A New Introduction to Old Norse Part I: Grammar

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A NEW INTRODUCTION TO OLD NORSE

PART I: GRAMMAR

A NEW INTRODUCTION TO OLD NORSE

PART I GRAMMAR

THIRD EDITION

MICHAEL BARNES

VIKING SOCIETY FOR NORTHERN RESEARCH UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON 2008 © M. P. Barnes 1999/2004/2008

ISBN: 978-0-903521-74-1

First published 1999 Reprinted with corrections and additions 2001 Second edition 2004 Third edition 2008

Printed by Short Run Press Limited, Exeter Preface This Grammar is intended for university students with no previous knowledge of Old Norse. It covers considerably more than the essentials, however, and is suitable for study up to first degree level. Full account is taken of the fact that grammatical concepts may be unfamiliar to many using the work, and all but the most basic are explained. Comparison is made with English where helpful, and a glossary of grammatical terms included at the end. Although it is possible to study the Grammar on one’s own, the guidance of a tutor is strongly recommended. The bulk of the Grammar was available in draft by the time of the 1998–99 session, and was tried out by several teachers at British uni- versities. Content and presentation have benefited greatly from the comments and suggestions of both teachers and students. I would like in particular to thank Alison Finlay, Judith Jesch and Svanhildur Óskarsdóttir, who offered many valuable insights, Peter Foote, who read the whole work and improved it in countless ways, and finally Anthony Faulkes, who not only commented on numerous points of detail but designed the layout and saw the production of the book through from start to finish. Needless to say, such faults as remain are my responsibility.

Michael P. Barnes University College London July 1999

Preface to second edition The necessity for a further reprint has made it possible to introduce a number of corrections and changes, and to add a new section on points of syntax (3.9.9). Users will also be pleased to know that there is now a CD that can be obtained from the Viking Society containing extracts I, II, IV, VIIB, VIII (b) and (e), IX and X from NION II read with Modern Icelandic pronunciation by Icelanders: Selected Readings from A New Intro- duction to Old Norse, published by The Chaucer Studio, 2003.

April 2004 Preface to third edition The book has been corrected and revised throughout, and a postscript added (pp. 262–3).

May 2007 Contents

Abbreviations and Symbols ...... xii 1. Introduction 1.1 The aim of the Grammar ...... 1 1.2 What is Old Norse? ...... 1 1.3 Old Norse and modern English ...... 2 1.4 Pronunciation ...... 3 1.5 Orthography ...... 4 1.6 General advice to the student ...... 5 2. Pronunciation and Orthography 2.1 Old Norse ...... 8 2.1.1 Pure vowels ...... 8 2.1.1 Exercise ...... 9 2.1.2 Diphthongs ...... 9 2.1.2 Exercise ...... 10 2.1.3 Consonants ...... 10 2.1.3 Exercise ...... 12 2.1.4 Syllables ...... 13 2.1.4 Exercise ...... 13 2.2 Modern Icelandic ...... 14 2.2.1 Vowels ...... 14 2.2.1 Exercise ...... 16 2.2.2 Consonants ...... 16 2.2.2 Exercise ...... 20 2.2.3 Syllables ...... 20 2.2.4 The epenthetic vowel ...... 20 2.2.3/2.2.4 Exercise ...... 21 3. Morphology and Syntax 3.1 Noun inflexions and their function ...... 22 3.1.1 Number ...... 22 3.1.2 Case ...... 22 3.1.3 Gender ...... 27 3.1.1/3.1.2/3.1.3 Exercise ...... 28 3.1.4 Basic noun inflexions ...... 28 3.1.4 Exercise ...... 31 3.1.5 Examples of noun usage...... 31 3.1.5 Exercise ...... 37 3.1.6 Difficulties in recognising noun inflexions and ways of overcoming them ...... 37 3.1.6 Exercise ...... 39 3.1.7 Important variations in noun inflexion ...... 39 3.1.7.1 Labial mutation ...... 39 3.1.7.1 Exercise ...... 41 3.1.7.2 Front mutation ...... 41 3.1.7.2 Exercise ...... 44 3.1.7.3 Breaking ...... 44 3.1.7.4 Deviations from the basic endings ...... 45 3.1.7.5 Minor irregularities ...... 45 3.1.7.3/3.1.7.4/3.1.7.5 Exercise ...... 46 3.1.8 Examples of noun inflexion ...... 47 3.1.8 Exercise ...... 53 3.1.9 The suffixed definite article ...... 56 3.1.9 Exercise ...... 58 3.2 Pronoun inflexions and their function ...... 60 3.2.1 Personal pronouns: form ...... 61 3.2.2 Demonstrative pronouns: form ...... 63 3.2.3 Indefinite pronouns: form ...... 65 3.2.4 Negative pronouns: form...... 66 3.2.5 Interrogative and distributive pronouns: form ... 67 3.2.1/3.2.2/3.2.3/3.2.4/3.2.5 Exercise ...... 68 3.2.6 Examples of pronoun usage ...... 68 3.2.6 Exercise ...... 76 3.3 Adjective inflexions and their function ...... 77 3.3.1 Number, case and gender ...... 77 3.3.2 Definiteness ...... 78 3.3.3 Degree (comparison) ...... 79 3.3.1/3.3.2/3.3.3 Exercise ...... 79 3.3.4 Basic adjective inflexions ...... 80 3.3.4 Exercise ...... 84 3.3.5 The free-standing definite article ...... 84 3.3.5 Exercise ...... 86 3.3.6 Examples of adjective usage ...... 87 3.3.6 Exercise ...... 95 3.3.7 Difficulties in recognising adjective inflexions and ways of overcoming them ...... 96 3.3.7 Exercise ...... 97 3.3.8 Important variations in adjective inflexion ...... 98 3.3.8.1 Labial mutation ...... 98 3.3.8.1 Exercise ...... 99 3.3.8.2 Front mutation ...... 99 3.3.8.3 Suppletive forms ...... 100 3.3.8.4 Deviations from the basic endings ...... 101 3.3.8.5 Minor irregularities ...... 102 3.3.8.2/3.3.8.3/3.3.8.4/3.3.8.5 Exercise ...... 103 3.3.9 Examples of adjective inflexion ...... 104 3.3.9 Exercise ...... 111 3.4 Numerals ...... 115 3.4.1 The numerals and their inflexions ...... 115 3.4.1 Exercise ...... 119 3.4.2 Examples of numeral usage ...... 120 3.4.2 Exercise ...... 123 3.5 Adverbs ...... 124 3.5.1 Adverb formation ...... 124 3.5.2 Inflexion for degree ...... 125 3.5.3 Examples of adverb usage ...... 127 3.5.1/3.5.2/3.5.3 Exercise ...... 129 3.5.4 Adverbs and adverbials ...... 130 3.6 Verb inflexions and their function...... 131 3.6.1 Person and number ...... 131 3.6.2 Tense ...... 132 3.6.3 Mood ...... 134 3.6.4 Voice...... 135 3.6.1/3.6.2/3.6.3/3.6.4 Exercise ...... 136 3.6.5 Basic verb inflexions ...... 137 3.6.5.1 Endings ...... 137 3.6.5.1 Exercise ...... 139 3.6.5.2 Vowel alternations ...... 140 3.6.5.2 Exercise ...... 143 3.6.5.3 The -sk form ...... 144 3.6.5.3 Exercise ...... 146 3.6.6 Finite and non-finite forms; principal parts ..... 146 3.6.6 Exercise ...... 152 3.6.7 Preterite presents and other irregular verbs ...... 152 3.6.7 Exercise ...... 155 3.6.8 Examples of verb usage ...... 155 3.6.8 Exercise ...... 164 3.6.9 Important variations in verb inflexion...... 164 3.6.9.1 Phonological variation ...... 165 3.6.9.2 Morphological variation ...... 168 3.6.9.3 Idiosyncratic variation ...... 169 3.6.9.1/3.6.9.2/3.6.9.3 Exercise ...... 171 3.6.10 Examples of verb inflexion ...... 171 3.6.10 Exercise ...... 177 3.7 Prepositions ...... 181 3.7.1 Prepositions triggering the accusative ...... 182 3.7.2 Prepositions triggering the genitive ...... 184 3.7.3 Prepositions triggering the dative...... 185 3.7.4 Prepositions triggering the accusative and dative...... 189 3.7.5 Prepositions triggering the accusative and genitive ...... 196 3.7.6 Preposition triggering the accusative, genitive and dative ...... 197 3.7.7 Residual remarks ...... 197 3.7 Exercise ...... 199 3.8 Conjunctions ...... 200 3.8.1 Coordinating conjunctions ...... 202 3.8.2 Subordinating conjunctions ...... 204 3.8.2.1 The particle er...... 204 3.8.2.2 The particle at ...... 212 3.8.2.3 Interrogative pronouns and adverbs ...... 215 3.8.2.4 Other adverbial sentence introducers ...... 218 3.8 Exercise ...... 221 3.9 Residual points of syntax ...... 223 3.9.1 Sentence word-order ...... 223 3.9.1 Exercise ...... 228 3.9.2 Word-order in noun phrases ...... 228 3.9.2 Exercise ...... 230 3.9.3 Impersonal constructions ...... 230 3.9.3 Exercise ...... 236 3.9.4 Accusative and infinitive...... 236 3.9.4 Exercise ...... 240 3.9.5 Omissions ...... 240 3.9.5.1 Objects ...... 241 3.9.5.2 vera ...... 241 3.9.5.3 Verbs of motion ...... 243 3.9.5 Exercise ...... 243 3.9.6 Points of nominal syntax ...... 244 3.9.6.1 Idiomatic uses of personal pronouns and possessive adjectives ...... 244 3.9.6.2 The genitive and dative of respect ...... 246 3.9.6 Exercise ...... 248 3.9.7 Points of verbal syntax ...... 248 3.9.7.1 The perfect and past perfect ...... 248 3.9.7.2 The passive ...... 251 3.9.7.3 The ‘dative absolute’ ...... 253 3.9.7.4 Present participles expressing potentiality or obligation ...... 254 3.9.7 Exercise ...... 255 3.9.8 Points of syntax affecting more than one type of phrase ...... 256 3.9.8.1 Adjectival and adverbial complements ..... 256 3.9.8.2 Agreement between subject, verb and subject complement ...... 257 3.9.8.3 -sk verb forms and ‘preposition adverbs’ .... 259 3.9.8 Exercise ...... 260 3.9.9 Adverbial ok ...... 261 A postscript on ‘impersonal constructions’ ...... 262 References to linguistic terms explained in the Grammar ...... 264 Select glossary of linguistic terms not explained in the Grammar ... 266 Bibliography ...... 270 Abbreviations and Symbols acc. accusative act. active adj. adjective art. article aux. auxiliary comp. comparative COMP complementiser dat. dative def. definite f. feminine gen. genitive imp. imperative indic. indicative inf. infinitive interrog. interrogative m. masculine n. neuter NION I–III A New Introduction to Old Norse I: Grammar; II: Reader; III: Glossary and Index of Names nom. nominative NP noun phrase ON Old Norse pass. passive pl. plural pos. positive pp. past participle pres. present refl. reflexive REFL. POSS. reflexive possessive sg. singular subj. subject; subjunctive sup. superlative vb. verb * reconstructed form; ungrammatical sentence > develops to < develops from ~ zero ending 1 Introduction

1.1 The aim of the Grammar

From the point of view of the student, many existing grammars of Old Norse suffer from two major defects. First, they are largely constructed on historical principles and thus contain detail about earlier stages of the language and linguistic development, little of which is of direct use to someone seeking to acquire a reading knowledge of Old Norse. Second, they assume a level of linguistic sophistication which the school system no longer cultivates, and so leave unexplained many things which to the modern student are opaque. The present Grammar has been written with one aim only: to facilitate the learning of Old Norse for as wide a range of students as possible. It therefore eschews historical digressions except where they throw essential light on the workings of the language, and an attempt is made to explain all but the most basic ideas, concepts and terms on their first appearance or, failing that, in the Select Glossary (pp. 264–6). The emphasis throughout is pedagogical, and the work thus represents not so much a re-think of Old Norse grammar as a re-think of the ways in which the basics of Old Norse may be best presented to the learner.

1.2 What is Old Norse?

The term ‘Old Norse’ has been used in various ways. For some it is a broad concept covering the language of Denmark, Norway and Swe- den, as well as Iceland and the other Scandinavian colonies, throughout the Viking Age (c. 750–1050) and the early and high Middle Ages (c. 1050–1350). At the other extreme it has been taken to mean only the Old Norwegian of the early and high Middle Ages. In the present context it is used principally to signify the language of Norway in the period c. 750–1350 (after which Norwegian changes considerably) and of Iceland from the settlement (c. 870) to the Reformation (c. 1550 — a date that sets a cultural rather than a linguistic boundary). Known in modern Icelandic as norræna, in Norwegian as norrønt and in English sometimes as Old West Norse, this type of speech is a western variety 2 A New Introduction to Old Norse of Scandinavian. Scandinavian itself represents the northern branch of the Germanic group of languages, whose western branch includes Dutch, English and German. As a result of Viking-Age expansion, Old Norse (in the sense just defined), which had its origins in Norway, came to be spoken in such widely different places as Faroe, Greenland and Ireland, but it was only in Iceland and Norway — especially the former — that a significant scribal culture developed, and it is upon manuscripts in Icelandic and Norwegian written with the roman alphabet that our knowledge of Old Norse is chiefly based. The earliest Icelandic and Norwegian vernacular manuscripts that have survived are dated to c. 1150, but the bulk are from the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, and many Ice- landic manuscripts are later still. For insights into Old Norse prior to 1150 we are dependent on runic inscriptions, bits and pieces preserved in foreign language sources, and verse composed in the Viking Age but recorded in medieval manuscripts. Although Icelandic c. 870–1550 and Norwegian c. 750–1350 are here given the designation ‘Old Norse’, it would of course be wrong to think of this language as entirely uniform, without variation in time or space. The form of Scandinavian spoken in Norway around 750 differed in a number of important respects from that spoken around 1350, and by the latter date the Norwegian carried to Iceland by the original settlers had begun to diverge from the mother tongue. Never- theless, in the period c. 1150–1350, when the great medieval literature of Iceland and Norway was created, there existed an essential unity of language in the western Scandinavian world, and it is on that unity that the present Grammar is based.

1.3 Old Norse and modern English

A major difference between Old Norse and modern English is that Old Norse is a much more highly inflected language. Modern English still has certain inflexions, by which is meant that words change their form according to their function in a sentence (e.g. she came, I saw her; sg. cat, pl. cats; pres. run, past ran), but Old Norse has a far greater number. In English the function of a word can often be deduced from its position in relation to other words. We understand: Introduction 3

Olav saw the old woman to mean that Olav was the one who saw and the old woman the one who was seen because Olav precedes saw. Reverse the order and the opposite applies. In a corresponding Old Norse sentence it would be perfectly possible for the order to be reversed without a change in meaning. Everything would depend on the inflexions. Thus:

Óláfr sá konu ﬂá ina gƒmlu and

Konu flá ina gƒmlu sá Óláfr both mean ‘Óláfr saw the old woman’, because the forms Óláfr and konu flá ina gƒmlu are unchanged. If we wish the sentence to mean ‘the old woman saw Óláfr’, we must alter the forms of the words so that Óláfr becomes Óláf and konu flá ina gƒmlu becomes kona sú in gamla. It is obvious, therefore, that from the very start the student will have to pay the closest attention to inflexions. Failure to do so will result in the regular misunderstanding of Old Norse texts.

1.4 Pronunciation

Even in the case of dead languages, pronunciation is of some importance. If students cannot translate letters on the page into sounds, it becomes well-nigh impossible for them to discuss the language they are trying to learn. Furthermore, for those without an exclusively visual memory, the association of image and sound is a valuable aid to learning. The pronunciation of Old Norse, like that of Latin, varies from country to country and sometimes from teacher to teacher. In the English- speaking world a widespread practice is to adopt modern Icelandic pronunciation. Although it is often claimed there is little difference between modern Icelandic and Old Norse (and this is true enough as regards the inflexional system and the basic vocabulary), the pronunciation has changed a great deal since the first centuries of the settle- 4 A New Introduction to Old Norse ment of Iceland. The adoption of modern pronunciation, while putting the learner at some distance from the speech of those who wrote the literature s/he is reading, nevertheless has the great advantage that one can in effect listen to native speakers reproducing the language, and thus learn to read aloud not only with fluency but with natural intonation (patterns of voice pitch). For those whose chief interest is Old Norse literature, modern Icelandic pronunciation has much to recommend it. The pure language student, on the other hand, will find the modern pronunciation frustrating: not only does it obscure the relationship between several common sounds — and thus also between large numbers of words or word-forms — it can render meaningless rules involving syllable length (especially important in poetry). In the present work, therefore, an outline is given of the pronunciation both of Old Norse and of modern Icelandic. For the former we can rely to a considerable extent on a twelfth-century work, the so-called First Grammatical Treatise (ed. Haugen 1972; Hreinn Benediktsson 1972), which discusses in some detail the vowel and consonant sounds of the Icelandic of that age. This, together with what we can deduce from spelling, historical comparisons and modern pronunciation (Icelandic and different varieties of Norwegian) means that guidance on the essentials of Old Norse pronunciation during the golden years of literary production can be offered with reasonable confidence.

1.5 Orthography

The scribes who wrote Old Norse did not conform to standardised rules of spelling, any more than their counterparts in medieval Eng- land and elsewhere. They wrote words more or less as they had been trained to do at the scriptorium where they studied, although they might also be influenced by forms in an exemplar from which they were copying — and occasionally by their own pronunciation. The result is that most Old Norse words appear in manuscripts in a variety of spellings. In order to facilitate the making of grammars, dictionaries and text books, therefore, and to help the learner, modern scholars have adopted a normalised orthography for Old Norse. Some editions of Old Norse writings, designed more for the philologist and linguist than the literary reader, follow closely the spelling of the manuscript Introduction 5 or manuscripts on which they are based, while in others the normalised orthography may be adapted to bring it into greater harmony with that of the manuscript source. This last practice means that normalisation of Old Norse does not conform to an immutable standard. Even between grammars, text books and dictionaries a degree of variation can be found. The present Grammar, for example, does not always acknowledge the lengthening of a, o, ƒ, u which took place in twelfth–thirteenth century Icelandic before various consonant clusters beginning with l (e.g. hjalpa > hjálpa, folk > fólk, hjalmr > hjálmr), although such lengthening is generally indicated in Parts II and III (Reader and Glossary and Index of Names) of A New Introduction to Old Norse. The conventions adopted here are in the main those found in E. V. Gordon, An Introduction to Old Norse (1957), which deviates little from usage in many of the major editions and dictionaries. It should be noted, however, that the two dictionaries most used by English-speaking students, Richard Cleasby and Gudbrand Vigfusson, An Icelandic- English Dictionary (1957) and Geir Zoëga, A Concise Dictionary of Old Icelandic (1910), make a few concessions to modern Icelandic orthography (for which see, for example, Stefán Einarsson 1945, 1–31).

1.6 General advice to the student

The present Grammar is intended primarily for university students, and how it is used will be determined largely by individual tutors. Nevertheless, it may be helpful to both students and staff, and to anyone studying on their own, to offer outline guidance on the learning process — not least because it is the author’s understanding of how Old Norse can most effectively be learnt that has determined the structure of the Grammar. With the emphasis on learning, the following remarks are addressed direct to the student. Decide at the outset which pronunciation to adopt, and stick to it. Vacillating between rival pronunciations is confusing. Having decided, read through the relevant part of section 2. Do not attempt to learn all the rules of pronunciation at once. Read words, then phrases, then whole sentences aloud, referring to the rules as and when necessary. If you adopt modern Icelandic pronunciation, try to obtain recordings of native speech. 6 A New Introduction to Old Norse

Your learning of morphology and syntax should initially be concentrated on the basics of nouns, pronouns, adjectives and verbs. These are the most highly inflected word classes in Old Norse, and the most central to the understanding of what you are reading. Begin with the nouns. If you are uncertain about concepts like ‘number’, ‘case’ and ‘gender’, read sub-sections 3.1.1, 3.1.2 and 3.1.3 and do the accompanying exercise. Now learn the endings given in 3.1.4, noting the patterns. If you find this material too abstract, you can compare the endings with those of the actual nouns listed in 3.1.8. There is much greater variety of inflexion there, though, and that may confuse rather than help you in the early stages. The noun paradigms of 3.1.8 are meant primarily for reference as the learning proceeds. When you are satisfied you have mastered everything in 3.1.4, do the exercise. Next, study in detail the examples of noun usage given in 3.1.5, paying particular attention to the accompanying notes. This is your introduction to the basics of Old Norse syntax, and you should be prepared to spend a fair amount of time on it. When you have assimilated all the information in 3.1.5, do the exercise. Then read through 3.1.6 and answer the questions at the end of it. Now try the exercise in 3.1.8, using a dictionary or the Glossary in NION III and the noun paradigms listed in this sub-section. Do not worry if you do not get all the answers right straight away; this exercise is part of the learning process as well as a test of knowledge. Sub-section 3.1.7 on the most important variations in noun inflexion is not intended to be read at one go and learnt, but is there to be consulted as and when problems arise. You should, however, familiarise yourself with the fundamentals of labial mutation as soon as possible. Following the nouns, section 3.1.9 on the suffixed definite article should be studied and the accompanying exercise completed. Now go on to section 3.2. Learn the pronoun paradigms set out here, noting the correspondences between them, and follow this by doing the exercise covering 3.2.1–3.2.5. Next, study in detail the examples of pronoun usage given in 3.2.6, paying due attention to the accompanying notes. When you have assimilated all the information in 3.2.6, do the exercise. Section 3.3 on adjectives follows largely the pattern of 3.1 on nouns, and the various items should be tackled in the same order and manner (with 3.3.8 for consultation as necessary, and the paradigms in 3.3.9 Introduction 7 for reference). Note, however, that the free-standing definite article is treated immediately after basic adjective inflexions; it should be studied before you go on to the examples of adjective usage, where this form of the article occurs quite widely. From adjectives proceed to section 3.6 on verbs. Work through sub- sections 3.6.1 to 3.6.8 in the order they appear (3.6.1 to 3.6.4 may be omitted if you are familiar with the concepts discussed). 3.6.9 is for consultation as necessary. The paradigms in 3.6.10 are for reference; the exercise at the end of this section is, however, an essential task. Having assimilated the basic forms and functions of Old Norse nouns, pronouns, adjectives and verbs, you should go on to tackle numerals (3.4) and adverbs (3.5). When studying the numerals, note in particular similarities with other inflexional types and the various idiomatic usages detailed in both 3.4.1 and 3.4.2. Regarding the adverbs, pay particular attention to adverb formation and inflexion for degree (3.5.1, 3.5.2). As soon as practicable, you should begin to read an Old Norse text. It is recommended you start with the extract from Hrólfs saga kraka in Part II of A New Introduction to Old Norse, which has word-for- word linguistic commentary on the first 40 lines. While reading this (or another) text you will meet prepositions, conjunctions, and various syntactic structures not dealt with in sections 3.1 to 3.6 of the Grammar. That is where sections 3.7, 3.8 and 3.9 come in. As you read, you should consult them regularly for such information as you may require on the areas they cover. The exercises in these sections should be attempted when you feel you have reached an appropriate level of expertise. It is of course possible to work through 3.7, 3.8 and 3.9 in the same methodical way as the earlier parts of the Grammar. This should not, however, be done before starting on your first text. The importance of reading a continuous piece of Old Norse at the earliest possible opportunity cannot be emphasised too strongly. Finally, an important piece of practical information: where nothing other is stated, Old Norse words are given in their dictionary form, i.e. nominative singular for nouns, nominative for personal pronouns, nominative masculine singular for other pronouns, strong nominative masculine singular positive for adjectives, nominative masculine singular or plural (as appropriate) for numerals, positive for adverbs, and infinitive for verbs. 8 Pronunciation and orthography 2 Pronunciation and Orthography

2.1 Old Norse

Stress was in principle always on the first syllable. About intonation nothing is known for sure, but it probably varied somewhat from area to area. Regarding the speech sounds themselves, we have a good idea of the system as a whole, but are less certain about precise shades of sound. The equivalents in other languages suggested below should be understood as rough approximations.

