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Publications of the Milman Parry Collection of Oral Literature No. 3

OLd — COMParative PersPeCtives MythOLOgy— COMParative PersPeCtives

edited by Pernille hermann, stephen a. Mitchell, and Jens Peter schjødt with amber J. rose

Published by THE MILMAN PARRY COLLECTION OF ORAL LITERATURE

Distributed by HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, Massachusetts & London, 2017 Old —Comparative Perspectives Published by The Milman Parry Collection of Oral Literature, Harvard University Distributed by Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts & London, England Copyright © 2017 The Milman Parry Collection of Oral Literature All rights reserved

The Ilex Foundation (ilexfoundation.org) and the Center for Hellenic Studies (chs.harvard.edu) provided generous fnancial and production support for the publication of this book.

Editorial Team of the Milman Parry Collection Managing Editors: Stephen Mitchell and Gregory Nagy Executive Editors: Casey Dué and David Elmer

Production Team of the Center for Hellenic Studies Production Manager for Publications: Jill Curry Robbins Web Producer: Noel Spencer Cover Design: Joni Godlove Production: Kristin Murphy Romano

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Hermann, Pernille, editor. : Old Norse mythology--comparative perspectives / edited by Pernille Hermann, Stephen A. Mitchell, Jens Peter Schjødt, with Amber J. Rose. Description: Cambridge, MA : Milman Parry Collection of Oral Literature, 2017. | Series: Publications of the Milman Parry collection of oral literature ; no. 3 | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifers: LCCN 2017030125 | ISBN 9780674975699 (alk. paper) Subjects: LCSH: Mythology, Norse. | --Religion--History. Classifcation: LCC BL860 .O55 2017 | DDC 293/.13--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017030125 Table of Contents

Series Foreword ...... vii by David Elmer, Casey Dué, Gregory Nagy, and Stephen Mitchell

Foreword ...... ix by Joseph

Preface: Situating Old Norse Mythology in Comparative Contexts ...... xiii by Pernille Hermann, Stephen Mitchell, and Jens Peter Schjødt

Acknowledgements ...... xix

Part One. THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL COMPARISONS

JENS PETER SCHJØDT Pre-Christian Religions of the North and the Need for Comparativism: Refections on Why, How, and with What We Can Compare ...... 3 PERNILLE HERMANN Methodological Challenges to the Study of Old Norse : The Orality and Literacy Debate Reframed . . . 29 KATE HESLOP Framing the Hero: Medium and Metalepsis in Old Norse Heroic ...... 53 JONAS WELLENDORF The Æsir and Their Idols ...... 89

Part Two. LOCAL AND NEIGHBORING TRADITIONS

TERRY GUNNELL Blótgyðjur, Goðar, Mimi, , and Wagons: Oral Memories of the Religion(s) of the ...... 113 TORUN ZACHRISSON Volund Was Here: A Archaeologically Anchored in Age ...... 139 SUNDQVIST The , the Tree, and the Well: A Topos or Cosmic Symbolism at Cultic Sites in Pre-Christian ? ...... 163 THOMAS A. DUBOIS The Mythic : An Areal Perspective ...... 191 Comparing Balto-Finnic and Nordic Mythologies . . 223 Table of Contents

Part Three. GLOBAL TRADITIONS

RICHARD COLE Snorri and the Jews ...... 243 MATHIAS NORDVIG Creation from Fire in Snorri’s : The Tenets of a Vernacular Theory of Geothermal Activity in Old Norse Myth ...... 269 STEPHEN A. MITCHELL Óðinn, Charms, and Necromancy: Hávamál 157 in Its Nordic and European Contexts ...... 289 JOSEPH FALAKY NAGY Vermin Gone Bad in Medieval Scandinavian, Persian, and Irish Traditions ...... 323 EMILY LYLE and Iraj: Murdered and Avenged ...... 341 MICHAEL WITZEL in India, China—and Beyond ...... 363

Index ...... 381

vi Volund Was Here A Myth Archaeologically Anchored in Scania

Torun Zachrisson University

Abstract: A recently discovered object from the Viking Age shows a inged huan fgure. It has been interpreted as a representation of olund the sith and ore specifcall the version of the legend found in Þiðreks . The contet for the obect the center ppkra in Seden is copared ith the contet presented in Þiðreks saga. The article concludes that an audience in iking ge ppkra ould have felt at home with the winged and the version in Þiðreks saga, but less failiar ith the social setting for olund presented in Vǫlundarkviða that represents a setting that ould have been ore easil understood further north in id-Seden.

Introduction

rchaeologists do not alas fnd it eas to discuss ths hen e do it is usuall based on pictorial evidence such as rune stones and picture stones. In the orld of the fro the late iking ge (ca. 10001100 CE) in present- da Seden for instance e eet rr fshing for the on the ltuna-stone in ppland ( 1161)1 and Sigurðr the slayer on the runic rock carving at asund and on the k-stone in Sderanland (S 101 and 327) and on other rune stones fro northern ppland and strikland: Drvle ( 1163) ittinge ( 1175) sterfrnebo (s 2) rsunda (s 9) and Ockelbo

1 Modern naes are used after aulkes translation of the and Carolne Larringtons translation of the . hen referring to Old Icelandic Vǫlundr Lo eran Welent, High German Wieland Old Noregian Velent the odern English for olund is used for all of the (the dierent naes are discussed in Nedoa 2006 Insle 2006 Marold 2012: 236). Torun Zachrisson

(s 19). iarr ith his thick shoe is depicted on the rune stone fro Ledberg in stergtland (g 181) and on the sterlung stone fro Sderanland e see unnar in the snake pit (S 40).2 The otlandic picture stones are faous for their rich pictorial orld here aong others e eet inn ounted on on stone I fro Tngvide in lskog (110 Lindvist 19411942: fg. 137) and olund in his birds guise on stone III fro rdre (Lindvist 19411942: fg. 139). arious archaeological obects have also been interpreted as depicting gods ho have either been identifed b their attributes or through a certain scene central to a th. gold fro ca. 500 CE discovered at Trollhttan stergtland Seden shos Tr putting his hand in the olf enrirs outh (berg 1942 Oenstierna 1956 boe and llstr 2013: 155) and another depicts the scene here Baldr is being killed b the tig of istletoe (Hauck 1970: 184). inn has been identifed on the plates fro the ets in the boat burials at endel (Stolpe and rne 1912: pl. 5 6) and on the plates used for producing this tpe of helet fro the late sith and seventh centuries at Torslunda on (rrhenius and rei 1992). The ost renoned helet ith fgural plates of this tpe as discovered in the boat burial fro East nglia. That helet alludes to inn: it as deliberatel constructed so that one eebro had gold foils behind the red garnets hich ade the bro reect the light and glow, while the other brow, without gold foil, remained dark, giving the ipression of a one-eed (cf. Price and Mortier 2014). The iking ge pendant fro ska in stergtland that shos a pregnant fe ith rich dress and eelr has been interpreted as rea ith her neck- lace Brsingaen (rrhenius 1969) hereas the ithphallic brone statuette fro Lunda in Sderanland has been interpreted as the god of fertilit rer (Salin 1913). lthough these identifcations have engendered discussion and critiue (e.g. Price 2006) the are accepted b ost scholars. s a hole ost of the aterial representations of divine fgures that appear during the late Iron ge (5501050 CE) can be identifed fro Old Norse ritten sources but this is seldo the case for representations dated earlier than that (ndrn 2014: 187). In this article I ill discuss a recentl discovered obect that shos a inged huan fgure. It has been interpreted as a representation of olund the sith and ore specifcall the version of the legend found in Þiðreks saga. I ill copare the contetppkra Seden here the obect as discovered ith the contet presented in Þiðreks saga. M conclusion is that an audience in iking ge ppkra ould have felt at hoe ith the inged an and the version in Þiðreks saga, whereas for an audience further north in Scandinavia,

2 or the identifcation of the rune stones entioned above see Sanordisk runtetdatabas.

140 Volund Was Here such as id-Seden forer Sv the social setting for olund presented in Vǫlundarkviða ould have been ore failiar.

The object

In Septeber 2011 a highl interesting obect turned up during the research ecavation of an Iron ge settleent in ppkra in southernost Seden. The fnd and the obect ere described and analed b Michaela Helbrecht in an article in the antiuarian ournal Fornvnnen (2012). The obect is 7.5 centie- ters long 4.5 centieters ide and eighs 52.6 gras. It is a piece of openork in high relief ade out of a gilded copper allo. Three iron rivets on the back- side show that it was going to be mounted onto something, but since the object shos no signs of ear e can conclude that this never happened. It is gilded on all sides including the reverse hich is unusual and it is thus a costl piece of ork. It is slightl bent in the iddle and it has been suggested that it ight be a scabbard-chape or -ftting (Helbrecht 2012: 171). This hoever sees unlikel since it is too heav for that. The obect is shon in birds ee vie: e see a huan intertined ith a pair of ingsa i of a huan bod and a ing device. It portras a inged an dressed in aror and boots bearded and possibl earing a helet. His

Figure 1. The mount from Uppåkra, . Photo by Bengt Almgren, Lund University Historical Museum.

141 Torun Zachrisson arms are connected to the wings and the feathered tail through a shield-like dotted structure in the iddle. This tpe of ring-chain otif is coon in the Borre stle (ilson 1995: 8889) therefore the obect likel dates to the id- iking ge 9501000 CE (Helbrecht 2012: 175). The ring chain has b soe scholars been associated ith sbolical binding and border-crossing (Doei Lundborg 2006 Oerhl 2011 Helbrecht 2011: 13438). lread during the feldork the ale fgure on the obect as identifed as olund (after an idea b Iohannes Miaris Sundberg and Bengt Sderberg see Helbrecht 2012) the legendar aster sith ho as captured b a king and hastrung to prevent hi fro eeing. Thereafter olund had to ake eelr for the kings fail. But he avenged hiself b killing the kings to sons and aking drinking bols ith fttings out of their skulls. olund also violated the kings daughter and left her pregnant. Then he anaged to ee fro captivit. olunds stor is told in the eddic poe Vǫlundarkviða and in Þiðreks saga af Bern here he is called elent. In other narrative sources knon fro Old Norse and estern European tets olund is also alluded to as a aster sith (Nedoa 1988: 4043 see also Nedoa 2006: 60818 Insle 2006). Not ever inged fgure ith a huan head ust be identifed as olund as and gods a appear in a birds guise. But this obect is surel eant to depict olund. It refers to the version of the th here olund/elent is said to escape b using a ing device ade of birds feathers and thus illustrates perfectl the passage in Þiðreks saga: nv e ec fvgl oc nv e ec ar (Þiðreks saga ch. 133) (no I a bird and no I a an).3 urtherore there are droplets of blood on the fgures left hand/ing (igure 2) droplets that are copletel issing on the right ing here there is onl a double line (Helbrecht 2012: 176) thus illustrating the saga alost as if it ere a cartoon. In the saga elent/ olund sas to his brother Egill: oc neir hann ic til at skiota at er. a hf v vndir vinstrv hond er ar hevi ec bvndit vndir eina blaro ar er i blo svna nivngs konongs (Þiðreks saga ch. 132) (and if he forces ou to shoot at e then hit under left ar here I have bound a bladder ith the blood of ing Niungrs sons). So egill leggr or astreng oc sktr vndir hond velent hina vinstri oc fellr nv blo a ior (Þiðreks saga ch. 135) ( places an arro on the bostring and shoots under elent/olunds left ar and blood falls to the ground). The inged an fro ppkra indicates that the version of the legend known from Þiðreks saga as knon in Scania in the late tenth centur.

3 Translations are on unless otherise indicated.

142 Volund Was Here

Figure 2. The mount from Uppåkra. Detail of the left wing, with the droplets of blood. Photo by Bengt Almgren, Lund University Historical Museum.

The context

The obect as found in ppkra in Scania hich during the iking ge as a part of Denark. ppkra is one of the nodal points of southern Scandinavia being a dense settleent of long tradition a so-called central place cople ith roots that date to 100 BCE. The site has been subect to considerable etal detecting as ell as geophsical surveing and archaeological ecavation the results of hich indicate that the hole settleent area covered soe 40 hect- ares. The core of the settleent has been identifed south of the parish church at Stora ppkra and here an ecellentl preserved building dating to ca. 2001000 CE has been ecavated. Traces of large roof pillars indicate that it had been a ver tall house. large door ring found at the southestern entrance suggests that this as the ain gate. The house had been rebuilt on the sae spot seven ties. Inside goldfoil fgures (guldgubbar) ere found as ell as to special obects used in cereonial drinking a uniue beaker ith gilded ornaented panels (Hrdh 2004) and a blue glass vessel (Sternvist 2004). These obects date to the (400550 CE) but had been depos- ited in a iking ge oor-level thus presuabl having been used for several hundred ears before being rituall buried. This building has been interpreted as a cult house (Larsson and Lenntorp 2004). That specifc ritual houses ere constructed must have been the result of interactions with the late Roman orld: the Christianiation of the oan and Bantine epire in the fourth and ffth centuries eant that rituals oved fro the open air and altars net to

143 Torun Zachrisson

Figure 3. Uppåkra in Scania, Sweden. Excavation trenches and the cult house (F) marked south of the present Stora Uppåkra church (E); grave mounds Storehög (A), Lillehög (B), and two destroyed grave mounds (c, D). Map after Larsson and Söderberg 2012: 7. teples into the interior of buildings (ndrn 2004: 12 2007: 13031). The cult house in ppkra has been perceived as an echo of an earl Christian church here a oan/earl Christian odel as reinterpreted and creativel trans- fored in Scandinavia (ndrn 2007: 131). Outside and around the cereonial building there ere substantial deposits of anial bones ostl of eat fro cattle cut into portion-sied pieces inter- preted as traces of large feasts for an people (Magnell 2011). Nuerous obects located in the surrounding courtard are believed to have been rituall deposited (Larsson and Sderberg 2013: 239). signifcant nuber of the are eapons: 300 and lances ostl placed north of the house (Helgesson 2004).

Figure 4. Reconstruction of the cult building. Drawing by Loïc Lecareux, Larsson and Sdererg : , g. .

144 Volund Was Here

Close b large residence halls ere found. These are at least as old as the cult house thus frst built in the third centur or soehat earlier. Northest of the cult house a house () had burnt don in the 400s ith three persons inside. fterards the reains of the burnt hall ere evened out. pproiatel a hundred ears later to gold and a gold pendant half of a collier ere spread out over the area on top of here the reains of the dead persons la in the forer house. The area continued to be used for the sae tpe of activities as the area around the cult house and was covered with large numbers of anial bones. There ere also un-created bod parts fro si huans aongst the parts of a skull that had been hit b a severe but not fatal blo before the individual fnall et his or her (Larsson and Sderberg 2012: 10 2013: 240). Southest of the cult house there as a residence hall that had stood on the sae spot fro the ffth through the tenth centuries. It had been repeatedl burnt don during the period 400800 CE and rebuilt three ties (B C D). inds of huan bones sho that here too there ere burnt huans inside. ong the bod parts as the shoulder blade of a oung person ho had been run through fro behind b a (Larsson and Sderberg 2013: 242). The olund-obect as found in the top laer of fre-cracked stones b the gable of the oungest hall (D) here it had been deliberatel deposited. ire- cracked stones are associated ith late Iron ge elite settleents and have been related to preparation of large aounts of eat in cooking pits and the process of breing ale (Sderberg 2005: 26779 465).

Figure 5. Excavated buildings (house A, halls B–D) west of the cult building. Illustration Henri Pihl. After Larsson : .

Torun Zachrisson

Figure . The Viing Age hall D and the layer of re-craced stones at the gale end of the uilding, where the Volund-oject, mared with an , was found. Illustration by Birgitta Piltz Williams. After Larsson and Söderberg 2012: 11.

rands Herschend has suggested that the repeated destruction of the hall as a recurrent thee hen rivals of the elite struggled for poer in the Iron ge (Herschend 1996: 35). It is peculiar hoever that the cult house had no traces of fre hatsoever although it stood less than 10 eters aa fro the residence hall and becae even closer as the halls ere enlarged over tie. This shos that special respect ust have been paid to this building. The ecava- tors cautiousl interpret this as if the hall-burning as ore likel the result of internal feuds rather than caused b an eternal ene (Larsson and Sderberg 2013: 246). Considering ho closel the buildings ere placed the fres ust have been ver controlled. lthough the cult house never caught fre it never- theless as rebuilt on eactl the sae spot perhaps as an as seven ties: the postholes ere reused and the gold-foil fgures fro the forer house ere for instance pushed don into the post-holes. This suggests that the repeated reneal of the cult house constituted ritual action. The ecavated halls in Scandinavia sho that halls ere erected on eactl the sae spot as the one here the earlier hall had stood the space for the high seat and hearths being reused. This has been interpreted as a a of asking changes and ephasiing continuit (Hllans Stenhol 2012: 184). t ppkra continuit as indeed ephasied but h the repeated reneals of the cult house Old Norse ritten sources sho that rulers plaed central roles in public cult perforances. The had iportant ritual functions especiall in sacrifcial rituals and the served as guardians of the sacred places (Sundvist 2002 2003 2007). In the research on the biographies of longhouses

Volund Was Here fro the Iron ge an scholars agree that a ne longhouse as constructed hen a ne household as created (erritsen 1999). Considering this it would seem logical that if the cult house had been rebuilt in accordance with the construction of a ne residence hall presuabl these re-buildings can be euated ith the establishent of ne ruling failies. This eans that a new ruling family used what was structurally the same ritual indoor arena for its Old Norse teple rebuilt on the sae spot ith the sae placeent of entrances hearth and high seat but as able to put its on ark on the deco- ration of the teple. rchaeologist N Brn ustafsson has suggested that the inged an- obect could be a nasal for a helet (ustafsson 2015). This ould then have been part of a parade helet ith ornaents. s a nasal the inged an ould replace for eaple the bird on the helet fro the boat grave endel I or the an on the helet fro the boat grave endel I (Lindvist 1925: 191 193 Stolpe and rne 1912: I). Man of the huan beings on such helet plates have been interpreted as inn a priar ar god. Norall this helet tpe belongs to the Merovingian period (ca. 550750 CE Lindvist 1925). Helets dating to the iking ge have rarel been found. conical tpe of helet ithout ornaents is hoever knon fro a burial in erundbu in Nora and this tpe is often referred to (rieg 1947) being the sae sort of helet depicted on the Baeu tapestr. pair of helet eebros ith late iking ge ornaents has been found on otland. Together these fnds serve to indicate that the tradi- tional tpe of parade helet ith fgural panels as still in use in the iking ge (Lindvist 1925: 194 r frande salingar 1907: 208).4 Parade helmets ere used in rituals in ppkra. gilded eebro and the to gilded boars parts of a Merovingian helet fro the late ffth or earl sith centur ere depos- ited and placed south of the cult house (cf. L. Larsson 2007: 14). The inged an-obect as placed ust south of and outside the gable in the central courtard of ppkra hich as e have seen as a highl ritual- ied area ith artial aspects. nfnished precious obects that are rituall deposited such as the one in uestion have soeties been interpreted as part of siths hoards (cf. ristoersen 2012). t least b the Merovingian period brone castersand thus sithssee to have been peranentl present in ppkra (resten et al. 2001: 16364 Larsson and Lenntorp 2004: 7 18 31

4 Stra fnd fro Lokrue otlands fornsal B 1683 Thunark-Nln 2006: 317 see also Sune Lindvist ho thinks that it as iported fro the Continent during the Merovingian period (Lindvist 1925: 19394) hile Lena Thunark-Nln shos that it is clearl fro the iking ge. This tpe of ornaent also occurs on the Noregian sords of Petersens tpe S as Thunark-Nln notes (2006: 317). It is a sord tpe that as introduced fro the Continent in the tenth centur and as iitated in Nora ( 2004: 127).

147 Torun Zachrisson

boe 2012: 129). Crucibles and slag ere found inside the cult house along ith traces of gold fro the anufacturing of gold-foil fgures all dating fro the Merovingian period. Specialied craft of this tpe reuires tradition and specifc knoledge (Caller 2002). ppkra and Helg the island in Lake Mlaren in id-Seden ere the onl sites in odern Seden here siths ere present on a peranent basis during the Iron ge. In large peranent orkshops siths see to have practiced an crafts: goldsithing casting of dierent etals orking rought iron and producing eapons. These ork- shops ere linked to aor political and econoic centers (La 2012: 143f.). ppkra is rich in fnds. ro the second centur onards the obects and buildings sho etensive contacts ith the orld outside: dierent regions in northern Europe the oan Epire the hein region the Near East Eastern Europe the Balkans northern Ital the rab orld and the British Isles (Larsson and Sderberg 2012: 28). hether ppkra as a seat for a arlord or a king e do not kno. hat e do kno is that the histor of ppkra can be connected ith the old ton of Lund established ca. 980 CE (Hrdh and Larsson 2007 Hrdh 2010).

Volund/Velent in Þiðreks saga

The inged-an obect fro ppkra accords ell ith the version of the th recorded in Þiðreks saga (ch. 73133) as e have alread seen. In the saga elent as Volund is called now, is said to be the son of a king from Sioland Sea-Land ho is also a (risi). His other is said to be one of the sea-aidens (sioko- nonar) (Þiðreks saga ch. 84 ch. 57). elent sets o to the court of the utish king Niungr to becoe his folloer. elent is regarded as a hero but presented as being dangerous and poerfula liinal person. He had developed his sithing skills b being frst taught b the sith Mir for three inters in the land of the , then by being a trainee of the dwarfs in the mountains across the sea. Later on he is captured b king Niungr ade lae and forced to ork at the roal court. elent takes revenge b luring the kings to sons to the forge here he urders the. He hides the corpses in the pit under the bellos. ith the help of a drink he then rapes the kings daughter ipregnating her before declaring to the king hat he had done. inall elent ees ith the help of a ing device ade of birds ings (Þiðreks saga ch. 73136). The saga adds that elents brother Egill helps in the ight (cf. Marold 1996). Þiðreks saga dates to the iddle of the thirteenth centur (Nedoa 2006: 615) and is a Noregian copilation of heroic saga aterials that likel have a Continental background (von See et al. 2000: 88 Nedoa 2006: 609 Insle 2006: 621 Marold 2012: 235). elent steriousl escapes ith the help of a

148 Volund Was Here mechanical device called fygil “wing” or faðrhamr feather-guise (Þiðreks saga ch. 130 Nedoa 2006: 615). This probabl shos inuences fro the antiue Ddalus-th in hich the reek aster sith Ddalus and his son Icarus escape fro iprisonent b fashioning ings (Marold 2012: 235). elents nuinosit has its roots in the Otherorld. He is the ospring of a giant of roal lineage and a sea-aiden. But he is placed in a roal court in the Danish real. The legend ust have been knon in ppkra in the late tenth centur. People there who saw the object and listened to the myth were familiar with ruling failies in a Danish real and the skills of aster-siths and ight have been able to iagine one of the constructing a ing device.

The Social and geographical Setting in Vǫlundarkviða

In the other ain source for the ththe eddic poe Vǫlundarkviða possibl dating to the ninth or tenth centur (Nedoa 2006: 613)the aster-sith olund is set in another tpe of social environent that ould not have been at all as failiar to the ppkra audience. In the poe olund is described ith all the ethnic arkers of a Si person (faous eapon sith hunter eating bear eat skiing living in the oods foretelling eather) perhaps soe of these traits ere also the arkers of a high-born Si of roal descent. In Vǫlundarkviða Hliandi lundr / hf at lopti (Vǫlundarkviða st. 29 (cf. st. 38)) (Laughing lundr rose into the air) (Vǫlundarkviða pp. 106 108) but the poe does not describe how he rises (Nedoa 1988: 155 2006: 613 von See et al. 2000: 23036 Marold 2012: 235). or an audience in the late Iron ge in northern Scandinavian such a description ould not have been necessar. ising into the air ould be logicalolund as shape-shiftingand e a onder hether the laughing plaed a part in his transforation. The setting in Vǫlundarkviða sketches a tpe of social landscape that ould have been relevant and obvious in for eaple the seventh eighth and ninth centuries in the halls of the nglingar at the court in Old ppsala but it ould also have been relevant for an audience in Nora here the sae tpe of close links eisted beteen parts of Norvegr and the kingdos of the Si. pparentl the Si brothers in Vǫlundarkviða live close by the king of Sv ust as the Si did during the Iron ge (I. achrisson 1997 T. achrisson 2009: 6970 86 94). The archaeological aterial fro 5501000 CE in id-Seden shos that Si obects are found in the core area of Sv such as the Si boat parts on the sacrifcial site at ickebasta bog in lsike (. Larsson 2007: 240). t Tuna close b a an as buried in a boat. He had had a Si father and a Nordic other i.e. a oan fro the South as has been concluded fro DN analsis (therstr 2001: 26). urtherore the

149 Torun Zachrisson dietar patterns deduced fro skeletal aterial fro the sae ceeter indi- cate consuption of food rich in seleniu possibl reindeer eat (Lidn and Nelson 1994: 19).5 Sámi birch-bark sails used as tent covers have been found in the faous boat-graves of endel II and II and alsgrde 6 and 8 in ppland Seden (ridsson 1942 1954 I. achrisson 1997: 194 . Larsson 2007: 95) and in the boat-grave Tuna 75 in Badelunda stanland a oan as buried in a boat that is sen together ith a techniue tpical of the Si ith the shape and construction of the boat being tpical of the Si as ell (Nln and Schnbeck 1994). Probabl another fve boats fro the ceeter ere of the sae tpe (. Larsson 2007: 124). In iking ge Scandinavia the Si ere renoned as epert siths. Earl iron technolog as characteried b iron production in the areas of the Si (I. achrisson 2006) and ould thus be ore in line ith olunds sith in the ooded areas net to Sv. In Norse tholog Ldia Carstens refer- ring to Vǫluspá st. 7 and st. 14 states that sithies ere located close to the halls and teples of the gods in close proiit to the poer and not in a reote forest (Carstens 2012: 246). In the sith centur ordanes in Getica ( 1915: 56) and Procopius in De Bello Gothico book I ch. v call the Si skridfenni, scrithiphini (Deing 1979) a ter that alludes to their habit of skiing (skriða á skidum see I. achrisson 1997: 158). ere produced b Si and predoinantl used b the before the nineteenth centur skis are onl found in the north of the Nordic coun- tries (I. achrisson 1997: 21516). It is an open uestion but uite probable that the gyrfalcons that were found in the cremation graves from the seventh and eighth centuries in rberg in Huddinge parish Sderanland and Sderb in ark parish ppland as ell as in one of the faous boat graves in ppland (endel III) ere taedb the Sias chicks in the ountainous region in Northestern Seden and traded don to Sv (cf. Ericson and Trberg 2004: 113 T. achrisson 2010). ccording to ritten sources the kings of Sv interarried ith Si kings daughters. In the arriages of Drfa snodrift daughter of ing Snr sno to ing anlandi and that of Sklf daughter of king rosti

5 Tuna in lsike is a burial ground coprising telve boat graves and fve other graves that ere ecavated b Halar Stolpe and T. . rne (rne 1934 see also rvidsson 1999). These include telve iking boat burials to built over oen the rest over en. To chabers dated to 550600 CE ere graves that preceded the boat graves (rne 1934 Hulstr 2008: 11). One of the iking ge en (grave I) had had a ale ancestor ho as of Si descent hile his other as of Nordic descent (therstr 2001: 26). Therefore it is of great interest that the parts of the boat that ere found in the sacrifcial site the ickebasta bog on the grounds of the Tuna far ere of late Iron ge Si tpe (. Larsson 2007: 240). On their possible reindeer diets see also I. achrisson 2012.

Volund Was Here

frost to sburr hose sons are called sl and ndurr ( pole and ski) are described b (Ynglinga saga ch. 1314 19 see also Lnnroth 1986 I. achrisson 1997: 169 on the use of inn and inland for Si see ohansson 2: 352n100). Elsehere in Heimskringla, Snorri recounts the tale of the Noregian king Haraldr hrfagri (Harald airhair) and his betrothal to Snfrr snopeace the daughter of et another Si king (Heimskringla ch. 26). These tpes of legendar arriages a have added to the nuinosit of the future kings et to be born since their Si ives ere perceived as possessing unusual poers (Heimskringla ohansson 1: 312n14). olund in Vǫlundarkviða is the product of such a arriage in reverse. He is the son of a Si king ho arries a girl fro the south Hervr (interestingl the iking ge an in a boat grave in Tuna in lsike entioned above irrors this heritage). enerall e tend to think of the Si as living far up in the north. But future research a ell alter that picture. In the seventeenth centur the oodland Si (skogslappar) living in strikland ust north of pplandboth regions in forer Svhad their on naes for plants that do not gro north of the lies Norrlandicus the geographical/biological borderline that divides and Norrland (Lars-unnar Larsson niversit of ppsala eeritus pers. co. 2015). Mid-Seden and Old ppsala not onl sho contacts ith the regions to the North during the sae period the seventh to ninth centuries there ere also an other distant contacts. lost all the iported obects ere fro estern Europe. Soe tpes of obects stand out such as elephant ivor obects golden threads fro oven silk garents and ast beads hich probabl traveled fro the Bantine Epire via the nglo-Saon area or Merovingian rance (Lungkvist 2008 2009: 4447 2010). Helg in Mlaren as a peranent orkshop and there as also a center of artisanship at the roal anor in Old ppsala (Lungkvist et al. 2011: 57881). t such sites there ust have been close contacts beteen the ruler and his siths. Edith Marold points to the fact that olund is depicted in the Vǫlundarkviða as a creature fro the ilderness ho is captured and ho takes revenge. She copares the la ith structurall siilar tales and shos that it can be read as a stor circling around the thee of initiation (Marold 2012: 23739). olund is the mythical being that breaks into the of an old king and denies the continuation of the roal lineage b killing the ale ospring and violating the feale ospring (cf. Caller 2002: 357).6 In the other tales Marold notes that

6 ohan Caller discusses the olund th as a hole cobining details fro Vǫlundarkviða and Þiðreks saga hen discussing olunds revenge (hich leads to the donfall of the roal fail of Nidud and perhaps the doinion of the Narar). Caller stresses the didactic nature of the olund th in the treatent of skilled craftsen (Caller 2002: 35758).

Torun Zachrisson the creature from the wilderness returns after his revenge as the future ruler (2012: 23540). olund hoever does not guarantee the continuation of the roal line but rather its destruction.

Some other Representations of Volund

The olund th is presented in other pictorial sources. The earliest of those is a olund-fgure depicted on a gold solidus fro Scheindorf in East risia (igure 7). This coin had a solidus for eperor Theodosius II (r. 402450 CE) as a odel but is dated to 575650 CE. The read volundu in nglo-risian. The fgure is shon ith a bo and a pair of tongs as ell as a stick or perhaps an etra leg illustrating that he is lae (Oehrl 2012). The liping sith is as Edith Marold has shon a concept ith deep historical roots alread present in sia Minor and aong the Phoenicians in the reek god Hephaistos and an others places (Marold 1966: 480483). hether this can be understood to ean that siths ere recruited fro aong crippled persons or if it as a result of utilation to hinder a craftsan fro escaping ith valuables or if it perhaps had to do ith the dangerous substances and the conditions under hich the siths orked has been debated. But it could also be interpreted as a visible sign and conseuence of an initiation ritual (see overvie in Marold 1966: 480500 cf. Marold 2012: 237). More faous is the so-called ranks casket (also knon as the Cleront unic casket Becker 1973) a carved casket dated to the eight centur CE adorned ith nglo-Saon runes (igure 8). It as probabl ade in a Northubrian onastic contet. The casket speaks of itself in as being ade fro hronsban halebone fro a stranded hale. It cobines pictorial scenes

Figure 7. The solidus from Schweindorf. Photo: Hinrich Dirksen, ostfriesisches Landesmuseum Emden.

Volund Was Here

Figure 8. Front panel of casket, showing Volund in his smithy. After Stephens : .

fro the classical and Christian orlds: the adoration of the Magi the destruc- tion of Herods teple in erusale b the oan general Titus and the suck- ling of oulus and eus b the she-olf of oan tholog. urtherore there are three scenes fro eranic tradition ith accopaning rune-tets shoing olunds revenge his brother Egill defending hiself ith bo and arros and at last the suering of a oan called Hos (Becker 2012). These are aong the earliest scenes in Europe to have been articulated in this tpe of etended visual narrative and accopanied b a long tet in the vernacular (ebster 2012). s a hole the pictorial progra of the casket alludes to the perception or creation of a universal histor. On the front to the left e see the hastrung olund (knon in nglo-Saon tradition as land) in his sith receiving the daughter of ing Niungr (or Nihad as he is called in Old English sources). In one hand he holds a cup of hich he oers to her. Once she drinks it he ill be able to violate her (cf. Oehrl 2012: 284). olund has ust killed one of her brothers hose corpse is ling under the anvil. The bos head is still in the pair of tongs that olund holds in his other hand. olund having coitted infanticide can thus be regarded as a eranic euivalent to Herod urdering the ale children of Bethlehe. This panel is placed to the left hile the panel to the right shows the adoration of the holy child, the gift of the magi motif (cf. Staecker 2004: 4547). The lid shos the aster archer Egill hose nae is ritten in runes above he is olunds brother ho defends hiself against the attacking Niungr. Leslie ebster suggests that the casket as intended to contain a sacred tet a psalter and that it as ade for a eber of an nglo-Saon roal house (ebster 2012) hereas lfred Becker argues that the casket may have been a royal one, from which the king handed out gifts to his

Torun Zachrisson

Figure 9. Detail of the from Ardre VIII, . Photo courtesy of the .

copanions in the hall (Becker 1973 2012). Historian Barbara orke hoever thinks it can be copared ith the late antiue edding caskets. The oen in the carved pictures have a special position and this probabl reects the person ho ordered the casket (pers. co.). The ranks casket sees to refer to the sae olund tradition as the ppkra obect and Þiðreks saga. On the otlandic picture stone fro the church of rdre (rdre III) dated to the sae centur as the inged an fro ppkra that is the tenth (Ier 2001: 99 105) olund is depicted as a large bird escaping fro an opening in a turf-roofed sith (igure 9). The large bird above the sith has no anthro- poorphic traits. This can be interpreted as eaning that it illustrates a eta- orphosis of olund hiself because it provides no echanical eplanation as to ho olund rises into the air. The bodies of the princes can be seen in the deep pit under the bellos and thereunder probabl also the ke to a chest as argued b Louis Buisson and Sigund Oehrl (Buisson 1976: 76 Oehrl 2012: 285). It is not shon directl but the coposition indicates that the sith uite likel beheaded the bos b using the chest lid (von See et al. 2000: 213). This has been copared ith the lines in Vǫlundarkviða o til kisto krfo lucla /opin var ill er eir s (Vǫlundarkviða st. 24) (The cae to the chest

Volund Was Here deanded the kes the evil intention as patent hen the looked inside (Vǫlundarkviða p. 105)). It is possible that this picture stone shos a olund tradition siilar to that found in the eddic poe. In northern otland hoever the picture stone fro Stora Haars III in Lrbro dated to roughl the sae period (ninth centur Lindvist 19411942: II 87) shos an anthropoorphic bird in cobination ith a lad (Oerhl 2012: 298-300). It has been interpreted as inn stealing the ead of poetr (Lindvist 19411942) but coparisons ith other pictorial representations of olund sho that it probabl belongs to the siths stor instead (Oerhl 2012: 299). Could it ean that dierent versions of the olund-th ere told on otland in the earl iking ge Perhaps this is to go too far a coparison can be dran to the stone crosses and - fragents fro orkshire hich sho ust ho cople it can be to interpret the dierent sith-representations (Oehrl 2012: 29498).7 To su up: the ppkra ount fro late tenth-centur Seden perfectl illustrates a version of the myth of the master-smith Volund known from Þiðreks saga dated to id-thirteenth-centur . ppkra as an Iron ge central place of prie status as a site here rulers and siths et. The thee of succession of the leadership ust have been highl relevant and absolutel crucial for the rulers of ppkra. I argue here that the succession a have included the burning don of halls and rebuilding of the cult house. It is there- fore highl plausible that the courtard as an arena for inauguration rituals here a ne ruler as installed. The olund fgure could allude to the role of the sith as healer as forging creating huansa role that the sith had in initiation tales here he forged the initiate. It is an open uestion hether the sith also could have had such a role involving a ne ruler.8

Works cited

Primary Sources

Ágrip Ágrip af Noregs onunga Sögur. Ed. . Dahlerup. : 1880.

7 or a coprehensive account for all the olund representations see Oerhl 2012. 8 The saga of Harald Dofrafstri in Ágrip and in Halvdanar saga svarta (Heimskringla ch. 9) tells of a Si ho is skilled in agic and steals food fro ing Halfdan Svartis ule feast but gets caught and is held as a captive. He is freed b oung Haraldr hrfagri ho stas on ith the Si until his father dies. Haraldr then returns and takes over the kingdo (Marold 2012: 236). This fostering ight have had inuence on the ne ruler Haraldr and his nuinosit and contact ith the Otherorld.

Torun Zachrisson

Gylfaginning: see Prose Edda

e Bello Gothico

Translation Procopius. History of the wars. Book VI. Transl. Henr B. Deing. Cabridge M: 1979.

Getica

Translation The Gothic History of Jordanes. Transl. Charles Chr. Miero. Princeton: 2006.

Heimskringla Íslenzk fornrit 2628. 3 vols. Ed. Barni albarnarson. ekavik: 19411951.

Translations Heimskringla: History of the ings of . Transl. Lee M. Hollander. ustin: 1964. Into Sedish: Nordiska kungasagor. 3 vols. Transl. arl . ohansson. Stockhol: 1991.

Halvdanar saga svarta: see Heimskringla

nglinga saga: see Heimskringla

Poetic Edda Edda: Die Lieder des nebst verwandten Denkmlern. Ed. ustav Neckel and Hans uhn. 5th ed. Heidelberg: 1983.

Translation The Poetic Edda. Transl. Carolne Larrington. Oford orlds Classics. Oford: 1996.

Vǫlundarkviða: see Poetic Edda

Prose Edda

Translation Snorri Sturluson. Edda. Ed. and transl. nthon aulkes. London eront: 1995.

Samnordisk Runtextdatabas Online at http://.runforu.nordiska.uu.se/sanord/

Þiðreks saga af Bern iðreks saga af Bern. Ed. Henrik Bertelsen. Safund til dgivelse af ael Nordisk Litteratur 34. Copenhagen: 19051911.

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Translation The Saga of Thidrek of Bern. Transl. Edard . Haes. Ne ork: 1988.

Velents þáttr smiðs see Þiðreks saga

Vǫluspá: see Poetic Edda

Secondary Sources

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Index

[Note: Entries beginning with ‘Þ’ are grouped at the end of this index.]

Abbo of Fleury, 304 archetype, 5, 22 Adalvard the Younger (bishop of Ardeshir (Persian king), 330, 334, 337 Sigtuna), 167 Ariovistus (Germanic leader), 18 of Bremen, 128–130, 163–182 art, artist(s), 54, 63, 67, 70, 79, 262 Æsir (æsir), 42, 90, 102, 113–14, artifact(s), artifactual, 6, 40, 54–55, 68, 121–22, 124, 127–28, 130, 194, 179, 181, 217 196, 227, 229, 233, 243, 251–54, Asdiwal, myth of, 10 272, 291–92 Áslaug, 325, 331, 333, 337 Afghanistan, 364, 369 Assmann, Jan, 17, 79, 344 Albertus Magnus (fl. 1245), 245 Astaroð, 93 Alexander of Lamprecht der Pfaffe Atlakviða, 75 (ca. 1130), 256 Atlamál, 75 Alken Enge, , , 294 Auðr hin djúpúðga (Auðr the Deep- , 199–200, 226 Minded), 344–45 Alvíssmál, 74, 193–94, 215 Aurgelmir, 282–84 Alþing, 128 Australian aboriginals, myths of, 274 Analogy, 8, 70, 233, 269, 276, Austrfararvísur, 115 280–81, 284 Austric populations, 364, 372 Annales Regii, 271 avenger, 233, 341, 348, 349–50, anthropology, anthropologist(s), 352–53, 355–57 10, 30, 36; anthropological Avestan, 369 parallels, xvi axial age, 17; religions, 18 Antichrist, Der (1480), 262 Ælfric. See Marcarius and the anti-metalepsis, 67, 79, 81 Magicians, Saul and the Witch Jacob (Swedish king), 167 of Endor archaeology, archaeologist(s), 6, 8, Baldr/Balderus, 45, 140, 228, 229, 30, 95, 122, 129–30, 139–40, 233, 248, 250–51, 253, 276, 342, 143, 147, 149, 169, 172, 177–81, 347–54, 357, 215–16, 218, 226, 273–74, 280, , 291, 293, 298, 309, 289, 294, 302 349, 353 Index

Balkans, 148 Brunhilde (queen), 175 Barthólómeus saga postula, 93 bull, 121 Bellah, , 17–21 Bundahis (Pahlavi cosmological text), Bergbúa þáttr, 280 354–55 bergbúi ‘mountain-dweller’, 283 Byzantine Empire, 143, 151 , 283 Capitulatio de partibus Saxoniae , 347 (Ordinances concerning Saxony), Bible passages: I Chronicles, 168; 175 (Deutero-)Isaiah, 91; Exodus, 91; Celebremus karissimi, 305 Genesis, xiv, 194, 370; Jeremiah, central place(s), 126, 143, 151, 155, 91–92; Mark, 303; Matthew, 303, 178, 179 333; Psalms, 91–92; Romans, Ch’i (son of legendary first Hsia king), 245; I Samuel, 303; of 375 Solomon, 91 , 175; campaign of, “Biejjie-baernien såangoe Jeahnaj against the pagan , 176 eatnamisnie” (North Sámi charm(s), charm magic, 204, 208, ‘Beaivvi bártni soagnju 226–227, 289–290, 292–294, 299, Jiehtanasaid máilmmis’) (The 302, 308–9, 330, 336 Sons of the Sun in the Land of Charon’s obol, 289, 302, 305–6 the Giants), 207–8 China, 18, 271, 350, 364, 371, 372, “Biejjie-neijten sealadimmie” (North 374–376 Sámi ‘Beaivvi Niedda jápmin’) , 8, 90, 94, 99, 105, (The Death of the Daughter of 143, 217–218, 244, 264, 305 the Sun), 208 Chronica Slavorum of Helmold of birds, 64, 68–70, 142, 148, 205, 247; Bosau, 181 augural, 353 I Chronicles. See under Bible passages. bizarrerie (ativism reflecting older Cian, 326–328, 330, 334, 335–336 mythic layer), 364, 369 Clermont runic casket (also known as blót (), 93, 94, 98, 100–102, the Franks casket), 78, 152 117, 119–20, 122, 124, 128, 177, cnuimh (‘worm’ in Irish, variant of 246. See also sacrifice. cruimh), 326, 330 blótgyðjur ‘sacrifice priestess’, 117, 122 Commentariorum in Hiezechielem of St. blóttré ‘sacrificial tree’, 177 Jerome, 256, boar(s), 118, 147 communication, 29, 38, 40, 42, 115; bones, 144, 145, 149–50, 177, 293, 364, between ‘this’ world and the 366, 368, 371, 376 ‘other’ world(s), 11; oral, 42, 44; book-prose theory, 29, 31, 33, 35 strategies, 17; with the dead, x book-prose vs free-prose debate, comparativism(s), 4–5, 10, 14, 341; 31–46 icongraphic method of, 70; Borre style, 142 méthode comparative, vii; Mircea bracteate(s), 70, 71, 140, 145, 216 Eliade’s views on, 4–5; and struc- Boddason, 120, 232 tural models as heuristic tools bridal quest (motif R225), 203–5, 208 for reconstructing traditions, 4

382 Index comparison(s), 3–19, 23, 54, 78; of 169, 173, 175, 176, 178, 181–82; Baldr’s death and Iraj’s, 341–357; spring(s), 178; tree(s), 176–178; of Balto-Finnic poetry and West well(s), 178. See also ritual Germanic poetry, 225–226; of cultural diffusion, 199–200, 215; Finnic and Nordic mythology, memory, 53; studies, 30 192–219, 224–235; of Hawaiian dainas: Latvian, 204, 209–210, 212, 214 and Nordic mythology, 19–23; Dala-Guðbrandr, 95 of Ilmarinen and the Wayland Dante Alighieri (d. 1321), 245 tradition, 232; of Old Uppsala and De Bello Gothico () of West Slavic materials, 163–82; Procopius, 150 of pictorial representations of De Lapidibus (On Stones) of Marbod of Volund, 155; of Vanir gods to Rennes, 307 other gods, 115, 130; of volcanic dead, the, 14, 69, 144, 205, 234, 290, activity and Old Norse literature, 291, 293–294, 299–300, 303, 273–281; of ‘worms’, 334 305–310, 344, 345 composition-in-performance, 32 , 303–4 Conán (the son of the Liath Luachra), Decreta. See Conciliorum 326–329, 334–336 Oecumenicorum Decreta Conciliorum Oecumenicorum Decreta Dejbjerg, Jutland, Denmark, 125 (Decrees of the Ecumenical demon(s), 92–94, 97–98, 175, 275, 370 Councils), 244 demon-king, 350 Concilium Germanicarum, 175 Denmark, Danish, 60–61, 71, 78, Concilium Turonense, 175 90, 99, 116, 125, 129, 143, 149, contextualization of performance 167, 172, 181, 302, 304, 307, 330, practices, 36 332, 353 conversion. See Christianization Derrida, Jacques, 54 cosmic: birth, 348; egg, 371; elements, descent, 21, 149, 263, 337, 369 168; hall, 182; knowledge, 230; Descriptio insularum aquilonis model, 182; pillar, 176–178; refer- (Description of the Islands of ences, 167; symbolism, 168, 173, the North), Book 4 of Gesta 177, 180; travel, 204, 206; well, Hammaburgensis, 164 174 (Deutero-)Isaiah. See under Bible (s). See myth(s). passages cross(es), 66, 155, 193, 206, 213; devils. See demons Halton and Leeds, 69; diachronism, 342, 357; diachronic and Andreas, , 79, 81 synchronic approaches, 44–46 cult, cultic, 7, 94, 217–218; activities, dialogic poems, 34, 126 166; feasting, 169, 179; figures, Diarmaid, 324, 326–29, 334–36 89–90, 95, 97, 100–101, 103, 105; diegetic level, 79; extradiegetic functions, 172; hall(s), 172, 178; narrator, 71; extra- and intradi- houses (hof, hǫrgar), 143–148, 155, egetic , 67 177, 179, 182; image(s), 176; prac- Dievs (Latvian sky god), 210 tices, 91, 94, 102; site(s), 166–167, diffusion, 29, 199–200, 215, 218

383 Index

Dinkard (Pahlavi Zoroastran text), 354 ekphrasis, 40 Dioscuri (twin brothers of Greco- Eldgjá, 270 ), 215–16 Eliade, Mircea, 4–5, 9, 11, 23, 168 direct speech, 73–76 Elijah, 256 dísablót, 128 Ella (king of England), 333, 337 Dísarsalr, 128 Elucidarius, 256 discourse: as concept, 15, 23; reli- emergence myth. See under myth(s) gious, 6, 90, 94; meta-discourse, Enarrationes in Psalmos (Expositions on 54; Óðinn-discourse, 15–16; the Psalms) of St. Augustine, 246 textual discourse, 73; Þórr- Endor, witch of, 303 discourse, 15 Enlightenment, the, 91 Divina Commedi (Divine Comedy) of Enoch, 256 Dante Alighieri, 245 Enuma Elis (Babylonian creation draugadróttinn ‘Lord of Ghouls’, 292 myth), 371 drinking, ceremonial, 143, 171 epic(s): 200, 202, 228, 355; Estonian, dróttkvætt, 33, 280 199; Finnish, 199, 224–25; heroic, earth-egg creation myth. See under 79, 374; Indian, 374; Persian, 341, cosmic 345, 352, 355 (s), 254, 276 Epitome of Roman History of Florus, East , England, 140, 304 294n11 Ecclesia, 246 estate(s), royal. See central place(s) edda. See eddic poems and Snorra edda ethnopoetics, 34 eddic poems, 30, 31, 32–34, 40–41, , 246 73, 120, 122, 130, 215, 225–26; Everriculum fermenti veteris of Erik aesthetics of, 32; composition-in- Pontoppidan, 90 performance of, 32; dating of, 32; evolution of religion. See religion improvisation of, 33; medieval Exodus. See under Bible passages collection of (i.e., Codex Regius Eyjafjallajökull (volcano), 270 of the Elder edda, Poetic edda), , 118, 120, 292 33, 41, 44, 53–54, 69, 79, 118, 227, Eyvindr skáldaspillir Finnsson, 356 230, 234, 253, 255, 365, 367, 368; Fáfnir, 56, 64, 66–68 memorization of, 33; oral back- Fáfnismál, 127 ground of, 33; provenance of, 32. famine, 171, 271–72 See also of individual poems Feldber. See under sanctuary Egill (Volund’s brother), 142, 148, 153 Fenian cycle, 324 Egill Skalla-Grímsson, 227 Feraydun, 341, 346, 350–53, 354, 357 Egils saga Skalla-Grímssonar, 227 Ferdowsi, Abolqasem, 341 Egyptians, 18, 306; Egyptian art, Ferryman’s Fee, 290, 305–6, 308 frames on, 55; Egyptian litera- fettering, 230, 353–55; of and ture, 72 Zaddak, 353–55 (slain human heroes), 171 feud(s), 146, 348–50, 357 Eiríks saga rauða, 299 fian (band of heroes), 326, 328 Eiríksmál, 126 figurative interpretation, 245

384 Index

Finland, 151, 192, 199–200, 202–3, 205, Garz (temple site), 180 215, 223–27, 229–30, 232–35 , 296 Finnish Literature Society Geertz, Clifford, 10 (Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Geirrøðr, 231 Seura), 199 Genesis. See under Bible passages fire(s), 69, 73, 96, 99, 120, 126, 146, genetic comparativism. See compara- 172, 193–94, 230, 231, 254, tivism 269–72, 275–77, 280, 283–84, Genette, Gérard, 71–72 296–97, 328, 350, 365, 373 Gennep, Arnold van, 125 lnir 356 Geometric Period. See Greek folk songs, 192, 199–205, 209–12, 215, Geometric period 224–28, 230 geothermal activity, 269–70, 273–77, , 6, 30, 35–36, 217, 273 281, 284 folktale(s), 7, 231 Gerðr, 126–27, 356 Fourth Lateran Council, 244 of , frame: as ‘non-physical boundary’, 30, 45, 113, 127, 298, 302, 309, 54; as physical border (parergon), 323, 341 54, 58 gesta episcoporum (‘the deeds of frame narrative, 54; open, 56, 63; bishops’): genre of, 164 portal, 60–61; unframed, 58, 80 Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae Franks casket. See Clermont runic pontificum (History of the casket Archbishops of Hamburg- Frazer, Sir James George, 5, 23, 125 Bremen) of Adam of Bremen, Frederick II (emperor), 252 128, 163–173; Leiden manuscript free-prose theory, 29, 31, 33 (Cod. . Lat. 4º 123), 164. See Freyfaxi (horse in ), 117 also Adam of Bremen , 115, 118, 121, 122, 127, 140, gesture(s), 42; hand, 42–44; in Codex 298; as blótgyðja (sacrificial Upsaliensis, 43–44 priestess), 117, 122 Getica of Jordanes, 150 Freyr, 21, 94, 98, 115–27, 140, 165, 168, ghouls, 292–93 170, 177, 234–35, 356; Freyr kings , 277–78, 280, 365–66 as ‘peace kings’, 21; Freysgoðar Gísla saga Súrssonar, 34, 113, 116 (Hrafnkell Hallfreðarson; Þórðr Glaðsheimr, 170 Özurarson), 116 Glomac (possible sacrificial site), 181 , 122, 127, 347 goðar, 116–17; blótgoðar, 122 Frösön church, Jämtland (earlier Goðormr (god of the ), 94 called Hoffs kirkio), 177–78 Gospel of Nichodemus (apocryphal gallows, 295–97, 301; placement of, gospel), 248 296 Gotlandic picture stones. See under Ganander, Christfrid, 224, 230–32 and picture stones Gangleri (pseudonym for , Göttweiger Trojanerkrieg, Der, 263 Swedish king), 41–42, 253, 276 Grænlendinga saga, 299

385 Index

Gráinne (daughter of , the Hákonarmál, 126 high-king of ), 324, 326, Háleygjatal ofEvindr skldaspillir 329, 335 Finnsson, 356 (Sigurðr’s horse), 66, 68–69, 71 Hálfs saga ok Hálfsrekka, 296 Greco-Roman philosophical tradition, Hallbrn hali (poet) 300 91 Hallmundarkviða, 270, 273, 280–81, 283 Greek Geometric period (ca. 900–700 Hamðismál, 75 BCE), 56 Hár, 41–42, 232, 253, 276, 277 Gregory I (pope, also known as ‘the Haraldr hárfagri (king), 151 Great’), 175, 250–51 Haralds Biezais, 209, 211 Gregory IX (pope), 244 Harthgrepa, 298–99, 309 Grettis saga Ásmundarsonar, 298 Hatti texts, 375 Gríma, 331 haugbúi, haugbúar ‘mound-dweller(s)’, Grímnismál, 73, 117, 120, 126, 127, 297–98, 300–301, 309 170–71, 173, 197, 215, 281–82, Hauks þáttr Hábrókar, 125 297, 368 Hauksbók, 116 Grógaldr, 291, 298 Hávamál, 74, 174, 289, 291, 294–97, Groß Raden (possible sanctuary site), 299, 302, 303, 307–10 180 Hawaii, 19; traditional Hawaiian Gudme, Fyn, Denmark, 172 society, 19–22 Gudmund (Norwegian idol), 89–90, Hebrew Bible, 72, 370 104 Hegge, Norway: one-eyed figure from Guðrúnarhvǫt, 75–76 church in, 300 Guðrúnarkviða I, 69, 75 , 35, 226 guldgubber, 70 Heimskringla. See individual saga titles Gunnarr Gjúkason, 338; in the snake Hekla, 270–71, 279 pit, 140 Helgakviða Hjörvarðssonar, 118 Gunnarr helmingr, 98 Helgakviða Hundingsbana I, 74, 75 Gunnars þáttr helmings, 21, 115, 117, Helgö, Lake Mälaren, Sweden, 148, 126, 127 151, 172, 178 Guta saga, 124 Helmold of Bosau (author of Chronica Gutzkow (temple site), 180 Slavorum), 180–81 Gylfaginning, 42, 102, 103, 127, 150, Hephaistos (Greek god), 152 170–71, 173, 194, 197, 232, 234, Herder, Johann Gottfried von, 199, 281–82, 284, 291, 341 224 Hadingus, 15–16, 298 Hermóðr, 248 Haftvd 32930 334 33637 Hermóðr’s Helreið, 248 hagiographic texts, 92, 94–95, 101 hero, 54, 67, 69, 202–5, 209, 227, 301, Haithabu (also ), 18 324–26, 337, 355; astral hero, 214; Hákon Hákonarson (king), 257 culture hero, 204 Hákon Sigurðarson (earl, often heroic legend, 53, 54, 56, 78, 80; referred to as Jarl Hákon), 99–100 heroic narrative, 53–54, 68, Hákonar saga góða, 119 76–77, 79; ‘heroic Edda’, 79;

386 Index

Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks, 118, 177 Icelandic , 30, 195 Hevaa, Kaprio, Ingria, 201 iconographic methods, 53, 70, 79 hierophany, 5 iconography, Christian, 303; rune- Historia de Preliis Alexandri Magni stone, 63 (History of the Battles of idols(s), 89–101, 103–5, 171, 180; idol- Alexander the Great) of Leo atry, 91–95, 101, 104 Neapolitaniensis, 256, 257 Illerup Ådal, Jutland, Denmark, 18 Historia Scholastica of Peter Comestor, Ilmarinen (god of the ), 202, 256 228, 231–32, 235 history of religions, 4–5, 10, 13 image(s), 38, 40–42, 45, 56, 90–91, Hittite myths, 375 92, 98, 100, 124, 125, 171, 174, Hr 229 347 350 35354 356 as 176, 192, 193–94, 196–98, 200, a eish reference 248 Hr/ 203, 205–6, 208–9, 213–17, 246, Høtherus, 348 262–64, 270, 273–74, 276–84, 289, Hœnir, 291 295, 297, 300, 302–3, 333 hǫrgar, 94, 121–22 India, 35, 257, 364, 369, 374, 375; hofeiðr’ ‘hof-oath’, 119 Indian hymn, 368; Indian Yama, hofgyðjur, 122; Þuriðr ‘hofgyðja’, 370 116–17; Steinvör ‘hofgyðja’, 117 Indiculus superstitionum et paganiarum Hólar, Iceland, 39 (Index of Superstitions and horse(s), 103, 117–18, 120, 166, 196, Pagan Practices), 175 211, 212, 215, 260, 293; in relation Indo-Europeans, 4, 14, 202, 227, to the Vanir, 117; Freyfaxi, 117 324, 342, 344, 347, 353, 356–57, Hrafnkell Hallfreðarson (‘Freysgoði’), 363–64, 368, 370, 372, 374, 375, 116 376–77 Hrafnkels saga Freysgoða, 113, 116–17, Ingi Steinkelsson (Swedish king), 177 118 initiation, 151, 152, 155, 296 Husaby, Västergötland, Sweden, 305 inquit, 73, 75, 76 Hushang (legendary king in the Iraj (legendary character in the Shahnameh), 346 Shahnameh), 341, 346, 350–52, 355 , 173–74, 276–77, 281–83 Iran, 369 Hymiskviða, 74, 102, 281 Ireland, 324, 326 Hyndluljóð, 118, 121–22, 291, 298 Irish analogs, 331; derbfine, 344; tradi- Iceland, 7, 39, 43, 78, 100, 102, 103, tion, 324, 325–26, 335; cnuimh/ 116, 118, 122, 125, 130, 155, cruimh, 330 168, 218, 225, 227, 234, 250, , 176, 178 264, 269–84, 295, 308, 349, 363, Isaiah, (Deutero-)Isaiah. See under 374, , 115–119, 284, Bible passages. Icelandic chieftain, 30; Icelandic Isis (Egyptian ), 218 oral tradition, 113; Icelandic Isle of Man. See Man, Isle of place names, 117, 119; Icelandic Ívarr inn beinlaussi, 332–33 (See sagas); Icelandic settle- Jacobus de Voragine, 304 ment, 7, 116, 119, 125, 272, 344; Jafnhár, 41, 42, 102

387 Index

Jamshid (legendary king), 346, 350, Kráka (Crow), 325, 331–33, 337 352–53, 355 Kristnitökuhraun, 273 Järfälla, Sweden, 304 Ku (Hawaiian god), 20–21 Järrestad, Scania, 179 Kuhn, Thomas, 9 Jeremiah. See under Bible passages Kumlbúa þáttr, 298 Jews, 243–64; blood libel against, Kun (of Hsia dynasty), 375 244; gyðingr, 247; Judaism and Kuutar, moon as a female in anti-Judaism, 244–47, 263; júði, some Balto-Finnic songs, 204 247; massacres of, 244; pogroms Kvikkjokk, Sweden, 207 against, 244; ‘Red Jews’, 253–63; Laki (volcano), 270, 271–72, 279 special clothing or badges, 244; Lamprecht der Pfaffe, 256 ‘Synogaga’ as blind, 248 landnám (settlement period), 113, 218, Jokkmokk, Sweden, 207 271–72, 275 Jóns saga ins , 39 Landnámabók, 113, 116–18, 125, 130, Jordanes, 150 271, 275 jǫtunn, jǫtnar ‘giant(s)’, 229, 233, 252, landscape(s), 113, 122–26, 149, 172, 277, 280, 282–84, 366 210, 270–71; as expressions of Joukavainen (giant), 230–31 cosmology, 167, 169 Judaism. See Jews lapidary tradition, 307–8 Judei Nostri (Anglo-Norman text), 252 Lateran Council, Fourth. See Fourth Jüngere Titurel, Der of Albrecht von Lateran Council Scharfenburg, 256 Latvia, x, 181, 192, 213; dainas Kalevala, Old (Kalevala taikka wanhoja (see under dainas); Latvian karjalan runoja suomen muinosista tradition(s), 192, 194, 197, 204, ajoista), 227–28 209–14 Kalevala, 192–93, 199, 224, 228–34; lava, 270–84 meter, 192 laws, 79, 169, 244, 260, 275, 304, Kalevipoeg, 199 308; Icelandic, Grágás, 295–96; Kárr inn gamli (mound-dweller), 298 Icelandic, Úlfljótslög (Law of Káruljóð, 74 Úlfljótr), 119–20; Langobardic, Kashmir, 369–70 Leges Langobardorum (Lombard Katla (volcano), 271–73 Laws), 175; Norwegian, Kayumars, 346 Eiðsifaingslǫg: ristinn rttr hinn kefli ‘rune stick’, 299, 302, 308, 309 forni (Law of Eiðsivaþing: Older Kiimasjärvi, 204 Christian Law), 100; Norwegian, Kingu (Mesopotamian god), 371 Frostaingslǫg (Law of Frostaþing), Kinsarvik Church, Norway: antepen- 308; Norwegian, Gulaþingslög dium, 248–49 (Law of Gulaþing), 124; Swedish, Kirk Andreas cross fragments, 79–80 Upplandslagen (Law of Uppland), Kjalnesinga saga, 120 128; Swedish, Västgötalagen Klamath tribe, 274 (Westgötha laws), viii Konung Alexander, 257–61 law-speaker(s), 43 Konungs skuggsjá, 257, 276, 279 Leach, Edmund, 10

388 Index

Legenda aurea of Jacobus de Voragine, Mandi (Nuristani god), 370 304 manor(s), manorial residence(s). See of St Óláfr, 95 central place(s) Leges Langobardorum. See under Laws: Manuchehr (legendary king in the Langobardic Shahnameh), 351–53, 355 Lévi-Strauss, Claude, 10–11, 14 manuscript(s), medieval, 32, 35, Liber Miraculorum (Book of Miracles) 41, 164, 234; art, 63; as arenas of Herbert of Clairvaux, 273 for communication, 40, 44; lightning, 90, 165, 271 Carolingian, 63; Ottonian, 63; líkneski ‘likeness’, 90–91, 98 production of in Sweden, 78; Líkneskjusmíð, 90 verbal and visual representation literacy, xi, 30–46, 199; alphabetic, in, 43 40, 45 manuscript(s), individual: AM 242 Liutprand (king), 175 fol., Codex Wormianus (Prose Liutprandi Leges. See under Laws: edda), 246–48; AM 748 4to Langobardic Fragments of the Elder and the ljóð ‘charm’, 290 Younger Edda, 234; Cod. Voss. ljóðaháttr meter, 34, 116 Lat. 4º 123, Leiden manuscript Ljóðatal, 289 of Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae , 73, 253, 264, 347 pontificum of Adam of Bremen, Loki, 35, 229, 243, 253–55, 261–62, 276, 164; DG 11 4to Codex Upsaliensis 347, 349–50, 353–55; represented (Prose edda), 42–44; Ny. kgl. as a Jew, 248–53 Samling 66, 8vo Gamle danske urte- Lönnrot, Elias, 192, 199, 224–25, 227, bøger, stenbøger og kogebøger, 307; 233 Ups C 528, Codex Bildstenianus Lono (Hawaiian god), 20–21 (Ett fornsvenskt legendarium), 304; Lord, Albert B., 32 *Vatnshyrna manuscript, 280 Luakini ritual cycle, 20–21 Maori traditions, 372–73 Lucius Annaeus Florus. See Epitome of Marbod, Bishop of Rennes, 307 Roman History Marcarius and the Magicians, Saul and lyng-ormr ‘heather-snake’, 330 the Witch of Endor of Ælfric, 303 Lytir, 99, 125 Margery Kempe, 245 magic, 11–12, 15, 125, 127, 208, 224, Maríu saga, 100, 248 252, 290, 292–93, 298–99, 307–10, Mark. See under Bible passages 326, 331, 350, 370, 375. See also Matthew. See under Bible passages charm(s), charm magic medium, media, xvi, 30, 34, 39, 40–45, (s), 12, 299, 309, 352 53, 56, 68, 71–78, 81, 274; differ- Magnúss saga berfœtts, 296 ences in, 34, 44–45, 78; and Makahiki ritual cycle, 20–21 mediation, 40, 53, 68; ‘medium Man, Isle of, 67, 79–80; Manx carving, theory’, 53, 54, 76, 81; strategies, 68 42–43; studies, 30

389 Index memory, 38, 66, 81, 343; collective, 370; creation, 269–70, 276–77, 45; communicative, 130, 344; 280–82, 284, 363–77; of Ho-wori cultural, 53; function of in oral and Ho-deri, 370–71; of Jacob and written cultures, 38; and and Esau, 370; mythic, 191–219; image(s), 38; toast ‘minni’, 120 Nordic solar, x, 203–4, 212–16; Merovingian France, 147–48, 151, 172, performance and non-verbal 177–78, 181 aspects of, 45–46; of primor- Messuskýringar (commentaries on the dial giant being dismembered, symbolism of liturgy), 247 196–97, 282, 369–75; of sun as metalepsis, 57, 71–72 bird-egg, 200–202, 215, 230–31, Metamorphoses of Ovid, 276 371, 373, 376; of sun as deified Midas (king), and the Donkey’s Ears, earthling consigned to the sky, 327 191; of sun as female, 191, 195, Middle East, 271, 324, 329 198, 204, 209, 212, 214; of sun as Midgard serpent (Old Norse unpersonified flame or disk, 191, Miðgarðsormr), 140, 254 193, 196, 198, 213, 217; of sun Mikael Agricola (‘father of Finnish perennially chased by , literature’), 223–32 191; of sun’s movement in Bronze Mímir/Mímr/Mími, 148, 235, 291–92, Age, 215; Snorri’s terms for, 193; 303 verbal dimension of, 30 modeling: as external memory myth-ritual configurations of temple, device, 343; heuristic value of, tree, and well, 169 343–57 mythic , 181, 204 models: scholarly or scientific, 7–9 mythological relationship, genetic, 4, Mkkurklfi 1034 245 14, 16, 23, 323, 342 Molda-Gnúpr, 271 mythologies: Austric, 371, 373–74; mortuary practices and beliefs, 294, Austro-Thai, 371; Balto-Finnic, 302–3 205, 224–25, 234–35; Chinese, Moses, 168, 245 4, 364, 375; Finnish, x, 223, mound dweller(s). See haugúi, haug- 226, 228, 232; Greek, 274, 303; búar Hawaiian, 19–22; Hittite, 104, Mount Mazama, 274, 281 375; Indian, 372, 374–75; Indo- Mount Sinai, 168 European, xv, 14, 104, 357, 377; multiformity, 324 Indo-Iranian, 364, 369; Iranian, x, Mundilfœri, 195–96 342; Japanese, 373; Laurasian, 4, murder, 91, 341, 350–51; -and-revenge 14, 363–64; Maori, 372; Nuristani, theme, 344–48, 350–53, 354–57; 369–70; Roman, 153 , 343, 347; weapon, 329 narratology, 71; narratological levels, Muspell, Muspellzheimr, 194, 196, relationship between, 79 243, 253–56, 262–64, 277, 301, necromancy (necromantia, nás orð 366–67 ‘corpse-words’), 290–91, 293, 309; myth(s): of Adam and Eve, xiv, confusion with nigromantia, 290 101, 245; of Cain and Abel, Neoplatonism, 269, 282, 284;

390 Index

Neoplatonic dualism, 277 shaman, 11–15; and Väinämöinen New Philology, 40 compared, 230–31; with Þórr and Niðungr (king; also Niðhad), 148, 153 Týr as a divine trilogy, 228–29 Niflheimr, 276–77, 281–82 Ögmundar þáttr dytts ok Gunnars helm- Nrr 11516 119 12023 126 and ings, 21, 98, 115, 117, 126 Skaði, now-lost ljóðaháttr poem Oisín (son of Fionn), 327–28, 335 about, 116 Ólafr Geirstaðaálfr (king), 123 noose, 289–90, 296 Óláfr Tryggvason (missionary king of Nordic-Baltic peoples, intercultural Norway), 97–99, 124 relations of, 217 Óláfr Haraldsson (saint and king of Norway, 56, 68, 89–90, 94, 98, 113, 115, Norway), 94–95 119, 125, 130, 147, 149, 248–49, Ólafs saga helga, 115, 122, 128 278, 300–302, 308, 356 Ólafs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta, 117, Nuori-Juokawainen, 230 123, 124 Nuristan, 369 Ólafs þáttr Geirstaðaálfs, 123 oath(s), 96, 100–101, 118–20; hofeiðr, Old Icelandic Homily Book, 248–49, 252 119; lýrittareiðr, 100–101; Old Kalevala. See Kalevala, Old sónargöltr, 118 Olof Skötkonung (Swedish king), 305 Oddrúnargrátr, 752 oral: art forms, 31; background of Odensbrunn (Óðinn’s well), Uppsala, sagas and poems, 31, 33, 44; Tuna in Vendel (also Onsbrönn), -derived texts, 32–33, 35; litera- 175 ture, 34, 207; poetry, 33, 76, 227; . See Óðinn ‘remediation’ of oral poetry in Óðinn, 11–15, 97, 115, 118, 122–23, written medium, 76–78; tradi- 127, 130, 232–33, 235, 247, 282, tion, 29, 31, 32, 114, 115, 120, 347–50, 357, 369; cognomena 122–23, 125, 129–30, 224, 227, for (e.g., hangatýr, hangaguð, 230, 233, 325 hangadróttinn, heimþinguðr orality and literacy debate, 29–45 hanga), 299–300; and creation, ormr, Old Norse, ‘snake’, ‘dragon’ 196–97, 231; and Germanic ( with Irish cnuimh/ Mercury-Wodan, 15; as ‘god cruimh, Persian kerm, and English of the Saxons’, 94; idol/image worm), 330 of depicted, 140–41, 155, 165, Oseberg, Norway, 125, 130 170–71, 193; as ‘Lord of Ghouls’, Othinus, 348–50, 356. See also Óðinn 293–98; and magic, 289–310; Ovid. See Metamorphoses as master of verse, 230; and pagan revival: among the Mímis brunnr (Mímir’s well), (1134), 180 174, 291–92; ‘Óðinn-discourse’, Päivätär (sun as a female deity in 15–16; ‘Óðinn kings’ as ‘war some Balto-Finnic songs), 204–5 kings’, 21; as progenitor of Päivölä songs, 204 kings and chieftains, 21, 234; Paltamo, , 202 and , 356; self-sacrifice on Pangu (P’an ku), 363–64, 371, 374 Yggdrasill, 21–22, 102, 368; as Parchim (possible sanctuary site), 180

391 Index

Parry, Milman, 32 352–53 Passio Sancti Eadmundi of Abbo of Psalms. See under Bible passages Fleury, 304–5 Purua 36365 371 374 37677 performance, 29–30, 32, 34–36, 54, 68, Radogosc (temple site), 180 76, 226, 309; of myth, 38–45, 126. agnark 197 212 227 See also under myth(s) Ragnarr loðbrók, 99, 103, 323–25, performance practices, conxtextual- 330–38 ization of. See contextualization Ragnars kvæði (Faroese ballad), 323 of performance practices Ragnars saga loðbrókar, 99, 323, 330 Persia, 337, 350–51. See also Iran kasa (deon) 370 (s): Bronze Age, 215 Ralsiek (possible sanctuary site), 180 philology, 30, 36–37 Ramsund. See under runestones and Phoenicians, 152, 306 picture stones picture stones. See runestones and Randalín, 325, 331, 333–34, 337–38 picture stones reception of materials, 37, 39, 205, place names, 115–19, 124, 172, 216. 234 See also individual toponyms reconstructing myths and religions, Poetic Edda. See eddic poems; and xv, 3–11, 15–17, 23, 35–36, 191, names of individual poems 364 Polynesian traditions, 377 Red Jews, 252–63; identified with pre-Christian: Scandinavia, 14–16, the Four Horsemen of the 22–23, 29, 39, 95, 127, 129, 163, Apocalypse, 255–56; identified 168, 176–77, 180–81, 192, 293; with Gog and Magog, 255; identi- , 209; cultic fied with the Lost Ten Tribes of practices, 102, 115; , 102; Israel, 255; Icelanders, 273; oral formula, religion(s), 4–23, 30, 79, 113, 115, 126, 102; Sámi beliefs, 206–7 129–30, 166–69, 177, 180, 225, Prester John, 257 227, 244–45, 291, 304; ‘archaic’, primordial giant: emerging from 18; ‘axial’, 18; ‘different’, 6; Old (ir Purua) 376 Norse, 4–7, 9, 11, 16–17, 23, 180; emerging from primordial egg Robert Bellah on evolution of, (Polynesia/China), 376; of stone, 17–22; ‘tribal’, 18 375–76; created from Remus, 153, 353, 370, 374 body of slain (motif A642), renewal of ritual structures. See under 196–97, 282, 369–75 ritual structures processional roads, 125–26, 130, 179 gveda, 364, 368–69, 375 Procopius, 150 Richard the Lionheart (king), 244 prophecy, 70, 92, 102–3, 149, 290, 299, (s), 224, 332, 349 303; summoned, prophesying Rígsþula, 21 dead (motif M301.14), 293, 299 Rindr/Rinda, 233, 348–349, 356 Prose Edda. See Snorra edda ritual(s), 7, 9–12, 15, 17, 19–22, 40, protagonist(s), 34, 76, 331, 344, 348, 113, 118–22, 125–30, 143–47,

392 Index

152, 155, 166, 169, 171–72, 175, 1164), 62, 63; Sweden, Tjängvide I 178–82, 206–10, 214, 216–18, 247, (G 110), 140; Sweden, Västerljung 293–97, 306, 308, 373–75; cycles, (Sö 40), 140; Sweden, Vittinge (U 20; landscapes, 169; pagan, 7, 175 1175), 139 ritual structures: renewal of, 146–47 sacrifice, 93, 97–103, 118, 120, 122–24, Robert Grosseteste (fl. 1220s), 245, 127–28. See also blót (sacrifice) 252 Sæmingr (first of the Hlaðajarl line of Romans (book of the Bible). See under in Norway), 356 Bible passages Saga Heiðreks konungs ins vitra. See Romulus, 153, 353, 370 Heiðreks saga Rösaring, Uppland, Sweden, 125 sagas, 30–31, 33, 36–37, 95, 114, 117, royal burial(s), 129, 166, 177; court, 120, 122, 130, 275; fornaldarsǫgur, 148; dynasties, 153, 218, 323, 355; 30, 80. See also titles of individual ideology, 234, 347; lineage, 20, sagas 140, 149, 151–52, 217, 234, 328, saint(s): cephalophoric, 303, 308; 347, 353; manor, 151, 178 decapitated, 303; severed head of, Rudolf of Fulda, 176 speaks so that searchers can find runestones and picture stones, 53–81, it (motif V229.25), 304–5; statues 139–40, 154–55, 193, 212, 215–16, of, 90, 105 297; Denmark, Ålum (Ålum 3, DR saints (individual): Saint Augustine, 96), 58; Denmark, Hunnestad 3 246, 252; Saint Boniface, 175; (DR 284), 60; Denmark, Jelling 2 Saint Denis, 304; Saint Edmund, (Dr 42), 61, 78; Norway, Alstad, 304–5; Saint Erik, 178; Saint 59, 65; Norway, Dynna, 59, 65; Jerome, 247; Saint John the Norway, Eggja, 59; Norway, Vang, Baptist, 303, 305; Saint Jón of 59; Sweden, Altuna (U 1161), Hólar, 90; Saint Óláfr, 94–96; Saint 58, 139; Sweden, Ardre VIII, Sigfrid, 305 154; Sweden, Årsunda (Gs 9), Salm, 346, 350–52, 355 139; Sweden, Drävle (U 1163), Sámi (also Saami), x, 4, 11, 15, 140; Sweden, Gök (Sö 327), 53, 149–51, 102, 191–92, 197, 205–9, 59, 66–71, 78–81, 139; Sweden, 211, 214–18, 224, 376; ethnic Krogsta (U 1125), 58; Sweden, markers of, 149; noaidi (shaman), Lärbro Stora Hammars I stone, 206; reputation as smiths, 150; 55, 297, 300; Sweden, Ledberg shamanic drums, 206; as skrid- (Ög 181), 140; Sweden, Möjbro (U fenni, 150 877), 58; Sweden, Ockelbo (Gs 19), I Samuel. See under Bible passages 139–40; Sweden, Österfärnebo sanctuaries, possible Slavic sites: (Gs 2), 139; Sweden, Prästgården Feldber, 180; Groß Raden, 180; (U 855), 64; Sweden, Ramsund Parchim, 180; Ralsiek, 180; , (Sö 101), 53, 59, 65–71, 78, 80, 180; Wroklaw, 180 139; Sweden, Sanda stone, 216; , 342, 364 Sweden, Stora Runhällen (U Saul and the Witch of Endor, 303

393 Index

Saxo Grammaticus, 15, 31, 127–30, Snorri Sturluson, 30, 31, 45, 113–15, 279, 291, 296, 298–300, 303, 308, 122–23, 126–30, 151, 170–74, 323, 341, 348–50, 353–56 192–98, 218, 243–57, 261–64, Schweindorf, East Frisia, 152 269–70, 272, 276–77, 281–84, 342, sculpture, 56, 63, 67, 71, 90, 141 348–51, 356 seiðr, 114, 122 Soikkola, Finland, 203 Sgáthán, 327, 335–36 solar myths. See myth(s). Shahnameh (Book of Kings) of Solomon, Wisdom of. See under Bible Ferdowsi, 324, 329–30, 324, 326, passages 337, 341, 345–46, 350–55 , 227 shamanism, 11–15, 192, 223, 234, 368 song traditions: Balto-Finnic, Shingu (Kii Peninsula), 375 199–200, 202; Karelian, 202; Sictona. See Sigtuna Latvian, 194, 209; Russian Sigrdrífumál, 127, 291 Orthodox, 205; Scandinavian Sigtuna (Sictona), 78, 164–65, 167 ballad, 192, 200 Sigurðarkviða in skamma, 75 traveling, 14 Sigurðr Fáfnisbani, 54, 67–71, 75–81 source(s): archaeological, 6, 95, 114, Sigurðr Hlaðajarl, 119 122, 127–30, 95, 139–50, 169, , 253–54, 276 172, 177–82, 215–18, 226, 273–74, singing contest, 230 280, 289, 294–95, 302–6; -critical Skaði, 116, 121, 253–54, 356 perspective, xv, 3, 6, 16, 23, 33; Skáldatal, 43 ‘indigenous’ vs ‘foreign’, 6–7; (s), 6, 43–44, 100, 195, 232, 234, textual, 29, 70, 164, 302. See also 300 titles of individual works skaldic poetry, 30, 33–35, 40, 76, 78, Speculum lapidum (The Mirror of 104, 126, 234 Stones) of Camillus Leonardi, 307 Skáldskaparmál, 103, 127, 193–95, 234 Spitiiura, 369–70 Skedemosse, Öland, Sweden, 118 Starcatherus, 21 Skírnismál, 73, 116, 126–27, 211, 356 Steinvör ‘hofgyðja’, 117 Skld god of the Scanians 94 Stjórn, 101, 264 Skrýmir, 232 Sturlunga saga, 115 Sleipnir, 140 Styrmir Kárason (prior of the Snorra edda (Snorri’s Edda. Also Augustinian house of Viðey), 94 called The Younger Edda and The sun. See myth(s) Prose Edda), 30–31, 42, 44, 75, Suomen Kansan Vanhat Runot (Ancient 104, 244–45, 248, 253, 257, 261, Songs of the Finnish People), 199, 263–64, 269, 273, 276–77, 280, 224 281. See also Gylfaginning and , 248, 254, 272, 282–83 Skáldskaparmál Sutton Hoo, East Anglia: boat burial, 140; helmet, 140 Sveinn Ástriðarson, Danish king, 167

394 Index

Sveins þáttr ok Finns, 95 Torsmyra, ‘bog dedicated to the god Svl 19798 Þórr’, 179 Sweden, 65–67, 77–79, 98, 113–118, Tóruigheacht Dhiarmada agus Ghráinne 123–30, 139–41, 144, 148–51, 155, (Pursuit of Diarmaid and 172, 177–79, 226, 302, 348 Gráinne), 324 symbolism, 10, 168, 173, 177, 180–82, Translatio S. Alexandri (Transfer of [the 247 Relics of] St. Alexander) of Rudolf Synagoga, 248–49 of Fulda, 176 Szczecin (temple site), 180 transmission: of myths and narra- Ta’aroa (Tahiti creator god), 371, 373 tives, 29, 37, 39–40, 45, 54, 68, Tacitus, Cornelius (author of ), 250, 257, 324, 332, 342; oral, 76; 21, 97, 118, 124, 294, 369 written, 68; written and oral, 73 Tågaberg, Scania, 304 treasure, 275–76, 331; buried, 275; Tähemõrsja (The Star Bride), 205, 209 motif, 68–69 Tahmures, 346, 353 tree(s), 70, 94, 101, 163–82, 203–4, 207, Talmud, 244 211, 216, 251, 289–97, 326, 329, Tantalos, 33, 46 343, 368–69 , Norway, 90, 68 trémaðr ‘tree-man’, 91, 99, 332, 337 temple(s), 20, 96–99, 102, 117–18, treuddar, triangular-shaped stone 144, 147, 150, 153, 163–73, 180; settings, 178 literary evidence for pre-Chris- Triglav temple at Szczecin. See tian Slavic, 180; and at Szczecin, temple(s) Uppsala as described by Adam of tripartite structure, Dumézilian, 14, Bremen, 163–73; Slavic configu- 343, 365 rations of temple, tree, and well, , 42 180. See also names of individual Trundholm sun chariot, 196, 215 Slavic temple sites Tu Shan (Chinese legendary figure), tephra, 271, 275, 281 375 Teutoburg forest, 293–94 Tur (Iranian legendary figure), 346, text-context, 35–38; -image rela- 350–52, 355 tionships, 42; textualization typological comparativism. See under (Verschriftlichung), 78–79 comparativism(s) thick description, 10, 34 Týr, 178, 228, 232; hand of, in ’s (author of mouth, 140 Chronik), 181 (god of and/or the Tikopia, 19 sky), 202, 232 Tissø, , Denmark, 178–79 Ullikummi (giant of stone), 104, 375 tongue, 294, 299–302, 305–10; ‘objects’ universe: created from body of slain (See Charon’s obol) giant (motif A642). See primor- topography, cultic, 163–82 dial giant topos, topoi, 78, 163, 167, 181, 245, 294 Upelluri (primordial stone giant), 375 Torslunda, Öland, 140 Uppåkra, Scania, 139–49, 154–55

395 Index

Uppsala, 21, 122–25, 127, 129–30, 149, vermin (including worms, small 151, 163–82, 207, 234, 297, 356, serpents, and maggots), 60, 61, as cultic center, 21, 122, 124, 125, 90, 216, 324–37, 372 127, 129–30, 164–82, 234, 297, Viaticum, 306–8 356; as economic and political Viðarr, 140 center, 123, 128, 151, 234 Víga-Glúms saga, 116, 118 Urðr, well of (Urðar brunnr), 164, 167, Víkarr, 296 174, 368 Vili, 196, 347, 367 Útgarðar, 232 Virgil, 245 Vaðgelmir, 283 Virgin Mary, the, 90, 204, 212 Vafþrúðnismál, 74, 120, 126, 230, 231, Vita Anskarii auctore Rimberto (Life of 281–84 St. Ansgar of Rimbert), 181 Väinämöinen (god of the waters), Vita Prieflingensis (Prüfening Life), 180 202–3, 227–28, 230–35, itast (helu) iver 370 valgaldr ‘corpse-magic’, 293, 309 volcanic activity, volcanism, 269–84; alh 69 163 167 17074 234 298 Icelandic types, 270 Váli, 253–54, 261, 348–50, 355 Völsunga saga (also Vǫlsunga saga), valkyrjur (), 171, 232 67–69, 332, 338 Vanir deities, 14, 113–30, 291; and the Vǫlsungakviða, 74 álfar, 117, 124; association with olund (also elent lundr Uppland, Sweden; and female lundr aland land) 69 ritual specialists, 116–17; inces- 74–75, 139–55, 232 tuous activities of the Vanir, 129; Vǫlundarkviða, 74, 75, 139, 141–42, and the landscape, 124; ‘obituary’ 149, 151, 154–55, 232 by R. Simek, 113; ‘otherness’ of, lundr lundr. See Volund 114; and place names, 116; ritual volundu, Anglo-Frisian runic inscrip- activities connected to, 118–19, tion, 152 130 Vǫluspá, 74, 121–22, 126, 150, 174, 195, Vápnfirðinga saga, 117 225, 227, 231, 244, 255, 261–64, Varuna, Vedic, 15 272–73, 282, 291, 298, 353, 365–67 Varus (Roman general), 18 vǫlva ‘’, 293, 298, 309 Vatnajökull, 271 wagons, 114, 212; journeys by, and Växjö, Småland, Sweden, 305 their connections to the Vanir, Vé, 196, 347, 367 125 Velent. See Volund Wayland. See Volund Venerable Bede, the, 8 land. See Volund vengeance, 253, 341, 351. See also well(s), 163, 167, 173–76, 178–80, 182. avenger See also Óðinn: Mímis brunnr; Urðr, verbal aspects, 30, 34, 42, 79, 227, 231, well of 234; and visual representations Widukind of Corvey, 176 in manuscripts, complementarity Wielent. See Volund of, 43 of Auvergne (fl. 1228), 245

396 Index

Wisdom of Solomon. See under Bible Þorsteins þáttr bœjarmagns, 281 passages Þorsteins þáttr uxafóts, 298, 301–2, 309 witch of Endor, 290, 303 Þrándheimr, 117–19, 123–24 Wolgast (temple site), 180 Þriði, 41, 42, 253 Wolin (sanctuary/temple site), 180 Þrúðgelmir, 283 worldview, 10; Christian, 217; pagan, Þrymskviða, 74, 127, 226 6–7, 39, 115, 274, 284; religious, 7; Þuriðr ‘hofgyðja’, 116–17 Slavic, 181 Wroklaw (possible sanctuary site), 180 Yama (Vedic mythic figure), 346, 356, 369–71 Yggdrasill, 163, 167, 173–74, 178, 368 Yima (Iranian mythic figure), 369–71 Ymir, 197, 282, 284, 364–77 Ynglinga saga, 113, 117, 122–23, 127–29, 150–51, 230, 291–92, 300, 347, 356 , 168 Younger Edda, the. See Snorra edda Yü (first king of the Hsia dynasty), 375 Zahhak (Iranian legendary figure), 346, 350, 352–55 Þiðreks saga af Bern, 142 Þjazi, 232 Þóra, 330–31, 333–34 Þórðr gellir, 344–45 Þórðr Özurarson, as ‘Freysgoðar’, 116 Þorgarðr (wooden man), 99–100 orgerr Hrgabrr 100 Þorleifr jarlsskáld, 100, 300 Þorleifs þáttr jarlsskálds, 99, 300 Þórr, 15, 90, 94–99, 103–104, 114, 115, 116, 118, 119, 122, 128, 130, 139, 165, 170, 179, 193, 228, 231–32, 235, 242, 348–49, 376; as god of the Englishmen, 94; and Hrugnir, 103; idol of, 90, 95–99, 165, 170; and Ilmarinen, 228, 231–34; and the Miðgarðsormr, 76, 140; and Mllnir 95 232

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