam al- t

PLUR . gaml- ar gom ul gam alla gam alla ° gO ml- u m g0 m l- u m — gaml ar gom u l

DEFINITE

S G . IN SING .

- - - - N. gaml i gaml a geml a gald i gald - a gald - a — - - G . - - - gaml a gom l u gam l a gald a gold u gald a

- - - - - D . gaml a goml u gaml a gald a gold - u gald a

- - — — - A . gaml a goml u gaml a gald a gold u gald - a

P . P LUR LUR .

— - o ml u . l g go d u .

Lik a ma ll are d lin d svi all tin a all sil n t. e g ec e p ﬂee g , p g e II G 4 4 . ETYMOLO Y .

Like g a lin n are in flected

i n k in art . aki dulin h dd . s il n d v n a a k an in v n wo n t. n e p e w en ed . m ia a m ed n a ta n t . vali n . n akin n n ked . cho sen

h s w d s whi h m th e n u t r in it als diss llabi T o e or c for e e , o y c ad tiv s in in n as w ll as mikill an d litill hav th e a u jec e , e , e cc s ativ s in u lar m as u lin in in n as xam l alia n e g c e , , for e p e , g , lin n n o t aln an m ikin n litin a n o t m iklan litla a cc. a n g , g , , , s ee ab v ( o e) . In all its abb viat d rm s litill h an s 5 to i in re e fo , c ge , for stan litlu m m ikill u n d th e s am i u m stan s t n ce , , , er e c rc ce , of e a kl n m klu m h an s i to s m a . c ge y , y , y

T he n din s é rar - ri an d - ra d r th ir r a t with e g , , op e f er r a r din n s n an t s in d u bl a t a n s n an t u ld p ece g co o , ce o e r f er co o co n o t b e r n u n d : thu s fa r a i : p o o ce , g f r

IND EFINITE P LUR .

as c ea t. asc Fem . Nea t. M . N M - fa r- f r- r fagr t N. g Ir ag ar fog - fa r- g - - a ar fagr s G . g a fa r a fegt

— - - - - o r um i fa u D . fa r u m o u fa r u m D . f g gr g f gr m g - - - f - - n f r fa r t . a r a f r o r. A . fagr a ag a g A g ag ar f g

r— fag u .

Thu s are in ﬂected m di a . tt . t r m . vitt wis bitr bi er g f a . agr e gre e

a . i r u l akr liv l . d apt s d l p s pp e . v e y S om e com po u n d adjectives which en d in a o r i are in d lin abl as a n - d r s s a k d s am m zs ora b n o the sam ec e , g g ep o e , or f e m th a fn ald ra o e ua l a e d rau m s to li on e who do es n o t o er , j f q g ,

- — in m a—i i u c d am heilvita i sha wilt d e an w th u t retin . re , rp e , o A 3 O F . . THE DJECTIVE 4 5

C o m ariso n o f A d ectives . 2 . p j

he t rm in ati n s the m a ativ d r —ri an d T e o of co p r e eg ee , of — th e s u perlative str are com bin ed w ith th e root by th e vo w el

o r a th e rm ts a v w l- h an an d is d r t the i ; fo er effec o e c ge , op ; latt is r tain d th u s - ri - s tr u r w ith a v w l- ha n er e e ; , occ o e c ge ,

- — an d ari a s tr w ith u t it. , o

Pa rad igm

— - w ith - ri - s tr an d v w l w ith a ri a s t w ith u t , , o e , r o

- h h an v w l a n . c ge . o e c ge fagr fegri fegrs tr spakr sp akari spakas tr f a ir f a ir er f a ires t wis e wis er wises t s tor staerri s toers tr gj ofull gj é ﬁari gj oﬁas tr grea t 1 rea ter ( rea les t libera l m ore liberal m os t libera l lagr tegri azgs tr beppin a heppn ari hepp n as tr lo w lower lo wes t lu cky m ore lu cky mo s t lucky u n gr ya gri y n gs tr ko n u n g ko n u n g ko n u n gli 1 o ung o u n ger y ou nges t ligr ligari g astr bron gr hren gri pren gstr roya l m ore roy a l most roya l n a rro w n a rrower n a rrowes t kri nglé ttr krin glé t krin glé t d ypri dypstr ta ri tas tr t deep es rou n d roun der rou ndes t.

T h e w rd m o r sm a ll d s n o t u n d r a v w l- han o j , oe e go o e c ge in th e m a ativ an d s u lativ w hi h are m orri m co p r e per e c j , j dstr .

S m a d tiv s are m a d w ith ith r rm as : o e jec e co p re e e fo ,

’ d d ii r d u ari a n d d ri d u astr a n d d s tr eep j p , j p yp , j p yp d a d rr d rari a n d d ' rri d rastr a n d d rs tr e r y , y j , y y n ew n n a i a n d n rri n as tr a n d n s tr r , y r y , y y bla k Gkkr d okkvari a n d d ekkri d okkvas tr a n d d kks c , e tr a i fa r fa rari a n d t i fa rastr a n d fe rs tr f r g , g egr , g g lib a l cfu ll o ﬁari a n d ofulli iiﬂastr a n of ls d u tr. er gj , gj gj gj gj

T h e latt r rm is the ld st an d the b st e fo o e e .

S om e adjectives take i in th e co m parative s u rlativ as s aall ha saalli sa lastr pe e , pp y , ; h rein n i hrei n astr , . Diph tho n gal vow el roots do u ble th e r of tiv as : bar hi h haarri h aastr n r new e , g , , ; y , ew faarri fsestr f , , . T h e in ﬂectio n of com parative s h o wev variabl w h th r th are u s d e , e e ey e d eﬁn it II. 4 6 ETYMOLO G Y .

SING .

asc. F em . ea t M N . h v N. vatari hvatari h atara G hvatara h atar h r . v i vata a

D n n .

A .

PLUR . h r vata i.

' - S m tim s th e da t. lu r . n d s ln u m as ﬁeiru m steerru m o e e p e , , .

A ll a ti i l s s n t a tiv in - a n di wh n u s d as p r c p e p re e c e , e e ad tiv s are d lin d lik the m a ativ s s i n al jec e , ec e e co p r e ; occa o ly

- - h l . n t e da t. u d s in u m w ith with u t th e v w l han p r e or o o e c ge , as : lifan d u m m ﬁn n u m to livin e n g m .

T h e su lativ h w v r m d is d lin d in th e s am p er e o e e for e , ec e e m an n r as th e s itiv thu s e po e ; , D INDEFINITE EFINITE .

S G . IN SING .

F em . asc. Nea t. as . m ea c Fe . N t M M . hvatas tr h otu s h s N. v t vata t hvatasti hvatasta hvatasta G h s hvatastra h s . vata ts r vata ts hvatasta hvotu stu hvatasta

hvotus um hvatastri h s l) D . t votu tu

A . hvata stan hvatasta hvatast D P LUR . t atastir hvatastar ht u st G hvatas tra hvatas ra h a s r . t v ta t a D h otu stu m hvé tustum h o u s u m . v v t t

A . hvatasta hvatastar hvotu st.

Of tho s e wo rd s which expre ss a relative p o sitio n o r si tu atio n the re can b e n o adjectival p o s itive s bu t o n ly co m aratives an d s u lativ s th e r t b in a su bstan tiv re p per e , oo e g e , p s iti n o r ad v rb as po o , e ,

n o rthwa rds n o rbr ' ‘ 3 O F A DJE CI IVE . . THE 4 7

efri over l ofri i

aebri sibari

a serri

A d tiv s w hi h h av n o m a ativ o n c u n t jec e , c e co p r e a co of th i n d in bu t the m an in whi h adm its d r s e r e g , e g of c of eg ee of com p ar i s o n exp re s s them au gm e n ta tively or d im in u tively by m an s th e a dv rbs e of e ,

m i m m eat mo st o r h ld helzt e r ore , , e r , ;

m In nr less m In n s t l ast o r S Idr S Izt. , e , ,

T he r t rit a ti i l in - inn u s d as an ad e tiv is p e e e p r c p e e j c e , ’ in t d lik bIIin n th s t rm in ati n in - dr - 6 r - tr lik ﬂec e e ; o e e g , , , e hvatr as ll w s , fo o

SING ULA R .

s em a s at. a c. F . e t a c. Fem . e M N . M N

ki - k k - b- - N. va a n va ia va i t vaki r vakiil vaki t

- - - - - G . ki a s ki r ki s d i s va va n ma va a vahi s vakibrra r y ak O

- - - — - - D . vok a um vakia n i vé kn u vokt u m vakiﬁ ri vckt u

— - - - — — A . vaki a n vakn a vaki t vakt eu vekt a vaki t

PLURAL .

asc. Fem ea t. asc. Fem . ea t. M . N M N

k - — - - N. va n ir vahn ar vakin yakt ir vakt ar vahid

- - - — - - G . vakia a s vakin n a vakia u s vahid t a vakib ra vakiﬁ ra

- - - - — - D . voka u m voka u m vokn um vokt u m vokt u m k t um

- - - - A . vaka a vakn ar vakin vakt a vakt ar vahid II. ETYMOLO G Y .

PLURAL . n n (Co nti a atio . ) e M as c F em . N a t. vakt— vakt—ar vokt N. Ir

- — — G . vakt ra vakt ra vakt ra

- - — D . vokt u m vokt u m vakt u m k — vakt—ar vok A . va t a t .

’ Participial a djective s in - a c5r are d eclin ed regu larly n o t d ro th e p a .

A NOMAL OUS A DJE C T IVE S

S o m e a djectives fo rm th eir com p arative an d s u perlative i r u larl m an bs l t s itiv as r eg y, or fro o o e e p o e , gbbr good betri better b eztr best 9“ sharri skastr illr ba d verri worse verstr wo rst van dr m ikill m u ch (grea t) m eiri more m estr m ost

litill little m in n i less m in n str lea st. m argr m u ch d eiri more ﬁestr m os t

am all o ld eldri lde elstr ld s t ld s t. g o r o e , e e ellri eld er imin i d ut ve forms .

CHAPTER IV .

O P F RONOUNS .

h s are divid d in t s ix las s s viz s n al o s T e e e o c e , ; per o , p s es s ive d m n st ativ in t ativ r lativ an d in d n it , e o r e , errog e , e e , eﬁ e n u n s p ro o .

1 . Perso n al Pro n o u n s .

Witho u t d istin ctio n of ge n d er

SING ULAR .

lst ers . n d rs 3rd ers . p 2 p a . p

JV. ek o r eg I bu tho u ’ m in o m e Ii o h s in o n G . f [ n f t ee f o e s s e ’ m er to m e r h ear to D . he to t ee on e s 8 m k ’ m ik e k s i i e . A . i th s n s b ee , g o lf

DUAL . b N . vi o r vit we two bid o r hit y e two G kka r o u t kk o u . o f s wo y ar f y o two o kkr to tw kkr o o u D . us o y t y two A o kkr u t o kk . s w y r y o u two

II. G 50 ETYMOLO Y .

A s min n are in flected bin n an d s in n an d as o hlca rr are d lin kk r fi rr ec ed y a r an d y a . Vé rr is th u s in flecte d :

SING ULAR .

Fem . var varrer varri vara

PLURAL . N varir varar var va a a va a G . rr v rra rr va um va u m va um D . r r r

a ar . A . vara v rar v

ss s s iv is rm d m han n mm b u t th e n i No po e e fo e fro , ; ge tives ha ns hen na r an d in th e lu al eirra r m a t n l , , p r b (f o b ) o y are u s ed . T he d ative of the p ers o n al p ro n o u n is s om e tim e s u sed in a ss ss iv s n s as m e6 hn efa m er with m st er til p o e e e e y ﬁ , b i er h s h n d ban a to th d ath a h n d s in i a . y e , e

m n strati e Pr n u n . 8 . D e o v o o s

hr in n u m r viz s a u a she h s are t b . s t he it T e e ee e , , , b , , , tha t s s i s s i tta t his hin n hin h itt tha t the last ; be , be , be , ; , , ; a t n it a l is also us ed s he d efi e rtic e .

S G . P IN LUR .

asc Fem . eat. as c Fem ea t M . N M . . N . as 8 11 at i ie au N. b be r p r b ss eirr r ss eirra irra i e G . pe b a be b be be rr im eirri vi im im im D . be b b be be be

an n a at a e au . A . b p b p p er p d In s tead of beim the ol e r form beima is often m et with .

a is lik wis u s d as a d n it arti l F o r ed es mi t . , , b e e e eﬁ e c e ’ ' z i t n m l d an d eu the o ld fo rm y d s of e e p oye .

S G . P IN LUR . s c Neat asc Fem . eat a . F em . . M . N . M s si ssi tta s si s s a ss i N. be he be he r pe r be G s sa i ess arrar s sa ess arra ies sarra es s arra . be l be p l h ess um ess arri ess u es su m s s u m es su m D . b b b po b

i n n a s sa tta ssa essar ss i. A . le pe be he b be

his r n u n w as o ri in all fo rm ed r m 3d wh s T p o o g y f o , o e an cie n t form berr in the n o min ative appe ars here again w ith 4 O F P S . . RONOUN 5 1

hu s v ral bs l t rm s are to b e u n d whi h si add ed ; t s e e o o e e fo fo , c show that it w as at o n e tim e cu s tom ary o n ly to declin e berr

n d add si w ith u t in ti n thu s rs i or s s i eims i a o ﬂec o , ; be f be ; b

o r s s u m visa o r es su an n s i o r en n a . f he , b f b , b f h

h a ti l 1 1 h in ti n s hin n see t e r . . F o r t e ﬂec o of c e , p

B sid s th s han n hun is s m tim s u s d as an e e e e , , , o e e e ’ n am s a h n n S i rb r hII u rid r arti l with r r s a u n . c e p ope e , g , p

S am r s bm sam t the s am is d lin d lik a r u la r ad , , e, ec e e eg ective b u t hin n is t n x d as hin sam a j ; of e preﬁ e , am u s a n e ter .

T he ll win slikr s lik s likt vilikr vilik vi fo o g , , , ; b , b , b likt es sli r essli es sli t all s i n i in such are re u l ; b g , b g , b g , g fy g , g arl t y in ﬂec ed .

In terro ative Pro n o u n s . 4 . g

h s are h var hvarr who o two ? hverr who o ma n ? T e e , , (f ) (f y) an d hvilikr wha t hind of ?

T h e pron ou n hea r is defective ; n o t o n ly do e s it w an t the min in an d the lu ral bu t th e n m in ativ an d ac u sa tiv fe e p , o e c e m as cu lin e sin gu lar ; both fo rm s are s u pplied by hverr who (of m any)

M as c.

N. (hvar) G h ess . v h eim D . v h an n A . ( v )

In u su al dis u rs hea t is n l a r n u n co e , o y p o o , as an ad tiv jec e .

H varr who o two tak s hvorn f r r in th e sin (f ) e o hoo an g . ' a m a cc s . . c

SING .

asc. F em eat. M . N

h a - r — N. v r hvar hvar t

- — G . hvar s hvar rar hvar - s

- — hva u a - o D . r m hv r ri hvar a f — f I h a - - A . v r n hvar a hvar t I G . 5 2 I. ETYMOLO Y

v rr o h a h in th e in H e who ( f ma ny) s eern for hverj an s g . a m t m in th rn n u . a cc. s . e c , ode o g e

P . SING . LUR

sc . e ea t. asc. . a t. Ma F m . N M Fem Ne — hver—r hver hver— h er- ir v r r h N. t v h e a er . j v

— - hver—s hver—rar h er- r- r r r h r G . v s hve a hve a ve ra — — hver - u m hver ri hver —u h - h r u m h r - D . j j vt u m ve j ve j u m

hver —an hv r - a hver- er - r - r v A . j e j t hv j a hve j a h er.

“ ” T h e id a wh at kin d ? is x ss d b a m u n d e , of e pre e y co p o th e n u t bvi wha t an d likr like th u s of e er ,

P . SING . LUR

as c. Fem . ea t. as c. F em . Nea t M N M . ' — N hvilik- r hvilik hvilik- t hvilIk- ir hvilik ar hvilik ’ — — G h i11k s hvilik- rar hvilik- s hvilik- ra hvilik ra h ilik- a . v v r — hvilik- u m hvilik- ri hvilik - u hvilik- u m hvilik u m hvilik- D . u m ’ ' - - - — - . h li n i I i i i A vi k a hvihk a hv l k t hv l k a hv lik ar hvilik .

5 . la i r R e t ve P o n o u n s .

P l S akin th are n o lativ n u n s bu t roper y pe g , ere re e pro o th e in t rr ativ s hverr an d hvilikr are u s d in th ir st ad as e og e e e e , ' ‘ w ll as th e d m n st ativ sa su a t ith al n o r m r e e o r e , , b , e er o e o e u su all in n n ti n with th e arti l er o r sem as ea er y co ec o p c e , h i r an k w a w he who at s em t a t wh h . E d sem li is n s r to , b c e e e “ ” h the G m an s o who whi h t a t. er , c ,

d . n r n 6 I eﬁ n ite P o o u n s .

H vartve i ith o two b th h a s a d u bl in ti n gg e er f , o , o e ﬂec o , a n d is th u s d eclin ed :

SING ULAR .

as c. Fem . Nea t M .

— - hva v h a a - N. r t eggi v r tveggi hv r tveggj a a - - G . hv rs tveggj a hvarrar tveggj u hvarri- tvegg u arum - j D . hv tveggj a hvaru - tveggj u A hvarn - é - . tveggj a hv ra tveggj u

PLURAL . hverir- v N. t eggj a G hvarra- tve a . ggj hvarra- tveggj u D hvaru m- tve a . ggj hvti ru m - tveggj u m

- - - hva a h é r i . A . rs tveggj u hv r tveggj u v tvegg 4 O F P S . . RONOUN 53

i one two In the sam e w ay is in ﬂected an n artvegg of .

n n arr—hvarr a h th ev the is d u bl d lin d A e c o er , ery o r , o y ec e

- - - H verr an n an one o hvar u t an n at hvart . as em . n n u r n . , f , e

- ma n are another ( of two ) an d hverr an n an on e a nother (of y ) th r likewis e in ﬂected in dep e n den tly of each o e .

- E in n h ver einhver eitthvert v r o ne a h . , , e e y , e c

- h Hverr ein n h verteitt hvateitt v r ea . , , e e y , c

- S u m hverr s meb d a n b d s me on e a n one . o o y , y o y , o , y S in n —hvarr s in hvar sitthvart s itth vat ach his ow n ach , , , e , e itth vert as : ir en d s . u su al is s in n hverr s in hver e More , , be

’ lita s in n I hverj a att ea ch looks to his ow n side .

erh h S érhverr sarhver serh vert s vat ea . , , , c

NGkku rr s m o n e a n w h o s va ri u s rm s in the o e , y , e o fo n m in ativ are n akkvarr n ekkva rr n ekkverr n ekku rr o e , , , , n o kkvarr n o kkvo rr n o kkverr n Gkkverr an d n o kku rr is , , , , thu s declin ed

P . SING . LUR

M Fem . ea t. as em ea t ass . c F . M . N . N n - - n - kku r N. o kku r r n okku r n okku t n o kku r Ir okkur ar n é

— — - G n 6kku r ku r ok - k r th u ut . s n ok r ra n ku r s n ok u r a ( ro gho

D n 6kku r- u m n okku r- ri n Gkku r- u n Okku r- u m th ou h u t . ( r g o ,

— - 6 - u r kku r A . n kkur n n kk n kk ar n o u okku r o u t n okku r a o .

H vari r hvari hvari t h varu r h varu h varu t g , g , g , or g , g , g , m an s n eithe the two an d is u s d in n n ti n w ith e r (of ) , e co ec o an n h vari r e arr as tr b i 6 6 m m n ithe b li v d th th . , g u e r e e e o er

th v e -r v t a m e n t at vi n h . i n u h a t h a d n . i r d . Fro e e , , g p r m viti as i n tim r n h is is m d h vatvitn a f o occ o , e (F e c f o ) for e , d t a t. h ivi n a h v w a tsoever .

H verr em v r e l s or h e rs m he zt whoso o r whosoever .

A n n arr th a n th r on e the s nd is v r irr o er , o e , , eco , e y e u lar an d is th u s d in d : g , ecl e

S G . IN PLUR .

as c. Fem . ea t. ea t. M N Ma s c. Fem . N a N. n n arr ou n a r an n at abrir abrar on n ur G . an n ars an n arrar s a u ers an n erre (throughout)

D . obru m an n arri 6 6m 6 6m m (do )

A . an n an aﬁra n an at a bra ou n a r .

E n i n n n o on e is a m u n d ein n ein itt an d g o e, , co po of , , s

— - the n ativ arti l i ki an d i s thu s d lin eg e p c e g , , ec ed ; G 54 II . ETYMOLO Y .

P . SING . LUR t em as c. em. ea . M as c. F M F N n i en I n ir n a n i N. e g g e g e g r e g

n skis en rar en ra th ou ho ut. G . e g g ( r g ) n u m en ri n u m D . e g g e g

n an n a n a n a n i. A . e g e g e g e g r e g i i T h e in d n t s n one r n h o n G m . ma n s eﬁ e p er o (F e c , er ) h r th r s v b w ith u t s s it b e 3 d . s n th e expre ed e e y per i g . of er o ’ a n u n as o k h e roi at and on e h a d tha t an d it was p ro o , y h e r , h a d o r b the lu ral m n n m en a s m n n téku at drekka e r , y p e , er e wh n m en t k to d inkin o r lastl b th e m d rn m e oo r g ; y , y o e for of m ab r m an .

