Representations of Christ in Christian Skaldic Poetry Ruth Elizabeth
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1 Representations of Christ in Christian Skaldic Poetry Ruth Elizabeth Cheadle UCL PhD 2 I, Ruth Elizabeth Cheadle, confirm that the work presented in this thesis is my own. Where information has been derived from other sources, I confirm that this has been indicated in the thesis. 3 Abstract This thesis aims to demonstrate that, through use of literary genre, vocabulary, and emphasis of detail, the authors of Christian skaldic verse in the twelfth to fifteenth centuries continually reshaped a specific set of representations for Christ to suit each poem’s individual purpose, its audience, and the literary tastes of the periods in which they were written. In order to show how Christ’s portrayal changes over time and according to each poem’s overarching purpose, I have selected the following five Christian skaldic poems and made each the focus of a chapter: Einarr Skúlason’s Geisli, Gamli kanóki’s Harmsól, and the anonymously-composed poems Leiðarvísan, Líknarbraut, and Lilja. Within each chapter I provide an overview of the poem, selecting stanzas that highlight features of Christ that are prevalent or striking in some way, and analyse how these representations not only influence the poem itself, but also shape perceptions of Christ’s relationship with humanity. Each chapter leads to an overall consideration both of the image of Christ as this has been represented, and of the degree to which this has been influenced by biblical and patristic writings, Old Norse literature and culture, or by a combination of these elements. In the concluding chapter I identify the prevailing representations of Christ throughout these five poems, dividing these characterisations into five categories: Christ as Warrior Chieftain, as Healer and Abundant Nourisher, as Legal Authority, as Beguiler, and as Light. I assess the changing importance of each of these representations over time and in these poems, in order to enable a better understanding of the changing images of Christ in the medieval skaldic corpus and how these may reflect locally specific perceptions of Christ. 4 Acknowledgements This thesis represents the culmination of an academic journey spanning nearly fifteen years. It began with the work of several dedicated high school teachers – particularly Gary Pate, Ryan Summers, and Mike Zirretta – whose passion for their subjects sparked my interest in the relationship between history, literature, art, and theology. This interest grew and developed in my undergraduate years at Westmont College, where the English Literature faculty honed my analytical skills, enabled me to pursue study of medieval literature through time abroad at the Centre for Medieval and Renaissance Studies in Oxford, and encouraged my pursuit of a final dissertation focusing on the Old English poem Judith. My time as a master’s student in St Hilda’s College at the University of Oxford greatly influenced the direction of my academic focus. Working with Professor Malcolm Godden and Professor Heather O’Donoghue, I continued to learn about Old English poetry and began to gain an understanding of Old Norse literature. This led to my involvement in both the Viking Society for Northern Research and COLSONOEL (Cambridge, Oxford & London Symposium in Old Norse, Old English and Latin), the beginnings of my research into depictions of Christ in Old Norse poetry, and finally to my pursuit of a PhD at University College London and the production of this thesis. This project would not have been possible without the knowledgeable guidance and unfailing encouragement of my primary supervisor, Professor Susan Irvine, and my secondary supervisors, Professor Chris Abram and Professor Richard North. I am also deeply indebted to the librarians at University College London, the University of Oxford, the University of Edinburgh, and the National Library of Scotland, whose assistance with accessing materials has been vital to my work over the past several years. Additionally, I wish to thank Dr Erin Goeres and Dr Katrina Attwood, who not only served as my viva examiners, but also advised me with great enthusiasm and dedication while I completed my corrections. Along with these messages of thanks to members of the academic community, I also wish to extend personal thanks to my wonderful family in both 5 the UK and USA, and to friends who have been a source of constant encouragement throughout this process, particularly Cosmina Dorobanţu, David Baker, Lynne Marie Martens, Dr Lucy Allen, and Professor Megan Murton. This thesis is dedicated to my parents, Jeffrey and Margaret Cheadle, and to my husband, James Strain. Thank you for the love and profound joy you bring to my life. 6 Table of Contents Title Page ....................................................................................................... 1 Signed Declaration ....................................................................................... 2 Abstract ......................................................................................................... 3 Acknowledgements ...................................................................................... 4 Table of Contents .......................................................................................... 6 List of Abbreviations .................................................................................... 7 Manuscripts and Transcripts ..................................................................... 14 Chapter One - Introduction ......................................................................... 16 Chapter Two - Einarr Skúlason’s Geisli ..................................................... 40 Chapter Three - Gamli kanóki’s Harmsól ................................................... 73 Chapter Four - Leiðarvísan ....................................................................... 107 Chapter Five - Líknarbraut ........................................................................ 127 Chapter Six - Lilja ....................................................................................... 168 Chapter Seven - Conclusions ................................................................... 222 Appendix - Christ Kenning Table ............................................................. 258 Bibliography ............................................................................................... 277 7 List of Abbreviations ADIP = Arnamagnæan Dictionary of Icelandic Prose. http://onp.ku.dk/english/. 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