2.1.1 Pure vowels

Old Norse had nine basic vowel sounds, which might be long or short, nasal or oral, giving 36 potential distinctions. Nasality seems to have been lost in most people’s speech by about 1200, and so is ignored here. Length is normally indicated by an acute accent. The relationship between spelling and sound is as follows.

á as in English father ár ‘year’ a the same sound, but short dagr ‘day’ é as in French été, but longer él ‘storm’ e as in French été ben ‘wound’ í as in English eat lítr ‘looks [vb.]’ i the same sound, but short litr ‘colour’ ó as in French eau, but longer sól ‘sun’ o as in French eau hof ‘temple’ ú as in French bouche, but longer hús ‘house’ u as in French bouche sumar ‘summer’ ‡ as in French rue, but longer k‡r ‘cow’ y as in French rue yfir ‘over’ æ as in English pat, but longer sær ‘sea’ œ as in French feu, but longer œrr ‘mad’ ø as in French feu døkkr ‘dark’ ƒ as in English hotƒl ‘ale’ Old Norse 9

Notes: There is no short counterpart of æ or long counterpart of ƒ. Both sounds existed at one time, but in the kind of Old Norse on which the normalised spelling is based short æ had coalesced with e and  with á. The use of œ to denote the long equivalent of ø is an arbitrary convention, and in some works Õ is found. Most of these sixteen distinctive vowels occur exclusively in stressed syllables. In unstressed syllables there is no distinction of length and for the most part a basic three-way contrast is found between a, i and u. Some uncertainty exists about how these unstressed vowels were pronounced, but the student will be safe enough using the following.

a as stressed a leysa ‘[to] release’ i as in English city máni ‘moon’ u as in English wood eyru ‘ears’

2.1.1 Pure vowels — Exercise

1. Pronounce á and a. What is the difference? 2. Which are the long vowels of Old Norse? 3. How many unstressed vowels did Old Norse have, and what did they sound like? 4. Pronounce o and ƒ. 5. Pronounce the following words (use English equivalents for the consonants): tál ‘deceit’, tal ‘talk’, sénn ‘seen [pp. nom. m. sg.]’ (3.1.1, 3.1.2, 3.1.3), senn ‘at the same time’, lítr ‘looks [vb.]’, litr ‘colour’, hól ‘praise’, hol ‘cavity’, dúra ‘[to] doze’, dura ‘doorway [gen. pl.]’, fl‡tr ‘floats [vb.]’, flytr ‘conveys’, ær ‘ewe’, bœr ‘farm’, gøra ‘[to] make’, ƒl ‘beer’, gestir ‘guests [nom. pl.]’, gƒtur ‘paths [nom./acc. pl.]’.

2.1.2 Diphthongs

Diphthongs are vowel sounds that exhibit a change in quality within a single syllable, contrast English beer with a diphthong and be early with the same vowel qualities spread over two syllables. Diphthongs 10 Pronunciation and orthography may be falling (where the first element is stressed and the second unstressed, the latter usually a semi-vowel like English w in low or y in say), rising (where the unstressed (semi)-vowel precedes the vowel as in English with or yes) or balanced (where both elements are given equal stress — as often in Faroese). Old Norse had three falling and a great many rising diphthongs. However, because rising diphthongs tend to be spelt with initial ‘j’ or ‘v’ in most forms of Scandinavian, they are often regarded simply as sequences of j (as in English yes) or v + vowel. This is more a theoretical than a practical question. Here only the three falling diphthongs are listed separately. They were all long and were pronounced as follows:

au as in English now lauss ‘loose’ ei as in English bay bein ‘bone’ ey ON e + y hey ‘hay’

2.1.2 Diphthongs — Exercise

1. What is a diphthong? 2. What is the difference between a falling and a rising diphthong? 3. Which are the falling diphthongs of Old Norse? 4. Pronounce: lauss, bein, hey.

2.1.3 Consonants

Just as the vowels, so Old Norse consonants too may be long or short. Consonants with prolonged articulation are not a normal feature of English, but are heard in compounds, e.g. lake-country, pen-knife, where the k and n sounds are extended. Consonant length in Old Norse is indicated by gemination (doubling). The relationship between spelling and sound is as follows.

b as in English buy bíta ‘[to] bite’ bb the same sound, but long gabb ‘mockery’ d as in English day dómr ‘judgement’ dd the same sound, but long oddr ‘point’ Old Norse 11

f (1) as in English far fé ‘money’ (2) as in English very haf ‘ocean’ ff as in English far, but long offr ‘offering’ g (1) as in English goal gefa ‘[to] give’ (2) as in Scots loch lágt ‘low [nom./acc. n. sg.]’ (3) as in Scots loch, but voiced eiga ‘[to] own’ gg (1) as in English goal, but long egg ‘edge’ (2) as in Scots loch gløggt ‘clear [nom./acc. n. sg.]’ h as in English have horn ‘horn’ j as in English year jafn ‘even [adj.]’ k as in English call kƒttr ‘cat’ kk the same sound, but long ekki ‘nothing’ l as in English leaf nál ‘needle’ ll the same sound, but long hellir ‘cave’ m as in English home frami ‘boldness’ mm the same sound, but long frammi ‘in front’ n (1) as in English sin hrinda ‘[to] push’ (2) as in English sing hringr ‘ring’ nn as in English sin, but long steinn ‘stone’ p as in English happy œpa ‘[to] shout’ pp the same sound, but long heppinn ‘lucky’ r rolled, as in Scottish English gøra ‘[to] do’ rr the same sound, but long verri ‘worse’ s as in English this reisa ‘[to] raise’ ss the same sound, but long áss ‘beam’ t as in English boat tƒnn ‘tooth’ tt the same sound, but long nótt ‘night’ v as in English win vera ‘[to] be’ ﬂ as in English thin ﬂing ‘assembly’ › as in English this jƒr› ‘earth’ x two sounds, as in Scots lochs øx ‘axe’ z two sounds, as in English bits góz ‘property’

Notes: f Pronunciation (1) occurs in initial position (i.e. at the beginning of words), pronunciation (2) in medial and final position (i.e. in the middle or at the end of words). g Pronunciation (1) occurs in initial position and immediately 12 Pronunciation and orthography

after n, (2) immediately before s and t, (3) in all other positions (‘voiced’ means using the vocal cords, as, for example, in Eng- lish bill versus pill; b is voiced, p unvoiced). (2) may alternatively be sounded as in English act. gg Pronunciation (2) occurs immediately before s and t, (1) in all other positions. (2) may alternatively be sounded as in English act. k Immediately before s and t this may alternatively be sounded as in Scots loch. kk Ditto. n Pronunciation (2) occurs immediately before g or k; note that in the combination ng the g is pronounced, as in some forms of northern English. p Immediately before s and t this may alternatively be sounded as in English far. pp Ditto. s Never sounded as in English rise, always as in goose. It will be seen that h, ﬂ, › and the semi-vowels j and v are always short.

2.1.3 Consonants — Exercise

1. How are long consonants denoted in Old Norse orthography? 2. Can all Old Norse consonants be both long and short? Give details. 3. Does Old Norse use any consonant letters not found in English? Give details. 4. What sounds do ‘x’ and ‘z’ stand for in Old Norse? 5. Pronounce the following words: bjƒrn ‘bear’, gabba ‘[to] mock’, dagr ‘day’, padda ‘toad’, fullr ‘full’, hof ‘heathen temple’, offra ‘[to] make an offering’, gle›i ‘joy’, sagt ‘said [pp.]’, sag›i ‘said [3rd sg. past]’ (3.6.1, 3.6.2), steggi ‘he-bird’, hafa ‘[to] have’, jƒr› ‘earth’, sekr ‘guilty’, sekkr ‘sack’, fela ‘[to] hide’, fella ‘[to] fell’, frami ‘boldness’, frammi ‘in front of’, men ‘necklace’, menn ‘men’, mengi ‘multitude’, krapi ‘slush’, krappi ‘narrow [weak nom. m. sg.]’ (3.3.2), vera ‘[to] be’, verra ‘worse [n. sg.]’, áss ‘beam’, ás ‘beam [acc. sg.]’, nót ‘net’, nótt ‘night’, ver›a ‘[to] become’, ﬂjófr ‘thief’, rá› ‘advice’, vƒxtr ‘growth’, íslenzkr ‘Icelandic’. Old Norse 13

2.1.4 Syllables

Because of the distribution of long and short vowels and consonants, stressed syllables in Old Norse were of four types (disregarding any consonants before the vowel):

1 — short: short vowel + short consonant, e.g. ba› ‘bath’. 2 — long: short vowel + long consonant or consonant cluster (i.e. a group of consonants), e.g. rann ‘ran [1st/3rd sg. past]’, ƒnd ‘breath’, ‘spirit’. 3 — long: long vowel + short consonant or no consonant, e.g. hús ‘house’, fé ‘money’, gnúa ‘[to] rub’. 4 — overlong: long vowel + long consonant or consonant cluster, e.g. nótt ‘night’, blástr ‘blowing’.

In simplex (i.e. non-compound) words of more than one syllable, it is customary to assume that the syllable division occurs immediately before a vowel, e.g. far-a ‘[to] go’, kall-a ‘[to] call’, gƒr›-um ‘walls [dat.]’, gam-all-a ‘old [gen. pl.]’, kall-a›-ar ‘called [pp. nom./acc. f. pl.]’, hundr-a›-a ‘hundreds [gen.]’. In compound words the division comes at the point where the elements of the compound meet, e.g. spá-ma›r ‘prophet’, vápn-lauss ‘weaponless’, vík-ing-a-hƒf›-ing-i ‘viking chieftain’ (with the division after -a marking the meeting point of the words víkinga- ‘of vikings [gen. pl.]’ and hƒf›ingi ‘chieftain’. In Old Norse metrics (in which one long syllable is the equivalent of two short ones), length is sometimes measured differently. There, for example, all monosyllables (such as ba›) count as long. This is not a matter that need concern the beginner, and the system of length described in 2.1.1, 2.1.2, and 2.1.3 should be adhered to.

2.1.4 Syllables — Exercise

1. How many syllable lengths are there in Old Norse? 2. What constitutes a short stressed syllable? 3. What constitutes a long syllable? 4. In words of more than one syllable, where does the division come? 5. Exemplify each of the following with two Old Norse words: short stressed syllable; long syllable; overlong syllable; unstressed syllable. 14 Pronunciation and orthography

2.2 Modern Icelandic

Radical changes affected the sound system of Icelandic during the late medieval period. This means that normalised Old Norse orthography is not the best of guides to modern Icelandic pronunciation. Even so, the correspondence between the two is far more regular than between current spoken and written English. Stress in modern Icelandic falls without exception on the initial syllable of a word; in compounds the first syllable of the second element has a strong secondary stress, e.g. spákona ‘prophetess’, with primary stress on spá-, secondary on -kon-. Intonation can only sensibly be learnt from listening to native speakers, or recordings of connected speech, and will not be described here. The equivalents of Icelandic sounds in other languages suggested below should be understood as rough approximations.

2.2.1 Vowels

The modern Icelandic vowel system is fundamentally different from that of Old Norse. What was originally a difference of length (e.g. between á and a) has become one of quality, and vowel length is regulated by the number of immediately succeeding consonants. In stressed syllables, a vowel before a single consonant, or no consonant at all, is long; a vowel before two or more consonants (including long consonants, which count as two) is short. The relationship between spelling and sound is as follows.

á as in English now ár ‘year’ a (1) as in French mal raf ‘amber’ (2) as in English now langr ‘long’ (3) as in English my hagi ‘pasture’ é as in English yes léttr ‘light [adj.]’ e (1) as in English let verri ‘worse’ (2) as in English bay engi ‘no one’ í as in English eat hlí› ‘hillside’ i (1) as in English pit hli› ‘side’ (2) as in English eat hringr ‘ring’ ó as in American roam sól ‘sun’ Modern Icelandic 15

o (1) as in English law hof ‘temple’ (2) as in English boy bogi ‘bow’ ú as in French bouche hús ‘house’ u (1) a sound between the vowels in French pu and peu sumar ‘summer’ (2) as in French bouche ungr ‘young’ (3) as in French huile hugi ‘mind’ ‡ as in English eat k‡r ‘cow’ y as in English pit yfir ‘over’ æ as in English my sær ‘sea’ œ the same sound œrr ‘mad’ ø as in French peur døkkr ‘dark’ ƒ (1) as in French peurƒl ‘ale’ (2) as in French œil lƒgin ‘the law’ au as in French œil lauss ‘loose’ ei as in English bay bein ‘bone’ ey the same sound hey ‘hay’

Notes: a Pronunciation (2) occurs immediately before ng, (3) immediately before gi, (1) in all other positions. e Pronunciation (2) occurs immediately before ng, gi and gj, (1) in all other positions. i Pronunciation (2) occurs immediately before ng and gi, (1) in all other positions. o Pronunciation (2) occurs immediately before gi, (1) in all other positions. u Pronunciation (2) occurs immediately before ng, (3) immediately before gi, (1) in all other positions. ƒ Pronunciation (2) occurs immediately before ng and gi, (1) in all other positions. Although some of the above examples show long and others short realisations of the different sounds, all vowels (except the diphthon- gal variants of o and u, which are always short) may have either length. Corresponding to long á in ár, for example, we have short á in árs ‘year [gen. sg.]’ (and also in langr, although written ‘a’); and corresponding to short é in léttr we have long é in lét ‘let’, ‘caused’ (1st/3rd sg. past of láta). 16 Pronunciation and orthography

As in Old Norse, the vowels of unstressed syllables are essentially three. All are short and are pronounced as follows:

a as stressed a leysa ‘[to] release’ i as stressed i máni ‘moon’ u as stressed u eyru ‘ears’

2.2.1 Vowels — Exercise

1. Where does stress fall in modern Icelandic? 2. In what positions do long vowels occur? 3. In what positions do short vowels occur? 4. Work through all the examples in 2.2.1, pronouncing each several times.

(Since modern Icelandic is a living language, access to native speech is available. Try to obtain an Icelandic pronunciation tape, or recordings of the spoken language. If you know an Icelander, get him or her to record the examples in 2.2 for you. Icelandic radio is now available on the internet, and a CD can be obtained from the Viking Society containing extracts I, II, IV, VIIB, VIII (b) and (e), IX and X from NION II read with Modern Icelandic pronunciation by Icelanders.)

2.2.2 Consonants

Consonants in modern Icelandic may be short or long, as in Old Norse (see 2.1.3). However, several of the long consonants of the medieval language have developed other pronunciations, although still spelt as geminates (double consonants). The relationship between spelling and sound is as follows. (On unvoiced sounds see the last paragraph of this sub-section.)

b as in English buy, but unvoiced bíta ‘[to] bite’ bb the same sound, but long gabb ‘mockery’ d as in English day, but unvoiced dómr ‘judgement’ dd the same sound, but long oddr ‘point’ Modern Icelandic 17 f (1) as in English far fé ‘money’ (2) as in English very haf ‘ocean’ (3) as in English buy, but unvoiced hefna ‘[to] avenge’ ff as in English heifer, but long offr ‘offering’ g (1) as in English goal, but unvoiced gata ‘path’ (2) as in English geese, but unvoiced and with English y-sound following gefa ‘[to] give’ (3) as in Scots loch lágt ‘low [nom./acc. n. sg.]’ (4) as in Scots loch, but voiced eiga ‘[to] own’ (5) as in English year stigi ‘ladder’ gg (1) as g (1), but long egg ‘edge’ (2) as g (2), but long kleggi ‘haycock’ (3) as g (3) gløggt ‘clear [nom./acc. n. sg.]’ h (1) as in English have horn ‘horn’ (2) as in English huge hjarta ‘heart’ (3) as in English call hvass ‘sharp’ j as in English year jafn ‘even [adj.]’ k (1) as in English call kƒttr ‘cat’ (2) as in English keep, but with English y-sound following kyrr ‘quiet’ (3) as in Scots loch líkt ‘similar [nom./acc. n. sg.]’ kk (1) as k (1), but preaspirated brekka ‘slope’ (2) as k (2), but preaspirated ekki ‘nothing’ (3) as k (3) skakkt ‘skew [nom./acc. n. sg.]’ l as in English leaf nál ‘needle’ ll (1) as in English leaf illt ‘bad [nom./acc. n. sg.]’ (2) as in English badly hellir ‘cave’ m as in English home frami ‘boldness’ mm the same sound, but long frammi ‘in front’ n (1) as in English sin hrinda ‘[to] push’ (2) as in English sing hringr ‘ring’ nn (1) as in English sin, but long renna ‘[to] run’ (2) as in English kidney steinn ‘stone’ p (1) as in English happy œpa ‘[to] shout’ (2) as in English far eptir ‘after’ pp as p (1), but preaspirated heppinn ‘lucky’ r (1) rolled, as in Scottish English gøra ‘[to] do’ (2) as r (1), but followed by d barn ‘child’ 18 Pronunciation and orthography

rr as r (1), but long verri ‘worse’ s as in English this reisa ‘[to] raise’ ss the same sound, but long áss ‘beam’ t as in English tug tƒnn ‘tooth’ tt the same sound, but preaspirated nótt ‘night’ v as in English very vera ‘[to] be’ ﬂ as in English think ﬂing ‘assembly’ › as in English this jƒr› ‘earth’ x two sounds, as in Scots lochs øx ‘axe’ z as in English this góz ‘property’

Notes: f Pronunciation (1) occurs in initial position (i.e. at the beginning of words), pronunciation (2) in medial and final position (i.e. in the middle or at the end of words); (3) occurs immediately before l and n (except where a consonant follows, in which case fl may be pronounced as in English flat before a voiceless and as in English naval before a voiced consonant, and fn as m (e.g. fíflt ‘seduced [pp.]’, fífldi ‘seduced [3rd sg. past]’, hefndi ‘avenged [3rd sg. past]’). g Pronunciation (1) occurs initially before á, a, ó, o, ú, u, ø, ƒ, au and consonants, medially before l and n (e.g. sigla ‘[to] sail’) and also between consonants and a or u (e.g. saurga ‘[to] dirty’), and finally after consonants (e.g. ﬂing); pronunciation (2) occurs initially before e, í, i, ‡, y, æ, œ, ei, ey and j, and medially between consonants and i or j (e.g. helgi ‘holiness’); (3) occurs before s and t (e.g. hugsa ‘[to] think’); (4) occurs between vowels and a, u, r or ›, and finally after vowels; (5) occurs between vowels and i or j. gg Pronunciation (1) occurs between vowels and a, u, r or v, and in final position; (2) occurs between vowels and i or j; (3) occurs before t. h Pronunciation (2) occurs before é and j, (3) before v, (1) in all other positions. k Pronunciation (2) occurs before e, í, i, ‡, y, æ, œ, ei, ey and j, (3) before s and t, (1) in all other positions. kk Pronunciation (2) occurs between a vowel and i or j, (3) before s and t, (1) in all other positions; preaspiration means that a Modern Icelandic 19

puff of air similar to the one expelled after k, p or t in (southern) English keg, put and take precedes the kk. ll Pronunciation (1) occurs before consonants other than n and r, (2) between vowels and before n and r. n Pronunciation (2) occurs before g and k, (1) in all other positions. nn Pronunciation (2) occurs following all vowels with an acute accent (e.g. á), as well as æ, œ and the diphthongs au, ei, ey, (1) following other vowels. p Pronunciation (2) occurs before k, s and t, (1) in all other positions. pp Concerning preaspiration, see the note on kk. r Pronunciation (2) occurs in the clusters rl and rn where they appear between vowels or in final position, (1) elsewhere. s Never sounded as in English rise, always as in goose. tt Concerning preaspiration, see the note on kk.

The pronunciation of modern Icelandic consonants involves many subtleties which it would be out of place to describe in a brief account such as this. The following may, however, be noted. (1) The voice- lessness of b(b), d(d) and g(g) signifies that these consonants are pronounced much like their English equivalents (fairly laxly and with no following puff of air as with p, t, k), but without the use of the vocal cords. (2) There is a tendency to unvoice voiced consonants in voiceless environment (in particular when they immediately precede k, p, s, t: this is the norm in southern Icelandic pronunciation). (3) The clusters hl, hn and hr denote voiceless l, n, r (there is nothing like this in English: try pronouncing l, n and r without using the vocal cords). (4) Long consonants tend to be shortened when they occur immediately before another consonant (e.g. ﬂykkna ‘[to] thicken’, brenndi ‘burnt [3rd sg. past]’). (5) Preaspiration (see above) occurs where k, p or t precede l, m or n as well as before kk, pp and tt (e.g. vakna ‘[to] awake’, ætla ‘[to] intend’). (6) In clusters of more than two consonants, one or more may be altered or lost (e.g. rigndi ‘rained [3rd sg. past]’ is pronounced as though it were ringdi (the g not being sounded), barns ‘child [gen. n. sg.]’ as though it were bass). 20 Pronunciation and orthography

2.2.2 Consonants — Exercise

1. Of the written geminates bb, gg, ll, mm, nn, tt, which always denote long consonants in modern Icelandic? 2. How many different sounds can f denote, and what are they? 3. How many different sounds can g denote, and what are they? 4. Work through all the examples in 2.2.2, pronouncing each several times.

(See the note following the exercise at the end of 2.2.1.)

2.2.3 Syllables

The fact that vowel length is regulated by the length of following consonants means that in modern Icelandic there are effectively only two types of stressed syllable, both long:

(1) short vowel + long consonant or consonant cluster, e.g. blástr ‘blowing’, nótt ‘night’, rann ‘ran [1st/3rd sg. past]’, ƒnd ‘spirit’. (2) long vowel + short consonant or no consonant, e.g. ba› ‘bath’, hús ‘house’, fé ‘money’, gnúa ‘[to] rub’.

An exception to this pattern of distribution are clusters formed of k, p, s, or t + j, r or v, before which the vowel is always long. If both consonants are reckoned part of the syllable, it is clearly overlong, but conceivably only the first should be counted, so that in words like vekja ‘[to] wake’, daprar ‘sad [nom./acc. f. pl.]’, ﬂysja ‘[to] rush’, vƒkva ‘moisture’, etc., the syllable boundary would be placed immediately after k, p and s. Syllable boundaries are otherwise as outlined in 2.1.4.

2.2.4 The epenthetic vowel

Also called the svarabhakti vowel, this intrusive u-sound began to develop towards the end of the Old Norse period. Because it did not Modern Icelandic 21 originally form part of the words in which it is now found, and because of its relatively late arrival, the epenthetic vowel is not indicated in normalised Old Norse orthography. It develops between a consonant (other than r) and r, especially an r in final position. Thus ON ma›r ‘man [nom. m. sg.]’, dapr ‘sad [nom. m. sg.]’, eitr ‘poison [nom./acc. n. sg.]’, bindr ‘tie(s) [2nd/3rd sg. pres.]’, for example, are pronounced ma›ur, dapur, eitur, bindur (the first three with long stressed vowels because only a single consonant immediately follows) — and so written in modern Icelandic orthography.

2.2.3/2.2.4 Syllables/The epenthetic vowel — Exercise

1. What feature of length characterises stressed syllables in modern Icelandic? 2. What is the epenthetic vowel? 3. How does the occurrence of the epenthetic vowel affect the use of modern Icelandic pronunciation for Old Norse?

It should be stressed that section 2.2 is offered simply as an initial guide to help those learners who wish to pronounce Old Norse as a living language. For a detailed, if slightly old-fashioned, description of the sounds of modern Icelandic, see Stefán Einarsson 1945, 1–31; for a briefer but more recent analysis, see Höskuldur Thráinsson 1994, 142–52. As urged above, such accounts should preferably be studied in conjunction with recordings of spoken Icelandic. 22 Morphology and syntax 3. Morphology and Syntax

Morphology deals with the form and structure of words, and syntax with the ways in which words are combined to form sentences. In section 3 we shall be concentrating on inflexional morphology (changes in word-form that express grammatical categories and relationships, sometimes called accidence) and the ways in which it interrelates with syntax. In dealing with a language like Old Norse, where grammatical categories such as number, gender, case, person, tense (see below and 3.2, 3.6.1, 3.6.2) are expressed by variation in word-form, it is unhelpful to divide the inflexions from the syntax, as has been common practice in earlier grammars. The student needs to appreciate from the outset that form and function are interlinked: the form has no purpose other than to express the function, and often the function cannot be expressed without the form.

3.1 Noun inflexions and their function

Nouns in Old Norse are inflected for number and case.

3.1.1 Number

Number in nouns is restricted to a difference between singular and plural, as in English boy, foot compared with boys, feet. Thus ON hlí› means ‘slope’, hlí›ir ‘slopes’, ma›r ‘man’, menn ‘men’. (On the relationship between number in nouns and number in verbs, see 3.6.1.)

3.1.2 Case

Case is a much more complex matter than number. It is sometimes defined as a grammatical category that expresses the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence. While true as far as it goes, this definition is too abstract for our purposes. It gives no indication of how to recognise case. It does not explain what syntactic relations are, Noun inflexions and their function 23 how they are, or may be, expressed, or the nature of the link between the means of expression and the thing expressed. In modern English a few words change form according to their function in a sentence. Thus we say (as a complete sentence):

I saw him but

He saw me not:

*Me saw he or

*Him saw I

This change of form between I and me and he and him according to function provides a clear example of what is traditionally called case: a particular form expresses a particular syntactic relation — in these examples subject (I, he; see pp. 31–2) or object (me, him; see pp. 32–3). For the most part, however, modern English expresses syntactic relationship by other means than changes in the form of words. We may say both:

John saw the cat in which John is subject and the cat object, and:

The cat saw John in which the roles are reversed, but it is the word-order that signals the function (as it does additionally in I saw him and he saw me) not the particular forms of the words involved, which do not change. Another common means of expressing syntactic relationship in English is by the use of function words (words which have little or no meaning on their own) such as of, with, than. In: 24 Morphology and syntax

The king of England for example, of England modifies king, in much the same way as would the addition of the adjective English. In:

He broke it with a stone with a stone is an adverbial (3.5.4) expressing instrumentality (i.e. defining the ‘tool’ or ‘instrument’ used to cause the breakage). In:

My brother is taller than me than me supplies the part of the comparative phrase that denotes the entity with which the comparison is made. Where English uses word-order or function words to indicate syntactic relationship, Old Norse regularly uses changes of word-form instead or as well. This means that not only pronouns, but nouns and adjectives (and also verbs and adverbs, as to some extent in English), are likely to change form according to their relationship to other parts of the sentence. It is their form that — wholly or partly — specifies their grammatical role, as with I/me in English. English has traces of such a system in the -’s (singular) or -s’ (plural) that may be added to nouns. Instead of saying (or writing) the king of England as above, for example, we may alternatively use England’s king; instead of the comfort of passengers, passengers’ comfort. However, the Old Norse system is vastly more complex than anything in English. Its heavy reliance on form to indicate a variety of functions means that a simple two-way distinction like that between English I and me or England and England’s offers a wholly inadequate parallel. Old Norse nouns, adjectives and pronouns exhibit four distinctive case-forms, known as nominative, accusative, genitive and dative. This means that a noun (or adjective or pronoun) potentially has eight different actual forms (four in the singular, four in the plural), but in reality most have fewer because the same form occurs in more than one case. The number of functions expressed by these case-forms greatly ex- ceeds four. This means that no case is uniquely associated with a particular function: each is used in a variety of ways. The accusative, for Noun inflexions and their function 25 example, commonly marks the object of a verb (as English him in I saw him; see pp. 32–3), but among other functions it also expresses duration of, or point in, time, as well as occurring after a number of prepositions (see 3.7). The following sentences (each accompanied by a literal and an idiomatic English translation) illustrate these three possibilities (the words in the accusative form are in bold):

Hann orti vísu ﬂessa ‘He made verse this’ ‘He made this verse’ (object)

Hann dval›isk ﬂar mestan hluta sumars ‘He stayed-sk [see 3.6.5.3] there most part of-summer’ ‘He stayed there for most of the summer’ (time)

ﬁeir gengu á skóg ‘They went into wood’ ‘They went into the wood’ (after preposition á)

‘Case-form’ in relation to the nominative, accusative, genitive and dative has so far been used in an abstract sense. In reality, we are dealing not with one nominative, accusative, genitive or dative form, but with many (see the three examples just given). Thus to a question like: ‘What is the nominative singular form of nouns in Old Norse?’ there is no answer, only a return question: ‘Which kind of noun do you have in mind?’ Common nominative singular noun endings are -r, -i, -a, but there are others besides these, and a large group of nouns indicates this ‘form’ by exhibiting no ending at all. It is time now to return to the starting point of the discussion: the definition of case. Three questions were thrown up by the definition initially suggested. (1) What are syntactic relations? (2) How are or may they be expressed? (3) What is the nature of the link between the means of expression and the thing expressed? In answer to the first question discussion and examples of common syntactic relations have been offered. In answer to the second it has been shown that change in word-form, word-order, and the use of function words are all important ways of expressing syntactic relations. The third question on the nature of the link between syntactic relations and the means by which 26 Morphology and syntax they are expressed bears more directly on the understanding of case. There are two main issues. First, what can be usefully recognised as case, and what not? Second, in so far as case is identified primarily as the expression of syntactic relations by changes in word-form, where is case to be found — in the syntactic relations or in the differing word-forms? Some have identified case in English sentences like John saw the cat or phrases like the king of England. This is either because they were arbitrarily transferring the rules of another language (as often as not Latin) to English, where the rules do not necessarily apply, or because they related case primarily to the level of meaning. Neither approach seems likely to be helpful in the learning of Old Norse. The rules of Old Norse must be derived from Old Norse itself, not from Latin or any other language, and seeing case in terms of meaning ignores the fact that in Old Norse form is also a crucial factor. For present purposes, therefore, case would seem a term best restricted to the expression of syntactic relations by changes in word-form. There are difficulties here, though, that have already been alluded to. Case as thus defined refers both to form and function and denotes entities — nominative, accusative, etc. — that have a variety of forms and a variety of functions. It can therefore be hard to see what the essence of a case is — leading to uncertainty about what one means by the term. Is the Old Norse accusative, for example, the sum of the inflexions by which certain syntactic relations are expressed or the sum of those syntactic relations? There is no clear answer to this question. Never- theless it seems that most writers conceive of case in a language like Old Norse primarily as a morphological category: they prefer to think of the different inflexions a case may exhibit as varying realisations of a single underlying form than to think of its differing functions as somehow derived from a single abstract meaning — and indeed the latter idea does require considerably greater intellectual elasticity. We will therefore adopt the concept of morphological case here. We will consider, for example, the -r, -i, -a etc. endings of nouns in the nominative singular to be realisations of an underlying form NOM in its singular incarnation. The morphological category thus established as primary can then be seen as having a range of different functions. The upshot of this discussion is that there are four cases in Old Norse: nominative, accusative, genitive and dative. The cases are regarded as Noun inflexions and their function 27 relating primarily to form, although there is no single nominative, accusative, genitive or dative form as such. Each case expresses a range of syntactic relations. The student’s task is therefore twofold: to learn to recognise one case from another by mastering the essential inflexions, while simultaneously getting a grasp of the principal syntactic relations expressed by each case.

3.1.3 Gender

As well as number and case, the role of gender in the inflexion of Old Norse nouns needs to be considered. Gender is an inherent category of the noun, that is, it is only when a noun is modified or referred to that its gender becomes manifest. There is, for example, nothing about the word dalr ‘valley’ to show that it is masculine rather than feminine or neuter, but if it is modified by an adjective, that adjective will appear in the appropriate masculine form, e.g. djúpr dalr ‘deep valley’ where djúp- is the root of the word and -r the nom. m. sg. ending (see 3.3.4). Similarly, if we wish to refer to a valley as ‘it’, it must be by the masculine form of the personal pronoun: hann ‘he’. While there is thus nothing gender-specific about any individual Old Norse noun in its dictionary form, it is nevertheless true that gender plays a part in the inflexional system of nouns, if only a minor one. Most masculines, for example, end in -r or -i in the nominative singular, and many feminines in -a; neuters are characterised in both singular and plural by a lack of distinction between nominative and accusative, and many have no specific nom./acc. pl. inflexion either (so that kvæ›i ‘poem’, for example, may be nom. or acc. sg. or pl.). However, given that none of the above features (except the nom./acc. sg./pl. identity of neuters) is totally restricted to one particular gender, they cannot be classed as gender markers in the same way as the forms of modifying adjectives or of anaphoric pronouns (pronouns that refer back to some previously expressed meaning, as, for example, it referring to valley above). What the features do offer is guidance about the likely gender of a noun — a useful insight since it can help (a) to see which words in a sentence belong together and (b) to predict what forms a given noun will have other than the particular one encountered. 28 Morphology and syntax

3.1.1/3.1.2/3.1.3 Number/Case/Gender — Exercise

1. What does the grammatical category number refer to? Give examples from Old Norse. 2. What does the grammatical category case refer to? Give examples from Old Norse. 3. What does the grammatical category gender refer to? Give examples from Old Norse. 4. To what extent does case occur in English? 5. In what ways other than change in word-form can syntactic relations be expressed? 6. Which cases are found in Old Norse, and how do we recognise them?

3.1.4 Basic noun inflexions

In learning the inflexions of Old Norse it is important not to lose sight of the wood for the trees. This is not least true of the noun inflexions. If account were taken of every minor variation, it would be possible to list pages of paradigms (patterns of inflexion), as some grammars do, but that is likely to put the learner off and thus be counter-productive. Initially it is the essential patterns that need to be grasped. The small details can be added bit by bit. (Students keen to see the complete range of inflexions are recommended to consult one of the more traditional Old Norse grammars. In English there is Gordon 1957, in Nor- wegian Iversen 1973 and in German Noreen 1923. Less traditional grammars in Norwegian are Spurkland 1989 and Haugen 2001, the latter particularly systematic and lucid. An exhaustive account of modern Icelandic inflexions is given in Thomson 1987.) Fundamentally there are two types of noun inflexion in Old Norse, traditionally known as strong and weak. The student should not look for any deep significance in these names. They have none. The two types could as well be called ‘A’ and ‘B’ or ‘1’ and ‘2’. Strong nouns have a wider range of endings than the weak; weak nouns tend mostly to end in -a, -i or -u. The strong and weak inflexional types can be sub-divided according to gender (cf. above). With three genders, masculine (m.), femi- Noun inflexions and their function 29 nine (f.) and neuter (n.), this gives us six basic sets of endings. They are as follows (~ = zero, i.e. there is no ending, the form consisting of the root of the noun alone — e.g. dal ‘valley’, acc. m. sg.; ( ) = the ending does not always occur; actual paradigms are given in 3.1.8).

Strong masculine

Sg. nom. -r Pl. nom. -ar/-ir acc. ~ acc. -a/-i/-u gen. -s/-ar gen. -a dat. -(i) dat. -um

Weak masculine

Sg. nom. -i Pl. nom. -ar acc. -a acc. -a gen. -a gen. -a dat. -a dat. -um

Strong feminine

Sg. nom. ~ Pl. nom. -ar/-ir acc. ~ acc. -ar/-ir gen. -ar gen. -a dat. ~ dat. -um

Weak feminine

Sg. nom. -a Pl. nom. -ur acc. -u acc. -ur gen. -u gen. -na dat. -u dat. -um 30 Morphology and syntax

Strong neuter

Sg. nom. ~ Pl. nom. ~ acc. ~ acc. ~ gen. -s gen. -a dat. -i dat. -um

Weak neuter

Sg. nom. -a Pl. nom. -u acc. -a acc. -u gen. -a gen. -na dat. -a dat. -um

Certain regularities and patterns will be observed in these endings.

(1) The dat. pl. always ends in -um. (2) The gen. pl. always ends in -a, in the case of the weak feminines and neuters preceded by -n-. (3) There are no distinct case-forms in the weak sg. except in the nom. masculine and feminine. (4) The strong nom. sg. ends in -r or has no ending. (5) The strong acc. sg. is characterised by the absence of an inflexional ending. (6) The strong gen. sg. ends in -s or -ar. (7) The strong dat. sg. ends in -i or has no ending. (8) The masculine and feminine nom. pl. end in -a, -i or -u + r. (9) The masculine acc. pl. ends in -a, -i or -u, and the feminine acc. pl. in -a, -i or -u + r.

These are the essentials of noun inflexion in Old Norse. It is by no means the whole story, but all other noun inflexions can be seen as variations on this basic pattern. It is vitally important that the student masters the above sets of endings before proceeding to the finer detail. Noun inflexions and their function 31

3.1.4 Basic noun inflexions — Exercise

1. Where is a difference between the nom. and acc. pl. to be found? 2. How many endings does the gen. pl. exhibit? 3. What characterises the singular inflexions of strong feminines? 4. What characterises the singular inflexions of weak masculines and feminines? 5. In what way do the plural inflexions of strong neuter nouns differ from those of strong masculines and feminines? 6. What are the different nom. sg. endings? 7. What are the different gen. sg. endings? 8. What are the different dat. sg. endings?

3.1.5 Examples of noun usage

To assist in the task of learning, examples will now be given of a selection of the different noun case-forms in function. The relevant inflexions are in bold (or the whole word where there is no difference from the root form). Two translations are normally provided, the first literal for a better understanding of the structure of the Old Norse sentence, the second idiomatic. Notes explain the relationship between form and function. Compare the case-forms used with those set out on pp. 29–30. Observe, too, the differences between Old Norse and Eng- lish phraseology and sentence formation.

(1) Ger›isk Eiríkr ﬂá konungsma›r ‘Made-sk [see 3.6.5.3] Eiríkr then king’s-man’ ‘Eiríkr then became a king’s man’

Eiríkr (strong nom. m. sg.) is the subject, konungsma›r (strong nom. m. sg.) the subject complement; for both subject and subject complement the nominative is almost always the case used. Subject is an extremely hard concept to get to grips with; it is sometimes loosely defined as ‘what the sentence is about’; where the verb denotes an action, the subject is often the agent, or ‘doer’ of the action. However, such definitions relate chiefly to meaning. Syn- tactically subjects may be defined both in English and Old Norse as the first noun phrase of a sentence in unmarked word-order (where ‘noun phrase’ means a noun or pronoun with or without accompanying modifiers — e.g. John, she, 32 Morphology and syntax the white-bearded old man — and ‘unmarked word-order’ word-order not deliberately altered for emphasis). The subject complement is Y in constructions like: X is Y, X becomes Y or X is called Y.

(2) Var bardagi milli ﬂeira ‘Was battle between them’ ‘There was a battle between them’

Bardagi (weak nom. m. sg.) is the subject, the first noun phrase in the sentence.

(3) Konur tvær vƒk›u yfir lei›inu ‘Women two watched over tomb-the’ ‘Two women kept a vigil over the tomb’

Konur (weak nom. f. pl.), modified by tvær, is the subject; it is the first noun phrase in the sentence and the women perform the action denoted by the verb vƒk›u. Lei›inu (strong dat. n. sg. + def. art. — see 3.1.9) does not function here as a noun phrase, but is part of the preposition phrase yfir lei›inu, in which the noun is governed (i.e. has its case determined) by the preposition yfir (see 3.7, 3.7.4).

(4) Vápn bíta ekki á hann ‘Weapons bite not on him’ ‘Weapons make no impression on him’

Vápn (strong nom. n. pl.) is the subject, the first noun phrase in the sentence; whether the weapons are seen as the agent, or ‘doer’, of the action, will depend partly on the wider context, partly on the analysis; normally a human agent wields weapons and the weapons are thus the instrument, but they can also be portrayed as agent.

(5) Hann tekr eigi mat né drykk ‘He takes not food nor drink’ ‘He takes neither food nor drink’

Mat and drykk (both strong acc. m. sg.) are objects of the verb tekr. Like subject, object is a hard concept to define; traditionally a distinction is made between ‘direct object’, the goal of an action, and ‘indirect object’ the beneficiary, as in: I sent Peter (indirect object) a letter (direct object), but such definitions have to do with meaning rather than syntax. Syntactically objects may Noun inflexions and their function 33 be defined both in English and Old Norse as the second and third noun phrases of a sentence in unmarked word-order, with the accusative commonly marking the direct and the dative regularly marking the indirect object in Old Norse, second position the indirect and third position the direct object (by and large) in English. Mat and drykk are both direct objects: they are the goal of the action, and whereas direct objects regularly appear unaccompanied by indirect objects, the reverse is very uncommon (cf. the impossibility of English *I gave him). The direct objects appear here in the accusative, the most common case for this function.

(6) ﬁeir báru ﬂar rei›a allan af skipinu ‘They bore there tackle all off ship-the’ ‘There they carried all the tackle off the ship’

Rei›a (weak acc. m. sg.), modified by allan, is the second noun phrase in the sentence and the direct object of the verb báru. Skipinu (strong dat. n. sg. + def. art.) does not function here as a noun phrase, but as part of the preposition phrase af skipinu, and its case is determined by the preposition af (see 3.7.3).

(7) Hann átti margar orrustur í Englandi ‘He had many battles in England’

Orrustur (weak acc. f. pl.), modified by margar, is the second noun phrase in the sentence and the direct object of the verb átti. Englandi (strong dat. n. sg.) is part of the preposition phrase í Englandi, and its case is determined by the preposition í (see 3.7.4).

(8) ﬁeir drukku ﬂar of daga í skála miklum ‘They drank there during days in hall big’ ‘They drank there by day in a big hall’

Daga (strong acc. m. pl.) is governed by the preposition of, skála (weak dat. m. sg.), + its modifier miklum, by the preposition í.

(9) Lát ﬂér ﬂat ekki í augu vaxa ‘Let to-you that not into eyes grow’ ‘Don’t make a mountain of it’

This is an idiomatic phrase, of which Old Norse has its fair share. Augu (weak acc. n. pl.) is governed by the preposition í, which requires the accusative here because a sense of motion is involved (contrast examples 7 and 8). 34 Morphology and syntax

(10) Dval›isk Brúsi litla hrí› ‘Stayed-sk [see 3.6.5.3] Brúsi little while’ ‘Brúsi stayed for a short time’

Brúsi (weak nom. m. sg.) is the subject; it is the first noun phrase in the sentence and the man bearing the name performs the action denoted by the verb dval›isk. Hrí› (strong acc. f. sg.), modified by litla, is an adverbial phrase expressing duration of time (it answers the question: ‘How long?’).

(11) Hann hefndi dráps fiorgríms ‘He avenged killing of-fiorgrímr’ ‘He avenged the killing of fiorgrímr’

Dráps (strong gen. n. sg.), the second noun phrase of the sentence, is the direct object of the verb hefndi; hefna is one of the few verbs that take a direct object in the genitive. fiorgríms (strong gen. m. sg.) is an objective genitive, that is, it corresponds to English ‘of fiorgrímr’ and presents fiorgrímr as the object or goal of an action (cf. ‘NN killed fiorgrímr’).

(12) Hann sendi ﬂá vestr at leita ƒndvegissúlna sinna ‘He sent them west to seek high-seat-posts REFL. POSS.’ ‘He sent them west to look for his high-seat posts’

¯ndvegissúlna (weak gen. f. pl.), modified by sinna, is the direct object of the verb leita. It comes in an infinitive clause (i.e., we have the infinitive at leita ‘to seek’, but only an implied subject). A full sentence might run: ﬂeir leitu›u ƒndvegissúlna ‘they sought the high-seat posts’, in which the direct object would be the second noun phrase.

(13) Gunnarr var eina nótt at Sigrí›ar, frændkonu sinnar ‘Gunnarr was one night at Sigrí›r’s, kinswoman’s REFL. POSS.’ ‘Gunnarr stayed one night at Sigrí›r’s, his kinswoman’s’

Gunnarr (strong nom. m. sg.), the first noun phrase in the sentence, is the subject; he does the staying. Nótt (strong acc. f. sg.), modified by eina, is an adverbial phrase expressing duration of time. Sigrí›ar (strong gen. f. sg.) and frændkonu (weak gen. f. sg.) + sinnar are subjective (possessive) genitives, that is, they correspond to English ‘-’s’ and present Sigrí›r, the kinswoman, as the owner of the house where Gunnarr stayed (cf. ‘NN owns the house’); note that ‘house’ is not expressed in the Old Norse sentence, paralleling English usage as above or in, e.g., I am at Peter’s. Noun inflexions and their function 35

(14) Ingólfr var frægastr allra landnámsmanna ‘Ingólfr was most-famous of-all settlers’ ‘Ingólfr was most famous of all the settlers’

Ingólfr (strong nom. m. sg.) is the subject, the first noun phrase in the sentence and what it is about. Landnámsmanna (strong gen. m. pl.), modified by allra, is a genitive of type, that is, it corresponds to English ‘of the settlers’ and presents landnámsmenn as a type of which Ingólfr is a representative.

(15) Hann bar hann til vatns nƒkkurs ‘He bore him to lake some’ ‘He carried him to a certain lake’

Vatns (strong gen. n. sg.), modified by nƒkkurs, is governed by the preposition til.

(16) Eigi leyna augu ef ann kona manni ‘Not hide eyes if loves woman man’ ‘The eyes do not hide it if a woman loves a man’

This is an adage, consisting of two sentences. Augu (weak nom. n. pl.), the first (and only) noun phrase in sentence 1, is the subject of the verb leyna; the eyes fail to perform the action denoted by the verb. Kona (weak nom. f. sg.) is the subject of the verb ann, the first noun phrase in sentence 2 and what it is about. Manni (strong dat. m. sg.) is the direct object of ann, the second noun phrase; a good many verbs take a direct object in the dative.

(17) Hon skyldi bera ƒl víkingum ‘She should bear beer to-vikings’ ‘She was to serve beer to the vikings’

¯l (strong acc. n. sg.) is the direct object of the verb bera; it is the goal of the action and the second noun phrase in the sentence. Víkingum (strong dat. m. pl.) is the indirect object of bera; it denotes the beneficiary of the action and is the third noun phrase. In English the indirect object may be expressed by a preposition phrase (‘to the vikings’) or word-order (‘She was to serve the vikings beer’ — indirect object before direct); in Old Norse the indirect object appears in the dative.

(18) ﬁeir hétu Rƒgnvaldi traustri fylg› ‘They promised Rƒgnvaldr firm support’ 36 Morphology and syntax

Rƒgnvaldi (strong dat. m. sg.) is the indirect, fylg› (strong dat. f. sg.), modified by traustri, the direct object of hétu. As noted in connection with (16), many verbs take a direct object in the dative, and heita ‘promise’ is among these.

(19) ﬁeir ljá jarli lífs ‘They grant earl life’ ‘They spare the earl’s life’

Jarli (strong dat. m. sg.) is the indirect, lífs (strong gen. n. sg.) the direct object of ljá. As noted in connection with (11), a few verbs take a direct object in the genitive, and ljá ‘grant’ is among these.

(20) Hann kastar beinum smám um ﬂvert gólfit ‘He throws bones small over crossways floor-the’ ‘He throws small bones across the floor’

Beinum (strong dat. n. pl.), modified by smám, has instrumental sense; in Old Norse people are conceived as throwing with something (cf. the close semantic relationship between English: He threw water onto the ground and He splashed the ground with water). Instrumentality in Old Norse is expressed either by the dative on its own or by the preposition me› ‘with’ + dat. Gólfit (strong acc. n. sg. + def. art.), modified by ﬂvert, is governed by the preposition um.

(21) Hon var hverri konu frí›ari ‘She was than-every woman more-beautiful’ ‘She was more beautiful than any other woman’

Konu (weak dat. f. sg.), modified by hverri, is the second proposition in a comparative construction — the proposition denoting the entity with which the comparison is made (i.e., taking every other woman as the basis — the standard by which ‘she’ is to be judged — ‘she’ is more beautiful); in Old Norse the basis of the comparison may be expressed either by the dative, as here, or by the conjunction en ‘than’ (3.8, 3.8.2.4) + the appropriate case.

(22) Váru dyrr á enda ‘Was doorway on end’ ‘There was a doorway at the end’

Dyrr (nom. f. pl.) is the first noun phrase in the sentence and the subject. It has only plural forms, although it corresponds to the English singular ‘doorway’. Noun inflexions and their function 37

These forms are also in part irregular (see 3.1.7.2, 3.1.7.4), and the nom. f. pl. is indicated by other means than the adding of -a, -i or -u + r to the root. Enda (weak dat. m. sg.) is governed by the preposition á.

3.1.5 Examples of noun usage — Exercise

1. What are the principal functions of the nominative case in Old Norse? 2. What cases are used to denote the direct object? 3. What role do prepositions play in the assignment of case? 4. Account for the use of all the genitives in the above examples. 5. What case is used to denote the indirect object? 6. How is instrumentality expressed? 7. What is the role of the dative case in comparative constructions? 8. Where may the accusative be found other than as a marker of the direct object?

3.1.6 Difficulties in recognising noun inflexions and ways of overcoming them

Unfortunately it is not enough just to learn the endings listed in the tables in 3.1.4. For one thing, Old Norse nouns ring the changes on a relatively small number of endings. We find little other than the vowels -a, -i, -u or the consonants -r, -s on their own, or -a, -i, -u in conjunction with the consonants -m, -n, -r. This parsimony has the effect that the same ending may be found in a variety of different cases. While -s clearly signals the genitive singular, and -um the dative plural, for example, -ar may be genitive singular or nominative or accusative plural, and -a can denote any case in the singular as well as accusative and genitive plural. Very often the context can determine which number and case a particular form represents. It will be clear from the overall sense of the sentence and the passage of which it forms a part — and usually, too, from the forms of words dependent on the noun: their number, and regularly their case and gender as well. Thus in the example sentence (4):

Vápn bíta ekki á hann 38 Morphology and syntax we know that vápn is plural because the verb-form bíta, dependent on the number of the subject (see 3.6.1), is also plural (cf. English dogs bite as opposed to John bites). Since vápn has no plural ending we may further deduce that it is neuter — though this deduction is in itself no help in gauging the role of the noun in the sentence, since we have already established that it is the subject and plural. In sentence (10):

Dval›isk Brúsi litla hrí› we can tell from the agreement between the noun form hrí› and the adjective form litla that we are dealing with the accusative feminine singular. ‘Agreement’ means that there is a formal relationship between the two words, expressed by their having the same case, gender and number (see further 3.3.1), and since litla can only be acc. f. sg. or acc. m. pl. (see 3.3.9, paradigm 9), and hrí› cannot be acc. m. pl., the case, gender and number they have in common must be acc. f. sg. Having established that, we may further deduce that accusative case in conjunction with a verb meaning ‘stayed’ (dval›isk) — and given the sense of hrí› (‘while’ ‘short time’) — indicates duration of time. In (6):

ﬁeir báru ﬂar rei›a allan af skipinu it is the form of the agreeing adjective, allan ‘all’, which shows that of the various cases rei›a might be, singular or plural, it is in fact accusative singular, the adjective ending -an denoting acc. m. sg. alone (see 3.3.4). That it is accusative means it is likely to be the direct object of the verb báru ‘carried’ (examination of the other words in the sentence and their forms will in fact show that to be the only possible analysis). That it is singular is of little consequence, since rei›i does not normally appear in the plural (any more than ‘tackle’ in English). That it is masculine is of importance to the extent that when used with a function that requires accusative case, the agreeing adjective will show the case, gender and number unambiguously. Noun inflexions and their function 39

3.1.6 Difficulties in recognising noun inflexions and ways of overcoming them — Exercise

1. Why may it sometimes be difficult to recognise the case and number of nouns in Old Norse? 2. What means can we use to help deduce their case and number?

3.1.7 Important variations in noun inflexion

A further problem for the learner of Old Norse is that the endings listed so far are by no means the whole story (cf., e.g., dyrr, nom. f. pl., in example sentence 22). To be reasonably sure of recognising a particular case-form for what it is, the student needs to be aware of additional features that play their part in noun inflexion. These will now be examined.

3.1.7.1 Labial mutation

Mutation, sometimes known by the German term Umlaut, occurs where the vowel of a stressed syllable adopts one or more of the features of the vowel or semi-vowel of the immediately following unstressed syllable. The vowel u and the semi-vowel w (the latter written ‘v’ in standardised Old Norse spelling) are labial sounds, that is, they are pronounced with rounded lips. Rounding is thus one of the features that characterise them. This feature is regularly adopted by a preceding stressed a, so instead of appearing as a it takes the form ƒ, i.e. it is pronounced like a with lip-rounding (see 2.1.1). In fact, it is a rule of Old Norse that a cannot appear before u or v in the next syllable. A noun with a in the root will therefore always change that a to ƒ when the ending consists of or contains a u. Thus, the dative plural of the nouns ma›r ‘man’, bardagi ‘battle’, and vatn ‘lake’, which appear in the example sentences, is mƒnnum, bardƒgum, vƒtnum (see paradigms 2, 9, 26 below). A weak feminine noun like saga ‘story’ has root a only in the nominative singular and genitive plural; the remaining forms are sƒgu (acc./gen./dat. sg.), sƒgur (nom./acc. pl.) and sƒgum (dat. pl., see paradigm 23). Likewise, the weak neuter hjarta ‘heart’ has the nom./acc. pl. forms hjƒrtu and dat. hjƒrtum. 40 Morphology and syntax

The rule that root a changes to ƒ before u should not cause the learner problems, as long as s/he remembers that an unknown word with ƒ in the root and u in the ending must be looked up in a dictionary as though it had root a if it cannot be found there with root ƒ. For example, stjƒrnur (nom./acc. pl.), fjƒru (acc./gen./dat. sg.), dƒlum, grƒnnum (both dat. pl.) will be found not under stjƒ-, fjƒ-, dƒ-, grƒ-, but under stjarna ‘star’, fjara ‘shore’, dalr ‘valley’, granni ‘neighbour’. Somewhat greater difficulties are caused for the learner by the fact that strong feminine and neuter nouns may exhibit root ƒ in certain forms even though no u or v follows. The reason for the occurrence of ƒ here is the presence of a following u at an earlier stage of the language. This u caused a to develop to ƒ and was subsequently lost (e.g. nom./acc. n. pl. *landu > lƒnd ‘countries’). The forms concerned are: nominative, accusative and dative feminine singular and nominative and accusative neuter plural. In addition, a small group of masculine nouns (several of them very common) has root ƒ in the nominative and accusative singular. If the feminine or masculine nouns are met with in forms with root ƒ, no problem arises for the learner, since the nominative singular is also the entry form in dictionaries. For neuter plurals with root ƒ, however, root a must be substituted before the word is sought in a dictionary, e.g. fjƒll ‘mountains’, lƒnd ‘countries’ will be found under fjall, land (see paradigm 26). Difficulties with masculines and feminines of this type occur where a form other than one with root ƒ is encountered. The bulk of the feminines are the least troublesome: in the genitive singular, nominative, accusative and genitive plural these have root a, so the process of looking such words up is simply the reverse of that which applies in the case of those like stjƒrnur, fjƒru, dƒlum, or grƒnnum. For example, kvalar (gen. sg. or nom./acc. pl.), hafnar (gen. sg.), hafnir (nom./ acc. pl.), kvala, hafna (gen. pl.) will be found not under *kval or *hafn, but under kvƒl ‘torment’, and hƒfn ‘harbour’ (see paradigm 12). The residual feminines and the masculines with original root a present a more complex picture in that it is only in the genitive singular and plural that a appears. In the remaining forms, where there is or has been no u in the endings (automatically triggering a > ƒ, cf. above), i.e., dative singular and nominative (also analogically accusative) plural masculine, nominative and accusative plural feminine, we most often find root e, though sometimes i (see 3.1.7.2). Thus vallar (gen. sg.), Noun inflexions and their function 41 valla (gen. pl.), velli (dat. sg.), vellir (nom. pl.) should all be looked up under vƒllr ‘field’, m., fjar›ar (gen. sg.), fjar›a (gen. pl.), fir›i (dat. sg.), fir›ir (nom. pl.) under fjƒr›r ‘fjord’, m., strandar (gen. sg.), stranda (gen. pl.), strendr (nom./acc. pl.) under strƒnd ‘beach’, f. (see paradigms 4, 5, 18). U-mutation affects unstressed as well as stressed syllables. In unstressed syllables, however, it results in u, thus enabling the mutation to spread further. The strong masculine noun fƒgnu›r ‘joy’, for example, comes ultimately from *fagna›uz via the intermediate forms, first *fagnƒ›uz and then *fagnu›uz. The u-mutated forms — nom. and acc. sg. and dat. pl.: fƒgnu›r, fƒgnu›, fƒgnu›um — thus contrast markedly with the other parts of the paradigm whose root is fagna›- (see paradigm 6). A strong neuter noun like sumar ‘summer’ has nom. and acc. pl. sumur (< *sumuru < *sumƒru < *sumaru) (paradigm 27).

3.1.7.1 Labial mutation — Exercise

1. What does the term ‘mutation’ (‘Umlaut’) refer to? 2. In what circumstances does root a change to ƒ in Old Norse? 3. Look up the following nouns in an Old Norse dictionary or in the Glossary in NION III and write down the entry forms you find: nƒfnum (n.), gƒtur (f.), vƒku (f.), ƒrmum (m.). 4. In which cases, genders and numbers can we expect to find root ƒ where no u follows in the next syllable? 5. Look up the following nouns in an Old Norse dictionary or in the Glossary in NION III and write down the entry forms you find: gjƒld (n.), lƒmb (n.), raddar (f.), sagnir (f.), hatta (m.), vaxtar (m.).

3.1.7.2 Front mutation

Front mutation, in common with its labial counterpart, mainly concerns the adoption by the vowel of a stressed syllable of a feature of the vowel or semi-vowel of the immediately following unstressed syllable. Here, however, the principal conditioning factors were the front vowel i and the front semi-vowel j. So-called ‘palatal r’ (or z, as in *kuz/*kuR, which developed to k‡r, see below), and the combined 42 Morphology and syntax influence of earlier -ge, -ke (as in *dage, which became degi, see below) — as well as analogical levelling (the restructuring of forms by the force of analogy) — also played their part in this process. All the conditioning sounds are likely to have been pronounced with the front of the tongue raised close to its maximum height, and their presence had the effect of turning a preceding back vowel (one pronounced with the back of the tongue raised or lowered) into its front counterpart. Thus ó, for example, which is a mid-high back vowel (the back of the tongue is raised to above mid-height, but not to its full extent), became œ, a mid-high front vowel, when an i, j or other ‘conditioner’ followed. That is why the masculine noun fótr ‘foot’ and the feminine bók ‘book’ have nominative plurals fœtr, bœkr respectively (see paradigms 7 and 19). As these introductory remarks and examples suggest, front mutation, unlike the labial variety, is very much a historical process (it is also common to most Germanic languages, cf. English foot — feet, man — men, German Fuß — Füße, Mann — Männer). It occurred at a stage of Scandinavian language development that preceded Old Norse, and had ceased to be productive some time before the Old Norse period. This has two important consequences for the recognition of inflexions. First, we find an unstressed i that does not cause front mutation because it arose after the period when mutation was taking place, e.g. dat. m. sg. armi ‘arm’ (< *arme). This circumstance makes it impossible to formulate a hard-and-fast rule (like a > ƒ before u, v) stating which stressed vowels we can expect to find immediately preceding i. Second, the i, j or other conditioner triggering the fronting may no longer be present (very often it is not — cf. fœtr and bœkr above, earlier forms of which were *fotiz, *bokiz). This latter situation is parallel to the loss of u in forms such as fjƒll ‘mountains’, hƒfn ‘harbour’, noted in 3.1.7.1. With such complications, what the learner of Old Norse needs to know are the front mutation products of the back vowels affected, so that s/he may recognise that fótr — fœtr or bók — bœkr, for example, are different forms of the same lexical item. It is further useful to know where in different paradigms to expect front-mutated root vowels. The back : front correspondences arising from front mutation, together with examples (contrasting nom. sg. with nom. pl. unless otherwise stated), are as follows: Noun inflexions and their function 43

a —— e (dagr —— degi ‘day’, nom. and dat. m. sg.) á —— æ (tá —— tær ‘toe’, f.) o —— ø (hnot —— hnøtr ‘nut’, f.) ó —— œ (bóndi —— bœndr ‘farmer’, m.) u —— y (dura —— dyrr ‘doorway’, gen. and nom. f. pl.) ú —— ‡ (mús —— m‡ss ‘mouse’, f.) au —— ey (aurar —— eyrir ‘ounce’, nom. m. pl. and sg.)

Occasionally o (from an earlier u) and ó (from an earlier lengthened a) can correspond to y and æ respectively (e.g. sonr —— synir ‘son’, m.; nótt —— nætr ‘night’, f.). The places where front mutation forms are to be expected in noun paradigms are: (1) nom., acc., gen. sg. of words (all masculine) ending in -ill (e.g. lykill ‘key’ — dat. sg. lukli, pl. forms all with root lukl-; see paradigm 3). (2) dat. sg. of certain masculines (notably those with root vowel ƒ in the nom. sg., e.g. hetti — nom. sg. hƒttr ‘hood’; birni — nom. sg. bjƒrn ‘bear’ (not strictly mutation, but often counted as such, see 3.1.7.3); fœti — nom. sg. fótr ‘foot’; see paradigms 4, 5 and 7). (3) nom. pl. of a good many masculines (again, notably those with root vowel ƒ in the nom. sg.) and feminines (e.g. kettir — nom. m. sg. kƒttr ‘cat’; ﬂættir — nom. m. sg. ﬂáttr ‘strand’, ‘short story’; fe›r — nom. m. sg. fa›ir ‘father’; hendr — nom. f. sg. hƒnd ‘hand’; bœtr — nom. f. sg. bót ‘compensation’; k‡r — acc. f. sg. kú ‘cow’ (see (5) below); paradigms 5, 8, 18, 19, 21). (4) acc. pl. of a few masculines (and, in later texts, of most of those with root vowel ƒ in the nom. sg.) and all feminines included under (3) (e.g. fœtr — nom. m. sg. fótr ‘foot’; velli (as alternative to vƒllu) — nom. m. sg. vƒllr ‘field’ ‘ground’; fe›r, hendr, bœtr, k‡r — as under (3); paradigms 5, 7, 8, 18, 19, 21). Additional cases of front mutation in nouns, affecting only a few words, but often very common ones, are: (5) nom. and gen. sg. of the feminines k‡r ‘cow’; s‡r ‘sow’; ær ‘ewe’ (contrast acc. and dat. sg., gen. and dat. pl. of, e.g., k‡r: kú, kú, kúa, kúm; paradigm 21). (6) gen. sg. of certain feminines (e.g. bœkr — nom. sg. bók ‘book’; nætr — nom. sg. nátt ‘night’; the genitives of these feminines can also be found without mutation and with the more usual ending -ar; paradigm 19). 44 Morphology and syntax

(7) dat. sg., gen. and dat. pl. of four nouns of relationship: fa›ir ‘father’, m.; bró›ir ‘brother’, m.; mó›ir ‘mother’, f.; dóttir ‘daughter’, f. (e.g. fe›r, dat. sg., fe›ra, gen. pl., fe›rum, dat. pl.; mœ›r, dat. sg., mœ›ra, gen. pl., mœ›rum, dat. pl.; the dative singular of these nouns can also be found with the ending -ur, causing labial rather than front mutation in fa›ir; paradigms 8, 22). It is further worth noting a small group of weak masculines consisting of root + -and- suffix. These have front mutation in the nom. and acc. pl., but it affects the suffix only (e.g. dómandi ‘judge’, nom. and acc. pl. dómendr; with contraction of the suffix: bóndi (< búandi) ‘farmer’, nom./acc. pl. bœndr; paradigm 10).

3.1.7.2 Front mutation — Exercise

1. Which front-mutated vowels correspond with which back vowels? 2. In which parts of noun paradigms are front-mutated vowels to be expected? 3. Does front mutation ever affect other syllables than the initial? 4. Look up the following nouns in an Old Norse dictionary or in NION III and write down the entry forms you find: strendr (f.), rœtr (f.), mætti (m.), br‡r (f.), tugli (m.), erni (m.), eigendr (m.), katlar (m.).

3.1.7.3 Breaking

Like front mutation, breaking is a historical phenomenon. Its causes are disputed, but it results in a diphthong where earlier there was a single vowel sound, cf. ON jafn ‘even [adj.]’, hjƒr› ‘herd’, f., with the English and German counterparts even, eben and herd, Herde. Though there are many nouns in ON with a broken (diphthongised) root vowel, there are only a few where this alternates with unbroken varieties within the paradigm, causing difficulties of recognition for the learner. In a small group of masculine nouns conditions have favoured breaking in all cases except the dat. sg. and nom. pl., where the root vowel i (from earlier e) is found. While the acc. and gen. sg. and acc., gen. and dat. pl. of skjƒldr ‘shield’ are thus skjƒld, skjaldar, skjƒldu, skjalda, skjƒldum respectively, the dat. sg. and nom. pl. are skildi, skildir (see paradigm 4). All such nouns have root vowel jƒ in the nom. sg. Noun inflexions and their function 45

3.1.7.4 Deviations from the basic endings

Certain endings occur that do not accord with those given on pp. 29–30. We have already seen in 3.1.7.1 and 3.1.7.2 above that the nom. and acc. pl. of a number of common masculine and feminine nouns end in -r rather than -a, -i or -u + r. Other deviations which may cause problems of recognition are: (1) Nominative masculine singulars that lack the -r ending. These are due to the assimilation of r to an immediately preceding l, n, s (e.g. lykill ‘key’, m. (< *lykilr); hrafn ‘raven’, m. (< *hrafnn < *hrafnr); áss ‘god’, m. (< *ásr); see paradigms 3, 5). Hrafn exemplifies a general rule that consonant + geminate (double) consonant is simplified to consonant + single consonant (thus also in nouns with consonant + root r; compare, e.g., nom. and acc. m. sg. vetr ‘winter’, the former from earlier *vetrr). Nominative and accusative plural -r can be assimilated in the same way as nom. sg. when the pl. ending does not contain a vowel (e.g. mús ‘mouse’, f. — nom. and acc. pl. m‡ss). (2) A small group of strong feminines that has -r in the nom. sg., just as most strong masculines, and -i in the acc. and dat. sg. (e.g. hei›r, hei›i, hei›i ‘moor’; see paradigm 17). (3) Strong feminines with the suffix -ing or -ung, as well as a few others, that have -u in the dat. sg. (e.g. dróttning ‘queen’, dat. sg. dróttningu; sól ‘sun’, dat. sg. (usually) sólu; see paradigm 14). (4) A small group of weak feminines that has -i throughout the singular (e.g. gle›i ‘joy’; see paradigm 24). These nouns denote abstract concepts and have no plural form. (5) A few nouns with root nn that have -›r in the nom. sg. (e.g. mu›r ‘mouth’, m., acc. sg. munn; forku›r ‘strong desire’, f., gen. sg. forkunnar).

3.1.7.5 Minor irregularities

The inflexions of ON nouns exhibit yet other deviations from the basic pattern, but these are less likely to cause the learner problems of recognition. (1) The unstressed syllables of many disyllabic nouns lose their vowel when an inflexional ending is added which itself consists of a syllable (e.g. flistill ‘thistle’, m. — dat. sg. flistli, nom., acc., gen., dat. pl. flistlar, 46 Morphology and syntax

flistla, flistla, flistlum; hir›ir ‘shepherd’, m. — dat. sg. hir›i (not *hir›ii), nom., acc., gen., dat. pl. hir›ar, hir›a, hir›a, hir›um; sumar ‘summer’, n. — dat. sg. sumri, gen., dat. pl. sumra, sumrum; kvæ›i ‘poem’, n. — dat. sg. kvæ›i (not *kvæ›ii), gen., dat. pl. kvæ›a, kvæ›um; see paradigms 3, 27; note also 28). (2) The vowels of inflexional endings tend to be dropped when they immediately follow a long vowel of the same or similar quality (e.g. á ‘stream’, f. — gen. sg. ár, nom., acc., gen., dat. pl. ár, ár, á, ám; kné ‘knee’, n. — dat. sg. kné; see paradigms 16, 29). (3) Where stressed é is followed by unstressed a or u, the stress tends to be shifted onto the latter (with resultant vowel lengthening and occasionally vowel change), the é becoming the semi-vowel j (e.g. kné ‘knee’, n. — gen. pl. knjá (< *knéa), dat. pl. knjám or knjóm (< *knéum); paradigm 29). (4) In some nouns j is inserted before inflexional endings consisting of or beginning in a or u; in others v is inserted before endings consisting of or beginning in a or i (e.g. erfingi ‘heir’, m. — acc., gen., dat. sg. erfingja, nom., acc., gen., dat. pl. erfingjar, erfingja, erfingja, erfingjum; ey ‘island’, f. — gen., dat. sg. eyjar, eyju, nom., acc., gen., dat. pl. eyjar, eyjar, eyja, eyjum; sker ‘skerry’, n. — gen., dat. pl. skerja, skerjum; sƒngr ‘song’, m. — dat. sg. sƒngvi, nom., acc., gen. pl. sƒngvar, sƒngva, sƒngva; ƒr ‘arrow’, f. — gen. sg. ƒrvar, nom., acc., gen. pl. ƒrvar, ƒrvar, ƒrva; see paradigm 15).

3.1.7.3/3.1.7.4/3.1.7.5 Breaking/Deviations from the basic endings/ Minor irregularities — Exercise

1. Look up the following nouns in an Old Norse dictionary or in the Glossary in NION III and write down the entry forms you find: birni (m.), skildir (m.), djƒful (m.), sveinar (m.), byr›i (f.). 2. Which group of strong nouns have -u in the dative singular? 3. What is unusual about the inflexion of the noun gle›i and of other feminines in -i? 4. Look up the following nouns in an Old Norse dictionary or in NION III and write down the entry forms you find: himnar (m.), hersar (m.), gamni (n.), erendum (n.), gjár (f.), benjar (f.), hƒggvi (n.). Noun inflexions and their function 47

3.1.8 Examples of noun inflexion

Having established the basic pattern of noun inflexions (pp. 29–30), and discussed the principal variations, we can now proceed to flesh out this skeleton with complete paradigms of individual nouns. These follow below. It is customary when presenting nouns in Old Norse grammars to provide an example of every or virtually every inflexional type and to divide this wealth of data into classes and sub-classes, based often on features that had died out before the Old Norse period began. This does not help the learner much, and here instead an example is given of each of the basic patterns of noun inflexion, augmented by such others as will assist in the recognition of the majority of forms likely to be encountered in Old Norse texts. These examples should be studied in conjunction with the guidance given in 3.1.4, 3.1.6 and 3.1.7. Each pattern or paradigm is numbered for ease of reference.

Strong masculine (basic pattern)

(1) hestr ‘horse’ Sg. nom. hestr Pl. nom. hestar acc. hest acc. hesta gen. hests gen. hesta dat. hesti dat. hestum

(2) sta›r ‘place’ Sg. nom. sta›r Pl. nom. sta›ir acc. sta› acc. sta›i gen. sta›ar gen. sta›a dat. sta› dat. stƒ›um

Strong masculine (other patterns)

(3) ketill ‘kettle’‘pot’ Sg. nom. ketill Pl. nom. katlar acc. ketil acc. katla gen. ketils gen. katla dat. katli dat. kƒtlum 48 Morphology and syntax

(4) skjƒldr ‘shield’ Sg. nom. skjƒldr Pl. nom. skildir acc. skjƒld acc. skjƒldu gen. skjaldar gen. skjalda dat. skildi dat. skjƒldum

(5) ƒrn ‘eagle’ Sg. nom. ƒrn Pl. nom. ernir acc. ƒrn acc. ƒrnu/erni gen. arnar gen. arna dat. erni dat. ƒrnum

(6) fƒgnu›r ‘joy’ Sg. nom. fƒgnu›r Pl. nom. fagna›ir acc. fƒgnu› acc. fagna›i gen. fagna›ar gen. fagna›a dat. fagna›i dat. fƒgnu›um

(7) fótr ‘foot’ Sg. nom. fótr Pl. nom. fœtr acc. fót acc. fœtr gen. fótar gen. fóta dat. fœti dat. fótum

(8) fa›ir ‘father’ Sg. nom. fa›ir Pl. nom. fe›r acc. fƒ›ur acc. fe›r gen. fƒ›ur gen. fe›ra dat. fe›r/fƒ›ur dat. fe›rum

Weak masculine (basic pattern)

(9) bardagi ‘battle’ Sg. nom. bardagi Pl. nom. bardagar acc. bardaga acc. bardaga gen. bardaga gen. bardaga dat. bardaga dat. bardƒgum Noun inflexions and their function 49

Weak masculine (other pattern)

(10) eigandi ‘owner’ Sg. nom. eigandi Pl. nom. eigendr acc. eiganda acc. eigendr gen. eiganda gen. eiganda dat. eiganda dat. eigƒndum

Strong feminine (basic pattern)

(11) laug ‘bath’ Sg. nom. laug Pl. nom. laugar acc. laug acc. laugar gen. laugar gen. lauga dat. laug dat. laugum

(12) mƒn ‘mane’ Sg. nom. mƒn Pl. nom. manar acc. mƒn acc. manar gen. manar gen. mana dat. mƒn dat. mƒnum

(13) hlí› ‘slope’ ‘hillside’ Sg. nom. hlí› Pl. nom. hlí›ir acc. hlí› acc. hlí›ir gen. hlí›ar gen. hlí›a dat. hlí› dat. hlí›um

Strong feminine (other patterns)

(14) kerling ‘old woman’ Sg. nom. kerling Pl. nom. kerlingar acc. kerling acc. kerlingar gen. kerlingar gen. kerlinga dat. kerlingu dat. kerlingum 50 Morphology and syntax

(15) ey ‘island’ Sg. nom. ey Pl. nom. eyjar acc. ey acc. eyjar gen. eyjar gen. eyja dat. eyju dat. eyjum

(16) á ‘stream’ Sg. nom. á Pl. nom. ár acc. á acc. ár gen. ár gen. á dat. á dat. ám

(17) hei›r ‘heath’ Sg. nom. hei›r Pl. nom. hei›ar acc. hei›i acc. hei›ar gen. hei›ar gen. hei›a dat. hei›i dat. hei›um

(18) strƒnd ‘shore’ Sg. nom. strƒnd Pl. nom. strendr acc. strƒnd acc. strendr gen. strandar gen. stranda dat. strƒnd dat. strƒndum

(19) bók ‘book’ Sg. nom. bók Pl. nom. bœkr acc. bók acc. bœkr gen. bœkr/bókar gen. bóka dat. bók dat. bókum

(20) tá ‘toe’ Sg. nom. tá Pl. nom. tær acc. tá acc. tær gen. tár gen. tá dat. tá dat. tám Noun inflexions and their function 51

(21) k‡r ‘cow’ Sg. nom. k‡r Pl. nom. k‡r acc. kú acc. k‡r gen. k‡r gen. kúa dat. kú dat. kúm

(22) dóttir ‘daughter’ Sg. nom. dóttir Pl. nom. dœtr acc. dóttur acc. dœtr gen. dóttur gen. dœtra dat. dœtr/dóttur dat. dœtrum

Weak feminine (basic pattern)

(23) saga ‘story’ Sg. nom. saga Pl. nom. sƒgur acc. sƒgu acc. sƒgur gen. sƒgu gen. sagna dat. sƒgu dat. sƒgum

Weak feminine (other pattern)

(24) rei›i ‘anger’ Sg. nom., acc., gen., dat. rei›i

Strong neuter (basic pattern)

(25) or› ‘word’ Sg. nom. or› Pl. nom. or› acc. or› acc. or› gen. or›s gen. or›a dat. or›i dat. or›um 52 Morphology and syntax

(26) vatn ‘water’,‘lake’ Sg. nom. vatn Pl. nom. vƒtn acc. vatn acc. vƒtn gen. vatns gen. vatna dat. vatni dat. vƒtnum

(27) sumar ‘summer’ Sg. nom. sumar Pl. nom. sumur acc. sumar acc. sumur gen. sumars gen. sumra dat. sumri dat. sumrum

(28) erindi ‘message’, ‘speech’ Sg. nom. erindi Pl. nom. erindi acc. erindi acc. erindi gen. erindis gen. erinda dat. erindi dat. erindum

Strong neuter (other pattern)

(29) kné ‘knee’ Sg. nom. kné Pl. nom. kné acc. kné acc. kné gen. knés gen. knjá dat. kné dat. knjám/knjóm

Weak neuter (basic pattern)

(30) auga ‘eye’ Sg. nom. auga Pl. nom. augu acc. auga acc. augu gen. auga gen. augna dat. auga dat. augum Noun inflexions and their function 53

The learner who has conscientiously mastered the above should be in a position to recognise the forms of virtually all the Old Norse nouns with which s/he is confronted in a text. It should further be possible to deduce the nominative singular form of unfamiliar nouns, so that these can be looked up in a dictionary. (The amount of help offered by dictionaries varies, but in addition to the nominative singular, the genitive singular and nominative plural are usually noted, as well as (other) forms that cannot easily be predicted.)

3.1.8 Examples of noun inflexion — Exercise

Identify the case, gender, number, syntactic function and semantic role of the nouns printed in bold in the following passage (adapted from Hrafnkels saga Freysgo›a ‘The Saga of Hrafnkell, Priest of Freyr’). Where a noun appears in a case other than the nominative singular, give the nominative singular — the dictionary entry — form. In the case of compound nouns, give the case, gender, number, function and role of the last element only (e.g., in Brei›dal, analyse -dal, in Hallfre›arstƒ›um, -stƒ›um and in fjárskiptis, -skiptis).

ﬁat var á dƒgum Haralds konungs ins hárfagra, Hálfdanar sonar ins svarta, at sá ma›r kom skipi sínu til Íslands í Brei›dal, er Hallfre›r hét.

It was in days of-Haraldr king the hairfair, Hálfdan’s son the black, that that man came with-ship REFL. POSS. to Iceland into Brei›dalr, who Hallfre›r was-called.

It was in the days of King Haraldr fairhair, son of Hálfdan the black, that a man called Hallfre›r brought his ship to Iceland, to Brei›dalr.

ﬁar var á skipi kona hans ok sonr, er Hrafnkell hét. Hann var fimmtán vetra gamall. Hallfre›r setti bú saman.

There was on ship wife his and son, who Hrafnkell was-called. He was fifteen of-winters old. Hallfre›r put dwelling together.

On board the ship was his wife and son, who was called Hrafnkell. He was fifteen years old. Hallfre›r established a farmstead. 54 Morphology and syntax

En um várit fœr›i Hallfre›r bú sitt nor›r yfir hei›i ok ger›i bú ﬂar, sem heitir í Geitdal.

But in spring-the moved Hallfre›r dwelling REFL. POSS. north over moor and made dwelling there that is-called in Geitdalr.

But in the spring Hallfre›r moved his dwelling northwards across the moor and made a dwelling in the place called Geitdalr.

Ok eina nótt dreym›i hann, at ma›r kom at honum ok mælti: ‘fiar liggr flú, Hallfre›r, ok heldr óvarliga. Fœr flú á brott bú flitt ok vestr yfir Lagarfljót. fiar er heill flín ƒll.’

And one night dreamt him that man came to him and said: ‘there lie you, Hallfre›r, and rather unwarily. Move you a(-)way dwelling your and west over Lagarfljót. There is fortune your all.’

And one night he dreamt that a man came to him and said: ‘There you lie, Hallfre›r, and rather unwarily. Move your dwelling away and westwards across Lagarfljót. There is where all your good fortune lies.’

Eptir flat vaknar hann ok fœrir bú sitt út yfir Rangá í Tungu, flar sem sí›an heitir á Hallfre›arstƒ›um, ok bjó flar til elli.

After that wakes he and moves dwelling REFL. POSS. out over Rangá into Tunga, there that later is-called at Hallfre›arsta›ir, and lived there till old-age.

After that he wakes up and moves his dwelling out across Rangá to Tunga, to the place which has since been called Hallfre›arsta›ir, and lived there into his old age.

En honum var› flar eptir geit ok hafr. Ok inn sama dag, sem Hallfre›r var í brott, hljóp skri›a á húsin, ok t‡ndusk flar flessir gripir, ok flví heitir flat sí›an í Geitdal.

But to-him came-to-be there behind she-goat and billy-goat. And the same day that Hallfre›r was a(-)way, ran landslide onto houses-the, and lost-sk [see 3.6.5.3] there these animals, and therefore is-called it since in Geitdalr.

But it turned out he left a she-goat and a billy-goat there. And the same day as Hallfre›r moved away, a landslide fell onto the buildings and these animals perished there, and for that reason the place has since been called Geitdalr. Noun inflexions and their function 55

Hrafnkell lag›i ﬂat í van›a sinn at rí›a yfir á hei›ar á sumarit. ﬁá var Jƒkulsdalr albygg›r upp at brúm.

Hrafnkell laid that in custom REFL. POSS. to ride over onto moors in summer- the. Then was Jƒkulsdalr fully-settled up to bridges.

Hrafnkell made it his practice to ride up onto the moors in the summer. At this time Jƒkulsdalr was fully settled right up to the (rock) bridges.

Hrafnkell rei› upp eptir Fljótsdalshei›i ok sá, hvar ey›idalr gekk af Jƒkulsdal. Sá dalr s‡ndisk Hrafnkatli byggiligri en a›rir dalir.

Hrafnkell rode up along Fljótsdalshei›r and saw where empty-valley went from Jƒkulsdalr. That valley showed-sk to-Hrafnkell more-habitable than other valleys.

Hrafnkell rode up over Fljótsdalshei›r and saw an uninhabited valley leading off from Jƒkulsdalr. The valley seemed more habitable to Hrafnkell than other valleys.

En er Hrafnkell kom heim, beiddi hann fƒ›ur sinn fjárskiptis, ok sag›isk hann bústa› vilja reisa sér.

But when Hrafnkell came home, asked he father REFL. POSS. for-division- of-property, and said-sk he dwelling-place want raise for-self.

And so when Hrafnkell came home, he asked his father for a division of the property, and said he wanted to build a dwelling for himself.

ﬁetta veitir fa›ir hans honum, ok hann gerir sér bœ í dal ﬂeim, ok kallar á A›albóli.

This grants father his to-him, and he makes for-self farm in valley that and calls at A›alból.

His father grants him this, and he makes himself a farm in that valley and calls it A›alból.

Hrafnkell fekk Oddbjargar Skjƒldólfsdóttur ór Laxárdal. ﬁau áttu tvá sonu.

Hrafnkell got Oddbjƒrg Skjƒldólfsdóttir from Laxárdalr. They had two sons.

Hrafnkell married Oddbjƒrg Skjƒldólfsdóttir from Laxárdalr. They had two sons. 56 Morphology and syntax

3.1.9 The suffixed definite article

As in the Scandinavian languages in general, the definite article — the word for ‘the’ — may be suffixed to the noun. That is to say, it takes the form of an ending. Like the noun itself, the definite article is inflected for number and case. In addition, it is inflected for gender, i.e. it has different forms for masculine, feminine and neuter. The forms of the suffixed article in Old Norse are as follows.

Masculine

Sg. nom. -(i)nn Pl. nom. -(i)nir acc. -(i)nn acc. -(i)na gen. -(i)ns gen. -nna dat. -(i)num dat. -num

Feminine

Sg. nom. -(i)n Pl. nom. -nar acc. -(i)na acc. -nar gen. -(i)nnar gen. -nna dat. -(i)nni dat. -num

Neuter

Sg. nom. -(i)t Pl. nom. -(i)n acc. -(i)t acc. -(i)n gen. -(i)ns gen. -nna dat. -(i)nu dat. -num

The presence or absence of the initial -i (in some texts -e) is unlikely to cause the learner serious problems of recognition. In the example sentences in 3.1.5 we had on the one hand (3), (6) lei›inu, skipinu, with dat. n. sg. -i noun ending + -nu, and on the other (20) gólfit with acc. n. sg. zero noun ending + -it, all of them unambiguously combinations of noun and definite article (cf. also vár-it, sumar-it (both acc. n. sg.) and hús-in (acc. n. pl.) in the extract from Hrafnkels saga above). Contrastive examples with and without -i, based on the list of noun paradigms in 3.1.8, are: Noun inflexions and their function 57

hestr-inn — bardagi-nn (nom. m. sg.) sta›ar-ins — eiganda-ns (gen. m. sg.) menn-inir — skildir-nir (nom. m. pl.) hlí›-ina — sƒgu-na (acc. f. sg.) strƒnd-inni — á-nni (dat. f. sg.) kné-in — erindi-n (nom./acc. n. pl.)

The most general rule governing the occurrence of initial -i in the def. art. is that it is found in conjunction with words of one syllable and omitted elsewhere (contrast the left and right-hand lists above). How- ever, there are several exceptions to this. The -i is omitted after the following monosyllabic forms. (1) Nom./acc. m./f. pl. (cf. fœtr-nir (nom. m. pl.), fœtr-na (acc. m. pl.) dœtr-nar (nom./acc. f. pl.)); an exception to the exception is represented by menn-inir, menn-ina (nom. and acc. m. pl. respectively), though this is a rare type. (2) Those ending in a vowel, but only where the article is disyllabic (contrast kné-in with á-nni above). (3) Dative masculine singulars that lack the usual -i ending (cf. sta›-num). The -i is retained after genitive singulars in -ar (cf. sta›arins above, further eyjarinnar (gen. f. sg.)). Note that in the dative plural, the noun ending -(u)m loses its m and the article is suffixed onto the u or stressed vowel (cf. kƒtlunum, sƒgunum, or›unum, knjánum). As with the nouns, certain regularities will be observed in the definite article paradigms. It will also be noticed that there are various points of similarity between noun and article endings. (1) The dat. pl. always ends in -um (as with nouns). (2) The gen. pl. always ends in -a (as with nouns). (3) It is only in the f. sg. and m. pl. there is a difference between nom. and acc. forms. (4) The gen. m. and n. sg. ends in -s, the gen. f. sg. in -ar (as with most nouns, though some masculine genitives end in -ar). (5) The nom. m. pl. ends in -ir, the acc. m. pl. in -a, and the nom./acc. f. pl. in -ar (cf. the pattern for nouns: nom. m. pl. and nom./acc. f. pl. = vowel + r, acc. m. pl. = vowel alone).

As well as the -(i)nn suffix dealt with here, Old Norse has a free- 58 Morphology and syntax standing definite article. However, since its use is closely bound up with that of the adjective, it is dealt with in 3.3.5, following the description of adjective inflexions. It should be noted that the definite article is used more sparingly in Old Norse than in modern English. It is regularly omitted, for example, from nouns that denote something familiar to writer and reader. Thus konungr may mean ‘a king’ or ‘the king’ depending on the context. Contrast:

Fornjótr hefir konungr heitit ‘Fornjótr has king been-called’ ‘There was a king called Fornjótr’

Konungr var› rei›r mjƒk ‘King became angry very’ ‘The king became very angry’

3.1.9 The suffixed definite article — Exercise

Identify the case, gender, number, syntactic function and semantic role of the definite nouns printed in bold in the following sentences, and insert a hyphen between noun and article. Where the noun appears in a case other than nominative singular, give the nominative singular definite form.

(1) Brú›rin var heldr dƒpr ‘The bride was rather sad’

(2) Illugi kipp›i inn aptr vƒrusekkunum ‘Illugi snatched in again the sacks of wares’

(3) ﬁeir kómu til bo›sins ‘They came to the feast’

(4) Tekr Skr‡mir nestbaggann ‘Skr‡mir takes the provision-bag’

(5) Konan ﬂakka›i honum vel gjƒfina ‘Woman-the thanked to-him well gift-the’ ‘The woman thanked him well for the gift’ Noun inflexions and their function 59

(6) ﬁá sendi hann gestina út eptir ﬂeim ‘Then he sent the retainers out after them’

(7) ﬁeir kómu ﬂá til borgarinnar ‘They came then to the castle’

(8) Berserkrinn leit aptr yfir ána ‘The berserk looked back across the river’

(9) ﬁá smugu ﬂeir milli spalanna ‘Then they slipped between the bars’

(10) Lítil var gle›i manna at bo›inu ‘Little was joy of-men at feast-the’ ‘Men were not very joyful at the feast’

(11) Jarl kom út í eyjarnar ‘The earl came out to the islands’

(12) fiorsteinn lag›i fæ› á Austmanninn, ok fór hann á brott um sumarit, ok er hann nú ór sƒgunni ‘fiorsteinn laid coldness on easterner-the, and went he a(-)way in summer-the, and is he now out-of story-the’ ‘fiorsteinn was cold towards the Norwegian, and in the summer he left, and now he is out of the story’

(13) ﬁeir eru vanir at halda til móts vi› hƒf›ingjana ‘They are accustomed to hold a(-)gainst towards chieftains-the’ ‘They are accustomed to offer resistance to the rulers’

(14) Í hellinum var féván mikil, ok kaupmenninir ré›u til ok gengu hellinn ‘In cave-the was treasure-hope great, and merchants-the set about and walked cave-the’ ‘There was great hope of finding treasure in the cave, and the merchants had a go and explored the cave’

(15) ﬁeir lƒg›u saman skipin ‘They laid together ships-the’ ‘They laid the ships alongside each other’ 60 Morphology and syntax

3.2 Pronoun inflexions and their function

Pronouns are sometimes defined as words that stand in place of nouns. A more accurate definition is that they are words that occupy the same position in sentences as noun phrases. What this means is that in Eng- lish, for example, noun phrases such as (1) the old man with the long white beard, (2) my colleague, who works at the university, (3) all the people, (4) not the tiniest little bit are reducible to single words like (1) he, (2) she, (3) everyone, (4) none. Of course, a noun phrase will often consist of just one word, e.g. John, moonlight, and these too may be replaced by pronouns (he, it), but a definition of pronoun that looks no further than this is clearly inadequate. Many pronouns in addition to replacing noun phrases may be used adjectivally, i.e. as modifiers of noun phrases, like English this and some in this man, some particularly interesting ideas. Although argu- ably function should determine word class, it is impractical in a basic learners’ grammar such as this to operate with both pronominal and adjectival this, some etc. Section 3.2 therefore deals with words that regularly function as pronouns, irrespective of how else they may be used. The personal pronouns I, you, he, she, it, we, they, together with the demonstratives this, that, the indefinites some, any, the negatives no one, nothing, none and the interrogatives who, what, are among the most commonly occurring words in English, and the same is true of their Old Norse equivalents. It is therefore clearly essential to learn the (often somewhat idiosyncratic) inflexions of these words as quickly as possible. Since pronouns occupy the same position in sentences as noun phrases, it is no surprise to find that, like nouns, they are inflected for number and case in Old Norse, and that the function of the inflexions is in general the same as for nouns (cf. 3.1.1, 3.1.2). In addition, because pronouns ‘stand for’, i.e. take their reference from, noun phrases, many of them are also inflected for gender. Personal pronouns distinguish ‘person’, that is, the choice of pronoun depends on the perspective from which the participants in a situation are viewed. Old Norse, like English, has a three-way contrast: 1st person, in which a speaker or writer refers to him/herself (English I) or a group of which s/he is a part (Eng. we), 2nd person, in which a speaker/writer refers to a person Pronoun inflexions and their function 61 or persons s/he is addressing (Eng. you, sg. or pl.), 3rd person, in which a person or persons other than the speaker/writer him/herself or the one/those s/he is addressing are referred to (Eng. he, she, it, they).

3.2.1 Personal pronouns: form

1st person: ‘I [sg.]’, ‘we two [dual]’, ‘we [pl.]’

nom. Sg. ek Dual vit Pl. vér acc. mik ok(k)r oss gen. mín okkar vár dat. mér ok(k)r oss

2nd person: ‘you [sg.]’, ‘you two [dual]’, ‘you [pl.]’

nom. Sg. flú Dual (fl)it Pl. (fl)ér acc. flik yk(k)r y›r gen. flín ykkar y›(v)ar dat. flér yk(k)r y›r

3rd person singular: ‘he’, ‘she’, ‘it’

nom. hann hon flat acc. hann hana flat gen. hans hennar fless dat. honum henni fl(v)í

3rd person plural: ‘they’

nom. m. fleir f. flær n. flau acc. flá flær flau gen. fleir(r)a fleir(r)a fleir(r)a dat. fleim fleim fleim 62 Morphology and syntax

Reflexive, 3rd person only: ‘-self’

nom. — acc. sik gen. sín dat. sér

Various features of these paradigms are worthy of note. (1) No distinction of gender is found in the first and second person, or in the third person reflexive. Observe, though, that, unlike English, Old Norse employs a masculine, feminine or neuter form of ‘they’ depending on the gender of the entity referred to. Where more than one gender is involved, the neuter plural is used. (2) The three-way distinction: singular (used of one entity) — dual (used of two) — plural (used of more than two), occurs only in the first and second person. (3) A separate reflexive pronoun is found only in the third person. The same forms are used whether the entity referred to by the pronoun is singular or plural, masculine, feminine or neuter. The only distinction made is of case, and then only between accusative, genitive and dative. No nominative form exists since reflexives are normally coreferential with (i.e. refer to the same entity as) the subject (cf. English: John hurt himself, but not *heself hurt John). In the first and second person, the accusative, genitive and dative forms function both as non-reflexives and reflexives (thus mik, for example, means ‘me’ or ‘myself’, y›r ‘you [pl.]’ or ‘yourselves’). Beyond this, the student will observe certain regularities in the paradigms, and similarities with other inflexions. The accusative, genitive and dative of the first and second person singular and of the reflexive vary only in the initial consonant. There is also minimal variation between the first and second person dual. First and second person dual and plural do not distinguish accusative and dative, and all have a genitive ending in -r (-ar except for vár). The third person endings, especially in the singular, will be seen to correspond quite closely to those of the suffixed definite article, while the masculine and neuter genitive singular in -s and the feminine in -ar, the nominative masculine and nominative/accusative feminine plural in -r, the accusative masculine plural in a vowel, the genitive plural in -a and the dative plural in -m show a marked similarity to noun inflexions as well. Finally, it Pronoun inflexions and their function 63 should be noted that the nominative forms ek and flú can sometimes be found suffixed to the verb, in which case ek loses its vowel (e.g. haf›ak < haf›a ek ‘I had’, kannk < kann ek ‘I can’), while the fl of flú undergoes partial or complete assimilation with the immediately preceding consonant (e.g. heyr›u < heyr flú ‘hear you [i.e. listen!]’, fórtu < fórt flú ‘you went’, seldu < sel flú ‘hand you [i.e. hand over!]’). Occasionally other of the personal pronoun forms may be suffixed in this way, but the student is unlikely to come across them in straightforward prose texts.

3.2.2 Demonstrative pronouns: form

sá ‘that’, ‘those’

m. f. n. Sg. nom. sá sú flat acc. flann flá flat gen. fless fleir(r)ar fless dat. fleim fleir(r)i fl(v)í

Pl. nom. fleir flær flau acc. flá flær flau gen. fleir(r)a fleir(r)a fleir(r)a dat. fleim fleim fleim

The neuter singular and all the plural forms of this pronoun will be seen to be identical with those of the personal pronoun, third person, given in 3.2.1. In fact we are dealing with one and the same word. The change in meaning from, for example, ‘those female beings’ or ‘those feminine objects’ to ‘they [f.]’ is very small. Indeed, the same development can be observed in many languages (French il ‘he’, elle ‘she’, for example, come from the Latin pronoun ille ‘that’), and on occasion Old Norse sá, sú are found in place of hann, hon. Although there is considerable irregularity in the paradigm, compare the acc., gen., dat. m. sg. endings -nn, -ss, -m and the acc., gen., dat. f. sg. -á, -ar, -i with those of the corresponding forms of the suffixed definite article (3.1.9) and of hinn immediately below. 64 Morphology and syntax

hinn ‘that’ ‘the other’, ‘those’ ‘the others’

m. f. n. Sg. nom. hinn hin hitt acc. hinn hina hitt gen. hins hinnar hins dat. hinum hinni hinu

Pl. nom. hinir hinar hin acc. hina hinar hin gen. hinna hinna hinna dat. hinum hinum hinum

The student will observe the close similarity between the forms of this pronoun and those of the suffixed definite article (though note the -tt in the nom./acc. n. sg.). There is in fact a strong likelihood that the suffixed article is a reduced form of hinn. Not only does the similarity of form suggest this, the development: demonstrative pronoun > definite article is quite widely attested (cf., for example, French le, la — like il, elle, though by a different route — from Latin ille ‘that’). On the relationship between hinn and (h)inn, the free-standing definite article of Old Norse, see 3.3.5.

sjá, ﬂessi ‘this’, ‘these’

m. f. n. Sg. nom. sjá/flessi sjá/flessi fletta acc. flenna flessa fletta gen. flessa flessar/flessar(r)ar flessa dat. flessum/fleima flessi/flessar(r)i flessu/flvísa

Pl. nom. flessir flessar flessi acc. flessa flessar flessi gen. flessa/flessar(r)a flessa/flessar(r)a flessa/flessar(r)a dat. flessum flessum flessum

In this paradigm the number of alternative forms is noteworthy, but few are likely to cause problems of recognition. The nominative Pronoun inflexions and their function 65 singulars sjá and flessi are both common, but dat. m. sg. fleima and dat. n. sg. flvísa are much less so. The genitive and dative feminine singular and the genitive plural can be thought of as flessar, flessi, flessa respectively, basic forms which are sometimes expanded by suffixes (flessar-(r)ar, flessa-r(r)a), or infixes (fless-ar(r)-i). Although the forms of this pronoun may appear anomalous, similarities with other paradigms can still be found. The endings of the plural in particular are very close to those of hinn (above), and even in the singular we notice the characteristic -a and -ar endings in the feminine accusative and genitive, and -um, -i, -u in the masculine, feminine and neuter dative respectively. Some of the remaining forms also show characteristic features, though not in the endings — observe the n, t and s of acc. m. -nn-, nom./acc. n. -tt- and gen. m. and n. -ss-.

3.2.3 Indefinite pronouns: form

By far the most common indefinite pronoun in Old Norse is nƒkkurr (in some texts with o for ƒ: nokkurr, nokkut, etc.) ‘some(one/thing)’ ‘any(one/thing)’ ‘(a) certain’. Its endings are almost identical to those of a strong adjective (see 3.3.4), and very close to those of hinn (above). The difference between the inflexions of nƒkkurr and hinn is largely determined by the final consonant of the root: the n of hin- assimilates a following r, and so we get forms like nom. m. sg. hinn, dat. f. sg. hinni, gen. pl. hinna (instead of *hinr, *hinri, *hinra).

m. f. n. Sg. nom. nƒkkurr nƒkkur nƒkkut acc. nƒkkurn nƒkkura nƒkkut gen. nƒkkurs nƒkkurrar nƒkkurs dat. nƒkkurum nƒkkurri nƒkkuru

Pl. nom. nƒkkurir nƒkkurar nƒkkur acc. nƒkkura nƒkkurar nƒkkur gen. nƒkkurra nƒkkurra nƒkkurra dat. nƒkkurum nƒkkurum nƒkkurum 66 Morphology and syntax

In the oldest sources many of the forms of this pronoun appear with root nakkvar-. Other indefinite pronouns are einnhverr ‘some(one/thing)’, and sumr ‘some’. The former consists of an invariable ein-, except in the nom./acc. m. and n. sg. (einn-, eitt- respectively), and occasionally the gen. m. and n. sg. (eins-), + hverr, the inflexions of which are described below. The latter inflects like a strong adjective (see 3.3.4).

3.2.4 Negative pronouns: form

Of the sundry negative pronouns of Old Norse the only one the learner will encounter regularly is engi ‘no one’ ‘nothing’ ‘none’ ‘no’. The various forms of the other negatives, manngi ‘no one’, vættki ‘nothing’, hvárigr or hvárgi ‘neither’, will, when met with, be well enough understood from the glosses and examples given in Old Norse dictionaries.

m. f. n. Sg. nom. engi engi ekki acc. engan/engi enga ekki gen. enskis engrar enskis dat. engum engri engu

Pl. nom. engir engar engi acc. enga engar engi gen. engra engra engra dat. engum engum engum

The paradigm presented here gives the most common forms of engi. A complete list of attested forms will be found in Noreen 1923 (p. 323). Virtually all of these are easily deducible, however, as long as it is known (1) that the root of the word may be eing- or øng- as well as eng-, and (2) that -v- may be added before endings beginning with -a (e.g. nom./acc. f. pl. øngvar, engvar) and before the -ir of the nom. m. pl. (e.g. øngvir, engvir). The inflexions of engi present a familiar enough pattern (observe, however, nom./acc. n. sg. ekki, from *eitt-ki < *eitt-gi). The student Pronoun inflexions and their function 67 should compare the endings given above with those of hinn and nƒkkurr, especially the latter, and make a note of where they coincide. Only forms peculiar to engi need be learnt specially.

3.2.5 Interrogative and distributive pronouns: form

The two principal pronouns in this category are hverr ‘who’ ‘what’ ‘which’, ‘each’ ‘every’, and hvárr ‘which of two’, ‘each of two’ (sg.), ‘which of two groups’, ‘each of two groups’ (pl.). With the exception of the acc. m. sg. forms, hvern and hvárn, both decline like strong adjectives (see 3.3.4). In common with some adjectives hverr inserts a -j- between root and endings beginning with -a or -u; hvárr does not. For ease of overview, the complete paradigm of hverr is now given.

m. f. n. Sg. nom. hverr hver hvert acc. hvern hverja hvert gen. hvers hverrar hvers dat. hverjum hverri hverju

Pl. nom. hverir hverjar hver acc. hverja hverjar hver gen. hverra hverra hverra dat. hverjum hverjum hverjum

In addition to hverr and hvárr we have hvat ‘what’, ‘each (thing)’ ‘every(thing)’, hvatki ‘each thing’, and hvatvetna ‘everything’. None of these occurs with anything like a complete set of forms; indeed, apart from odd relics of a masculine equivalent of hvat, they are neuter singular only. Even then, except in the case of hvatvetna (gen. hversvetna, dat. hvívetna), the paradigms are defective. For although hvess and hví are often quoted as the genitive and dative form of hvat, they tend to function as separate words (hví, for example, occurs mostly in the sense ‘why?’). And while a genitive hves(s)kis and dative hvígi of neuter singular hvatki are indeed found, the meaning, ‘whatsoever’, is somewhat removed from that of hvatki. 68 Morphology and syntax

3.2.1/3.2.2/3.2.3/3.2.4/3.2.5 Personal pronouns: form/Demonstrative pronouns: form/Indefinite pronouns: form/Negative pronouns: form/Interrogative and distributive pronouns: form — Exercise

1. Which of the personal pronouns are inflected for gender? 2. Which of the personal pronouns distinguish three numbers (singular, dual and plural)? 3. Give the forms of the 3rd person reflexive pronoun and explain why there is no nominative. 4. What regularities can be observed in the forms of the personal pronouns? 5. What similarities are there between the endings of hinn and sjá/ ﬂessi? 6. In what respects do the endings of hinn, nƒkkurr and engi differ? 7. Give the full paradigm of hvárr and compare its endings with those of hverr. 8. In what sense is the paradigm of hvat defective?

3.2.6 Examples of pronoun usage

As was done for nouns, examples will now be given of pronouns in function. With the wide range of pronominal words and forms that exists, nothing like a comprehensive survey can be provided; the aim is rather to illustrate typical usage. The exemplification follows the same pattern as for nouns (see the preamble on p. 31). Note in particular that the ending or word-form being illustrated is printed in bold type. Compare the endings and word-forms used with those set out and discussed on pp. 61–67. Observe, too, the differences between Old Norse and English phraseology and sentence formation. Defini- tions of basic concepts that have already been given are not repeated; if in doubt, the student should consult the individual commentaries that accompany each of the examples of noun function.

(1) Eigi sag›a ek ﬂér ﬂat ‘Not said I to-you that’ ‘I did not tell you that’ Pronoun inflexions and their function 69

Ek (1st person sg. nom.) is the subject; ‘I’ is the agent or ‘performer’ of the action and the first noun phrase in the sentence. ﬁér (2nd sg. dat.) is the indirect object; ‘you’ is the beneficiary of the action and the second noun phrase. ﬁat (3rd. sg. n. acc.) is the direct object, the goal of the action (i.e. what is said) and the third noun phrase.

(2) fiá skutu fleir spjótum inn at fleim ‘Then they threw spears in at them’

The subject is fleir (3rd pl. m. nom.), the agent and first noun phrase in the sentence. fieim (3rd pl. dat.) does not function here as a noun phrase, but is part of the preposition phrase at fleim, in which the pronoun is governed (i.e. has its case determined) by the preposition at (see 3.7, 3.7.3).

(3) Viltu nƒkkut li›sinni okkr veita? ‘Will-you any help to-us-two give?’ ‘Will you give us two any help?’

The subject is -tu (2nd sg. nom., suffixed to the verb); it is the agent and first noun phrase in the sentence. Nƒkkut is part of the direct object. The second noun phrase and the goal of the action consists of the noun li›sinni (acc. n. sg.) modified by the pronoun nƒkkut (which since it appears here in the role of modifier functions adjectivally; see 3.2). As a modifier nƒkkut appears in the same case (acc.), gender (n.) and number (sg.) as its head word (li›sinni). This formal relationship between the two (whereby the head word determines the form of its modifier) is known as grammatical agreement or concord and is a regular phenomenon in Old Norse (see 3.3.1). Okkr (1st dual dat.) is the indirect object; it denotes the beneficiary of the action and is the third noun phrase in the sentence.

(4) fiórhildr lag›i yfir hann skikkjuna, ok gekk hann út á me›al fleira ‘fiórhildr put the cloak over him, and he went out between them’

This example consists of two sentences. Hann (3rd sg. m. acc.) in sentence 1 is part of the preposition phrase yfir hann, and its case is determined by the preposition yfir (see 3.7, 3.7.4). Hann (3rd sg. m. nom.) in sentence 2 is subject, the first noun phrase and the agent. ﬁeira (3rd pl. gen.) is part of the preposition phrase me›al ﬂeira, and its case is determined by the preposition me›al (see 3.7.2). 70 Morphology and syntax

(5) Hefn ﬂú vár, en vér skulum ﬂín, ef vér lifum eptir ‘Avenge you us, but we shall you, if we live afterwards’ ‘Avenge us, and we shall (avenge) you, if we survive’

This example consists of three sentences. ﬁú (2nd sg. nom.) in sentence 1 is the subject (of an imperative verb, cf. 3.6.3, 3.6.5.1), the first noun phrase and the agent; vár (1st pl. gen.) is the direct object of the verb (hefn) and the second noun phrase. Vér (1st pl. nom.) in sentence 2 is subject, the first noun phrase and agent (of the understood verb hefna); ﬂín (2nd sg. gen.) is the direct object of the (understood) verb and the second noun phrase. Vér (1st pl. nom.) in sentence 3 is subject, not so much agent here, rather the ‘experiencer’, denoting those who (may) experience survival.

(6) ﬁau væntu sér af honum nƒkkurs trausts ‘They expected for-self of him some support’ ‘They expected (for themselves) some support from him’

ﬁau (3rd pl. n. nom., referring to persons of more than one gender) is subject, the first noun phrase and the experiencer. Sér (refl. dat.) is the indirect object, the second noun phrase and the intended beneficiary; it is coreferential with the subject (i.e. both subject and indirect object refer to the same entity; see 3.2.1). Honum (3rd sg. m. dat.) is part of the preposition phrase af honum, and its case is determined by the preposition af (see 3.7.3). Nƒkkurs is part of the direct object: the third noun phrase, denoting what is experienced (the goal of the experiencing), consists of the noun trausts (gen. n. sg.) modified by the pronoun nƒkkurs, which has the same case, gender and number as its head word (see example (3) above).

(7) ﬁví skaltu heita mér, at koma aptr til mín at ƒ›ru hausti ‘That shall-you promise to-me, to come back to me at second autumn’ ‘You must promise me to come back to me next autumn’

fiví (3rd sg. n. dat.) is the anticipatory direct object: the thing promised is ‘to come back . . . ’, but the infinitive clause — the equivalent of a noun phrase — is postponed and its place filled by the pronoun flví. The unmarked position for the direct object would be somewhere after the subject and the finite verb (skaltu), but here it has been moved to the front of the sentence for emphasis. The subject is -tu (2nd sg. nom., suffixed to the verb); it is the agent, and — the fronted flví apart — the first noun phrase in the sentence. Mér (1st sg. dat.) is the indirect object, the beneficiary (the person to whom the promise is made), and the second or third noun phrase. Mín (1st sg. gen.) is part of the preposition phrase til mín, and its case is governed by the preposition til (see 3.7.2). Pronoun inflexions and their function 71

(8) Taki› hana ok haldi› henni ‘Take her and hold her’

This example contains two sentences, each with its finite verb in the imperative (‘take!’, ‘hold!’; see (5) above, but also 3.6.3). The subject is left unexpressed, as generally happens with imperatives in English too. Hana and henni (3rd sg. f. acc. and dat. respectively) are both direct objects, the goals of the actions; their case is determined by the verb they are object of (taka ‘take’ normally has a direct object in the accusative, halda in the sense ‘hold fast’ ‘restrain’ has its direct object in the dative).

(9) Megu› flér vel bí›a fless, er eldrinn vinnr flá ‘Can you well await that, that fire-the overcomes them’ ‘You can easily wait for the fire to overcome them’

This example consists of two sentences. fiér (2nd pl. nom.) is the subject of sentence 1, the agent and the first noun phrase. fiess (3rd sg. n. gen.) is the anticipatory direct object (see (7) above): the thing being waited for is ‘that the fire overcomes them’, but this dependent sentence — the equivalent of a noun phrase — is postponed and its placed filled by the pronoun fless. fiá is the direct object of (the dependent) sentence 2, the goal of the ‘action’ and the second noun phrase (the first — the subject — being eldrinn).

(10) ﬁær hvíla sik ﬂar nƒkkurar nætr ‘They rest self there some nights’ ‘They rest themselves there for a few nights’

ﬁær (3rd pl. f. nom., referring to women) is subject, the first noun phrase in the sentence and the agent. Sik (refl. acc.) is the direct object, the goal of the action and the second noun phrase; it is coreferential with the subject (see (6) above). Nƒkkurar is part of the adverbial phrase nƒkkurar nætr (acc. f. pl.), which expresses duration of time; nƒkkurar modifies the head word nætr, and so appears in the same case, gender and number.

(11) Hvers ﬂykkir y›r sá ver›r, er ﬂetta rá› gaf til? ‘Of-what seems to-you that-man worthy who this advice gave towards [a solution of the problem]?’ ‘What do you think the man who proffered this advice deserves?’

This example consists of an interrogative sentence, followed by an elliptical infinitive clause (3.9.5.2) and a dependent sentence. Hvers (gen. n. sg.) is an interrogative pronoun, and as such is moved out of an unmarked position after 72 Morphology and syntax ver›r (sá er ver›r X ‘that person is worthy of X’) to the front of the sentence (cf. the identical movement in English); its case is determined by the adjective ver›r (cf. English worthy/deserving of something), and its neuter gender by the fact that it does not refer to anything of specifically masculine or feminine gender. In traditional analysis y›r (2nd pl. dat., but used here as a singular honorific, like French vous — the person being addressed is the king) would be classed as the indirect object (the recipient or experiencer of the ‘seeming’, cf. ‘to-you’), but recently claims have been made for the existence of a class of ‘oblique’ (i.e. non-nominative) subjects into which y›r here would fall (note that with flyk(k)ir ‘seems’ the person to whom something seems is normally always the first noun phrase in the sentence; see further 3.9.3). Sá (nom. m. sg.) is the subject of the elliptical infinitive clause (sá [vera] ver›r ‘that man [to be] worthy’) — what the clause is about. fietta rá› (acc. n. sg.), with fletta modifying rá›, is the direct object of the dependent sentence, the goal of the action (the words refer to the thing given or proffered); it is the only noun phrase in the sentence, the subject being subsumed into the relative particle or complementiser er, which is best regarded as being outside the sentence (see 3.8, 3.8.2.1).

(12) Hin vistin fœ›ir likaminn, sjá fœ›ir sálina ‘That sustenance feeds the body, this feeds the soul’

This example consists of two sentences. In sentence 1, hin vistin (nom. f. sg.), with hin modifying vist-in (noun + def. art.), is the subject; it is the ‘performer’ of the action and the first noun phrase. In sentence 2, sjá (nom. f. sg.) is also the subject, fulfilling on its own the same function as hin vistin in sentence 1. Notice how hin contrasts with sjá: ‘that other one’ as opposed to ‘this one’.

(13) Hon vir›i ﬂenna meira en hinn ‘She valued this more than that’ ‘She held this one in higher esteem than the other’

Hon (3rd sg. f. nom.) is the subject, the agent and the first noun phrase in the sentence. ﬁenna (acc. m. sg., referring to an entity — person, animal or object — of masculine gender) is the direct object (what is valued) and the second noun phrase. Hinn (acc. m. sg., likewise referring to an entity of masculine gender) is part of a comparative phrase; this can be understood as ‘more than [she valued] the other’, and hinn taken as a direct object too.

(14) Nú ver›r hann varr ﬂessara tí›inda ‘Now becomes he aware of-these tidings’ ‘Now he becomes aware of these events’ Pronoun inflexions and their function 73

Hann (3rd sg. m. nom.) is the subject, not the agent here but the experiencer, and the first noun phrase in the sentence. The noun phrase ﬂessara tí›inda (gen. pl.), with ﬂessara modifying tí›inda, has its case determined by the adjective varr (cf. English aware of something).

(15) Sumir váru drepnir ok sumir fl‡›u ór landi ‘Some were killed and some fled from (the) country’

This example consists of two sentences, in both of which sumir (nom. m. pl.) is subject, the first noun phrase and, in sentence 2, the agent. In sentence 1 with its passive verb phrase (váru drepnir ‘were killed’, see 3.6.4) the subject is the recipient or goal of the action (a typical feature of passive constructions).

(16) Engi er svá lítill drykkjuma›r, at . . . ‘None is so little drinking-man that . . . ’ ‘No one is so feeble a drinker that . . . ’

Engi (nom. m. sg.) is the subject (the X in an X is Y construction, see 3.1.5, sentence 1) and the first noun phrase in the sentence.

(17) Hon svarar engu ‘She answers nothing’

Hon (3rd sg. f. nom.) is subject, the agent and first noun phrase in the sentence. Engu (dat. n. sg.) can be construed as the direct object of svarar (what is answered), but in origin it probably had instrumental sense (the idea of answering with something, cf. 3.1.5, sentence 20).

(18) Engi skip skulu sigla burt ‘No ships shall sail away’

Engi skip (nom. n. pl.), with engi modifying skip, is subject, the (potential) ‘performer’ of the action and the only noun phrase in the sentence.

(19) Hverju skal launa kvæ›it? ‘With-what shall reward poem-the?’ ‘What shall one reward the poem with?’

Hverju (dat. n. sg.) as an interrogative pronoun is moved out of an unmarked position after the verb launa (X launar kvæ›it Y, where Y represents the dative 74 Morphology and syntax phrase) and fronted (cf. (11) above); the sense is instrumental, hence the use of the dative. It will be observed that (19) is without a subject (i.e. there is no element that corresponds to X in the abstraction above); although rare in English, subjectless sentences are a regular feature of Old Norse (see 3.9.3).

(20) Hvárr ykkar hefir drepit d‡rit? ‘Which (of the two) of you two has killed the animal?’

Hvárr (nom. m. sg.) is an interrogative pronoun (‘which of two?’), but unlike hverju in the preceding example it is the subject of its sentence and thus stands in its unmarked position as the first noun phrase (cf. X hefir drepit d‡rit where X is the agent). Ykkar (2nd dual gen.) has partitive sense: ‘you two’ is the whole of which one is the part (cf. English: five of the students (five = part, students = whole), the south of the country (the south = part, country = whole)).

(21) Hvat s‡nisk ﬂér rá›? ‘What shows-sk to-you plan?’ ‘What seems to you a good plan/advisable?’

Hvat (nom. n. sg.) is an interrogative pronoun; traditionally it would be analysed as subject and flér as indirect object (the recipient or experiencer of the ‘seeming’), but more recent approaches (cf. (11) above) would class flér as (an oblique) subject and hvat as direct object (notwithstanding the latter is nominative, cf. 3.1.2 and 3.1.5, sentences 1 and 5), in which case the interrogative must be deemed to have moved from its unmarked position to the front of the sentence (cf. mér s‡nisk flat rá› ‘to-me shows-sk that plan [i.e. that seems to me advisable/I think that advisable]’, where flat (nom.) is the putative object). Note that the pronoun hvat normally only occurs in the nominative and accusative neuter singular (cf. 3.2.5).

(22) Nú forvitnar mik at vita, hverja ek hefi hér fóstrat, e›r hverrar ættar ﬂit eru› ‘Now interests me to know whom I have here fostered, or of- what family you-two are’ ‘Now I am curious to know whom I have been fostering here, or what family you two belong to’

This example consists of three sentences and an infinitive clause (at vita). Sentence 1 is what is traditionally called ‘impersonal’, by which is meant that it has no nominative subject; such an analysis would class mik (1st sg. acc.) as direct object. More recent approaches would see mik as an oblique subject (cf. Pronoun inflexions and their function 75

(11) and (21) above), the experiencer and first (and only) noun phrase. Hverja (acc. m. pl.) in sentence 2 is the direct object — the goal of the action — but since it takes the form of an interrogative pronoun, it is fronted from its unmarked position after subject and finite or non-finite verb (cf. ek hefi fóstrat hann or ek hefi hann fóstrat). Ek (1st sg. nom.) is the subject of sentence 2, the agent and, apart from the fronted interrogative, the first noun phrase. In hverrar ættar (gen. f. sg.) in sentence 3, with hverrar modifying ættar and the whole phrase fronted because of the presence of the interrogative, the genitive has a defining or connective sense (note that once again the Old Norse genitive can correspond to English of). ﬁit (2nd dual nom.) is the subject: the X of an X is Y construction, and, the fronted interrogative apart, the first noun phrase.

(23) Hann er hverjum manni betr vígr ‘He is than-every man better able-to-fight’ ‘He is a more able fighter than anyone else’

Hann (3rd sg. m. nom.) is subject: the X of an X is Y construction and the first noun phrase. Hverjum manni (dat. m. sg.), with hverjum modifying manni, is the second proposition in a comparative construction — the proposition denoting the entity with which the comparison is made (cf. 3.1.5, sentence 21); the dative phrase is the equivalent of the noun phrase X (in whatever case is appropriate) that follows en ‘than’ in a comparative adjective + en construction (e.g. fleiri en X ‘more than X’).

(24) ﬁá skyldu ein manngjƒld koma fyrir hvern hinna ‘Then should single compensation come for each of-the- others’ ‘Then there was to be single compensation for each of the others’

Hvern (acc. m. sg.) does not function here as a noun phrase, but is part of the preposition phrase fyrir hvern, and its case is determined by the preposition fyrir (see 3.7.4). Hinna (gen. pl.) has partitive sense: ‘the others’ is the whole of which each individual is a part (cf. (20) above). 76 Morphology and syntax

3.2.6 Examples of pronoun usage — Exercise

1. What is the principal grammatical function of pronouns? 2. What does it mean that pronouns may be used ‘adjectivally’? Give two Old Norse examples of such usage. 3. Explain the difference between singular, dual and plural function. Give one example of each from Old Norse. 4. How are the reflexive forms sik, sín, sér used? 5. fiau can refer to a plural entity of neuter gender. What else may it refer to? 6. What is the difference in function between hann/hon on the one hand and sá/sú on the other? 7. In what sense is the pronoun hinn contrastive? Give two examples of the way in which it is used. 8. What is the difference in meaning between hverr and hvárr? 9. Give the case and, where appropriate, the gender and number of the pronouns (printed in bold) in the following sentences, and explain their syntactic function and semantic role: (a) Váru fleir me› honum flann vetr ‘They were with him that winter’ (b) Sel mér fé nƒkkut at láni ‘Give me some money on loan’ (c) fiessu skulu engi undirmál fylgja ‘No deceit is to accompany this’ (d) Hverr y›ar skal fá okkr eyri silfrs ‘Each of you is to give us two an ounce of silver’ (e) Hann vildi hefna sín ‘He wanted to avenge himself’ Adjective inflexions and their function 77

3.3 Adjective inflexions and their function

The principal function of adjectives is to modify nouns, and to a lesser extent pronouns. Adjectives may occur as part of a noun phrase — attributive function — or as the complement of a noun phrase — predicative function. English examples, using the adjective yellow, are: a yellow car or the yellow car (attributive), and the car is yellow or he painted the car yellow (predicative). In addition, adjectives are sometimes used in place of nouns, as in English the old and the new or good and evil. The fact that nouns, pronouns and adjectives all occur in noun phrases either alone or in conjunction with other words indicates that the three word classes have much in common. Like nouns and pronouns, adjectives in Old Norse are inflected for number and case. In common with many but not all pronouns, they are also inflected for gender. In addition they are inflected for definiteness and degree. This variety of adjectival inflexion means it is particularly important for the student to be able to distinguish one form from another and understand what function any particular form has.

3.3.1 Number, case and gender

Definitions and exemplification of number, case and gender have been given in 3.1.1, 3.1.2 and 3.1.3. What the student needs to grasp about adjectival inflexion for these categories is that it is determined by the noun or pronoun being modified by the adjective. That is to say, there is a formal relationship between the two whereby the form of the noun/pronoun requires a corresponding form of the adjective. E.g. gó›r (nom. m. sg.) is the appropriate form of ‘good’ when modifying ma›r (nom. m. sg.), gó› (nom. f. sg.) when modifying kona (nom. f. sg.), gott (nom./acc. n. sg.) when modifying skip (nom./acc. n. sg.), gó›ir (nom. m. pl.) when modifying menn (nom. m. pl.), etc. This relationship is known as (grammatical) agreement or (grammatical) concord. It operates more widely than simply between noun/pronoun and adjective (see especially 3.6.1), but is particularly important in the noun/pronoun~adjective context because it governs much of adjectival inflexion in Old Norse. Furthermore, it is very often in the grammatical 78 Morphology and syntax agreement between an adjective and a noun that the gender of the noun is manifested (see 3.1.3).

3.3.2 Definiteness

In Old Norse, as in all Germanic languages originally, there were two types of adjective inflexion, known traditionally as strong and weak. We saw (3.1.4) that the terms themselves had no particular significance when applied to the noun, and the same is true of the adjective. The weak adjective shares formal similarities with the weak noun. In the singular the two have identical endings, and overall, just as with the nouns, the weak paradigm exhibits much less variety than the strong (cf. that in the plural weak adjectives end either in -u (nom., acc., gen.) or -um (dat.)). In terms of use the weak noun and weak adjective have little in common. The weak noun, as we have seen, is an inflexional type and nothing more: a noun is either strong or weak, and remains so, however it is used. Adjectives can inflect according to both the strong and the weak pattern. Choice of form depends on function: strong adjectives by and large have indefinite function, weak adjectives definite. What this means in practice is that strong adjectives chiefly occur in noun phrases without determiners, e.g. ríkr konungr ‘a powerful king’, ma›r gamall ‘an old man’, strendr langar ‘long beaches’ (with attributive ríkr, gamall and langar); konungr var› rei›r mjƒk ‘the king became very angry’, fƒgr er hlí›in ‘beautiful is the hillside’ (with predicative rei›r and fƒgr, which belong to different noun phrases from konungr and hlí›in, cf. English: the king [NP1] became a beggar [NP2]; because of their function, predicative adjectives are almost always strong — but cf. 3.3.6, sentence 24). Where strong adjectives do appear in conjunction with determiners, these are usually indefinite, e.g. nƒkkurri mannligri mynd (dat. f. sg.) ‘any human shape’. Weak adjectives typically occur in noun phrases with determiners: the definite article (3.3.5 below), demonstratives (3.2.2) and possessives (3.3.4 below), the latter two commonly in conjunction with the definite article, e.g. hinna ríku konunga (gen. pl.) ‘the powerful kings’, sjá hinn ungi ma›r ‘this the young man [i.e. this young man]’, ﬂeim helga manni (dat. m. sg.) ‘that holy man [i.e. that saint]’, hinn yngsta Adjective inflexions and their function 79 son ﬂinn (acc. m. sg.) ‘the youngest son your [i.e. your youngest son]’. Sometimes where used as an epithet a weak adjective may occur without a determiner, e.g. Eiríkr rau›i ‘Eiríkr the red’; here the adjective alone carries the definite sense ‘the red’.

3.3.3 Degree (comparison)

Adjectives in Old Norse, together with adverbs, are inflected for degree. There are three degrees: positive, comparative and superlative, corresponding in form to English: big — bigger — biggest. As in English, the positive degree has no special inflexion, and therefore the form of an adjective in the positive is simply its root plus the appropriate inflexion to indicate number, case, gender and definiteness. The comparative and superlative degrees are normally marked by the suffixes -(a)r, -(a)st respectively; to the superlative suffix is added the appropriate strong or weak ending just as in the positive, to the comparative suffix a limited range of endings that indicate number, case and gender (see 3.3.4 below). Comparative and superlative forms of the adjective are thus double-inflected, e.g. hvass-ar-i (comp. nom. m. sg., f. sg., nom./acc./gen. pl.) ‘sharper’, d‡r-r-a (comp. acc./gen./dat. m. sg., n. sg.) ‘dearer’ ‘more precious’, hvass-ast-ar (sup. strong nom./acc. f. pl.) ‘sharpest’, d‡r-st-a (sup. strong acc. f. sg., acc. m. pl., weak acc./gen./dat. m. sg., nom. f. sg., n. sg.) ‘dearest’ ‘most precious’.

3.3.1/3.3.2/3.3.3 Number, case and gender/Definiteness/Degree — Exercise

1. For what grammatical categories are adjectives inflected in Old Norse? 2. What does the term grammatical agreement (or grammatical concord) mean, and how does it apply to the adjective in Old Norse? 3. What governs the choice between strong and weak adjectives in Old Norse? 4. What does it mean that adjectives are inflected for degree? 5. Analyse the following words into root, comparative or superlative suffix and grammatical ending: sterkastir, sœmri, sannara, rei›asti. 80 Morphology and syntax

3.3.4 Basic adjective inflexions

Just as in the case of noun inflexion (see 3.1.4), it is the basic patterns the student needs to grasp. Minor variations — to the extent they cause problems of understanding — can be noted and learnt when they are encountered. From 3.3.2 and 3.3.3 above it will be clear that — the comparative and superlative suffixes and comparative endings apart — there are two distinct types of adjective inflexion in Old Norse, strong and weak. Both types, as already observed, inflect for number, case and gender. With two numbers, four cases and three genders, there is thus a possible total of twice twenty-four different inflexions. In fact, because the same form may occur in different parts of the paradigm, the total is much smaller: fundamentally, there are thirteen different strong adjective forms and just four weak. They are as follows (~ = zero, i.e. there is no ending, the form consisting of root alone — e.g. rík ‘powerful’, strong nom. f. sg.; actual paradigms are given in 3.3.9).

Strong masculine

Sg. nom. -r Pl. nom. -ir acc. -an acc. -a gen. -s gen. -ra dat. -um dat. -um

Weak masculine

Sg. nom. -i Pl. nom. -u acc. -a acc. -u gen. -a gen. -u dat. -a dat. -um

Strong feminine

Sg. nom. ~ Pl. nom. -ar acc. -a acc. -ar gen. -rar gen. -ra dat. -ri dat. -um Adjective inflexions and their function 81

Weak feminine

Sg. nom. -a Pl. nom. -u acc. -u acc. -u gen. -u gen. -u dat. -u dat. -um

Strong neuter

Sg. nom. -t Pl. nom. ~ acc. -t acc. ~ gen. -s gen. -ra dat. -u dat. -um

Weak neuter

Sg. nom. -a Pl. nom. -u acc. -a acc. -u gen. -a gen. -u dat. -a dat. -um

Certain regularities will be observed in these paradigms. (1) The dat. pl. always ends in -um. (2) Apart from the dat., the weak pl. ends in -u throughout. (3) There are no distinct case-forms in the weak sg. except in the nom. masculine and feminine. (4) The strong gen. pl. always ends in -ra. (5) There is no difference between the neuter nom. and acc., sg. or pl., weak or strong. (6) The strong feminine nom. and acc. pl. have the same ending. (7) The strong masculine and neuter gen. sg. have the same ending. As well as observing these regularities, the student will notice that adjectival and noun inflexion have much in common. Attention has already been drawn to the complete identity between the singular forms of weak nouns and adjectives. Other instances where the forms are identical or closely similar (all in the strong declension bar (10), which applies to both strong and weak) are as follows. 82 Morphology and syntax

(1) Nom. m. sg. in -r. (2) Gen. m. and n. sg. in -s. (3) Nom. f. sg. with zero ending. (4) Gen. f. sg. in -ar (noun), -rar (adj.). (5) Nom. m. pl. in vowel + r. (6) Acc. m. pl. in vowel. (7) Nom./acc. f. pl. in vowel + r. (8) Nom./acc. n. pl. with zero ending. (9) Gen. pl. in -a (noun), -ra (adj.). (10) Dat. pl. in -um.

The student should further observe the close similarity between the strong adjectival endings and those of pronouns such as hinn, nƒkkurr, engi, hverr (cf. 3.2.2, 3.2.3, 3.2.4, 3.2.5). The similarity becomes even clearer when the many adjectives with an -in suffix are added to the equation and the comparison is extended to certain of the possessive adjectives and the suffixed definite article (probably a reduced form of hinn, cf. 3.2.2). Adjectives in -in inflect according to the tables above, but with three distinct deviations (see the example kominn, 3.3.9, paradigm 7). (1) Where the tables show an ending in or beginning with -r, adjectives in -in have -n instead, e.g. -inn (strong nom. m. sg.), -inni (strong dat. f. sg.). This is because an earlier r has assimilated to the n (-inn < *-inr, -inni < *-inri, cf. hinn < *hinr, 3.2.3). (2) The n of the suffix disap- pears in the strong nom./acc. n. sg. ending, giving -it (the end result of the development *-int > *-itt > -it, cf. hitt, nom./acc. n. sg. of hinn (3.2.2)). (3) The strong acc. m. sg. has the same form as the nom., ending in -inn. It should also be noted that the -i- of the -in suffix is dropped when the inflexional ending consists of an additional syllable, except in the strong gen. and dat. f. sg. and the strong gen. pl., e.g. -nir (strong nom. m. pl.), -ni (weak nom. m. sg.), -inna (strong gen. pl.). This is not unlike what happens to the suffixed definite article (see 3.1.9), although the pattern is not wholly identical. Most two- syllable adjectives, in fact, drop the unstressed vowel of the second syllable according to the pattern of those in -in. A great many of these have an -al, -il, or -ul suffix (see the example gamall, 3.3.9, paradigm 8), and, just as with the n of -in, the immediately following r of the inflexional endings is assimilated to the l, giving -ll(-) instead of the expected *-lr(-), e.g. -all (strong nom. m. sg.), -allar (strong gen. f. sg.). Adjective inflexions and their function 83

The possessive adjectives of the first and second person and the third person reflexive possessive (i.e., words corresponding to English ‘my’, ‘our’, etc. and, with pronominal function, ‘mine’, ‘ours’, etc.) inflect according to one or other of the strong adjective patterns just discussed. Minn ‘my’ (see 3.3.9, paradigm 21), ﬂinn ‘your [sg.]’, sinn ‘his/her/its/their own’ go for the most part like adjectives in -in (but without loss of the i at any point since in the possessives it is part of the root syllable). It is worth noting, however, that in having the nom./ acc. n. sg. forms mitt, ﬂitt, sitt, they parallel even more closely the paradigm of the pronoun hinn, the only difference between the two being that the root vowel of the possessives is long before everything except a geminate consonant, e.g. minn (nom. m. sg.), míns (gen. m. or n. sg.). Várr ‘our [pl.]’ is inflected according to the strong pattern of the tables above, except that, as with certain pronouns, the acc. m. sg. ends in -n (várn). Okkarr ‘our [dual]’, ykkarr ‘your [dual]’ and y›(v)arr ‘your [pl.]’ parallel várr (acc. m. sg. okkarn, ykkarn, y›(v)arn), but as two-syllable words drop the unstressed vowel of the second syllable according to the pattern of the two-syllable adjectives discussed above (giving, for example, acc. f. sg. okkra, ykkra, y›ra). It remains to list the adjective endings that follow the comparative suffix.

Masculine

Sg. nom. -i Pl. nom. -i acc. -a acc. -i gen. -a gen. -i dat. -a dat. -um

Feminine

Sg. nom. -i Pl. nom. -i acc. -i acc. -i gen. -i gen. -i dat. -i dat. -um 84 Morphology and syntax

Neuter

Sg. nom. -a Pl. nom. -i acc. -a acc. -i gen. -a gen. -i dat. -a dat. -um

This minimal set of endings is also the one used with present participles, e.g. sofandi (nom. m. sg., f. sg., nom./acc./gen. pl.) ‘sleeping’ (see 3.3.9, paradigm 19).

These are the essentials of adjectival inflexion in Old Norse. It is not the whole story, but all other adjective inflexions can be seen as variations on this basic pattern. It is vitally important that the student masters the endings set out and discussed on pp. 80–84 before proceeding to the finer detail.

3.3.4 Basic adjective inflexions — Exercise

1. How many different endings do the strong masculine, the weak neuter, and the comparative adjective exhibit respectively? 2. Is there a difference between the strong and weak dat. pl. forms? 3. Where is a difference between the nom. and acc. pl. to be found? 4. Enumerate the gen. sg. endings. 5. Enumerate the acc. pl. endings. 6. What characterises the nom. and acc. of neuter adjectives? 7. Where is there (1) identity and (2) close similarity between noun and adjective endings? 8. Compare the principal adjective inflexions as given on pp. 80–81 with the paradigm of hinn. What similarities and differences between their inflexions can be observed?

3.3.5 The free-standing definite article

Before examples of adjective usage are given, it will be helpful to expand on what was said about definite function in 3.3.2, and show Adjective inflexions and their function 85 how the definite article manifests itself in noun phrases that include adjectives. As will have been apparent from certain of the examples in 3.3.2, Old Norse has a free-standing definite article in addition to the suffixed variety (just as in the modern Scandinavian languages). The free- standing article occurs where a definite noun is modified by an adjective (the adjective normally always being weak), e.g. (h)inn blindi ma›r ‘the blind man’. It is also used where an adjective with definite function (once again weak) is ‘substantivised’, i.e. used without a noun and thus, in a sense, in its place, e.g. (h)inir au›gu ‘the rich [pl.]’. (The inflexional forms of (h)inn are the same as those of the demonstrative pronoun hinn given in 3.2.2, except for the nom./acc. n. sg. which is (h)it with a single t. Note that in some texts instead of (h)inn, (h)it, (h)inir, etc. we get enn, et, enir, i.e., no initial h- and root vowel e.) In Old Norse prose neither of the constructions just illustrated is in fact particularly common except where something or someone is being distinguished from another or others of the same type or name, e.g.: hin sí›asta orrosta ‘the last battle’, hinna gƒmlu skálda ‘the old poets [gen. pl.]’ (as opposed to the new ones), hendi inni hœgri ‘the right hand [dat. f. sg.]’, Óláfr inn helgi ‘Óláfr the saint’, hit sí›ara ‘the latter’, hinn ﬂri›i ‘the third’. (Observe that the free-standing article and its accompanying weak adjective may be found either before or after the noun). To express the equivalent of English the + adj. ± noun Old Norse employs a variety of other constructions. In prose a much more common rendering of the definite article than (h)inn on its own is (h)inn together with the demonstrative pronoun sá (see 3.2.2), giving phrases of the type: sá (h)inn blindi ma›r ‘that the blind man’, ma›r sá (h)inn blindi ‘man that the blind’, or, less commonly, sá ma›r (h)inn blindi ‘that man the blind’, i.e. (in all three cases) ‘the blind man’. (Note the possible variations in word-order, and that sá and (h)inn agree with, i.e. always appear in the same case, gender and number as, adjective and noun — here nom. m. sg.; see 3.3.1.) Occasionally (h)inn may be omitted, and we then get the phrase-type: sá blindi ma›r or ma›r sá blindi, where sá alone renders ‘the’. In Norwegian sources in particular, the suffixed article may be used in addition to its free-standing counterpart, or the demonstrative sá, or both together, giving phrases like hinn hvíti bjƒrninn ‘the white bear-the’ (literally), hƒndin sú hœgri 86 Morphology and syntax

‘hand-the that right’, sá hinn ﬂƒgli ma›rinn ‘that the silent man-the’, vápnin ﬂau in gó›u ‘weapons-the those the good’, all equivalents of English the + adj. + noun. (Note that the phrase-types without hinn, e.g. sá blindi ma›r, hƒndin sú hœgri, sometimes have greater deictic emphasis, i.e. the pronoun is closer in meaning to ‘that’ than ‘the’.) Observe the fundamental identity of (h)inn and the suffixed definite article, the former of which certainly and the latter probably derive from demonstrative hinn (see above and 3.2.2). Additional notes on word-order in noun phrases will be found in 3.9.2.

3.3.5 The free-standing definite article — Exercise

Identify the case, gender, number, syntactic function and semantic role of the definite noun phrases printed in bold in the following sentences.

(1) Inn blindi ma›r kom í húsit ‘The blind man came into the house’

(2) Gekk hann ﬂegar fram fyrir ﬂá kristnu hƒf›ingja ‘Went he immediately forward before the Christian rulers’ ‘He at once went forward in front of the Christian rulers’

(3) Hann skipa›i lƒgunum me› rá›i hinna vitrustu manna ‘He organised the laws with the advice of the wisest men’

(4) firándr fór til Nóregs me› kaupmƒnnum fleim hinum norrœnum ‘firándr went to Norway with the Norwegian merchants’

(5) Engi ma›r mátti nefna hann annan veg en jarl hinn illa ‘No man might call him another way than earl the bad’ ‘No man might call him anything other than “the bad earl”’

(6) En flau hin stóru skip, er á›r hƒf›u siglt, ok fleir hug›u at Ormrinn væri, flat var hit fyrra Tranan, en hit sí›ara Ormr hinn skammi ‘But those the big ships which before had sailed, and they thought that Ormrinn were, that was the former Tranan but the latter Ormr hinn skammi’ Adjective inflexions and their function 87

‘But as for the big ships which had sailed previously and which they thought were “The Serpent”, the former was “The Crane” and the latter “The Short Serpent”’

(7) ﬁá minntisk hann ﬂess er mærin sú hin mikilláta haf›i mælt til hans ‘Then he remembered that which the proud girl had said to him’

(8) ﬁeir snúa ﬂegar at hinni miklu hƒllinni ‘They turn immediately to the big hall’

(9) Konungr hét ﬂar fyrir Óláfi hinum mestum afarkostum ‘King promised there for to-Óláfr the greatest hard-treatments’ ‘The king promised Óláfr in return the harshest treatment’

3.3.6 Examples of adjective usage

As was done for nouns and pronouns, examples are now given of adjectives in function. With the wide range of adjectival functions and inflexions that exists, only a selection can be illustrated, with the emphasis on the most common types. As far as is practicable, the examples are ordered as follows: (a) strong adjectives; (b) weak adjectives; (c) substantivised adjectives (strong and weak); (d) superlatives (strong and weak); (e) comparatives — though some sentences contain examples of more than one type. In other respects, the exemplification follows the same pattern as for nouns (see the preamble on p. 31). Note that the adjectival inflexions being illustrated (or the whole word where there is no difference from the root form) are printed in bold type. To underline the grammatical relations involved, bold is also used for the noun or pronoun with which the adjective agrees. Compare the inflexions used below with those set out and discussed in 3.3.4. Observe, too, the differences between Old Norse and English phraseology and sentence formation. Definitions of basic concepts that have already been given are not repeated; if in doubt the student should consult the individual commentaries that accompany each of the examples of noun function in 3.1.5. 88 Morphology and syntax

(1) ﬁví var hann skakkr kalla›r ‘Therefore was he crooked called’ ‘For that reason he was called crooked’

Skakkr and kalla›r are nom. m. sg., agreeing with hann, the subject. Skakkr is used predicatively (see 3.3), as the subject complement (i.e. as Y in: X is/ becomes/is called Y); it has indefinite function and therefore strong inflexion. Kalla›r is the past participle of the verb kalla ‘[to] call’ which together with var forms a passive phrase (see 3.6.4); in such phrases the past participle (which itself functions not unlike a subject complement) inflects as a strong adjective.

(2) ﬁar ver›r orrosta bæ›i mikil ok hƒr› ‘There happens battle both great and hard’ ‘There a great and hard battle ensues’

Mikil and hƒr› are nom. f. sg., agreeing with orrosta (f.), the subject. They are attributive adjectives (see 3.3), occurring in an indefinite noun phrase and therefore having strong inflexion. Although hƒr› as a nom. f. sg. strong adjective is without ending, the root vowel has u-mutation, just as the nom. sg. of strong feminine nouns (see 3.1.7.1 and 3.3.8.1).

(3) Eigi mun ﬂat kauplaust ‘Not will that chargeless’ ‘That will not be free of charge’

Kauplaust is nom. n. sg., agreeing with flat, the subject. It is the subject complement; it has indefinite function and therefore strong inflexion. Eigi mun flat kauplaust is elliptical for Eigi mun flat kauplaust vera (see 3.9.5.2).

(4) ﬁeir lágu búnir at sigla til Su›reyja ‘They lay ready to sail to the Hebrides’

Búnir is nom. m. pl., agreeing with ﬂeir, the subject. It is the subject complement; it has indefinite function and therefore strong inflexion.

(5) ﬁau váru skamma hrí› ásamt ‘They were short while together’ ‘They were together for only a short while’ Adjective inflexions and their function 89

Skamma is acc. f. sg., agreeing with hrí› (f.), which is accusative because it functions as a time adverbial (see 3.1.2 and 3.1.5, sentence 10). The adjective is used attributively, and, occurring in an indefinite noun phrase, has strong inflexion.

(6) ﬁeir fengu í Dynrƒst strauma vá›væna ‘They got in Dynrƒst currents dangerous’ ‘They encountered dangerous currents in Sumburgh Roost’

Vá›væna is acc. m. pl., agreeing with strauma (m.), which is the direct object. The adjective is used attributively, and, occurring in an indefinite noun phrase, has strong inflexion.

(7) Konungsmenn ger›u jarl handtekinn ‘King’s-men made earl captured’ ‘The king’s men seized the earl’

Handtekinn is acc. m. sg., agreeing with jarl (m.), which is the direct object. The adjective is used predicatively, as the object complement; it has indefinite function and therefore strong inflexion.

(8) Hann ba› ﬂá vinda segl sín ‘He bade them hoist sails REFL. POSS.’ ‘He told them to hoist their sails’

Sín is acc. n. pl., agreeing with segl (n.), which is the direct object of the infinitive clause. Note that though the reflexive possessive agrees with ﬂá (the subject of vinda, cf. 3.9.4) in person (both are 3rd), it agrees with segl in case, gender and number. Possessives have only strong forms: they are themselves determiners, not part of what is determined or defined.

(9) ﬁví næst heyr›u ﬂeir út til hƒggva stórra ‘To-that next heard they out to blows big’ ‘Thereupon they heard the sound of great blows outside’

Stórra is gen. pl., agreeing with hƒggva (n.), the noun of the preposition phrase til hƒggva stórra. The case of the noun is governed by the preposition til (see 3.7, 3.7.2). The adjective is used attributively, and, occurring in an indefinite noun phrase, has strong inflexion. 90 Morphology and syntax

(10) Oss er ván snarpligrar orrostu ‘To-us is expectation of-hard battle’ ‘We can expect a hard battle’

Snarpligrar is gen. f. sg., agreeing with orrostu (f.), which is an objective genitive, that is, it corresponds to English ‘of . . . ’ and presents the battle as the object of the expectation (cf. the idiomatic translation above). The adjective is used attributively, and, occurring in an indefinite noun phrase, has strong inflexion.

(11) Nú skulu› ﬂér taka ƒmbun verka y›varra ‘Now shall you [pl.] take reward of-works your [pl.]’ ‘Now you shall reap the reward of your deeds’

Y›varra is gen. pl., agreeing with verka (n.), which is an objective genitive, that is, it corresponds to English ‘of . . . ’ and presents the deeds as being rewarded (cf. ‘X rewarded the deed’). Note that though the possessive adjective (here functioning as a reflexive, cf. 3.2.1) agrees with ﬂér in person (they are both 2nd pl.), it agrees with verka in case and number (gender is not marked in the gen. pl.). (On the strong inflexion of y›varra, see (8) above.)

(12) ﬁeir dvƒl›usk ﬂar í allgó›um fagna›i ‘They stayed-sk [see 3.6.5.3] there in very-good hospitality’ ‘They stayed there with excellent hospitality’

Allgó›um is dat. m. sg., agreeing with fagna›i (m.), the noun of the preposition phrase í allgó›um fagna›i. The case of the noun is governed by the preposition í. The adjective is used attributively, and, occurring in an indefinite noun phrase, has strong inflexion.

(13) A›ils konungr var mjƒk kærr at gó›um hestum ‘King A›ils was very fond of good horses’

Kærr is nom. m. sg., agreeing with A›ils (m.), the subject. It is the head word of the subject complement; it has indefinite function and therefore strong inflexion. Gó›um is dat. pl., agreeing with hestum (m.), the noun of the preposition phrase at gó›um hestum. The case of the noun is governed by the preposition at. The adjective is used attributively and has indefinite function and therefore strong inflexion. The preposition phrase modifies the adjective kærr. Adjective inflexions and their function 91

(14) Hverr er ﬂessi ma›r hinn drengiligi? ‘Who is this man the valiant?’ ‘Who is this valiant man?’

Drengiligi is nom. m. sg., agreeing with ma›r (m.), the subject (cf. who is X? X is Y, where X is the subject). The adjective is used attributively, and, occurring in a definite noun phrase, has weak inflexion.

(15) Erlingr jarl lét drepa Eindri›a unga ‘Erlingr earl let kill Eindri›i ungi’ ‘Earl Erlingr had Eindri›i the young killed’

Unga is acc. m. sg., agreeing with Eindri›a (m.), the direct object. It is used as a ‘defining’ epithet (Eindri›i ‘the young’ as opposed to any other Eindri›i); as such it is part of a definite noun phrase and therefore has weak inflexion. Observe that definite function in itself is enough to trigger weak inflexion, there being no determiners in the noun phrase in question.

(16) Hann var sonr Óláfs ins hvíta ok Au›ar innar djúpú›gu. ‘He was the son of Óláfr the white and Au›r the deep-minded’

Hvíta is gen. m. sg., agreeing with Óláfs (m.), and djúpú›gu gen. f. sg., agreeing with Au›ar (f.); both nouns are subjective (possessive) genitives (Óláfr and Au›r have ‘him’ as their son). As in (15), the adjectives are used as ‘defining’ epithets, but here in conjunction with the free-standing article (h)inn. Both are part of definite noun phrases and therefore have weak inflexion.

(17) Hann bau› ambótt sinni fleirri flrœnzku at hon skyldi . . . ‘He ordered bondwoman REFL. POSS. that Throndish that she should . . .’ ‘He ordered his bondwoman from firœndalƒg to . . .’

Sinni and ﬂrœnzku are dat. f. sg., agreeing with ambótt (f.), which is the indirect object of bau› (cf. that he gave an order to the bondwoman). Note that though the reflexive possessive agrees with hann in person (both are 3rd), it agrees with ambótt in case, gender and number. ﬁrœnzku is used attributively, and, occurring in a definite noun phrase, has weak inflexion (on the strong inflexion of sinni, see (8) above). 92 Morphology and syntax

(18) ﬁá sendi hann braut ena gauzku menn ‘Then he sent away the Gautish (= from Gautland) men’

Gauzku is acc. m. pl., agreeing with menn (m.), the direct object. It is used attributively, and, occurring in a definite noun phrase, has weak inflexion.

(19) ﬁví munu fáir trúa ‘That will few [pl.] believe’ ‘Few will believe that’

Fáir is nom. m. pl. (masculine is the default gender where the reference is to people in general). The adjective stands on its own without a noun and forms the subject. It has indefinite function and therefore strong inflexion.

(20) Hann lét jafna refsing hafa ríkan ok óríkan ‘He let equal punishment have mighty [sg.] and unmighty [sg.]’ ‘He gave both mighty and unmighty equal punishment’

Jafna is acc. f. sg., agreeing with refsing (f.), which is the direct object of hafa. The adjective is used attributively, and, occurring in an indefinite noun phrase, has strong inflexion. Ríkan and óríkan are acc. m. sg. They stand on their own without a noun — but referring to individual males — and form the direct object of lét. They have indefinite function and therefore strong inflexion. The construction here is what is known as an accusative and infinitive: the accusative objects of lét, ‘mighty and unmighty’, are in a sense also the subjects of hafa (see 3.9.4).

(21) Snústu frá illu ok ger gott ‘Turn from evil and do good’

Illu is dat. n. sg. It stands on its own without a noun and is part of the preposition phrase frá illu, its case being determined by the preposition. Gott is acc. n. sg., and it, too, stands on its own without a noun. It is the direct object of the verb ger. Both adjectives have indefinite function and therefore strong inflexion. They are neuter because they do not refer to an entity of masculine or feminine gender. (Note that snústu is a contracted form of snúsk ﬂú: -sk verb (see 3.6.5.3) + the personal pronoun ﬂú (literally ‘turn you’). Gott is an irregular nom./acc. n. sg. form (see 3.3.8.4), nom. m. sg. gó›r.) Adjective inflexions and their function 93

(22) S‡n ﬂik ﬂessum enum n‡komna ‘Show yourself to-this the newly-come’ ‘Show yourself to this newly arrived one’

N‡komna is dat. m. sg. It stands on its own without a noun — but referring to a male animal — and forms the head of the indirect object phrase ﬂessum enum n‡komna. Determined by ﬂessum enum, it has definite function and therefore weak inflexion.

(23) Sveinn var allra manna skygnastr ‘Sveinn was of-all men most-sharp-sighted’ ‘Sveinn was the most sharp-sighted of men’

Skygnastr is nom. m. sg. sup., agreeing with Sveinn (m.), the subject. The adjective is the subject complement; it has indefinite function and therefore strong inflexion (which follows the superlative -ast suffix). (Note that the superlative here is what is known as absolute, i.e. it denotes not the highest but a very high degree.) Allra is gen. pl. of allr ‘all’, which has only strong forms; it agrees with manna, a genitive of type: menn are presented as a type of which Sveinn is a particularly sharp-sighted member (see 3.1.5, sentence 14).

(24) Var› ﬂessi fer› in frægsta ‘Became this expedition the most-famous’ ‘This expedition became most famous’

Frægsta is nom. f. sg. sup., agreeing with fer› (f.), the subject. It is the subject complement; it has definite function and therefore weak inflexion (which follows the superlative -st suffix). (Note that here too the superlative is absolute (see (23)) — notwithstanding the definiteness of the noun phrase.)

(25) Me›an hann var á léttasta aldri, haf›i hann hvert sumar lei›angr úti ‘While he was at lightest age, had he each summer levy out’ ‘While he was at the most active age, he made naval expeditions each summer’

Léttasta is dat. m. sg. sup., agreeing with aldri (m.), the noun of the preposition phrase á léttasta aldri. The case of the noun is governed by the preposition á. The adjective is used attributively and has definite function and therefore weak inflexion (which follows the superlative -ast suffix). On the occurrence of weak inflexion in the absence of determiners, cf. (15). 94 Morphology and syntax

(26) Sá mun ﬂér hinn bezti ‘That will to-you the best’ ‘That will be the best one (i.e. option) for you’

Bezti is nom. m. sg. sup. It stands on its own without a noun and forms the subject complement. It has definite function and therefore weak inflexion. Bezt- and the comparative betr- are suppletive forms (i.e. they have a different root from other parts of the word, cf. positive gó›-; see further 3.3.8.3); ‘z’ denotes the sounds ts (cf. 2.1.3), so what we have is in effect *bet-st-. The phrase hinn bezti is elliptical for hinn bezti kostr ‘the best choice/option’.

(27) Ok svá var, ﬂví at jarl var ﬂess fúsari ‘And thus was, therefore that earl was of-that keener’ ‘And thus it was, because the earl was more in favour of it’

Fúsari is nom. m. sg. comp., agreeing with jarl (m.), the subject of the second sentence. The adjective is the subject complement. Following the comparative suffix -ar, we get the appropriate comparative inflexion, which remains the same whether the function is indefinite or definite.

(28) ﬁar gekk Rƒgnvaldr jarl af skipum ok allt it gƒfgara li› ﬂeira ‘There went Rƒgnvaldr earl off ships and all the more-noble force their’ ‘There Earl Rƒgnvaldr and all the more noble of their force left the ships’

Allt is nom. n. sg. of allr ‘all’, which has only strong forms. Together with gƒfgara (nom. n. sg.) it agrees with li› (n.), one of the two subjects. Both adjectives are used attributively. In gƒfgara, following the comparative suffix -ar, we get the appropriate comparative inflexion (see (27)). The comparative and superlative forms gƒfgar-, gƒfgast- show loss of an unstressed vowel: the positive root is gƒfug- (see 3.3.8.5 point (1)).

(29) Hin yngri skáld hafa ort eptir dœmum hinna gƒmlu skálda ‘The younger poets have composed following the examples of the old poets’

Yngri is nom. n. pl. comp., agreeing with skáld (n.), the subject. The adjective is used attributively. Following the comparative suffix -r, we get the appropriate comparative inflexion (see (27)). The comparative and superlative forms yngr- yngst- have a different root vowel from the positive ung- (because of Adjective inflexions and their function 95 front mutation, see 3.3.8.2). Gƒmlu is gen. pl., agreeing with skálda (n.), a possessive genitive (the examples, in a sense, ‘belong to’ the old poets). The adjective is used attributively, and, occurring in a definite noun phrase, has weak inflexion. The form gƒmlu has suffered loss of the second, unstressed, syllable, and its root vowel has undergone u-mutation (strong nom. m. sg. gamall; cf. 3.3.4, 3.3.8.5 point (1), 3.1.7.1, 3.3.8.1).

(30) ