The Retrospective Methods Network

Newsletter

May 2014

№ 8

Edited by Frog Helen F. Leslie and Joseph S. Hopkins

Published by Folklore Studies / Dept. of Philosophy, History, Culture and Art Studies University of Helsinki, Helsinki

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RMN Newsletter is a medium of contact and communication for members of the Retrospective Methods Network (RMN). The RMN is an open network which can include anyone who wishes to share in its focus. It is united by an interest in the problems, approaches, strategies and limitations related to considering some aspect of culture in one period through evidence from another, later period. Such comparisons range from investigating historical relationships to the utility of analogical parallels, and from comparisons across centuries to developing working models for the more immediate traditions behind limited sources. RMN Newsletter sets out to provide a venue and emergent discourse space in which individual scholars can discuss and engage in vital cross- disciplinary dialogue, present reports and announcements of their own current activities, and where information about events, projects and institutions is made available.

RMN Newsletter is edited by Frog, Helen F. Leslie and Joseph S. Hopkins, published by Folklore Studies / Department of Philosophy, History, Culture and Art Studies University of Helsinki PO Box 59 (Unioninkatu 38 A) 00014 University of Helsinki Finland

The open-access electronic edition of this publication is available on-line at: http://www.helsinki.fi/folkloristiikka/English/RMN/

© 2014, the authors

ISSN 2324-0636 (print)

ISSN 1799-4497 (electronic)

All scientific articles in this journal have been subject to peer review.

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Contents Editor’s Note ...... 6

Abstracts of Articles and Author Information ...... 55

COMMENTS AND COMMUNICATIONS

The ‘Viking Apocalypse’ of 22nd February 2014: An Analysis of the Jorvik Viking Centre’s Ragnarǫk and Its Media Reception ...... 7 Joseph S. Hopkins Motifs and Folktales: A New Statistical Approach ...... 13 Julien d’Huy The U Version of Snorra Edda ...... 29 Daniel Sävborg Goddesses Unknown II: On the Apparent Old Norse Goddess Ilmr ...... 32 Joseph S. Hopkins The (De)Construction of Mythic Ethnography II: Hrímþurs and Cosmogony (A Contribution to the Vanir Debate) ...... 38 Frog

Events Alliterativa Causa ...... 56 Jonathan Roper The Yale Conference on Baltic and Scandinavian Studies ...... 58 Maths Bertell Julius ja Kaarle Krohn juhlasymposium – Julius and Kaarle Krohn Anniversary Symposium ...... 58 Karina Lukin & Kendra Willson Discourses of Belief and Genre: A Nordic–Baltic Workshop at the Annual Meeting of the American Folklore Society ...... 61 Irina Sadovina & Heidi Haapoja

Projects, Networks and Resources Translating the Medieval Icelandic Romance-Sagas ...... 65 Alaric Hall

PEOPLE Research Reports Davide Ermacora Hippocrates, Epid. 5: 86, an Ancient ‘Simple’ Story from Antiquity? – A Comparative and Contextual Folkloric Approach ...... 68 Frog Degrees of Well-Formedness: The Formula Principle in the Analysis of Oral-Poetic Meters ... 68 ‘Parallelism’ versus ‘Not Parallelism’ ...... 70

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Terry Gunnell On the Dating and Nature of “Eddic Poetry” with Some Considerations of the Performance and Preservation of Grímnismál ...... 73 Eila Stepanova The Soundscape of Karelian Laments ...... 73

Lectures Terry Gunnell The Creation of Sacred Place out of Empty Space During the Settlement of Iceland ...... 75 The Uses of Performance Studies for the Study of Old Norse Religion: The Performance of Eiríksmál and Hákonarmál ...... 75

Published Articles Terry Gunnell From One High One to Another: The Acceptance of Óðinn as Preparation for the Acceptance of God ...... 76 The Relationship Between Icelandic Knattleikur and Early Irish Hurling ...... 76 Skotrarar, Skudlers, Colloughs and Strawboys: Wedding Guising Traditions in Norway, Shetland and Ireland, Past and Present ...... 76 Vǫluspá in Performance ...... 77 Clive Tolley The Peripheral at the Centre: The Subversive Intent of Norse Myth and Magic ...... 77 The Kalevala as a Model for Our Understanding of the Composition of the Codex Regius of the Poetic Edda ...... 78

Essay Collections Frog, Pauliina Latvala & Helen F. Leslie Approaching Methodology, 2nd revised edition with an introduction by Ulrika Wolf-Knuts .... 78

PhD Projects Mathias Nordvig Of Fire and Water: The Old Norse Mythical Worldview in an Eco-Mythological Perspective ...... 79 Catalin Taranu The Construction of Anglo-Saxon Legendary History ...... 84

Post-Doctoral Projects Helen F. Leslie Narrative Transformations of Heroic, Autobiographical Poetry in the Medieval North ...... 89

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CALLS FOR PAPERS

Austmarr IV – The Plurality of Religions and Religious Change around the Baltic Sea, 500–1300: Methodological Challenges of Multidisciplinary Data ...... 93

Mytologia ja runous – Mythology and Poetry ...... 94

Would You Like to Submit to RMN Newsletter? ...... 96

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Editor’s Note

The activities within and related to the distant future. A volume based on the first Retrospective Methods Network (RMN) have three Austmarr symposia (2011–2013) is also continued to increase and there has been a in preparation. In addition, the recent special growing awareness of and interest in RMN issue of RMN Newsletter (№ 7, December Newsletter internationally. This multidisci- 2013), Limited Sources, Boundless Possibilities, plinary platform for discussion has become a has drawn particular attention while the earlier vital site for current information relevant to special issue Approaching Methodology (№ 4, members of the RMN and it has become a May 2012) has recently appeared in a second valued venue for opening dialogues through edition. On top of these centralized outcomes, the presentation and negotiation of research, a great variety of work is being done by the methods and theoretical perspectives. many members of the RMN on an individual The daughter networks of the RMN have basis, announcements and examples of which been particularly vital centers of academic can be found in the pages of the present issue. activity. The Austmarr Network, which is The current issue of RMN Newsletter concentrated on cultural contact and appears situated at an intersection of diverse interaction in the Baltic Sea region before ca. discussions connecting especially with the 1500, organized a fruitful stream at the Yale roots of the RMN in Old Norse scholarship Conference on Baltic and Scandinavian Studies and philology. These link with and continue (13th–15th March 2014, New Haven, Connect- discussions from earlier volumes and also icut): the ten sessions gave the impression of anticipate discussions to come. They connect a symposium within the conference. This with diverse aspects of diachronic study, from branch is now organizing the fourth Austmarr reception to historical reconstruction, and they Symposium in Sundsvall, Sweden (see p. 93). highlight the dynamism of cultures and The Old Norse Folklorists Network, which is cultural change on the one hand while concentrated on the relevance and relationship exploring method-logical questions and of later folklore for Old Norse research, challenges on the other. At the same time, the advanced from the workshops of past years to plethora of topics and perspectives of other their first major international conference, contributions underscore the diversity of “Sagas, Legends and Trolls: The Supernatural research currently being done, with something from Early Modern back to Old Norse of interest for all of our widespread Tradition” (12th–14th June 2014, Tartu, readership. Estonia). These networks have provided When speaking of the interest stimulated nexuses of academic activity and also fostered by RMN Newsletter through the richness of international cooperations which are presently perspectives and works it introduces, it is being developed for more expansive projects necessary to observe that a journal such as in the future. RMN Newsletter is a venue, not a producer of In addition to events, a number of research, methods or theories per se. It is a significant publications are nearing fruition site of information and discussions that are from within the RMN and its branches. The carried by many voices representing a variety volume from the first RMN event, “New of fields. That variety and the acuity, Focus on Retrospective Methods” (13th–14th innovativeness and quality of work behind September 2010, Bergen, Norway) should those voices is what gives life and richness to appear by the end of this year. The first two a venue. RMN Newsletter is enabled through volumes from the Viking Age in Finland you, its readership, whom it also seeks to project (2011–) are also expected at the end of represent, and we are very pleased that we can this year, one concentrated on territories of reciprocally enable the discussions in this Finland and Karelia, the other on Åland. A venue. volume based on the 2011 and 2012 Frog workshops of the Old Norse Folklorists University of Helsinki Network is also expected in the none-too- 6

COMMENTS AND COMMUNICATIONS

The ‘Viking Apocalypse’ of 22nd February 2014: An Analysis of the Jorvik Viking Centre’s Ragnarǫk and Its Media Reception Joseph S. Hopkins, University of Georgia

Old Norse Ragnarǫk What do the Old Norse sources say about Ragnarǫk? A fair amount; references to Ragnarǫk are scattered among several key texts in the Old Norse corpus. While these references at times contradict one another and comparative material from other Germanic cultures is lacking,1 these limited sources make it possible to construe an image of this ‘apocalypse’ rich in details. The sources we Figure 1. A screenshot of Facebook’s “trending” have today, especially as compiled in the feed on 22nd February 2014. Gylfaginning section of the Prose Edda, form something of a cohesive, albeit often Þá mælir Gangleri: ‘Hver tíðindi eru at segja frá um ragnarøkr? Þess hefi ek eigi fyrr heyrt mysterious, narrative. getit.’ (Faulkes 2005: 49.) The foretelling of Ragnarǫk in Gylfaginning may be summarized (with a bit of color) as Then said Gangleri: ‘What tidings are there follows: At its onset, humanity will meet a to say about Ragnarøkkr? That I have not fate of six harsh and long winters, greed heard tell of.’ among mankind will lead to world war and If one signed on to a social media site, social breakdown. A wolf will swallow the checked a news website or, in some cases, Sun and another will catch the Moon. The even watched one’s local evening news stars will disappear. Great earthquakes will during mid- to late February 2014, one may topple mountains, uproot trees, and snap all have encountered some surprising news: as fetters and binds, including those of the predicted by “scholars” or “experts”, perhaps monstrous wolf Fenrisúlfr and apparently “according to Norse mythology” or even those of the grotesque ship Naglfar, and the according to a mysterious “Viking calendar”, bound Loki. The enormous serpent a “Viking apocalypse” was to occur on Miðgarðsormr will burst from the churning Saturday, 22nd February 2014. Viking Age sea. The earth, sea, and darkened sky will be specialists who encountered these reports polluted with poison, and after the sky rips were likely to have been particularly open to reveal the fiery Surtr and his retinue, surprised; no such “Viking calendar” is mankind will endure encroaching flames. known to have existed and, while an event Amidst their trail of devastation, all of these that could loosely be described as a “Viking beings and more, including the combined apocalypse”, Ragnarǫk, is foretold in various wrath of all the “hrímþursar” (cf. Frog, this Old Norse texts, it is nowhere said to occur at volume), will assemble at the vast plain a specific time. The present article serves as Vígríðr. The cryptic god Heimdallr will blow an analysis of the dissemination of this his horn, the gods will themselves come misinformation and briefly examines its together for a þing, a traditional Germanic context in modern popular culture. 7 assembly, and the wisdom-seeking god Óðinn ‘a cataclysmic downfall or overthrowal of a will ride to the well Mímisbrunnr for counsel. ruling entity or society’. It sees use now and The cosmic ash tree Yggdrasill, central to all then where deemed appropriate, memorably things, will shudder (perhaps in fear) (Faulkes by journalists when a foreign ‘regime’ meets 2005: 49–53). a less than peaceful end. At least several of the gods and an army of the chosen dead, Óðinn’s einherjar [‘?one- The Jorvik Viking Centre’s Prediction time/lone/united -warriors’], will dress for The Jorvik Viking Centre is a museum war and ride to Vígríðr to engage their located in York, England. It opened its doors gathered foes. This will lead to more or less in 1984 on a site excavated by the York mutual death in spectacular fashion. The Archaeological Trust that yielded a variety of world, after being consumed in flames, will Viking Age finds, including Viking Age 2 sink into water. Yet, like a plant that requires structures. One of several ‘projects’ of the 3 fire for germination or a sprout bursting from York Archaeological Trust, the museum the fertile, post-forest-fire soil, the aftermath focuses on Viking Age, Norse-dominated of these processes will not simply be York (thus the Anglicized use of Old Norse destruction and death but also renewal and Jórvík). The Jorvik Viking Centre takes an rebirth; after the earth is no longer unconventional approach to presenting its submerged, two human beings – in an echo of material, including an on-track ride through their mythic wooden ancestors Askr and exhibitions that feature mechanically Embla – will emerge from a grove and dispersed scents and animatronic figures. repopulate the world, and various gods will Every year, the museum holds an event, 4 come together as before on a newly green and the ‘Jolablot’, and for the 2014 version of the fertile earth to recount the deeds of those who event, Ragnarǫk was chosen as a theme by came before them. The shining god Baldr and the museum. To market the event, the his brother and (unwitting) murderer, the museum published a website press release blind Hǫðr, even return from the land of the with the title “THE WORLD WILL END IN dead, reconciled (Faulkes 1998: 53–54). All 100 DAYS”: Ragnarok – the Viking comes full circle. Apocalypse – predicted for 22 February 2014 The Ragnarǫk narrative has been (Jorvik Viking Centre 2013). “According to celebrated in a variety of ways since its experts in Norse mythology from the repopularization by way of modern era JORVIK Viking Centre,” the press release translations of Old Norse texts. Perhaps the reads, “the sound of an ancient horn heard most famous example of this is Richard reverberating across the rooftops of York this Wagner’s creative take on the narrative in his evening is a portent of doom and the 19th century opera Der Ring des Nibelungen. beginning of a countdown to the Norse The title of the fourth and final opera of the apocalypse,” and “experts are predicting the nd cycle, Götterdämmerung, is a modern end of the world will take place on 22 German calque of the unique Old Norse form February 2014, coinciding with the grand th Ragnarøkkr [‘twilight of the gods’] that is finale of the 30 JORVIK Viking Festival in found in the Poetic Edda poem Lokasenna the city of York” (ibid.). The article contains and in the Prose Edda (Árni Björnsson 2003: statements attributed to Danielle Daglan, 223). Wagner was so taken by his Old Norse “Head of Events & Hospitality” at the York 5 source material that he had his final residence, Archaeological Trust, in which Daglan Wahnfried, fitted with a panel depicting claims that this prediction trumps 2012 Wotan (a modern German form ultimately phenomena such as the so-called “Mayan cognate with Old Norse Óðinn) and his ravens apocalypse” (ibid.). An image of a chainmail- accompanied by two muses (Árni Björnsson clad, Bronze Age lur-blowing male standing 2003: 55–56). Wagner’s work was influential before the York Minster accompanies the enough that the German noun press release. Götterdämmerung has since been directly That same day, an article covering the loaned into English with the semantic value of Jorvik Viking Centre’s claim was published

8 by MailOnline, the online extension of Daily Gísli refutes Daglan’s statements; “there is Mail, a British tabloid. Bearing the headline nothing in our sources to indicate that any of “Will the World End in 100 Days? – Sounding this is upon us now. This seems to be the of Ancient Trumpet in York Warns of Viking result of marketing policy in the Viking center Apocalypse on 22 February 2014”, the article in York” (NPR Staff 2014b). Rath asks if includes statements made by Daglan, Daglan’s date of February 22nd “is kind of including those that appear in the Jorvik pulled out of the air,” to which Gísli responds: Viking Centre’s press release (Zolfagharifard “No. It’s the last day of the festival, so they’re 2013). These statements, often noncommittal, just going to have a big party at the end of it” are likely to appear rather non-serious or (NPR Staff 2014b). Gísli’s comments are tongue-in-cheek to specialists. For example: omitted from the text article accompanying While not a scientific conclusion, they claim the “All Things Considered” audio (NPR Staff 2014a). that Vikings loved to feast and wouldn’t th want to miss this event. For this reason, they A day later, February 17 , argue that Vikings would believe the world Smithsonian.com, an internet extension of the would end in 100 days [.... And] following a Smithsonian Institute (and therefore study published in 2010 that bearded men are ultimately an extension of the government of more trustworthy than those without, we’re the United States), published a short article on also looking for fantastic displays of facial the story (Eveleth 2014). Although the article hair, so that we can identify those with the links to both the MailOnline and NPR potential to take us into the brave new world articles, the Smithsonian Magazine online that is foretold to follow Ragnarok. attributes the claims directly to Norse (Zolfagharifard 2013.) mythology: “According to old Norse However, with the air of authority granted by mythology, we’re 100 days into the end of the association with a museum focused on the world” (ibid.). Viking Age, they are likely to appear to On February 19th, the online arm of the general readers as if they are rooted in some American magazine Time, Time.com, sort of historical source. From these published a short article with the title “The statements, MailOnline concludes that Apocalypse Starts Saturday, at Least “Danielle Daglan from the Norvik [sic] According to the Vikings” that further Viking Centre told MailOnline that a number attributed this prediction to a Viking Age of recent events spoken about in the legends source (Knibbs 2014). The article explains of Ragnarok led them to believe that the end that “believers in the United Kingdom are of the world may well be imminent” and holding a festival called Jorvik to celebrate “Norse mythology experts have calculated but for Viking lovers who can’t make it to that [Ragnarok] is due to take place on York, eating a lot of Nordic smoked salmon February 22, 2014” (ibid.). As of late March, and rocking back and forth crying hysterically 2014, the article had been ‘shared’ nearly is a perfectly acceptable way to join the 29,500 times (ibid.). festivities” (ibid.). th On 16 February 2014, NPR, formally Express, the online extension of the British National Public Radio, published both an tabloids the Daily Express and the Sunday article on the topic on its website and aired an Express, took things a step further with an “All Things Considered” piece discussing the article on February 21st: “people who believe museum’s prediction (NPR Staff 2014a, NPR in Viking mythology have already begun Staff 2014b). In the piece, Daglan is presented preparing for Ragnarok by gathering in York by Arun Rath, host of the program, as one of to celebrate the JORVIK festival” a group of “scholars” who have made (Dassanayake 2014). By way of online news 6 predictions about Ragnarǫk. Perhaps sensing website Newser, FoxNews.com, the online something was amiss, NPR decided to follow extension of the major American media up Daglan's comments with an interview with company Fox News, also ran a story on another source, Gísli Sigurðsson (Árni February 21st on the topic, albeit in a tone that Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies). seems less than convinced by the Jorvik

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Viking Centre’s “claim that the end of times on 21st February 2014 that saw substantial as predicted in Norse mythology will be upon internet attention and received a response us tomorrow” (Quinn 2014). from the Jorvik Viking Centre. In her entry, The fateful day of February 22nd saw a Parker says: frenzy of articles and reports on the topic [The Jorvik Viking Centre’s] publicity from a variety of media outlets. The online worked – it got them lots of coverage, and extension of US newspaper USA Today I’m helping them by posting about it. But I published an article under the title “Viking don’t think that makes it OK; it’s not just a Calendar Predicts the World Will End bit of fun. I really don't have a problem with Saturday”. The article itself is not as popularising history – the British Museum sensationalistic as the title would lead one to are currently doing a great job publicising believe. A staff member of USA Today their upcoming ‘Vikings’ exhibition with appears to have dug a little further, resulting etymology-themed posters, a nice illustration in Scandinavian humor: that you can promote history without having to condescend or lie to the general public. Reached at [the major Swedish newspaper (Parker 2014.) Dagens Nyheter] news desk Saturday afternoon, editor Lars Axelsson confirmed Parker reports that she was thereafter that Stockholm was still there and no gods contacted by the Jorvik Viking Centre “to had so far appeared for the world ending assert that they thought I was misleading battle. ‘I think if the world were going to people in this blog post. Naturally I disagree, end, it would probably start in the United and feel the irony of this complaint requires States, don’t you?’ he asked a USA TODAY no further comment from me.” Parker also reporter. ‘Nothing like that would happen notes that “In contacting me, they did not here in Stockholm.’ (Weise 2014.) mention whether they have made similar Regardless, social media giant Facebook’s complaints to any of the numerous “trending” feed displayed “Ragnarök: Viking international news organisations who reported calendar predicts the world will end today” their campaign as a genuine prediction.” (see Figure 1) for much of the day. That day (Ibid.) the English Wikipedia Ragnarök article saw a On February 23, the museum issued a significant spike in page views, reaching a second press release, “Apocalypse Not: Relief peak of 44,000 views. In the month of as Prediction for Ragnarok Passes!” (Jorvik February 2014, the article was viewed around Viking Centre 2014). The press release 190,166 times, over twice the number of promotes next year’s festival and makes no views in January.7 People were interested. mention of the media reception of the This sampling does not account for local museum’s ‘prediction’. news stations or various other forms of media reporting on this topic. On February 22nd, North Germanic Mythology in Modern KARE 11 in Minneapolis, Minnesota, Media featured an (apparently heavily spliced) Over the past several years, media depicting interview with Lena Norrman (University of or transparently influenced by Viking Age Minnesota) and some of her students (Seavert (or, as the case may be, directly post-Viking 2014). The article makes no mention of the Age) material has proven to be both Jorvik Viking Centre but rather says that “As extremely popular and highly profitable, not part of Ragnarok, believers in York, England only in the Anglosphere but throughout the will hold a festival Saturday” (ibid.). world, resulting in billions in U.S. dollars of Outside of evident skepticism in some of revenue. International blockbusters such as these reports, criticism of the Jorvik Viking Thor (2011), Marvel’s The Avengers (2012), Centre’s marketing campaign appears to have The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey (2012), been limited to blog sites, tweets, and article Django Unchained (2012), Thor: The Dark comments. Eleanor Parker (University of World (2013), The Hobbit: The Desolation of Oxford), who maintains a blog by the name of Smaug (2013), and even Disney’s Frozen A Clerk of Oxford, wrote an entry on the topic (2013) borrow core and crucial elements from Norse mythology, including characters, 10 settings, and plot lines.8 History’s Vikings The institution of North Germanic (2013–present) television series has proven to paganism was, by various means, deleted be extremely successful, recently beginning a under the process of Christianization and, second season. This is not a phenomenon upon that dismantling, absorbed into folklore limited to film or television; video games or, in the enigmatic case of Icelanders, featuring strong inspiration and references to preserved in text form and revered. Although Norse mythology, such as such The Elder in a different form, it may be said from a Scrolls V: Skyrim (2011) and World of diachronic perspective that Norse mythology Warcraft (2004; 2007; 2008; 2010; 2012), has again appeared as a substantial cultural appear year after year. component in a variety of ways in Western Other forms of the arts are also replete society and beyond; millions of viewers with references to the subject; particular marvel in movie theaters at echoes of the genres of music show a consistent fascination once-popular motif of a thunder god losing with the topic, with numerous musical groups his hammer, just as an audience for the such as Amon Amarth (Sweden) and ancient oral tradition that became the Old Wardruna (Norway) drawing almost Norse poem Þrymskviða surely once did. exclusive inspiration from this material. It appears that the Jorvik Viking Centre has American companies such as ODIN New used its status as a museum to promote a York (upscale clothing, New York) and Loki commercial event. However, in doing so, the (active and outdoor wear, Colorado) directly museum misled the public, whether or not this reference Norse gods not only in name but was initially the museum’s intention. Yet, that also in aesthetic and conceptual approach. In ethical problem aside, another point may be the Nordic countries, a list of active considered: were the public not interested in companies that take their name from Norse Viking Age material, it is unlikely that this mythology would extend far beyond the ‘news’ would have received the attention it length of this article and would include, for did. While highly problematic from an example, Odin Fund Management (Norway) academic perspective, these reports were and the bicycle company Loke (Denmark). motivated by website traffic or viewer This is just a small sample; references such as attention. The popularity of the Jorvik Viking these are, at the time of writing, common in Centre’s “prediction” appears to be an western media in general. element of a larger picture, a sort of revival of At the same time, as a new religious modern popular culture interest in all things movement, Germanic Neopaganism (or Viking Age occurring at this time. Germanic Heathenry) appears to remain relevant if not growing. A form of Germanic Acknowledgements: The author would look to thank Neopaganism, the Ásatrúarfélagið, now Lauren Fountain and Frog for their comments and suggestions while preparing this article for constitutes a significant religious minority in publication. Iceland9 and forms appear to continue to grow in North America, where the first openly Notes Germanic Neopagan politician, Dan Halloran, 1. However, evidence of understanding of the event, or came into office in Queens, New York in an event like it, known among other Germanic peoples may be found in the Old High German 2009 as a member of the New York City th Council from the 19th district (Pillifant 2009). poem Muspilli, recorded in a 9 century manu- script. For discussion, see Simek 2007: 222–224. United States military veterans may now 2. For discussion of medieval York and the Coppergate choose the “Hammer of Thor” (emblem #55) site, see Palliser 2014. – inspired by archaeological finds of Viking 3. This is the York Archaeological Trust’s terminology. Age pendants worn by Norse polytheists – A list of the York Archaeological Trust’s attractions among a list of nearly 60 religious (or, as the can be found on the York Archaeological Trust website: http://www.yorkarchaeology.co.uk case may be, non-religious) emblems to (Accessed 7th March 2014). appear on their tombstone as offered by the 4. Regarding this event, Julian Richards (2005) writes United States Department of Veteran Affairs “The festival promoters claim that the event harks (National Cemetery Administration 2014). back to Jolablot, a midwinter festival held by ‘the original vikings’, although in fact it was invented in 11

1985, and marks the annual downturn in visitor 19th February 2014. Available at: figures in Jorvik [...]” (Richards 2005: 1). The noun http://time.com/8785/the-apocalypse-starts- itself appears to be a compound of the Old Norse saturday-at-least-according-to-the-vikings/ nouns jól [‘Yule’] and blót [‘sacrifice’]. (Accessed 7th March 2014). 5. This is information is taken from Danielle Daglan’s National Cemetery Administration. 2014. “Available public LinkedIn profile: Emblems of Belief for Placement on Government http://uk.linkedin.com/pub/danielle- Headstones and Markers”. Available at: daglan/50/433/188 (Accessed 7th March 2014) http://www.cem.va.gov/hmm/emblems.asp 6. Rath introduces the program with “according to (Accessed 22nd March 2014). some scholars, the world will come to an end this NPR Staff. 2014a. “Vikings of the World, Unite in Saturday. Ragnarok is upon us.” (NPR 2014b.) Battle: The Apocalypse Is upon Us”. NPR, 16th 7. Wikipedia article statistics may be viewed online at February 2013. Available at: “Wikipedia article traffic statistics”: http://www.npr.org/2014/02/16/277941699/vikings- http://stats.grok.se/en/201402/Ragnarök (Accessed of-the-world-unite-in-battle-the-apocalypse-is- 21st March 2014). upon-us (Accessed 7th March 2014). 8. For example, Marvel’s The Avengers, itself a sequel NPR Staff. 2014b. “Vikings of the World, Unite in to Thor and focused on interactions between the Battle: The Apocalypse Is upon Us” (Audio Marvel adaptation of the North Germanic gods Transcript). NPR. 16th February 2014. Available at: Thor and Loki, alone maintains a gross http://www.npr.org/templates/transcript/transcript.p international lifetime revenue of over 1.5 billion hp?storyId=277941699 (Accessed 7th March 2014). USD, making it one of the highest grossing films of Palliser, D.M. 2014. Medieval York: 600–1540. all time. This figure is derived from the box office Oxford: Oxford University Press. revenue-tracking website Box Office Mojo: Parker, Eleanor. 2014. “A Rant about ‘Ragnarok http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=avenge 2014’”. A Clerk of Oxford, 21st February 2014. rs11.htm. Blog. Available at: http://aclerkofoxford. 9. For a statistical breakdown of religious groups in blogspot.com/2014/02/a-rant-about-ragnarok- Iceland, see Statistics Iceland: 2014.html (Accessed 20th March 2014). http://www.statice.is/Statistics/Population/Religious Pillifant, Reid. 2009. “Heathen Halloran Captures -organizations (Accessed 20th March 2014). Council Seat”. The New York Observer, 4th September 2009. Available at: Works Cited http://observer.com/2009/11/heathen-halloran- th Árni Björnsson. 2003. Wagner and the Volsungs. captures-council-seat/ (Accessed 20 March 2014). London: Viking Society for Northern Research. Richards, Julian D. 2005. The Vikings: A Very Short Dassanayake, Dion. 2014. “The End of the World Is Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. nigh… if You Believe the Vikings”. Express. 21st Seavert, Lindsey. 2014. “Viking Apocalypse Called nd February 2014. Available at: Ragnarok Predicted”. KARE11 Online, 22 February http://www.express.co.uk/news/weird/460937/Viki 2014. Available at: http://www.kare11.com/story/ ng-Ragnarok-Norse-mythology-predicts-end-of- news/local/2014/02/22/viking-apocalypse-february- th the-world-on-Saturday (Accessed 8th March 2014). 22nd-2014-ragnarok/5662709/ (Accessed 10 Eveleth, Rose. 2014. “The Vikings’ Apocalypse Is March 2014). Coming up.” Smithsonianmag.com, 17th February Simek, Rudolf. 2007 [1993]. Dictionary of Northern 2014. Available at: http://www.smithsonianmag Mythology. Cambridge: D.S. Brewer. .com/smart-news/viking-predicted-end-world- Quinn, Rob. 2014. “‘Viking Apocalypse’ Due to Bring coming-180949784/ (Accessed 7th March 2014). World’s End Tomorrow … Maybe”. st Faulkes, Anthony. 2005. Edda: Prologue and FoxNews.com. 21 February 2014. Available at: Gylfaginning. 2nd edn. London: Viking Society for http://www.foxnews.com/science/2014/02/21/vikin Northern Research. g-apocalypse-due-to-bring-world-end- th Jorvik Viking Centre. 2013. “‘The World Will End in tomorrowmaybe/ (Accessed 10 March 2014) 100 Days’: Ragnarok – the Viking Apocalypse – Weise, Elizabeth. 2014. “Viking Calendar Predicts the predicted for 22 February 2014”. Jorvik Viking World Will End Saturday”. USA Today website, nd Centre press release, 15th November 2013. 22 February 2014. Available at: Available at: http://www.jorvik-viking- http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2014/0 festival.co.uk/2013/11/ the-world-will-end-in-100- 2/20/viking-apocalypse-end-of-the-world- th days-ragnarok-the-viking-apocalypse-predicted-for- saturday/5643717/ (Accessed 10 March 2014). 22-february-2014/ (Accessed 10th March 2014). Zolfagharifard, Ellie. 2013. “Will the World End in Jorvik Viking Centre. 2014. “Apocalypse Not: Relief 100 Days? – Sounding of Ancient Trumpet in York nd as Prediction for Ragnarok Passes!” Jorvik Viking Warns of Viking Apocalypse on 22 February th Centre press release, 23rd February 2014. Available 2014”. MailOnline, 06:47 EST, 15 November at: http://www.jorvik-viking-festival.co.uk/2014/02/ 2013. Available at: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/ apocalypse-not-relief-as-prediction-for-ragnarok- sciencetech/article-2507778/Will-world-end-100- passes/ (Accessed 22nd March 2014). days-Sounding-ancient-trumpet-York-warns- Knibbs, Kate. 2014. “The Apocalypse Starts Saturday, Viking-apocalypse-22-February-2014.html th at Least According To The Vikings”. Time.com, (Accessed 7 March 2014). 12

Motifs and Folktales: A New Statistical Approach Julien d’Huy, Institute of the African World (IMAF), Paris I Sorbonne

On his way home from Troy, Odysseus and the traditional plot structures of many stories his twelve ships are captured by the cyclops and folktales. Stith Thompson developed a Polyphemus while visiting his island. The Motif-lndex of Folk-Literature (1932–1936; monster moves a massive stone to cover the revised and enlarged second edition appearing door of the cave so that the men cannot in 1955–1958). However, Thompson’s (1955: escape, and then he eats many of them. The 7) criteria for identifying and delineating hero brings the cyclops a barrel of wine and motifs were unsophisticated: “It makes no says his name is ‘Nobody’. When the cyclops difference exactly what they are like; if they falls into a drunken sleep, Odysseus and his are actually useful in the construction of tales, men blind the monster with a wooden stake. they are considered to be motifs.” The present The monster calls for his brothers, who come, analysis raises a number of questions related but they leave when they hear that ‘Nobody’ to the identification of motifs and the has caused the harm. Later, Odysseus ties assessment of their uniformity and coherence himself and his men to the bellies of sheep as socially and historically circulating and they escape, despite the blind narrative elements. Here, I will explore Polyphemus feeling the backs of animals to potential tools and methods that may enable ensure that the men are not getting out with researchers to control these assessments in a his herd. statistical and more objective way. This famous story of Homer has been Developing a systematic means of doing this recorded in modern times among the folklore would be new and potentially very useful. of many widely separated European groups Applying different software to textual (Hackmann 1904). In some variants, the giant corpora in order to identify narrative elements tries to recapture the man using a magic ring like motifs presents a number of that raises alarm and reveals where the methodological issues. Once the sample fugitive is. The man needs to cut off his finger corpus used here has been introduced, I will to escape. thus discuss the application of two different Stith Thompson (1961) numbered five software programs. First, the corpus was traditional elements or motifs in this tale-type: treated using Treecloud. Treecloud was G100. Giant ogre, Polyphemus applied with the hypothesis that the software K1011. Eye-remedy. Under pretence of had the potential to present evidence of curing eyesight the trickster blinds narrative motifs when applied to a textual the dupe. (Often with a glowing corpus of variants as raw data. Rather than a mass thrust into the eye.) positive outcome, this pilot study instead K521.1. Escape by dressing in animal (bird, produced information that illustrates a number human) skin of problems that arise when using software of K602. “Noman” this type. The program Iramuteq 0.6 alpha 3 K603. Escape under ram’s belly was then applied to the same corpus with an Uther (2004) adds five additional motifs: ability to account for additional parameters in the data-set. The ways to identify motifs with F512. Person unusual as to his eyes. F531. Giant. Iramuteq are also tested on both the raw text K1010. Deception through false doctoring. of the corpus and also with tagging of K521. Escape by disguise. essential elements. With regard to identifying D1612.1. Magic objects betray fugitive. motifs in the classic sense of Thompson, the Give alarm when fugitive escapes. use of these programs proved better suited to identifying certain motifs rather than others, The term motif has commonly been used by and the pilot studies show that these and folklorists to refer to distinguishable and similar programs are not well-suited to consistently repeated story elements used in identifying motifs in a text corpus. These pilot 13 studies therefore have significance for content which he considered relevant for revealing methodological problems in the use comparative discussion. The lexical field of of software for narrative analysis that may his translations is nevertheless anticipated to help point the way to future innovations. be more uniform than texts by multiple More significantly, the analyses had an translators would be, and this thus increases unexpected outcome of providing a new the probability that the pilot study will yield model for approaching tales in terms of positive results. Consequently, in terms of the semantic networks of elements. Rather than international Polyphemus tradition, the revealing ‘motifs’, the pilot studies present findings of this pilot study necessarily remain new ways of looking at tale-types. conditional on the quality of the data to which the software is applied. Methodological issues The Test Corpus surrounding the source-critical quality of In order to test the hypothesis that software source-texts and translations in a data-set could identify the main topics of a tale-type remains distinct from the focus here, which is on the basis of the lexical surface of a text, we on the potential of Treecloud and Iramuteq chose to analyze the tale-type of Polyphemus 0.6 Alpha 3 as methodological tools in the (AT 1137) on the basis of the test-corpus of motif analysis of a body of texts. the 36 versions of the tale published in extenso in English in a chapter of James The Treecloud Pilot Study Frazer’s Apollodorus: The Library II (1921: The software Treecloud (Gambette & Veronis 404–455). The text of each narrative was 2009) allows the most frequent words of a embedded in Frazer’s critical introduction and text to be arranged on a tree that reflect their conclusion, which have been excluded from ‘semantic proximity’, i.e. the co-occurrence of the present analysis. The fact that these tales distinct semantic elements according to the were translated (when necessary) by the same text. The size and the color of each word scholar allows a relative uniformity in the reflects its individual frequency. The length of text’s lexical field. It is assumed that the the path between two words in the tree analysis will work best when using material represents the distance between them on the translated by the same individual. The impact basis of their linear word proximity (i.e. of lexical variation according to translator and analyzing the text as a linear sequence in its implications of the tree produced from the which each semantically tagged word equates data would be worth exploring. to one unit of distance). Such a tool may help It must be acknowledged that the examples to identify the main topics of a tale-type on collected in Apollodorus are drawn from the basis of recurring concentrations of words diverse published sources that Frazer had associated with plot patterns. This software available. These texts were not selected analyzes the lexical surface of texts, and according to modern source-critical standards. therefore the analysis of multiple texts is Some of these source texts have potentially subject to a degree of language dependence. been subject to significant editing for the In addition, variation in the lexical surface earlier publication, or they may reflect (e.g. owing to synonymy, phraseology or summaries and paraphrases of, for example, alternation between common noun and an early 19th century scholars. In addition, agent’s proper name) are not accounted for by Frazer’s translations are, in a number of cases, the software. Yet, it may offer a general path based on, for example, earlier German for motif analysis. translations of the narrative from another For the purposes of this initial pilot study, language – although Lévi-Strauss claims that no attempt was made to tag texts’ lexica a mythical message is preserved even through according to number or categories of semantic the worst translation (Levi-Strauss 1958: equivalence. This avoided the possibility that 232). Additionally, it is not clear that Frazer the researcher-interpretation might conflate was interested in critically reflecting the narrative elements which otherwise lexical field of these sources rather than the maintained patterns of use associated with narrative content, and especially that narrative certain motifs and not others (e.g. ‘ram’ and

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Figure 1. Treecloud analysis of our corpus. ‘sheep’, or ‘ram’, ‘sheep’, ‘goats’ and connection with clusters of other semantic ‘flock’). Of course, the critical standards of elements within the data-set as a whole. As an the source texts and their stadial translation initial test, it was here preferred to analyze the have already problematized the validity of test corpus with as little impact from the such distinctions, but they will remain present researcher as possible and as a more distinguished here on a methodological automated outcome of applying the tool to the principle for the present test. Similarly, raw data. Further work will be able to identify nominal designations for agent roles were not and measure the fluctuation due to the tagged to standardize within a text (e.g. standardization – if any – of the vocabulary. ‘monster’ and ‘giant’), nor across different Treecloud was first used to explore our texts (e.g. ‘giant’, ‘devil’ and untranslated data with the following parameters: english vernacular beings such as Sámi stalo). The stoplist, NJ tree, number of words: 75; width decision ‘to tag or not to tag’ agentive roles of the sliding window: 20; distance: Jaccard’s across texts from different cultures presents co-occurrence. ‘Neighbor joining’ is a methodological issues that shape the outcome bottom-up clustering method for the creation of the analysis in either case. On the one of phylogenetic trees (NJ tree); the branch hand, not doing so avoids the problems lengths as well as the topology of a already mentioned, and the effect of treating parsimonious tree can quickly be obtained by only agentive roles in this way could have using this method. I retain the 75 most unpredictable consequences for the data. On frequent words from which the tree is formed the other hand, not doing so may make motifs (number of words: 75). This portion studied associated with redactions linked to certain corresponds to a sliding window, with a width terms more observable, but also affect the of 20 words and 1 as the size of the sliding reflection of the common agentive role steps between two consecutive windows identifiable with Homer’s Polyphemus in (width of the sliding window: 20). The 15 statistical tool of the Jaccard index is used for ‘brother’ appears peculiar here. This could comparing the similarity and diversity of suggest a correlation between the ring sample sets. The Jaccard coefficient measures episode, described as motif D1612.1 Magic similarity between finite sample sets, and is Objects Betray Fugitive, and the presence of defined as the size of the intersection divided brothers at the beginning of the story. This by the size of the union of the sample sets. correlation appears centrally in Frazer’s sixth The Jaccard distance measures dissimilarity and seventh examples (Frazer 1921: 415–418) between sample sets and is obtained by and a ‘brother’ is mentioned in connection subtracting the Jaccard coefficient from 1. with a magic ring possessed by the giant in a Results were found to be robust to changes in different motif (i.e. not motif D1612.1) in a co-occurrence distance formula and number medieval example from The Book of Dede of words; all distance formulas perform Korkut (Frazer 1921: 453, 455). Frazer’s sixth approximately equally well and the number of example refers to characters as ‘brother’ words including in the sliding window did not rather than ‘man’ etc. or a personal name, affect our results. while the seventh treats ‘Little Brother’ as the The program reflects the relative frequency name of the protagonist. Together, these two of words by the font size and color in which versions account for the majority of these appear in the tree, where larger words occurrences of the word ‘brother’ in the data can be inferred to be more significant. The set and have led to its disproportionate result is shown in Figure 1, which reveals five association with the motif with the ring. primary clusters. These five groups match to Cluster (4) centers on the words ‘fire’ and varying degrees with motifs identified by ‘eye’ with a number of minor words. The Thompson and Uther. subgroup ‘middle’, ‘forehead’ and ‘eye’ Cluster (1) presents the prominent words points to the unique eye of the monster found ‘skin’, ‘killed’, ‘ram’ and ‘flock’, as well as in several variants. The subgroup ‘fire’, ‘ship’ and ‘hands’ in a lighter colour and ‘heated’, ‘roast’, ‘roasted’, ‘red-hot’, ‘spit’, smaller size. This cluster appears to correlate ‘stuck’, and ‘thrust’ correlate with the weapon quite strikingly to the hero’s escape under the used by the protagonist (a spit or hot water), skin or the belly of a ram and can be while the words ‘eye’ and ‘blinded’ correlate interpreted as referring to the relevant with the weapon’s target and the resulting narrative sequence (motifs K521, K521.1. and blindness of the giant. This cluster presents a K603). striking correlation with narrative elements of In cluster (2), ‘cave’, ‘giant’ (motif F531 the tale-type; the words ‘eye’ (used in the and the largest word of the cluster) and singular), ‘forehead’, ‘middle’ involve F512, ‘sheep’ are prominent, with ‘stone’ and ‘men’ i.e. ‘person unusual as to his eye’. ‘Heated’, somewhat lighter and not far from ‘escape’, ‘red-hot’, ‘roast’, ‘roasted’, and ‘thrust’ point ‘begin’ and ‘door’. The words ‘begin’ and toward the ‘glowing mass thrust into the eye’ ‘sheep’ appear ambiguous, but this cluster of K1011; ‘spit’ is included in both K1010 otherwise appears to correlate strongly with (deception) and K1011 (blinds the dupe); the narrative element of the cave of the giant finally, ‘blinded’ involves K1011. as a locked place from which human beings Cluster (5) centers on ‘monster’, ‘eat’, want to escape. Between cluster (1) and ‘flesh’, ‘devil’ and ‘man’. This cluster can be cluster (2), it is also interesting to observe that correlated with the fact that the monster eats the words ‘ram’ and ‘flock’ group separately human flesh. Again it is noteworthy that from the word ‘sheep’, which may be ‘giant’ appears associated with cluster (2), associated with this cluster as the word most separate from ‘monster’ and ‘devil’ here as frequently co-occurring with the giant’s well as from ‘ogre’ in still another group, activity of housing or caring for the animals, although all of these fill the same role or or opening the cave to let out the animals. function in a set of motifs in this tale-type or In cluster (3), the words ‘ring’, ‘finger’, might be identified with motif F531 Giant. ‘cut’ and ‘kettle’ all correlate with the episode Note that a bias can occur because Treecloud concerning the magic ring. The word will not, for example, identify a giant at the

16 level of narrative content if it is identified This pilot study also reveals certain through description (e.g. as a man many times problematic aspects of the use of Treecloud. the size of other men) without using a word First, exceptional features of certain narratives that is tagged as indicating ‘giant’. may significantly impact the lexical surface of ‘Giant’ is linked to the sealed cave, with individual examples, producing a the word ‘sheep’ potentially linked to the concentration of a particular word. This is the motif of releasing the animals from the sealed case with ‘brother’ in cluster (3), where two cave while blind. Similarly, the word ‘eyes’ examples account for significantly more than appears here at the root of this cluster while half of the examples of the word. This the singular ‘eye’ appears in cluster (4) linked concentration appears directly connected to to blindness and the motif of blinding in the the appearance of ‘brother’ as a high- form ‘blinded’, while here the form ‘blind’ frequency word in the overall corpus and also appears. The plural ‘eyes’ may cluster with offsets the relative frequency with which ‘devil’ as one of the only monsters that ‘brother’ co-occurred with other narrative possesses two eyes. A second analysis could elements by linking it especially to those reveal that this cluster groups more particular elements prominent in the two particular data that only occur in some versions of the examples. In this case, the word ‘brother’ was story (such as ‘stalo’, ‘Sly-Boots’, ‘devil’). seen as linked to the motif of the magic ring The overall impression of the result is that (or D1612.1), which was prominent in those the lexical surface of the examples analyzed two examples but was not a motif found in this way does produce some evidence of throughout the corpus. This type of problem motifs. However, this statement must be can be moderated in the future by increasing nuanced: motif words associable with G100 the number of examples of the tale studied. Giant Ogre, Polyphemus, are divided between The number and the way to treat multiple the first and the fifth clusters. Moreover, cultures and periods remains to be ‘ogre’ appears as an important word between investigated. Nevertheless, it also highlights the first and the second clusters, noting that that information generated by applications of this term, however, is only used in Frazer’s the software cannot be taken at face value and examples twenty-one, twenty-four and it is the responsibility of the researcher to twenty-five and then once in the translation of consider the information in dialogue with the the example from The Book of Dede Korkut. material being analysed. Motif K602 “Noman” does not appear, nor is Another problematic aspect of this use of this motif mentioned in Uther’s revised the lexicometric software is that it reveals classification. However, the software would only the highest degree of co-occurrence of only reveal the presence of this sort of name- each word singly throughout the whole disguise if a) multiple texts used the same diagram. When words are equated with ‘No Man’ / ‘Noman’ / ‘No One’ / ‘Nobody’ semantic elements and the clusters of as a word, and b) the name would be recurrent elements are identified with motifs, this within a text rather than only used once. means that any single word can only appear in Viewed uncritically from the perspective one cluster, and thus any single element will of broad motifs mentioned by Thompson and only be correlated with one motif in the whole Uther in their descriptions of the narrative, of the narrative. The relevance of words to statistics provide a largely positive correlation multiple clusters is highlighted by the between motifs (although sometimes as distribution across clusters of words that can groupings of motifs) and the clusters of be considered synonyms or potentially lexical items (85% of the whole motif; 75% equivalent variations in different versions, when we take into account and delete the such as ‘blind’–‘blinded’, ‘eye’–‘eyes’, duplicated motifs F512, F531, K1010, K21). ‘man’–‘men’–‘boy’–‘brother’, ‘giant’–‘ogre’– Lexicometic tools could potentially open up ‘monster’ and so forth. When compared with new areas for research and may be able to the example of ‘brother’ above, the clusters in reconstruct large numbers of motifs which some of these terms appear may automatically. potentially also be influenced by unusual uses

17 in the lexical surface of a few particular texts. understand what semantic territories were This dispersal would be eliminated if all of behind the construction of the observed the terms for the monster were tagged ‘giant’, folktales. but this would also consolidate that role as Each text of the corpus (all the different appearing linked to only a single cluster. This texts collected) was individualized during the difficulty can also be linked to the issue of lexical analysis (vs. other software like motifs as narrative elements. For example, Treecloud, which treats all the texts together). cluster (2) appears associated with the men This individualization accounts for an trapped in the cave by the giant. The word additional variable in the analysis. This ‘mouth’ appears here owing to the recurrent method also eliminates the largest bias of expression ‘mouth of the cave’. This appears over-represented words that may exhibit a equivalent to ‘door’ in the adjacent cluster, remarkably high frequency in only a few texts where ‘legs’ is found, linked to the door by and thereby off-set the data, such as ‘brother’ the motif of the giant letting his sheep and (59 occurrences; see Figure 2). goats out of the cave between his legs. Yet Iramuteq software constructs a dictionary ‘giant’ appears with ‘sheep’ and ‘cave’ while of ‘lexical forms’ which are lemmatized, i.e. ‘legs’ appears with ‘door’ and ‘goats’. These Iramuteq automatically reduces words to their two clusters could be interpreted as reflecting root forms and grammatical classification to narrative elements of the trapping of the men eliminate function words. This includes the and their escape, respectively. However, it conversion of verbs to their infinitive, plurals becomes questionable how accurately to singular, and so forth. The lemmatization individual clusters may represent motifs if deletes the impact of synonyms terms such as some of their key elements do not appear ‘blind’–‘blinded’, ‘eye’–‘eyes’, ‘man’–‘men’ linked to them because their relative and to some degree makes the lexical field frequency is slightly higher in connection more uniform. This is already an advantage of with a different cluster. Treecloud effectively Iramuteq over other pieces of software such reduces the whole lexical surface of the as Treecloud. corpus into exclusive clusters of elements. Table 1. Number of the most widespread occurrences What it does not do is reveal the concentrated (only nouns and verbs) in the untagged and tagged open clusters of co-occurring elements corpus. In the data set “Tagged texts 1”, ‘devil’, recurrent through the corpus which would ‘ogre’, ‘stalo’, ‘monster’, ‘cyclops’, ‘Basa-Jaun’, enable, for example, acknowledging multiple ‘Tartaro’ and ‘Depe Ghoz’ have been tagged as ‘giant’; ‘ram’, ‘flock’ and ‘goat’ have been tagged as clusters in which ‘giant’ was a key element. ‘sheep’; ‘hatchet’ as ‘ring’; and ‘myself’ as ‘nobody’. The data set “Tagged text 2” differs from Tagged text The Iramuteq Pilot Study 1 by not tagging ‘cyclops’ as ‘giant’ and tagging ‘one- Iramuteq 0.6 alpha 3 (Ratinaud 2009; 2012; eyed’ as ‘cyclops’ (which appears reflected in the see additional material in Schonhardt-Bailey number of occurrences of ‘eye’ in the present table). 2013) allows for statistical analysis of the Lexical Instances in Corpus corpus text (width of the sliding window: 40; unit for a good synthesis). The classification done Untagged Tagged text 1 Tagged text 2 by this software is based on lexical proximity giant 184 312 305 and the idea that words used in similar eye 110 172 172 contexts are associated with the same lexical sheep 109 102 102 and mental worlds. Iramuteq assumes that as man 84 84 84 the speaker speaks, he is investing in a cave 73 73 73 fire 60 60 60 succession of different worlds, which each brother 59 59 59 successively impose their properties and a ogre 53 = ‘giant’ = ‘giant’ specific vocabulary. The software could also day 48 48 48 be very useful for the reconstruction of the skin 47 47 47 successive ‘lexical worlds’ that a folktale eat 46 46 46 teller successively inhabits. By classifying find 46 46 46 together the co-occurring words, we may ring 45 45 45

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Each text is cut into segments. The of partitions that maximizes the inter-classes segmentation is automatically obtained as inertia leads to the first set of partitions. Then sentences or parts of sentences cut by natural the software tests whether each unit is punctuation and sometimes as somewhat exchangeable from one class to another to larger units made by the concatenation of control the robustness of the result. After all several succeeding sentences. Within each the text segments have been partitioned into segment, the software maps the distribution of two classes, the algorithm repeats the the forms selected by the researcher for operation at every step for the larger of the analysis (nouns, verbs, etc.). The results are remaining classes until the required number then collated and brought together to be of iterations have been done. analysed. The software aims to cluster forms When applying Iramuteq to the corpus, I according to similarity and differences in the first applied the software to the raw, untagged distribution of the vocabulary. The analysis is text, and then to the corpus with lexica tagged based on a series of bi-partitions calculated according to number or categories of semantic from the binary table (presence / absence) equivalence. It should be noted that the crossing lexical forms and segments. The set Iramuteq software’s distinction of each text as

Figure 2. Principal Component Analysis of the untagged corpus.

19 a factor in analysis has implications, clustering of elements in any one group especially for analyzing agent roles. When the necessarily requires their exclusion from other term for the adversary is consistent within groups. each text but varies between texts, that agent Iramuteq’s Principal Component Analysis will not appear to the software as consistently found three classes, covering 38,4% (red), co-occurring with other elements of a motif. 32,3% (green) and 29,3% (blue) of segments In other words, the variation between texts in the untagged text, as seen in Figure 2. The could produce interference in the data so that first lexical group includes essentially the the agent would not appear as an element of house of the giant and its lexical field the motif. To test for this problem, I therefore (‘home’, ‘house’, ‘stone’, ‘wall’, ‘mountain’, analyzed the sample corpus with both ‘arrive’, ‘enter’, etc.) and the lexical field of untagged and tagged texts in order to identify the village (‘house’, ‘home’, ‘entrance’, and measure the fluctuation – if any – ‘smoke’, etc.) Neither Thompson nor Uther resulting from this standardization of the address this as a motif. The second lexical vocabulary. group can be associated with the moment when the giant is blinded (‘fire’, ‘spit’, Iramuteq Correspondance Factorial ‘sleep’, ‘eye’, ‘roast’, ‘boil’, ‘forehead’, etc. – Analysis K1010 and K1011). The third lexical group The most common nouns and verbs have been can be interpreted as reflecting the flight of classified with a correspondence factorial the hero under the skin or the belly of a ram analysis (method GNEPA, formerly called (‘skin’, ‘ram’, ‘back’, ‘trick’, ‘disguise’, etc. – ALCESTE; factor 1: 57.67%; factor 2: K521, K521.1. and K603). The magic ring 42.33%). This factorial analysis is based on episode does not appear and might not be an calculations of inertia (or of variance) – i.e. of essential motif, which is to be defined not in differences between the classes. It specifically terms of the number of occurrences of the reveals the contrasted use of vocabulary in the motif in the corpus, but rather by belonging to different lexical groups and the proximity of a core lexical group that appears constitutive lexical items inside each of them. of the tale. In order to prevent a circular The default options values of the program representation of ‘motif’ (i.e. circularity as the were maintained (size of rst 1 = 12; size of the method of text analysis circularly defining the rst 2 = 14; number of terminal classes during phenomenon that is its object of study the first phase 1 = 10; minimum number of according to the parameters through which it segments of text per class = automatic; is identified), the data obtained should be minimum frequency of an analysed form: 2; carefully re-analysed with other algorithms. maximum number of analysed form 3000; Furthermore, our result should be reproduced method of the singular value decomposition: with a larger database. irlba). The classification obtained is based on With the first tagged text (cyclops = giant), lexical proximity; it is not a matter of represented in Figures 3 and 4, the scores of counting occurrences, but of relations among the factors are far worse than those obtained words, consequently ‘giant’ does not appear with the untagged data (Factor 1: 31.02%; prominently in the principal component factor 2: 27.39%, for a total of 58.41% versus analysis shown in Figure 2 (untagged text), a total of 100% for the untagged data); this although it is the noun most frequently Principal Component (Figure 3) explains appearing in the corpus (184 instances fewer things from a statistical point of view including all morphological inflections), nor and so appears less reliable. Five categories were does ‘giant’ appear in Figures 3 or 5, which found. Whereas the untagged data presented show the result with tagged text. Instead, the three groupings on a more or less evenly word appears floating in the center of the distributed grid, the tagged data presented two multiple groupings. It should be noted groupings as outliers on the grid, while three immediately that, as in the Treecloud are interpenetrating to varying degrees. Group analysis, each element occurs only once in a (1), which appears here in red, covers 22.72% diagram, which means that semantic of the segments in the text, and presents a

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Figure 3. Principal Component Analysis of the Tagged texts 1 corpus (all terms for monster = ‘giant’).

Figure 4. Dendrogram of the Principal Component Analysis in Figure 3. Percentages represent the percentage of segments of the texts. 21 fairly cohesive grouping that centers on the overall, this does not explain why these would words ‘fire’, ‘spit’, ‘eye’, ‘thrust’, ‘boil’, have appeared as clearly distinguished ‘stick’, ‘red’, ‘roast’, ‘heat’, ‘snore’, ‘sleep’, groupings in Figure 2. The tagging of the with a number of minor words. This group agent adversary seems to have led to a much was also one of the three groups in the more distinctive clustering of elements that analysis of the untagged corpus, although here appear associated with the blinding. This has with a slightly different concentration. The produced a shift in the grid and distribution in appearance of ‘single’ near ‘eye’ may here it. At the same time, tagging elements point to the unique eye of the monster found associated with the giant’s livestock has also in several variants and the way used by the affected the outcome: in Figure 2, ‘ram’ is protagonist to blind him (‘thrust’ points associated with ‘skin’, ‘sheep’ is at the toward the ‘glowing mass thrust into the eye’ periphery of the grouping close to the cluster of K1011). Group (2) only appears linked to the cave, and ‘goat’ is grouped with distinguished as a group for the Tagged texts the cave cluster (with implications for the 1 corpus. It covers 19.67% of the segments identification of the lexical item ‘goat’ with and is presented here in black at the center of the giant’s livestock but not with the escape the chart, interpenetrating all other groups of the hero). Thus the tagging of the data has while lacking any words more prominent than increased the potential representation of two ‘mother’. This scattered group appears motifs, one of which was not reflected in the connected to human relations (‘mother’, untagged data, while situating the distinct ‘voice’, ‘sister’, ‘girl’, ‘son’ ‘man’, ‘virgin’, groupings associable with the escape and ‘boy’, ‘child’) and interactions (‘voice’, location together. ‘laugh’, ‘answer’, ‘pray’, ‘reply’). Group (3) The second tagged corpus is identical to in green and covering 18,03% of the the first except that ‘cyclops’ (= ‘one-eyed’) is segments, presents the words ‘sheep’, ‘skin’, separated from other terms for monster. The ‘leg’, ‘back’, ‘trick’, ‘count’, ‘belly’, ‘kill’, result (factor 1: 51,37%; factor 2: 48,63%) is and so forth. ‘Sheep’ and ‘skin’ appear as similar to the analysis of the untagged corpus quite pronounced elements, with ‘sheep’ the in the sense that it produces three groups on more prominent element here, in contrast to an evenly distributed grid. The first (31,07%) ‘ram’ in Figure 2, where the corresponding includes the words ‘sheep’, ‘skin’, ‘leg’, group is set apart. This cluster appears to ‘pass’, ‘hand’, ‘back’, ‘horn’, ‘belly’ and correlate quite strikingly with the hero’s points towards the hero’s escape. In contrast escape under the skin or the belly of a ram to both the untagged data and the Tagged and can be interpreted as referring to the texts 1 corpus, the elements associated with relevant narrative sequence (motifs K521, the escape do not exhibit a coherent grouping: K521.1. and K603). Group 4 centers on the for example, ‘cave’ (and ‘village’) group with words ‘stone’, ‘cave’, ‘mouth’, ‘entrance’, ‘sheep’ while ‘home’ appears with the second ‘roll’, ‘enter’, ‘block’, ‘house’ and so forth, cluster. In the second cluster, ‘wood’, ‘land’, which are represented in a somewhat larger ‘ship’, ‘walk’, ‘sea’, ‘shore’, ‘foot’, ‘drown’, size. The group lacks particularly centralized ‘board’, and ‘home’ seem linked with the elements although it was a clearly distinct journey of the hero, which was not group in the analysis of the untagged data, distinguished in the untagged data which also where it also exhibited more prominent appeared in a slightly different configuration words. This group points towards the home of in the Tagged texts 1 corpus. Class 3 shows the giant. In group (5), covering 14.29% of the words ‘fire’, ‘spit’, ‘eye’, ‘boil’, ‘stick’, the segments here shown in pink, the larger ‘heat’, ‘thrust’, ‘red’, and so forth, pointing words ‘ship’, ‘sea’, ‘shore’, ‘walk’, ‘wood’, towards the blinding of the monster. ‘walk’, ‘land’, ‘board’ belong to the lexical Across the three tests, groups associable field for travel. with the blinding of the adversary and with Although the extensive interpenetration of the escape of the hero can be observed in all Groups (3) and (4) may be because of a more three cases. Tagging the terms for the regular co-occurrence of their constituents livestock of the adversary appears to have

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Figure 5. Principal Component Analysis of Tagged texts 2 corpus (‘cyclops’ = ‘one-eyed’; all other monsters = ‘giant’).

Table 2. Chart of results comparing motifs identified with ATU 1137 by Thompson and Uther against those which appear identified by the Iramuteq Correspondance Factorial Analysis. (G100: Giant ogre, Polyphemus; F531: Giant; F512: Person unusual as to his eyes; K1011: Eye-remedy. Under pretence of curing eyesight, the trickster blinds the dupe. (Often with a glowing mass thrust into the eye.); K1010: Deception through false doctoring; K602: ‘Noman’; K521.1: Escape by dressing in animal (bird, human) skin; K603: Escape under ram’s belly; K521: Escape by disguise; D1612.1: Magic objects betray fugitive. Give alarm when fugitive escapes; PROPOSED MOTIF 1: Hero’s habitat and relationship; PROPOSED MOTIF 2: Monster habitat; PROPOSED MOTIF 3: The journey; PROPOSED MOTIF 4: The monster owns sheep.) Motif Untagged text Tagged text 1 Tagged text 2 G100/ F531 Not found Not found Not found F512 Group 2 (forehead?) Group 2 (forehead?) Not found K1011/K1010 Group 2 Group 1 Group 3 K602 Not found Not found Not found K521.1/K603/K521 Group 3 Group 4 Group 1 D1612.1 Not found Not found Not found PROPOSED MOTIF 1 Group 1 Group 2 Not found PROPOSED MOTIF 2 Group 1 Group 3 Group 2 ? PROPOSED MOTIF 3 Group 1 ? Not found Group 2 PROPOSED MOTIF 4 Group 3 ? Group 4 ? Group 1 ?

23 been significant in the intermingling of outcome of analysis, although significant groups associated with the hero’s escape and variations in some areas were clearly evident. the place of habitation. The dissolution of the However, it is noteworthy that, for example, group associated with the place, when G100: Giant ogre, Polyphemus / F531: Giant ‘cyclops’ (grouping closer to ‘sheep’) is does not appear as a prominent element, but is distinguished from ‘giant’ while ‘ogre’ and rather represented in small font near the other terms are not, is rather surprising. center of the three distributed groupings in To sum up, Table 2 offers an overview of Figures 2 and 5, suggesting a more or less the motifs for which potential evidence could equal association with each of these groups. be identified in the data using Iramuteq’s Principle Component Analysis. Iramuteq Similarities Analysis These analyses of tagged texts confirms A similarities analysis has also been done the three categories found in the untagged (index: co-occurrence; layout: fuchterman data, but only two of these consistently, and reingol; maximum tree; size of text: 10). This they added three additional ones. The results approach is based on properties of the seem robust and the variation in the lexical connectivity of the corpus. The result is the surface texture of texts may affect much less graphic tree shown in Figure 6 (untagged text) than what was initially expected in the and in Figure 7 (tagged text), where nodes are

Figure 6. Similarities Analysis of the untagged corpus.

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Figure 7. Similarities Analysis of the Tagged text 1 corpus (all terms for monster = ‘giant’). lexically based elements revealed in the form (K521, K521.1. and K603). These results of lexical communities. generally correspond to the group 2 and the This algorithm shows the proximity group 3 found with the principal component between the elements (co-occurrence). With analysis shown in Figure 2. It is noteworthy the untagged data, the ‘giant’ (F.531) is the that ‘ogre’ appears in a position centered central figure, according to the fact that he among the smaller clusters but connected to should be associated with all essential motifs ‘sheep’ rather than to ‘giant’. On the one of the tale-type. Tree 6 allows the word hand, ‘ogre’ and ‘giant’ appear to function as ‘giant’ to be connected to many lexical mutually exclusive terms in the corpus, thus groups, and it is linked to many important ‘ogre’ would not be linked as co-occurring groups, organized around the words ‘eye’ with ‘giant’. On the other hand, ‘ogre’ is (singular; F512), ‘sheep’, ‘man’ and ‘cave’. associated with the same motifs but only links These words, bigger than the others, could be to one of these. The Iramuteq Similarities the most important categories of being, Analysis only allows each element to appear around which less important beings, actions once in the tree and only allows semantic or objects could be organized. Only two relations to branch outward, thus ‘ogre’ groups seem to be very important: the cluster cannot be linked to elements in other branches surrounding ‘eye’ is linked to two small from ‘giant’ although its position in the tree groups: ‘fire’ and ‘spit’ (K1010 and K1011); seems otherwise to reflect its relationship to the cluster surrounding ‘sheep’ is linked with them. A small group around the words the smaller groups ‘ogre’ (G100) and ‘skin’ ‘finger’ and ‘ring’ can be associated with the

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Figure 8. Similarities Analysis of the Tagged text 2 corpus (‘cyclops’ = ‘one-eyed’; all other monsters = ‘giant’). motif B1612.1. Another small group points 7 and 8, which show less detailed yet similar

toward the ogre’s habitat (around ‘cave’). clusters. The degree to which these can be seen as An overview of comparisons is surveyed in unambiguously linked to motifs in narration is Table 3. problematized by words that appear The untagged corpus produced a tree with fundamental to the motif but are dispersed wider dispersal and many more smaller elsewhere in the diagram. A striking example branches in Figure 6 than the tagged corpora is precisely the linkage of ‘eye’, ‘fire’ and in Figures 7 and 8, as was expected. Tagging ‘spit’ that we are likely to associate with the the term for the adversary and his livestock motif of blinding the adversary (especially significantly tightened the groupings around K1011) on the basis of our previous each lexical-semantic center. This did not, knowledge of the tale. However, the word however, significantly impact the centers for ‘blind’ is distantly removed from these ‘giant’, ‘sheep’, ‘eye’ or ‘fire’, although the elements on another side of the cluster around smaller centers ‘cave’ and ‘man’ were ‘giant’. Put another way, the key semantic reduced in relative prominence while the element of the motif is absent from the center of ‘ogre’ was eliminated entirely. prominent lexical cluster with which it seems Our results show that statistical tools can most readily identifiable. be placed productively in dialogue with The program was relaunched with the motifs already claimed to be present by same tagged texts as in Figures 3 and 5; Thompson and Uther (e.g. K1011 / K1010, significantly. The results are shown in Figures K521.1. / K521 / K603 ). More significantly,

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Table 3. Chart of results comparing motifs identified with ATU 1137 by Thompson and Uther against those which appear identified by Iramuteq Similarities Analysis. (G100: Giant ogre, Polyphemus; F531: Giant; F512: Person unusual as to his eyes; K1011: Eye-remedy. Under pretence of curing eyesight the trickster blinds the dupe. (Often with a glowing mass thrust into the eye.); K1010: Deception through false doctoring; K602: ‘Noman’; K521.1: Escape by dressing in animal (bird, human) skin; K603: Escape under ram’s belly; K521: Escape by disguise; D1612.1: Magic objects betray fugitive. Give alarm when fugitive escapes; PROPOSED MOTIF 1: Hero’s habitat and relationship; PROPOSED MOTIF 2: The Capture of the hero; PROPOSED MOTIF 3: Monster habitat PROPOSED MOTIF 4: The journey; PROPOSED MOTIF 5: The monster owns sheep.) Motif Untagged text Tagged text 1 Tagged text 2 G100/F531 Around ‘giant’ Around ‘giant’ Around ‘giant’ F512 Around ‘eye’ (‘forehead’, Around ‘eye’ (‘forehead’) Around ‘eye’ (‘forehead’, ‘middle’) ‘middle’) K1011/K1010 Around ‘fire’ & ‘spit’ Around ‘fire’, ‘spit’ & ‘boil’ Around ‘fire’ K602 Not found Not found Not found K521.1/K603/K521 Around ‘sheep’ & ‘skin’ Around ‘sheep’ & ‘skin’ Around ‘sheep’ & ‘skin’ D1612.1 Around ‘ring’ (small cluster) Around ‘ring’ (small cluster) Around ‘ring’ (small cluster) PROPOSED MOTIF 1 Around ‘man’ (small cluster) Not found Not found PROPOSED MOTIF 2 Not found Around ‘man’ (small cluster) Around ‘man’ (small cluster) PROPOSED MOTIF 3 Around ‘cave’ Around ‘cave’ (?) Around ‘cave’ (?) PROPOSED MOTIF 4 Not found Not found Not found PROPOSED MOTIF 5 Around ‘sheep’ Around ‘sheep’ Around ‘sheep’ these tools also makes it possible to consider Thompson and Uther, it was possible to new motifs, such as ‘the home of the giant is a propose good correspondences with many of cave’ (around the word ‘cave’), ‘a giant owns them, as shown in Table 4. sheep’ (around ‘sheep’), ‘a young man is As one can see, the software remains far captured’ (around ‘man’). from fully satisfactory. It only found K1010/K1011 (the blinding event) and Conclusion K521.1./ K.603 / K.521 (escape under the When comparing the Iramuteq analysis to the skin). In more than 50% of cases, one can the classical motifs identified with this tale by accept the detection of F512 (Person unusual Table 4. Chart comparing results from Tables 2 and 3. Motif Correspondence factorial Similarities analysis (% of the analysis (% of the results) results) G100/ F531 Not found 100 % F512 66% 100 % K1011/K1010 100 % 100 % K602 Not found Not found K521.1/K603/K521 100 % 100 % D1612.1 Not found 100 % PROPOSED MOTIF 1 66 % 33 % PROPOSED MOTIF 2 Not found 66 % PROPOSED MOTIF 3 100 % 100 % (?) PROPOSED MOTIF 4 33 % Not found PROPOSED MOTIF 5 100 % 100 %

27 as to his eyes), even if it remains questionable recommended to compare the results. (to find the lexical cluster linking to each Additionally, if, following the present study, motif, see above). D1612.1 (the ring episode) we define a motif as a semantic attractor, a and G100 were found in only 50% of the central point which underpins a set of related results. To explain this difference, we must words, it is also necessary to observe that a remember first that tests on the corpus were constellation of lexica such as ‘skin’, ‘ram’, problematic. Certain classic motifs such as the ‘back’, ‘trick’ and ‘disguise’ cannot ‘Noman’ false name may reduce to a single necessarily be reconstituted as a single, lexical item according to this approach. coherent motif. Similarly, the constellation Similarly, Iramuteq automatically reduces ‘fire’, ‘spit’ and ‘eye’ might be interpretable words to their root forms, and thus cannot as a blinding motif, but this constellation distinguish between ‘eye’ and ‘eyes’, which begins to appear chaotic when it is might be relevant for the cyclops having one accompanied by ‘sleep’, ‘roast’ and ‘boil’. At eye as opposed to two (F512). These elements the present state of research, it is interesting to have highlighted problems of identifying all apply these tools in research on motifs, but it the elements purely on the basis of the lexical is not possible to reconstitute motifs from the surface of the text because the single term information produced without presupposing may vary from text to text and also vary with narrative elements (as already described other lexica such as personal names and motifs) and placing these as well as the pronouns, as well as being rendered through information produced by analysis in dialogue description as opposed to a keyword. with the source data. Our method may have detected two new This pilot study initially set out to use motifs: ‘the monster’s habitat is a cave’ and software to demonstrate ‘motifs’, which ‘the monster has sheep’. However, when proved highly problematic in a number of considering comparison with Thompson’s respects. However, the outcome did produce a motif index, it is necessary to observe that new model for approaching tales in terms of Thompson was concerned with motifs that semantic networks of elements. The graphic could be found across tale-types, and representations in Figures 2–3 and 5–8 are not consequently motifs as quite abstract or representations of motifs per se, but of whole general elements. In contrast, the present tales. Given a particular tale, forthcoming study analyzes only a single tale-type in order software programs may determine if this story to identify recurrent elements characteristic of belongs to a particular tale-type (previously that type at the lexical surface of texts in determined as a certain cloud of words) and if translation. Of course, the findings using this it could be brought closer to other tales corpus necessarily remain conditional on the belonging to the same group on the sole basis degree to which this corpus is representative of the shared semantic elements. of the tradition addressed, and the quality of information produced is dependent on the Acknowledgements: The author wishes to thank Sándor quality of the sources. However, if we Darányi, Jean-Loïc Le Quellec and Jamshid J. Tehrani. My special thanks and acknowledgement go imagine for the sake of experiment that these to Mr. Frog, who has been very helpful and his texts ideally render English lexical comments have improved a lot of passages in this equivalents of the sources of the tradition, it is paper. This text owes much to him. not clear whether these studies reveal ‘motifs’ as conventional units of this particular tale- Works Cited type or ‘motifs’ at the more abstract level of Gambette, Philippe, & Jean Veronis. 2009. “Visualising a Text with a Tree Cloud”. IFCS’09, software Thompson’s types. Additional research in this freely available from www.treecloud.org. field is certainly needed. Similar studies Frazer, James George. 1921. Apollodorus: The Library across narratives of different types are II. Londres: William Heinemann / New York: G.P. required to confirm the new motifs Putnam’s sons. preliminarily identified here and to find Hackman, Oskar. 1904. Die Polyphemsage in der Volksüberlieferung. Helsinki. others. Moreover, the use of multiple types of Lévi-Strauss, Claude. 1958. Anthropologie structurale. software and algorithms is highly Paris: Plon.

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Ratinaud, Pierre. 2009. “IRaMuTeQ : Interface de R Thompson, Stith. 1955. Narrative Motif-Analysis as a pour les Analyses multidimensionnelles de Textes Folklore Method. FF Communications 161. et de Questionnaires”. Available at: Helsinki: Academia Scientiarum Fennica. http://www.iramuteq.org Thompson, Stith. 1955–1958. Motif-Index of Folk- Ratinaud, Pierre. 2012. “Analyse automatique de Literature: A Classification of Narrative Elements textes”. Unpublished manuscript accessed: in Folk-Tales, Ballads, Myths, Fables, Mediæval http://repere.no-ip.org/Members/. Romances, Exempla, Fabliaux, Jest-Books and Schonhardt-Bailey, Cheryl. 2013. “Book Appendix I: Local Legends I–VI. 2nd rev. edn. Bloomington: Methodology”. Deliberating American Ponetary Indiana University Press. Policy: A Textual Analysis. London: MIT Press. Thompson, Stith. 1961. The Types of the Folktale: A Available at: Classification and Bibliography: Antti Aarne’s http://mitpress.mit.edu/sites/default/files/BOOK%2 Verzeichnis der Märchentypen (FFC No. 3) 0APPENDIX%20I.pdf Translated and Enlarged. 2nd rev. edn. Helsinki: Thompson, Stith. 1932–1936. Motif-Index of Folk- Academia Scientiarum Fennica. Literature: A Classification of Narrative Elements Uther, Hans-Jörg. 2004. The Types of International in Folk-Tales, Ballads, Myths, Fables, Mediæval Folktales: a Classification and Bibliography, Based Romances, Exempla, Fabliaux, Jest-Books and on the System of Antti Aarne and Stith Thompson. Local Legends I–VI. FF Communications 106–109, Tales of the Stupid Ogre, Anecdotes and Jokes, and 116–117. Helsinki: Academia Scientiarum Fennica. Formula Tables. Helsinki: Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia.

The U Version of Snorra Edda Daniel Sävborg, University of Tartu

Snorra Edda has been preserved in four overviews describe the matter as unsolved independent manuscripts. Codex Regius, (e.g. Lindow 1988: 352; Faulkes 1992: 601). Codex Wormianus and Codex Trajectinus are So far, scholars have used criteria such as close to each other and can – in spite of the degree of quality, accuracy and logic to certain differences – be said to represent one determine the priority. Just a few examples version, RTW. The text of Codex Upsaliensis will be mentioned. Eugen Mogk points to is at several points very different from the details where U, according to him, has the other manuscripts and is usually seen as the better text (“Dass dieser lesart die von A [= sole representative of another version, U. U] […] vorzuziehen ist, unterliegt wol keinem What distinguishes the two versions is mainly zweifel” [‘That this reading in A (= U) [...] is the length and style of the narrative sections. preferable, there can indeed be no doubt’], The U version is, as a whole, remarkably etc.; Mogk 1879: 528), while RTW, in shorter than RTW. Its style and narrative contrast, has elements – absent in U – that are technique is terse and panoramic, mentioning “störend” [‘disturbing’] (1879: 508). He also only details necessary for the plot or the mentions alleged contradictions, purpose of the story, while the style and inconsequences and illogical features in narrative technique of RTW is broad, scenic, RTW, which in the corresponding parts of U and full of rhetorically effective but factually are consequent and logical (1879: 511–514). irrelevant details (a fuller analysis is given in For him, these are strong arguments for the Sävborg 2012: 13–16). priority of U. Finnur Jónsson, on the other Scholars have long argued about which hand, comes to a conclusion opposite to version is closest to the original. Scholars Mogk by arguing in exactly the same way. He such as Finnur Jónsson (1898: 306–355) and points to cases where “det eneste logiske” D.O. Zetterholm (1949: 46–54) argued for the [‘the only thing that is logical’] is found in priority of RTW, while e.g. Eugen Mogk RTW but not in U (Finnur Jónsson 1898: (1879: 510–537) and Friedrich Müller (1941: 335). Friedrich Müller turned the discussion 146) argued that U best represents Snorri’s upside-down in 1941. He argued in favor of original version. Recently, Heimir Pálsson has Mogk’s conclusion that U represents the revived the arguments in favor of U’s priority original version, and that RTW is a reworking in the introduction to his edition of U (Heimir of it, but his arguments were exactly opposite Pálsson 2012: cxvii). The main scholarly to Mogk’s. For Müller, U can be established

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Table 1. Comparison of narrative sections of U and RTW based on the relative proportion of U text in comparison to the Codex Regius text (R). U is 23–85 % of R U is 89–100 % of R Prologue (58 %) Frame narrative Gylfi (69 %) Creation (63 %) Bifrǫst (97 %) Ásgarðr and environs (96 %) Æsir (98 %) Loki and his family (99 %) Ásynjur (89 %) Freyr and Gerðr (34 %) Valhǫll (67 %) Wind (66 %) Giant masterbuilder (66 %) Skiðblaðnir (74 %) Þórr and Útgarðaloki (63 %) Þórr and Hymir (47 %) Baldr’s death (47 %) Loki’s punishment (64 %) Ragnarǫk (64 %) Frame narrative Gylfi (end) (31%) Frame narrative Ægir and Bragi (36 %) Þjazi (47 %) Skaldic mead (43 %)--- Hrungnir (100 %) Geirrøðr (100 %)--- Hjaðningavíg (93 %)--- Dwarf smiths (99 %)--- Otrgjǫld (91 %) Fáfnir and the gold (23 %) Hrólfr kraki (85 %)--- Grotti (23 %) as the original version, not because it is the Eiríks saga rauða is also preserved in two better one, the most logical, etc., but because versions, in which the text also diverges in it is inferior, less logical, and so forth in terms of length and style. Here, we know that comparison to RTW. He agrees with Finnur the Hauksbók text is a reworking of a text that Jónsson’s judgment about U’s more illogical was close to the version found in and worse style, but for him, in contrast to Skálholtsbók; and we also know that it is in Finnur, these are arguments in favor of U’s the Hauksbók manuscript itself that the priority, and the higher quality of RTW at revision takes place (see Jansson 1944). By these points bears witness to that version’s analyzing the relation between U and RTW in secondary status, since, according to Müller, light of the relation between Hauksbók and it has been improved through revision and the Skálholtsbók, new knowledge can be gained illogical and failed features have been deleted. about the revision and transmission of Snorra In short: different scholars have come to Edda. different conclusions in spite of similar In 1879, Eugen Mogk made an important criteria, and they have not been able to agree observation which has remained unnoticed in whether lack of quality, accuracy and logic scholarship on Snorra Edda. He observed should be criteria for primary or secondary that, on the one hand, U and RTW certainly status. Other methods are therefore needed, are very different in most sections, mainly by and the differences between the versions have U’s significantly shorter text and terser, fact- to be explained. oriented style – which is the well-known main

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Table 2. Relative proportions of sections of Eiríks saga rauða in Hauksbók in comparison to the Skálholtsbók text. Hand H is 98–120% of S H is 71–94% of S Secretary 1 Ch. 1 (101 %) Ch. 2 (102 %) Ch. 3 (98 %) Ch. 4 (105 %) Ch. 5 (101 %) Ch. 6 (105 %) Ch. 7 (main part) (112 %) Haukr Ch. 7 end + Ch. 8 (71 %) Ch. 9+beginning of 10 (86 %) Secretary 2 Ch. 10 end (104 %) Ch. 11 (115 %) Ch. 12 + end of ch. 13 (120 %) Haukr Ch. 13 (78 %) Ch. 14 (94 %) difference mentioned above – but that, on the Skálholtsbók: we have to do with more than other hand, they in some other sections are one redactor, and they have followed different very close to each other and of equal length principles, one faithfully reproducing the (Mogk 1879: 500–501). This observation is model, the other strongly reworking it. From correct, and in my research, I have examined these findings, the old problem should be more closely these two types of relation taken up again: has the revision taken place in between the versions (similar vs. non-similar). the U or in the RTW version? Usually, the shift from one type of relation to Here I wish to make two important the other (between similar and non-similar premises: text) is sharp and comes between two 1. The RTW and U versions each generally has sentences (see Sävborg 2012: 35–37). Mogk its own distinctive style, one distinctive style saw no pattern in this, but when all sections in in RTW and another in U (it is not only a U’s narrative parts are directly compared to matter of a relative difference in length). RTW regarding the length, it is clear that 2. The sections with a similar text in RTW and these two types of relation (similar vs. non- U must bear witness of a common source; similar) between the versions form five thus these sections provide us with distinct blocks in U, as shown in Table 1 (for knowledge about the common source of the a full explanation and discussion of this U and RTW versions. figure, see Sävborg 2012: 40–43). If we combine these two points we have a In my opinion, this pattern should be new tool with which to solve the old problem interpreted in the light of a similar pattern of of which of the two versions that best blocks in Hauksbók’s version of Eiríks saga represents the common source. We should rauða in its relation to Skálholtsbók. In look at the sections with similar text in RTW Hauksbók, the text is reproduced by three and U – i.e.: those texts which bear witness of different scribes (Haukr Erlendsson and the the common source – and see which of the st nd so-called 1 and 2 secretaries), one of which two distinctive styles we have there – that significantly shortens and reworks the text style must reasonably be the distinctive style (Haukr) whereas the other two reproduce their of the common source. source more faithfully (especially the 1st If we now look at sections where U and secretary, but also the 2nd secretary); as a RTW have a similar text (and thus bear consequence, the two types of relation witness of the common original), such as the between the versions form blocks in the text, Hrungnir story or the story about Loki and his dependent on the scribe in Hauksbók, as children, we get a clear picture of the stylistic shown in Table 2. tendency (for a close analysis of this, see In my view, the explanation for the shift Sävborg 2012: 29–31, 45–47). The style of between the types of relation is the same in these sections corresponds perfectly with the the case of U–RTW as in Hauksbók– typical style of RTW (broad, scenic, full of 31 rhetorically effective but factually irrelevant Heimir Pálsson. 2012. “Introduction”. In Snorri details) but diverges significantly from the Sturluson, The Uppsala Edda DG 11 4to. Ed. Heimir Pálsson. London: Viking Society for typical style of U (terse, panoramic, Northern Research. Pp. xi–cxxvi. mentioning only details necessary for the plot Jansson, Sven B.F. 1944. Sagorna om Vinland I: or the purpose of the story). The explanation Handskrifterna till Erik den rödes saga. Lund: is reasonably that the U version is created by Håkan Ohlsson. (at least) two different redactors, both of Lindow, John. 1988. “Snorra Edda”. In Dictionary of the Middle Ages 11. New York: Scribner’s Sons. which are reproducing a text close to RTW. Pp. 352–355. One reproduces this source faithfully, while Mogk, Eugen. 1879. “Untersuchungen ueber die the other reworks it, and shortens it, strongly. Gylfaginning”. Beiträge zur Geschichte der The conclusion is that the U version, at least deutschen Sprache und Literatur 6: 477–537. for the narrative prose, represents a revision Müller, Friedrich. 1941. Untersuchungen zur Uppsala- Edda. Dresden: Dittert. of a text of RTW type. Sävborg, Daniel. 2012. “Blockbildningen i Codex Elaborated texts on this subject are found in Upsaliensis: En ny metod att lösa frågan om Snorra Sävborg 2012 (in Swedish) and Sävborg Eddas ursprungsversion”. Maal og Minne 2012: 2013 (in English). 12–53. Sävborg, Daniel. 2013. “Snorra Edda and the Uppsala Edda”. In Snorri Sturluson: Historiker, Dichter, Works Cited Politiker. Ed. Heinrich Beck, Wilhelm Heizmann & Faulkes, Anthony. 1993. “Snorra Edda”. In Medieval Jan Alexander van Nahl. Berlin & Boston: De Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia. Ed. Phillip Pulsiano Gruyter. Pp. 247–266. et al. New York & London: Garland. Pp. 600–602. Finnur Jónsson. 1898. “Edda Snorra Sturlusonar: Dens oprindelige form og samensætning”. Aarbøger for nordisk oldkyndighed og historie 13: 283–357.

Goddesses Unknown II: On the Apparent Old Norse Goddess Ilmr Joseph S. Hopkins, University of Georgia

The present article focuses on the figure of Þá er Vár, ok Syn Ilmr, obscurely referred to in a þula (plural verðr at nefna, þulur) or metrical list preserved in the Prose en Þrúðr ok Rán Edda as an ásynja (plural ásynjur, often þeim næst talið glossed as ‘goddess’) but the subject of very (Faulkes 1998:113–114). little examination. This article acts as a Now shall all ásynjur be named: thematic sequel to “Goddesses Unknown I: Frigg and Freyja, Njǫrun and the Sister-Wife of Njǫrðr”, Full and Snotra, published in RMN Newsletter 5 (Hopkins Gerðr and Gefjun, 2012). Gná, Lofn, Skaði, The þula in question, preserved in versions Jǫrð and Iðunn, of Skáldskaparmál, presents a list of names of Ilmr, Bil, Njǫrun. ásynjur: Hlín and Nanna, Nú skal Ásynj[ur] allar nefna: Hnoss, Rindr, and Sjǫfn, Frigg ok Freyja Sól and Sága, Fulla ok Snotra Sign and Vǫr. Gerðr ok Gefjun Then are Vár and Syn Gná Lofn Skaði to be named, Jǫrð ok Iðunn but Þrúðr and Rán Ilmr Bil Njǫrun. tallied next to them. Hlín ok Nanna As mentioned in the first entry in this series, Hnoss Rindr ok Sjǫfn the Old Norse names Ilmr and Njǫrun are Sól ok Sága Sign ok Vǫr. unique and alike in that, while both names appear in the above list of ásynja names in the 32

þulur of the Prose Edda, no narrative exists in it some currency; it seems to be the most the corpus featuring either of them. Both frequently repeated proposal for the name appear in the skaldic record, yet neither name thereafter. has left an echo in the rímur record. However, Comparatively speaking, ‘pleasant scent’ unlike Njǫrun, the name Ilmr receives neither (or, perhaps semantically, ‘the pleasant- employment in eddic poetry nor any mention scented one’) is a somewhat unexpected name in the Prose Edda beyond her two attestations for a goddess in the Old Norse record. No in Skáldskaparmál. Moreover, the two other Old Norse ásynja-name employs the occurrences in Skáldskaparmál are both in element of scent or any other comparable þulur that may have been attached to the text sensory experience. Of course, the notion of a in manuscript transmission rather than sweet-smelling goddess is hardly unheard of reflecting the knowledge or understanding of in comparative material. For example, the the individual responsible for writing or Greek goddess Aphrodite “is well known for compiling the body of the Prose Edda. One of her fragrance in literature and in cult” these attestations is in the list of ásynjur (Faulkner 2008: 143), and the role of scent in presented above and the second is in a list of culture should not be underestimated (cf. base-words for woman-kennings. As a result, McHugh 2012: 3–19). It would therefore not further information must be gained by be surprising if this interpretation reflected, philological analysis. say, a (hypothetical) cult practice. However, As in the case of Njǫrun, recent while the two nouns are similar enough to scholarship on the topic of Ilmr is all but posit an etymological relationship (or at least silent. Like Njǫrun, Ilmr receives no entry a perceived relation by then-contemporary (nor, it would seem, any other mention) in speakers), morphologically Ilmr (accusative either the handbooks of John Lindow (2002) Ilmi, genitive Ilmar) and ilmr (accusative ilm, or Rudolf Simek (2007 [1993]). The genitive ilms) are certainly two separate Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertums- nouns. This separation combined with a lack kunde (1973–2007) also appears to have of internal comparative material raises nothing to say on the name. Andy Orchard questions about accepting this interpretation (1997: 96) features a brief entry on Ilmr that at face value, and alternate explanations ought simply states that she is listed as an ásynjur in to be weighed. the þulur. Perhaps the most coverage that this topic has received is from a (rather Ilmr: A Valkyrie? mysterious1) 1989 entry in an Icelandic Rather than being attested in only one to three handbook by sgeir Blöndal Magn sson examples in skaldic poetry, there are nine (1989: 419). occurrences of the name Ilmr in verses by The present article is therefore intended to seven different poets. This indicates that the act as a substitute for the missing English name held an integrated position in the language handbook entries on Ilmr and lexicon of skaldic poetry. Eight occurrences, th th engages in dialogue with the threads of however, are found in verses by 10 and 11 inquiry raised by sgeir Blöndal Magn sson. century poets (one undatable). Thus, the name is not simply absent from the mythography of Ilmr: ‘Sweet-Scent’? Edda and its review of skaldic diction but also Ilmr did not entirely escape the analysis of does not appear used in contemporary or later earlier scholars. For example, in the postscript composition. In at least six cases, the name is notes of his Deutsche Mythologie, Jacob used as a component of a kenning meaning Grimm observes that he has neglected to ‘woman’. Three of those instances are found include Ilmr in his discussion of Germanic in the love poetry attributed to the mid-10th goddesses. Grimm says that the feminine Old century Kormákr Ǫgmundarson. He refers to Norse proper noun ilmr appears to be related his beloved Steingerðr once as Ilmr sǫrva to the masculine Old Norse common noun [‘Ilmr of necklaces’] (Skj BI: 79), and twice as ilmr [‘sweet scent’]. (Grimm 1888: 1374.) Ilmr erma [‘Ilmr of sleeves’] (Skj BI: 71, 76). This observation appears to have carried with A similar instance from love poetry is

33 attributed to Hallfrøðr Óttarsson (late 10th being in question as an ásynja or as a century and early 11th century), who refers to valkyrie. a woman as Ilmr unnar dags [‘Ilmr of the day The final instance of Ilmr in skaldic poetry of the wave’ > ‘Ilmr of GOLD’] (Skj BI: 161). is in a stanza preserved in Landnámabók, In a rather different context, the early 11th pertaining to a narrative taking place in the century skald, Bjǫrn hítdœlakappi, refers to a mid-10th century. The poet’s name is given as dís portending his death as Ilmr armleggjar Hrómundr halti. The stanza is lucid and orma [‘Ilmr of arm-serpents’ > ‘Ilmr of appears well-preserved and it clearly contains BRACELETS’] (Skj BI: 282). Finally, an the kenning jalmr Ilmar [‘racket of Ilmr’ > undated fragment quoted in the 13th century BATTLE], where Ilmr carries both alliteration Third Grammatical Treatise refers to an and rhyme. This is closely analogous to other unidentified woman as Ilmr lýskála bála battle kennings formed with valkyrie names, [‘Ilmr of the fires of the fish-halls’ > ‘Ilmr of such as dynr Skǫglar [‘din of Skǫgul’], þrima GOLD’] (Skj BI: 600). Hildar [‘noise of Hildr’], gnýr Gǫndlar [‘roar In two additional instances, the of Gunnr’], and glaumr Gunnar [‘din of interpretation of the stanzas is less Gunnr’]. Kennings of this type do not appear straightforward. In one of Kormákr’s stanzas to have been formed with ásynja-names (cf. and in one stanza in the early 11th century Meissner 1921: 176–202). We must conclude Liðsmannaflokkr, the name Ilmr appears to be that the poet who composed the stanza in used to mean ‘woman’ without any further Landnámabók conceived of Ilmr as a qualifier, something known as a ‘half- valkyrie. kenning’ (on which see e.g. Meissner 1921: The above observation, that Ilmr is 74–78). Other interpretations have also been presented as a valkyrie in Ilmar jalmr, has led suggested: Finnur Jónsson interprets both of to the proposal that Ilmr may therefore have these stanzas as having true kennings. In been the name of a valkyrie (beyond sgeir Kormákr’s stanza, he suggests the kenning Blöndal Magn sson 1989: 419, cf. Sveinbjörn hall-Ilmr [‘stone-Ilmr’ > ‘Ilmr of JEWELRY’], Egilsson & Finnur Jónsson 1931: 319). Ilmr invoking tmesis although hall is in the would be a curious name for a valkyrie if the preceding couplet (Skj BI: 73). In name is understood as ‘pleasant scent’ – one Liðsmannaflokkr, he suggested ár-Ilmr might expect something more of a duann [‘food-Ilmr’], again involving tmesis across [‘bad smell’] when death is involved. With lines (Skj BI: 393) and in this case producing a few exceptions, valkyrie names consist of kenning with few or no parallels (Poole 2012: transparently martial characteristics with 1028). rather straightforward etymologies, Kennings for women of the form sometimes in a compound. However, sgeir ‘(MYTHOLOGICAL NAME) of GOLD/ Blöndal Magn sson raises the possibility that ORNAMENT/CLOTHING’ are a very common the name Ilmr may be etymologically type (cf. Meissner 1921: 413–418). Often, the connected with the aforementioned kenning mythological name is that of an ásynja, element jalmr [‘noise’] ( sgeir Blöndal whether the particular ásynja is well-attested Magn sson 1989: 419). In this case, Ilmr or only poorly attested. In Kormákr would be more in line with the valkyrie name Ǫgmundarson’s woman-kennings, we have Hlǫkk [‘noise, battle’] and therefore not examples of the ásynja names Bil, Eir, atypical.2 Freyja, Frigg, Fríðr, Fulla, Gerðr, Gná, It is notable that Ilmr, as both ásynja and Gefn, Hlín, Hǫrn, Rindr, Sága, Sif, Nanna, apparent valkyrie, is not the only such being Njǫrun, and Vár. Less commonly, valkyrie to fall within more than one ‘supernatural names are used for this purpose. In Kormákr’s female’ parameter. Other examples include poetry, there are instances of Gunnr, Hildr, Eir, Þrúðr, and Skuld. Although Eir is Hrist, and Skǫgul. Thus, if we see a curiously absent in the þula quoted at the mythological name used in woman kennings, beginning of this article, Eir is listed among a we cannot know if the poet conceived of the group of goddess-like beings in Fjǫlsvinnsmál, is explicitly listed as an ásynja

34 in Gylfaginning, and yet appears in a list of the category of norn, valkyrie, or ásynja were valkyrie names in a þula (Faulkes 2008: 176, more likely than cross-category membership.3 but cf. Simek 2007 [1993]: 71–72). Like Ilmr, On the other hand, the identification of Eir does not fit the ‘usual’ valkyrie naming names with different categories is also found conventions: the noun is generally derived in other contexts where cross-category from the poetic common noun eir [‘peace, membership seems unlikely, such as the use clemency, mercy, help’]. When used as a of Þrór as a name for Odin in skaldic proper name in skaldic poetry, Eir is used as a kennings whereas it appears as a dwarf-name name in woman-kennings as well as in a in a list in Vǫluspá (st. 12) (Sveinbjörn valkyrie-kenning but does not seem to have Egilsson & Finnur Jónsson 1931: 647), the been used as a valkyrie-name (Sveinbjörn Odin-name Grímnir appearing separately in Egilsson & Finnur Jónsson 1931: 104). The þulur for jǫtunn and for goat names (ibid.: name Þrúðr, identifiable as the name of 205), or the name Fjalarr appearing identified Thor’s daughter, appears in the with both dwarfs and jǫtnar (ibid.: 135). It aforementioned þula of ásynjur that leads this should not be underestimated that some article, and yet she too appears among a list of mythological names may have become valkyries, in this case in Grímnismál (st. 36). attached to different categories over time and Sveinbjörn Egilsson & Finnur Jónsson (1931: in different language areas, or that they may 648 and cf. 178) also find this name as even have had different referents in different predominantly used in woman-kennings but discourses, especially where they were less also functioning as a valkyrie-name in battle- central or dropped out of use in areas of kennings in a few instances. The situation cultural practice that linked them to narration with Skuld is also interesting for comparison. or ritual (as seems to have been the case with While Skuld is nowhere attested as an ásynja, the common noun þurs as discussed in Frog Skuld is described as a shield-wielding 2013). Thus the use of Ilmr as a component in valkyrie in a valkyrie list in the poem Vǫluspá a battle-kenning in the manner of a valkyrie- (st. 30) and appears in valkyrie lists in both name could be a symptom of the name’s links Gylfaginning (referencing and adding to the to mythology weakening and shifting to a aforementioned Grímnismál list) and in the practical resource for meeting alliteration same valkyrie þula as Eir (Faulkes 2007: and/or rhyme in composing poetry. 176). Gylfaginning also describes Skuld as a A simpler explanation is that these various norn in a few instances (cf. also Vǫluspá 20 categories of female supernatural beings were and also the use in Grógaldr 4), one of which not exclusive to one another. Freyja, for occurs while explicitly also describing Skuld example, the most widely attested ásynja, as a valkyrie (Faulkes 2007: 176). According oversees an afterlife field of the dead, bears to Sveinbjörn Egilsson & Finnur Jónsson’s the name Valfreyja [‘Lady of the Slain’], and lexicon of skaldic poetry, however, this name rides to choose among the dead in battle. does not appear to have had a place in skaldic Indeed, Freyja is described very much like an diction in any capacity: they list only one use extremely powerful valkyrie (see, for in a woman-kenning and observe that the example, Näsström 1995: 86–89). Among the reading is uncertain (Sveinbjörn Egilsson & valkyries, norns, dísir, and among at least Finnur Jónsson 1931: 514). some of the ásynjur, the general concept This situation of a female being belonging seems to be roughly the same. These female to multiple categories has not sat well with supernatural beings may collectively be some scholars. Some have attempted to find described as strongly associated with death, an ‘original’ category or they have concluded wyrd, and prophecy. Perhaps these categories that membership of these multiple categories should be understood more as a point of should be seen as an invention or synthesis on emphasis of their function or character rather the part of Snorri, or they have proposed that than as iron-clad parameters. multiple, identically-named female super- natural beings who each fit more neatly into

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Ilmr: ‘Elm’ / ‘Tree dís’? lends support to it. In folklore recorded in In his entry on Ilmr, sgeir Blöndal Scandinavia, England, and what is now Magn sson most favors an interpretation of Northern Germany, folk belief regarding tree Ilmr as a ‘tree dís’ by way of an etymological beings is documented up until at least the connection between Ilmr and the common mid-19th century. Historically, trees remained noun almr [‘elm’] ( sgeir Blöndal comparatively plentiful in these regions and Magn sson 1989: 419). If the word is the names and customs associated with these connected to almr, then a variety of new beings often explicitly reveal that their potential associations opens up, and identities are defined by their association with subsequently some diachronic discussion various tree types. These figures, alternately regarding the landscape of Iceland is in order. benevolent and malicious, are referred to by Although Iceland is now notably barren of the name of a tree type accompanied by an trees, during the time of settlement, Þröstur honorific or title; for example, ‘mother’ or a Eysteinsson (2013) notes that: “birch forest cognate to Old Norse freyja [‘lady’]. Such and woodland covered 25–40% of Iceland’s trees include the elder (cf. Danish Hyldemor land area,” and he observes: [‘elder tree mother’] and Hyldekvinde [‘elder sheep were important as a source of wool woman’], German Frau Ellhorn [‘lady elder from the outset, but by 1300 they had tree’], compare also the English Old Girl), become a staple source of food for and the ash (cf. Swedish Askafroa [‘ash Icelanders as well. At the same time, the wife’]), the alder (Danish Ellefru [‘alder Catholic Church (also the political power at lady’]).5 the time) started obtaining woodland While these figures appear to make no remnants, a clear indication that they had appearance in our records of the pagan period, become a rare and valuable resource. Sheep these concepts are comparatively plentiful grazing prevented regeneration of the elsewhere and do seem ancient. As widely birchwoods after cutting and the area of and vividly attested as these figures are, it is woodland continued to decline. (Þröstur curious that similar beings are not attested in Eysteinsson 2013.) the Icelandic folk record. The answer to this The Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda were may be found in the history of biota on th both compiled in the 13 century, which Iceland: a treeless island is not likely to means that woodlands were already being sustain recognition of tree goddesses or tree displaced from the ecology of Iceland. While spirits, and so a lack of these beings in the trees disappeared from the Icelandic Icelandic folklore record may be explained by landscape, tree names became semantically the Icelandic landscape and changes in it blurry in Old Icelandic texts. Thus although caused by human habitation. A faded belief in Old Norse eik is cognate with English oak, an ‘elm lady’ dimly preserved in the skaldic this term came to refer to any tree at all – a record is not out of the question and would fit development that is so striking that Richard well with the broader folk belief pattern. Cleasby & Guðbrandur Vigfússon (1874: In this sense, an ‘elm lady’ as ‘chooser of 119) comment that “wherever found it is a the slain’ may also be supported by a broader sure test of Icelandic authorship.” Whereas folklore pattern. An association between cult practices centred around sacred trees and death and the elm is widely attested in holy groves are commonly attested among the England, where it is “seen as a treacherous Germanic peoples in records beginning as tree, hostile to human beings” (Watts 2007: early as Tacitus’s Germania, the relatively 134). This is at least in part due to a healthy- few traces of such practices in the written looking elm’s tendency to suddenly and records of Iceland are likely also connected to without warning shed branches, which may the limited variety of trees in the local injure or kill anyone unfortunate enough to be ecology at the time of settlement and the beneath; Watts (2007: 135, cf. Richens 1983: 4 subsequent deforestation. 121) cites an instance (after Leather 1912) of If this line of inquiry is considered valid, a large elm “in Credenhill Court, in later comparative North Germanic evidence Herefordshire, [that] used to be called the

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Prophet Tree; it was said to foretell each death myth became opaque and her identity was in the family of the Eckleys, who used to own interpreted through folk etymology of the the place, by flinging off a limb”. Elms have name alone. also been traditionally employed for coffins All of these possibilities raise intriguing since the medieval period. In medieval questions about our understanding of North England, “elm was used for coffins at any Germanic religion as it existed in Iceland. A level, from royalty downwards, where it could more extensive linguistic analysis combined be afforded”, fading in popularity after the with a broader comparative approach, such as death of Elizabeth I, yet, as R. H. Richens a new comparative survey of tree beings in (1983: 101–102; cf. 155–1567) notes, “the culturally connected regions and beyond, may association of elm with burial has become yield more detail on what has thus far been an irrevocable”. Like the yew, elms are otherwise largely undiscussed goddess name traditionally used in graveyards (Richens in the Old Norse corpus. 1983: 119). The association between the elm and death is mirrored in the ancient world; for The author would like to thank Haukur Þorgeirsson, Frog, Jón Axel Harðarson, Elena Bianchelli, Junie example, a shadowy and massive elm of great Haller, and Juliana Roost for their assistance with this age stands before the entrance to Orcus in the article. Aeneid (for discussion, see Watts 2007: 134– 135). Notes The elm’s association with death appears 1. sgeir Blöndal Magn sson’s entry seems to imply to be both culturally well-established and, that earlier discourse along these lines has occurred given the unpredictable, potentially lethal somewhere. I have, however, unfortunately been unable to find evidence of this discourse. limbs of the tree, likely to develop 2. For more recent discussion regarding the kenning independently. Such behavior may give rise to Ilmar jalmr and its use as a valkyrie kenning and the notion of the elm as a gatekeeper to the dróttkvæt formulae in general, see Frog 2014. afterlife that chooses its victims without 3. For example, see discussion regarding Eir in Lindow warning, a concept not far removed from the (2002: 105) and in Simek (2007 [1993]: 71–72), discussion regarding Þrúðr in Lindow (2002: 291) throngs of prophetic, death-associated and in Simek (2007 [1993]: 329), and discussion supernatural female beings in the Old Norse regarding Skuld in Orchard (1997: 151). corpus discussed above. 4. For extensive and fairly recent discussion of the roles of trees and groves in the pre-Christianization Making Sense of the Sources religion of the Germanic peoples and their th neighbors, see Dowden 2000. As far as we are removed from 13 century 5. For scattered discussion regarding these figures, see Old Norse sources today, it appears that the for example Watts 2007: 29–133, Simpson & Roud name Ilmr was nearly forgotten by the time it 2000: 108, Radford & Radford 1969: 151–154, entered the record. It is possible that the name Hyltén-Cavallius 1864: 310, and Thorpe 1851: was semantically bleached to the point that it 167–168. retained nothing but its usefulness in skaldic Works Cited poetry. If an etymology of ‘elm’ may be sgeir Blöndal Magn sson. 1989. slensk or sifjab k. demonstrated, then this could explain the Reykjavík: Orðabók Háskólans. goddess’s narratives disappearing or changing Cleasby, Richard & Guðbrandur Vigfússon. 1874. An with the adaptation of Norse culture to the Icelandic-English Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon landscape of Icelandic flora and changes of Press. that flora in the wake of rapid settlement. On Dowden, Ken. 2000. European Paganism. New York: Routledge. the other hand, there do not appear to be other Einar Ól. Sveinsson (ed.). 1939. Vatnsdœla saga, ásynja-names linked to trees attested in the Hallfreðar saga, Kormáks saga. Íslenzk Fornrit 8. lexicon of skaldic poetry and Ilmr may never Reykjavík: Hið Íslenzka Fornritafélag. have had such an association at all. Instead, Faulkner, Andrew. 2008. The Homeric Hymn to she may have been thought to be either a Aphrodite: Introduction, Text, and Commentary. New York: Oxford University Press. particularly noisy valkyrie and ásynja or even Faulkes, Anthony. 2005. Edda: Prologue and particularly pleasant-scented, and perhaps Gylfaginning. 2nd edn. London: Viking Sociey for even all of these, as her links to religion and Northern Research.

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Faulkes, Anthony. 1998. Edda: Skáldskaparmál. Vol. Orchard, Andy. 1997. Dictionary of Norse Myth and 1. London: Viking Society for Northern Research. Legend. London: Cassell. Finnur Jónsson (ed.). 1908–1915. Den norsk-islandske Poole, Russell. 2012. “Liðsmannaflokkr”. In Whaley, skjaldedigtning. AI–II, BI–II. København. Diana (ed.) Poetry from the Kings’ Sagas 1: From Frog. 2013. “The (De)Construction of Mythic Mythical Times to c. 1035. Skaldic Poetry of the Ethnography I: Is Every þurs in Verse a þurs?”. Scandinavian Middle Ages 1. Turnhout: Brepols. RMN Newsletter 6: 52–72. Pp. 1014–1028. Frog. 2014 (forthcoming). “Mythological Names and Radford, Edwin, & Mona Augusta Radford. 1969 dróttkvætt Formulae II: Base-Word–Determinant [1948]. The Encyclopedia of Superstitions. Indexing”. Studia Metrica et Poetica 1(2). Westport: Greenwood Press. Grimm, Jacob. 1888. Teutonic Mythology IV. Trans. Richens, R. H. 1983. Elm. Oxford: Cambridge James Stallybrass. London: George Bell and Sons. University Press. Hopkins, Joseph S. 2012. “Goddesses Unknown I: Simek, Rudolf. 2007 [1993]. Dictionary of Northern Njǫrun and the Sister-Wife of Njǫrðr”. RMN Mythology. Trans. Angela Hall. Cambridge: D.S. Newsletter 5: 39–44. Brewer. Hyltén-Cavallius, Gunnar Olof. 1864. Wärend och Simpson, Jacqueline, & Stephen Roud. 2000. A Wirdarne. Stockholm: P. A. Norstedt & Söner. Dictionary of English Folklore. Oxford: Oxford Lindow, John. 2002. Norse Mythology: A Guide to the University Press. Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs. New York: Sveinbjörn Egilsson & Finnur Jónsson. 1931. Lexicon Oxford University Press. poeticum antiquæ linguæ septentrionalis – Ordbog Leather, Mary Ella. 1912. The Folk-Lore of over det norsk-islandske skjaldesprog. 2nd edn. Herefordshire. Hereford: Jakeman & Carter. København: S.I. Møllers. McHugh, James. 2012. Sandalwood and Carrion: Thorpe, Benjamin. 1851. Northern Mythology I–II. Smell in Indian Religion and Culture. New York: London: Edward Lumley. Oxford University Press. Þröstur Eysteinsson. 2013. Forestry in a Treeless Land. Meissner, Rudolf. 1921. Der Kenningar der Skalden. Skógrækt Ríkisins/Iceland Forest Service. Online: Leipzig / Bonn: Kurt Schroeder. http://www.skogur.is/english/forestry-in-a-treeless- Näsström, Britt-Mari. 1997. Freyja: The Great land/ (Accessed 29th April 2014). Goddess of the North. Lund: Almqvist & Wiksell Watts, Donald. 2007. Dictionary of Plant Lore. New International. York: Academic Press.

The (De)Construction of Mythic Ethnography II: Hrímþurs and Cosmogony (A Contribution to the Vanir Debate) Frog, University of Helsinki

The first article in this series addressed the This handling of hrímþurs follows the usage use of the Old Norse term þurs (pl. þursar), of the term in Snorri Sturluson’s mythography often translated ‘ogre’, as attested in various presented in his treatise known as Edda registers of poetry (or in language as used in (Snorra Edda). In the poetry, however, the different genres). The compound hrím- hrímþurs, like þurs, may be a poetic synonym þurs [‘rime-þurs, frost-þurs’] was left aside rather than refer to a distinct mythic ethnos, from that discussion to be attended to here. and some scholars take for granted that The discussion of þurs argued that þurs was hrímþurs is a variation on þurs (e.g. Hall an archaism that had developed conventions 2009). Indeed, hrímþurs invariably carries of use as a poetic synonym especially alliteration on the element prefixed to þurs, connected with meeting þ-alliteration in the which can be compared to, for example, ginn- registers of conservative eddic poetry while it regin [‘magic-powers (gods)’] as a variation appeared to have become a vague synonym of regin [‘powers (gods)’] accomplishing for ‘monster’ in, for example, saga prose and alliteration in /g/ (Frog 2011a: 33). The later rímur poetry. Today, hrímþursar – often present article first reviews the uses of translated as ‘frost giants’ in English texts or hrímþurs in poetry, where it is shown to be ‘Reifriesen’ in German works ‒ are not highly formulaic and most likely a infrequently addressed as a clear and distinct conventionalized variation on þurs. The range category of mythic being. Some scholars may of discourses in which the term is not attested even seem to treat the use of þurs in poetry as will then be briefly outlined before reviewing a variation on hrímþurs (Heinrichs 1997: 26). the uses of the term in Snorra Edda. It is

38 argued that in Snorra Edda, Snorri formula þursa X [‘X of þursar’, in which X is consciously developed the term as an disyllabic], ten times as a b-line, once as an a- ethnonym. The article concludes by situating line. The twelfth example can be viewed as a these findings in relation to the Vanir Debate b-line variation: þurs is a genitive singular – i.e. the current discussion concerning monosyllable followed by a trisyllable (which whether the ‘Vanir’ as a category of Old makes a four-syllable half-line). This Norse gods is a construct of Snorri’s exception is a kenning for Þórr, and it is mythography. possible to construe the others as kennings as well (e.g. þursa meyjar [‘maidens of þursar’ Þurs in the Background of hrímþurs > GIANTESSES]; þursa dróttinn [‘lord of In the first article of this series (Frog 2013, þursar’ > GIANT; although in runic charms referred to as DME I hereafter), þurs was this formula could also translate ‘lord of þurs- shown to refer to different categories of runes’ > WITCH, SORCERER]). (DME I: 57– mythic being in different genres rather than 61.) In ljóðaháttr, the term þurs appeared in designating a distinct ethnos (whether viewed speech-acts attributed to a character that could genetically or in terms of culturally be described as ‘registral irruptions’: the constructed belongingness and identity). direct speech constitutes a shift in register The discourses of saga prose and of rímur identifiable with a different genre or its epic present registers which became convention- imitation (DME I: 62–64, 66‒68). This was alized to those genres emerging especially in the case in the long curse of Skírnir in th th 1 the 13 and 14 centuries. Use of þurs in Skírnismál, where it consequently remained these registers suggests that, at least in unclear whether þurs referred to jǫtnar of the Iceland, þurs may have had a capacity to mythological sphere or aligned with use of index certain associations or had some þurs in charms; in one case in this curse, þurs potential for connotative significance, but the was also used with reference to the runic letter term in general seems to have been peripheral of that name. (DME I: 62–65.) In addition, the and was not clearly distinguished from other alliterative collocation þrír–þurs [‘three– terms for threatening anthropomorphic þurs’] occurs across both meters a sufficient supernatural agents (like trǫll and so forth) – number of times to be considered it was simply another word for ‘monster’. conventional (DME I: 58, 61–62, 67). In eddic genres (with the exception of Overall, it appeared that þurs had once been a heroic death-songs, where the semantics of culturally significant category, a view which þurs aligned with saga prose), the term finds additional support in use of þurs as a generally exhibited narrower and more name for a letter of the runic alphabet formalized patterns of use: þurs had a alongside maðr [‘man’], áss [‘god’] and the functional role in accomplishing þ- archaic týr [‘god’]. However, it does not alliteration. Þurs mainly appeared in third appear used to designate a particular category person narration on mythological subjects, of being ‘þurs’ when used in poetry or where þurs was consistently used as a poetic elsewhere. Whatever category of being this synonym or heiti for jǫtunn (pl. jǫtnar) term had historically referred to, it had been [‘giant’] (DME I: 57‒59) – i.e. the category of marginalized or superseded by one or more being interacting with gods in the others. Þurs was most likely some type of cosmological sphere. Uses in runic charms archaism that had been built into different were also highly formulaic and clearly oral-poetic registers where it was clearly associated with alliteration: þurs appears linked to accomplishing þ-alliteration. identifiable with mythic agents suspected of These patterns of use of þurs are important harming humans in the present world order to consider when turning to the question of (DME I: 59–62). Use in the fornyrðislag the semantics of hrímþurs in verse. meter in these genres (but not death-songs) Semantically, if hrímþurs were a designation appeared remarkably formulaic across both of a category of being, we would expect that narrative and charms: of twelve examples category to be similar to ‘þurs’ or a sub-class (two in charms), eleven appear in the half-line of ‘þurs’ somehow associated with hrím

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[‘rime’]. However, þurs is attested only as an parallelism is more flexible. The first of these alliterative poetic synonym rather than is the looser parallelism: designating a category ‘þurs’ of which there (1) Tramar gneypa þic scolo gerstan dag could be a subclass. Thus, for hrímþurs to be iotna gǫrðom í; established as a term for an ethnos, it would til hrímþursa hallar þú scalt hverian dag seem to imply either that it was established kranga kosta laus, before usage of þurs changed, or that a poetic kranga kosta vǫn; expression became lexicalized as a (Skm 30.1–7.) designation for an existing or new mythic Monsters shall humiliate you all day category. Either is possible in theory. in the realms of giants; However, hrímþurs, like þurs, is only found to the hall of hrímþursar you shall every day carrying alliteration. This 100% alliterative creep without choice, rank is a relevant indicator that its creep lacking choice; occurrences, too, may be motivated by There seems to be no clear semantic metrical-poetic reasons rather than by a distinction between the three terms for semantic distinction. monstrous beings here – tramar [‘monsters’], jǫtnar, hrímþursar – which all are named in Hrímþurs in ljóðaháttr a-lines or Vollzeilen: the tramar seem to be In Old Norse poetry, the noun hrímþurs is situated in the realms of the jǫtnar where the found only in eddic verse. Of the seven hall of the hrímþursar also seems to be and in examples, the five that appear across four which the tramar seem to be located. Both poems in the ljóðaháttr meter will be jǫtnar and hrímþursar carry alliteration and addressed first (sg. Vm 33.2; pl. Hv 109.2, Gm all three terms may be synonyms motivated 31.5, Skm 30.4 and 34.2).2 Of these five uses, by lexical variation when repeating the same four examples occur in the same metrical semantic element within the stanza. There is position, at the end of a long line with other nothing to indicate that hrímþurs is here used elements preceding it in the half-line (Vm as an ethnonym, noting especially that, 33.2; pl. Hv 109.2, Gm 31.5, Skm 34.2; cf. parallel to jǫtunn, it is in the genitive plural also Bb 8.5 in example (5) below). This is indicating the location of the tramar rather found once in each poem where the term is than designating the tramar themselves. attested, which suggests that the use is In the second example from Skírnismál, the socially conventionalized and can be parallelism is more structurally pronounced considered formulaic. Thus, four of the five while the interpretation is more problematic. examples appear to follow a consistent This is the stanza in which Skírnir summons formulaic pattern. It is striking that the beings to witness the curse: formulaicity found for þurs in fornyrðislag is paralleled by formulaicity of hrímþurs in (2) Heyri iotnar, heyri hrímþursar, ljóðaháttr.3 In any case, these formulaic synir Suttunga, siálfir ásliðar, expressions indicate that the term þurs was (Skm 34.1–4.) predominantly maintained in eddic poetry as a Hear giants, hear hrímþursar, historically suspended element within a larger sons of Suttungr, men of the gods yourselves, compositional unit. The formula unit could be The expression synir Suttunga [‘sons of used and appropriately interpreted without Suttungi (Suttungr)’] is a kenning for GIANT resolving the precise semantics of þurs as one known from other contexts (Egilsson & of its constituents (cf. Frog 2014a). Jónsson 1931: 547). Here, it is It was noted above that the magical unambiguously parallel to jǫtnar as a poetic speech-act of Skírnir in which the uses of semantic equivalent filling the corresponding hrímþurs are found in Skírnismál,4 affects use half-line in the following long-line (Frog of the register. Within this speech, hrímþurs 2014c: 14; Roper 2014: 172–173). Hrímþursar appears once in a series of parallel lines and is found between these half-lines and could once in a similar series of lines where also mean ‘giant’. On the other hand, the half- line is grammatically parallel to heyri jǫtnar

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[‘hear giants’] marked by the repetition of the hrímþursar can be determined on the basis of verb. Rather than semantically repeating the the preserved text of the poem alone. first unit, jǫtnar–hrímþursar could be paired The term hrímþurs also occurs in the short, as the rhetorical figure known as a merism: allusive account of the theft of the Mead of two (or more) nominal elements that together Poetry found in Hávamál. The beings that function metonymically to refer to a third, come to inquire about Suttungr’s death are broader category (Watkins 1995: 15). In this referred to in stanza 109.2 as hrímþursar. case, rather than being semantically parallel to Suttungr himself is referred to as inn aldni jǫtnar and synir Suttunga, hrímþursar would jǫtunn [‘that old giant’] in Hv 104.1. In then be parallel to sjálfir ásliðar [‘god-men Snorri’s account of this adventure in themselves’]. The term ás-liði is normally Skáldskaparmál, both Suttungr’s father and interpreted as a compound of áss in the sense his brother are identified as jǫtnar (Faulkes of ‘god’ and liði [‘man, member of a troop’] 1998: 4), which suggests he also considered and thus the áss-men would be a poetic term Suttungr to belong to that category (as for ‘gods’. This then produces the series opposed to being a hrímþurs). Suttungr also GIANTS–hrímþursar–GIANTS–GODS. This series does not appear distinguishable from jǫtnar in can be interpreted in three ways: a) three kennings for poetry.5 As noted above, ‘sons of parallel expressions of ‘giants’ followed by a Suttungr’ is a giant-kenning. It can be fourth variation ‘gods’; b) a parallelism of the reasonably inferred that hrímþurs in this merism in which hrímþursar is semantically passage is simply a poetic equivalent to equivalent to ásliðar; or c) the parallelism of jǫtunn. two merisms so that hrímþursar is neither In Grímnismál, hrímþursar is used to equivalent to ‘giants’ nor to ‘gods’ but the identify the group of inhabitants under one of merism of each long line equates to ‘all the three roots of the world-tree Yggdrasill’s mythic beings’. ash: A fourth possibility is that ásliðar does not (3) Hel býr undir einni, annarri hrímþursar, refer to gods, but to giants: if áss is þriðio mennzcir menn. interpreted as the noun meaning ‘rocky ridge’, (Gm 31.1–3.) ‘ridge-man’ would be a giant-kenning. In this case, the four elements would all be Hel lives under the first, [under] the second, hrímþursar, semantically parallel in parallel long lines. [under] the third, human men. Contextually, Skírnir mentions that the gods are growing angry in the preceding stanza, in This verse describes mythic topography. The which case they seem already aware of the first root is unambiguously identified with the transpiring events. An interpretation of realm of Hel [‘Death’] while the third root is ásliðar as a kenning for giants thus has the readily identifiable with Miðgarðr, the realm appeal of consistency with this awareness and identified with human beings (the creation of also entails a contrastive parallel between that which is referred to in stanza 40–41 of the awareness among the gods in the preceding poem). Within the cosmography, the only stanza and the need to alert the giants, who do additional realms that are prominent are not share that awareness, here. On the other jǫtunheimar [‘giant-realms’] and sgarðr hand, the choice of áss here is not motivated [‘God-Realm’], although mentions are also by alliteration (i.e. any term for ‘giant’ not found of realms such as Vanaheimr [‘Realm carrying s-alliteration could be used) and this of the Vanir’] (Vm 39) and a realm to which b-line could be completely omitted: Suttunga one dies out of the realm of death (Vm 43). synir would be a metrically well-formed self- However, no distinct realm of hrímþursar (or alliterating Vollzeile, which is metrically simply of þursar) is otherwise attested. The expected here. The use of ásliði therefore symbolically unifying role of the world-tree seems motivated by semantics or the as the connector of different parts of the formation of a rhetorical figure, but neither its cosmos suggests that the realm of hrímþursar conventional interpretation nor that of should have a significant position in the cosmology. When this is considered in

41 relation to the formulaicity of hrímþurs here sexhǫfðaðan son. and its use in alliteration with Hel, this seems (Vm 33.) most likely to be as a poetic equivalent to Under the arm grew, it is said, of the hrímþurs jǫtunn (which appears nowhere in this poem) a maiden and lad together; and to refer to jǫtunheimar as a third essential leg with leg begot of the wise giant site in the cosmography. a six-headed son. The final use of hrímþurs in ljóðaháttr is The use of hrímþurs in this stanza again found in Vafþrúðnismál with reference to the appears formulaic. The half-line inn fróði primal being Aurgelmir. This is in the series jǫtunn can be seen as a parallelism in the of dialogic question and answer about corresponding line-position within the larger mythological knowledge. Following initial parallelism between the two half-stanzas. questions about the creation of the world When considered in relation to the number of (space), and about the moon, day, night, times that jǫtunn has already been used with winter and summer (time), Óðinn asks the reference to Aurgelmir in this text, there is no wise giant Vafþrúðnir hverr ása elztr / eða reason to believe that hrímþurs in this stanza Ymis niðia (Vm 28.4–5) [‘who was the eldest is anything other than a poetic equivalent of of the gods / or of Ymir’s kin/descendants’]. jǫtunn capable of h-alliteration and avoiding ‘Ymir’s descendants’ appears to be a giant- lexical repetition of jǫtunn (which could not kenning. When describing the creation of the be done by using jǫtunn with an otherwise world from this prime being, Vafþrúðnir appropriately alliterating adjective).7 refers to Ymir as inn hrímkaldi jǫtunn (Vm 21.5) [‘that rime-cold giant’], and a Hrímþurs in fornyrðislag corresponding idea is found in a list of the The noun hrímþurs is found only twice in mythic genealogies in Hundluljóð 33.7–8: fornyrðislag, where it carries h-alliteration in jǫtnar allir / frá Ymi komnir [‘all giants / from both cases. One of these is in a þulr list of Ymir come’]. To Óðinn’s question about the heiti for jǫtunn preserved in Snorra Edda oldest of beings, Vafþrúðnir answers that it is (Faulkes 1998: 111). Although the list Bergelmir, son of Þrúðgelmir, heir of contains a few terms that could be interpreted Aurgelmir (Vm 29). It is unclear whether this as common nouns (e.g. eldr [‘fire’], kǫttr is a roundabout way of identifying Aurgelmir [‘cat’], hvalr [‘whale’]), the overwhelming as the oldest or whether it identifies Bergelmir majority of the list is comprised of proper as establishing the lineage or lineages names; and all other two-element heiti are pertinent to the question while simultaneously unambiguously proper names. The list demonstrating knowledge of the origin of 6 contains no transparent poetic synonyms for Bergelmir himself. Viewed in the latter way, jǫtunn such as þurs, bergbúi [‘mountain- the response could potentially produce dweller’], bergrisi [‘mountain-giant’], questions of the category to which Þrúðgelmir hraunbúi [‘wasteland-dweller’], etc. The and Aurgelmir belong, if they precede the appearance of hrímþurs in this list should oldest of gods or giant kin. This point can be most likely be regarded as a personal name borne in mind when we later turn to Snorri’s ‘Hrímþurs’ rather than as a common noun. mythography. This in itself is interesting because giants do Óðinn then asks hvaðan Aurgelmir kom / not receive basic terms for other categories of með iotna sonom [‘Whence came Aurgelmir / being as proper names, which supports with the sons of giants’] (Vm 30.4–4) and viewing hrímþurs as a conventionalized Vafþruðnir replies that he grew out of venom, compound of þurs. On the other hand, it also referring to him as a jǫtunn (Vm 31). Óðinn supports some type of semantic alignment of responds by asking how inn baldni jǫtunn þurs with jǫtunn as the only such term for a [‘that unruly giant’] begot children (Vm 32), category of being that appears as a name to which Vafþrúðnir replies: element. (4) Undir hendi vaxa qváðo hrímþursi The second use in fornyrðislag is the curse mey oc mǫg saman; known as Buslubœn (Jiriczek 1893: 15–20). It fótr við foti gat ins fróða iotuns must immediately be stressed that Buslubœn

42 cannot be taken as an accurate rendering of metadiscursive presentation of the verses as the oral genre of curses or other verbal from a longer poem is thus most probably a magical art. Like the corresponding section of rhetorical device of the author in his Skírnismál, this is a representation of one manipulation of the generic strategies of genre from within the framework and fornaldarsögur that work to frame the conventions of another genre.8 Such irruptions reception of the text. may represent, for example, the register of The curse is presented by Busla as a threat metrical incantations quite directly, although to compel a king to release the hero, a threat it does not follow that these will be complete which succeeds without the threats of the and conventional charms (e.g. DuBois 1995: curse ever being realized. The prominent 150–154; cf. 2003: 235–238). The framing poem is thus a functional constituent in a discourse may also have quite regular narrative pattern that corresponds directly to conventions for rendering these registral that found in Skírnismál, where Skírnir’s irruptions. Thus the irruption of the register of curse is a threat used to compel the giantess incantations produces an ‘incantation’ as a Gerðr to comply with his demands generic product only within the models of (Thorvaldsen 2010: 258–259; cf. also genre of the framing discourse – an McKinnell 2003). In addition, the nine-stanza ‘incantation’ which may not at all correspond text dominates the episode with a length to incantations as generic products in living comparable to 11 of 42 stanzas of the curse in practice (cf. Frog 2014d: 196–197). the extant version of Skírnismál (26–36). It Moreover, a generic discourse may even even culminates in runes like in the final maintain models of other registers that have stanza of Skírnir’s charm performance – little or no connection to the corresponding although rather than carving runes for magical registers in living practice, such as the effect like Skírnir, Busla recites (!?) a mistill– conventionalized representations of verbal þistill–kistill cryptographic runic formula that magic in legends and tales (cf. af Klintberg she poses as a riddle. This curious climax of 2010: N1–5). When approaching Buslubœn, it Buslubœn in a magical formula dependent on is necessary to consider the framing discourse writing does not appear to accurately in which it appears. represent performance practice (Thompson Buslubœn is an integrated part of Bósa 1978; Leslie 2013: 302–304). saga ok Herrauðs [‘The Saga of Bósi and Vésteinn Ólason (1994: 119–120) has Herrauðr’]. This saga appears to be a parody described Buslubœn as “a parody of of traditional mytho-heroic sagas generally, traditional curses and charms,” and Lorenzo while it also engages a remarkable range of Lozzi Gallo (2004: 120) observes that the text other traditions as referents for humorous “contains elements that may be linked to effect.9 Use of eddic verse has a strong link to different genres of religious or magical rites” the genre of mytho-heroic sagas (Leslie (cf. Thorvaldsen 2010); he describes it as “a sort forthcoming). Buslubœn is the only poetry of pot pourri” of different formulae (2004: contained in this saga, where it is presented as 235). This does not mean that Buslubœn has selections from a longer text (seven stanzas no value as a source – for example, it demon- followed by two more and a series of runes strates that the mistill–þistill–kistill runic interspersed in subsequent prose). However, formula was known and associated with magic the specific narrative of the saga is fairly in Iceland (by at least one person) and, as unambiguously a parodic invention. The probably the latest example of that formula, identification of Buslubœn with the saga is also that it was still circulating at that time. At therefore a process of that authorship, and the the same time, great caution is needed when poem is most likely a construction of the assessing Buslubœn’s significance as a source. author. This does not mean that individual The term hrímþurs appears in the verses or whole sequences of text were not penultimate stanza quotation, which threatens socially circulating as part of the tradition, the king with misery. Only the first three of only that these are unlikely to have circulated the five long lines will be quoted here (with as a long poem called Buslubœn. The standardized orthography):

43

(5) Trǫll ok álfar ok tǫfrnornir, expected from an incantation. In addition, it is búar, bergrisar brenni þínar hallir, peculiar (particularly for eddic verse) that the hati þik hrímþursar, hestar streði þik, third long line of this series of references to (Jiriczek 1893: 18.) mythic agents juxtaposes hrímþurs in May trolls and elves and sorcery-norns, alliteration with hestar [‘horses’] rather with dwellers, mountain-giants burn your halls, than an agent of mythic status. The phrase May hrímþursar hate you, horses violate you, ‘may horses violate you’ indeed seems more The first two lines present five terms for colourful than magical, and more consistent categories of mythic beings. These include with the contrastive juxtapositions of parody references to álfar [‘elves’] and nornir than a reflection of traditional magical practice. [‘norns’] “invoked to cause misfortune, Alliteration appears to play a significant interestingly alongside various monstrous role in the lexical surface of this passage. In beings which in earlier evidence seem distinct light of the compound tǫfrnornir and the from álfar and nornir” (Hall 2007: 133). This peculiar use of búar, the appearance of was also met with in a runic charm in which hrímþursar can reasonably be ascribed to álfar–trǫll–þursar were in series alliterating alliteration and was quite probably viewed as with einfalt–tvífalt–þrífalt [‘once–twice– an alliterating alternative to þurs (which does thrice’] (DME I: 61; also Hall 2007: 133– not otherwise appear in the poem). Use of 134). The form tǫfr-nornir (with the ms. hrímþurs in this composition as a general variant tǫfra-nornir) [‘sorcery-norns’] is term for ‘monster’ rather than to refer to one otherwise unique. The compound could be type of mythic being as opposed to others is interpreted as a kenning for ‘witch’ (cf. consistent with the use of þurs in the so-called taufra-maðr / taufr-maðr [‘sorcery-man’]; death-songs, also composed in fornyrðislag, Cleasby & Vigfússon 1898: 626) but the which appears to correspond to or be an element tǫfr also clearly has a functional role extension of the rather loose use of þurs in of carrying alliteration comparable to ginn- in fornaldarsögur, within which these death- ginn-regin, and may therefore be semantically songs are preserved (DME I: 65). Although light or void (cf. Frog 2011a: 33). Also use of hrímþurs in this passage may be worthy of observation is the alliterative use of traditional in the sense of being formulaic, the búar [‘dwellers’], which could be described particular use appears likely to be a variation as a half-kenning – i.e. a base-word which of þurs to accomplish h-alliteration. Its lacks a complementing determinant element semantics appear non-specific and likely otherwise necessary for it to be interpreted informed by use of þurs in the fornaldarsaga (Meissner 1921: 74–80). In other words, the tradition rather than being an accurate indicator term búi [‘dweller’] would not normally refer of use of hrímþurs in curses and charms. to a mythic being on its own, although it can Hrímþurs Outside of Snorra Edda be used as a base for forming expressions The seven examples of hrímþurs in the eddic (kennings) for ‘giant’, such as fjall-búi [‘fell- corpus exhibit a 100% alliterative rank – i.e. it dweller’] and hamars búi [‘dweller of a is always used in meeting h-alliteration. There cliff’]. Alaric Hall (2007: 133) also mentions is no evidence of the term in skaldic verse another possible semantic field from haug-búi (Egilsson & Jónsson 1931: 285). The term [‘mound-dweller’] for the animated dead (i.e. þurs was rare in dróttkvætt or skaldic rather than two terms for ‘giant’ in the same composition generally (DME I: 56–57). The line). This use of búi as a half-kenning relative frequency of þurs and hrímþurs in appears to be unique (cf. Egilsson & Jónsson eddic poetry to skaldic poetry is consistent, 1931: 71). It seems to be motivated by with no examples of hrímþurs in relation to alliteration, but it is questionable whether two examples of þurs preserved in dróttkvætt such half-kenning use has a basis in and other skaldic meters. This could therefore tradition.10 The listing of five terms for beings simply reflect that þurs held no significant with a single verb and without formal position in the skaldic register, noting that the structuring through parallelism appears more overwhelming majority of examples of þurs like a þulr or versified list than what would be

44 and hrímþurs in eddic poetry appear to be 14n), and one of which is only found in the suspended in meter-specific formulaic Codex Regius text. The term is used almost constructions. Hrímþurs is not attested at all exclusively in the dialogue between Gylfi and in rímur poetry (following Jónsson 1926– the Odinic Trinity11 of Hár, Jafnhár and Þriði. 1928), of which the register was deeply Uses of the term are found primarily either in indebted to skaldic diction (see Þórólfsson connection with the primordial giant Ymir 1934: 86–204), but which nevertheless and description of the world tree or in what employed þuss (< þurs) as a determinant in looks like a formulaic pairing with bergrisi. kennings like in the þursa X formula of Once these have been reviewed, the two fornyrðislag (Jónsson 1926–1928: 414; DME remaining examples can be addressed. I: 65–66). This suggests that hrímþurs was The main concentration of hrímþurs is in not assimilated by the register of rímur when eight uses surrounding the origin and death of this register emerged in the 14th century, the prime being Ymir: this accounts for half which makes it less likely that it held any of the total 16 examples. The first use of significant role in compositional strategies at hrímþurs appears in response to Gylfi’s that time (i.e. for the production of new question of where the supreme god Alfǫðr verses). Of the seven uses in eddic verse, four (also a name of Óðinn) was before the appear unambiguously formulaic at the end of creation of heaven and earth: Þá var hann a long line of ljóðaháttr (and cf. the use in með hrímþursum (Faulkes 1982: 9; Pálsson Buslabœn at the end of a fornyrðislag a-line) 2012: 14) [‘Then was he among the whereas one appears used as a proper name. hrímþursar’]. The story of the creation then Although the compound was conventional, proceeds to the origin of the prime being there is no indication that it was perceived as Ymir, where it is commented: En hrímþursar anything other than a variation of þurs kalla hann Aurgelmi, ok eru þaðan komnar capable of a different alliteration, except ættir hrímþursa (Faulkes 1982: 10; U omits when used as a personal name. hrímþursa following ættir: Pálsson 2012: 16) According to the Dictionary of Old Norse [‘And hrímþursar call him Aurgelmir, and Prose (DONP), the term hrímþurs does not thence have come the kin of hrímþursar’]. appear in any prose works other than Snorra The reference to Aurgelmir as a hrímþurs is Edda (confirmed by Bent Chr. Jacobsen, e- found in Vafþrúðnismál 33, discussed as mail 10th December 2012). This is more example (4) above, where it was observed that remarkable in light of the fascination with the the use was not only formulaic but also only fantastic especially in the fornaldarsögur as occurred once among several references to the well as in the closely related Barðar saga, same being as a jǫtunn. Snorri then supports where a variety of terms for monstrous beings his claim through the quotation of a stanza of appear (cf. Schulz 2004: 37–41), and where authenticating verse from Vǫluspá inn such variety sometimes seems to simply skamma (preserved in Hyndluljóð as quoted comprise part of the texture of narration. above) containing the line allir jǫtnar / frá Negative evidence of hrímþurs in other prose Ymi komnir [‘all jǫtnar / are come from works is thus consistent with a general Ymir’], followed by stanzas from perception of the term as a poetic equivalent Vafþrúðnismál on Aurgelmir, who is or variation of the more widely encountered mentioned first as me jǫtna sǫnum (Vm 30.5) þurs. The negative evidence in prose and the [‘among the sons of jǫtnar’] and then referred survey of uses in poetic discourse together to directly as a jǫtunn (Vm 31.3). The term provide a frame against which to consider hrímþurs is absent from the verses quoted. In Snorri Sturluson’s uses of hrímþurs in Edda. the immediately following dialogue, Hár states that Ymir/Aurgelmir’s kin kǫllum vér Hrímþurs in Snorra Edda hrímþursa (Faulkes 1982: 10; rephrased in U: The term hrímþurs occurs 16 times in Snorra Pálsson 2012: 16) [‘we call hrímþursar’] Edda, although not all are present in the followed by a summary of the content of Upsaliensis redaction (U, where the spelling Vafþrúðnismál 33 without verse quotation and hrímþuss is used throughout: Pálsson 2012: concluding with: Þat eru hrímþursar. Hinn

45 gamli hrímþurs, hann kǫllum vér Ymi. Grímnismál, although Snorri adds that this (Faulkes 1982: 11; not in U: cf. Pálsson 2012: was formerly the site of Ginnungagap, the great 16.) [‘Those (i.e. the children of Aurgelmir’s void in which Ymir originated and where the arms and legs) are hrímþursar. That old world was subsequently created from his hrímþurs, we call him Ymir.’] Then, in the corpse. Niflheimr is the realm of Hel in Snorri’s flood of blood from the slaying of Ymir by cosmography and thus also corresponds directly Óðinn and his brothers, drektu þeir allri ætt to the Grímnismál verse, although presented hrímþursa, nema einn... [‘drowned all of the first rather than third in the verse source, and kin of hrímþursar except one...’], whom the rather than identifying the third root with men, jǫtnar (?!) call Bergelmir, and from Bergelmir Snorri identifies the first with the gods. Snorri and his wife komnar hrímþursa ættir [‘come then immediately situates the well of Mímir the kin of hrímþursar’] (Faulkes 1982: 11; cf. undir þeiri rót er til hrímþursa horfir (Faulkes Pálsson 2012: 18). This is authenticated by 1982: 17; cf. Pálsson 2012: 28) [‘under that the quotation of Vafþrúðnismál 35, in which root which belongs to the hrímþursar’]. Use Bergelmir is referred to as inn fr i jǫtunn of the term hrímþurs in this passage can be [‘that wise jǫtunn’]. Snorri’s use of hrímþurs directly associated with its occurrence in here can be directly connected to its Grímnismál, which was observed to be appearance with reference to Aurgelmir in formulaic in forming an alliteration with Hel. Vafþrúðnismál, and may have been reinforced However, Snorri links this use back to the by reference to Ymir as inn hrím-kaldi jǫtunn world-creation and death of Ymir at the (Vm 21.5) [‘that rime-cold giant’]. A beginning of the world, connecting it to the distinction between hrímþursar and jǫtnar is construction of hrímþurs as an ethnos there. nevertheless not discernible from the text of The description of the roots of the world- that poem nor is it supported by verses quoted tree leads to mentioning the assembly of the by Snorri. Indeed, the slaying of Ymir is gods at that location and how the gods travel opened with the sentence: Synir Bors drápu to it on the bridge Bifrǫst. In the Codex Ymi jǫtun (Faulkes 1982: 11) [‘The sons of Regius manuscript (R), this presents the first Borr killed the jǫtunn Ymir’]. The dialogic of four examples of a different type of use in a presentation adds a degree of ambiguity with pairing of hrímþursar and bergrisar. The distinctions such as ‘we call’ as opposed to bridge Bifrǫst is said to burn with fire, ‘hrímþursar call’. These distinctions present otherwise hrímþursar ok bergrisar the possibility of referencing mythic [‘hrímþursar and bergrisar’] would climb to ‘languages’ such as those surveyed in heaven (Faulkes 1982: 18; only bergrisar in Alvíssmál.12 Nevertheless, hrímþurs is here the other three main manuscripts: Sigurðsson clearly treated as an ethnonym. 1848: 73; van Eeden 1913: 16; Pálsson 2012: The term hrímþurs disappears from the 28). This use then appears with the discourse until the description of the three introduction of Þórr’s hammer Mjǫllnir, er roots of the world-tree: hrímþursar ok bergrisar kenna... (Faulkes Ein er me Ásum, en ǫnnur me 1982: 23; cf. Pálsson 2012: 38) [‘which hrímþursum, þar sem forðum var hrímþursar and bergrisar know...’], followed Ginnungagap. In þriðja stendr yfir by the guarantee of Smiðr that he can build a Niflheimi.... (Faulkes 1982: 17; cf. Pálsson wall around Ásgarðr that ørugg væri fyrir 2012: 28.) bergrisum ok hrímþursum (Faulkes 1982: 34; only bergrisar in U: Pálsson 2012: 44) [‘would One is among the gods, and another among the hrímþursar, there where before was be secure against bergrisar and hrímþursar’], Ginnungagap. The third stands over and finally, when describing attendance at Niflheimr.... Baldr’s funeral, it is said: Þar kømr ok mikit fólk hrímþursa ok bergrisar (Faulkes 1982: This description corresponds more or less to 47) [‘There came many people of the that of Grímnismál 31 in example (3) above: hrímþursar and bergrisar’]; in U: Þar vóru ok it is either based on that stanza or on one very 13 hrímþussar (Pálsson 2012: 76) [‘There were similar to it. The term hrímþurs appears in also hrímþursar’]. connection with the second root as in 46

The terms in this collocation do not [‘into the east(-roads) to smite trolls’] alliterate and therefore hrímþursar‒bergrisar (Faulkes 1982: 35; 1998: 20, 40, cf. 24; Frog is unlikely to reflect a collocative pair or 2011b: 14n). On the other hand, bergrisi is merism associated with a single poetic line only found in Gylfaginning within Edda. In comparable to æsir‒álfar [‘gods‒elves’] (cf. addition to collocative use with hrímþurs, the Giurevič 1982: 41–43; Hall 2007: 34–39; term bergrisi is found in the narration of the Frog 2011a: 30–32). At the same time, the founding of the walls of Ásgarðr: when Smiðr collocation is unlikely to be a conventional goes into a giant-rage after being refused formula of prose narration of myth and payment for his work, the gods know at þar legend, otherwise we should expect to find var bergrisi kominn (Faulkes 1982: 35; some evidence of hrímþurs in thematically omitted from U: 62) [‘that a bergrisi had relevant saga narration. If the collocation come there’]. This narrative is closely linked reflects a tradition of social practice rather to legend traditions (Harris 2004) and use of than being an invention of Snorri, one bergrisi here could result from the register of possibility is that it reflects use of these terms the genre with which the narrative was in parallelism, much as the opaque term vanir conventionally associated. The term is also seems to appear with æsir [‘gods’] in a found in the statement that Heimdallr sitr þar Vollzeile of ljóðaháttr following a long line við himins enda at gæta brúarinnar fyrir (Frog & Roper 2011: 32–33: Frog 2011a: 32). bergrisum (Faulkes 1982: 25; Pálsson 2012: Although the Buslubœn stanza in example (5) 44) [‘sits there are the end of heaven to guard is problematic as a source, these terms are the bridge against bergrisar’]. The alliteration paired there in corresponding positions in of brú [‘bridge’] and bergrisi presents at least long lines, a pattern of use that could at least the possibility that this use could reflect a potentially reflect a canonical parallelism. The poetic source in the background, which might appearance of the first examples of this series find support in its use without hrímþurs only in R could be an interpolation under the outside of R when introducing Bifrǫst. influence of the repeating collocation familiar However, Snorri seems elsewhere to employ from the later parts of the text. alliteration as a device in his prose without Before turning attention to the two necessary dependence on a poetic exemplar remaining examples of hrímþurs, it may be (see Abram 2006), noting that the rephrasing observed that the term bergrisi is used of U makes bergrisar and Bifrǫst adjacent independent of hrímþurs in Edda in three words with pronounced alliterative effect instances. (Bergrisi is also found three times (Pálsson 2012: 28; cf. Sävborg, this volume). within the eddic poem Grottasǫngr,15 which The third example is the most striking: Snorri is preserved in Skáldskaparmál but here states that Aurboða, mother of Freyr’s considered an interpolation: cf. Faulkes 1998: beloved Gerðr, var bergrisa ættar (Faulkes xxiv.) This is more striking because the terms 1982: 30–31; Pálsson 2012: 54) [‘was kin of risi and bergrisi do not appear in eddic poetry bergrisar’]. This statement seems to project on mythological subjects and are rare in eddic bergrisi as an ethnonym of the mythological poetry generally: risi does not seem to be a sphere and contrasts with all other evidence of term linked to the mythological sphere of the term, making it seem probable that this is gods, although it is possible that e.g. bergrisi Snorri’s invention. could have been used under quite specific The term risi/bergrisi does not seem to circumstances in parallelism or for b- belong to the register of mythological poetry, alliteration. Risi is otherwise used with yet appears a total of seven times in reference to the world of heroes and Gylfaginning. These uses may therefore peripheral spaces in the present created world. reflect interference from other discourses and Such non-eddic phraseology in Snorri’s Snorri’s own narrative rhetoric. This also narration is not unique to bergrisi: the use of makes the juxtaposition of hrímþurs and trǫll is similarly found especially in what bergrisi more striking: bergrisi is not attested appears to be a formulaic expression referring in mythological poetry and hrímþurs is only to Þórr’s journeys í austrvega at berja trǫll otherwise attested in Buslubœn or as a

47 personal name. If the hrímþurs–bergrisi final use is likely either motivated by pairing derives from parallelism in the poetic alliteration or by an unknown verse text. This tradition, this may have been quite limited in one isolated use contrasts with three isolated where it was used. uses of bergrisi, one linking with alliteration, In Skáldskaparmál, an isolated use of a second perhaps with the register of belief hrímþurs is found with the origin of Þórr’s legends, and the third a rather surprising use hammer, which is said to be mest vǫrn í fyrir with reference to Freyr’s mother-in-law. A hrímþursum (Faulkes 1998: 42; Pálsson 2012: perspective can be gained by comparing the 238) [‘the best defence against hrímþursar’]. 15 uses of hrímþurs and 7 uses of bergrisi in This context is directly comparable to the Gylfaginning with the total of only 18 uses of occurrence of the hrímþursar–bergrisar jǫtunn. This contrasts sharply with the relative collocation with reference to Þórr’s hammer frequency of these terms in eddic poetry: 93 in Gylfaginning. It is customary to regard examples of jǫtunn (69% alliterative rank); 7 Skáldskaparmál as written before Gylfaginning examples of hrímþurs (100% alliterative (since Wessén 1946). In this case, it is at least rank); 4 examples of bergrisi (75% possible that Snorri formulated the expression alliterative rank; three of these appear before taking up use of the collocation in formulaically in Grottasǫngr and the fourth in Gylfaginning. However, the motivation Buslubœn, quoted above).15 This reinforces behind this example remains mysterious (and the impression that use of bergrisi is drawn doubly so when neither hrímþurs nor þurs are from outside of poetic discourse. On the other mentioned in relation to poetic diction). The hand, in spite of the impact of Snorra Edda’s final use of hrímþurs in Snorra Edda is found reception on Old Icelandic poetry and prose in the prose narration of Ragnarǫk, where it is (cf. Frog 2011b), there is no evidence that the said that the jǫtunn called Hrymr ok með term hrímþurs was taken up by either poets or honum allir hrímþursar [‘Hrymr and with saga authors. Hrímþurs thus appears to have him all the hrímþursar’] will come to the remained not just a poetic term, but a fairly battle (Faulkes 1982: 50; changed omitting register-specific term in spite of Snorri’s use. hrímþurs in U: Pálsson 2012: 80). This use of The prominence of hrímþurs in hrímþurs is not echoed in the verse quotation Gylfaginning nevertheless remains high in of Vǫluspá where Hrymir is mentioned. It is comparison with Skáldskaparmál. This tempting to consider the possibility that the suggests that something changed between the Hrymr–hrímþurs alliteration could reflect a development of these two texts whereas, for poetic verse known to Snorri. This is possible, example, the berja trǫll formula exhibits observing that Snorri was quite restrictive on continuity across them. The ratio of jǫtunn : his use of eddic quotations from all but three hrímþurs : bergrisi in Skáldskaparmál poems (Frog 2009: 274‒276). However, the narration is 21:1:0 (following the text in R), Hrymr–hrímþurs alliteration faces the same which is proportionately close to the larger problem as brú–bergrisi, which looks data-set of eddic poetry with a ratio of 93:7:4. particularly suspicious in light of identifying In Gylfaginning, the ratio is 18:15:7. The Freyr’s mother-in-law as a bergrisi. Here, too, relative shift from predominant use of jǫtunn there may simply be alliteration as an aspect to the use of a purely poetic term hrímþurs of prose style.14 In either case, the choice of can be compared to the fact that goð was the hrímþurs with Hrymr is potentially motivated conventional term in non-poetic discourse for by alliteration, whether by a verse model or ‘god’ whereas Snorra Edda more frequently by Snorri’s own style preferences. uses áss (pl. æsir) ‒ an otherwise Of the 16 uses of hrímþurs in Snorra Edda, predominantly poetic term rather than the 15 are found in Gylfaginning and of these, 10 main-stream noun (Frog & Roper 2011: 30– or two thirds are found surrounding the story 31, 35–36; cf. de Vries 1956–1957 II: 1–10). of Ymir or the description of the world-tree In his prose, Snorri foregrounds the poetic that links back to that story. An additional term áss over the term more common to four uses in Gylfaginning are found in the aesthetically unmarked discourse. The hrímþursar–bergrisar collocation, and the prominence of hrímþurs (and its collocation

48 with bergrisi?) mirror that foregrounding in collocation does not appear marked by this terms for jǫtunn. cosmological sense, but the recurrence of The shift to hrímþurs in Gylfaginning is hrímþurs in the vocabulary of Gylfaginning not evenly distributed. More than half of the produces a greater degree of cohesion through examples are connected to the story of Ymir. the text, for which the last use, alliterating This cannot be sufficiently explained by the with the giant-name Hrymr, may be the final use of hrímþurs in only one of the several link, making the destruction of the world stanzas of Vafþrúþnismál behind this section resonant with the prime creation. Although of Snorri’s cosmogony, and it is certainly not the use of hrímþurs in Skáldskaparmál attributable to a ‘misunderstanding’ of one remains obscure, its use in Gylfaginning word through which other verses in this and appears to be by design. other poems were reinterpreted. The high frequency of hrímþurs co-occurs with the Constructing Cosmological hrímþursar point in Edda where hrím [‘rime’] is Snorri appears consciously to construct significant to the narrative. It is reasonable to hrímþurs as a category of being associated consider this as a potentially relevant factor. with the earliest stage of creation. It is Snorri’s cosmogony proposes an initial possible that a basic aspect of cultural void called Ginnungagap in which hrím competence was the recognition of a subtle becomes the prime element. This element but implicit link between hrím in this term (associated with eitr [‘venom’], and thus evil) and the cosmogony, which offers a potential produces the first anthropomorphic being explanation for its appearance in some giant- Ymir and the primal cow Auðhumla, which names (cf. Sveinbjörn & Jónsson 1931: 284). nourishes him (Faulkes 1982: 9‒11). The first However, the poetic corpus does not seem to mention of hrímþursar is in answer to the support such a link. The expression inn question of where the main god was prior to hrímkaldi jǫtunn [‘that rime-cold giant’] is creation. This answer leads to the account of indeed used with reference to Ymir (Vm the formation of hrím and the emergence of 21.5), but according to Hugo Gering’s Ymir and the cow from the hrím. This concordance (1903: 462), it is otherwise only account presents six uses of hrím in addition used with reference to Reginn, foster-father of to the first six examples of hrímþurs, while Sigurðr the Dragon-Slayer (Fm 38.2). Rather the final two uses of hrímþurs describe what than reflecting an association between hrím happens to the kin of hrímþursar following and cosmogony, this may suggest the the slaying of Ymir. Within this section, adaptation of hrím as an alliterating element Snorri constructs for the reader a connection when referring to jǫtnar under influence from between hrím in hrím-þurs and hrím as the the more common hrímþurs. The epithet primal substance of creation. hrímkaldr is otherwise found only with Fjodor Uspenskij (2001) has shown that reference to the son of Loki, with whose the image of rime and a cow was used in intestines Loki will be bound (Ls 49.5, 50.2) – different contexts in Old Norse culture to which may index the son’s death rather than reference the world-creation. The referential the cosmogony. The only other context of use use of this image collocation attests to the listed is in hrímkálkr [‘rime-cup’], which social recognisability and significance of these seems to refer the froth forming on the surface images, and thus suggests that Snorri is not of the drink without discernable negative inventing this motif but rather connecting hrím- connotations (Skm 37.2, Ls 52.2 and þurs with an established symbol. Constructing Lokasenna’s associated passage in prose). that connection would also explain why The term hrím of hrímþurs is normally Snorri would subsequently foreground the translated ‘frost’, which may be in large part example of hrímþurs from (or paralleling) because Snorri connects hrím quite directly Grímnismál when describing the roots of the with ice in his cosmogony (e.g. Faulkes 1982: world tree, and why he would explicitly 10), complemented by the fact that this connect this mention of hrímþursar back to semantic field resonates with the epithet hrím- Ginnungagap. The hrímþursar–bergrisar kaldr as an epithet. However, the term hrím

49 was also used in some contexts to refer to soot Hrímþursar and the Vanir Debate (e.g. ketil-hrím [‘kettle-rime’]) or dirtiness (see The findings concerning the use of hrímþurs Uspenskij 2001: 127–129, esp. n.15). This is in Snorra Edda have significant implications presumably the semantic field motivating its for discussions of Snorri’s mythic ethno- use in proper names related to cooking for the graphy more generally. It has a direct bearing einherjar – Óðinn’s chosen slain warriors on the Vanir Debate ‒ the ongoing discussion (Gm 18.1–3). Fjodor Uspenskij (2001: 128) of whether the Old Norse term vanir was an traces the etymology back to Proto-Indo- ethnonym designating a specific category of European *qrei [‘to touch’], “[s]o that the being, and if so, the degree to which Snorri’s initial etymological meaning of the word hrím representations of that category accurately might be probably reconstructed as a ‘(self- reflect the social tradition. forming) deposit’.” This aligns with its use in In the pilot issue of RMN Newsletter, hrímkálkr with reference to mead. This leaves Rudolf Simek ignited this discussion with his the associations of hrím in the compound “Vanir Obiturary” (2010 [2005]; cf. 2006). hrímþurs and in other references to giants This discussion has resonated through the opaque and very likely open to interpretation pages of this journal since that time (Tolley – whether as ‘frost’, ‘soot’, or a link to the 2011; Frog & Roper 2011; Hopkins & origins of giants from hrím as a mythic ‘(self- Þorgeirsson 2011; Słupecki 2011; Hopkins forming) deposit’. It is possible that the term 2012). The spark that set discussion ablaze hrímþurs was historically rooted in ‘rime’ as a was the assertion that the Old Norse term prime element of the cosmogony, but if so, vanir was not conventionally identified with a there is no evidence that this was current. distinct category of gods, contesting the Insofar as hrímþurs otherwise appears to have position maintained by scholarship on the been an unmarked poetic synonym for ‘giant’, it basis of Snorra Edda and the so-called appears that Snorri was actively constructing Ynglinga saga (of the compendium hrímþurs as an ethnos of primal beings Heimskringla), also attributed to Snorri associated with the creation of the world. Sturluson. Simek asserts that the ethnic The construction of hrímþurs as an ethnos category of gods called ‘Vanir’ was invented is never fully resolved in relation to jǫtunn, by Snorri, and Snorri’s image of this category, and Snorri (whether intentionally or not) uses contrasted with the category of æsir, has the latter term in the common construction provided a lens through which scholarship has Ymir jǫtunn [‘the giant Ymir’] in the midst of subsequently viewed and interpreted the foregrounding hrímþursar (Faulkes 1982: 11). broader corpus and mythology. The problem Although the distinctions remain undeveloped, of the ‘Vanir’ in Snorri’s mythic ethnography there is the impression that hrímþursar and is complicated by the fact that potential bergrísar are being imagined as categories sources outside of Snorri’s works relevant to within the broader class of jǫtunn, much as the Vanir or the semantic field of the noun æsir and vanir were being imagined as vanir are not only limited, but also distinct ethnic groups in the broader category ambiguous. The present analysis of hrímþurs of goð [‘gods’]. That said, the strategy may not presents new information with which the have been so sophisticated: the construction questions surrounding the Vanir and the term of hrímþurs as an ethnos was centrally vanir can be placed in dialogue. focused on the era of primordial time, and it The idea that Snorri may have invented was for that era that the image of the ethnos and regularized ethnic groups in his was significant. In other contexts, links of the mythography is not new. Such an invention is ethnonym may have had a functional generally recognized in Snorri’s distinction of relevance of connecting the adversaries of the two categories of álfar [‘elves’] (e.g. gods rather generally with that primordial Holtsmark 1964; Gunnell 2007). These are time, while the distinctive identity of ljósálfar [‘light elves’], who are said to hrímþurs as opposed to other categories of inhabit Álfheimr [‘Elf-Realm’] in the celestial giants ceased to be significant in the present sphere, and the ugly døkkálfar [‘dark elves’], of narratives about Þórr and other gods. who live under the earth (Faulkes 1982:

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19‒20). These terms do not seem to have been Notes used outside of a single chapter of Edda (cf. 1. It may be noted that the review of þurs did not DONP: s.v. ‘døkkálfr’, ‘ljósálfr’).16 They seem extend to later evidence in DME I. It therefore did not include uses in Hrafnagaldur Óðins or the to mirror the description of celestial and fallen sagnakvæði (for a general introduction to which, angels in the Christian text known as the see Guðmundsdóttir 2012). Hrafnagaldur Óðins Elucidarius and to have been shaped on that was once considered part of the medieval corpus model (e.g. Holtsmark 1964: 37; Bonnetain but appears likely to be a post-medieval work (see 2006: 36–43; Hall 2007: 24‒25).17 However, Lassen 2011: 9–26; cf. also Þorgeirsson 2010). This poem contains three uses of þurs, one of which may this adaptation differs from the questions warrant mention here as a collocation of þurs and surrounding Snorri’s representation of Vanir hrím – the line þurs hrímkalda [‘rime-cold þurs’] as an ethnos: the distinction and description of (st. 13.4; Lassen 2011: 88). However, this line is ljósálfar and døkkálfar is an adaptation of a peculiar because, although þurs carries alliteration Christian model or the creation of a reflection and hrímkaldi is appropriate for use with giants, this epithet appears selected for alliteration in of Christianity in terms of vernacular earlier eddic verse (Vm 21.5, Fm 38.2), hrímkaldi’s mythology. However Snorri’s use of ljósálfar use here appears more or less ornamental. This and døkkálfar may be interpreted, it is combination of hrím and þurs links two traditional motivated by a Christian discourse in relation elements of the eddic register in an unconventional to vernacular mythology. The case of the way that appears disconnected from their use in compositional strategies of earlier poetry. (The two Vanir differs by lacking any clear relation to additional occurrences of þurs in this poem appear other discourses or ideological motivation. in lists of different types of beings, carrying Quite simply, if Snorri constructed the Vanir alliteration in st. 1.7 but not in st. 25.6; Lassen as an ethnos, it remains unclear why he would 2011: 82, 94). Use of þurs in the sagnakvæði is do so ‒ what use or interest would it have? Of more interesting owing to potential continuity in the register of fornyrðislag eddic poetry and thus of its course, such motivations would likely be formulaic expressions (cf. Þorgeirsson 2010; 2011; impossible to determine with any precision, 2013). Some sagnakvæði may date back to around yet the example of hrímþurs becomes the time of the early rímur, such as Þóruljóð, which interesting because it constructs a distinct Haukur Þorgeirsson (2011) has suggested could th ethnos from a vernacular poetic synonym potentially date from the 14 century. In this poem, the use of the expression þussa modur in Þóruljóð independent of discernible Christian models. (st. 8.4; Þorgeirsson 2011: 214) is fully consistent This shows that Snorri could be motivated by with the eddic þursa X formula (DME I: 57–61; see factors other than Christian models in also below). However, this material requires a developing such a term into a distinct separate review with consideration of the probable ethnos.18 In addition, the foregrounding of dating of each individual poem and has thusfar not been searched exhaustively for evidence of þurs hrímþurs in Gylfaginning is accompanied by and hrímþurs. paring it with the term bergrisi. Interestingly, 2. All eddic poems cited according to Neckel & Kuhn this pairing of categories of jǫtnar parallels 1963 except Buslubœn according to Jiriczek 1893 the lj sálfr‒døkkálfar pairing of elves and the and þulur according to Faulkes 1998; skaldic verses pairing of æsir‒vanir as categories of gods. are cited by sigla according to the Skaldic Database. Whether this is significant or accidental 3. The formulaic uses in both fornyrðislag and remains opaque, but it warrants observation ljóðaháttr are predominantly linked to the second when considering the problem of the Vanir. half-line, which may manifest a form of what John The case of hrímþurs thus testifies to Snorri’s Miles Foley (1993 [1990]: 96–106, 178–196) calls construction of ethnic categories in his “right justification” in a line. In addition, þursa X and hrím-þurs also both formally correspond to mythography, with the possibility that he may kenning constructions, although the significance of have been advancing binary distinctions this is obscure, especially as these would constitute within three major categories of being. kennings of quite different types: þurs would be the determinant in a genitive kenning construction in Acknowledgements: I would like to thank Rudolf Simek fornyrðislag but the base-word in a compound and Fjodor Uspenskij for their comments and kenning construction in ljóðaháttr. suggestions that have helped to strengthen this paper. I 4. It might also be mentioned that, in addition to two would also like to thank Bent Chr. Jacobsen of The uses of the common noun hrímþurs in the charm Dictionary of Old Norse Prose for confirming that their section of in Skírnismál (30.4, 34.2), the term þurs invaluable archive shows no uses of the term hrímþurs co-occurs with hrím- as an element in a giant’s in prose outside of Snorra Edda. name in another line (Skm 35.1). However, this may 51

reflect a structuring device of this part of the poem. alliterating element, the present line may conform The element hrím may be used as an ‘echo-word’ to formulaic use of bergrisi at the end of a short (Beaty 1934) or ‘responsion’ (Foley 1993 [1990]) line paralleling predominating uses of hrímþurs. that is recurrent through the series of stanzas and The term risi [‘giant’] is rare in the extant eddic creates cohesion (cf. Frog 2014c: 20–21). The corpus, but this use corresponds directly with that element occurs first in the name of the giant in Grottasǫngr (9.7, 10.6, 24.1), where the Hrímnir, who will stare at Gerðr in her state (Skm appearance of risi rather than jǫtunn may have a 28.3), then in hrímþursar as the owners of the hall relation to the mytho-heroic rather than purely to which she will go (Skm 30.4) and again in mythological context, especially striking in the summoning of giants to hear his curse (Skm 34.2) expression garðr risa (Grt 12.2) [‘realm of risar’]. before stating that Hrímgrímnir heitir þurs [‘Rime- (The potential formulaic positioning of bergrisar in Mask is called the þurs’], who is the one who will the line can also be compared to the jǫtunn- have her. Finally, the element is found in the first kennings berg-búi in Hm 2.1 and berg-Danir long line of the threatened Gerðr’s response to the [‘mountain-Danes’] in Hm 17.7). curse, in which she concedes to Skírnir’s threats 11. The three agents are presented as deceiving Gylfi and offers him a hrímkalkr [‘rime-cup’, i.e. frothing with illusion and narratives, presenting themselves cup of mead] (Skm 37.2). and the other representatives of Germanic 5. I.e. expressions equivalent to jǫtna mjǫ [‘mead of mythology as gods. The three names used are all giants’] are not paralleled by a complementary names of Óðinn, which is unambiguously construction in which a category of beings distinct acknowledged within the text when all three names from jǫtnar and identifiable with Suttungr appear appear in the list of Odin-names provided by Þriði (on kennings of this type, see further Potts 2012; cf. (Faulkes 1982: 21–22). Within the framing Faulkes 1998: 5, 11 and Potts 2012: 156 and note). Christian discourse, which advocates a euhemerized 6. It might be pointed out that eða [‘or’] in Óðinn’s interpretation of pagan mythology, this tripling of question can also be interpreted as inquiring about Óðinn as part of the illusion of authority and act of which lineage is oldest, that of gods or that of deception invites interpretation as an imitation of giants, noting that Bergelmir is referred to as inn the Christian Trinity. (See Klingenberg 1986: 637– fr i jǫtunn [‘the wise giant’] in Vm 35.5. 641; on the relationship of Gylfaginning to 7. Cf. inn hrímkaldi jǫtunn (Vm 21.4–5; Fm 38.1–2) conversion discourse, see Abram 2009.) [‘the rime-cold giant’], hundvíss jǫtunn (HHv 25.4– 12. On the different ‘languages’ of mythic beings as 5) [‘hound-wise giant’], har r jǫtunn (Hrbl 20.4–5) potentially rooted in an Indo-European heritage, see [‘harsh giant’]. Toporov 1981: 201–214; Watkins 1995: 38–39; 8. This is similar to Bakhtinian dialogism (e.g. Bakhtin West 2007: 160–162. However, on the problematics 1981) and Julia Kristeva’s ‘transposition’ (Kristeva of the value of Alvíssmál as representing a tradition 1984 [1974]: 59–60; the phenomenon she had of such mythic languages in Old Norse, see Frog previously termed ‘intertextuality’ in Kristeva 1969 2011a. [1980]). However, models based in Bakhtinian 13. A perspective on the potential for variation theories of texts and genres have not been equipped suggested here can be gained by comparing, for to address how the environment of one genre may example, the description of the creation of the shape and condition such ‘transpositions’ either world from the body of Ymir in Vafþrúðnismál 5 formally or in relation to social conventions. The and Grímnismál 40, and also comparing Alvíssmál formal aspect is particularly significant for 20 and the variation of it quoted in Snorra Edda consideration in oral-poetic discourse (cf. Frog (discussed in Frog 2011a: 54‒57). From Snorri’s 2012: 52‒54). Another shortcoming of these use of hrímþurs, it may be inferred that this term models is their inclination to project texts and their was at the end of the second half-line and carried signification in relation to other texts independent alliteration as in Grímnismál 31. of users, as though referentiality had an objective 14. Such a proposal is therefore no less speculative existence rather than being a process of engagement than suggesting that an alliterative verse motivated by individuals producing and receiving texts. the other isolated use in Skáldskaparmál – e.g. 9. E.g. Naumann 1983: 133, 137; Tómasson 1989: alliterating Þórr’s hamarr [‘hammer’] and the 218–220; Ólason 1994: 116–122; van Wezel 2006; hrímþursar against which it is effective, although Frog 2011b: 25–27. the words have been separated from one another in 10. It may be noted that the term berg-búi [‘mountain- the adaptation of verse to prose. dweller’] could carry alliteration here, but this 15. On alliterative rank and jǫtunn in relation to other would require repeating the element berg in the terms for mythic being, see Frog 2011a: 45, Table short line. The choice may nevertheless be 1. The kenning(-like) bergrisi-formula is X bergrisa connected to poetic conventions, which warrants [‘X of bergrisar’] always referring to the giantesses note in this line with bergrisar [‘mountain-giants’] in Grottasǫngr (9.7, 10.6 and inverted in 24.1); an because the latter term will become relevant when additional example of bergrisi is also found in a we turn to Snorri’s text. Although inverting the skaldic dróttkvætt stanza, where it carries neither word order, placing bergrisar at the onset of the rhyme nor alliteration, although the lexical choice line would allow for the first noun to carry may be motivated by avoiding other lexical alliteration and búar to be compounded by a non- repetition (Anon (Ldn) 2IV.1).

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16. This term is also found once in Hrafnagaldur about Two Old Norse Poems”. In Dynamics of Óðins (st. 25.7), which appears to be a post- Tradition. Ed. Lotte Tarkka. Helsinki: Finnish medieval work which draws directly on Snorra Literature Society. Pp. 233‒247. Edda for terms and names see Lassen (2011: 9–26). van Eeden, Willem, Jr. (ed.). 1913. De Codex It appears in a series of terms for being where it is Trajectinus van de Snorra Edda. Leiden: Eduard: used in the long line náir, dvergar / og dökkálfar Ijdo. [‘corpses, dwarves and dark-elves’] (Lassen 2011: Egilsson, Sveinbjörn, & Finnur Jónsson. 1931. Lexicon 94, 105–106). I would like to thank Joseph S. poeticum antiquæ linguæ septentrionalis – Ordbog Hopkins for drawing this example to my attention. over det norsk-islandske skjaldesprog. 2nd edn. 17. It is uncertain whether døkkálfr should be regarded København: S.I. Møllers. as a synonym for svartálfr [‘black elf’]. In Faulkes, Anthony (ed.). 1982. Snorri Sturluson, Edda: Skáldskaparmál, Loki travels to see svartálfar Prologue and Gylfaginning. London: Viking (svarta álfar in U) and meets dvergar (Faulkes Society for Northern Research. 1998: 41; Pálsson 2012: 236); in a different Faulkes, Anthony (ed.). 1998. Snorri Sturluson, Edda: narrative, he also meets a dvergr when travelling to Skáldskaparmál I: Text. London: Viking Society a place called Svartálfaheimr [‘realm of the black for Northern Research. elves’] (Faulkes 1998: 41) as Skírnir does on his Foley, John Miles. 1993 [1990]. Traditional Oral Epic: journey to Svartálfaheimr in Gylfaginning (Faulkes The Odyssey, Beowulf, and the Serbo-Croation 1982: 28). In Edda, svartálfr thus appears to simply Return Song. Los Angeles: University of California be a synonym for dvergr (e.g. Holtsmark 1964: 37). Press. It is impossible to tell whether, like hrímþurs, this Frog. 2009. “Snorri Sturluson and Oral Traditions”. In term has some background in poetic discourse. The Á austrvega: Saga and East Scandinavia. Preprint Dictionary of Old Norse Prose (s.v. ‘svartálfr’, Papers of the 14th International Saga Conference. ‘svartálfs sonr’) also shows examples of svartálfr in Ed. A. Ney, H. Williams & F.C. Ljungqvist. Gävle: Hektors saga. Although this use has been thought University of Gävle. Pp. 270–278. to be dependent on Snorra Edda (Hall 2007: 24), Frog. 2011a. “Alvíssmál and Orality I: Formula, this is difficult to assess. What is most interesting is Alliteration and Categories of Mythic Being”. Arkiv that the term is used across the different parts of för Nordisk Filologi 126: 17–71. Edda, and the noun as well as the place name Frog. 2011b. “Snorri Sturluson qua Fulcrum: appear in Skáldskaparmál, whereas the place name Perspectives on the Cultural Activity of Myth, only is found in Gylfaginning, where the noun Mythological Poetry and Narrative in Medieval døkkálfr appears. Iceland”. Mirator 12: 1–29. 18. Coincidentally, hrímþurs and vanir also share a Frog. 2012. “On the Case of Vambarljóð II: Register parallel that the both terms are found in eddic verse and Mode from Skaldic Verse to sagnakvæði”. predominantly or near-exclusively as formulaic RMN Newsletter 5: 49–61. expressions in the ljóðaháttr meter (Frog & Roper Frog. 2013. “The (De)Construction of Mythic 2011: 31‒34). Ethnography I: Is Every þurs in Verse a þurs?”. RMN Newsletter 6: 52–72. Works Cited Frog. 2014a (forthcoming). “Calling Christ bealdor: Abram, Christopher. 2006. “Snorri’s Invention of Myth and Lexical Semantics in a Poetic Register”. Hermóðr’s helreið”. In McKinnell, Ashurst & Kick Leeds Studies in English. 2006: 22‒31. Frog. 2014b. “Mythological Names in dróttkvætt Abram, Christopher. 2009. “Gylfaginning and Early Formulae I: When is a Valkyrie Like a Spear?”. Medieval Conversion Theory”. Saga-Book 33: 5–25. Studia Metrica et Poetica 1(1): 100–139. Bakhtin, M.M. 1981. The Dialogic Imagination: Four Frog. 2014c. “A Preface to Parallelism”. In Frog Essays. Ed. Michael Holquist. Austin. 2014e: 7‒28. Beaty, John O. 1934. “The Echo-Word in Beowulf with Frog. 2014d. “Parallelism, Mode, Medium and Orders a Note on the Finnsburg Fragment”. PMLA 49(2): of Representation”. In Frog 2014e: 185‒207. 365–373. Frog (ed.). 2014e. Parallelism in Verbal Art and Bonnetain, Yvonne. 2006. Der nordgermanische Gott Performance: Pre-Print Papers of the Seminar- th th Loki aus literaturwissenschaftlicher Perspektive. Workshop 26 –27 May 2014, Helsinki, Finland. Göppingen: Kümmerle Verlag. Helsinki: Folklore Studies, University of Helsinki. Cleasby, Richard & Gudbrand Vigfússon. 1896. An Frog & Jonathan Roper. 2011. “Verses versus the Icelandic English Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Vanir: Response to Simek’s ‘Vanir Obituary’”. Press. RMN Newsletter 2: 29–37. DME I = Frog 2013. Gallo, Lorenzo Lozzi. 2004. “Persistent Motifs of DONP = Ordbog over det norrøne prosasprog ‒ The Cursing from Old Norse Literature in Buslubœn”. Dictionary of Old Norse Prose. Available at: Linguistica e filologia 18: 119‒146. http://onp.ku.dk/. Gering, Hugo. 1903. Vollständiges Wörterbuch zu den DuBois, Thomas A. 1995. Finnish Folk Poetry and the Liedern der Edda. Halle: Buchhandlung des Kalevala. New York: Garland. Waisenhauses. DuBois, Tom. 2003. “Dynamics and Continuities of Guðmundsdóttir, Aðalheiður. 2013. “The Tradition of Tradition: What a Finnish Epic Song Can Teach Us Icelandic sagnakvæði”. RMN Newsletter 6: 15–20. 53

Gunnell, Terry. 2007. “How Elvish Were the Álfar?”. Meissner, Rudolf. 1921. Die Kenningar der Skalden. In Constructing Nations: Reconstructing Myths, Ed. Bonn: Schroeder A. Wawn. New York: Brepols. Pp. 111–130. Naumann, Hans-Peter. 1983. “Erzählstrategien in der Hall, Alaric. 2007. Elves in Anglo-Saxon England: Fornaldarsaga: Die Prüfungen des Helden”. In Matters of Belief, Health, Gender and Identity. Akten der Fünften Arbeitstagung der Anglo-Saxon Studies 8. Woodbridge: Boydell Skandinavisten des deutschen Sprachgebiets. Heiko Press. Uecker ed. St. Augustin. Pp. 131–142. Hall, Alaric. 2009. “‘Þur sarriþu þursa trutin’: Neckel, Gustav & Hans Kuhn (eds.). 1963. Edda: Die Monster-Fighting and Medicine in Early Medieval Lieder des Codex Regius nebst vewandten Denk- Scandinavia”. Asclepio 41: 195–218. mälern I. 4th ed. Heidelberg: Winter. Harris, Joseph. 2004. “Myth and Literary History: Two Ólason, Vésteinn. 1994. “The Marvellous North and Germanic Examples”. Oral Tradition 19(1): 3‒19. Authorial Presence in the Icelandic fornaldarsaga”. Heinrichs Anne. 1997. “Der liebeskranke Freyr, In Contexts of Pre-Novel Narrative: The European euhemeristisch entmythisiert”. Alvíssmál 7: 3‒36. Tradition. Ed. Roy Eriksen. Approaches to Holtsmark, Anne. 1964. Studier i Snorres mytologi. Semiotics 114. Berlin. Pp. 101–134. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget. Pálsson, Heimir (ed. & trans.). 2012. Snorri Sturluson, Hopkins, Joseph S. 2012. “Goddesses Unknown I: The Uppsala Edda: DG 11 4to. London: Viking Njǫrun and the Sister-Wife of Njǫrðr”. RMN Society for Northern Research. Newsletter 5: 39‒44. Potts, Deborah. 2012. “A Cognitive Approach to the Hopkins, Joseph S., & Haukur Þorgeirsson. 2011. “The Analysis of the Extant Corpus of Kennings for Ship in the Field”. RMN Newsletter 3: 14‒18. Poetry”. Unpublished PhD dissertation, University Jónsson, Finnur. 1926–1928. Ordbog til rímur. of Cambridge. København. Roper, Jonathan. 2014. “Alliteration and Parallelism in Jiriczek, Otto Luitpold (ed.). 1893. Die Bósa-saga in Old English Charms”. In Frog 2014e: 171–184. zwei Fassungen nebst Proben aus den Bósa-Rímur. Schulz, Katja. 2004. Riesen: Von Wissenshütern und Strassburg: Karl J. Trübner. Wildnisbewohnern in Edda und Saga. Heidelberg: Klingenberg, Heinz 1986. “Gylfaginning: Tres vidit Winter. unum adoravit”. In Germanic Dialects: Linguistic Sigurðsson, Jón (ed.). 1848. Edda Snorru Sturlusonar – and Philological Investigations. Ed. B. Brogyanyi Edda Snorronis Sturlæi I. Hafniæ: Legatus & T. Krömmelbein. Amsterdam. Pp. 627–689, Arnamagnæani. af Klintberg, Bengt. 2010. The Types of the Swedish Simek, Rudolf. 2006. “The Use and Abuse of Old Folk Legend. FF Communications 300. Helsinki: Norse Religion: Its Beginnings in High Medieval Academia Scientiarum Fennica. Iceland”. In Old Norse Religion in Long Term Kristeva, Julia. 1980 [1969]. “Word, Dialogue, and Perspectives: An International Conference in Lund, Novel”. In Desire in Language: A Semiotic Sweden, June 3–7, 2004. Ed. A. Andrén, K. Approach to Literature and Art. Ed. Leon S. Jennbert & C. Raudvere. Lund: Nordic Academic Roudiez. Trans. Thomas Gora, Alice Jardine & Press. Pp. 377–380. Leon S. Roudiez. Oxford: Blackwell. Pp. 64–91. Simek, Rudolf. 2010 [2005]. “The Vanir: An Obituary.” Kristeva, Julia. 1984 [1974]. Revolution in Poetic RMN Newsletter [1]: 10–19. First published in Herzort Language. Trans. Margaret Waller. New York. Island: Aufsätze zur isländischen Literatur- und Lassen, Annette (ed.). 2011. Hrafnagaldur Óðins Kulturgeschichte: Zum 65. Geburts-tag von Gert (Forspjallsljóð). London: Viking Society for Kreuzer. Ed. V.T. Seiler. Lüdenscheid: Seltmann & Northern Research. Söhne, 2005. Pp. 140–155. Leslie, Helen F. 2013. “Younger Icelandic Manuscripts Skaldic Database. Available at: and Old Norse Studies”. In Approaching https://www.abdn.ac.uk/skaldic/db.php. Methodology. Ed. Frog & Pauliina Latvala with Słupecki, Leszek. 2011. “The Vanir and ragnarǫk”. Helen F. Leslie. 2nd rev. edn. Helsinki: Academia RMN Newsletter 3: 11‒14. Scientiarum Fennica. Pp. 287‒309 Thompson, C.W. 1978. “The Runes in Bosa Saga ok Leslie, Helen F. Forthcoming. “Genre and the Herrauds”. Scandinavian Studies 50: 50–56. Prosimetra of the Old Icelandic fornaldarsögur”. In Þorgeirsson, Haukur. 2010. “Gullkársljóð og Genre ‒ Text ‒ Interpretation. Ed. Kaarina Koski & Hrafnagaldur: Framlag til sögu fornyrðislags”. Frog with Ulla Savolainen. Helsinki. Gripla 21: 299–334. McKinnell, John. 2003. “Encounters with Völur”. In Þorgeirsson, Haukur. 2011. “Þóruljóð og Háu- Old Norse Myths, Literature and Society. Ed. Þóruleikur”. Gripla 22: 211–227. Margaret Clunies Ross. Viborg: University Press of Þorgeirsson, Haukur. 2013 [2012]. “Poetic Formulas in Southern Denmark. Pp. 110‒131. Late Medieval Icelandic Folk Poetry: The Case of McKinnell, John, David Ashurst & Donata Kick (eds.). Vambarljóð”. In Approaching Methodology. 2nd The Fantastic in Old Norse / Icelandic Literature; rev. edn. Ed. Frog & Pauliina Latvala with Helen F. Sagas and the British Isles: Preprint Papers of the Leslie. Helsinki: Academia Scientiarum Fennica. 13th International Saga Conference Durham and Pp.347–375. York, 6th‒12th August 2006. Durham: The Centre for Þórólfsson, Björn K. 1934. Rímur fyrir 1600. Medieval and Renaissance Studies, Durham Kaupmannahöfn: Hið íslenzka fræðafélag. University.

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Thorvaldsen, Bernt Ø. 2010. “The Poetic Curse and Its de Vries, Jan. 1956–1957. Altgermanische Relatives”. In Along the Oral–Written Continuum. Religionsgeschichte I–II. Grundriss der Ed. S. Rankovic et al. Turnhout: Brepols. Pp. 253– germanischen Philologie 12:1–2. 2nd ed. Berlin: de 267. Gruyter. Tolley, Clive. 2011. “In Defense of the Vanir”. RMN Watkins, Calvert. 1995. How to Kill a Dragon: Aspects Newsletter 2: 20‒29. of Indo-European Poetics. Oxford: Oxford Tómasson, Sverrir. 1989. “Hugleiðingar um horfna University Press. bókmenntagrein”. Tímarit Máls og Menningar 50: Wessén, Elias. 1946. “Introduction”. In Codex Regius 211–226. of the Younger Edda. Ed. Elias Wessén. Toporov, V.N. 1981. “Die Ursprünge der Copenhagen. Pp. 5–32. indoeuropäischen Poetic”. Poetica: Zeitschrift für West, M. L. 2007. Indo-European Poetry and Myth. Sprach- und Literaturwissenschaft 13: 189–251. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Uspenskij, Fjodor. 2001. “Towards a Further van Wezel, Lars. 2006. “Myths to Play with: Bósa saga Interpretation of the Primeordial Cow Audhumla”. ok Herrauðs”. In McKinnell, Ashurst & Kick 2006: Scripta Islandica 51: 119–132. 1034‒1043.

Abstracts of Articles and Author Information

The ‘Viking Apocalypse’ of 22nd February these versions is closer to the earliest form of the 2014: An Analysis of the Jorvik Viking text. This article offers a concentrated Centre’s Ragnarǫk and Its Media presentation that shows how the differences of U Reception from RTW are attributable to scribal practice. Joseph S. Hopkins ([email protected]): Dept. of Germanic & Slavic Studies, The University of Goddesses Unknown II: On the Apparent Georgia, 201 Joseph E. Brown Hall, Athens, GA Old Norse Goddess Ilmr 30602, U.S.A. Joseph S. Hopkins ([email protected]): Dept. of Germanic & Slavic Studies, The University of Abstract: This article investigates recent Georgia, 201 Joseph E. Brown Hall, Athens, GA discussions in the media concerning purported 30602, U.S.A. predictions of a Viking apocalypse. The media attention is contextualized in relation to current Abstract: The goddess Ilmr, attested only in trends in modern culture linked to the Viking Age Icelandic sources, has been almost completely and early Germanic religion. neglected by scholarship. This article offers a comprehensive review of the evidence and Motifs and Folktales: A New Statistical discusses the possible interpretations. It proposes Approach that ecological conditions in Iceland could be a Julien d’Huy ([email protected]): Institute of factor in why this name seems to become the African World (IMAF, UMR 8171), Aix- increasingly obscure following the settlement Marseille University, Paris I Sorbonne; (CNRS/ period. IRD/EHESS/Univ.Paris1/EPHE/Aix-Marseille Univ- AMU), Centre Malher, 9, rue Malher, 75004 Paris. The (De)Construction of Mythic Ethnography II: Hrímþurs and Cosmogony Abstract: Lexicometric software is applied to a (A Contribution to the Vanir Debate) test corpus of tale-type ATU 1137 as a pilot study Frog ([email protected]): Folklore Studies / Dept. to assess whether such software can be used for of Philosophy, History, Culture and Art Studies, the identification of traditional motifs. Rather than University of Helsinki, PL 59 (Unioninkatu 38 A), a tool for identifying motifs, the pilot study University of Helsinki, Finland. revealed a new way of looking at tales, viewing them in terms of semantic networks. Abstract: This article shows that the term hrímþurs was a poetic term employed for h- The U Version of Snorra Edda alliteration, but that it was elevated by Snorri Daniel Sävborg ([email protected]): Dept. of Sturluson to a mythic ethnos. This construction of Scandinavian Studies, University of Tartu, a category in Snorri’s mythography is placed in Ülikooli 17, 51014 Tartu, Estonia. dialogue with the question of whether he has done the same with the category of gods called ‘Vanir’ Abstract: The four main manuscripts of Snorra in the so-called Vanir Debate. Edda group into two main versions, RTW and U. Scholarship has not been able to resolve which of

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Events

Alliterativa Causa 18th–19th January 2013, London, U.K. Jonathan Roper, University of Tartu

In January of 2007, a group of researchers multi-authored paper ranging over a wide met at the Warburg Institute in London for a amount of cognitive research on the role of colloquium on alliteration. Some papers from sound repetition in human memory, especially this event eventually formed around half of in the case of learning foreign languages. This the chapters in the work Alliteration in research suggested that consonance may be Culture (Palgrave, 2011). Although there was less helpful than alliteration in learning multi- a long gap between the meeting and the book, word phrases in English, and one explanation when it did finally see the light of day, it was proffered for this was that consonance may in apparent that there was continued interest in fact be too common to have an impact. Daniel the topic. Thus it was that in January 2013 the Abondolo of the University of London gave Warburg Institute hosted another colloquium the paper “Synchronic Means, Diachronic on alliteration, once again sponsored by the Ends”, which usefully problematized many of [British] Folklore Society. This time the event the assumptions we might make in dealing spanned two days, and fell into seven with alliteration by drawing on a wide range sections. of examples from often little-known Eurasian The first of the sections dealt with poetic traditions. Abondolo was also one of Alliteration in Nordic Verse, and found Frog several speakers to invoke Alison Wray’s (University of Helsinki) ‘reading notion of ‘chunks’ of preformed language alliteratively’ in the paper “Lexical Semantics units in their discussions of alliteration. The in a Dead Language” (the language in this session was concluded by Will Abberley, case being Old Norse). For him, reading speaking the day before he was awarded his alliteratively meant being aware of the PhD at Exeter, on 19th century understandings shaping influence of alliteration on word of alliteration, under the title: “‘This Barbaric choice in Old Norse verse traditions, and for Love of Repeating the Same Sound’: the modern reader to be ready to “de-mine” Alliteration and ‘Primitive’ Speech in the that alliteration. In a sense, ‘reading Victorian Evolutionary Imagination”. As the alliteratively’ was then to read against title suggests, alliteration was often poorly alliteration. The second speaker, Ragnar Ingi received – Robert Louis Stephenson finding it Aðalsteinsson (Reykjavik), addressed vocalic childish, and H.G. Wells thinking it vulgar. alliteration in Icelandic over a very long time Tennyson, apparently, removed the naturally frame (ten centuries). He suggested that initial occurring alliteration from his poems for fear vowels were formerly preceded by a his audience would laugh. mandatory glottal stop, and that this was in In the first session after lunch, Alliteration fact the sound being alliterated on. Ragnar in Eastern Europe, Eila Stepanova was a returnee from the first alliteration (University of Helsinki) discussed the role of colloquium and his paper this time was a alliteration in Karelian Laments, and pendant to his previous paper, which adumbrated the complex systems of concentrated on the rules regarding traditional synonyms and circumlocutions that alliterations involving another set of difficult support the lamenter’s alliterative word sounds: clusters involving s-. choices. Jonathan Roper (University of Tartu) The second of the sections offered us spoke about the fate of alliteration when Broad Perspectives on Alliteration. This translated in a variety of popular and high involved Seth Lindstromberg presenting a cultural forms. The paper was a last-minute

56 addition to cover the unfortunate absence of “Alliteration, Its Form and Functions in our Georgian colleague Mari Turashveli, who Original and Translated Poetry”, contrasting, unexpectedly was unable to be with us, but it for example, the fate of alliteration in did not entirely break with the advertised translations into Russian and Estonian of content of this session as it contained as many Beowulf and the Kalevala. Eastern European examples as it did English After an early lunch, we heard papers on ones. The final session of the first day was on Alliteration and Proverbs, with Marcas Mac Alliteration in English Verse, where Jeremy Connigh (Belfast) discussing alliteration (and Scott Ecke (University of Arkansas, Little other signs of proverbiality) in Gaelic Rock) drew upon his archival research on proverbs in Ireland, and Susan Deskis Piers Plowman manuscripts to think about (DeKalb) speaking on alliterative proverbs in alliteration and innovation in Middle English, the Old and Middle English period, more arguing that scribal practice can show us specifically the role alliteration might play in innovation in tradition. This led him to granting them their sense of authority. This question how justified certain editors’ provided a nice segue into the final section ‘corrections’ of scribal forms might be. Ad Alliteration and Authority, in which Helena Putter (Bristol) also approached Middle Halmari (Huntsville) spoke on “Alliterative English alliterative verse from a questioning Patterns and Language Switching in Oxford, angle, suggesting that the heteromorphicity MS Bodley 649”. This was quite a change discussed by Cable and Duggan might be from her paper at our first meeting on more constitutive of Middle English alliteration in the inaugural addresses of U.S. alliterative verse than alliteration. He Presidents, but she succeeded in showing that examined the interaction of rhyme and macaronic Middle English sermons were a alliteration in the poem, The Awntyrs off markedly alliterative genre. The final speaker, Arthure, noting how rhyme-alliterators, such Kristin Hanson of Berkeley, concluded as the author of this poem, think in couplet proceedings by speaking about how Seamus units, rather than in the single line units of Heaney attempted to provide a variety of earlier tradition. Discussions then continued equivalents to Old English alliteration in his at a wine reception at the Institute. translation of Beowulf, running the gamut On the morning of the second day, the from the shadowy to the substantial. focus moved back to eastern Europe, with All in all, the two days of papers and three papers on Alliteration and Translation. discussions, during which the speakers Tuomas Lehtonen of the Finnish Literary addressed an impressively wide variety of Society (SKS) looked at the presence of text-types, periods, and languages, showed alliteration in early Finnish translations of once again that the phenomenon of German Lutheran hymns. While a figure such alliteration possesses more facets than might as Jacobus Finno was clear that rhyme should first be imagined. If we were to be critical, we be introduced to Finland as part of the might notice that while the scholars were civilizing process, later antiquarian priests successful in presenting their chosen engaged with the alliterative Kalevalaic idiom traditions and concerns to one another, the in their hymn writing. Māra Grudule (Riga) study of alliteration has not yet advanced to a had a similar focus in her paper, entitled: stage where there is a more or less shared set “Adapting Luther to the Baroque: Sound of terms for them to use when speaking to Effects in Seventeenth-Century Latvian each other (the study of rhyme is far more Poetry”. She noted that alliteration could developed in this regard). Furthermore, often make its way into the verses via devices typological comparisons remain largely such as reduplication and etymological unexplored and generalizations undrawn. In figures. Finally in this session, Mihhail and any event, there is much still to talk about, Maria-Kristiina Lotman (representing the and it is to be hoped that there will be another Universities of Tallinn and of Tartu) spoke on such meeting of minds.

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The Yale Conference on Baltic and Scandinavian Studies 13th–15th March 2014, New Haven, Connecticut, U.S.A. Maths Bertell, Mid-Sweden University

Representing the Austmarr Network the discussions held, both formal and (www.austmarr.org), I had, along with informal, mirrored the participants’ scholarly Christine Ekholst from the Medieval Gender achievements. Once again, the field of the Network, been given the task to arrange one Viking Age and the early Middle ages proved of the streams for The Yale Conference on itself to be a vibrant and interdisciplinary Baltic and Scandinavian Studies, organized field. The conference also held hopes for the by the Association for the Advancement of future with up and coming scholars like Baltic Studies (AABS), the Society for the Johnny Therus from Uppsala University with Advancement of Scandinavian Study (SASS), the paper “Abandoning the Ancestors? – and the European Studies Council at Yale Conflict and Acculturation, the Changing University. The conference had the Burial Customs of Viking-Age Uppland, impressive ambition to cover almost every Sweden”, Colin Gioia Connors from the aspect of Scandinavian and Baltic Studies University of Wisconsin, Madison, with within the humanities, and accordingly to “Google Mapping Hrafnkels Saga: The achieve a well-filled list of participants. The Pitfalls and Promise of Geolocating the Austmarr session planned in advanced for Sagas”, Maja Bäckvall from Harvard 20+ papers but ended up with 10 sessions University with “Erring on the Side of the with a total of 32 papers! Added to this were Reader: Scribal Errors as Part of the Text”, the sessions The Vikings, The Sagas etc., all and Michael Meichsner from the University within panel A: Early Histories, which of Greifswald with “Constituting Space in the inevitably led to a number of clashes of Baltic Sea Area: A Case Study of Gotland, interest that made a lot of participants miss Bornholm and Rügen”. All took different out on many interesting papers. The perspectives, but presented new angles and organizers also had underestimated the power results for the common field for a variety of of the early European history contributions, disciplines. The schedule may be found here: with Vikings, Sagas, Myth and Archaeology. http://www.yale.edu/macmillan/balticstudies/ Small venues were crowded with people ybss/schedule.html. lining the walls, while others were half empty. The conference program is available here: All though the organizors seemed to have https://yale.app.box.com/s/0c01huhvcdmo0tje been overwhelmed by their task and appeared 3bdp. somewhat invisible, the papers delivered and

Julius ja Kaarle Krohn juhlasymposium – Julius and Kaarle Krohn Anniversary Symposium 6th September 2013, Helsinki, Finland Karina Lukin and Kendra Willson (University of Helsinki)

As of May 2013, 150 years had elapsed since Krohn together, justified the aim of the birth of Professor Kaarle Krohn. On this folkloristics and in practice created it as an occasion, the Folklore Studies at the academic discipline. Kaarle Krohn’s life work University of Helsinki organized a is remarkably broad and significant – as a symposium in collaboration with the Finnish researcher and professor, and also as the Literary Society. On the shoulders of Krohn initiator of many institutions of tradition père and fils rests a heavy load from the point research, such as the publication of Suomen of view of Finnish and international Kansan Vanhat Runot [‘Ancient Songs of the folkloristics: the Historical-Geographic Finnish People’] and the Folklore Fellows. Method, developed by Kaarle and Julius The presentations at the symposium, held in

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Finnish and English, similarly covered a Helsinki.” Later in the spring of 1918, Krohn broad area both in relation to Krohn’s own thanked the Red Guard for not tampering with time and to the present day. the SKS collections, in what was, according The symposium opened with Pertti to Häggman, a remarkable speech for its time. Lassila’s (University of Helsinki) “Julius During this time of intense polarization, Krohn, kansa ja kirjallisuus” [‘Julius Krohn, Krohn made gestures of reconciliation; this the Folk and Literature’], a sharp-eyed view can be traced to a belief, inherited from his of Julius Krohn’s intellectual historical father, in the holiness of the Finnish people. background and conceptions of the Kalevala. Häggman also discussed other of Kaarle Lassila emphasized that Krohn was a patriotic Krohn political principles, including Fennomaniac, focused on cultural activities, monarchism, notions of the unity of the for whom research on folk poetry comprised a Finno-Ugric peoples and Greater Finland part of Finnish literary history. Krohn viewed (suur-Suomi). He continued along the same the runo tradition as unique and valuable, a lines as Lassila in stating that, while the heritage that made possible both position of folklore as a national discipline contemporary and future literature, within inhibited certain discussions from arising – which the Finns’ aesthetic education had been for instance, it was necessary to study preserved. Julius Krohn was a contemporary Kalevala and the ancient history of Finland, of Elias Lönnrot – Lönnrot was in fact his not folk poetry in the Kalevala-meter – at the teacher – who had a clear view of the same time, it was part of an effective multiplicity of the materials in the Kalevala. publication strategy, which was beneficial to Lassila’s presentation and the ensuing the discipline. discussion nicely foregrounded how quickly Satu Apo’s (University of Helsinki) the symbolic significance of the Kalevala left “Suullisen runouden historia – fakta vai in its wake and hid from view other Kalevala- fiktio” [‘The History of Oral Poetry – Fact or meter poetry and other work by Lönnrot. Fiction?’] addressed the dating of the Although the discussion was not conducted Kullervo poem. According to Apo, Lönnrot’s publicly, researchers contemplated the extensive role in the compilation of the relationship between Lönnrot’s epic and the Kullervo poem specifically was kept as inside ‘original Kalevala’. Even though Krohn, too, knowledge, while publicly the image of regarded the Kalevala as just one possible Lönnrot as the last runo singer was way of presenting the idea of Finnish epic as maintained. Apo divided those who have it might possibly have been in the past, he did dated the Kullervo poem into two camps: the not want to question the value of Lönnrot’s matter-of-fact Kaarle Krohn and Martti work: the Kalevala was ‘natural and Haavio left its age ultimately an open beautiful’. In his presentation, Lassila question. By contrast, the thoughts of E.N. concentrated on investigating Julius Krohn Setälä, Matti Kuusi, and Jouko Hautala, first and foremost as a literary historian. among others, were characterized, according Kaj Häggman’s (University of Helsinki) to Apo, by the boldness of their hypotheses. “‘Tämä paikka on meillekin pyhä’: SKS, Later in the discussion, this was referred to as punakaarti ja Kaarle Krohn” [‘This Place Is ‘gay science’ (iloinen tiede), in which the Holy to Us as Well’: The Finnish Literary researcher lets his spirit fly and leaves Society, the Red Guard and Kaarle Krohn’], verification as a task for others. Apo drew by contrast, addressed Kaarle Krohn’s attention to a series of hypotheses, beginning position as the director of the Finnish Literary with E.N. Setälä, according to which the Society during a political crisis in the spring Kullervo poems were dated and situated as of 1918, when Helsinki was controlled by the part of medieval Nordic literature. At the end Reds. According to Krohn’s account, the Red of her presentation, she posed the question of Guard, searching for an underground printing how and why great historical leaps in the press, stated at SKS, “This place is holy to us construction of the histories of the poems as well,” for which reason the house was were accepted, and why precisely the preserved “as an island in the center of Red

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Scandinavian Middle Ages attracted Finnish examples of ATU 333 (Little Red Riding researchers. Hood) and ATU 123 (The Wolf and the Roger D. Abrahams’ (University of Kids). Tales from Asia (The Tiger Pennsylvania) “Folklore: From Krohn to Grandmother) and Africa (involving an ogre) Holbek and beyond – The Many Promises of share some characteristics with both these Comparatism” was a wide-ranging tour of the predominantly European and Near Eastern history of folklore scholarship and Abrahams’ types, but it has been unclear whether they personal research history. He began with the belong to one of the two types or should be antiquarian roots of folklore scholarship; regarded as separate. Francis Child benefitted immeasurably from Tehrani coded 58 variants of these stories his Scandinavian and Scottish correspondents, according to 72 different variables. He preferred written to oral sources, and mapped the variants against geographical discovered that many ballads could not be space and analyzed them using three traced to a single origin. Abrahams described statistical methods: cladistics (maximum his own work with Alan Dundes in parsimony tree, minimizing the total number Yugoslavia in the 1960s, expanding Carl von of changes needed to produce the leaves), Sydow’s biological metaphor to cover Bayesian MCMC (which allows rates of “tropism” in oikotypes. This journey led to a evolution to vary across characters and tree visit to Bengt Holbek in Copenhagen and branches and produces a probability discussion with Holbek of the antiquarian distribution of relationships under a range of “brotherhood” of Early Modern Scandinavia plausible evolutionary models) and and specifically whether questionnaires NeighborNet (agglomerative clustering that distributed by the Danish and Swedish kings can accommodate incompatible splits). These at the instigation of Ole Worm were related to produced visual representations which clearly a similar investigation in the Castillian court distinguished among the types but placed the of Ferdinand II, a question later taken up by Asian and African tales in slightly different Valdimar Tr. Hafstein. The Krohns were part relations to ATU 333 and 123. The African of a trans-Atlantic network of scholars and tales are closer to 123. He first interpreted central in professionalizing the discipline of these results as indicating that the tale had folklore as a science of high purpose, bringing originated in Asia and diversified into the it out of the shadow of antiquarianism and other types as it spread west. However, nationalism. Abrahams’ own research has not indications of the likely ages of traits suggests focused on the types of single-voiced tradition that the similarities were not present in the that can be investigated based on motifs and last common ancestor of all these types, but tale-types, but looks more at community evolved separately or were borrowed. The practices, such as the roles of outsider groups Asian tale may be a hybrid that arose through in performing traditions on the Atlantic blending between the western types and littoral impacted by the slave trade. native tales. Comparative work need no longer be based Tehrani concluded that tale types are on a search for Urforms and the basis for amenable to phylogenetic analysis and that comparison has expanded greatly. Not all this method can help to resolve debates about folklore is antique or antique-like. The the classification and origins of types. folklore studies of the present and future Understanding the stability and modification focus on this deeply situated behavior, art that of tales provides a rich point of contact for grows out of interaction. anthropology, literature, psychology and Jamie Tehrani (Durham University), in biology. Tehrani’s paper has since appeared “Folktale Phylogenetics: A Modern (Tehrani 2013.). Evolutionary Approach to Historical- In “Kaarle Krohn and Historical- Geographic Studies in Folklore”, introduced Geographic Method(s) in the Light of the application of phylogenetic methods from Folklore Studies Today”, Frog (University of computational biology to cultural phenomena. Helsinki) discussed different meanings He illustrated this approach using the attributed to the term “Historical-Geographic

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Method” (HGM) and argues that there are in knowledge that is created collectively and fact several HGMs. In Finland, the term HGM incrementally. The assumption underlying the refers narrowly to Kaarle Krohn’s school, HGM that a folkloric text originates with an which defined the discipline of folklore as individual creator and is subsequently necessarily historical and comparative, and “zersungen” or sung apart (as described by the sole research question as the search for the Friedrich von Schlegel) – that oral original form of a text. The HGM is viewed transmission is destructive to tradition – is as a complete package, comprising methods, also based on the Romantic ideal of the poet research tools, theories and research as solitary genius. questions, which enjoyed hegemonic status Valdimar framed his talk with the example for a long time but which modern scholarship of an Icelandic folk song (commonly known has rejected. In North America, by contrast, as Vísur Vatnsenda-Rósu) that was recorded the term HGM is used interchangeably with in the late 19th century, published in Bjarni the term “Finnish Method”. It is understood Þorsteinsson’s 1906 compendium Íslensk more broadly as a toolkit that comprises a þjóðlög and performed in 1925 “dressed up number of methods and can be used in for the drawing room” by composer Jón Leifs, conjunction with other methods in addressing a founder of STEF, the Icelandic organization a range of research questions. The classic for musical copyright. A 1960 arrangement of HGM was central to the establishment of the song by Jón Ásgeirsson became folklore as an academic discipline with its immensely popular in the 1990s, appearing own method and in defining the boundaries of inter alia in a Ford commercial, sung by folklore as an object of research. HGMs Björk Guðmundsdóttir, and as the theme of understood more broadly provide flexible Hilmar Oddsson’s 1995 film (Tár úr Steini tools for studying continuity and variation. An [‘Tears of Stone’]) about the life of Jón Leifs. article related to Frog’s presentation recently Jón Ásgeirsson accused the music arranger appeared in print (Frog 2013). for the film (Hjálmar H. Ragnarsson) of theft, Valdimar Tr. Hafstein’s (University of and through out-of-court settlements and the Iceland) presentation “The Opposite of judgement of two experts appointed by STEF, Property: How the Grimms Helped to Create Vísur Vatnsenda-Rósu was declared the Public Domain (and How the Krohns “effectively” Jón sgeirsson’s composition in Carried on Their Work)” discussed the 1997, a century after it was collected by development of the concept of public domain, Bjarni Þorsteinsson. closely linked to the definition of folklore, as Overall the seminar illustrated the richness part of the evolution of the notion of and continued vibrancy of the Krohns’ intellectual property, linked to concepts of multifaceted legacy. authorship. Folklore was defined as texts without authors, which were therefore Works Cited available for anyone (typically members of Frog. 2013. “Revisiting the Historical-Geographic the bourgeoisie) to use as “raw material”, to Method(s)”. RMN Newsletter 7: 18–33. Tehrani, Jamshid J. 2013. “The Phylogeny of Little adapt, publish and seek to profit from. The Red Riding Hood”. PLOS One 8, 11. DOI: legal apparatus for protecting intellectual 10.1371/journal.pone.0078871. property has no way to deal with traditional

Discourses of Belief and Genre: A Nordic–Baltic Workshop at the Annual Meeting of the American Folklore Society 16th–19th October 2013, Providence, Rhode Island, U.S.A. Irina Sadovina, University of Toronto, and Heidi Haapoja, University of Helsinki

The 2013 American Folklore Society (AFS) folklorists from all over the world were Annual Meeting was held in the beautiful city welcomed. The theme for the meeting was of Providence, Rhode Island, where over 700 “Cultural Sustainability”, which in this

61 context was understood broadly. The concept University of Helsinki and the University of refers to the agreement of sustainable Tartu at the 2013 meeting, these issues were development that the UN World Commission tackled with openness and rigor. on Environment and Development ratified in The sessions opened with Frog’s 1987. As the AFS Call for Papers (University of Helsinki) stimulating challenge announcement describes it, cultural to received notions of tradition and its sustainability is seen in relation to the UN preservation. Contemporary calls for heritage agreement but also more widely in all arenas preservation imply a threat to cultural where folklorists work: resources that requires an urgent response. While most often discussed in relation to These calls, however, contain echoes of development, planning, economics, and the Romanticism and should be examined environment, this perspective on carefully. Frog’s excursion into the history of sustainability is readily applicable to the longue durée questioned the myopia of anti- goals, strategies, and outcomes achieved globalization and preservationist ideas. Far through folklore research as an academic and from being the first homogenizing threat in applied practice.1 history, globalization is the latest installment of profound changes that have affected The discipline of folkloristics has at its heart th an unresolved, and perhaps irresolvable, cultures and lifestyles: the 19 century, for tension. On the one hand, there is the example, saw the gradual disappearance of commitment to approaching ‘folklore’, peasant culture; even earlier, the spread of however we understand the term, as a Indo-European languages involved the phenomenon of importance and inherent obliteration of other linguistic, and thereby value. A commitment reflected in the very cultural, systems. Human history is a history name of the discipline is, after all, hard to get of mutating traditions. Attempts to preserve away from. Yet the focus on tradition is not ‘cultures’ for their own sake seeks to resist just a disciplinary peculiarity: with global- these processes of change, investing cultural ization, the threat to certain cultural forms is forms with artificial sustainability. As a certainly quite real. Even folklorists who result, these forms serve to create new might be uncomfortable with straightforward distinctive symbolic identities that replace the calls for heritage preservation undeniably pre-preservation tradition. believe that their object of study is valuable This problem of perceiving traditions from enough to merit a quest for greater inside or from the outside and interpreting and understanding. valuating them on the basis of those On the other side, we find a strong perspectives was then taken up from quite a discomfort with the excessive valorization of different angle by Ergo-Hart Västrik folklore. Contemporary folkloristics is critical (University of Tartu). He illustrated the of its own origins in the Romantic nationalist complexity of belief discourses by presenting search for an authentic ‘voice of the people’. an analysis about the narratives of the As the discipline strives for a more reflexive Estonian Seto Peko Cult, giving perspectives and rigorous scholarly practice, it continues to of both devotees and non-devotees. This fertility god cult is one of the most question the meaning and value with which th we invest phenomena designated as ‘folklore’ documented examples of late 19 century and ‘tradition’. vernacular Seto religion. Wooden statues of The practice of folkloristics, therefore, Peko were worshipped in secret celebrations, demands that we figure out how to negotiate and those who questioned the cult were this tension between valuing tradition and threatened with different kinds of critically analysing processes of valuation. punishments. By looking at how these Banishing the ghost of collectors’ narratives were represented from different Romanticism to the 19th-century will only perspectives on the cult, Västrik showed that result in glossing over this internal narration played a vital role in the social contradiction. At the “Discourses of Belief negotiation of this cult and associated beliefs. and Genre” workshop organized by the

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Frog’s provocative question: “whose researchers extended their studies much more culture do we sustain, and for whom?” was widely through the world, with as many as also addressed in the historical inquiries of three of the papers addressing India-related Lotte Tarkka (University of Helsinki). In her themes which provided the bridge between paper, Tarkka traced the life story of a sessions. Irina Sadovina (University of Karelian peasant, Riiko Kallio, and his career Toronto) carried forward Haapoja’s as “the last male rune-singer”. During the discussion of adaptations of historically or social upheavals of the early 20th century, culturally remote traditions into modern rune-singing was indeed a disappearing environments with her fascinating paper on tradition. Tarkka examined how Kallio how the Hare Krishna movement and the himself expressed his experience of the last Vedic family values it offers have become days of rune-singing in the nostalgic imagery part of popular psychology in Russia. of his songs that were written in exile. At the Sadovina examined the controversial tension same time, other groups with various political that this has produced between vernacular interests invested Kallio’s songs with an interpretations of Vedic-based ideas and the urgent quality of ‘lastness’. When Kallio’s Russian Krishna society that prefers to hold to work fit their vision of authenticity, these institutional doctrines. She very effectively groups elevated it; whereas they dismissed it drew together the different themes that had so when it did not. far been brought forward in an insightful Kristel Kivari (University of Tartu) then discussion of two complementary sides. The returned to the themes of discourses first being the vernacularization of traditions surrounding beliefs. She advanced the and beliefs that acquire their authority in large discussion of earlier periods to the modern part from the prestige and antiquity of the day, concentrating on connections between heritage that they represent for modern traditional place legends and vernacular societies today, and the second being the theories of geology. Her analysis was based dynamics of discourse through which these on fieldwork among Estonian dowsers, and are negotiated in societies and cultures. she found that traditional images and motifs The theme of India was continued by Ülo were being translated through modern Valk (University of Tartu) and Margaret concepts and images, such as radiation – i.e. Lyngdoh (University of Tartu), who built interpreting how dowsing works through their discussions on their fieldwork on radiation rather than supernatural abilities. In vernacular religious life in Assam, a state in this way, dowsers connected their discussions north-eastern India. Valk introduced with the discourse of geologists. narratives about shape-shifting and other This movement into the modern was magical transformations, offering an continued by Heidi Haapoja (University of insightful discussion of Assamese notions of Helsinki), who shared her in-depth analysis of ‘black magic’ in narratives and their contemporary practices of tradition in a paper controversial relationship with magic’s social on Finland’s New Wave folk music. Situating uses. Lyngdoh added a complementary this development within the professional field perspective to Assamese religious life and of international folk music, Haapoja studied the interaction between indigenous contrasted the liberal and transnational culture religious practices and the dominant Christian of the folk music community with the culture in connection with funerary rites. Her traditionalist rhetoric of its treatment by the discussion of the social controversy of corpse media. New Wave musicians themselves, as reanimation and its position in the changing Haapoja’s research has shown, seek a solid cultural environments provided a dynamic grounding in the tradition by studying old counterpoint to several other papers in the recordings. At the same time, they emphasize workshop. the general human relevance of these songs The theme of funerary rituals and and welcome creativity and innovation. interactions with the dead was then picked up Whereas the Finnish folklorists explored by Eila Stepanova (University of Helsinki). In mostly Finno-Ugrian themes, the Tartu her paper on Karelian laments and their

63 collectors, Stepanova linked purely historical in Lukin’s investigation into the collecting studies with an inquiry into contemporary practices of M.A. Castrén, who made several folklore practices. Organizing the history of research trips to the Nenets in Northern Karelian laments into a chronology, Russia and Siberia. Castrén’s Nenets Stepanova discussed how the practice and language epic poems collections offer an collection of folklore was organized in interesting channel to consider how the role different periods, influenced by different between the collector and the informants was ideologies, be it Finnish nationalism, Soviet formed and how the textualization process propaganda, scholarly interest or reflects the collector’s understanding of contemporary spirituality. Her treatment of folklore. this rich material provided a valuable site to These many papers representing Estonian reflect on the many aspects of historical and Finnish scholarship proved remarkably change being addressed in different papers. complementary when they were brought Whereas contemporary Finnish musicians together. Interestingly, the contributions of and lamenters draw on old songs to express Finnish scholars highlighted the fact that the their creativity within new systems of history of folkloric forms involves more than practices, for individuals who are exiled, just gradual diachronic change. Viewed tradition takes on a very different meaning. synchronically, traditions are always in the Ulla Savolainen’s (University of Helsinki) process of change, imagined, practiced and paper on Karelian child evacuees addressed sustained in different ways by different actors. the intense emotional investment in An ethnographic angle on these processes was maintaining an image of the lost home as the brought to the theme of the panel especially ultimate seat of tradition. For those who grew by the Estonian scholarship. Contributions of up in exile, Karelia becomes a mythical place the Estonian scholars tended to turn attention of Finnishness. Through telling stories and from genre to the concept of belief bringing mementos to and from the places approached from the emic point of view and they were forced to abandon, people elaborate offered strong discussions on the and engage with the nostalgic vision of a interconnection between processes of Golden Karelia. Anastasiya Astapova believing and discourse surrounding beliefs. (University of Tartu) then turned the theme of Together, these many papers presented both discourses and the construction of images to empirically based studies and theoretically questions of power relations. Her inspiring oriented discussions. They included studies paper considered narratives about elaborate based on fieldwork in contemporary cultures preparations of villages or cities that are and work with archival materials, which meant to present idyllic images or false variously had orientations to the synchronic façades – what she called “window dressing” contexts of those materials or to diachronic – for a visiting official. Astapova described processes through which they changed or of how narratives of Vitebsk citizens in Belarus which they were outcomes. about a visit by the president of Belarus were The fresh perspective offered by each structured with humorous and government- paper prompted looking back at the preceding critical elements. She further addressed how papers in new ways while simultaneously these elements function in the broader context developing an increasingly multidimensional of mass media, literature and folklore. frame within which to view each paper that Karina Lukin (University of Helsinki) was still to come. This Finnish and Estonian brought the workshop to a close by returning panel brought methods and approaches of to issues of the preservers of traditions and European folklore studies to stimulate a trans- their intended audiences. Lukin took up the Atlantic dialogue with North American case of one of the most important early folklorists – and it certainly did stimulate researchers of Finno-Ugric languages and lively discussion. Approaching the conceptual cultures. The investment of different knot of tradition and change from different interested actors in the process of folklore temporal and contextual angles, these papers performance and transmission is made clear brought forth a fascinating discussion, a

64 discussion that stimulated exchange and Notes collaboration which has continued beyond 1. AFS website “2013 Annual Meeting Theme that significant AFS meeting. Statement: Cultural Sustainability”, available at: http://www.afsnet.org/?2013AMTheme.

Projects, Networks and Resources

Translating the Medieval Icelandic Romance-Sagas Alaric Hall, University of Leeds

This note is to advertise ongoing work on a konunginn minnztan í sínum frásögnum. series of free-access translations of medieval (normalised from Finnur Jónsson 1932: 2.)

Icelandic romance-sagas, and to promote the stepmother-stories which shepherd-boys tell, collaborative and free-access model of whose truth no-one knows, and which research and publishing which my always give the king the smallest role in his collaborators and I have been using. own saga. Icelandic romance-sagas, currently thought Some attest to similarities between the to have flourished particularly in the 14th narrative traditions of medieval Iceland, century, arose in direct response to medieval Ireland and Wales which are much less French and Latin romances transmitted to apparent in other sources. Finally, these Iceland via Norway. They have received romances underpinned a long tradition of relatively little attention, largely because the further composition of sagas, and National-Romantic historiography which we recomposition as rímur, which themselves still, to a large extent, inhabit has seen them deserve further study. Thus romance-sagas are as foreign – both to Iceland and to the an important resource for understanding oral Germanic-speaking cultures which Iceland is literature and early-historic traditions in the taken to represent – and of poor literary medieval North. (For further discussion and quality. But, as with so-called ‘popular references see Hall et al. 2010; Hall, romance’ of medieval Europe generally, Richardson & Haukur Þorgeirsson 2014.) researchers are increasingly seeing the value Along with various colleagues and friends of Icelandic romance-sagas both as literary (particularly Sheryl McDonald Werronen, texts and as historical sources. They comprise Haukur Þorgeirsson, Steven Richardson, and a body of literature in many ways outward- Gary Harrup), I have been working to bring looking, international, and scholarly, more medieval Icelandic romances to a wider demonstrating the intellectual vigour of audience, primarily through collaborative Iceland under Norwegian rule, with its translations into English; but also by Europeanising outlook. Yet they also providing these with facing normalised represent the first appearance in the Nordic editions; by digitising existing editions and literary tradition of a range of narratives and translations; and by undertaking research on motifs that must have been well rooted in the Icelandic romances’ manuscript transmission. region: they include, for example, the first Most Icelandic romance sagas were edited by attestations of what Oddr Snorrason dismissed Agnete Loth (1962–1965), in editions which in the twelfth century as: were never intended to be definitive but stjúpmæðrasögur er hjarðarsveinar segja, er which I have so far found to be impressive in engi veit hvert satt er, er jafnan láta their judgement; with the help of Gillian 65

Fellows-Jensen, Loth provided extensive http://www.alarichall.org.uk/jarlmannssaga. It English paraphrases for each of these. Loth’s needs quite a lot of work before it is finished, work, therefore, is invaluable, but complete but we are making our draft work public both translations of these romances are important in the hope that it will even at this stage be for making them accessible to less specialist useful to some researchers, and that people audiences. Our work also, of course, builds consulting the draft will leave us helpful particularly on the foundational biblio- comments. (In due course, this URL will be graphical work of Marianne E. Kalinke and redirected to the final publication.) Likely P.M. Mitchell (1985) and the recent English future targets over the next few years include translations by Hermann Pálsson and Paul Dínus saga drambláta, Bærings saga fagra, Edwards (1985) and Ralph O’Connor (2002). and Sigurðar saga turnara. If anyone is It stands alongside the recent major interested in being involved, with these or translations of romance-sagas and fornaldar- other sagas, feel free to email me: sögur into German (Glauser, Kreutzer and [email protected]. In due course, my Wäckerlin 1998) and Finnish (Helga collaborators and I will probably collect up Hilmisdóttir, Kirsi Kanerva, & Sari these translations as a book; either the book Päivärinne 2013). My own work, based at the itself will be a free-access publication or we University of Leeds (though always indebted will publish the translations individually as to the Arnamagnaean institutes in Reykjavík free-access articles before republishing them and Copenhagen), itself stands in a tradition in book form. of previous Leeds editions and/or translations My work on the manuscript transmission of romance-sagas: Bragða-Ölvis saga of the romance-sagas has so far appeared as (Hooper 1932, edition only), Nikulás saga Hall and Parsons 2013, which focuses on leikara (Wick 1996), Nítíða saga fræga Konráðs saga keisarasonar, but I have made (McDonald 2009) – all now available free- working papers available on Sigurgarðs saga access – along with Kirjalax saga (Divjak frækna and (with Sheryl McDonald 2009) and Úlfs saga Uggasonar (Wawn 2010, Werronen) Nikulás saga leikara at translation only). http://www.alarichall.org.uk/sigurgards_saga_ My work so far has led to completed stemma_article/ and http://www.alarichall. facing-page editions and translations of org.uk/nikulas_saga_stemma_article/, respect- Sigurðar saga fóts (Hall et al. 2010) and ively. Work on these is proceeding Sigurgarðs saga frækna (Hall, Richardson & incrementally; again, the URLs given here Haukur Þorgeirsson 2014). The translation of will be updated eventually to point to final Sigurðar saga fóts was undertaken in publications. Meanwhile, Sheryl McDonald collaboration with my undergraduate Old has published similar work on Nítíða saga Norse students of 2008–2009. While (2012; 2013). publications with twenty-two named authors Finally, a plea: the UK inter-library loan are not common in humanities publishing service has found no copies of the translation (and I haven’t found the energy to undertake a of Konráðs saga keisarasonar by Otto similar project every year!), I can recommend Zitzelsberger (1980): if anyone can send me a this process as a way to give students a sense scan, I would be very grateful! of purpose in learning Old Norse; as a way to emphasise their role, even at undergraduate Works Cited level, as researchers; and as an external Divjak, Alenka. 2009. Studies in the Traditions of motivation to complete the tedious process of Kirialax saga. Ljubljana: Institut Nove revije, zavod za humanistiko. finishing off a translation and getting it Finnur Jónsson (ed.). 1932. Saga Óláfs Tryggvasonar: through the press! Af Oddr Snorrason, munk. Copenhagen: Gad. Meanwhile, the University of Leeds Old Glauser, Jürg, Gert Kreutzer & Herbet Wäckerlin (eds. Norse Reading Group is producing a & trans.). 1998. Isländische Märchensagas I: Die translation of Jarlmanns saga og Hermanns. Saga von Ali Flekk, Die Saga von Vilmund Vidutan, Die Saga von König Flores und seinen Söhnen, Die At the time of writing, a complete draft Saga von Sigurd Thögli, Die Saga von Damusti. translation on Google Docs can be found via Diederichs: Munich.

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Hall, Alaric, Haukur Þorgeirsson, Patrick Beverley, McDonald, Sheryl. 2009. “Nítíða saga: A Normalised Kirsty Brooks, et al. 2010. “Sigurðar saga fóts (The Icelandic Text and Translation”. Leeds Studies in Saga of Sigurðr Foot): A Translation”. Mirator 11: English 40: 119–145. 56–91. Available at: http://www.glossa.fi/mirator/ McDonald, Sheryl. 2012. “Variance Uncovered and pdf/i-2010/sigurdarsagafots.pdf. Errors Explained: An Analysis of Nítíða saga in the Hall, Alaric, Steven D.P. Richardson & Haukur Seventeenth-Century Icelandic Manuscript JS 166 Þorgeirsson. 2014 (forthcoming). “Sigrgarðs saga fol.”. Digital Philology 1(2): 303–318. frækna: A Normalised Text, Translation, and McDonald, Sheryl. 2013. “Transforming Popular Introduction”. Scandinavian-Canadian Studies – Romance on the Edge of the World: Nítíða saga in Études Scandinaves au Canada 21: 2–77. Working Late Medieval and Early Modern Iceland”. paper available at http://www.alarichall.org.uk/ Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of sigrgards_saga_article.pdf. Leeds. Available at: http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/ Helga Hilmisdóttir, Kirsi Kanerva & Sari Päivärinne 5061/. (eds.). 2013. Egill Yksikätinen: Muinaissaagoja O’Connor, Ralph (trans.). 2002. Icelandic Histories Pohjolasta. [Helsinki]: Finn Lectura. and Romances. Tempus: Stroud. Hermann Pálsson & Paul Edwards (trans.). 1985. Seven Wawn, Andrew. 2010. “Úlfs saga Uggasonar: An Viking Romances. Penguin: London. Introduction and Translation.” In Creating the Hooper, A.G. 1932. “Bragða-Ölvis saga”. Leeds Medieval Saga: Versions, Variability, and Editorial Studies in English o.s. 1: 42–54. Available at: Interpretations in Old Norse Saga Literature. Ed. https://ludos.leeds.ac.uk/R/-?func=dbin-jump-full& Judy Quinn & Emily Lethbridge. Odense: object_id=134453&silo_library=GEN01. University Press of Southern Denmark. Pp. 259– Kalinke, Marianne E., & P.M. Mitchell. 1985. 286. Bibliography of Old Norse–Icelandic Romances. Wick, Keren H. 1996. “An Edition and Study of Islandica 44. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Nikulás saga leikara”. Unpublished doctoral Loth, Agnete (ed.). 1962–1965. Late Medieval dissertation, University of Leeds. Available at: Icelandic Romances I–V. Editiones http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/1632/. Arnamagaeanae, series B 20–24. Copenhagen: Zitzelsberger, Otto. 1980. “Konráðs saga Munksgaard. keisarasonar”. Seminar for Germanic Philology Yearbook 1980: 38–67.

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PEOPLE Research Reports

Hippocrates, Epid. 5: 86, an Ancient ‘Simple’ Story from Antiquity? – A Comparative and Contextual Folkloric Approach Davide Ermacora, University of Turin

Paper presented at the Premodern Seminar organized by the Department of Scandinavian Studies, University of Tartu, held 9th December 2013 in Tartu, Estonia. A short, problematic and seldom discussed small animal entering the human body (e.g. passage to be found in one Hippocratic text motif B784; tale-type AaTh/ATU 285B*). gives us a chance to discuss some aspects of This was already perfectly understood by folklore in Ancient Greece. A comparative Renaissance commentators, students and and contextual folkloric approach to the text interpreters of Hippocrates. This paper aims in question, in fact, reveals that the passage to throw light on this ancient textual source constitutes what is possibly one of the earliest through a combination of folklore and variants of the well-known narrative and philological analysis, also in the light of experiential theme of a snake or other similar modern and contemporary interpretations.

Degrees of Well-Formedness: The Formula Principle in the Analysis of Oral- Poetic Meters Frog, University of Helsinki

Paper presented at the conference Frontiers in Comparative Metrics II, held 19th–20th April 2014 in Tallinn, Estonia. This paper presents an argument that the concerned with ‘metrically entangled’ value of formulaic language is qualitatively expressions as units of utterance or integers of different from other verbalization in the a poetic lexicon that have become historically metrical analysis of oral poetry. This is a linked to particular metrical environments. three-part argument: Linkages between oral-poetic formulae and 1. Formulaic language in oral poetry develops meter have long been recognized: this is the in relation to the metrical environments of foundation of Oral-Formulaic Theory (cf. the poetic system in which it is realized. Parry 1928; Lord 1960). I take a usage-based 2. Metrical well-formedness in oral poetry is a approach to oral-poetic systems. Oral-poetic perceived quality of text that can vary by meters can be abstracted in analysis, but they degree in ‘better’ or ‘worse’ lines rather than are inevitably realized and communicated being assessed in terms of absolute binary through language by embodied individuals in categories of ‘metrically well-formed’ situated social activity. An oral-poetic versus ‘not metrically well-formed’. linguistic register (i.e. language as used in the 3. If points (1) and (2) are accepted, it follows poetry) thus develops in a “symbiotic” that metrically entangled formulae are more relation to meter through social practice likely to reflect metrically ‘better’ lines – what I call the Formula Principle. (Foley 1996). Consequently the precise degrees and varieties of flexibility that Formulaic language is a broad linguistic formulaic language evolves will be tradition- category (see Wray 2002), and a wide range dependent (see e.g. Foley 1990), but that of formulaic language can be realized in an evolution will nonetheless be interfaced with oral poetic tradition. The Formula Principle is

68 the metrical environment in which poetic positions (e.g. vuorehen teräsperähän [‘into a discourse is verbalized. steel-bottomed mountain’]). Also, metrically Approaching oral poetry as a form of weaker lines may be ‘suspended’ in a larger language practice requires recognizing that textual unit such as a couplet united by oral-poetic meter is assessed and communicated parallel alliteration (e.g. Tuonen mustahan ‘by ear’. A working hypothesis follows that jokehen, / Manalan ikipurohon [‘into Death’s metrical well-formedness is perceived like black river / Death-land’s eternal stream’]) or grammatical correctness: although many in a textual sequence within which e.g. other variations may be classed as ‘correct’ versus forms of parallelism create text cohesion. ‘incorrect’, many simply sound ‘better’ or Formulaic language may therefore be ‘worse’ – and in practice, many little things maintained as ‘sounding right’ owing to simply go unnoticed in the flow of language. additional factors than that it converges with It is customary to abstract a meter analytically ideals of metrical well-formedness. as an ideal and absolute model and assess Second, formulaic expressions may expressions as either well-formed or not in become highly crystallized or advance to relation to that model. The present approach lexicalization while conventions of the poetry suggests that meters are characterized by sets change around it. Consequently, formulaic of conventions interfaced with one or more language may reflect ideals of metricality modes of expression (on which, see Frog from an earlier period. This happened in 2012: 52–54) and that individual conventions kalevalaic epic traditions where established are opened to varying degrees of flexibility in formulaic expressions were maintained while relation to one another. Without denying that the conventions for producing new lines were some lines may be considered metrically formed on the basis of slightly different ‘bad’, approaching metrical well-formedness standards (Tarkka 2013: 527n.356). The as a perceived quality of text allows it to be crystallization of formulaic expressions into viewed in terms of varying degrees within the extremely fixed forms may also lead them to grey area of ‘sounding right’ within the flow become metrically ‘worse’ lines owing to of performance. phonetic changes in the meter (e.g. Leino The hypothesis that well-formedness may 2002: 224). In this case, rather than ‘sounding be a matter of degree is supported by the right’, such expressions might simply be corpus of kalevalaic epic. Kalevala-meter is accepted as metrically idiomatic as an an alliterative trochaic tetrameter with rules integrated part of internalizing the poetic governing the placement of long and short system.1 In any case, the social sustainability syllables. The syllable-based rhythm resists of such expressions in these different types of variations perceivable as disrupting the cases is linked to both the conservatism of the rhythm of the mode of expression, whereas poetic system and the perceivability of their formulaic lines that are metrically less well- integration into the texture of composition. In formed in terms of alliteration or the general, metrically weaker formulaic placement of long and short syllables can expressions appear historically more become socially established. However, these susceptible to alteration or alternation with variations are managed through social metrically ‘better’ alternatives. practice and better-formed lines exhibit wider The Formula Principle is as follows: social circulation and significantly greater As socially shaped expressions, metrically long-term stability. entangled formulae are more likely to reflect Two complicating factors in particular metrically ‘better’ lines than expressions that require mention. First, expressions that are are formulated by poets on an individual less well-formed metrically may find a degree basis, making such formulae of a qualitatively of social sustainability through less different value in metrical analysis. conventional means of integration into the This principle does not claim that formulaic flow of text. This may occur internally to a expressions are necessarily metrically perfect. line, such as through alliteration on metrically This approach acknowledges that other stressed rather than lexically stressed (tradition-dependent) factors may affect the

69 ability for formulaic expressions to ‘sound Works Cited right’ in the flow of poetic discourse. The Árnason, Kristján. 1991. The Rhythms of Dróttkvætt qualitative assessment of a formula as and Other Old Icelandic Metres. Reykjavík: University of Iceland, Institute of Linguistics. reflecting ideals of metricality therefore Foley, John Miles 1990. Traditional Oral Epic: The requires consideration of contextual and Odyssey, Beowulf, and the Serbo-Croation Return historical factors (N.B. – metrical variation Song. Los Angeles: University of California Press. could, in theory, function as e.g. a discourse Foley, John Miles. 1996. Guslar and Aoidos: marker). Nevertheless, the more socially Traditional Register in South Slavic and Homeric Epic. Transactions of the American Philological established formulaic expressions are, the Association 126: 11–41. more probable that they reflect ideals of Frog. 2012. “On the Case of Vambarljóð II: Register realizing the meter. In metrical analysis, such and Mode from Skaldic Verse to sagnakvæði”. formulae are therefore more likely to yield RMN Newsletter 5: 49–61. qualitatively better data than lines Leino, Pentti. 2002. Mittoja, muotoja, merkityksiä. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. situationally composed by one individual. Lord, Albert B. 1960. The Singer of Tales. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Notes Parry, Milman 1928. L’épith te traditionnelle dans 1. An extreme case of this type of lexical conservatism Hom re. Paris: Société d’Éditions “Les Belles in the wake of historical change can be observed in Lettres”. lines of Old Norse dróttkvætt poetry in which words Tarkka, Lotte. 2013. Songs of the Border People: that had lost a syllable owning to historical phonetic Genre, Reflexivity, and Performance in Karelian change were described as ‘slow’ (seinn), Oral Poetry. FF Communications 305. Helsinki: presumably because in performance they continued Academia Scientiarum Fennica. to be maintained rhythmically across two metrical Wray, Alison 2002. Formulaic Language and the positions (cf. Árnason 1991: 90–91). Lexicon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

‘Parallelism’ versus ‘Not Parallelism’ Frog, University of Helsinki

Paper presented at the seminar-workshop Parallelism in Verbal Art and Performance organized by Folklore Studies, University of Helsinki, and the Finnish Literature Society, held 26th–27th May 2014 in Helsinki, Finland. Parallelism is normally conceived of as a paper was to interrogate the abstract phenomenon at the level of language, most phenomenon of human poetic expression. often approached in terms of equivalence or First, parallelism is not exclusive to poetry. contrast between adjacent lines of poetry. ‘Oral poetry’ can be defined as a conventional This paper returns to the much broader system for expression that is aesthetically conception of parallelism as conceived by marked and unambiguously differentiated Roman Jakobson, who proposed that “on from conversational speech within a every level of language the essence of poetic community. Poetics is here conceived in artifice consists in recurrent returns” terms of perceivable qualities of text (Jakobson 1981 [1966]: 98). (following Tsur 1992). The differentiation of ‘Parallelism’ is an etic term that functions oral poetry from aesthetically unmarked as a research tool to describe a phenomenon discourse is realized in part already at the in human expressive behaviours. The broader level of elocution, which appears directly the range phenomena that this term is used to connected with making the poetic qualities of describe, the more abstract that the tool will a text perceivable. Ethnopoetics (e.g. Hymes become. Any research tool will be better 1981) extends the analysis of poetics of suited to certain materials and research discourse from ‘poetry’ as opposed to ‘not questions than others. As a tool, parallelism poetry’ (e.g. owing to a formalized meter) to can be calibrated to the research material and forms of discourse that are recognizable and the questions posed by the researcher. The qualitatively evaluatable according to its phenomenon of parallelism appears “under- conventional strategies and formal features, therorized” (Nigel Fabb, p.c.). My goal in this whether this is a sermon, lecture, political

70 speech (cf. Bauman 1984 [1977]), or as discrete meaningful units – i.e. as signs – at potentially even the poetics discernible in co- still higher orders of signification. If produced conversation (cf. Silverstein 1984). parallelism is possible at all of these levels of From this view, oral poetry is centrally signification, it raises the question of how the distinguished by the degree of foregrounding phenomenon can best be approached. poetic features (cf. Jakobson 1960) rather than In his address of parallelism in co- their presence or absence per se. Units of produced conversational discourse, Michael utterance in poetry are thus most often more Silverstein (1984: 183) proposed that a unit of regular and disambiguated from one another utterance presents a “metered frame” in in elocution throughout a text. Corresponding relation to which subsequent co-occurring features may more subtly (and unconsciously) utterances are perceived.1 Silverstein’s model structure other forms of discourse formulated is complemented by considering units of in more flexible units with only irregular utterance in light of Reuven Tsur’s (1992: foregrounding of poetics for rhetorical effect. 150) emphasis on the etymological Seen as a feature of poetics (Jakobson background of ‘articulation’ as “jointed, 1981 [1966]: 98), I approach parallelism as a separated into well-shaped pieces”. These perceivable quality of text that connects units combine into a basis for conceptualizing of utterance. The connection implied by parallelism. Entextualization construes parallelism thereby suggests some form of utterance as units – the units are ‘articulated’, relatedness between parallel units and creates distinguishing them as units from one another. cohesion. The implied relation between units This may be done through a formalized meter could either be of correspondence/equivalence with regularly repeating rhythms (e.g. or opposition/contrast). ‘Parallelism’ tends to Kalevala-meter), quite flexible units such as be differentiated from repetition: even if it is the alliterating ‘strings’ of Karelian laments, viewed as a form of repetition, repetition can or units may be ethnopoetically marked by describe an identity of elements in all respects e.g. pauses, breaths, expletives, syntax, (except context), whereas parallelism is melodic phrases and so forth. Each such unit qualified by some form of difference. presents a metered frame allowing its Jakobson’s (1981 [1966]: 133) description of cohesive correlation with co-occurring units. negative parallelism as “concurrence of From this perspective, the formalized equivalence on one [...] level with recurrence of rhythms, melodic phrases or disagreement on another level” can thereby be phonic patterning of many oral-poetic considered to describe parallelism as a discourses can be viewed as parallelism at the phenomenon more generally. level of signals that simultaneously construe This leads to the question: where is cohesion for each unit and also highlight that parallelism situated? Jakobson did not limit unit as a metered frame to be correlated with parallelism to the verbal level of words as preceding and subsequent units of utterance. signs. The surface texture of signals (sounds) This same process may occur at the level of through which language is communicated verbalization: syntax, lexical or semantic could also exhibit parallelism of “recurrent repetitions etc. at the level of language may returns” in the form of alliteration and rhyme, correspondingly construe units of utterance as and by extension even in the recurrent metered frames to be correlated with rhythms of meter and phrases of melody. On preceding and subsequent units. Parallelism the other hand, words can communicate signs then emerges as “a grouping structure in at the next order of signification (images and which parallel forms [are perceived] as motifs etc. as symbols) just as signals parallel parts of groups” (Cureton 1992: 263). communicate words. If parallelism is a This may be reinforced by parallelism at the general phenomenon of signifying elements, level of signals, but is not dependent on it. then these, too, may exhibit parallelism. Nevertheless, insofar as parallelism is a Images and motifs can, in their turn, be used perceivable quality of text and articulation to communicate larger distinct units (themes, makes that quality perceivable, some type of narrative sequences) that can equally function correlation between marking units at the level

71 of signals and at the level of verbalization is level” (Jakobson 1981 [1966]: 133) which anticipated. may be described as multimedial parallelism. Parallelism can be approached through the Parallelism across media and orders of same model at the next order of signification – representation exhibit a variety of potential i.e. at the level of signs communicated relationships and raise a number of questions through language. These signs also form units that require concentrated study in the future. of utterance although perceivable at that 2 A version of the working paper for this event was higher order of representation. Their published in the pre-print volume for the seminar- recognisability as units construes a metered workshop (Frog 2014a). The approach to units of frame at that order of representation. Whether utterance outlined here has been refined from the this is the level of motifs or a repeating working paper. Questions and problematics of narrative structure, these units manifest these topics were also reviewed in the parallel forms where they are perceivable as introduction to the workshop materials (Frog parallel parts of groups. In this case, they are 2014b). both interpreted in relation to one another and also create cohesion between larger textual Notes units. Parallelism at these orders of 1. Silverstein did not develop his approach to ‘units’: the role of the ‘metered frame’ moves to the representation may be reinforced by background of his discussion and what he addresses parallelism in verbalization. However, the as parallelism seems to converge with deixis. metrical frame adds a structural aspect to 2. This can be compared to John Miles Foley’s (e.g. parallelism that becomes distinguishable from 1999: 83–87) address of theme and story pattern as other deixis that refers to co-occuring utterances integers or vernacular ‘words’ of the poetic tradition. without either a) constructing a metrical frame as an ordered grouping in relation to Works Cited other groupings (as with alliteration or Bauman, Richard. 1984 [1977]. Verbal Art as rhyme); or b) making a correlation between Performance. Prospect Heights: Waveland Press. metrical frames as ordered groupings (as wirh Cureton, Richard D. 1992. Rhythmic Phrasing in parallel lines of verse). English Verse. Longman: London. Foley, John Miles. 1999. Homer’s Traditional Art. Language is a single medium of University Park: Pennsylvania University Press. communication and in spoken language these Frog 2014a. “A Preface to Parallelism”. In Frog 2014c: signs necessarily follow one another 7–28. sequentially in time. Conceptualizing Frog. 2014b. “Parallelism, Mode, Medium and Orders parallelism through verbalization has led the of Representation”. In Frog 2014c: 185–207. Frog (ed.). 2014c. Parallelism in Verbal Art and phenomenon to be subject to this same Performance: Pre-Print Papers of the Seminar- constraint of sequentiality. The approach to Workshop 26th–27th May 2014, Helsinki, Finland. parallelism above indicates that parallelism Ed. Frog. Helsinki: Folklore Studies, University of may be synchronized across signals and Helsinki. higher orders of signification co-occurring Hymes, Dell. 1981. “In Vain I Tried to Tell You”: Essays in Native American Ethnopoetics. with verbalization. Verbal expression is Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. viewed as only one medium among a range of Jakobson, Roman 1960. “Closing Statement. potential media in performative expression. Linguistics and Poetics”. In Style in Language. Ed. Gesture and choreography can equally present Thomas A. Sebeok. New York: Massachusetts equivalent semantic or symbolic units (e.g. Institute of Technology. Pp. 350–377. Jakobson, Roman. 1981 [1966]. “Grammatical correlating these with verbal descriptions). Parallelism and Its Russian Facet”. In Selected When these media are viewed in terms of Writings III. Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of metrical frames of expression, it becomes Poetry. Ed. Stephen Rudy. The Hague. Pp. 98–135. possible to observe parallelism across media, Silverstein, Michael. 1984. “On the Pragmatic ‘Poetry’ especially where their co-occurring metered of Prose: Parallelism, Repetition, and Cohesive Structure in the Time Course of Dyadic frames are synchronized by the unifying Conversation”. In Meaning, Form and Use in rhythms of performance. This produces Context. Ed. Deborah Schiffrin. Washington D.C.: parallelism of “concurrence of equivalence on Georgetown University Press. Pp. 181‒199. one [...] level with disagreement on another Tsur, Reuven. 1992. Toward a Theory of Cognitive Poetics. Amsterdam: North-Holland.

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On the Dating and Nature of “Eddic Poetry” with Some Considerations of the Performance and Preservation of Grímnismál Terry Gunnell, University of Iceland

Paper presented at Interpreting Eddic Poetry: Investigating Interdisciplinary Perspectives organized by the Interpreting Eddic Poetry project, held 4th–6th July 2013 in Oxford, U.K. This paper briefly discussed what we mean by about dating them (or assigning their origins) an ‘eddic poem’, whether ‘eddic poetry’ can on the basis of single lines (especially if we be considered to be a genre, and if so what consider how oral works are passed on). kind of genre it is (if there was a single Furthermore, we need to be aware that these ‘eddic’ genre). Emphasis was placed on the oral poems had functions (related to their apparent fact that this material was originally performance), and that their functions (like designed for oral performance rather than for those of all oral works) may change over reading on paper, and that it appears to have time: they are created for one purpose, but been passed on orally, perhaps for centuries. sometimes remembered for another, These features underline that when somewhat like objects in a museum; their considering eddic poetry, we must first of all meanings may also alter as a result of new consider how oral works are created; and how social circumstances in which they are they function in space (as opposed to written performed, even in our own times. In this works) in association with their audience and paper, the above ideas were be applied in the space in which they were performed. We particular to Grímnismál, alongside other must also be highly wary of making decisions eddic poems.

The Soundscape of Karelian Laments Eila Stepanova, University of Helsinki

Paper presented at the conference Song and Emergent Poetics: Oral Traditions in Performance organized by the Runosong Academy, the Academy of Finland project Song and Singing as Cultural Communication of the University of Tampere, the Folk Music Department of the Sibelius Academy and the Academy of Finland Project Oral Poetry, Mythic Knowledge and Vernacular Imagination of University of Helsinki, held 21st–24th November 2013 in Kuhmo, Finland. This paper addresses the soundscape of that are available. In my paper I focus on traditional Karelian funeral lament and the laments from the Seesjärvi region. lamenters’ notions of what is most important Laments in general and Karelian laments in lamenting. In studying the soundscape of in particular are sung poetry of varying laments, scholars are restricted concerning degrees of improvisation, which nonetheless materials available for research: quite often follow conventionalized rules of traditional we have only archival texts without notations verbal and non-verbal expression, most often of melodies; since the 1960s, laments have performed by women in ritual contexts and been recorded on audio tape, which helps us potentially also performed on non-ritual to study melodies as well as relations between grievous occasions. Karelian laments are here verbal and melodic expressions. Finally, there approached as women’s sung improvised are video recordings of lament performances, poetry with its own conventional traditional but these are very rare. This discussion of the register. This traditional lament register soundscape of laments therefore applies a includes a special grammar (diminutive and range of retrospective methods in order to plural forms), special syntax (e.g. inversed reconstruct a possible soundscape of word order), special stylistic features traditional funeral laments by using different (alliteration and parallelism), a special lexicon sources, such as audio recordings, (circumlocutions, epithets, formulaic photographs, and the comments of lamenters expressions) and non-verbal features. These non-verbal features include melody and voice, 73 e.g. the “icons of crying” described by Greg of the ritual. From these grievous expressions Urban (1988) – “cry breaks”, voiced of emotion, a lamenter’s voice rises up and inhalation, creaky voice and falsetto vowels – clearly leads the ritual process. The special as well as body language, touch, use of space, language of laments is mostly directed to the clothes etc. (See further Stepanova E. 2012; deceased and to the dead members of the forthcoming; Wilce 2005; 2009; Wilce & family in the otherworld, but the soundscape Fenigsen forthcoming.) of laments supports this communication The key findings of this investigation are which guarantees the successful outcome of that, in addition to verbal expression of these ritual events – i.e. to successfully get the sadness, the most important aspect of laments dead to the otherworld and to satisfy the is also to show emotions, especially in a way deceased. that makes them audible. The icons of crying An article based on this presentation will symbolically transmit an intense emotional be appearing in the forthcoming collection of participation in the ritual event, the close conference proceedings published by the connection to the object of the lament as well Runosong Academy. as the weakness and physical suffering of the lamenter. All of these are shown or Works Cited transmitted in the performance of lament in Stepanova, Eila. 2012. “Mythic Elements of Karelian four ways – audibly, through the icons of Laments: The Case of syndyzet and spuassuzet”. In Mythic Discourses: Studies in Uralic Traditions. crying; through the verbal expressions Ed. Frog, Anna-Leena Siikala & Eila Stepanova. (circumlocutions and themes of laments); Studia Fennica Folkloristica 20. Helsinki: Finnish with the help of grammatical features, such as Literature Society. Pp. 257–287. diminutive forms; and visually with body Stepanova, Eila. Forthcoming. Seesjärveläisten language, such as leaning toward the object of itkijöiden rekisterit: Tutkimus äänellä itkemisen käytänteistä, teemoista ja käsitteistä. PhD Thesis, the lament or swinging back and forth while University of Helsinki, Department of Folklore lamenting. Studies. While studying the soundscape of laments, Urban, Gregory. 1988. “Ritual Wailing in Amerindian one has to take into consideration the Brazil”. American Anthropologist 90: 385–400. audience of a lament performance, because Wilce, James M. 2005. “Traditional Laments and Postmodern Regrets: The Circulation of Discourse the lamenting does not happen in an in Metacultural Context”. Journal of Linguistic environment of silence like in a concert today. Anthropology 15(1): 60–71. On ritual occasions, such as at funerals and Wilce, James M. 2009. Crying Shame: Metaculture, weddings, the interaction between a lamenter Modernity, and the Exaggerated Death of Lament. and her audience is obvious. The lamenter Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. Wilce, James M., & Janina Fenigsen. Forthcoming. shows her intense emotional state in the four “Mourning and Honor: Register in Karelian ways just listed and participants of the ritual Lament”. In Registers of Communication. Ed. Asif engage with her sadness. For example, crying Agha & Frog. Studia Fennica Linguistica (under and even wailing at funerals are natural parts review). Helsinki: Finnish Literature Society.

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Lectures

The Creation of Sacred Place out of Empty Space During the Settlement of Iceland Terry Gunnell, University of Iceland

Lecture presented at Placing Texts: Folk Narrative and Spatial Construction, graduate seminar organized by the Estonian Graduate School of Culture Studies and Arts, University of Tartu, held 3rd–7th June 2012 in Tartu, Estonia. This paper considered the fact that sacred in our own world, the lecture moved on to spaces have always been created in one way consider the fact that before the settlement of or another, their sacredness being underlined Iceland, the island was a space without any by the nature of story, myth and legend meaning. As they settled, cleared land, and which, told through the generations, break up started dying, the settlers started actively the landscape into areas with different degrees creating sacred spaces that have lived on into of meaning; into places where we can go or our own time: spaces where the dead live, cannot go, places where we can build homes, where there are trolls and where there are and places which are seen as offering access water beings that threaten children. To do to other higher or lower mythical worlds. In this, we reach back into the cultural addition to discussing how we move through vocabulary that we bring with us wherever we and mark out spaces, turning them into places go.

The Uses of Performance Studies for the Study of Old Norse Religion: The Performance of Eiríksmál and Hákonarmál Terry Gunnell, University of Iceland

Lecture presented for the University of Aberdeen, Department of Scandinavian Studies, held 22nd February 2013 in Aberdeen, U.K. This paper gave a brief introduction to the place in (now archaeologically demonstrated) field and approaches of Performance Studies, space and time, involving both sound and and the value this field has for the study of movement, and interacting with both space Old Nordic Religion, not only with regard to and audience. The suggestion will be that, as mythology (and the necessity of considering with many of the dramatic eddic poems, these mythological texts as oral works presented in works in performance would have living context) but also archaeological finds transformed not only the meaning of the hall (which can be viewed as essentially the space, but also the audience’s views of remains of a performance of some kind). As a themselves. Furthermore, in performance, it is case study, a consideration was made of possible that the works in question formed the Eiríksmál and Hákonarmál from the final part of a ‘rite of initiation’ into death. viewpoint of performance, as works that took

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Published Articles

From One High One to Another: The Acceptance of Óðinn as Preparation for the Acceptance of God Terry Gunnell, University of Iceland

Paper published in Conversions: Looking for Ideological Change in the Early Middle Ages, edited by Leszek Słupecki and Rudolf Simek, Studia Medievalia Septentrionalia 23, Vienna: Fassbaender (2013), pp. 153–178. This article examines the nature of the sites on the periphery of settlements was Christianisation of the Nordic countries, coming to an end and the hall of the ruler was underlining the necessity of understanding becoming the new site of worship. Centring that such a process was something that did not around the male ruler himself (in the role of take place overnight, and essentially came the god), this new movable religion placed from the top down rather than being a grass- more emphasis on rewards in the next world roots religion. It also suggests that the process (very useful for armies), buildings, was facilitated by an earlier change of personification and an initiated elite. Moving religious approach which was taking place from the cult of Óðinn to Christianity was a (very generally) ca. 500 AD, whereby warrior comparatively easy move (and even more rulers in Denmark, Norway and Sweden were temporarily advantageous) for rulers, not least adopting the fashionable cult of Óðinn as part because it granted them access to Christian of their move to create new, large nation markets and political alliances. When it states. This change seems to have occurred at comes down to it, it was less radical a change around the same time as depositions at natural than that which had taken place c. 500 AD.

The Relationship Between Icelandic Knattleikur and Early Irish Hurling Terry Gunnell, University of Iceland

Paper published in Béaloideas 80 (2012): 52–69. This article contains a collection of all the whether these accounts contain some of the Icelandic saga accounts of knattleikur in earliest accounts of a sport that later turned translation (and the original) along with a into hurling (and shinty in Scotland). Indeed, review of earlier arguments about the nature the sport in question seems to have died out in of the sport, and a list of the key features that Iceland as the climate worsened but clearly come out of these accounts, the aim being to never took on in the other Nordic countries, allow English-speaking readers (and suggesting that it was something that was especially Irish scholars, such as Daíthí Ó brought from the Gælic area to Iceland. hÓgáin) to make their own judgement about

Skotrarar, Skudlers, Colloughs and Strawboys: Wedding Guising Traditions in Norway, Shetland and Ireland, Past and Present Terry Gunnell, University of Iceland

Paper published in Atlantic Currents: Essays on Lore, Literature and Language: Essays in Honour of Séamas Ó Catháin on Occasion of His 70th Birthday, 31.12.2012, edited by Bo Almqvist, Cróstóir Mac Cárthaigh, Liam Mac Mathúna, Séamas Mac Mathúna and Seosamh Watson, Dublin: University College Dublin Press (2012), pp. 241–268. This article contains a review of all the Ireland (in both English and Irish) past and available accounts of wedding guising in present, noting their distribution, names and

76 individual features. It also places these how these particular similarities can be traditions in an international context, and explained, since similar traditions are not especially in the context of wedding guising known in the other Scottish islands, England traditions from the Nordic countries and or Scotland (to the best of my knowledge), especially in those from Shetland, which and there is a close relationship existing contain a number of very close similarities in between Shetland and Norwegian culture. terms of costume, the nature of the Connections (and direct importation of participants, and the ways in which their ritual traditions from Ireland to Shetland) are much visits took place. It raises the open question of less common.

Vǫluspá in Performance Terry Gunnell, University of Iceland

Paper published in The Nordic Apocalypse: Approaches to ‘Vǫluspá’ and Nordic Days of Judgement, edited by Terry Gunnell and Annette Lassen, Brepols: Turnhout (2013), pp. 63–77. This article focuses on the fact that Voluspá end of the world at Ragnarök (especially if was originally a work that was created with one considers the consonants stressed by oral performance in mind, and passed on as an alliteration. This underlines the fact that the oral poem, rather than in print. The article poet(s) were considering the use of sound. therefore considers the work from this Part of the paper considers how the poem viewpoint, analysing the sounds and rhythms might have functioned in a probable of the poem and the way they interact with the performance in a hall, the effects it might poem’s visual aspects, noting that there are have had on its medieval listeners and the large differences between the soundscapes ways in which it might have interacted with accompanying the creation (and recreation) of the mythical aspects of the hall environment. the world; the scenes of construction, and the

The Peripheral at the Centre: The Subversive Intent of Norse Myth and Magic Clive Tolley, University of Turku

Paper to be published in a special number of Arv: Nordic Yearbook of Folklore appearing later this year. In this paper on pagan Scandinavian subversiveness; I look at ways its particularly witchcraft, , I attempt to show that, within female aspects may have been realised, traditions inferred from the extant written making use of anthropological gender studies. sources, magic (with a focus on seiðr) was a I emphasise throughout the problem of peripheral activity, more like witchcraft than unwarranted systematisation and selectiveness most forms of shamanism, and yet was a inherent in any attempt to use later sources to central part of the practice of ritual/belief. read back into the past, but suggest that Placing the peripheral at the centre gives it a consideration of anthropological materials subversive character, in a way that can be may at least give reasonable ideas of ways to traced in mythological traditions concerning look at the Norse materials. This paper is particularly Óðinn and Freyja, the two great intended to be an adumbration of a larger divine practitioners of magic in Norse myth. study, which I hope to produce some time in Seiðr was a particularly female practice, and the future. this gender-bias was part of its

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The Kalevala as a Model for Our Understanding of the Composition of the Codex Regius of the Poetic Edda Clive Tolley, University of Turku

Paper published in Viisas matkassa, vara laukussa: Näkökulmia kansanperinteen tutkimukseen, edited by T. Hovi, K. Hänninen, M. Leppälahti and M. Vasenkari, Turun Yliopiston Folkloristikan Julaisuja 3, Turku: Turun Yliopisto (2013), pp. 114–143. In this paper, I consider the composition of growing Norwegian political take-over of the Kalevala in the 19th century as a model for Iceland, and questions of how cultural the composition of the Codex Regius in the independence can be maintained in such 13th century, in the context of ‘nationalism’ circumstances are considered. Some tentative (what that means in medieval and modern suggestions are made about those likely to terms being considered briefly) – and this, I have been responsible for the composition of think, adds a new dimension to retrospective the Codex Regius. This paper is available in methodology. In particular, the composition electronic form on my page at Academia.edu. of the Codex Regius is considered against the

Essay Collections

Approaching Methodology, 2nd revised edition with an introduction by Ulrika Wolf-Knuts Frog and Pauliina Latvala, University of Helsinki, with Helen F. Leslie, University of Bergen

A collection of scientific articles edited by Frog and Pauliina Latvala with Helen F. Leslie, Annales Academiae Scientiarum Fennicae Humaniora368, Helsinki: Academia Scientiarum Fennica (2013), 349 pages. Approaching Methodology appeared as a special issue of RMN Newsletter in May 2012 (№ 4). This volume has now appeared in a revised second edition with a new introduction by Ulrika Wolf-Knuts. For those unfamiliar with the collection, the eighteen articles of Approaching Methodology open broadly international and cross-disciplinary discussions on different aspects of methods and methodology. This volume brings many complementary perspectives on approaching and analyzing aspects of culture and cultural expression into dialogue, especially from fields of folklore studies, ethnology, philology, medieval studies, linguistics and semiotics. The introduction will be valuable for students and young scholars who are trying to orient themselves amid the questions, challenges and potentials associated with methods and methodologies. For more information, see: http://www. tiedekirja.fi/detail.php?id=83-264-32579.

78

PhD Projects

Of Fire and Water: The Old Norse Mythical Worldview in an Eco-Mythological Perspective Mathias Nordvig, Aarhus University

Thesis defended for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Nordic Languages and Literature at Aarhus University, Denmark, 14th March, 2014. Supervisors: Pernille Hermann (Aarhus University), Agnes S. Arnórsdóttir (Aarhus University) and Terry Gunnell (University of Iceland). Examiners: Judy Quinn (University of Cambridge), Gísli Sigurðsson (University of Iceland) and Jens Peter Schjødt (Aarhus University). My doctoral thesis focused on Old Norse Age to later creative interpretations in mythology as a source for knowledge about Christian narratives of Iceland and the relationship between Scandinavians and Scandinavia. The third chapter concerns the the Scandinavian environment and Creation Myth and the myth of the Mead of ecosystems from the Viking Age to the High Poetry as two types of myths, which Middle Ages, when the mythology was conceptualize the land and cosmos in a codified. I propose that another way to specifically Icelandic context as reinterpreted approach the discussion of worldview and key myths of the Scandinavian mainland in cosmology in Old Norse mythology is to connection with the volcanic phenomena examine the evidence for knowledge of particular to the Icelandic underground. These specific ecological and environmental aspects eco-mythological interpretations of some of in key cosmological myths. It is typically so the most important myths of Old Norse- that the local environment inspires people to Scandinavian mythology argue that in the draw conclusions about the cosmos in the mythical worldview, the natural and creation of cosmological tales. My analyses of peripheral space of the sea and the strange and the eco-mythological aspects of Old Norse often life-threatening phenomenon of mythology therefore concerned the sea and volcanism in fact take a central position. As the land in the myth of Þórr’s Fishing such, the sea and the most destructive aspect Expedition, the Creation Myth and the myth of the land, volcanoes, function as cultural of the Mead of Poetry. identifiers of the ecosystems to society. Their The dissertation is divided in three prominence as cultural identifiers suggest a chapters followed by a conclusion: different conceptualization of the dualism of “Introduction”; “Confronting the Sea”, and land and sea, center and periphery, culture “The Creation Myth, the Myth of the Mead of and nature, and not least life and death in the Poetry and Volcanism”. The first chapter Old Norse mythical worldview: the gods act establishes the methodical and theoretical as enforcers and mediators in the cycle of life. background of an eco-mythological approach to the myths of Þórr’s Fishing Expedition, the Problem and Purpose Creation Myth and the myth of the Mead of The purpose of this dissertation is to address Poetry as central mythic narratives of the subject of worldview in Old Norse conceptualizations of land and sea in the Old mythology by asking: What is the constitution Norse-Scandinavian worldview. The second of the Old Norse worldview according to the chapter is an analysis of Þórr’s Fishing literary mythological sources in terms of Expedition as a Scandinavian cultural myth of man’s relationship with nature? What is the the sea and its relationship to society. This relationship between the conceptual perspective encompasses a developmental categories of culture and nature, civilized and history of the Fishing Myth as a cultural wild (byggð and óbyggð, innangarðs and narrative from an early stage in the Viking útangarðs) as it is expressed in the æsir’s 79 dealings with the surrounding world in the concert with the realizations of Åke Hulkrantz myth of Þ rr’s Fishing Expedition, the in a series of articles on eco-religion, which Creation Myth and the myth of the Mead of establish a theory of ecosystems as a central Poetry in the Edda version? How do the and highly important factor in the way actions of the gods in these narratives express religions and cultures develop: “Ecology of man’s mythical notions of his relationship Religion: Its Scope and Methodology” with the land and sea in the Scandinavian and (1979), “An Ideological Dichotomy: Myths North Atlantic ecosystems? and Folk Beliefs Among the Shoshoni” Since Gurevich’s (1969), Meletinskij’s (1984), and “Rock Drawings as Evidence of (1973) and Hastrup’s (1981; 1985; 1990) Religion” (1986). publications on Old Norse cosmology and By treating the Old Norse myths and worldview, this subject has been a recurring related historical narratives as a Mythical theme in scholarly discussions of the Charter of Tradition that combines a cultural mythology. The discussion has focused unit with its surrounding ecosystems, this mainly on the relationship of the æsir to the dissertation represents a different view on the various other supernatural beings in a cosmic source value of Old Norse mythology and scheme that is divided in a vertical and a literature as historical texts. The discussions horizontal axis (Schjødt 1990; Clunies Ross of genres and the critical discussion of the 1994; Løkka 2010). A different approach is aspects of indigenous ingenuity and tradition proposed by Stefan Brink in his article as opposed to foreign or Latin-learned Mytologiska rum och eskatologiska medieval influence on the narratives becomes föreställningar i det vikingatida Norden secondary to one that is focused on cultural (2004). This approach suggests the exchange between southern and northern involvement of the ecosystems particular to Europe. With this, the schism of ‘Christian specific cultural groups in the discussion of versus pagan’ in terms of the content of the the Old Norse mythical worldview. Old Norse mythology also becomes This dissertation advances from that secondary, and the focus on the sources shifts approach and devises a method for analyzing towards one that acknowledges the sources as the Old Norse mythical worldview that is texts with multiple cultural influences at designated the eco-mythological approach. many levels over a long period of time, from This method has as its theoretical background their oral form in the Viking Age to the the concept of the Mythical Charter of Medieval Era when they were committed to Tradition in indigenous cultures. The written form. Mythical Charter of Tradition is described as the sum of all oral narratives, which relay The Analyses knowledge of the mythical past, the Þórr’s Fishing Expedition is analyzed as a genealogies of culturally important people myth of primary cultural significance. The and myths of technical wisdom, which are earliest expressions of the myth are found on preserved as magical knowledge, often in picture-stones in England, Denmark and formulaic form. This theoretical background Sweden. These pictorial expressions are is developed on the basis of Jacques Le interpreted as the act of fishing as an iconic Goff’s (1992) and Jan Assmann’s (2006) event of Scandinavian culture. In concert with theories of Collective and Cultural Memory, Hymiskviða, they seem to relate a tale of how which are seen as supplementing each other. the anthropomorphic god went fishing and With reference to the long life of certain conquered the sea by catching its very spirit, narratives associated with cultural events and embodied in the Miðgarðsormr. The myth in specific sites in the Scandinavian ecosystems its earliest form is associated with the Viking (Dejbjerg in West Jutland and the Urebø Age as a narrative that transmits technical Ridge in Telemarken), Assmann’s concept of knowledge about fishing. This knowledge is Memory Spaces is expanded from a term articulated in the dynamics of differences pertaining to literary activities to one that can between Þórr and Hymir: Þórr is young, be applied to eco-spaces too. This is done in courageous and incautious, while Hymir is

80 old and scared of going too far out at sea. The context. The fear of hunger, the fear of the sea myth favors neither extreme but emphasizes and the problems of procuring food and drink the successfulness of a middle ground. It at sea are very much represented in these essentially addresses the subject of too much, tales. But as much as they are there, they are too little or just enough fear in the fishing also used to indicate a shift in concerns: the situation, and favors the last option. Fear in concerns of the stomach have moved to the this respect relates to the fear of dying at sea concerns of the soul. Saxo understands the old and the fear of dying of hunger. This is an Viking tradition in the Fishing Myth and eco-mythological interpretation of the myth, associates it with his primary critique of which acknowledges the significance of the paganism: that it is a gluttonous, materialist sea as an important resource for food religion with no spiritual insight. Using the everywhere in Viking Age Scandinavia. most popular Þórr-myths of Scandinavia, he Since the sea takes such prominence with introduces this spiritual hunger by way of a regard to food resources, it is argued that the euhemerized pagan god. Fishing Myth develops with the Scandinavian The eco-myth of Þórr’s Fishing Expedition expansions in the North Atlantic, and thus evolves with the developing realizations particularly with the landnám in Iceland and of the Scandinavians as they live and exist Greenland. Þórr becomes the primary god of with the sea as a formidable force in their the settlement and his myth becomes a world. The Fishing Myth develops from a foundation narrative of the landnám, but also myth that conceptualizes the sea as the in connection with finding new land in primary source of food and wealth, to one that Vínland. Þórr becomes the god that ensures recognizes it as a space of exploration and safe passage, fair winds and sustenance on power, social structures and the foundation of journeys, and the narrative structure of his society itself, and finally to a perspective on it Fishing Myth is reconfigured as a myth of as a space that expands human and religious exploration, which leaves traces in such horizons in late Christian narratives. The eco- narratives as Landnámabók, Eiríks saga mythological interpretation of the myth in this rauða and Flóamanna saga. With this presentation restructures the conceptual popularity of the myth, the need arises in the schemas, which often dominate the research early Christian period to deconstruct Þórr and tradition of Old Norse cosmology and his narratives as significant pagan foundation worldview. The sea in the Old Norse- myths. Þórr is demonized or a fallibility of his Scandinavian worldview is not the Úthaf, it is is portrayed in some of these very same tales. not the periphery: it is a cultural epicenter. The tenets of the Fishing Myth are re- In the case of the Creation Myth, attention appropriated in the story of his Journey to is given to the description of the events in Útgarðaloki, Saxo’s Thorkillus Journeys and Gylfaginning, where certain aspects of the Þorsteins þáttr bœjarmagns, and the conflation of fire and ice have seemed opaque Gylfaginning version of the Fishing Myth to older scholarship. It is demonstrated that seems to purposely associate the events with the inconsistencies in the description of how Ragnarǫk. The most interesting aspect of this the eitr flows from its ice-cold source in widespread narrative re-appropriation of the Niflheimr and hardens when it has entered the Fishing Myth is Saxo’s euhemerized Þórr- mild climate of Ginnungagap originate in a figure in Thorkillus’s Journeys. He represents volcanic image. On the whole, in the the final stage of reinterpretation of the description of the creation as one that Fishing Myth as an eco-myth, because, involves ice, rime and water, there are several regardless of how the largely Christianized aspects of the processes which do not respond tradition may review Þórr and paganism, the to the usual behavior of ice and water. How sea is still the central force of the narratives. can rime exist in climates that are ‘mild as a In Thorkillus’s Journeys it is by way of a sea windless sky?’ Why are the Élivágar journeying Icelander that Christianity finally described as rivers that ‘harden like the finds its way to Denmark. The narratives use cinders that flow from a furnace?’ The answer the aspects of the old Fishing Myth in a new is that these inconsistencies occur when an

81 original description of a low discharge originate in the same tradition from the effusive volcanic eruption is described in continent to account for genealogies and the analogies of water, ice, snow and rime. There creation of life from a chthonic being. The is plenty of comparable evidence from version in Gylfaginning is an attempt to align cultures around the world to suggest that the the Icelandic interpretation of that myth with early Icelanders actually did describe the continental tradition, and still account for volcanism in such analogies, and certain the creative aspect of the observable aspects of the early Norse language also phenomena of jarðeldr [‘earth-fire’] there. In indicate this. The language was surprisingly that way, the Creation Myth of Gylfaginning poor in terminology for volcanism and lacked associates the creation of the cosmos directly even a word for ‘volcano.’ However, the key with the destructive, apocalyptic forces and word that is employed in the Creation Myth – incorporates the volcanic phenomena in the hrím – had the double meaning of ‘rime’ and heart of existence. ‘soot’, and thus indicates that the early In the myth of the Mead of Poetry in its Icelanders sought to relate tales of volcanism version in Skáldskaparmál, the explosive in the same manner as it has been observed aspect of volcanism is relayed in analogies to that many other pre-Scientific Era peoples supernatural beings and the Mead of Poetry as have done: by analogies and in mythic bodily fluid on the same terms that the narratives. world’s waters are the bodily fluids of Ymir. Rather than an image of ice and fire, it This myth compiles several images that can seems more probable that the early image of be found in other narratives, and it distances the Creation Myth was one of Surtr and the itself from the myth of the Mead of Poetry in Fire People of Muspell creating fires and Hávamál by focusing on landscape, cosmos poisonous eitr flows (lava) that built up land and death, while the former is focused on the in Ginnungagap, which subsequently turned primary site of the chieftain’s hall, social into inhabitable space for humans by the rules and marriage. Both are myths about the civilizing power of the fertility gods, the æsir, primary aspects of culture, and it seems who arranged the cosmos by killing the evil reasonable to consider the version in Hávamál Ymir, who was created from this fire. To to be the oldest. This version retains aspects describe these events, the analogies of water of ancient Germanic cults of fertility, which and ice were used, and they were later re- seem to have their origins in the same interpreted in a learned literary discourse to fit complex as the Roman Liberalia and the the neoplatonic teachings that are also a mark Bacchanalia. As its primary aspect, this of Edda. This explains why Surtr and complex retains the chthonic association of Muspell, the great forces of volcanic the intoxicating drink of life and wisdom. In destruction in Ragnarøkkr, are involved in the the Icelandic tradition in Skáldskaparmál, the Creation Myth: it has been observed by added experience of the ecosystem, generation upon generation of Icelanders that volcanism, demands a reformulation and after the Volcano Spirit and his Fire People reconceptualization of the chthonic send the poisonous Stormy Waves (the association of the mead. The Mead of Poetry Élivágar), and these harden like the cinder is, by virtue of its comparability with lava as a from a smelter, the ground is regrown. This yellow, thick substance, associated with explains why the tradition of Gylfaginning volcanism. However, this is not the only insists that Ymir and Aurgelmir are the same reason to associate the Mead of Poetry with being, even though they are not associated in lava. As the mead is the memory drink and its the original source of Vafþrúðnismál. The myth holds cultural primacy – this is why it description of Aurgelmir coming to life from has its place in the cultural charter of the eitr that is ejected by the Élivágar seems Hávamál – it is also the ideal candidate for an to be the oldest version of the Icelandic object or substance with which to associate volcanological interpretation of the Creation the memory of massive volcanic eruptions Myth. The myth of the creation of Aurgelmir that could potentially destroy society as a and the myth of the creation of Ymir both whole. One such event was experienced by

82 the early Icelanders at the end of the landnám too. In Bergbúa þáttr, the bergbúi says he period in 934, when the Katla-system opened expects the eagles to come flying after he has up in the Eldgjá eruption and shrouded the sent this boat and he tells how he flies from Northern Hemisphere in ashes for months, world to world; in Vǫluspá the ash-pale maybe even a whole year. This was one of the beaked eagle rips up corpses before the biggest eruptions in modern human history. Muspell People and Loki come sailing; and of The associations of the myth of the Mead course in the myth of the Mead of Poetry, of Poetry with volcanism do not seem to stop Óðinn – named Evildoer – bursts out of here. The Mead Myth of Skáldskaparmál Hnitbjǫrg, the Mountain of Clashing Rocks, incorporates a motif of volcanism that in the guise of an eagle, who flies straight combine gods, jǫtnar and dwarfs with towards Ásgarðr and explodes in yellow supernatural boats of stone and iron, the flight liquid. Interestingly, it is mentioned in the of eagles, beer or mead and sometimes Surtr. annals of Flatey that some men once saw Shortly after the Eldgjá eruption, around 985, birds flying in the ejecta of an eruption in Eyvindr skáldaspillir composed Háleygjatal Hekla. This seems to come from the same in which he asserted that Óðinn flew out of idea as is expressed in Konungs Skuggsjá, Surtr’s sinking valleys with the Mead of where the Northern Wind is said to create Poetry. The Mead of Poetry is also referred to earthquakes and eruptions by rushing through in the circumlocution of ‘kettle liquid’. The caverns in the underground – an idea that association of the volcanic caldera with a ultimately originates in the classical myths of, kettle is a frequent one in other cultures, but, among others, Ovid. To add to this image in more importantly, the stanza of Háleygjatal Skáldskaparmál, Óðinn blows in the hole that has structural parallels in Bergbúa þáttr, he is making with Baugi in Hnitbjǫrg, and Vǫluspá and Skáldskaparmál. Certain rocks fall out. Similarly, references to the conceptions relating to this complex also Mead of Poetry or a chthonic – volcanic – occur in Landnámabók, Konungs Skuggsjá alcoholic drink are made in several of these the annals of Flatey and Saxo. In narratives. The bergbúi equates the eruption Landnámabók there is an eruption caused by a with his poetry and associates it with the Well jǫtunn sailing in a boat. This motif of the boat of Aurnir – that is the Mead of Poetry. Both reappears in Bergbúa þáttr, where, in the Saxo and Konungs Skuggsjá relate that there course of describing the events of a volcanic are (volcanic) wells in Iceland that taste of eruption, the bergbúi says that he sent Aurnir beer, and, finally, there is the association of an iron-braced stone boat. In Vǫluspá, the the Mead of Poetry with volcanism in supernatural boat Naglfar comes sailing with Skáldskaparmál. the Muspell People and Loki (the god who All these motifs are indiscernible in their creates earthquakes). Naglfar may mean singular form, but together they form a ‘Spike-boat’ when not directly associated sequence that associate with the descriptions with the tradition of Gylfaginning that claims of a volcanic eruption. The initial it is a ship made of the fingernails of the dead characteristic rumbling of an earthquake – it is in fact a common Scandinavian notion swarm, venting gasses and tumbling rocks that the Devil makes ships from fingernails. before an eruption is expressed in the jǫtnar, In the myth of the Mead of Poetry in Fjalarr, Galarr, Gillingr, the groaning Skáldskaparmál, there is the strange scene of Jǫtunheimar, the howling dwarfs and drilling the two dwarfs Fjalarr [‘Hider’] and Galarr in the mountain. The flight of birds and [‘Screamer’] sailing with Gillingr [‘Noisy’]. eagles; Óðinn in Skáldskaparmál and Notably, right after Gillingr has drowned on Háleygjatal, the ash-pale beaked eagle, the this trip, his wife cries loudly out of the door bergbúi and the eagle in his poem, symbolize of the dwarfs’ home. This sequence seems to the ash-plume. The image of the iron/stone reflect the scene in Vǫluspá where all of boat, however, is not fully discernible. It may Jǫtunheimar groans and the dwarfs howl link up with ideas of high speed as the ejecta before their stone doors. The eagle or the comes rushing down a mountainside. Several birds reappear in several of these narratives, of these images are found in other cultures –

83 the most frequent of which is the eagle as an Hastrup, Kirsten. 1981. “Cosmology and Society in ash-plume. In many cases of myths of Medieval Iceland”. In Ethnologia Scandinavica 11: 63–78. volcanism in other cultures, there is also a Hastrup, Kirsten. 1985. Culture and History in connection to important cultural artifacts or Medieval Iceland. Oxford: Clarendon Press. elements. As such, the Mead Myth seems to Hastrup, Kirsten. 1990. Island of Anthropology. follow a pattern of human cultural response to Odense: Odense University Press. volcanism that is worldwide. It is a myth that Hultkrantz, Åke. 1979. “Ecology of Religion: Its Scope and Methodology”. In Science of Religion: Studies plots the cultural upon the peripheral and in Methodology. Ed. Lauri Honko. The Hague: strange phenomena of volcanism – with their Mouton. Pp. 221–236. destructive capabilities, and as such potential Hultkrantz, Åke. 1984. “An Ideological Dichotomy: anti-cultural entities – and appropriates it to Myths and Folk Beliefs Among the Shoshoni”. In consign it to a human-cultural function. It is Sacred Narrative: Readings in the Theory of Myth. Ed. Alan Dundes. Los Angeles / London: also a myth that enhances human resilience to University of California Press. Pp. 152–165. volcanism insofar as it prescribes certain acts Hultkrantz, Åke. 1986. “Rock Drawings as Evidence of of caution and preparation in the face of these Religion”. In Words and Objects: Towards a phenomena while combining it all in a myth Dialogue between Archaeology and History of about the memory drink of the Mead of Religion. Serie B: Skrifter 71. Ed. Gro Steinsland. Oslo: The Institute for Comparative Research in Poetry. Human Culture, Norwegian University Press. Pp. 43–66. Works Cited Le Goff, Jacques. 1992. History and Memory. New Assmann, Jan. 2006. Religion and Cultural Memory. York: Columbia University Press. Trans. Rodney Livingstone. Stanford: Stanford Løkka, Nanna. 2010. Sted og landskap i norrøn University Press. mytologi. Oslo: Universitetet i Oslo. Brink, Stefan. 2004. “Mytologiska rum och Meletinskij, E. 1973. “Scandinavian Mythology as a eskatologiska föreställningar i det vikingatida System I–II”. In Journal of Symbolic Anthropology Norden”. In Ordning mot kaos. Ed. Anders Andrén 1(1/2): 43–78. et al. Lund: Nordic Academic Press. Pp. 291–316. Schjødt, Jens Peter. 1990. “Horisontale und vertikale Clunies Ross, Margaret. 1994. Prolonged Echoes I. Achsen in der vorchristlichen skandinavischen Odense: Odense Universitetsforlag. Kosmologie”. In Old Norse and Finnish Religions Gurevich, A. Ya. 1969. “Space and Time in the and Cultic Place-Names. Ed. Tore Ahlbäck et al. Weltmodell of the Old Scandinavian Peoples”. In Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International. Pp. Medieval Scandinavia 2: 43–53. 35–57.

The Construction of Anglo-Saxon Legendary History Catalin Taranu, University of Leeds

Research project undertaken for completion of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the Institute for Medieval Studies, University of Leeds; thesis scheduled for submission in 2015. Supervisors: Alaric Hall (University of Leeds), and Catherine Karkov (University of Leeds). Since this is an ongoing PhD project, the texts in order to see the network of beliefs and following conclusions are bound to be attitudes which underlie them (and which are preliminary. However, I hope they will be thus otherwise invisible, but always implicit helpful to any reader interested in Anglo- in the texture of the sources). As such, my Saxon attitudes towards history, or, more thesis is inscribed in an approach described by generally, Old English (and British Latin) John D. Niles as “the anthropology of the legendary historical sources, and even the past” (Niles 1999). philosophy of history, including medieval While scholars generally agree that vernacular theories thereof. In very broad medieval historiography is inseparable from terms, my research looks at how people in rhetoric and that its literariness should be early medieval Britain conceptualized their embraced and understood on its own terms past. My project aims to go beyond looking at rather than deplored, there is less agreement sources (historical, in very broad terms) for on the precise nature and rhetoric manifested clues to reconstruct the ‘real events’ behind by alternative modes of medieval history them, and casts an anthropological eye at the (Kempshall 2012). For, apart from what is

84 usually considered to be ‘proper medieval something specifically Anglo-Saxon. I am historiography’ (that is, from Bede to interested in what this remodeling of stories Geoffrey of Monmouth and beyond), there common to all Germanic literary traditions was also ‘the open sea’ of orally transmitted tells us about how the Anglo-Saxons saw memory, fictions (representations of a themselves in the context of the greater collective past), legends that carried the Germanic cultural community and on the meaning of history and other forms of peripheries of the Roman world. commemoration which were more likely to be My focus is not so much on Anglo-Saxon vernacular – though not exclusively so ‘historiography proper’, as on ‘legendary’ (Danielsson 2002: 385–395). It is one of these texts, such as Beowulf and the minor heroic alternative modes of history-making that my poems, and even some of the elegies research attempts to bring into focus. (especially Deor and The Ruin). Still, I always A considerable amount of research has come back to the former, at least for terms of been done on the kind of Anglo-Saxon comparison, although the interplay between historiography of which Bede is the foremost the two is much more complex than a mere representative, on the one hand, and on dichotomy. Chronologically, I am less vernacular texts like Beowulf, treating them as interested in late Anglo-Saxon texts (after the literary artifacts with little if any historical 9th century) and the building of a national relevance, on the other. Meanwhile, legendary identity in the context of the Danish attacks history as a constellation of legendary fictions and growing centralization. Rather, I am which, for certain textual communities, was looking at reworkings of the common history, is comparatively understudied. In the Germanic core epic narratives within Old course of this thesis, I seek neither to extract English literature. Since my approach requires the ‘real’ historical events from heroic a fair amount of comparative study, I will also legendary epics, nor to associate these texts be looking at early texts from other Germanic with certain political or historiographical literary traditions. I will be examining two agendas conceivable during the time of their Germanic narratives: the legendary nucleus (re)writing. While the former approach has focusing on Sigfried/Sigurðr the Dragon- long been deemed too contentious to be useful Slayer and the conflicts between the Goths, (although its reflexes are strong to this day), the Huns and the Burgundians (in the Latin the second is quite active and has produced Germanic text Waltharius, the Old English helpful (though not always easy to agree Waldere and Widsith and the Old Norse upon) results. Instead, my goal is to describe Atlakviða, Þiðrekssaga, the Icelandic the workings of this alternative type of Vǫlsunga saga and the Middle High German understanding and making history – what it Nibelungenlied) and secondly, the narratives meant to different textual and oral cultural concerning the dynasties of the Scylfings and communities at different times, how it was the Scyldings and the relationships between used by them, how it was constructed; finally, the Swedes, the Danes and the Geats (in the to understand the mentalities and Old English Beowulf and the Old Norse conceptualizations of the people who created, Ynglinga saga). listened to / read or disseminated the variety Finally, considering that history, be it of texts (in the broadest sense of the term) modern or medieval, is fiction, inasmuch as which make up ‘legendary history’. the making of history is the making of a Accordingly, I investigate the construction verbal artifact, a narrative trying to make of legendary history in Old English literature sense of the Brownian Motion of people(s), and on this basis, reconstruct a vernacular their actions and their ideas, I also assess the theory of legendary history and historical legitimacy of Anglo-Saxons constructing memory that is silently at work in Anglo- narratives of their legendary past (White Saxon literary texts. More precisely, I am 1978). I also reassess the 19th century model looking at how the Anglo-Saxons take over of historiography – which remains quietly narrative cores from the common Germanic influential in Anglo-Saxon studies – whereby stock of heroic epic and rework them into historical truth was distorted in legends but it

85 can be reconstructed by carefully eliminating history and fiction/legend, but also the ‘Great all ‘poetic’ or ‘legendary’ elements. Since the Divide’ between orality and literacy (Amodio dichotomy between history and legend, 2004). between the real and the imaginary, is not The first chapter, dealing with The workable in Old English (and indeed in most Semantics of History in Old English, explores early medieval) texts, I attempt to reveal the the variety of lexical means used to express elements of a non-Aristotelian, non-Classicist the idea of history and its many embodiments. model (or vernacular theory) of legendary The goal is to look at the actual words (or history within which the Anglo-Saxons were more broadly, means of expression) used by working. the Anglo-Saxons to refer to the many My theoretical framework is bound to be embodiments of what we call history. eclectic. The bases of my research project Concretely, I chart the meanings of all involve studying intellectual history, ethnic individual Old English words translatable as identity formation and the evolution of ‘history’ used in verse, prose, and glosses, mentalities and imagination (in Jacques Le and thus I explore the mental conceptual- Goff’s terms, l’imaginaire), where I build on izations they are based on. This offers a novel current research regarding the construction of perspective on the complex and sophisticated Germanic identities in Late Antiquity and the attitudes different Anglo-Saxon cultural Early Middle Ages and the role of cultural communities had towards history and the memory therein (le Goff 1988: 1–13). Into dialectic between the preservation and this main direction of study, I integrate reenactment of the past. In spite of this variety insights from the latest developments in of ideas, this lexicographical study / semantic research on cultural memory (within cognitive analysis inspired by cognitive linguistics linguistics, semantics and anthropology), the argues that the basic conceptualizations of construction of social identities and even history are essentially the same across the postcolonial studies (since Anglo-Saxons boundaries of genre, culture and were forging their history in a post-colonial literacy/orality. space, in the void left by the withdrawal of The second chapter, dealing with what has the Roman Empire). In the endeavour to often been termed The ‘Germanic Heroic’ identify the elements of an Anglo-Saxon Tradition in Anglo-Saxon England, explores vernacular theory of legendary history the connection of Anglo-Saxon legendary making, I will be employing reader-response history to the early (and later) continental theory, treating the fictional world of Germanic tradition. First of all, I will literature as hypothetically concrete, whereby investigate to what extent there was a the reader suggests models of actual Germanic heroic tradition in the first place. experience and reconstitutes them using The very notions of ‘Germanic’ and ‘heroic’ poetic means. poetry are vague and ideologically charged Since I am making a plea for the necessity terms, and their use is rightfully disputed by of seeing legendary history as a separate some: the former, because there is no mode of manifestation of Anglo-Saxon evidence that early medieval ethnic groups historiography, which did not get the chance speaking Germanic languages had any notion to develop so much in other early medieval of their being somehow related in a Western European cultural communities, I supraethnic ‘Germanic community’; the latter, begin by reassessing the definitions of terms since the sources of the Völkerwanderung used very often, but whose exact signifiers are contain little proof for the ‘heroic ethos’ that unclear: ‘historical’, ‘legendary’, ‘heroic’, Germanic heroic poetry projects on this ‘Germanic’ – to what extent do they reflect period; furthermore, they both carry the the actual way Anglo-Saxons conceptualized Romanticist and nationalistic baggage of 19th their historical fictions. Related to these century scholarship. Nowadays, although theoretical considerations is the necessity to scholars still use these terms, no one attempts avoid modern projections on Old English to (re)define them, treating them as ahistorical texts, especially the sharp dichotomy between notions which seem to refer to something

86 everyone presumably agrees upon. Was the Aristotelian worldview on a very different ‘Germanic heroic tradition’ to which the way of conceptualizing history and fiction (an makers of Anglo-Saxon legendary history issue previously discussed in the first chapter appealed a cache of narrative materials for from a different angle). I will look at the way history-building or was it a construct, forever the early medieval Latinate tradition of in the making, a poetic image which Anglo- historiography operates distinctions between Saxon poets never finished to retouch? Did different types of fiction and history. I will writing epic poetry have any ‘Germanic’ trace the conception of history shared by ‘the subtext? In other words, did the Anglo-Saxon narrators of barbarian history’ back to its poets feel themselves a part of a Germanic classical roots and then I will discuss the poetic tradition? Or did they try or did they relevance of that normative model of what try perhaps to create such a supraethnic history is and how it should be written identity? Both arguments have been made throughout late antique and early medieval before, but the evidence is tenuous. Also, historiography (Goffart 1988). The evolution what did the heroism of ‘heroic poetry’ seems to be towards progressively blurring consist of? Instead of the image of the the borders between the three compartments ‘Germanic strongman’ that is usually of the Ciceronian (and Isidorian) model of associated with ‘Germanic heroic poetry’ narrative: fabula – argumentum – historia (even if subliminally), I will propose that the (Isidore of Seville: 67). On the other hand, Old English texts (from Beowulf to The Battle vernacular legendary histories originate in an of Maldon) evince a much subtler understanding of history, common to many understanding of the various consequences of other pre-modern cultures, which is alien to martial prowess for society and politics. this classical model (this matter falls outside In order to answer these questions, apart the scope of the present paper). However, I from critical readings of past scholarship, I will argue that the tripartite model (which the focus on the protean embodiments of the narrators of ‘barbarian history’ had in mind, legend of Siegfried/Sigurðr the Dragon-Slayer although they did not strictly follow it) is a throughout Germanic-language cultural and useful point of entry for a study of the literary traditions. The earliest attestations of understanding of history in Old English this narrative core, tied to Anglo-Saxon vernacular legendary historical narratives. England (Beowulf contains the earliest The modern reification of the past as the reference, but surprisingly it refers to object of study of the academic discipline of Sigemund, usually taken to be Siegfried’s history is responsible for the numerous and father and a secondary figure, as the epitomic lasting misunderstandings of the ways in dragon-slayer and ‘hero’). The evolution of which pre-modern societies thought and the narrative evinces a disjunction between spoke about the past (Schiffman 2011). This the Continental ‘Germanic tradition’ and the attitude towards history and the past naturally Anglo-Saxon legendary tradition which could leads to the very modern distinction between be indicative of a lack of interest on the (historical) fiction and history proper which Anglo-Saxon side in belonging to a traditional pre-modern communities do not ‘Germanic’ supraethnic community. I also share. In an oral or oral-derived culture, there interrogate the usefulness of concentrating on is no ‘history’ separate from the oral, linear series of textual evolution, proposing communal forms of memory that preserve it. instead a refocusing of scholarly effort on the These vehicles of the past, or better said, forces that shape these narratives, as well as these forms of recording, remembering and on their structure as a flux of narratives extant handing down past events, were constructed in the same space and time, rather than as according to very specific cultural encodings, layers of narrative. most of which have been labeled by modern The third chapter, Old English Legend and scholars as ‘fictional’ (legend, heroic poem Anglo-Saxon History, attempts to assess to etc.). Yet they were in no way fictional for the what extent the categories ‘history’ and societies in which they were composed and ‘fiction/legend’ have been imposed by an handed down – they were the past, and thus

87 history was inextricably linked to the form in category of their own, which throughout time which it was preserved. Ultimately, the has been put to different uses (political, such classically-influenced ‘barbarian histories’ as The Battle of Maldon or The Battle of and the vernacular oral legendary historical Brunnanburh, authority-legitimizing, identity- narratives are not two diametrically opposed forging, and/or enhancing a sense of ways of seeing history, but complementary community). Although sometimes the uses of sets of attitudes towards historical truth and legendary history are inextricably linked to fiction which are strangely resonant with the very nature of some of these texts – those prevalent in postmodernity (compare memorial traditions, passed on in ceremonial Hayden White’s [1978] understanding of events (though not necessarily in any history). I will thus look at Beowulf and institutional way), which guaranteed the Widsith as representatives of vernacular truthfulness of the historical account. This theories of history – to what extent would chapter on poetics will also discuss the nature they have been seen as history or legend, and of orality and literacy, memory and textuality by whom? and the effects they had on the nature of The final chapter, The Fragmentary legendary histories. Poetics of Legendary History, explores the various ways in which Anglo-Saxon Works Cited legendary history is constructed, from the Amodio, Mark. 2004. Writing the Oral Tradition: Oral fragmentary and allusive renderings of the Poetics and Literate Culture in Medieval England. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press. Franks Casket (which could be seen as the Danielsson, Tommy. 2002. Sagorna om Norges carrier of visual legendary histories, built kungar: Från Magnús góði till Magnús Erlingsson. from fragments of biblical, legendary Hedemora: Gidlunds Förlag. Germanic and Roman history), to the scraps le Goff, Jacques. 1988. The Medieval Imagination. of history and legend gathered and turned into Trans. Arthur Goldhammer. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. something new in Beowulf, Widsith, (but also Goffart, Walter. 1988. The Narrators of Barbarian elegies like Deor and even Bede’s Historia History (A.D. 550–800): Jordanes, Gregory of Ecclesiastica). Beowulf can be a very rich Tours, Bede, and Paul the Deacon. Princeton: case-study of the way in which historical- Princeton University Press. legendary truth is probed from different Isidore of Seville. 2006. Etymologies. Ed. & trans. Stephen Barney et al. Cambridge: Cambridge perspectives, never allowing for a unitary University Press. narrative to emerge. I propose an Anglo- Kempshall, Matthew. 2012. Rhetoric and the Writing Saxon poetics of the fragment as a way to of History, 400–1500. Manchester: Manchester conceptualize these different phenomena University Press. whereby disjunction and allusiveness are used Niles, John. 1999. “Widsith and the Anthropology of the Past”. Philological Quarterly 78: 171–213. to create a sense of history that is greater than Schiffman, Zachary. 2011. “Historicizing the sum of its fragments – a poetics which History/Contextualizing Context”. New Literary refuses straightforward grand narratives and History 42: 477–498. favours instead narrative atoms which allow White, Hayden. 1978. Tropics of Discourse: Essays in only glimpses into the past. The resulting Cultural Criticism. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. texts are neither wholly historical, nor legendary/fictional, but coagulate into a

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Post-Doctoral Projects

Narrative Transformations of Heroic, Autobiographical Poetry in the Medieval North Helen F. Leslie, University of Bergen

At the end of December 2013, I began a four history to which they are connected and the year postdoctoral fellowship in medieval eminent figures which these legends languages and literature at the Department of represent. Seldom, however, are the legends Literary, Linguistic and Aesthetic Studies at examined with this shared heritage in mind. the University of Bergen in Norway, as a This project explores how heroes of the member of the Research Group for Medieval remote Germanic past are remembered in Philology. As part of my work for the cognate sources and how their stories department, the first six months of my manifested in the related vernacular fellowship has been spent completing the first communities of the medieval north in translation of the Landslov into English (the different ways. As story begat story, Norwegian national law code of 1274). I will autobiography, reportage, biography and spend the latter six months of 2014 beginning speculation about great heroes were spun into my personal postdoctoral project. In the ever denser webs. These took both prose and following brief project description, I will poetic narrative forms, first in oral tradition introduce this work, which will continue for a and later rendered in written genres, as well as total of three years. being represented iconographically on pictures stones carved with scenes from their Theme lives and probably also on tapestries woven My research programme treats the creation, with scenes from their adventures. These remembrance and transformation of the hero interrelated Germanic heroic legends have in the medieval pan-Germanic heroic legends. received much scholarly attention in terms of Offering a synthetic analysis of these legends individual national literatures (Danish, using Icelandic, Faroese, English, German, English, Faroese, German, Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish and Danish poetic and Norwegian and Swedish). However, they prose sources, it will contribute to an generally remain researched and taught understanding of the way in which vernacular piecemeal, on the basis of preferred versions legends disseminated across the medieval (whether personally, disciplinarily or north and how the heroic autobiography nationally). However, there have been no found in Old Icelandic sources was attempts to develop an overarching transformed to suit local literary demands. perspective on the cognate synchronic and Obviously of interest to Germanic literary and diachronic traditions in the medieval philological scholars, the results will also be Germanic world as a whole for a number of of use to historians, since the texts are used as decades. In that intermediate period, there historical sources, and to scholars of culture have been tremendous advances and studying the distribution of ideas across revolutionary changes in understanding the extended networks of communities in large transmission and variation of both the specific linguistic-cultural areas. Germanic traditions and also the establishment and spread of heroic epics as Background and Aims emblematic of shared history and as iconic of The pan-Germanic medieval heroic social values (for recent relevant work on legends are our most significant source of specific genres, see e.g. Jonsson 1991; shared narratives of early medieval northern Mitchell 1991; 2003; Driscoll 1997; Soberg Europe. This importance stems from both the 2008).

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This project returns to the neglected Iceland. The third part will complement question of the relationship of diverse Norse discussions of continuity and change in materials to collective tradition and its tradition through the exploration of the late- variations. This is approached from a current medieval and post-medieval maintenance of theoretical and analytical frame that enables a this Germanic heroic material in oral more balanced view of sources in different traditions of ballads, which have generally media of expression – not just poetry versus been neglected from this discussion. The prose, but also equipped to consider symbolic relationship of these traditions to earlier uses of these narratives and their episodes sources will be considered. I will discuss the carved in wood or stone. The extensive pieces potential of these later sources to shed of the wider medieval Germanic heroic additional light on earlier forms of the heroic tradition will be juxtaposed for comparison, tradition (or the lack thereof). This ballad exploring conventions and contrasts of material also as an analogue for continuity handling Germanic legendary material across and change, capitalizing on the fact that the well-known Old Icelandic traditional sources are available for the earlier traditions alliterative poems and legendary-heroic sagas. as frame of reference. The study sets out to These sources will be brought into dialogue provide a much needed analytical synthesis of with the iconographic renderings of the the Germanic heroic tradition and bring stories and referential uses of them in other together prose, pictorial and metrical sources contexts such as skaldic verse as well as in (including ballads) from the whole of the later oral-poetic traditions such as ballads. Germanic north. This project develops around three complementary areas of research that build The Autobiographical Aspect in the Old upon one another. The first of these is the Icelandic Material examination of the autobiographical aspect of This part of the project is a comparative the Old Icelandic material. The contours of endeavour intended to analyse how first-person narrative consciousness will be autobiographical material is transformed in explored as part of the mechanism of cognate traditions and what this can tell us remembrance by examining the construction about the rise and spread of the first person and role of heroic autobiography in medieval point of view. The main sources of and late-medieval northern vernacular autobiography in the northern European legendary texts. The second is the exploration metrical material are sustained retrospective of the historical background of interest in the monologues delivered by heroic characters on individual in the medieval north. This area the point of death (the so-called Germanic presents two sites of central concern. On the ‘death song’). Evidence of this one hand, this holds the question of whether autobiographical mode is particularly present this interest is historically linked with the in Old Icelandic sources, in Old English spread of the pan-Germanic narrative (Beowulf) and in Old High German material traditions through the linguistic-cultural areas (Das Hildebrandslied). In narration of this of the north, in whatever era this occurred. On type, a character identifies himself in verse, the other hand, this contains the historical and offers an autobiographical account of question of whether interest in the individual himself. This aspect of the study will analyze is rooted in a) the cultural environment of the sources according to rhetorical mode of Migration Period, when many of the major discourse (e.g. death songs) embedded in cycles have their roots; b) the cultural different genres (epic poetry, saga prose). environment of the Viking Age, characterized Analysis by mode of discourse will be by the mobility and diaspora in which Iceland complemented and contrasted with analytical was settled and to which the earliest surveys of sources by narrative material, references in skaldic verse are dated; or c) the grouped according to Germanic hero. Heroic post-conversion period, which eventually legends are told in prose as well as in verse, produced the major written sources through and heroic scenes are preserved carvings in which these traditions are known especially in different materials and possibly rendered on

90 at least one tapestry, and skaldic poetry taking into account the necessary oral suggests such scenes were also painted on prehistory of the material and its cultural shields. These will be placed in dialogue with context, my study will test the alternative the textual sources. For example, once the hypothesis that autobiographical discourse in autobiographical aspect of the Icelandic Germanic material points towards an early Vǫlsunga saga has been analyzed, I will interest in establishing the individual within continue with an analysis of the relationship larger group discourses and identities. This between the material in the relevant Icelandic hypothesis finds immediate support in, for poems, the Old High German epic poem the example, the occurrence of the oral genre of Nibelungenlied and related ballads: the the Germanic death song in Beowulf. The Danish Sivard Snarensvend, Sivard og development of the autobiographical Brynhild, Frændehævn, and Grimhilds Hævn, validation of prehistory can only be tested by the Faroese Sjúrðar kvæði, the Norwegian comparing autobiographical references with Sigurð svein, and the Swedish Sivert cognate ballad and poetic traditions as Snarensvend. The heroic content of such multiple manifestations of the same heroic diverse sources is interrelated in a way that material, making my contribution to will not necessarily conform to a neat discussion both timely and necessary. evolutionary model. This comparative project in textual medieval studies will therefore rely The Relationship of Old Icelandic Material on a combination of methods appropriate to to the Late-Medieval Nordic Ballad the diversity of sources. Among these, Tradition manuscript studies provide essential tools for By studying how autobiographical material deciphering the versions of the texts. may be transformed into another type of Theoretical models are taken from Oral narrative expression in cognate vernacular Theory, which is suitably equipped for traditions, we gain an insight into the approaching ‘oral-derived texts’, or written construction and development of the literary texts that are adapted from an oral tradition, forms of the sources. Previous research even if potentially mediated by an extended reveals that Icelandic prosimetric history of manuscript transmission. In fornaldarsögur (legendary prose sagas addition, the theoretical model of containing verse) are associated with the ‘intertextuality’ is adapted from its wider Nordic medieval ballad tradition, while development in Literature Studies as a tool for the non-prosimetric legendary sagas tend to approaching the interconnections of heroic provide material for rímur (late medieval sources. Icelandic rhymed, alliterative epic poems). This particular pattern has never been Interest in the Individual in the Medieval thoroughly investigated. By focussing on the North transformations of the heroic fornaldarsögur A working hypothesis of this project is that material and using the autobiographical sustained first-person narrative may have pronouncements of heroes as a limiting factor, played a strong role in the wider narrative this project has the potential to make a culture of the north. This hypothesis is novel significant contribution to Nordic ballad because attention to such monologues in studies. earlier scholarship has not been concerned Another significant gap in the research of with its pervasiveness and such the question Germanic heroic material that my project fills was not raised until a recent arguement was concerns the kæmpeviser, a Scandinavian and put forward that first-person poetry in a prose Faroese heroic ballad type not found in narrative could have become fashionable as a Iceland. The content of kæmpeviser is closely device to strengthen the authority of the related to the legendary saga and epic narrator in the Icelandic material only in the tradition. This has never been examined in 12th–14th centuries (Clunies Ross 2006). This detail but is particularly pertinent to my study argument asserts that older, inherited poetic since, as noted, the poetic aspect of the material was fashioned to fit this mould. By fornaldarsögur material is not well

91 represented by the Icelandic rímur tradition, Works Cited only by the Nordic ballads. The Clunies Ross, Margaret. 2006. “Poetry and the transformations of autobiography in these Fornaldarsǫgur”. In The Fantastic in Old Norse / Icelandic Literature; Sagas and the British Isles: metrical forms can thus be studied in Preprint Papers of the 13th International Saga conjunction with the connection between the Conference Durham and York, 6th‒12th August material in Icelandic prosimetric 2006. 2 Vols. Ed. John McKinnell, David Ashurst fornaldarsögur and the ballad traditions in the & Donata Kick. Durham: The Centre for Medieval Nordic countries. This approach makes my and Renaissance Studies, Durham University. Pp. 180–187. project relevant to different disciplines. Driscoll, Matthew James. 1997. The Unwashed Children of Eve: The Production, Dissemination Outcome and Reception of Popular Literature in Post- To have all these different forms and Reformation Iceland. Enfield Lock: Hisarlik Press. languages in conversation forms an unusual Jonsson, Bengt R. 1991. “Oral Literature, Written and highly productive dialogue relevant to Literature: The Ballad and Old Norse Genres”. In The Ballad and Oral Literature. Ed. Joseph Harris. current academic concerns. The present Harvard English Studies 17. Cambridge, MA: project will contribute to this dialogue by Harvard University Press. Pp. 139–170. producing a monograph. The monograph will Mitchell, Stephen A. 1991. Heroic Sagas and Ballads. enhance our understanding of the Ithaca: Cornell University Press. development of the first person and of literary Mitchell, Stephen A. 2003 “The fornaldarsǫgur and Nordic Balladry: The Sámsey Episode across forms in the medieval north, and will make a Genres”. In Fornaldarsagornas struktur och solid contribution to the field of medieval ideologi. Ed. Ármann Jakobsson, Annette Lassen & vernacular literature. Most immediately of Agneta Ney. Uppsala: Uppsala Universitet. Pp. interest to scholars of Germanic literature and 245–256. philology, this culminating work will also be Solberg, Olav. 2008. “The Scandinavian Medieval Ballad: From Oral Tradition to Written Texts and of use to historians, since such sources are Back Again”. In Oral Art Forms and their Passage also considered historical, and to scholars into Writing. Ed. Jonas Wellendorf & Else Mundal. studying anthropology and culture in terms of Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press. Pp. 121– the areal spread and use of narratives. 133.

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CALLS FOR PAPERS

Austmarr IV – The Plurality of Religions and Religious Change around the Baltic Sea, 500–1300: Methodological Challenges of Multidisciplinary Data 4th–5th December 2014, Sundsvall, Sweden

The Austmarr Network is an international, studies and rapid developments in population interdisciplinary network of scholars genetics are providing new data on migrations investigating historical and prehistoric and prehistoric language shifts. It is high time contacts among peoples in the circum-Baltic to revisit the Baltic region in an integrated region. We aim to reconstruct the and systematic way. development of the Baltic Sea region, viewed Each year since 2011, the Austmarr as a trans-ethnic cultural area that played a Network has organized a multidisciplinary central role in the emergence of modern symposium. These symposia have targeted Germanic, Slavic, Finnic and Sámi different topics and themes relevant to ethnicities. We will focus on the pre- understanding the dynamic history of cultures Hanseatic period, up to the High Middle in the Baltic Sea region, and how research on Ages. the Baltic Sea region may inform approaches The Baltic region has been populated by to historical investigation of cultures humans since the end of the last Ice Age, ca. elsewhere in the world. The circum-Baltic 10,000 years ago. In modern times, the Baltic region, with its rich (pre)history involving is bounded by the states Denmark, Sweden, several well-studied groups with Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Russia, comparatively deep historical records, Poland and Germany. Both Finno-Ugric provides a robust case study for developing languages and the Germanic, Baltic and methods that can be applied to other cases of Slavic branches of the Indo-European family interdisciplinary cultural reconstruction. are well represented. Other languages, such as We are now organizing our fourth event at Romani and Classical written languages, have Mid Sweden University in Sundsvall, also had a presence in the region. Areal Sweden. The thematic topic is the multiplicity features in the languages, pre-Christian of religions that existed and interacted within religions and folkloric traditions of the Baltic and across cultures in this part of the world region have long been recognized, and the with a methodological focus. History, material cultures also show commonalities of archaeology, folklore, philology, comparative many types and ages. The directions of religion, historical linguistics, onomastics and influence are complex and in many cases population genetics all share an interest in indeterminate. Whereas the Mediterranean reconstructing the human past, but the has long been recognized as a mare nostrum methods employed in these different of multicultural, multilingual contacts for disciplines lead to divergent pictures of the southern Europe, we turn attention to the history of the region. Attempting to relate the Baltic Sea as the mare nostrum of the north. types of sources of even two of these Understandings of the ways in which disciplines poses tremendous methodological languages and populations (separately) move difficulties. We are therefore inviting scholars and how ethnic groups form and recombine of all disciplines to bring their own are rapidly evolving. The assumption of stable perspectives and the perspectives of their language areas and the association between disciplines to engage in discussion on this aspects of material culture (e.g. pottery styles) common problem in order to nurture shared and language groups or populations has been understandings and produce more knowledge questioned. Improved methods in place-name

93 than the perspective of any one discipline  How to assess and interpret impacts of could do alone. cross-linguistic and cross-cultural contacts Whereas many events are organized to on religion and mythology allow researchers to present their own work  How to distinguish variation in the outcomes with little time for discussion, we have of practices reflected in the archaeological adapted the seminar model of the Viking Age record from variation in religion in Finland project in order to foster discussion  How to relate ‘religion’ to language, ethnicity and to archaeological cultures and intellectual exchange across the where the language spoken may be uncertain perspectives of different disciplines: each  How to relate (Christian) medieval written paper will be allowed 30 minutes for sources from Iceland to (vernacular) presentation followed by 30 minutes for Germanic or other cultures in the Baltic Sea discussion. We therefore invite scholars of all region disciplines to propose papers on themes such  How to relate folklore from the 19th and 20th as the following: centuries to cultures and cultural practices in the Iron Age  Distinguishing ‘variance’ from ‘difference’ in religion and religious practices If you are interested in presenting a paper in  How different categories of source materials this venue or otherwise attending the event to may reflect different types of information or participate in discussion, please send a different aspects of religion proposal of up to 500 words to Maths Bertell  Overcoming problematics of variation in at [email protected] by Monday, 15th religion or mythology according to cultural September 2014. practice within a community We look forward to seeing you in Sundsvall!

Mytologia ja runous – Mythology and Poetry A Special Issue of Elore (May 2015)

The intersection of vernacular mythology and nexus for discussion of mythology and oral oral poetry is a rich and fascinating locus for poetry and questions of their relationships in investigation. The history of research in practice, synchronically, diachronically and in different disciplines has tremendously reception. We therefore invite contributions advanced our understandings in many areas, on any of the following or related themes: such as how these phenomena interrelate and are interconnected in different cultural Synchronic perspectives practices; how they function in meaning  Formal connections between mythology and generation and power relations; how their poetry in synchronic practice, in cultural interfaces adapt and transform over time; and competence or in cultural perceptions of how they have been taken up and manipulated empirical and social realities by our own cultures, especially since the era  Traditional referentiality and intertextuality of Romanticism. At the same time, both in synchronic use or contemporary ‘mythic mythology and oral poetry have also been discourse’ displaced from their earlier centrality and  The relationship between oral-poetic or prestige status in research, although that status ethnopoetic genres and the transmission and remains inevitably in the background of internalization of mythology and mythic discussions today. This displacement has also knowledge led the diversity of discussions to be scattered  The relationship between oral poetry and ‘reality orientation’ in ritual practice across different fields without necessarily  The role of poetry as a verbal component in opening dialogue with one another. We are performance practices for interacting with therefore organizing a special issue of the the unseen world open-access electronic journal Elore  Local and regional co-variation of (http://www.elore.fi/ elore/in-english/) as a mythology and poetry or “dialects of

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mythology” (Anna-Leena Siikala, Itämeren- of research in different disciplines and suomalisten mytologia, Helsinki, 2012) national scholarships  Co-variation of mythology and genre of oral  How or whether popular culture (e.g. The poetry or cultural practice within a community Lord of the Rings movies or lyrics of Finnish and Scandinavian black metal music) Diachronic perspectives impacts attention to and research on traditional mythological poetry and in what  How institutionalized social roles and ways cultural practices affect diachronic variation  How academic research on mythology and in the transmission of mythology, poems or mythological poetry does or does not feed genres back into other areas of culture (popular  The longue durée of mythology and oral- entertainment, alternative religions, etc.) and poetic systems and their changing whether this is changing in the wake of the intersections with one another internet and social media  What happens to poetry linked to vernacular mythology in the wake of religious changes We invite proposals for papers that address such as Christianization these topics in different cultures, cultural  The historical stratification of mythology, traditions and across traditions. Contributions mythic images and symbols and how these may be empirically based or oriented to function and vary synchronically within a theoretical discussions and methodology. tradition of oral-poetry They may be proposed either as a research  The development of the lexicon and diction article, which will be subject to peer-review, of an oral-poetic register in relation to or as a research report*. historical interfaces with mythologies and The volume Mytologia ja runous ideologies [‘Mythology and Poetry’] is organized by the  The relationship of diachronic processes to variation between dialects of mythology Academy of Finland research project “Oral and/or to variation in mythology by genre or Poetry, Mythic Knowledge and Vernacular cultural practice Imagination: Interfaces of Individual  The role of cross-cultural or cross- Expression and Collective Traditions in Pre- community contacts in the development of Modern Northeast Europe”. The special issue the use or interface of mythology and oral will be in the Finnish language, edited by poetry Karina Lukin, Frog and Eila Stepanova (University of Helsinki). For contributors Romantic and current reception and weak in Finnish, the editors can recommend reinvention competent translators and will also check that  Traditional mythology and oral poetry in the translations accurately reflect the author’s discourse of Romanticism and its original language text (if in English, Swedish, objectification as heritage Russian or German).  Etic uses of mythological poetry as If you are interested in contributing an resources for nation-building, constructing article or research report to Mytologia ja ethnic identities or ideologies and/or for runous, please submit an abstract of up to 500 social manipulation in political discourse words by 1st October 2014 to Petja Kauppi and advertising ([email protected]). Please include  Etic uses of mythological poetry in popular information about your affiliation, position entertainments, mass media and social media and contact information with the abstract.  Adaptations of traditional mythological The deadline for papers in languages other poetry and/or the (re)creation of modern than Finnish is 1st December 2014; the equivalents in revivalist movements th associated with particular genres (e.g. deadline for Finnish language papers is 15 laments, charms, prayers) or religions (neo- January 2015. Our timeline will be quite paganism, Wicca, Ásatrú) strict because the journal will be published in  How the construction of mythology and oral May 2015. poetry as research objects in the era of Romanticism and/or later nationalist and * A research report is shorter than an article and political discourses affected the development is not subject to peer review, although it will

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still be subject to Elore’s strict editorial recommended especially for thematic reviews process before being accepted for publication. and presentations of research still in progress. The format of a research report is

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