T h e im s n al th it is x ss d b a t v n p er o ere , , e pre e y h , e e th u h ll w d b a lu al v b a s at eru m a ir s em o g fo o e y p r er , h rg there a re m any who ; s till there is th e regu lar form heir eru m argir they a re m any . m an s n s a re im li d bu t n l o n e is m n ti n d If y p er o p e , o y e o e , th e r n u n m stl sa u su all s tan d s in th e lu al w hilst p o o ( o y ) y p r , th e n am e co n n ec ted w ith it rem ain s in th e s in gu lar n u m ber ' i L ki L ki a n d his m a t i u n n arr u n na rr as i. e. G G , he r o , , o e ; he r a n d S 17 1t7 6 7 heir Beli Beli a n d F rey ; viiS ha G u n n ar towa rds ’ d h vit i u i ﬁr h n G un n a rr a n is f olk ; S g ré r I an d S g ur . W e w ord s of d ifferen t gen der s com e together th e p ro n o u n is a h n t lu a m i he th n she attu l d in t e ea . s au s n o w p ce p r . , , h y , e ; ' hau own ed they (Jo na h a nd G u dru n ) ; baatSi hau both (Ran d i - er an d S van hild )

C H A P T E R V .

T HE NUMERA LS A ND TH EIR INFLE CTIONS .

h ar divi a in a a n n al T e s e e ded in to c rd l d ordi .

Nu m b ers . 1 . C ardin al

1 ei ein i 10 iu n n , , e tt t 2 v r vwr tv 11 t ei . t , 6 ellifu 3 rir r r u 12 té lf h , h , h j 4 t brir f brar t d u r 13 retté n j , j , j g h ' 5 hmm 14 f é rtan 15 s ex 15 mtan

' 7 s au (sj b) 10 s extan S tta 17 lau tjﬁn 9 n iu S httj li n S . a . O F NUMERAL 55

19 n itj an so attatfa 20 tuttu gu 9 0 n iu tiu 2 1 u u n 100 hu n d ed tiu tiu t tt u o k ein r , g ' 30 r ati u 110 ha n d ail 0 k tIu ellifu tiu h j r , ora 120 ha nd ail o h tu ttu u sté rt 4 0 f tiu r g , 50 mtiu ha n dra il 60 sextin 200 tvo hu n d rab

7 0 sj au tiu (sj otiu) 1000 hﬁs u n d .

A n in d lin abl rm in - ti i is u s d ad tiv l as ; ec e fo g e jec e y ,

da r ati i m bn n u m to thi t m en . t. h j g r y

- - - In m odern Icelan d ic tiu take s the pla ce of tigir o r tigi . 1 1 d l . F o r n s i n einn s ee . ec e o of , p

T veir rir an d 1 6rir are th u s d lin d . h , j ec e

Mas Fem ea a c a t. t Fem . e e. . s . e ea t. a s . M F m . N M c N N ‘ ' ‘ tveir tvaar vt) rir ) r l r II f 6rir f é rar 1 6 N. t h I hj j 3ﬁ G tve a throu hout ri lzrbu ho ut o u rra throu g; . ggj ( g ) h ggj a ( g ) g ( g

D tvci m . g6m (do prim m ' '

tva aa é r 6 6m b u r. A . tv r tv0 hrj h j r hrj II fjbra 13 ﬁ g

T he r m ain d r as far as tu ttu u in lu d d are in d eclin e e , g c e , abl bu t the s u d in u to h u n d rab are rm ed ro m e ; ccee g , p , fo f th e n u m ral su bs tan tiv a r r m ti ten wh i h is in t d e e g (f o ), c ﬂec e lik sib r in th e 2 n d d l n s i n an d v rn s the n u n llo w e ec e o , go e o fo in it in the n itiv as : g ge e , 6rir tigir m an n a f o rty n zen ogu rra tig a 6ru m tigu m bra tigu

H u n d rab is a regu larly in ﬂected n e u te r : b S i o m . hu n d d . n hu n n . n u dru g re Pl r om . e d r ﬁ n . hu n a a g gen . t da . dr u d a t. hu n u b m

a ce. a ce.

asa u d is m in in an d is thu s d lin d h fe e . ec e

Sin . o m . II n su n d . u d g h Plu r . nom hus n ir ' gen husu n dar gen . hiIsu n d a — da t u da t. u m . ( )

a ce. a ce.

T he n u t r ushu n draﬁ lur usba n d ru b is als e e h , p . h , o u s d m an in a th u s an d r l 12 0 0 . e , e g o , p oper y , A s the an cien t Icelan ders u s ed the d u od ecim al as w ell as the d im al m d n u m rati n th s i n i d b th e ec o e of e o , ey g ﬁe y a t hun d d sté rt hu n drab 1 2 0 as s d to the ll gre re ( ) , Oppo e sma II. 56 ETYMOLO G Y . hundred (10 0) which w a s s om etim e s expre ssed by tiu tigir ; o at ha hu dr b m rl u n t s th lft n a for e y co ed for 6 0 .

Babir b th whi h s m bl s tveir an d is a n u m ral ad o , c re e e , e ective is th u s d lin d : j , ec e

asc F em . M . N babir babar e a G . b gj (throughout) it u m D . b (d o . ) a a ’ a b wtli. A . b ﬁ b ar b T he d ate of th e year w ou ld b e thu s expre ss ed : husu n d ' atta hu n draiS s in Iu 18 ext n 69 .

i . 2 . O rd n al Nu m b ers

T he i st f rsti f sta f rsta T he 17 th s au t an di f r y , yr , y j j se n d an n arr o n n u r an n at 18th att an di co , , j rifi i ib a ib e 19th n it an di h , hr , br j f 0 r6i f é rda f é rda 20th tu ttu ast , j , j g 5th m ti 30th hritu gasti 6th setti 4 0th fertu gasti 7 th sj au n di 5oth fim tu gasti 8th atti (attu n di) 60th s extu gasti 9 th n ia n di 7 0th sj au tu gasti 10th tiu n dI 80th attatu gasti 11th ellifti 9 0th n itu asti 12th t61fti 100th hu n abasti ' 13th hrettan di 110th o h tIu n di ' 14 th f 6rtan di l20th 0 k tu ttu gasti 15th mtan di 200th tvo hu n d ra dasti l6th 100 h iis un s i sextan di 0t h da t . J is in se rted befo re a an d u of th e d ifferen t in flectio n s ’ ‘ ricSi of h .

he o ll tiv n u m b rs n u m ral su bstan tiv s are T c ec e e , or e e , fim t five in n u mber (1 seven ten twelve F im t an d sj au n d are u s ed solely fo r a s p ace of five o r s v n da s h a e e y ; bot are fem in in e wo rd s s w ell as tylft. h are s v ral tem rals as m n ott n i ht m T ere e e po , fro g , co e ein n aatt on e n i ht o ld n aatr am alt n i ht o ld an d r m vetr g , g g , f o win te a vetr am alt win t o ld a o l d tves vett ave r , ye r g er , ye r , i s o w n ter ld . To s ign ify a period o f three o r fo u r days the compo u n ds ina tti r an d dr wt i r ar u s d si nat 0 r n n t n e . d 3 h g fi g e To e g e ,

II G . . ETYMOLO Y

C HA P T E R VI .

BS VER .

I lan di v bs are a tiv as s iv o r n u t ce c er c e , p e , e er . A verb active e xpre s s e s an a ctio n an d n ece s sarily im li s a n a n t an d an b t a t d u n as at elska v p e ge , o jec c e po ; to lo e ; k " L ek els a G u i) I lo ve G od . A v b a s s iv wh i h is m d b th e additi n er p e , c for e y o of st o r c: to th e activ e e xpre s s e s th e receivin g of an a ctio n an d n s s a il im li s an b t a t d u n an d an a n t b ece r y p e o jec c e po , ge y w hich it is a cted u po n as ; at elskast to be loved ; G u D els kast a f han u m G o d is loved by Izim . T h e p as s ive is like wis e expre ssed by th e au xiliary verbs veroa a n d vera w ith th e p as t p articiple of th e prin cipal verb as ; ek verb b o rin n I am born vard I was em I ha ve been born var I ha d s till em is als u s d th e s n t va r fo r the r t rit t n s : o e for p re e , p e e e e e va r h an n h arbli a freistad li e was s l t m t d var ski t E x . g ore y e p e ; p o lioin u i tva s tafii tbe a rmy was divided in to tw sections . A verb n eu ter expre s s e s n either actio n n o r p a ss io n bu t b in a stat b in as ek em l a m ek s ef I s lee ek e g , or e of e g , ; , p , it i s I s t. Whe n a verb expre ss e s an a ctio n in which th e agen t a ts an d is a t d u n b him s l it is s aid to be in th e c , c e po y e f , ’ a at kam m i o reflective fo rm s ; s ast s n to be asha med f on e s self . T h e t m in ati n sic whi h is n o w als w itt n s t o r 2 er o , c o r e , w as origin ally s im ply a co n tractio n of the reflective p ron ou n 8 I7C s n din to o u r s o r m r xa tl to th e n h , corre po g elf, o e e c y , Fre c ’ r tiv se s o that a t Ita lla s t w as u ival n t to to all n s eflec e , eq e c o e ’ l th r n s a e r It rad u all as su m d a as siv s e h le . ef , or F e c pp g y e p e r an d th r are a few in stan s its m l m n t as s u h fo ce , e e ce of e p oy e c

h - t tu by class ic writers in t e bes t ages of O ld No rs e li era re . Tho s e ve rb s w hich h ave a pas s ive form w ith an a ctive m an in as at Golas t to bta in are all d d n n t v rbs e g , o , c e ep o e e ; are n l f w in n u m b they o y e er . Whe n an a ctio n is co n ceived w itho u t a d eﬁn ite s u bject m whi h it d s the v b is all d im s n a l an d is fro c procee , er c e p er o , u s d n l in the third s n al s in u lar th e la th e e o y per o g , p ce of 6 as es . . V 59 s u bject bein g s u pplied by the n e u te r per s o n al pro n ou n bat it é r i a s ; bat snj a t sn ows . A ll verbs are arran ged in tw o clas s e s an sw e rin g to the e rm the G rm an ramm arian s T h e s trong an d w a k fo s of e g . forme r co n sists in a chan ge of the ra dical vow el in the pre terite ten s e an d p ast p a rticiple ; the latte r ad m its of th e ad d iti n v al l m n ts to the t fo r xam l : o of oc e e e roo , e p e

In P Pas art . n itiv t it . t ﬁ e . re er e p t n s n a stin su n in n S ro g . y gj g g to sing s a ng su ng stela stal sto hn n (En glish en ) to stea l s tole stolen

W ak kalla kallaﬁa E n . ed G er kallabr e . ( g ; e m an t or etc) . a lle to ca ll c lled ca d .

T he rin i l o n w hi h this n m n latu r is u n d d is p c p e c o e c e fo e , th at the p o w er of varyin g a w o rd by chan ge of its m ore u n s s n tial n stitu n ts w ith u t xt n al a id in the w a e e co e , o e er y of m s iti n add iti n s llabl s im li s a rta in vitalit co po o or o of y e , p e ce y , a rta in in n at an i s tr n th n o t s s s s d b ro o ts ce e , org c e g po e e y cap able of variatio n o n ly by th e in corpo ra tio n o r add itio n of i n l m n ts he w ak in ti n is the r r the . T u la fore g e e e e flec o eg , s t n tlze i ula m the ld r ram m arian s a n d the ro g , rreg r, for of o e g , latte r is th e m ore an cie n t of the tw o m od e s of in flectio n ; therefore the m o re app ropriate appellatio n s w o u ld be th e o ld a n d e m s n w ode . A sm all n u m b r v rb s h av an a n m al u s m o r e of e e o o or , e r rl s akin a m ix d n u ati n that is a m d p ope y p e g , e co j g o o e of n u ati n n s is tin a mbin ati n th e s t n an d w ak co j g o co g of co o of ro g e . T he first class has s eve n co nj u gatio n s w ho s e preterite in di ativ is alw a s m n s llabi havin a n s n an tal en d c e y o o y c , g co o in g w ith chan ge of vow el ; the p as t p articiple is in flected in in i n , n , it. T he s eco n d clas s has tw o co nj u gatio n s who s e p reterite in dicative is alw ays u n chan ged ; th e past p articiple e n d s in

There are th erefo re n in e co nj u gatio n s in which eve ry r u lar an d irr u lar v rb is in lu d eg eg e c ed . h are u m d s in a h n u ati n th e in di ativ T ere fo r oo e c co j g o , c e , n u n tiv im rativ an d in n itiv bu t n ly tw o ten s s co j c e , pe e , ﬁ e ; o e , the r s n t an d t it r r can be x ss d b in ti n . p e e p e e e , e pre e y ﬂec o T he th r t n s s are rm b m an u xiliary v rb s o e e e fo ed y e s of a e . I. 60 I ETYMOLO G Y .

— In the ﬁrs t three of the m oo ds abo ve n am ed the re are th e tw o n u m b s s in u la an d lu al an d th e u su al s n s th e er , g r p r , p er o , ~ “ s n al r n u n b in la d b th e v rb s in the dif p er o p o o e g p ce efore e , ce r n rs n s s iall in th e as s iv v i is fr fe e ce of pe o , e pec y p e o ce , e

u n tl u n d n d . T he a ti i l s are th e r s n t a tiv q e y eﬁ e p r c p e , p e e c e — an d th e as t . T h e in n itiv alwa s n tain s th e r t v w p ﬁ e y co oo o el . T h e s n t an d t it t n s as w ll as th e ast arti p re e pre er e e e , e p p i le u in are th e m t im an th c s s t t e t n s s . p or p e , o por of e e

T he aux iliar v rbs t n s are h a a to hav v a to be y e of e e , f e , er , ’ veroa to become ; an d they are th u s co nj u gated :

A t hafa to ha ve.

INDICATIVE M o o n .

s n s Pre e t Ten e .

P . SING . LUR ek hefi I ha e ver h o fu m we ha ve , v , , , u hefir tho u ha st er hafi6 ou ha v b , ; h , y e, h a eir a th ha n n hefir he ha s ha e v . , ; h f , y e

Preterite . ek ha di I ha d vé r ho fdu m we ha d f , , , , it hafdir tho u ha ds t er h ofdu d ou ha d h , , b , y ,

h an n ha di he ha d i hofdu the ha d . f , ; be r , y

C ONJUNCTIVE M o o n .

P n s resen t Te e . P SING . LUR . ek hafi I m a ha v ver hafim we m a ha ve , y e , , y , u bah tho u m a est ha ve ér hafid o u m a hav b r , y b , y y e ,

h an n haﬁ he m a have ir haﬁ th m a ha v . , y ; be , ey y e

Preterite . eh hefdi I m i ht ha ve ver h efbim we m i ht ha v , g , , g e , ’ ’ a hefdir tho u m i ht s t ha ve er hefditl ou m i ht ha v p , g e , h , y g e , han n hefbi he mi ht ha v i hefdi th mi ht ha v . , g e ; be r , ey g e

M o n I o n . I M PERATIVE M o o . NFINITIVE

hafdu ha ve tho u at ha a to ha v . G . SIN , ; f , e u hafan i ha fu m let s ha v P s . a t. d vin P . ho LUR , e, re p r , g,

h a . haﬁb ha v e. Pa s t a t. a t h d , e y p r f ,

a i t n u s d w ith a ast a ti i l a in lik H af s of e e p p r c p e gree g , e

n ad tiv in n d r an d as w ith th e b t e. . er a jec e , ge e c e o jec , g , ' heir hb lb u felden homin gj a libs in s when they ha d s truck down o he l It is a ls u s d with the su in as s iv the chief s f t p eop e . o e p e p e a th r as ; er heir hbfb u vié talast when they h d sp oken toge e . nes 6 a . . V 6 1

‘

A t vera to be.

INDICATIVE M o o n .

Presen t Ten se .

P . SIN G . LUR ek em I a m ver u m we a re , , er , , u ert th u a rt er eru ﬁ o u a re b , o , p , y ,

ha n n he is ei r eru the a re. er , ; h , y

Preterite . ek var I was ver va u m we we , , r , re, a vert th u wa st er varu b o u w p , o , h , y ere ,

he wa s i va u th w . han n var, ; be r r , ey ere

C o m U NCT IV E M o o n .

n Present Te se.

SING . ek s e I m a be ver s eim , y , , a ser th u ma st be er seiﬁ p , o ye , p , han s e he ma be i séi n , y ; be r ,

Preterite . h vaeri I mi ht be vé r vaerim we m i ht be e , g , , g , a vwrir th u m i htest be per vserib ou m i ht be p , o g , , y g , han n aari he mi ht be eir vzeri th M i ht be . v , g ; h , ey g

m rrrvn o Ixr M o n . IMPERATIVE M o o n .

b v u m let us be at v ra to be. v ri let me e. e , er , , e ,

- er u be th u verit be e Pres a rt. veran di b in . v t , o , , y , p , e g v ri let him be v ri let th m be. Pas t art. verit been . e , ; e , e p ,

a w ith a t a n d th e in n itiv th r v bs s i n i es Ver , fi e of o e er , g fi m a ek m at s rif I us t o in to a d n it ti s e k a am write. efi e e , j g g A tho ro u ghly p ast tim e which w e d e n ote by layin g an emphasis o n th e au xiliary verb is expre ss ed periphras tically ’ in lan di b the h ras elc embu in n ll w d b th e in Ice c y p e , fo o e y fin itive with a t as : ek em buin n at skrifa I hav alread , e ( y) written .

A t verca to becom e.

M n . n INDICATIVE o o C ONJUNCTIVE M o o .

P . s n t P . s . re e reterite Pre ent Preterite .

I b ome. I b a oma be me be m ec ec me. I y co 1 n ht co e - S . ek rd k S . e v b . k rfii v ar S e S . var0 e , , y , , ’ ' fl verfir a varb iI rfiir lI varb b , p , b y , b , - hann verflr han n varfi han n yrbi han n val 5 ; P ve bum P . r er urbum P ver b br bum v . v . r im P. v u r er , , y , , ‘ er v bid e: urbub er rbib er urbu b p er , b , b y , b ,

i erﬁa . u b . v i u . i bu be r be r r be r yrbi heir ur . I G . 62 I. ETYMOLO Y

M o n I M o o n . I PERATIVE M o . NFINITIVE v b- bu d o thou b o m d b er ec e at ver a to eco me.

P . a t . d m . s . v an di m rbin n b o re p r er beco ing Pas tp a rt. o ec e

FIR S LA SS T C .

G F M SI N OR S .

1 . I ﬁ n itiv s n 2 1 . s in s . in d 1 . : 3 . e . p er g . pre pers . in s r t. in 4 1 lu t in . Pa . d . . . . d . 5 st a s t. g p e . p er p r p re p r

FIR S T C ONJU G ATION .

w l the t. a lu . u . Vo e of pre , p r

C wh a h v w l h a v s t . T e r t ha r cteris tics . E ery ere or o e oo n din s n rall d u bl o r li u id s n n t d with m u t s : e g ge e y o e , q co ec e e rar l d u l m u t s w l th e in n itiv e s ld m a e y o b e e . Vo e of ﬁ e ( e o j ) i b r n n x t b n na n n a n d an d n b n v a efo e (e cep re , re ) , g ; y efore g ,

' b r o th e s lo va i l n . Pas a hhv et . s s s t t. efo e gy , , y pre of gg y g p r h a 0 tr n —v l- h an s b u t u b n n n d n . S v w d ; efore , , g o g o e c ge w d hav a fo r a i h s in i d s n t e t . n . or e p re . g h in h 2 in In t e r t rit a w ll as t e rs s . t n s s . p e e e e e , e pe g of th e im perative where the roo t- term in atio n likew is e ap ars d a t r l b m a t r n b th d an d are h an d p e , f e eco e s t ; f e o g c ge in t th i rr s n din thin l tt rs t an d It w ith assim i o e r co e po g e e , lati n o of n .

A t bren n a to burn .

A ctive Voice

N M o n C n . I DICATIVE o . ONJUNCTIVE Moo P P P t it . s n t. t P s n t. re e re erite . re e re er e b I u n . bu I m a bu m . 1 m i ht b urn . r I rn ed . y g

S G . S G . S G . IN SING . IN IN eh b n n eh b an n ek bren n i eh br n n i re , r , , y , ’ e bren nr a b an nt iI bren n ir u b r n n ir b , p r , b , b y , han n b ren n r ; han n bra n n ; han n bren n i ; han n bryn n i

PL . L . P PL . PL . vé r bren n um ver b a n n um ver b ren n im ver b r n u im , r , , y , er bren n id er bru n n u b er b ren nib ér b r n u iO p , h , p , b y ,

n n n ir r n n i. i u b re n i. e b eir b a . i h re be r br n n u . be r h y

I M n M o o n . MPERATI VE o o . INFINITIVE

- b n n bu d o tho u ba n at b n n a to bu n . re , r , re r bren n um let us bu n P s . a t. bren n a n di bu rn in , r , re p r g ,

a bru n n iu n burn ed . bren nib do e bu n . Pa st t. , y r p r a s es 6 . V . 63

To this co nj u gatio n belo n g th e follo w in g verbs

lu r a s t a t in es ret. s in . ret. . . fl pr . p g p p p p r bella bell ba ll b ullum b o llin n berga O r berg b arg b u rgu m borgin n bj arga bregba bregb bra brugbum bru gbin n bras ta bre st bra st bru s tu m bro stin n detta d ett datt d u ttu m d o ttin n d rekka d rekk d rakk d ru kku m gella o r gell gall gullu m gollio n gj alla gj alda geld galt gu ldu m go ldin n cra ckle gn esta n es t n as t gn u stu m n o stin n help hj al a gl g hu l u m ol in n ° tingle hvel a hve hvall hul u m ho n u tu rn roun d hverfa hverf hvarf hu rfu m ho rhu n ru n re n n a re n n ra n n ru n n u m ru n n in n shake skjalfa s kelf skalf skulfu m sko lfin n ring skella s kell skall skullu m sko llin n let s lip slep l sla slup u m lo p In n j ingle m elt. infill pfi s m u plu m mo llin n to uch sn erta sn ert s n art sn urtu m s n o rtin n sp rout spretta s pratt spratt spru ttum s pro ttin n swill svelgj a s ve s val s u lg u m o l i swell svella evcfilg s val su llu m so lhn n hunger svelta svelt s valt s u ltu m so ltin n roll velta velt valt u ltum o ltin n wip e of sverfa s verf svarf surfu m s o rfin n bo il vella vell u llu m o llinn become verba verb varb u rbu m o rbin n l ay (eggs) verpa verl varp u rpu m o l Inn lessen bverra hvai? bvarr bu rru m pbi' rin n bin d bin d a bin d batt b u n du m b un din n fi n d hu n a than fan n fu n n u m or fun n in n or fu n d u m fu n diu n throw down brin d a hfin d hratt hrund u m hrun din n i sp n spin n e spm n span n spu n n um spu n n in n sp ur spi rn a o r spiru sparn spurn u m spo rn inn Sp u rn a in sp r g sprin gs spring sprakk spru n gum spru ngin n i s t ng stm ga sfin g stakk stu n gu m s tu n gin n win d vin d a vin d vatt n u du m u n din n

win vin n a vin n van n u n n u m u n n in n o wa g f or rd hrokkva hrokk brohk hrukku m hrukkin n s in k s okkva sokk s bkk sukku m s o kkin n SIGggva slym slb n g slu n gu m slu n in n ' stokkva stok stokk stukkum s tu k n u sy n gva syn g s bn g su n gu m su n gin a syn gj a r n va n n ru b y g bry s pro g p ngu m bru n gin n . I G . 6 4 I. ETYMOLO Y

SECOND C ONJU G ATION .

w ‘ h I lu r . a . l f t t. a Vo e o e pre , p

S im l - v w l : v w l th e in Cha ra cteris tics . p e root o e o e of

n ti e i in all t - n s n an t ﬁ i ve (o r g y i) . In s om e w ord s a roo co o a m an in h as s v d th e i in al v w l i an d in cco p y g j pre er e or g o e ,

th s th e ri in al ve u has as s d v to T h e ast a t. o er o g , p e o er o, p p r h as th e v w l e u n l ss th e t- n s n an t is a li u id the o e , e roo co o , q , or i m i n al v w l has b n ve fo r in s u h as s it b s 0 . or g o e ee , c c e eco e — h u ld h r . n in w d with t t n n an t s T e p et s i g . or s he roo co s o g o l b m a b u t h alls aw a an d th e v w l proper y eco e g ; ere g f y , o e ’ b m lan as in va & . s a v a t. c eco e g , eg , p re ,

A t gefa to give.

I M o o n . NDICATIVE M o on . C ONJUNCTIVE

P it . P it P s n . t Pr s n . t e e t reter e . re e re er e

i h i . a a . m i t v I g ve . I g ve I m y give I g g e

S . eh ef h f k azfi S . ek efi S . e S . e a g , g , g , g , ii efr u a t u efir u eefir h g , h g f , h g , h g . h an n gefr han n gaf han n gefi ; han n gas h ; a P . m e aefim er fum P . ver efi r ér efum . v P v P . v g , g , g , g , ‘ er efib er afu b er efib er aefib h g , h g , h g , h g ,

i éfu i ﬁ. i zeﬁ. heir gefa . he r g he r ge he r g

I M o o n . IMPERATIVE M o on . NFINITIVE

- ef bu do th u iv at efa. to iv . g , o g e, g g e

efum let us iv P s . a t. éfan di ivin . g , g e , re p r g , g g

ﬂn n . eﬁb do e ive . Past a t. e iv n g , y g p r g , g e

To this conj u gatio n belo n g th e follow in g verbs :

nf. . . s i ret. lur. i pres p ret ng. p p to s lay dreha d rep drap drapu m ea t eta et ét atum in quire fregn a fregn fra fré gu m get gets at gat atu m ’ s ay kveda veb kvab gvadu m lea k leka lek lak lbku m rea d less les las las um m ea su re m eta m et m at m ittu m drive reka rek rak rah u m rekin n

é. s li en s ee sj s é sé. m s n s leep sofa or set svaf svéfu m or so so fin n svefa fum trea d tro ba tra il tradu m tro bin n wea v vefa vaf vhfu m o fum o fin n e , of , ht v a vb vé um u m ve in n fig eg g , og g

G . 66 II. ETYMOLO Y

M M o o n . I F n IMPERATIVE N INITIVE o o .

far- bu do tho u u n t ou a a a to n . , j o r ey; f r j r ey

m l u u . o et s n P s a rt. a an di ou n in f ru , j o r ey , re p f r j r ey g

a i b d o ou . e n . a t inu r e d P s a rt. a ou n f r , y j r ey p f r j ye

To this conj u gatio n belo n g th e followin g verb s :

1 res ret. s in . re . n . . p . p g p t p r p ast p art to d rive aka ek 6k 6kum ekin n f eed ala el 61 élu m alin n die d e a d e db dbum dbm dai yj y , n d ra w draga dreg drb drbgu m dregin rr j lay fla fl ee flé flé gum flegin n crow gala gel gél gélu m galin n geyj a gey g6 gbu m galun dig grafa gref grbf gréfu m grafin n hea ve b et} a hef hbf hbfu m hafinn la ugh hlaej a hlae hlb hlb um hle in n lo de hlaba hleb hlbd hlé um hlagin n cut hn afa hn ef hn éf hn bfu m hn afin n souse kefj a kef hbf kbfu m kahn u f reeze kala kel kbl kélum kaliu n cla w kl a klae klé klbgu m klegin n grin d m ala m el m bl mblu m m alin n s cr ap e ekefa skef s kbf skbfu m skafin n sha k skaka skek a sk k skék skbku m skekin n e , j e shap e skapa skep skép skbpu m skapin n strike sla slaa 816 slégu m sle xn n s ta n d stan da ste n d stbd sté bu m stagin n swea r sverj a sver sé r séru m svarin n take taka tek tbk té ku m tekin n wa de vada ve il 66 é bu m vadiu m ow v x 6x 6xu m uxum vaxin n gr e , h é é vb u m ve in n wa s é ze v . hv hv h , h h g h g t T he im perative of stauda is sta tu.

FOURTH C ONJUG ATION .

lu r i. th e r t. ci . Vow el of p e , p

t- v w l i wh n the n s n an t It Cha ra cteristics . Roo o e ; e co o th e in n itive follow s j is in s erted befo re the term in atin g a of ﬁ , ’ i b bin . t a t. beb in n fo r u as vil a svik a : biba has the p as p r , g , j in in st ad s i rm the t. sin . Ve rbs whose root i , fo pre g e of , g

‘ n e hn ei s e s i ei fo r in s tan ste st i h g , g g , ce , e g e

t lu ral. this variatio n doe s n o t e xten d to he p B S . 6 . VER 67

t r a o seize A g ip t .

C n . INDICATIVE M o o n . ONJUNCTIVE M oo

P n t. P t t s ri . Preterite . re e re e e iz . I ht s I seized I may seize . mig e i i h k r . i i i S eh r S . e r S . eh i S . e e gr p , g p , g p , g p , ’ iI i t u rei t ﬁ i ? ﬂ ri i h gr p , h g p , b gr p “ g p r. han n gripr ; han n greip ; han n grip i n u Ipi ;

u m er . r ri i P . ver ri u m P . ver ri P. v ri im P ve m g p , g p , g p , g h , ér ri iﬁ er ri u b ér ri ib é r ri ib h g p , h g p , h g p , h g p , r i i ri i ri u . ir i . heir grips . heir g p he g p he r g p

M o n INP I R o . INIT v n IMPERATIVE M oo . — ri bu do th u s iz at i a to s eiz . g p , o e e ; gr p , e

ri u m let us seiz Pr s . a rt. ri an di seizin g p , e , e p g p , g

. a a i n ri id do e seiz P st rt. r m s ized g p , y e p g p , e T 0 this co nj u gatio n belon g the follo win g verbs

in f. res . re i et s a t s n . r . la t . a t . p p t. g p p p p r to bide biba bib beid bidu m bebinn bite bita bit beit bitu m birin u glitter blika hlik bleik biik u m blikin n drive drita drif dreif d rifin n ° awn in a in in in da um ln in n y g e , g h sin k d wn n i a hui gn ai hn e n i u m En i in n o g g g , g g p u sh hn ita hn it hn eit hn itu m hn itin n tea r hrifa hrif hreif hrifu m hfi fin n shriek hrin a hrin hrein hrin um hrin in n whin e hvin a hvin hvein hvin u m hvin in n climb klifa klif kleif klifin n ea kviba kvi6 kvibi kvei5 kvid kvibum kvibin n f r , , da ' lid on lida lid l ib lidda libu m libin n g e e , look a t lita lit leit litu m , a ss u in m i a m i m ei m é m i u m m i in n p r e g g g, g g r i de riba rib reid ribum ridm n tea r inp ieces rifa rif reif rifum rifin n r ise risa ris reis risu m ris in n ca rve rista rist reist ristu m ristin n write r ita rit reit ritum ritin n sin k si a si s i se si u m s i in n g g e g , g g shin e skin e skin s kein skin um s ki nin n 6 tap f orth skriba skrib skreid skridu m s kribin n s li t slita slit sleit slitum slitin n cu t sn iba sn i0 s n eid sn ibu m s n ibin n m u n t sti a Stl st i ste sti m s ti in n o g e , u [ s o h i c rc sv da svi evcig) svid d a svi um vi in n svifa svif s veif svifin n svikj a svik s veik sviku m s vikin n svi Ia svip svaip svip u m s yield . vikj a vik veik viku m l a ho ld rifa rif y qf h h hreif hrifum hrifin n . G . II. ETYMOLO Y

FI F TH C ONJU G ATION .

w l o f h t t e a u lu . u . Vo e p re . p r

w l th e in n itiv t 6 Cha a t isti s . d b r c er c Vo e of ﬁ e j efore , , ’ ' 3 s t bu t il b k : u in him lu ka an d s m tim s , ; j efore f , g , , p , , o e e ’ th e m co m m n rm i wh s t is s u a a . bs g for ore o fo sp g Ver , o e roo ' '

m th e r t. s in in 6 u o z u lo a a e. sm sm a g y , for p e g . for g , g . g ; f ' ‘ o l lu alw a m lau l au . s sm u um u um lu u . f g , g ; p r y g , ﬂ g , g

r z A t f j o sa to f ree e.

A . INDIC TIVE MOOD C ONJUNCTIVE MOOD .

i P s . . s n P t t . n t P t i Pre e t. re er e re e re er te

m z . I eez . o z . a e m i ht z f r e If r e I y f r e e I g f ree e. k bsi h s S . ek u s . e fr ek f si S . e a S S . r fry , fr , j , y , ’ u st ii frau st LI fr é sir ﬁ fr sir h fry h , h j , h y , han n s han n au s han n fr bsi han n fr si fry ; fr ; j , y ;

P u su m r r bs u m r f su r er fr P ve f P. ve r m P. ve . v . , j , y , er er fru su b er fr bsid er fr su b h h , h j , h y , i s bsi u i fr i fr . heir he r fru u . he r j he r ys I MPERATIVE MOOD . INFINITIVE MOOD .

- é s tu do tho u z at fr bsa to z . , f ree e j , f ree e bsu m let u r z P e f é s n di z n s ee e s . a t. r a i . , f , r p r j , f ree g

i z . é si0 d o e ez . Past a t. fro s n n n , y f re e p r , f ro e

To this co nj u gatio n belo n g th e followin g verbs :

e 1 r. s art. n r s . ret. s in . r t. u a t I f . p e p g p p p p bj bba byb bau d b u bu m b o bin n ' b rj bta bryt brau t brutu m bro tin n drjupa d ryp drau p d ru pu m d ro pin n fl u a fl flau flb fl u um fl o in n j g yg g, g g flj bta flyt flau t fl u tum fl o tin u fj uka fyk fau k fu ku m fo kin n sp urt gibea gys gau s gu su m go s in n ' ' p ou r 6ta g t au t u tu m g o tin n obta in h j bta hiyt lau t lutu m hlo tin n ha mmer hnjbda hn yb hn au b hn u bu m hn o biu n s 8 n u s h n u s u m hn o sin n neeze hnj 6 8. h nys h a knot hnj bta h n yt h n a ut hn u tu m hn o tinn m ake ba re hrj bba hryb hrau b hru bu m hro bin n s no re hrj bta hryt hraut bru tu m hro tin n h s k bs a k s kau s k a ku sum ku ko sin n c oo e j y , j or , , rum ko rin u clea ve klj u fa klyf klau f klu tu m klo fiu u cr e k jfipa kryp krau p kru pu m kro pin u etriep‘ e ljzs ta lys t lau st lu s tu m lo stm n lie l u a 1 lau 16 lu u m lo in n j g 3 g , g shu t links g lauk luku m lo g( in n S . 6 . VERB 69

res . in f . p luta lyt njbta n yt rj bda ryd rjufa ryf rj uka ryk s s b j 603. y ’ " s fi a s“ a S g , g ) slcj bta skit ' smjfiga m strj fika s tryg stipa n a ty y hrj bta h t ' r mo m byt

SIX TH C ONJU G ATION .

’ w t e l r e l he r t. u . . Vo e of p e , p

— A s in l r t- n s n an t a t r a l n Cha ra cteristics . g e oo co o f e o g v w l d ubl a t r a sh rt o n e : th e v w l th e in n itiv ei o e , o e f e o o e of ﬁ e o r a b r a s in l a b r a d u bl n s n an t v w l O f efo e g e efo e o e , co o ; o e ’ he ast a t i t i a n d a t r . l k hat the in f . t n a n a p p e of , excep g g f , wh r it is e e e .

lit A t ta to let.

M o n C M o o n . INDICATIVE o . ONJUNCTIVE

P s n t P s i . t ri . Pr n . Pr t r t re e . re e te e e t e e e

I let. I did le I m a let. m i ht let. t. I

. k a S . k S e l s t . ek let S . k 1 ti e eti , S , e , , ' ’ ' II ltetr iI lezt u lati iI letir h , h , h r , h , han n ltetr ; han n let ; han n léti ; han n leti ;

P . ver latum P é l tim . ver létu m P. ver l tim P. ver é , , , , er latid er le b er létib é r letib h , h tu , h , , a ‘ l . i ta . a ir l ti . he r heir letu heir l ti . e

M n I v - o o INF IN T I Iz o o r) . IMPERATIVE . M

lat—tu do tho u t i le to t. , at h m, le lé u m l t et us let Pr s . a rt. lata n di l ttin . , , e p , e g la d ti do e . a u t. let Past a t. l tin le , y p r ,

To this co nj u gatio n belo n g th e follow in g ve rbs :

inf . res . l ast art. . ret sin ret. u . p p . g p p r p p to be a ll d h ita h it h é é u i c e e e , eiti h t h t m he tin n p lay leika leik lkh léku m leikin n ‘ swa the sveipa sveip svep svepum sveipin n blasa blws blé s blesu m blé sm n fa fa? fekk fen gum fen gin n II 7 . 0 ETYMOLO G Y .

S EVENTH C ONJU G ATION . w l th t ' e r . o lu . o Vo e of p e j , p r j .

C/za ra cteristics A lw a s a l n t- s llabl a t . y o g roo y e s he p re din a tl th u h a l n v w l w ith a s in l n s n an t ce g , p r y ro g o g o e g e co o , a tl b as n s iti n a t a sh t v w l p r y y re o of po o f er or o e .

A t au sa to s kl p rin e. M C N I TI VE o o n . O NJ U NCT I E M n I D CA V o o .

P s n t. P t it . P s . re e re er e re ent Preterite .

I s in kl . I i kl I m a s rin l h l s n e . t n Imi s i k e. p r e p r d y p k e . g p r

. k S e e s . k os S k us . a i S e e i S . ek s y , j , , j y , ' ’ ' ti e ss ii ost u au sir ii sir h y , h j , h , h j y , han n eyss ; han n j os ; han n au si ; h an n j ysi ; er u su m r é s m P e s P P. v a P ve u u r au im r s m . . v ve r , j , j , . j y , er au sifi su m er au sifi er sifi h , , h , h jy , os u su i au s . r u fi fi u s a e ir a i. i si. he r h j , j , he he r Jy o u i s u su . he r j , j

M P A T M I IV NF INI E n . I ER I V E o on . T Moo

u h l a s do t an s in kle at au sa to s in k . , p r ; , p r e

m l e . a n san di s i kl n an su et us s in kl P es t. a n i . , p r , r p r , p r g

u s a . s n l a iﬁ do e s rinkle. Pa st t au i n s in k d . , y p p r , p r e

To th is co nj u gatio n belo n g the followin g verbs : l n f . res ret. sin . ret. u r. ast art. i p . p g p p p p to in crea s e auka eyk 6k au kin n " dwell bua b y bj uggu m bﬁin n leap hlau pa hleyp hlu pu m hlaupinn li w he va ho h u um ho vin e g gg , j gg gg spew eh j a spy spuin n . T he word s beta an d koggva alw ays s ho rten th e vo w el in li la u the t lu r. : li la u a a u ka an d ausa als b m m p re . p p , , o eco e p , d ris a in th e s am t n s h last tw o n u a u kum an m . s f , f e e e T e e co j g tio n s in clu de tho se verb s which an cie n tly form ed the p reterite li a ti n by re d u p c o . 6 Van es . . 7 1

SE O N LA SS C D C .

SIG N FORM S .

- - - — in i lu r . In ﬁn itive n din a r t . s . da o r d r t . e g , p e g , p e p o - T h n n tin v w l is ith r i o r a this a t dr . e du m r . , p co ec g o e e e c au s e s th e divisio n of ve rbs of this clas s (which an s we rs to v tw at th e G e rm an de sign atio n of weak e rbs) in to o conj ug io n s .

FIR S T C ONJU G ATIO N .

v w With co n n ectin g o el i . T h e con n ectin g vowel i always becom e s j befo re an o the r m t th r a s im l i ta k s th ir l vowel ifj i co e oge e p e e e p ace . The re are two divis io n s of this co nj u gatio n a cco rding as

- th e r t v w l is sh rt o r l n . T he i han d in t is re oo o e o o g c ge o j , p s rv d in th s v rbs wh s r t- s llabl is sh rt as tem a e e o e e o e oo y e o , j to ta m vek a to wa k h l a to bide an d in a t in th s whi h e, j e, y j , f c o e c h av a l n s llabl b u t wh s r t n ds in an d I: as vi a e o g y e , o e oo e g gj ik a a to ns ra t ste to r as t b to deu ll. co ec e, j o , yggj e In the r an d the rt d rem ain s u a as t a . nalt r d t r p et. p p e e f e

1 m in s h rt- s l abl d w r n l d s . , , o y e o

irst D ivis i rt t- v w Sh r l. F o n . o oo o e

rbs this divi i n hav n o n al v w l n t r s Ve of s o e ﬁ o e i he p e . o in th r t b r h di t e n n . r e p e . efo e e g

l A t te j a to reckon .

- M o o n . o n U N I rz INDICATIVE C J CT v Moo n .

P s . P t . s t n t. P t rit re e reteri e Pre en . re e e

. k I kon . mi I ht r . rec I reckon ed I ma y rec o n . g ecko n k l . k d . S e te S . e tal i 8 . ch t li S eh teldi , , e , , ' ’ ii telr ii taldir u telir ii teldir h , h , , h , han n telr ; han n taldi ; Ean n teli ; han n teldi ;

' P ver tel u m P o ldum i . . ver t l P. ver t m P ver teldim , e , . , ‘ er tefid er toldu d er teliﬁ r t ldill h h , h , he e ,

i l a . te ir o . t ir li i di . he r j he t ld u . he te he r ei

P IM ERATIVE Moon INFINITI VE M o o n .

tel- d u do than k n t l a te a to ko n . , rec o ; j , rec tel u m let us e k n l n di ko n i Pr s a rt. te a n j , r c o , e p j rec g l te i d do . d e ck n Pas t rt. tald: tali r talin n , y re o ( , ) ,

rec ed . G . 7 2 II . ETYMOLO Y

Thu s are conj u gated

' to cho o se vel a to wea n venja to gla dden gledj a dwell dveij a wa ke vekj a whet hvetj a ' bea t lemj a tha tch hek a cra ve krefj a s mite berj a ta ke lea ve vedj a lea d a s tray glepj a

A t hylja to hide .

C M o o n . INDICATIVE M o o n . ONJUNCTIVE

P n P t it . s n . i P s t. re e t Preter te . re e re er e h hid mi ht hid id . I m a I I e I hid . y e g e k i k i . h ld S e b l S . eh hu ldi S . ek h l S . e y , , y , y , ' ' ' ii h lr ii hu ldi r ii h lir ii h ldir h y , h , h y , h y , han n hylr ; han n hu ldi ; han n hyli ; han n hyldi ' h im P . v h r l ver h l im er h l u m ver u ldu m P . ve P. d P. y l , , y , y , er h lid er hu ld u d er h liﬁ er h ldid h y , h , h y , h y , h i di . i u ld i h li . l i h l . u he r y j a he r h . he r y he r y

I M n N n . IMPERAT VE o o . INFI ITIVE Moo — h l du do than hide at h l a to hid . y , ; y j , e

h l u m let us hid P s . a t. h l an di hidin y j , e, re p r y j , h a u l u lid t t. h dr h r hu in n lid do e hide . Pa s g y , y p r ( , ) h idden .

Thu s are co nj u gated : to a sk spyrj a to gro a n s to rea r rymj a he h o ﬁ c w tyggja s ut to ro t ou t ry j a . ca rry ﬂytj a rush o n

n Divi i n n t- v w l L . S eco d s o . o g roo o e

bs this d ivis i n hav the v w l i in th e bu t s . Ver of o e o e pre , n n in th e t th n din b e . o e p re . efore e g

A t daam a to j u dge.

I M n C U M o n . NDICATIVE o o . ONJ NCTIVE o

P s t. P s n t. P t it . re en Preterite . re e re er e

I u d . I u d ed I m a u d . I mi ht u d j ge j g . j ge g j y 8 ch d wmi S k h sm i d m ai S . e k dm i . . e S . e md , oe , o , , ' ' ti d aern ir ﬁ dmm dir it d cemir ii d cem dir h , h , h , h , han n dmmir ; han n d oam di ; han n d oem i ; han n doem ai er de mu m P v d ce ver d eem im P P. v er md um P. verd oemdim , . , , . , er d cemid er d aam d u d er dcem id er d oern id h , h , h , h d ,

d te m a . oe i a . (l mi i ( cem di. heir heir d m d u . he r o he r l

A M o n I E o o n . IMP R TIVE o . NFINITIVE M

d orm do than ud at d c ms to ud e j ge ; e , j g e u oe d i ki d azm u m l t us d e P es . a t. d m an d in . , j g , r p r , g y w u d d mib do c d a . Pa st a t. d aemd r u ed . , y j y p r , j g

7 4 II. ETYMOLO G Y .

T he ast a ti i l in - a6 r is r u la l d lin d as : p p r c p e eg r y ec e ,

in d . kalladr kollu d kallat ef , ,

d . k l k l a a ladi a lah kallada . ef , ,

Like kalla are co nj u gated : to serve hj é n a to a im zetla to ga ther safua p lun der h erj a cas t kasta p rove s an n a ta lk tala threa ten hota f a ll a sleep s o fna bak b aka s ou n d hl é da thin k bu s e j g a . write rita

PA S SIVE VOICE .

T h e form ation of th e p as s ive is very s im ple an d regular : s t is add d in all as s bu t b this t d an d 6 a e c e , efore , r , , , re h w v r tak d r t whi h last l tt r s z fo r 3 . op , c e e o e e e

A t tel ast to be k A t d oem ast to be At kallast to be a ll d j rec c e .

ed . o n ed . j u dg

IN o rcs rrvn M o o n .

s n Pre e t.

a m ud d I a m a ll d . I a m reckoned . I j ge c e

k d cn m ist S . ek kallast h telst S . e S . e , , , ' ' it t lst ii d cem ist ii kallast h e , h , h , han n telst ; han n d oem ist; hann kallast; r er d cem u m st P ver kollu m st P ve tel u m st P. v . . j , , , er teliz er d aem izt er kallizt h t, h , h ,

oem as . i k i d t allast. heir telj ast. he r he r

Preterite .

a was u d d . I was a ll d . I w s recko ned . I j ge c e oe d k k k m ist . k l d s S . e taldist . d S e a la i t , S e , , ’ ’ ’ ii taldi t ii d oam dist ii k alla bist h s , h , h , han n taldist; han n daamdist ; h an n kallabist ; P e ko P. ver tol u v r d ce m du m st . v r llu du m st d m st P. e , , , er told u zt er d aam d u zt er kollu bu zt h , h h , k i o s t i d oemd u st. i ol u u l b st. he r t ldu . he r he r

M on C ONJUNCTIVE o .

s n Pre e t.

m b d m be u d d a b a lled . a e a . I m e I y recko ne . I y j ge y c k oemis h kallist 8 . e eli t . h d t S . e t s , S e , , ' ' f! telis ii d aemis t ii kallis t t, h , h Ran n telist; h a n n d oem is t; han n kallis t ;

oem im s P. ve kallim s P . er P b d t r t v telim st, . v r , , e hr d oem izt er kallizt h r telizt, , h ,

ir eir d oamist. i kallist. he telist. P he r e . 6 . Vas s 7 5

Preterite .

mi ht b I m i ht be u d . I mi ht be a lled . I g e reckoned . g j dge c l m ist h l bist k te dis ek d oe d . e kd a . e S t, S . , S , ’ ti teldist ii d oemdist it kallabist h , h , h , han n teldist; han n doem dist ; han n kallabist ; i bim s . v r teldim P . ver d aem d m s P ver kalla t P e st t . , , , ‘ er teldizt er d d zmdizt er kallabizt h , h , h ,

oa b s . i el s ir d mdist. ir kalla i t he r t di t. he he

IMPERATIVE M oon telstu be tho u r k d cem stu be tho u kallastu be th u , ec , , o ou ed j u dged ca lled ; tel u m s t let us be d e m u m st let us be kollu m st let us be j , , , k n d u d d a ll d rec o e , j ge , c e , telizt b e k d oe i kal i t be e calle . n d m zt be e d d . l z d e . u , y rec o e , y j ge , y

INFINITIVE M o o n

at tel ast to be k atdmm ast o be ud d at kallast to be a lled . j , rec d j ge . , c

o n ed .

s i l . Pre . p artic p e tel an dist b in r k dazman dist b in kallan dist bein ca lled j , e g ec , e g , g .

ud d . ou ed . j ge

P s a i l a t p rtic p e .

al la z b n a ll d . t izt b n ko n d . doemizt b n ud d . kal t , ee rec e , ee j ge , ee c e

S R EFLECT IVE VER B .

T he p ass ive voice is ofte n expre s s ed by the reﬂective m w h i hu s tru t th v a tiv a r hi s t s n d . e rb is fo , c co c e To e c e h ’ pen ded th e reﬂective pro n o u n sik (o n e s s elf) in th e l s t pe rs . n m m l th e v w l b in r t d h n the l s rs i . i s k s t . g ( y e f) , o e e g ejec e ; e ce pe i n — h s hav —eh s n . d s in mk th e t . g e , o er e dd — k to th e r o t th v rb T h r s in . a s m e e l st pe s . g o of e thr u h the n n tin v w l u as m elska lsk- u - mk o g co ec g o e , ; fro e ;

— - - from falla foll u - m k from bera bar u mk ; sjamk I lo ok abo ut m ou m k e I a viln u mk I wish . , fe r,

- - T he r i r sk : 2 . 3 r s . in ti n s d r t b as . of ﬂec o op efo e , p e

in d ce m - - - k k t - k s . i sk o r d aam ir sk sk t s or s r s . g f , y f y i T he 1st lik h 1 rs . s n . s . l is ith r rm d t e st p er p . e e fo e e pe g o r it a n d s - sk to th e n din m thu s d aem u mk a nd due ppe e g , , m m k sk otu u s mk and sk otu m sk . , j j G . 7 6 II. ETYMOLO Y

A ccordin g to the s e ru le s reﬂective verbs are thu s co n j u gated

fallask to alldown a sk o k sh nk foebask to be n ea at . t tas to i . at , f j , r , r

ished .

M n INDICATIVE o o . n Prese t.

a hed . I l . 1 am n u is l down I shrink. o r

k ollu mk é u k . k oebu m k e S . sk t rn S e f , j , , ’ it fellsk ti sk tsk it foebis k h , h y , h , han n fellsk ; han n s kytsk ; han n foebisk ; ol u k k o u k s oedu m k d ll r t m s k o P. er f s P. ver f l m s o P ve s t v , f . j , j , foe u mk u m k u mk , , , er fallidsk er s k é tidsk er fmbidsk h , h j , h , k heir fallask . heir s kj é tas k heir foedas P t i re er te . l e h . a ou i h d . I l down . I s ran k I w s n r s e k k k oe k h ellu m . sku u m . k f u m . e S e t e dd S , , S , it fizllsk it skau tsk it foeddisk h , h , h , han n fellsk ; han n skau tsk ; han n fwddisk ;

llu m k ku u k foe u m k P . er fe s ell P e s t m s sk er dd s P . v v . v r ut , f , , u mk u m k foed d u mk , , , er fellu bsk er skutu d k er fmdd u d k h , h s , h s , k k oe k u i s u sk . i f d u s . heir fell s . he r tu he r d E x am ples : S aall er sé er s ten zk freis tn i happ y he who w iths tan ds t m ta ti n braafir m u n u he ask 0 k atbbn u m verfias k e p o ; r/ , , ’ b th s will ht an d b m a h th r s sla on din ebisk ro er fig , eco e e c o e yer ; f e o k seheh (s ezk) af gu hligu m m alu m the sou l is n o urished a n d sa tis d with dl w ds ver hrwfiumsk en n efsta dom we a fie go y or ; , f e r ’ the extreme sen ten ce ; hu gr m isgeran d a sny sk i orviln an the min d of ill- doers in clines to desp air ; ko n a hin h efir gip sk heim m an n i k er h o n au s S er thy wife is m a rried to the m a n whom she chose .

A NO M A LO U S VER BS .

r s h avin th h a a i ti i a s : I. Ve b g e c r cte r s cs of e ther cl s

in f . ret. s in . r t. l as t art. p g p e p ur. p p to w it rita it ritu m ritin n r e , re

wershi p ,

blé tada blotu du m blotabr.

mir , blanda blett blen d um blan din n

hl d b br an a a blan d udum blan da . BS . 6 . VER 7 7

rbs whi h hav th e h ara t risti s b th co n II . Ve c e c c e c of o

u atio n s in the s n d las s an d whi h o ss ss th r ir j g eco c , c p e o e regu laritie s

es . ret. iu d . s in . ret. con . ast a t . in f. pr p g p j p p r to say s egj a segi s agba s ogda sagfir ' be silen t he la he i hagba hegba hagat thin k hykkj a hygki hotta haetta hé tt work yrkj a yrki orta yrta o rtr seek s aekj a s ceki sott wtta é m ' u ab believe h a h gg hu gga i aa hg r will “ if? vil vild a tilde vilj abr set s otja s et setta setta s ettr sell selj a sel seld a s eld a seldr e a a t ski l a skil s kilda skild a sk d r ski s p r e j l , itn n m he a hé hat héba hwba hébr perfor yj , l n o r re a ra ai ada rteda rabr o gf h yj , h hr hr h h ' "’ ' crush l Ja lttba l t5a lti br lutn n flee flyj a yy flyfia flyba fly’ idr u se du ga d u gi d u gha dygba d u gat wake vaka vaki vakta vekta vakat buy kau pa kau pi ke ta kev ta kevptr en dure hola holi ho a hyl a ho lat da re hora hori horba hyrba ho rat p utup with u n a u n i u n d a n da u n at lice lifa lifi lifba lifda lliat warn va a vari var a var v bs va a t r , er r a% a ‘ trim tru t tritba tryba tritabr a ae n a n n , t n ada n te da n ébr l a le l zn leba leba lcd len n j , j r , era o ra i ba ba erbr g , g ger ger ger g o va o i g r g r gd rba gorba gorbr.

III r h h av . Ve bs w ic h e a pecu liar irregu larity : ' ' to ru b gn tta gu y gnera gn eri g a ttin o ' turn sn ita s n y sn era su bri s n ti in n row ré a rte rera reri rbin n ‘ grow groa gree grera gré ri groin n soa 8 83 ser aba sa a s seri sé in n d . , , r to strik a v rb the 1s t las s 3rd o n u ati n e , e of c , c j g o , has als the r t lér o p e . s a .

. A n m al u s v rb s tl a m s au ili ri s . IV o o e , o y x e A t ei a w a to o n h ve. g , D M o o n . IN ICATIVE C ONJ U NCTIVE M o on .

I o n . w I m ay o wn . P vé rei u m i . S . ek e t P ver ei im g , g ; . g , er ei u b it ci i er ei ib h g , h g r , h g , i u r et . he g han n eigi ; heir eigi. II. G 7 8 ET Y MOLO Y .

' I M n C o o . n NDICATIVE ONJUNCTIVE M oo .

Preterite . Preterite .

i o wn . I d d I m ight o wn .

. a m . k S eh atta P . ver ttu S e satti e aat m , , , P . v r ti , it éttir er attu d it aettir er ae b h , h , h , h tti , h a i at u h n an n . tti ; he r t a n setti ; heir satti .

t. ei an i n n . a . P es a d o w i . Pa st a t. tt wn d r p r g , g p r r , o e

Thu s are conj u gated

to be a bl or to do kn e a e, , g ,

m ega .

k A t u n n a to be a ble.

I M o n C M E o o n . NDICATIVE o . ONJUNCTIV

P s n . Presen t. re e t

b . I ca n a m a bl . I m a be a l , or , e y e k k S . e n n er u m ku n n P k n u m . ek i . ver ku n nim a P. v S , , , , it kan t er ku n n u d it ku n n ir ér ku n n ib h , h , h , h , ha n n k n ka n i ku n n a . ha u n n i i ku n n ; he r n n ; he r i.

t i P . Pre er te . reterite

u l as a b . m i h be a b I co d w l I t l . , or , e g e

S . eh ku n n a P. ver ku n n u m S . eh h n n i P . ver k n n im , , y , y , it ku n n ir er ku n n u b it k n n ir er k n n ib h , h , h y , h y , h han h n n . an n ku n n i heir ku n nu . n y i ; heir hyn n i

P es . a t. ku n n an di bein a ble . Pas t a t. ku n n at b n a bl . r p r , g p r , ee e

Thu s is co nj u gated l to o at u n n a . ve ,

A t hu rfa to n eed .

C M o o n . INDICATIVE M o o n . ONJUNCTIVE

P s n t. Pre sen t. re e

I m a n d . I n eed . y ee

h u h P. ver u rfim S . ek ar P vé r u rfu m S . e h f, . h , h r , h , it arft er u rfu h it u rfir er u rfib h h , h h , h h , h h ,

h n urﬁ i u rﬁ. h n r . i u a n a n ha f he r h rin . h ; he r h

P t it . Preterite . re er e mi ht n I did need . I g eed . k f i P v rftim P ver urftu m S . e r t . er ek urfta . S . h h , hy , hy , u rftir r u rftu b it rftir er rftib u h he h , h hy , h hy ,

han n i rf i. ﬂan n hu rfti ; heir hu ritu . hyrfti ; he r hy t i t a f u f di n d n . Pa s t. u r t n eeded . Pres . a t. r an p r h , ee g p r h ,

' i n l ll w u ld i r i . S ku lu sha ll u ht an d m u n u w . , o g , , o , r eg BS . 6 . VER 7 9

INDICATIVE M o o n .

Pre sen t. ‘ h u m k skal P . ver s ul , S . e , it skalt er sku lu b h , h ,

han n skal ; hetr sku lu .

k m u n m an P. ver ntu n u m S . e , , , it u n t m an t er m u n u b h m , , h ,

n m an etr m u n u . han n m u , ; h

Preterite . P er sk ld u m m u n d u m ek sk lda m u n da & c. . v y , , y , , in wa n t . Part. g

C ONJUNCTIVE M o o n .

Pre se n t. k i P ver sku lim li s l . . ek ku S s , y , , it sku lir sk lir er s ku lib h , y , h , i i ha n skuli sk li skul , n , y ; he r

ek m u n i m n i P. ver m u n im , y , , it m u n i m n tr er mu h i b h r , y , h ,

han n m u n t m n t i m u m . , y ; he r

Preterite .

i P . er sk ldirn m n dim ek sk ld m n di & c. v y , y , I y , y ,

h n f m n d mundu is t n u n d in stead T e i . sk ld u a for y , of e fo k of s u lu an d munu .

A t vita to kn ow .

M o o n C M o o n . INDICATIVE . ONJUNCTIVE P n P s n t. rese t. re e

I know .

P. ver itu m v , er tu b h vi , i he r vitu .

P t i t ri . re er te . Pre e te

I kn ew . I migh

S . h tss h s & e V a &c P é i s . e i vi m & S v i . P ver im . v r v s u c s c . ss &c , . , . , ,

P . . itan di . s a t v kn owin Pa st a t. vitat kn wn . re p r , g p r , o

A t m u n a to m m b is in n arl all its rm s co n re e er , e y fo , u i m j gated l ke u n u .

u V . Verbs s ed variou sly : hat berr vid it (sometim es) hap han n s kamm ast sin he is asha ens med o him sel p , f f , II G . 80 . ETYMOLO Y eh fo rbask I escap e f ro m my m ik rekr I a m driven bef o re the o es a le f , g , h m er o fb dr I sh udd u ir I a m a a id o er , g f r f ,

ver b. I m a k a m tak m é r vgl til it ha en s to m e r e is e, pp , leibist I a m wea r he rist I h a y , y e r , m ik lan tar I l n o r ski lsk I u n d stan d . g o g , er rstir I a m t zrst hy y ,

er tekst va la at it will ha dl be lu k o r th h r r y c y f ee, at té kst h n u m é it tu n d o u t lu k o r him a t las t h o h r e c y f , ru m ar it thun de s h r , m d agar it da wns ; an d other verbs u sed i perso n ally .

CHAPTER VII .

UNINFLE CT E D WORDS . PA I L RT C ES . Word s which are m o stly u n in ﬂected are class ed u n der d n m in ati n as : ad v bs s iti n s n u n ti n s e o o , er , prepo o , co j c o ,

i n terjectio n s .

CHAPTER VIII . A D B VER S .

1 a ° . Of Pl ce

ar the e adan then ab a thithe h r , h ce , h r r , hva wh hva dan when hvert whith r ere , ce, er , her h heban hen heb a hith ere , ce , r er , itt o ut itti a b o a d ittau withou t uts id e , r , , o , in n within in n an within in sid in n ar th in , , e, ere , ' am o rth rwa d n eban down b lo w u t u u u wa rds fr f , f o r , , e pp , pp p , p ,

am a b v d w n m b au t a wa hvar t n whe . of o e, o f ro r y , g o re a bo v e ,

2 im : . Of T e n it n ow heban fra h a t , ere f er , tim ili a a l sidla la t g e r y , e , !than la t l hven ter wh n e y , e , e th n o t t n h e , p of e , s aldan s ldo m fo rbu m o m l . j e , f r er y t o s u n d um s metimes .

3 M an n r . Of e vel w ll illa ill hvcrn e ho w e , , g ,

arn willin l svh so s vitleibts thu s . j y , , gt it aa i a x l tl a n n e in t ia wa tl l n . h g y , g g e ce e y

II G . 82 . ETYMOLO Y

C HAP TE R X I. E JE C S INT R TION .

l o 0 S om e of th e m o s t com m o n i nterj ecti on s are O ! H O ! a la s ! V el well! G ott o k vel cap ita l! Bravo ! an d th lik e e .

CHAPTER XII. D S FORMA TION O F WOR . T h e fo rm ation of w ord s take s place throu gh De rivatio n m iti n In th e m r as it u rs th u h alt a or C o po s o . for e c e occ ro g er ti n the in ti n h an v w l o r s llabi a dd iti n : o of ﬂec o c ge of o e , y c o in th e latter case it aris e s from th e j u n ction of tw o o r m ore a at w d s wh s u n i n rm s a n ew o n e s ep r e or o e o fo . T h e i in al rm a w rd an d m whi h its d riva or g fo of o , fro c e ti n an d in ti n s s rin is all d he A ll r ts are o s ﬂec o p g c e t root. oo

m n s llabi . A t b its l h as n o d istin t m an in b u t o o y c roo y e f c e g , n tain s an id a whi h in b in d v l d b m s th e co e c , e g e e ope , eco e ain id a a am il kin d d w d A t a a s st m e of f y of re or s . roo pp e r ﬁr in the rm a verb b au s th e st sta in th e ss fo of , ec e ﬁr ge p roce of d v l m n t is the id a a ti n n diti n A ll v b s e e op e e of c o or co o . er , th r r whi h m r m a t b di t d rivati n are e efo e c co e f o roo y rec e o , all radi al v rb c ed c e s . By d e rivatio n is to b e u n d erstood th at in cre ase w hich a w ord receive s an d w hich is in s erted betwee n th e root

an d th e in ti n wh r b th e i in al id a is d v l d . ﬂec o , e e y or g e e e ope E xample s 3 o ot. vat e In ﬂ tio n . R Deri iv . ec to cou n t telj a tel j a hew ho gva he g v a co ld ka d r k d r h e ea v n him in n him in n .

D rivati n is ith v ali as t an s iti n i in t an d e o e er oc c ( r o of o j ,

— — - — - u in t v see tel- a h o v a n s n an tal kal d r o r of o , j , gg ) , co o ( ) , — t - m ix d that is n s is in v w l an d n s n an t him in n . e , co g of o e co o ( )

h al c i T e vo c i Derivat o n .

In th e v ali d ivati n i r d u s a v w l— han oc c er o (j ) p o ce o e c ge , th h it l d r t i h b kn w n am s an d al u s 0 s . E x l o g e f p , ere y o p e

09 5i m a dn s s m Odt a in b rdr d a t acc b rdi bu den e , fro r g g , y ( . . y ) r b rtebi a ss i n britbr ha st m bur a r in p o , fro r c ry g , — kra lo u h d la n d akr ld fes tr m fastr rm . e p g e ﬁe , rop e , fro ﬁ 13 P X S . . REFI E 83

T he co n so n an tal Derivatio n . — E ve ry co n s o n an t d e rivatio n ap pears o rigin ally to have been m ixed an d w he n th e vow el is la ckin g in Icelan dic it i t n u n d in th e n at u t n i t n u s a s s of e fo cog e Te o c o g e ,

ld i h G e m an . celan dic. O ld Bi in G e man . Icelan dic. O H g r I g r o ld m a n karl charal la ughter hlittr hlahter bird fugl fokal p oison eitr eite r moon tu n gl z u n gel a rm arm r aram field akr achar tha n e d egan ’ wakej u l vakr wa cker even eban I fi nger fin gr fin kar r a ven rafn hreben .

CHAPTER X III .

P E X E S R FI .

a rm a b in A b lau b su stition hi hl ver A t G . f ( e er erg e p er ) g y , y at —au 6 i 1 v r ri h —k stir harsh onditio ns gre ly . g e y c o c ;

— - ligr of threaten ing app ea r an ce ; m e n n i exceed ingly strong

- i l u a - n v hea m an o r6 v n t lan u r r v . ; o e g ge , h g e y y

A l r m allr all uite en tir l : - 6 r r e t - heill uite (f o ) q , e y gj p e f c ; q hal —matti r alm i ht - m en n r n era l u bli - m en e ; g g y ; ge , p c ;

- - n in e mm n a lt vit-r a ll w gr th co o y ; ise .

A ll La e in erm u ltus v r ci ll - ti r v r bra v t. r s a : e ( p p ) e y , e p e y g h y e ;

- rikr v ri h - s torr v r t - vel r wed his ery c ; e y grea ; ve y . T w r o th n p reﬁx an s e s t e E glish right or very . A n d a n d on d aga inst : - n es p rom on tory opp os ite an other a t the mon th of a fjord ; - ro6 r ro wing agains t the wind ; ~ s pwn is over aga ins t; - s tyggiligr a bom ina ble ; - vi6 ri con tra ry win d ; - soelis aga ins t the s un ; - s treym is ag ains t the stream - vigr o n e who fights against; O n d verh rf ron ting (the o p o s ite o fan verh r a t the o p of t p ) .

A u O im li s as an d is s d to to r : - fen in n as il p e e e , oppo e g e y — — ca ught; fyn dr soon f ou nd - ken n dr eas ily kn own n aem r

- — soon app rehended ; s kilin n easily u ndersto od ; sé ttr ' as il a ih ed - s aar s n dis rn d - trt1 a c d u lo us e y g ; oo ce e ; re . — E in a l n xtr m l : har6 r u a e us b ld - laa r u ri ht o e, e e e y co r g o , o ; g p g , s in —s ta s lu si n cere e ec o .

ol G rm vi l m . u h A S ax . la h lu n . ma ﬁ n G t . Fj ( e e c , g fe y , o )

m u h n tin u a l: - b 6 r thi kl - l d —k n n i a t c , co yg c y p eop e ; y g gre kn wl d wit h a t —m n n i c — 6 b o e ge ( c cr f ) e rowd ; yr a to e wordy . 84 II. ETYMOLOG Y .

F o r b m the r f rir : — a6 ir a th r - m ali efore (fro p ep . y ) f f oref e ;

— - p refa ce ; - ra6 s upp ly ; spar fores ight; streym is with

h a - to u - vin dis wi h he i t e stre m ; lu r p ers asions ; t t w n d . It als o co n vey s a n otio n of s om ethin g d an gerou s or u m

l asan t as in E l rn : fo rbwn ir cu s s - d m a n . ae p e , g for o r e ,

- - to n demn m aela. to u s s n din da n us mis co , c r e ; e g gero It i n i t n si n . n t s s h e m an i v rbs as : fo rsm a to o e ﬁe e g of e ,

s corn .

G a n u ite sit th u h : - hraeddr mu h r ht n d - la36 r g g opp o e, ro g c f ig e e ; very learn ed ; - m :eli con tra diction ; - s ser transp aren t ’ — ta <5a bein s i s g opp o te . M is h as a n ativ m an in an d als im li s diss im ilarit eg e e g , o p e y , di f n o r d t ri rati n : - d au 6 i wh n o n e o t wo f ere ce , e e o o e f — dies before the other ; - grip m is ta ke ; j afn u neven ; - kau p ' — - ba d p u rcha se ; 11ka to dislike ; litr p ied ; - skiln in gr

- misu n dersta nding ; to ill treat.

— - - S am (from s am an together) bo rgarm a6 r cc citizen ; bo rin n born of the s ame p a ren ts ; - d osgris o n the sam e day ;

- o r i ith o n e - fef5ra havin he m fagn a. t ejo ce w ; g t sa e — f a ther ; n afn i having the same n ame as another ; - ]9 ykki u r n occ re ce .

S i n tin u al u n in t u t d : - b r6 r l in a lo n sid o sh s co , err p e y y g g e (f ip )

- - n felld r con tin u ous ; m all a l ways p ra ti g . This word

occu r s in th e phras e si o h as ever an d age. Sj ald (from sj ald an ) seldom : - gwtr seldom obtained ; sen n m e seldo se n . S u n d r (oppo s ite of sum ) asun der : —m cef5r having a n other i mother ; disu n on . Tor im plie s difficu lty : - b reytiligr ha rd to m an age ; - fyn d r — — ba d to fin d ; feera ba d travelling ; gas tr defficu lt to get;

~ — - n zem r du ll witt d tr r dist us u l. e , ygg r tf U o r 0 is a n ativ a ti l m stl u s d b r ad tiv s eg e p r c e , o y e efo e jec e ,

an d an sw s to the E n n u : - fri6 r dis d - h6f ex er g . cor ; cess ; - ku n n r u n kn own ; - m ak u n ea sin ess ; - m issan di s a — a d n in disp en ble ; sj l a eften .

Van im li s wan t au lt : - fzerr u nabl - a a l ssn ss p e , f e ; g c re e e ; ’ ' —heils a c li es - trii u n b li m k n s ; e ef . ' O r (er has a privative sign iﬁc atio n : erlen dis a broad ; - l1

till v li tl - m br ve hi - vi i ery t e ; j ry t n ; t f oolish .

G . 86 II. ETYMOLO Y

- in rm dim in u tiv klin r a li b k rm lin r a l r s s . b ee ttle g fo e g oo , y g lin It als rm s atr n m i s as Kn tlin r r m w rm . o g o fo p o y c , y g (f o Knutr (from Y n gvi) - n a form s th e en ding of m an y in ceptive verbs : blikn a to ko n a I als in tu rn ale h itn a to w ho t l to l. t p , gro , coo o ten siﬁes th e m an in ad v rb s : hé rn a us t h r min a e g of e j e e ,

j us t n ow . ’ - 6 - n un a u n a r u 6 r : b aﬁr u tena n s man é r m n th . or pp r ce , o

- n e ti ll wshi m n u n s in - n au tr : fO ru n e ti llow y f e o p , fro o y f e

t a v lle m otu n e ti m ssm a t . r e r , y e e - u i form s femin in e s u bstan tive s from a djective s in - in n : fo r

’ vitn i u i hl ESn i b die sit n . c r o y, y o e ce - 6ttr im li s an u twa d rm : d ro ottr in rm o d s p e o r fo p f o f rop , krin lb r i a g tt sp her c l.

- b r hli a d ra : elt a to ha lt ﬁr to i l . , y e - roen n d n t s a distri t : au stroen n m the ast f allroen n e o e c f ro e , j H n s m min in su tan tiv s as m the lls . bs f ro f e e ce o e fe e e , n o rraan a N u the n orth win d the s la n a . , or e g ge

- s a : l a h a t hram sa z e s to sna t to s i . g p c , e e

- s i b rsi b a r ass i s o fs i id his n din is rar . e e , g goo e, p r e . T e g e

- ska si n i s a u alit : folska sillin ss m aelska ta lka tiv n ss . g ﬁe q y e , e e - skr t m in at s m an ad tiv s : en skr E n lish au zkr er e y p roper jec e g , g

G thic islen z skr I la n di . o , ce c - sl : b isl bit h erm sl s w k n sl s t an v n t e , orro , y r ge e e . - la faazla ma la s : in t na n e m s a r vi sla ns c a ti n . e ce, g y c e, g co e r o - ta r n d s tran s itiv : l kta to shu t n ita to d n skem ta e er e y , e e y ,

- u n d : te u n d s i s vitu n d kn w d usu n d th us le an d . g p ec e , o ge , b o

- u sta r - fu llu ta sa ti a i é n u s vi o sta : s s t n sta . o f c o , bj er ce - v 6 E a v t n rb r n . w ds : au stan erb r a s twa d u a ve r u twa d . er ( g r ) e r , o r

- u a rm s a few m in in n u n s : a n a she- a e as n a y j fo fe e o py j p , y j

dd s var n a he- s s w . go e , gy j olf

X CHAPTER V. C P OM OSITION.

Compo s itio n m e an s the form in g of o n e w o rd o u t of two o r m r w ith o r with u t han rm in ith r th s o e , o c ge of fo e e . Of e e , the las t is co n s ide red as the chief wo rd ; the ﬁrst se rve s to 5 . P S 1 COM O ITION . 87

t m r l s l as : bo m afir b wma n swko n u n r sea defi n e i o e c o e y , g o , g — kin harfa r a ir ha i d ken n im ab r as t . g, g f re , p or n w rds ram d b m s iti n a h the o n stitu n ts I o f e y co po o , e c of c e m a ss s s an d still r tain an in d n d n t s i n i can e as y po e , e , epe e g fi c , r am l in st a m - b a t in whi h ins tan e a h the fo ex p e , e o , c c e c of n s as w h n em l d b its l w o rd s has j u st th e sam e s e e e p oye y e f , th u h in rd r to m l te the m an in th e o m u n d o g , o e co p e e g of c po t In th e m a it m o u n d som ethin g m u s be u n de rstood . jor y of co p w rd s th e m n n t arts are n o t all s a a tel s i n i a n t o , co po e p ep r y g fic , u t th e w d n s is ts a rin i al radi al the sen s b or co of p c p c , e of whi h is r v rs d xt n d d lim it d o r th rwis u ali d c e e e , e e e , e , o e e q fie , b mbin in with it a arti l o r th r d t rm in ative n o t y co g p c e o e e e , of iv a stat u alit o r act its l x r ss . e f e p e e of e , q y ,

i s C o m p o sit o n o f No u n .

m in l m i n s i h r o r im r r It is No a co p o s it o i e t er prope p ope . r r wh n the rst w d r ts all in ti n an d its r t p ope e fi or ejec flec o , oo al n is in d to th e ll w in as : bo m a fir b wm an a b o e jo e fo o g , g o , j r hus u nd r und ho us ll m ob d rekka mea d v s l eldhus erg o e ce , j es e , ’ br w- h us bloé fall l d In s u h a s the co n ow b . s e o e , fl qf oo c c e stitu en ts an n t be s a at d bu t m u st n s saril b e in lu d d c o ep r e , ece y c e u n d r o n e id a e e . N m in al m s iti n is im r r w h n its rs t m m b r o co po o p ope , e fi e e ’ is la d in the n itiv a s : ko n u n s m ab r kin s ma n h a p ce ge e , g g , j r tarho rn ha rtsh n so n ardbttir a ndda u ht r ko n u riki ema le or , g r g e , f ru le e rn averkr a a h en n isbreifir ha vin a br ad h a d , y e r c e , g o f ore e , h erbabreib r broad- shou ldered ; where the tw o m em be rs co u ld als be w itt n s arat l an d r a d d as tw o w rd s S o m o r e ep e y eg r e o . e tim e s th e m ode in which th e com po u n d is fram ed co n s iderably aff ts its s i n i ati n thu s ko n u n m afir a al s n is ec g fic o ; g roy p er o , m u h th e sam as ko n u n r bu t ko n u n sm ab r o n th e n trar c e g , g co y , ’ a m an who is in th e kin v g s s er ice .

m in in s in - i whi h are in d lin abl in th e s in u la f e e , c ec e g r , an d sta n d rst in m s iti n are s m tim s n n t d with ﬁ co po o , o e e co ec e th e ll win m mb r b s as : fraan d s em is—talr n ea lo i a l fo o g e e y , ge g c en um ra ti n h rmsn is - li r h riti a l u leb is—kleeﬁi mou rnin e o , g yp oc c , g g l th s . h s m u n d s r s m l th e G an Li b bri c o e T e e co po e e b e erm e es ef . II G 88 . ETYMOLO Y .

ti C o mp o si o n o f A dj ectives .

H ere th e ﬁr st adjectiv e m o stly take s th e s am e ch an ge s as the s am m mb r iii m u n ta n iv e e e co po d su bs t e s . M an ad ectives are o m s d tw o th rs the last y j c po e of o e , b in alw a s th e c h i w d as : s an n h eila r trul h l e g y ef or , g y o y , stor ofu ll n - hand d lau sl n d r T h e a t art m kl . l s s gj op e e , y ﬁc e p of o e com pou n d s is a su bstan tive which take s an adjectival fo rm ’ in n s u n th e m siti n as : rihofb aor th co eq e ce of co po o , b ree ’ h ad d lan o rb r w d ran e é r s u int- d fa rhaarb r air e e , g or y , g yg q eye , g f hair d kam m lifr h - li d s s t v . e , or e T h e adjective is place d last in th e followin g an d similar

m u n d s : halslan r l n - n k d s viradi r thi k- n k d co po g o g ec e , g c ec e , ’ s m ekk é ﬁr d - ta s t d n efm ikill b - n s d skiofoerr a bl to g goo e , ig o e , e r un with sno w—sh h u s the a ti i l s are alwa s la d oes . T p r c p e y p ce last as : fé tbro tin n b k n —l d sottbitin n n a tu al d a th , ro e egge , r e , r b en in n u - n - st a t n ar sle in n i n sh d . y g g r e e , j g ro o

C o m p o sitio n o f Verb s .

A d ve rbs an d p repo sitio n s are freq u e n tly compou n ded with v bs as : a taka to b at o utreka to driv o u t u taka er , f e f ; e , pp to tak u fraskil a to s a a t w hi h m a be w ritt n w ith e p , j ep r e , c y e ' u al n a u u il a rd r t ss taka ka t sh . eq cor ec e f , pp , re , f f YVhen a s u b stan tive is com pou n de d w ith a verb th e latt n stitu t s th e las t art th e m s iti n as : k ss er co e p of co po o , ro s ta to u h an dhb va to cu t o the ha nd fé tfara to fe cr cify , gg f , m asu b the st lifiata to u t to d ath IO taka to a t a s e re y ep , p e , g ccep la w au l s a to m ak la in varb veita to k u a d fbttro b a , g y e p , eep g r , to t a d u n d re er f oot. W he n th e ve rb form s th e fi rst p art of th e com po u n d its in fin itive s ign is ofte n d ro pt bein g s u pplied by th e vowel i which co n n ects it w ith the rem ain in g m emb er of th e co m ’ u n d as : ken n im aor i st leerifaé ir t a h laarisvein n po , p r e , e c er , dis i l ren n ism ib r tu n r s cn d ib o b i m ss n s en n iton c p e , r e , e e ger , p g in p cers . Ve rbs compo u n ded w ith adjective s are rare ; th e follo w in are xam l s : ran l sa to sta t in tl s an n fmra to g e p e g y e correc y ,

sua d ku n n bra to a nn un . p er e , g o ce

G . 9 0 II. ETYMOLO Y

- d oemi : bisku sdoem i bisho riclc ein vald sdcemi m na h p p , o rc y , h erto adoem i du k dom g e . - efn i o n e who w ill becom e som ethin g : ko n u n gsefn i crown

mé f u h - i — in s e n i ut b t n law . p r ce, g f re ro er — arn sh w s d si : fe arn v tous hol arn n d a t gj o e re gj co e , gj f o ofﬁ ler m etn aﬁar arn a m bitious n am arn s tudi us raetu y , gj , gj o , b ar gj n f on d of strife .

- k n a w m an : ein s etu ko n a m a le h rmit o n u stu ko n a hand o o f e e , bj

m a id .

- k rn rm s dim in u tiv s : ho ko rn a sm a ll h a karlko rn a o fo e p e p , iltko rn a i tle bo ritko rn a little m an l t a sm ll w itin . , p y , r g

- lan d t n a n d d to th e n am a u n tr : In dialan d , of e ppe e e of co y , P lin al u s alan d o an d , Pr s .

- lau s s a n ativ an sw in to th e E n lish - less hu lau ss , eg e , er g g g i k n n au s t i va n au s itl ss o u l n t num l ss w a n l ss . p r e , g erreg , p e p o e

- list a rt: skald ska arlist the ti a rt raetu list a um n t p p oe c , b rg e i a t ve skill. m aor m an : leb im aor a liv l m an m aalsku m aﬁr a n lo u n t g e y , e q e

m an .

- m n n i : é bm en n i a b av m an illm en n i a bad m a n litil e g r e , ,

m n n i a n insi n a n t m an m ikilm en n i a am us m an . e g iﬁc , f o hi l m s iti n T s w ord occu r s o n y in co po o .

- viss sh w s u alit : d au n viss k n - s n t d h vatviss h adl n o q y ee ce e , e o g,

laevis s un n in stelvis s thi vish . c g , e

PA R T III .

SY NT AX .

C H AP T E R I . S A DJ C E S A ND P S . OF NOUN , E TIV , RONOUN

In Icelan d ic as in o ther lan gu age s an adjective agree s in n u mb r n d r a n d as w ith the su bstan tiv whi h it e , ge e , c e e c u ali s E v n in s u bstan tiv s w hi h with a m as u lin o r q ﬁe . e e c , c e n u t r rm hav a m in in s i n i ati n an d with a m in in e e fo , e fe e g ﬁc o , fe e o r n u t r rm h av a m as u lin o n e th r is n o ti n e e fo e c e , e e excep o to this ru l as the ad tiv in th s as s tak s the ram e , jec e e e c e e g h al n hu s m atical n o t t e r d r. hitt e a vif nea t the , e , ge e T , f gr ( ) m s crrvs s P S . 1 . NO UNS A , AND RONOUN 9 1

air w man friO r svan n i ma s . a ha nds me w ma n ﬂa bit f o , ( c ) o o , g litla a e li le ta neu t. the lo a ths m s r ss re it ne t th tt l ( ) o e o cere , g y ( ) do han n var skald tt n e at he was a o d t ha n n var g , go ( ) go p oe ,

hetj a m ikil (f em ) he was a grea t cha mp ion . M any m as cu lin e an d n e u ter n o u n s w ith a fem in in e s igu i tio n are ti al n am s w m n as svarri sven n i s ru n d fica poe c e of o e , , , p , fi oo n u t s with a m as u lin e s i n i ati n are m os t j . Of e er c g fic o m u n d w rd s in m n n i a s : u n m en n i m ikilm en n i a ar co po o e , g , , f n Y et wh n the rs n th u s s i n i d is m n ti n ed m e n i . e pe o g fie e o m m d iat l a t rward s it is in the n atu al n d as : as eh i e e y f e , r ge er , l9a hin a m iklu hetj u h an n var triO r s yn u m then I sa w tha t g rea t cha mp ion ; he was of f a ir cou ntena nce : rce dd a eh viii fegrs tan svan n a h o n er kven n a ku rte is u s t I sp oke to

thef a ires t woma n ; she is the mos t cou rteou s of women . itl s m stl ll w the r n am as : Harald r ko n T e o y fo o pro pe e , a l E a S urO r A svald r her u n r in H a a ld S i u riSr r l i . g K g r , g j r g t i D u lc O swa ld tt kais ari hin n m ikli the em er r O tt og e , O o p o o the G at A ri ro str P i s t A ri Kris tin a d ro ttn in ueen re , p r e , g Q a Christin . H rra an d S ira S i r F ru a dam M a dam F ruken e ( ) , , M e ( ) , a d u n fru h w v r r d the n am H rra lo rd n J . g o e e , p ece e e e , m as t r a li s to kin s bish s an d kn i hts S i a is u s d e , pp e g , op , g ; r e n l ri sts a titl an sw rin to o u r w rd sir that is o y of p e , e e g o e , , F a th r whi h m d addr s sin their l r is s till co m e , c o e of e g c e gy m o n am n s t the S an din avian asa n tr an d rm rl re o g c pe y , fo e y p " ” vail d in E n lan d as w e m t with S ir Pars n in o ld w rit e g , ee o s h n s u b t n t v whi h d n m m m r a in g . W e s a i e s c e ote s o e e be of rs n sh w that th e a ti n wh i h the s n t n e d s rib s pe o , o c o c e e c e c e , n n s m r the s n than th e arti u lar m mb r the co cer o e per o p c e e , r n tak th d at v e a el a a s s e i . h n n l r m faatr ko n u n i p e o e e . g . , f f g ’ he ll a he h h a d w w d a t the kin s t. O n t t r n h n f e f or r g f ee o e , e th e actio n refers to the bo dily pa rts them s elve s the gen itive ’ is u s d as : vaa han n f t ko u n s he w h s he r ae r n as t kin s t. e , b g e g fee In th e sam e m an n e r the dative of the pe rs o n al p ro n o u n is u s d in s t ad th e s iv e le s ti han n bO n af s ss . . d e e of po e e , g , y totu m ser he lo s d the tt s m his e t n o t totu m sin u m o e f e er f ro f e , , as the r l as was n ot n n d to th e t bu aff t the e e e co ﬁ e fee , t ec ed wh l b d o e o y . When an adjective o r pro n o u n refers to tw o su b s tan tive s o n e whi h is m as u lin th e th r m in in it tak s the of c c e , o e fe e , e ’ n u t r e. . at kveld ekk h an n at bru O lau i O B n e e , g , b g p m e ry III. 9 2 SYNTAX .

’ ‘ hildi en u om - a n u t. k u i seein e. d ro h an n s vercSit , er b ( e ) g , b fram o r sli6 ru m o h lagO i i m illum beirre tha t even ing he w edded Br n hild u r bu t wh n he o t in t bed he d w his s w d o u t y ; e t y g o , re or o the sh a th a n d la d it b tw n them : vit L ki 0 k F re a f e , p ce e ee ( o yj ) lu m aka s ko tvau (n e ut. ) we t wo (Loki an d Frey/a) sha ll drive : ’ m lti h a rt vifi m v an n a t (n eu t. ) they spoke to on e another (of a m an a n d wom an ) ef bOn d i m aelir at ko n a s kal bar n s itt af b r é sti s er lata o k h efir h an n kvan riki s va m ikit at h o n vill j , , ’ ei i a t o rO u m ha n s hi m e er h o n s ek m O rku m 3 af s in u g , b in u fé en ef h an n ar i e e i h ld r en h o n e. eru a u bceO z ; g g e , b b s ek m O rku m af h e eirra fé a a sa n t sa s tha t his w eggj b , if p e y ife mus t w an her hild a n d he is so m u h h n k d that she will e c , c e p ec e n o t h d his w ds th n is she n a ble in 3 m a ks o her o wn ee or , e fi r f m n bu t he a s no m a b u t it tha n she d s th n a re o ey ; if c re ore o oe , e they both s u bj ect to a m u lct in m a rks of the money of both : en n au G rim r o k Lo thmn a v6ru b in o k b r af b eldu au er b ( p ) u , y g , b tveim s ki um au str m efi lan di bu t wh n th G rim r a nd La t p , e ey ( p hcen a w r a d a nd a air b z s run u the st ed th i ) ere e y , f ree e p g p , y eer e r ‘ t o i s a stw d l n w shp e a r s a o g the coast. From th e s am e re a s o n th e s u bstan tive s feOgin f a ther an d da u ht m oeb in m th r and son s s tkin b the a n d sist are g er, g o e , y ro r er ff n n u t r as a h w rd s i n i s s n s d i t sex . e e , e c o g fie p er o of ere Wh en s e veral proper n am e s are co n n ected by th e co n u n ti n o k ’ th e s n al n u n is u s u all add d s iall j c o , per o pro o y e , e pec y w h n th e n am s s o in d m the su b t th e s n t n e e jo e for jec of e e ce ,

‘ ' B O r é lf h H iri r attu 2 s n u B or o r n d e. . au r o ild b a g , b j g o , j g lf H ildirifir ha d 2 sons ; eptir ba t fOru beir S igu rO r o h Begin n s G n ytah eifii af terwa rds S igu rO r a n d Begin n wen t to G ny ta BO a a H o n i fin i h a th . rn eirr varu au G u n n rr G u n e b b g ,

G u fin th i hild n w G un n a rr & c. T he n u n y e r c re ere , p ro o , h w v is t n m itt d wh n all the rs n s are m in in o e er , Of e o e e pe o fe e , as : bat var eitt s in n at Bryn hildr o k C u b run gen gu til vatn s at bleikj a h ad d a s in a on ce it chan ced that Bry nhildr a nd ’ G udr un wen t to the river to wash their hair (n o t ba r Bry nhildr ' 0 k G u fir un ) T he conj u n ctio n a nd is freq u e n tly om itted befo re a pro er n u n r d d b a rs n al r n u n wh n th e latt r p o p ece e y pe o p o o , e e take s the d u al o r plu ral n u m be r in th e s am e cas e as th e r r n u n as : i ek hin rifi u m an n bld f rir i O rraO p ope o , ger b j gj y j viO ykkr péri I a dj udge the third fin e f o r the plot aga ins t thee d drir r é i h ad s t d h r the tran slati n w u ld a n Th . O r If y p oo e e , o o

III S X . 94 . YNTA

d k n n hin n riki m a be a t d . o u in n riki . k n u n r i e. o r y op e g , ( , g ) in n hin n i ko n u n r iki the ri h k n . or , g r , c g

as i n all th e rti l hin n is m itt d an d th e ad tiv Occ o y a c e o e , jec e u s ed in d eﬁn itely alo n g with the su b s tan tive e sp ecially w ith

‘ r n u n s as : d alr m ikli hiu n m ikli M ikli arO r p rope o , (for ) g ’ (hin n m ikli garO r) L an gavatn (hit lan ga vatn ) H ako n ko n u n r oO i in Hdkon the G d S a a H aralld s h arfirab a g g K g oo , g h r o r fi the isto y f H a ra lld H a rfird i . T h e p o s s e s sive pro n o u n sin n is u s ed whe n refere n ce is m ad to the s u b t th e v b as : han n h efir s in n hatt he e jec of er , has his o wn ha t bu t han n h ha ns ha tt w u ld m an he has ( ) ; ehr o e , ’ h ei ku in a h atta h t k th i o wn is (an other s ) ha t. h r to s t ey oo e r ( ) ’ ha ts ; heir té ku heirra hatta they took their (other p ersons ) ha ts .

Partitiv s as w ll s u lativ ad tiv s an d n u m als e e per e jec e er , as r n u n s als v n th e n itiv as : h an n var allra p o o , o go er ge e , skald a m estr he was the g rea tes t of a ll ba rds ; h verr heirra h eﬁr hat gert which of them has done that? ; ek veit eigi hvart n o k ' ku rr varr m u n di I kn o w n o t whether any of u s will; hit blo taO i h an n o k lifO i h an n a en n tiu v tt a th n he sac d a n d , h e e riﬁce , s till liv d t T he ad tival artitiv tak s the n u t r e en yea rs . jec p e e e e in u lar a s : m a t m s an n a ma n m en . g , r y

’ h n th e n itiv s va r kha O ar are v rn d b a W e ge e , g r, y go e e y artitiv o r r n u n th e rr s n d in s s s siv s vdrr p e p o o , co e po g po e e , ’ kka rr O a rr are u s d in s t ad th m in a s iti n w ith th e y , y e e of e ppo o w rd whi h v n s th e n itiv as : dre a m u n h ann ein n o c go er ge e , p varr he m us t kill o n e o us n i varr n m n st fo r n m , f ; e g ( e o o er e o nostrzim n n o us n u m va u m brasb ru m to n n o us ) , o e f ; e g r o e f b h s hverr va ri a o u t rr a h s th . ro er , h ggj e c f ree

h n th e i al n u n d r in th e n itiv co n W e rec proc pro o sj lf ge e . n ected w ith a ss s siv x ss s o u r ow n th e s s s s iv p o e e , e pre e , p o e e ' alw a s an s w rs in as n d r an d n u m b r to s d r a n d n o t y e c e , ge e , e y lf ' to th e w rd whi h v n s it in the n itiv as : i s alts in s o c go er ge e , j h ka lln in t h o wn s a cris at s alfra va ra vil a a din pe , y m; j r j , ccor g a a to o u r o wn will f rir s l s alfr r s in n ar o r her o wn s u l. ; y j , f o

h n t r a iv T e i r t r n u n hva l G m . was u r Dan . e og e p o o ( er f , hva d or wha t kin d h as n rall th e d ativ a t r it m r f ) , of , ge e y e f e . o e l th e n itiv e ho n S u rO i hva m a n han n var rar . . t n i e y ge e , g p , she as k d wha t kind o m an he was h vat rO n er at wha t e f ; h g h , ? ro wd is tha t restr s u rb i hvat s u kki ar vaari the i st c p p , h , p r e h as k d wha t was t e ro w hvat m an n a . what kin d o men e , ; f 1 S A S P S . . NOUN , DJECTIVE AND RONOUN 95

T he dative is u s ed 1 w ith u t a r siti n wh n a w rd d n t s a m an s . o p epo o e o e o e e , s u m n t m an n : ho n var tro b in h estafé tu m til bana in tr e , or er , she was trodden u nder f oot of horses to dea th ; han n m wlir feigu m mun n i he sp ea ks with a dying mo uth ; var hat cib u m b u n dit tha t was n rm d b a ths h an n varb vi fe in n , co fi e y o ; h g he was lad it h o n var rib s nu m she had a air o un g of ; f y , f c ce h an n het s va 6 6 m n afn i he was thus ca lled b a n tena n ; , y other n am e 2 wh r a w d stan d s as a d n itiv w ith s m co m . e e or efi e o e arative r s iti n o r a d v rb : h o n var miklu friO ari en p , p epo o e im she was m u h ai r tha n Thdra halfu m man u fii sein n a h , c f re ha lf a mon th la ter ; tveim O rtu gu m m in n a en eyrir two - th irds less than a n ounce ; H em in gr an d aO ist vetri sitSar H em ingr died ’ the win ter af ter ; aru m eptir Noa flee the y ea r af ter Noa h s flood 3 wh r a w rd d n s o r in t n s i s the c m arative : . e e o efi e e fie o p han n var hverj u m m an n i s terka ri he was strong er tha n a ny m a n ; h verri ko n u fegrif a irer tha n a ny woma n ; dO kkiilfar eru svartari biki the swa rt elves are da rker tha n p itch : 4 wh n th e r s iti n a t is m l d w ith th e co m . e p epo o e p oye arative s m tim s in st ad ei as : m n n vo ru i a t p ( o e e e of h ) , e he r

‘ vaskari th w r m en so m u h the bra ver n i m aor m u n , ey e e c ; e g E rik kalla at m ira ko n u n o at h an n dre i ein n bOn daso n e g h p , no m a n will call E rik a king a ny more f o r slaying a p ea ’ san ts so n :

o r wit a arti i l h n i n s th 5 . h p c p e w e t a w ers to e G reek gen itive abs olu te an d the Latin ablative ab so lu te : a t hvi gO rvu ho e a t this b in d n a t u veran di s é lu whils t the sun ( f c o), e g o e ; pp , was shin in e a t is s m tim s m d g ; y t o e e o itte . In d r to in di at l n th tim d istan e th e s u b or e c e e g of e or c , stan tive whi h d n s ith is la d in the a cu sativ a s : c eﬁ e e er p ce c e , dvald ist han n har m org m is s eri he a bode there ma ny y ea rs ; ir fOru atta ras tar th trav ll d ei ht miles ara lan d ve he ey e e g ; f g , leiO in a to o b la nd b sea an n ve tha t wa m ar s g y , y ; h g y ; ga lu n d m an a E x ti n : a o y w ys . cep o h n n f r leib ar s in n ar he w n t o his wa h u t n t s h e G m . er zo e e y ; er g sein es Wges . When in a phras e a su b stan tive or pro n o u n is to stan d in a d epen d en t relatio n (eithe r go vern ed by a p repo sitio n o r the v rb its lf it is s m tim s in t d u d in t a r iti n e e ) , o e e ro ce o p op o s o whi h b in s with a r sem a r er an d b m s the su b t c eg h , h , eco e jec III N X . 9 6 . SY TA

it : haftSi erkibisku in n ar m ikit at s t ﬁ ast vi6 s em Jon of p b y j , ' '

h h m u h l u n wh Jo n was i e. var the a hbis ad to . , rc op c re y p o ere , , fou n d ﬁrm su pport in h im ; m u n n u ekki bu rfa at aetla til s aam dar ar s em h an n it a n n t n ow a vail to x t a n , b er c o e p ec y hi a t m him ko m a o k h n u wh r he is i . e. o n s t o o r e e , , p r , fro ; b

ar am er o rstein n var this a ls ha n d wh T ho rsteinn b fr , p , o pp e e ere was it s t u k h rst in n als m u n tu kk ast litlu til v a , r c T o e o ; by j erj , bar s em eh em thou thin kest in deed tha t thou sa criﬁcest little i in m e . b sa . wh I am i . e ere , , y cr ﬁc g

’ ' E xpre ssio n s s u ch as as or m ed tolf ta m an n d o n o t m e an ” “ w ith tw lv m en bu t m s l th e tw l th w ith l v n e e , y e f e f e e e “ ” o the rs o r with eleve n other s ; therefore when w e ﬁn d the rdin al x r ss d in th e s am w a as th e a din al n u mb o e p e e e y c r er , vi6 X II m an n the v w l in m an n n am l b h s e. . e y y cyp er g , , o e ’ ‘ can alo n e d eterm in e th e correct tran slation : vicS X II m e n n " ” i n w ith 12 m en w o u ld s g ify . G e n itive s an d po ss e ss ive s are m o s tly pla ced befo re their co rre spon din g n ou n s w h en u s ed em phatically ; bu t otherwis e a t r th m as : ou at f rir h en n ar sakar ! do tha t o r f e e , ger b y f ’ Br oir han s var ko m in n ear his b ther ha d m her sah . o e , ro co e ’‘ b r er eir u n d u G u n n hildi m ocSu r s in a wh n th u n d efo e ; h f , e ey f o h G unnhildur their mot er .

h n o n e n u n d n t s a art an th r rath r W e o e o e p of o e , or e h l s to m di it the n am th e su bstan m u s t d e p o fy , e of ce p rece e , an d b e m u n d d w ith th e th r w d bu t if n o t a n u n co po e o e or ; o , o r in cap able of com p o sitio n the n am e of th e s u bs tan ce m u st ll w w ith th e r siti n a as : h an n kastaoi koku bita fo o p ep o o f , f rir h u n din n he th w a bit o a k to the do af ba kar y re f c e g , r stykkj u m beim f rom the p ieces of ba rk ; ko rn tu n n an ko s tar ' 9 o 2 0 ria: d lla s litio af safl ran i 0 . d r . a tu n r e s ts r , f y co o r ; a li l a n tte s f ro . T he in d efin ite an d d efi n ite form of adjective s m ay be u s d in t ti n all as : karl m in n oiSr m d ll w ! e erjec o y , g , y goo f e o harmit tt the d hild ! hus m ooir é fi d h us w ! go , goo c g , goo o e ife ek vilda oor d ren r at m en ir in n i s to fu n a I wis h th , g g , 1 g g , ee, o lit i i tr tli o w d la d to o in t the m . J n l l li n goo , g o roo Nu , p , ,

little J hn littl bo . Bu t th e s n s b m s ll tiv wh n o , e y e e eco e co ec e e bo th the s u bs tan tive an d adjective are p u t in the deﬁ n ite a : é b a it he d hild o r d hildr n rm s be u t . fo , g r , goo c , , goo c e Whe n adjective s s ign ify m e asu re they take th e n am e of

1 98 11 . SYNTAX .

in velli s i han n h n u m tib in di but when S ta rla w n t to p g , eg r o e ' his shi H a llva rﬁr G u llskor ha d com e ou t he und Thordr his p , ; f o — brother- in la w a t Thing va lla ; he tells him the tid ings ; parsle ' o k E vin d r kdm u h im h au stit o r T horolfr til ob u sin s y e of , f f r , ’ ‘ ka ir fecS ar a tal si i - ta n m illi s rr en 31a e tir &c . be g p , p y p p , ’ Thdro lfr an d E yvindr cam e home in the a u tu mn ; Thdrdlfr we nt ’ ' to his f a ther s ; f a ther a n d son then talk together ; Tho rélfr asks & a t c. f er , A n ad verb which belo n gs to a verb is placed befo re th e b t an d as n ar to the v b as s sibl as : 7 a tok R an d ver o jec e er po e , 1 h au k s in n 0 k lo kkab i a ab rarn ar th n R an dver to k his p f fj , e o hawk a n d p lu cked of its f ea thers ; hratt ho n pa f ram skipin u th n she la unch d th the shi the v rb stan d last in a e e f or p . If e r lativ s ti n fo r in stan the ad v b s iti n is e e po i o , ce , er or prepo o u t im m diatel b th e v rb as : Jorm u n rekr sé hau k p e y efore e ,

‘ an n b in n h afoi f aﬁrarn ar a lo kkat Jorm u n rekr saw the b , er j f p , hawk whos e fea thers ha d bee np lu cked of ; har m var a skipi bvi er h o n h afb i f ram h ru n dit he was o n the ship which she had la unch d e f orth .

T h e r s nt arti i l in —an di - an da b sid s its u su al p e e p c p e , , e e a tiv s i n i ati n n tain s als th e id a th e u tu arti c e g ﬁc o , co o e of f re p ci le as siv an d thu s rr s n ds with th e L atin r s n t p p e , co e p o p e e

arti i l in - ans - ens - n tis an d th e u tu r a ti i l assiv p c p e , , , f e p r c p e p e in - and um - end u m b th in m an in an d rm as : allter s e , o e g fo , g ’ an d a sin u m vin v thin m a be sa id to n s i n d variS j , e ery g y o e f r e ; ’ ’ veitan di eru bo fio rb G u é s G od s comman dmen ts m ust be kep t; va rla er truan d a it is ha rdly credible ; kn efalla m eo u pph ald ’ an di hon d u m to f a ll o n on e s kn ees with up lifted han ds ; betta er i an d a this is to be iv d a d e an d a d i on the da b ggj , rece e ; y eg , y ’ o f on e s dea th . T h e u tu is m d th ilia v s ska l an d f re for e by e au x ry erb , still m u n tl m un will an d th e in n itiv th e ore freq e y ( ) , fi e of rin i al v b : vit va u m faaddir a ein n i n att 0 k m u n skamt p c p er r , vatoa m illi d au b a o kkars w e w b n in o n e n ht and it , ere or ig , will n o t be long between o u r dea ths ; brocb r m u n u berj ask brothers will n t nd with a h h co e e c ot er . T he perfect an d plu pe rfect are fo rm ed by the au xiliary verb haf a an d the p erfect participle of the p rin cipal verb in th e n u t : h an n hafbi veitt i in n b o i o tr 0 k lax he had e er c gg , killed a t o n e blow both otter an d sa lmon ; E gill hafoi gen git yfir S ko n bkku rn ill ha w d th be an g Eg d gon e over some oo . If ere s . 2 . O N THE Vas e 99

o bject in the s en te n ce the participle mu s t take the gen d er

‘ an d n u m be r of the object : beir boib u felldan hotbingj a lib

h ins o the le 6 0 . t See . they had stru ck d own e chief ta f p eop . p S ome in tran s itive verbs u se vera in stead o f haf a ; er n okhu r va libin wh n s me time ha d ass d an d th n the art s tu n d r , e o p e , e p e n d u b iciple of co u rs e take s the g n der a n m e r of the s u bj ect. ’ Whe n bu imm ediately follows a verb th e s u ffix sh in reflective ve rbs m ay coale sce w ith Pd and beco me sta : s nfistu fra illu tu rn thyself f r om evil ; laagstu (abase thyself ) at u pp

‘ h eﬁstu tha t th u ma s t be xalted at ei i lm istu i er u ( o ye e ) g g , b b h r u at hef as k tha t th u be no t abus ed when tho u ygg pp j , o , ex ectes t to be h n u d erstu hofbin i f rir libin u make p o o re ; g g y , th s l a d r o the h s t fas tu vel at virbi r vide th se w ll y elf e e f o ; , p o y lf e

with victua ls .

E is t n s u ffixed to the v rb an d so ten s its k in t h of e e , f o as : ba rb a fo r ba r-6 a eh o r if th e v rbal ro t has th se g , g , e o gg , e l tt rs are han d in t kk as : h kk fo r h eh som etim s e e c ge o , y ygg ; e a the in ti n is s lv d in t i as : a tti fo r a tla elc of flec o re o e o , }; , ik fo nema eh n . r . nem (p res . co j ) T he accu sative with th e in fi n itive is a freq u ent fo rm o f e xpre ssio n : vaan i e n gi m aor Olaf ko n u n g bvi o r lan di farit ha a let no one an tha t in Gla r ther r ha s o ne out f , f cy K g f efo e g of the un tr s att h ek m ik s e a m thin ks I s ea k the truth co y ; ygg gj , e p ;

as k v it ek s tan da I kn w tha t a n ash- tr sta nd s th er ik e , o ee ( e) ; b v o ik hilm i bit vil a e k azk e. va di ki id i . k s r ta n sa he wanted ( ) j , g to m t ith th ee w ee . Man y verbs which im ply the s etting o f s om ethin g in m ti n r u ir the b t in the dativ as : kas ta stein i o o eq e o jec e , ( , S é ti v r a to th w ear a ver ir stifili af m ar b re then pj ) , e p ro ( p p , ef o thro west the saddl m the h rs stin a le a to stab h an n e f ro o e) , g , ggj ( ' ‘ la oi s dti e n u m har m har m la oi han n s a ti he sent g pj g g , or , g pi the s a th u h him sk ota to sh o t han n shan t man n in n p e r ro g ) , j o ( oru han n skau t f rir s ik skildi bre tSa han n bra s verb i he , y ) , g ( d ew his sw d s a sa k rn i to so w rn blasa fn aesa to blo w r or ) , ( o co ), , o u t (fn aasa eitri) spyta (han n spytti u pp mib in u m i kerin he s a u he me u t t t ad in t the v ss ls s n a v n da skif a to divid e. p p o e e , , e , st v rbs lik wis whi h si n i ru l o m m an d l n ien Mo e e e c g fy e , c , e cy , “ o r the s it v rn the b t in the d ativ as : lfi Oppo e go e o jec e , G y ko n u n gr res 16 n d u m ; han n bau o hon u m at lata skiras k ; at bj erga lifi ; at eira ko n u m 0 k kirkj u m ; at tyn a lifin u ; ko m a a s a tran s itiv v rb lik w is v rn s in the d ativ as : k m a e e e e go e e , o 7 . 11 X . 100 1 . SYNTA

. ein u m i van drzeb i to bring on e in to p eril; ek kem bvi eigi vio a i I cannot pp ly t. h s v rbs whi h si n if a w an t d si o r ss s si n T o e e c g y , e re , p o e o m stl v rn th e n itiv with a u sativ th e rs n an d o y go e ge e cc e of p e o , n itiv th e hin e akn h in alvin ar I mi t . . s a e m s m ss ge e of g , g , , ’ my comp an ion ; at spyrj a ein hvern rab s to ask on e s a dvice ;

' at bi6j a h an n frifiar to ask him f or p ea ce at afia fj ar to obtain p rop erty ; h an n fekk beirrar ko n u er poru n b et he go t to wif e a woma n called Yhdrun ; han n beib byrj ar he waited f o r a , i wind f a r . T h e n u n tiv is u s d wh n n diti n is im li d co j c e e e co o p e , ’ hi in d n d n t s n t n s a t r n u n ti n s as : c) at, c efly epe e e e ce f e co j c o , b or é tt a lthou h ef i lik wis wh n a w ish o r d si is ex b g , f ; e e e e re

r ss d : 9 6 at h an n vac i ei i ko m in n th u h he m a n o t. p e e ] r g , o g y hav m e n 9 6 s va vaari bu t th u h it be so vilda ek at e co e ; 1 , o g ; et l rb i i u u m e T he r s n t b aa t m k I wo ld tha t y ou ta ght . p e e or preterite conj u n ctive m ay be u s ed w ithou t a co nj u n ctio n w h n i an an slat o r vi i h an n t c b e t d b in as e. . l e r e y c e , if ; g , ekki m eb bhu a k m du til m in will he n o t m b a ir g , b o co e y f

m ans th n do th u m to m e ksem i h an n m b an ek em a, e , e o co e ; e

bro ttu sh u ld he m whils t I am awa . , o co e y

CHAPTER III . E ON T H PA RTICLE S .

i a t n t a iv Pa . h in l h s are 1 . I errog t e rticles T e pr c p of e e : b vi wh wh hvers u h ve hvern in hvern i m an in y , eref ore, , , , g , e g ’ ho w h va6 a wha t kin d o as hva6 a m acSr wha t kin d o m an , f , , f T h e ld t n u m stl m l s hva t in st ad w ith the o er o g e o y e p oy e , n itiv lu ral th e s iti n a as h vat m an n a hvat ge e p , or prepo o f , , af m en n u m hva whe hvert whith hvab an wh n n ear , r re, er , e ce, an d h ven zer wh n hvart o r hy t t wh th hvart e6 a o r e , e e er ; hvart sem eb a whether o r ? 2 N ti ti a v Pa les . S im l n a n s x r s s d b . eg e rtic p e eg o i e p e e y ' ' é o r th — - - n n e e x s 0 u an d th e s u ﬁx s i cl a . , preﬁ e or , f e g , , Na! o r us s tan d s imm ed iately befo re th e word to which it b l n s an d this m u s t be a v rb as : 8 61 at n o vissi e o g , e b ,

E in n is the on ly word n o t a verb before which n o is u sed ; n e cinn n on e (O ld E nghsh n e o n e) more freq u en tly co n tracted in to n czn n .

III. 102 SYNTAX .

n ectin g Vo w el i occu rs in th e verb it is retain ed in the

ne ati n as : kvel - at : g o , j

- - - 6 . a o r i s X h a h is a i . as : er e t s u fﬁ ed to t e 3rd s . s n p er g ,

n ot k - a - ; s al a he sh ll n ot ; vetor at he becomes n o t.

h lu n i - : h n t e rd . . d s n a n l a as 7 . 3 s y t is dd d W e p er p r e , o e ,

bita - t th bit n o t to th e n din u h w v r th e 3rd ey e e g , o e e , of

i h - a is a n d t - a . u d s : leu at m l ta to s l r . t r t a r p er p e e ppe e , (f o

- - — let o r t as : ei u t eru t. ) , , g ,

- h d . . v 8 h n i t min at s t e 3r rs . sin t rbs . W e er e p e g p re of e of

th e 2 n d las s - t is su fﬁxed an d u su all - a in the s u b c , , y u n tiv as : varn ab i he hind r d varn aﬁit he hind d n o t j c e , e e , ere ; t h i itia h bi i s u ld he b t b s u ld he n o t bit . o e , o e T he above case s con cern on ly th e an cien t ton gu e ; in th e modern lan gu age eigi or ekki no t i s u sed . “ ” ” T he phras e n otwith stan din g o r n everthele s s is ex i h pres sed by eig a t eldr . A d ve rbs are fo rm ed from adjective s by the term in atio n

- a as : arn a willin l vioa wid l illa badl orva uite , gj g y , e y, y , g g , heim a a t hom e :

- an as : dr u an re u en tl afn an a lwa s arn an willin l , j g f g y , j y , gj g y , harb an ha rdly :

- li a r m ad tiv s n din in - ti as : kn ali r b av kn a g , f o jec e e g gr , g r e, a b li r storli a in hi h d his ter li b av l st r a . g r e y, g , g g egree T m in ati n is t n sh rt n ed in t - la as ha la fo r h a ola o of e o e o , r ( r ,

harb li a ver r atl varla s a l . g ) y g e y, c rce y

A dv rbs are als rm d e o fo e ,

: au tt with h m . an d acc. n eu tr. ad tiv s as tr 1 . m t e n o fro of jec e , d eult m st m stl gfﬁ y , e o y ; r m t t the t min ati n 2 . f o su b s an ive s by er o is as : aleib is on the wa an d soelis sit to the sun an d , y , opp o e , stre mis a ains t the str am fo rvin dis b the win d a n y g e , efore , j f foetis of egu a l birth ; - ve as : an n an ve th rwis r m ve r wa an n ve this g , g o e e , f o g y, b g wis hvern ve how in wha twa : s m tim s v is d r t th u s e, g , y o e e op , , an n e hvern e o r m r u su all an n i hvern i b g, g , o e y , b g , g ; m the n itiv as su bs tan tiv s as l ks a t las t 3 . r : f o ge e c e of e , o , allsk n s a ll kinds an n arstaoar ls ewher allsko s tar in y of , e e , a ll s ts utan s okn ar ou t o a arish re p ec , f p i 4 r m th e d ativ as su bs tan tiv s as : ob ru vis i th rw s . . f o e c e of e , o e e Prepo sitio n s with the cases govern ed by them are u s ed 3 P S . . ARTICLE 103

rbiall as : til blitar eno u h til san ns tru l m eﬁ 6 1111 ad ve y , g , y ,

lt th r s brau t awa . a oge e , y A dve rbs which s ign ify m otio n from a place : im an m h m o fan om ab v na iSan m b lo w in n a n he f ro o e, f r o e, f ro e , from within ; motion to a pla ce hin gat hither ; hingat thither ; re st in a place ’ u i ab v n ib ri b lo w in ni wi thin 11ti o ut ra mm i be pp o e , e , , , f f ore, erri ar m ti n t w ard s artl res nc o n the s t : s f ; o o o , p y p e e , po

‘ n o rb r no thwa ds su b r s u thw a ds vestr w s twards au s tr r r , o r , e , astwa ds as han n ekk au str he wen t as twards han n var a e r , g e , b au str i lan dit he wa s th n in the as t the u n tr n i6 r d wn e e of co y , o

wa ds a tr ba ck a ain . r , p g T h e additio n of - n a to ad ve rbs in ten siﬁe s the ide a ex

‘ r ss d ih the rimitiv as : mi n a this ver m ment h rn a in p e e p e , y o , e

this v r la an n a ust ther en n a ust no w . e y p ce, b j e, j S om e adverbs m ay be co m pare d in th e s am e w ay as ad tiv s as : jec e , soon skamt skem r skem st widely viba vibex vibast f ar fj arri ﬁrn ﬁrst f r tly titt tibar tides t o tar s a s s ald n as t of ten pt op optas t sel n j ald n j aldn ar j .

M an irr ular ad tiv are as ad v rb s o m ar d y eg jec e s , e , c p e r u larl as eg y , n o rtherly n o rbr n o rbar n o rbast witho ut i n ﬁtar yzt southe rly su br sun n ar sybst within in in n er m u st easterl au str s u star au stas t up 11 pi otar efst t westeryy vestr vestar vesta st ben ea th m 6ri n ebar n eﬁs . T he followin g ad verb s are irregular : d el b tr b s t littl litt min n r m in st goo y e e , e . ba d i lla v r v rst a th arn a h ldr helzt er e , r er gj e , m o i e u h m k m eirr m st within i n n i in n ar n n t. c j e ,

L n i lo n len r l n is u s d n l tim l n a e g g, g o ger, e o y of e ; e gr , la len st b th tim an la d . of p ce , g o of e p ce the r s iti n s s m v rn ith r th e n itiv Of p epo o , o e go e e e g e e , d ative o r accu sative ; others gove rn both the d ative an d a tiv cc u sa e . T h e followin g go ve rn in the ge n itive til to i n with u t au k b sid s an d the m u n d d riv d , o , e e , co p o or e e rm s am illi am eﬁal amillim m illu m illim b n fo , , m etwee ;

s akir f rir s b m ans o r the sake o ve n a on , y y e of , f f , g 104 III. SYNTAX .

a u n t titan with u t b on d in n an within als m in u s d cco of, o , ey , , o eg , e with m u n d s as bab u m in o n b th sid s an thin co po , eg o e (of y g) , i s tab i t ns ead of . T he follow in g take the d ative

' af o fra ro m b a b with n h hez G rm bei 11 r f , f , j y, (Fre c c , e . ) , o ut o u n d an m a wa m a n vart v a ains t a m ot f , f ro , y f ro , g g o er g , , m ot i m oti a ains t t w a ds asam t t th with . , g , o r , oge er w ith s m m bin ati n s a s : o e co o , ' 11 t af u fra ram i n eu n d an b framh ab v , pp , f , ef ore , j y , o er , i e n a ains t e hen dr a a in st in sitio n til h an d a or g g g , g ( opp o ) , f , or h f t e bes t. T h e follow in g govern in th e a ccu sative u m o a b u t n n in w ith all its m u n d s w h th r ( f ) o , co cer g, co po , e e it stan d s st o r la s t as : u m ra m o r ro m u m i e n u m fir , f f , g g th u h am fir v an d a b v am u n dir u n til u to an d ro g , fr y o er o e, fr , p , all tho s e which are com pou n d ed from fyrir w ith an ad verb of la in —a n a s : f rir m b an to the n th o f rir ti tan boein n p ce , y or or f , y u h In an i n t tr um an d o are a i n all o tside t e town . c e poe y f occ s o y u n w th t tiv fo d i he d a e . T he follow in g go ve rn the d ative an d accu s ative accordin g to their m e an in g : ’ a on u n i in to m eiS with vio with b a t e tir a t , p o , , , , , y, , p f er , f rir n fir v b u dir u n d . y efore, er , y o er Tho s e which s ign ify re s t at a place m o stly take th e d ative as : ko n u n r var a s ki i the kin was on the shi eir la u 1 g p g p , h g hofn in n i th la in the ha b u and th s whi h d n t m o ey y r o r, o e c e o e tio n to a place em ploy th e a ccu sative as : h an n gekk a skip he w n t to the shi s i ld u i u m i hofn in a the S ail d in t the e p , g be r y e o ha b u r bu t a s th d o n o t alw a s r to a la th e fo l r o ; ey y refe p ce , l w in d n it n u i a t n ti n o g efi io s req re t e o .

A tak s the d ativ wh n u s d a s i d tim as . e e e e e of pec fie e , hver u ari v r a s hverri n o ttu v n i ht as w ll as in j e e y ye r e ery g , e S akin a in th w k a l u ard e i a a ta in d e e. . a o n pe g of cer y ee g , g g S a t urday wh n it m an s a b u t o with b in a u rativ s n s e e o , f , , y , fig e e e , as : fa kkin e ein hver u to btain hn o wlcd e a b u t v r b d he g j o g o e e y o y , ’ ek em a eirri tr11 I am o tha t aith h an n lifir e malaferlu m b f f , ’ he liv s b la wsu its hun hefir ab ra m 6 t r6 e h im she has e y , e e h an other met od with cows . A tak s the a u s ativ wh n it s i n i s o n this wis e cc e e g fie e , ” with r s t to as : e an n hé tt e e leifi in tha t mann r e pec , b , b e ,

III. S AX 106 YNT .

It govern s th e accu sative when it expre sse s relation of tim o r rd r as : e tir mitS an d a a t m idda ir té ku e o e p j g f er y, be

‘ ’ allan arf eptir fod u r sin n they su cceeded to their f a ther s in heritan ce . P rit v rn s th e dativ wh n it m an s b r in the y go e e e e efo e, s n o n a u n t o wh n it b t k n s hin dran a s p re e ce of, cco f ; or e e o e ce , ha n n talab i lan gt eren di fyrir lifiin u he delivered a leng thy messa to the le ek at ekki verifi i frib i f rir han u m I ge p eop , g y u ld n o t be a t a o r him latast f rir in u m to rish b co p e ce f , y e p e y ’ ’ n s o wn han d h an n o ré i ekki f rir h u n din u m he da d o o e , b y re n t r h f o t e dogs . ' It tak s th e a u sativ wh n u s d tim as : litlu f r e cc e e e of e , y vetr sh tl b win t r wh n it m an s ins t a d o r as : or y efore e ; e e e of, f , h an n s e n di m an n fyrir s ik he sen t some o n e in his s tead ; wh n it s i n i s b m ans o b as v b a salu hol in n e g fie y e f , y , er p f rir trun a to be sav d b aith wh n u s d ri as hvab y e y f ; e e of p ce , ‘ gafs tu fyrir bcn krn ar wha t dids t thou givef o r the books ? U n dir take s th e d ative afte r it in th e s ign ificatio n of rest in a la as : u n dir b 1° 6 in u s toln u m un d the tabl the p ce , o , er e , cha irs ; wh n it m an s u nd su b dina t to d n d n t u n as : e e er , or e , ep e e p o , alla e s em n u dit han u m em all tha t are u nd r him at er b e , b ekki u n dir bvi komit that is n o t of grea t co ns eguen ca

It as th e a u s ativ in th e si n i ati n awa towa rds h cc e g ﬁc o of y , as : u n dir sblarla towa ds suns t an d awa u n d r as : u n dir g r e , y e , n a awa u n d the is n d ey y er la .

Y fir v n s th e d ativ wh n it b t k n s es t in a la go er e e e o e r p ce, yfir eldin u m a bove thefire wh n it m an s to h av w r v r as : d ro ttn a fir lan di e e e po e o e , y to ru l v a e o er coun try .

It tak s th e a u s ativ wh n it m an s m ti n to a la e cc e e e o o p ce, ' as : han n roar 11 t yfir n es it he rows a round the n a zc in the s i n i ati n m than as : m er u n n i m aar fir g fic o of ore , y man n hvern the i l l v d m e m n o g r o e ore tha any n e els e . A t o r at) is the o n ly prepo sitio n which gove rn s th e th ree

It gove rn s the ge n itive whe n u sed in th e m ean ing of a t the la o with an on e a t his h us the w d hi the p ce f , y , o e ( or isi or lik b in u n d rs t d as eir is tu at B arn ar th w e e g e oo ) , h g j ey ere ’ B arn s u s ts rm rl this r s iti n w a s w j g e . Fo e y p epo o s u ed ith the 3 S . PARTICLE . 107

n itiv the rs n a] r n u n s as : ir is tu at min in ge e of pe o p o o , be g , b

h d ativ wh n it m an s to a la ce as : ko m a It take s t e e e e p , at boa to com e to a f arm : a as : at IO ber i a t the c un cil- hill han n h o t a p la ce , g g o ; j at Birgish eimi he lived a t Birgisheimr : transiti n r m on e sta te to ano ther as h an n var6 at stein i o f o , he was changed in to ston e ; bre n n a at osku to burn to ashes : b r m ara tiv s as : varu ir at vaskari wer the efo e co p e , be e y h b t e raver . a u tu tim as : liiSr at olu m Jule a aches at hau sti f re e, j pp ro , xt au n n e tum . his r siti n wh n it v rn s the dative case lik T p epo o , e go e , e v s i wis e fo rm s man y ad erbial exp re s o ns . It m l s the a u sativ wh n it m an s behind a ter e p oy cc e e e , f ’ n s d a th as : him s itt at sik to leav s methin behin one (o e e ), e o g d ,

’ i th hu s in u n i in at lob u r s in n af ter h s f ather (his dea ) . T R c

s cri tio n s reisa stein at in n to raise a sto ne to one . p , c M an y n am e s of place s occu r in the d ative with the pre ositi n d i o r a t in st ad th e n m in ativ a t r heita o r the p o , , e of o e f e lik as : ea beer bet a S tein i tha t h us e was ca lled S tone h an n e , o ; bjo i kau pstaﬁ beim er heitir i S tafa n gri he lived in the ma rket t n hi i alled ta va er ow w ch s c S ng .

CHA PT E R IV . O F E LL PS E S I .

l i — In E lips e s o r o m s s io n s freq u e n tly occu r in O ld No rs e . m st a s s th are asil su li d as fo r in sta n e wh n th e o c e ey e y pp e , c , e ' ’ r n u n s sci eu ha nn hu n a t are mi t d th e su b t o r p o o , , , or b o t e , jec object fo r which they are u s ed havin g bee n alre ady n am ed : si6 an sn eib Karkr hofu ﬁ af arli 0 k hl é i brau t m eb at j j p (p ) , ’ a t a d Karhr o t a h i rw s cut he l s h ad an d ran o wit t . f e r f j r e , f ( ) T he 3rd rs th v i w h u t a s u p e . of e erb s ofte n u sed it o b ect wh n this is u n kn wn o r can be as il s u li d as j , e o e y pp e , sva s ir i G rim n ism él it is thus sai i m d rani sm dl. eg , n G T he w rd ko str h ic a lt rna tiv r s ur is t n lid d o c o e, e e, e o ce of e e e in s n t n s the m an in whi h is l ar as : far e tir e e ce e g of c c e , p , Hale in r sé m u n er hin n bezti ko str v ra u sue H al y g , p ( ) e , p r , ey iu th b stalt rn ativ 0 k er sé ko str til at s i la u n d an gr , y e e e ; ( ) , g , and the n l h i is to sa il awa o y c o ce y . IV n o so nv 108 . P .

T h e verbs vera an d verb a are freq u e n tly d ropt as well as th e defi n ite form s a s ein n m o rgin n vakti ’ Astrifir G lum 0 k s agbi at n au ta fj eldi S igm u n dar var ko m in n i tun 0 k vildi “ ' brj é ta an d virki : en ek h efi s igi fraleik til at reka (h an n ) i ” ' b au t en verkm en n eru at vin n u o ne m n in A strib r r , ( ) , or g ’ ’ aw k G lu m r an d sa id tha t a lo t o S mun dr s a ttle ha d o t o e , , f ig c g “ in t the m a d w an d w u ld th w down the co oks but I a m n o t o e o , o ro ; n imbl n u h to driv th m a wa a nd the w km n are a t e e o g e ( e ) y , or e ” work . The s e ellip se s take place e specially after th e w o rd s m un an d ska l in th e u tu r as : e m u n h an n ko m in n v a til f e , b ( er ) ko n u n s th n will he ha v m to the kin a i skulu o h talin g , e e co e g ; b r in h he r m a ls n oin eirra th s a ll t i a es be kon d . h , ere n o ( ) rec e m tim h i i i m t S s t e ll s s s m i r an t . lumr e . G o e e e p ore po , g , s ir sé eh lb t b yat titt var u ert barn at s ld ri en eg , g gg , (b ) , hefir 9 6 ve it slika h et u s em o rvald r var I saw l arl ( 1 ) g j b , c e y

“ ho w the m a tt s t d : th u a rt a hild in a e but et has t er oo o ) c g , y ) h slain su ch a ero a s Thorva ld r was .

R IV P A T .

PRO SO DY .

C HA P T E R I . — O ld Nors e poetry is n o t regu lated like th at of an cie n t G r an d m b u an tit bu t b a n tu ati n whi h eece Ro e y q y , y cce o , c i ai u n a n a an n t h w v r be a bitrar l l d s llabl . In c o , o e e , r y po y y e w d n sistin m an s llabl s th e a n t m u st r st o n or co g of y y e , cce e th at w hich u s u ally has th e ton e : in m o n o syllable s it can n ot all o n s iti n s an d n u n ti n s x t wh n it b m s f prepo o co j c o , e cep e eco e a em ph tic . lan di m s are divid d in t r u lar str h s eren di Ice c poe e o eg op e ( , visa staka whi h n all n tain i ht lin s o rb visu ) c ge er y co e g e ( , o rb h s st h s are s u bd ivid d in t h alv s vis u h el ) . T e e ro p e e o e ( m in r an d a h th s a ain in t tw o arts vis u f orb u n r g ) , e c of e e g o p ( j g ) n a u a t r t h u co n stitu ti g q r e s rop e or co plet.

is a lik the G rm an Weiss m an s the m an n wis f V , e e , e er or e o d in a thin : this wis th wi s . o g g e , o er e

V no s v 1 10 I . P o n .

In sh t lin s o n e th e su b- l tt rs is t n m itt d or e of e e of e o e , b u t th e chief- letter n e ve r : ’ ’ hlj bds bid k allar to atten tion I bid a ll helgar kin dir ; ho ly gen er a tion s : gb1 u m Asu m crowed n ea r the f E sir G ullin kambi G u llinka mbi (thegolden - combed)

w ls in t r h an e. with a h th an d sh u ld if o s Vo e e c g e c o er , o , p s ibl be d iff r n t e , e e an d ban n é attu brea th they p ossessed n ot; 65 an n é hofbu sen s th ha d n o t p , e ey .

" an d 6 rm a m l t an d l an t l tt r—rh m H r a d . e e , , fo co p e e e eg e e y e

J v an d k wh n ll w d b a v w l are admitt d , , , e fo o e y o e , e in to th e n u m ber of co rre spo n de n t letters : eh m an gotn a I remem ber the gia n ts

d r u mb o rn a ; born in the begin n ing .

’ H e a rh m with a h th r : xam l s in whi h ere , j , y e e c o e e p e c v an swe rs to vow els are extrem ely rare : svaf vaetr Freyj a slep t n o t E e j a ' a tta n ottu m ; f or eight n igyts .

an rr s d H ere v d d co e po n .

S om etim e s w e m eet with verse s in w hich su ch w ords as u r ran r reib r whi h in the a li st tim s b an w ith v lf , g , , c e r e e eg have form ed alliteratio n with words begin n in g with this letter as in A tlaqvib a :

vi n i Valhiill win e in Va lha lla . ’ (v) reidi sask heir Huna T hey f ea red the Huns wra th an d in Baldrs drau m a :

’ V) rin dr berr R in dr (Va la s mo ther) bea rs

i Vestrsblu m ; in the wes tern ha lls .

h n th is an u n u al lin a s lita m m b r in W e ere eq e , or o ry e e a v rs s u h as th e third an d s ixth lin s th e s ix- m am e e , c e of b r d stan zas it alwa s n tain s tw o allit rat d w rd s as in e e , y co e e o , the follo w in g qu otatio n from Vafbrud n ism al : or Vm is holdi of s r s ﬂ esh var brb u m s ko u d the a th was sha d j p , e r p e , en beiu u m b br o his bon s the m u nta ins or j g , f e o ; himin n or hausi heaven of the sku ll in s hrlmkalda btu n s o the ho a r rost iant j , f jf y g ;

a o his . en or sveita sj br. n d f swea t the sea 3 ss s as s s . . A o c 1 11

C H A P T E R III .

A A NCE SS ON S .

A ss n an o r lin - rh m is all d in O ld - N rse o ce , e y e , c e o tr h ndin an d is d ivid d in to tw o kin d s who l an d poe y e g , e , e

hal - ass n an e f o c .

h l - as s n an o r r rl S eakin c n s o nan e W o e o ce , p ope y p g , o c ab alhendin n bl rh m u rs wh n tw o s llabl s in the ( g o e y e) , occ e y e s am e lin e have th e vow els an d th e co n s o n an ts im m ediately

ll w in th m alik as : swn - ir s o m an d um—ar m en fo o g e e , ( e) g ( ) ,

m - — s n erk i (m ark) an d sterk a ( tro g) . — H alf as s o n an ce (skothending imperfect rhyme) adm its of d if r n t v w ls ll w d b the s am o n s n an ts as stirb u m fe e o e fo o e y e c o , , ' ‘ da lu stirb t s an d n orﬁan ver b I becam an d t. t ( p r . of iﬂ) , ( e)

forb a to u ard T he hal - as s n an is m m o n l u sed in ( g ) . f o ce co y

the rs t lin th e o u l t whi h o n tain s the s u b- l tters ﬁ e of c p e c c e ,

an d th e wh l - ass n an in the latter h m isti h as o e o ce e c ,

fasto rbr skyli firda word -f ast should the kin g be fengsaell vera bengill; who will keep w a rrio rs ; hceﬁr heit at rfufa to brea k thy p lighted f a ith a ldur m b u br ! é a i s th n ot h ma ! n r ldr . b s em mi t n hj g p e e ee , g y

A ll s llabl s whi h h av an as s n an e m u s t be ac y e c e o c , cen ted ; all co n so n an ts m ay form part o f an ass o n an ce excep t the ﬂ exio n al e n din gs r an d s after con s o n an ts : acco rdin gly ' b arts an d b arts are a r u lar wh l - as s on an e an d a b r an d j j eg o e c , ’ ﬂ bi a rr t h —as s n an y co ec alf o ce . Rhym e is im portan t in determ in in g the right o rth o graphy an d r n u n iati n a w o in sta as th r is a rd . F r e e p o c o of o nc , e — w h l as s n an in the lin tirarlau st o k Ira it is l ar that o e o ce e , c e tir m u st rh m with ir an d an n t be w ritt n w ith whi h y e , c o e g, c has b n in u w ee co rrectly sed by s om e rite rs .

C H AP T E R IV . H E R Y M .

T he te rmin atin g rhym e of th e Icelan ders is fo rm ed o n the sam r n i a a t e p i c ple s th t of th e poe ry o f o th er n atio n s . in al rh m s are s in l o r o m u n d b in ith r o rm d F y e g e c po , e g e e f e b th e u ltim at as : ar var i vi o r b b th th e u ltim at y e , f , , , b , y o e IV a o so n v 1 12 . P .

h r as : au k an d n u ltim at t t a lauka se a a . pe e oge e , , , gj , beg/ h r is n o in stan b th e m ati n in whi h the T e e ce efore Refor o , c ﬁrst lin e is rhym ed with the third an d th e seco n d with the u rth n l n s u tiv h m in lin s b in m et w ith re fo , o y co ec e r y g e e g p vio u sly to th at p eriod . S u h w d s as s a ra t an d kverit varb an d o rb are ad c or p , m issibl as h al - rh m s b au s th hav th e s am n al e f y e , ec e ey e e ﬁ t th u h th i v w l are u n lik n s n an s s . co o , o g e r o e e

CHAPTER V . I E O F T HE D FFE R NT KINDS O F VERS E .

T he an cien t Icelan d ers divid ed their poem s in to three ’ ’ ’ hi lass s all d F orn ré a la D ro ttkvceﬁi an d R unhend a . c ef c e . c e y g , , T h e rst ss ss s n l allit ati n th e s n d allit rati n ﬁ p o e e o y er o , eco , e o

an d as s n an the third allit ati n an d n al rh m . o ce , , er o ﬁ y e

rn roala o r N ive erse. 1 . F o arrat V y g , ,

T he origin al an d s imple st fo rm of versificatio n in O ld rs whi h it als ss ss s in m m n with th e th r No e , c o p o e e co o o e u t n i lan u a s arti u larl th e A n l —S a n is F n Te o c g ge p c y g o xo , or — yrfia lag (o ld w o rd lay) which is th e m o st u n re s tricted in its ‘ m tr h avin th e r at st com lem en fi an d u n tl n l e e , g g e e p , freq e y o y iar l tt r A ll th e m s th e E ld r E dd a are o n e au xil y e e . p oe of e i d ivid in wo kin d s th e S tarkab ar arrativ v rs . It s d t t in n e e e e o , ' la an d L o b a hdttr . g p rop er , j T h e S tarkafia rlag p rop er co n s ists of strophe s of eight lin e s con n ected by allite ratio n : e ach lin e has two lo n g syl lables o r tw o s tin — in ts fo r th e v i th e rh m - l tt s , re g po o ce ; y e e er sh u ld be th th u h o n e the s u b- l tt rs is t n wan t o ree , o g of e e of e in T he ll w in s tan za r m th e V6 1u 8 a f rs an xam l g . fo o g f o p of e e p e of n arrative vers e thu s co n s tru cted

ek s ir Bald ri I s aw o r Ba ld f ore er , blod u m tiv o r tha t b c d vi tim g or , f o y c , O din s b arn i f o r tha t son of Odin

Sh t u s w ds whi h th u h in d n d n t the or prec r ory or c , o g epe e of tu the v s are n ssa to the m l ti n the s n s stru c re of er e , ece ry co p e o of e e , co nstitu te what ma y be called the comp lemen t (mdft ylling verse

ﬁlling) .

IV. n v 114 PR o so .

’ hriggj a n ibj a in Jbtun heim r arb o r1n n ca n n ot ea sily

otuu h im u m be d a wn m the b ast. or) J e . r f ro re

' A n o ther kin d of F o rnyrﬁalag in frequ en t u se is Lj o ba ’ ha ttr n s istin a s ix - lin d st h w h s l st 2 n d 4 th , co g of e rop e , o e ; , , an d 5th lin s are n st u t d lik the S ta rkaba rla e co r c e e g p rop er, h avin tw o r stin - in ts au s s l n s llabl s an d g e g po , p e , or o g y e , con n ected by alliteration ; bu t the 3rd an d 6th lin e h ave three p au s e s w ith a sp ecial alliteration : e ach of th es e lin es h a s 2 — (very rarely 3) rhym e lette rs d ifferen t from tho s e of th e tw o p recedin g lin e s as

o lr eh va d dru nk I b a me r ec , varb) o frolvi beca me very d run ken ’ at in s fr66a Fj alars ; in the gia n t s dwelling ; vi bld baztr o r b s t is a le b er) r , f e at) aptr o fheim tir when aga in recovers

u i h a h . hverr sitt geb g m . ea c m n is wit

T he follow in g stan za offers an exam ple of a m etre with — three rhym e letters ' u n gr var k fo rdu m ; y ou ng was I o n ce ; o k in n sam an w n t I uit a l n f r c , e q e o e, ba yard ek villr vega ; then wen t I a stray ; au gigr p6ttu m sk I tho ught my self hap py ' er k an n an fan n ; when If o un d a n o ther n m an is the s o t m a m adr er m an n s gam a p r qf n .

T he follo win g half- strophe is p ecu liarly com po s ed : '

at é. re n t that is th n v d p r p y , e p ro e er pa at) run um spyrr when thou askes t of ru n es h n n in um) reginku n n u m : to t e gods a lon e k ow .

H ere the three rhym e - lette rs r are so placed that e ach lin e n co n tain s o e.

Whe n the eight- lin ed F orny rb a lag is so co n stru cted thii t w hal - h m s u in the st lin a h u l t an d t o f r y e occ r ﬁr e of e c co p e , w wh l — h m in th e s n d lin it is all d To la fo r t o o e r y e s eco e , c e g g ; in stan ce in th e follow in g h alf- s trophe

o k s n n so n a a n d th n Can utc s lew e e , slb hvern o k be o r ban ished a t o n ce A balbré bs eba ea ch of the sons ' b b u t ﬂtemdi Knutr of A a lbra r. 5 S . . VER E 1 15

kv bi 2 . Dr6tt aa

T h e metre u su al in lau d ato ry po em s is called Dré ttkvcebi " ” m d r6tt hi kvmbi s n o r h r i v rs an d w as (fro c ef , o g) e o c e e , m o s t comm o n ly u s ed by the skald s wh o lived afte r the 9 th cen tu r f It has allit rati n an d a s s n an an d v r a l y e o o ce , e y r re y i T he hi l tt r m u st be th e rst in adm its the mdlfyll ng . c ef e e ﬁ e very s eco n d lin e an d the s econ d rhym e in e ve ry lin e m u st a h tr h the occu r in the p en u ltim ate s yll ble . T e ﬁ rst s op e of m all d G eis li th e ra an u l iu m o n in C latt the poe c e y , e og K g S ain t by E in arr Sku lars o n will fu rn ish an example of this kin d of m etre

rb o h h en ein s mé. o o ir a llsré ban d a bin s snj a lla ’ vel er) fro br ea er getr gbbs u bs in mé r k g bren n g en n a . gbfugt lj bs b obar geis li gun n bﬁi misku n n ar é aztan g:a ek itrum I y 0 aﬁ bra sé ar g l .

T he followin g is th e o rde r of the word s : e in s m a m er ke n n a o rb 0 k bcen ir sé er vel fré b r er tt bb s n n in hin , , ge g bre g s n a h b b itru m O lafi a a s alla llsrab an da u b s . E a t n bra j g y g g . G u n n bfiigr geisli bob ar gofu gt lj 6 s m isku n n ar sbla r ; m e an " in Lik wis can kn w w rd s as w ll as ra g , e e I o o e p yers ; he is very wis e who com prehen d s th e glorio u s T rin ity of Alm ighty G o d ff r to n l O lafr an x ll n t s n . I o e ob e e ce e o g . A m o st p ow e rfu l be am betoken s th e beau tifu l light of the s u n of mild n ess A sso n an ce s here occu r in e very lin e ; in the first lin e a h u l t th is a hal —rh m in the s co n d a wh of e c co p e ere f y e , e , ole

- o n e . h r are th r stin in ts in a h lin an d o m T e e ree e g po e c e , a c l m n t n l i he 3rd lin n t i. e. ve er l . p e e o y e ,

' h n a str h rm d in th r r W e op e , fo e o e e sp ects like th e D rott kvceb i has i ht l n s llabl s in a h lin it is alled Hr n , e g o g y e e c e , c y h nda as e , lj btu va a l ptin g titan lau bri ; hlfbfsggullit rauba ; fastligr hn eigbi furu glwstri ty rie garmr of sheibat sty ri ; stirbu m hblt u m Stafangr n ordan stdlu m ; bifbu sk fyrir sitar ; u ) i lbbu elm ars typ pi s lid li 1 g k Dan a veldi. 1 16 IV. PR o s o n v .

h e the w a w T order of ord s is s follo s : lj 6tu lau bri varp é. utan lyptin g ; gu llit rau b a bifb isk ; fastligr fyris garm r of

‘ ‘ styri skeib ar hn eigb i furu glaes tri ; S tafangr helt u m s tirb u m s talu m n o rb an ' alar bifb u sk fyrir ; u ppi glbb u elm ars typpi “ lik eldi i v ld1 D an a m an in w ith b ist u s s ea- am g e ; e g , o ero fo “ d rifte d o n th e p ro w of the ve ss el ; th e red gilded m as t is sh aken ; th e stro n g w in d aro u n d th e ru dde r ben t sidew ays th e ship splen didly adorn ed ; Stafan gr s teered the ru d e prow n o rthw ards ; th e bre akers are broken before (the proceedin g ship) ; aloft shon e th e ship - m asts like ﬁre in th e kin gdom ” of the D an e s

3 R un h en d a .

R iinhen da run m h n d a h m o r u lar v rs . ( p oe , e r y e) pop e e h a n al h m al n with al it a i n a h s t h co n s fi r y e o g l er t o . E c rop e s ists i ht lin s th e rst d t m in in th e m tr th e of e g e , fi e er g e e of his lass ver ifi atio i u divid in t v al re s t. T c of s c n s s b ed o s e er a din th n u n u lla l T h kin d s r to e m b a t at d s b s . e , cco g er of cce e y e followin g offe rs a n exam ple w ith tw o re stin g- poin ts slikt er sva siklin gr it 6 1d bess é n n o rdré m pan n ; j arla er au stan ver skatn a skyrstr Skfili d yrstr m an in hu s it is : the kin ss s s s this am the e g , T g po e e f e ; p eople call it good ; of th e prin ces is Skuli (com e) from th e ” ll n t ast th e w rthi st m an h s the m s t x . e , o e , of eroe o e ce e

A n other in s tan ce fu rn ishe s fo u r a ccen tu ated s yllable s biggie kn a m ed gulli 16 6 otn a ferd a f ras s i mj b grekka lmtr han n s veit at sin silfri sken kt it fagra vin ; rei u m m aztir ullin skal g p g , u m n u m s en dir a ar bit] g , ei i hitta aebra m an n g , j arla beztr en s kj bld u n g harm " m an in T he h u l t m en can iv with ld e g , c eerf roop of rece e go the m e ad from the king : he let th e cro wd d rink in his

‘ Printe b Br it an Haert l ei i e ko t d e z . d y p , L p g ’ - William s an d Norga te s S choo l Books a n d M ap s .

l T M odern G erman and E n lish Conversations Wil iams ( . g an E lem en tar Phra s s th e G rm an evis ed a n d d y e , e r n d Ko kem u ell r. 2 l s en la r ed a corrected by A . e t g h 38 6d E i i n 12m o . l t im p roved d t o . c o m n n lis and C. Cru s . G r an a d E h Williams (T . S . ) e e g n n C ll ti n o f M d rn Commercial Co rre s po d e c e . A o ec o o e M r an tile L tters in G e m an an d E n lish w ith their e c e r g , n n site a 2u d E di i 12m o Tran sla tio o oppo p ge s t o n . . cloth 418 6d Apel (H ) G erman Prose Stories for Beginn ers (in clu din g ’ Les sin s P se ables w ith an in terlin ear ran s g ro F ) , T l n h n a u ra l d r 2n d atio in t e t o r e of C o n s tru ctio n . l 12m o . c o th 23 6d edition . A C lle ti n f t G erman Prose. o c o o he bes t S pecim ens

o f G rm an Pr s hi ro m M o d rn A u th ors . A e o e , c eﬂy f e H a h l an d F r w n n dbook fo r S c oo s am ilies . 500 pp . C o 8 l h 3s vo . c ot b arman dilassiss far 6 11 115 c ema wit 13 1; S h , h

0 125 ﬁlth iﬁntahnlar Cro w n 8 vo . clo th . $ g.

’ Schiller s Lied von der Glocke T h e S n the ell a n d ( o g of B ) , er P m s an ll F rs t r th d a ad s b M . b e o oe B , y 2 s

Minor Poems . B A rth u r V ern o n y P . 2 3 .

Maria. Stuart b M itz Fbrs ter s , y or 2 6d ’ h Herm nn un D r h b rs r s a d o ot a M . o te Goet e e , y F 28 6d hi f T ri ith No b H A t enie au au s . te s . t l Ip g W y wel . 2 8

m n B H A l 2s Eg o t. y . pe 6d ’ Lessin Minna on Barnhelm b S hmidt g s v , y c 2 3 6d H in l i. B G . e E milia. G a ott y 23 ’ Chamis P er chlemihl b M . o rs ter so s et S , y F A nders H i rbuch ohne ilder b e k G . lde 2s en ( . ) B B , y B c Nieritz Die aise a ale b O tto 2s . W , T , y ’ Bauﬁ M r A S l tio n b A . H are 33 6 s m chen . e ec , y o d

Caro é J. Maahrchen ohne E n ds T h e S to r witho u v ( W. ) ( y t an E n d ) . 12m o . clo h 2 s ’ ’ u u s Un din in ram A slau a s itter di i Fo q e e, S t , g R , e be den ‘ l H u . i 1 . h au ptle te . 4 vols . n 8vo c o t 7 s 6d

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Hau tleu te. l s d Sintram . 2 s 6d l th 3s . 6 lo th 23 c o , p c , [ 5] ’ Willia ms a nd N a l B s M a s org te s S choo ook a nd p .

nis i ﬁ h, s t . ’

E uri ides Medea . T h e G k ext wi th n tr du ti n an d p ree T , I o c o E x lan at N f H n . 8 . t s o r S h ls b J . H . a vo p ory o e c oo , y og cloth 3s 6d

Ion . G ek ext w ith N t fo r e in n ers re T , o es B g , n tr du ti n an d u sti n s fo r E am in ati n b th e I o c o Q e o x o , y h a dh am R . l s a D . D . s ev C . 2n d E di i n . 8vo d r e B , t o 3 6 m E sch lus . A a emnon . Revised G ek ext w ith litera l y g re T ,

lin e- fo r- lin e ran sla ti n o n o site a s b J hn T o ppo p ge , y o l th 3 F . Davi s B.A . 8ve . 3 e , c o l W hi bu ith n t d u i n n d N t b D r . Platonis P e s. I ro ct o a o es y

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lete G a hi al n d x . li b a d s 73 6d p eogr p c I e Fo o , o r ’ M to illustrate C sar s D llo G all 15 a s ae e e ieo . Kampen . p B

. l h 15 colou red M aps 4 to . c ot 3s 6d

a se m .

E ton talian G rammar h u a . G . t e se E t Volpe (C v ) I , for of o n i ll n lu din E x s s an d E xam l s . New C o ege . I c g erc e p e th Ke l s 8 . l i n . C w n vo 4 E dit o ro c o ( y , ) s 6d

R n ti s terici e Novelle Morali. E dited fo r th e u s e acco I , hr i is n 12th i u d n t . C t . ia n t s b G s E d ti . o f I ta l S e , y o on m l th l s 6d 18 o . c o R r i fo r s cu rin d i m ati talian tti. E e c ses b osse x e g I o c I , y m ean s of Lite ral T ra n slation s from the E n glish by l t . h s tti . 12m o c 3s d M a ria F . Ro s e o 6 lian O n e H u n d d ta lian A neddoti Ita i. re I A n ec “ 11 C m a n d c] P d t s s l t d r m as s i . o e , e ec e f o o p g o egg o ’ o s tti E x is m Bein g als o a Key t Ro s e s erc es . 12 o . cloth 2 s 6d l C wn o . th Venosta (E ) Raccolta di Poesie. ro 8 v c o 5s [ 6]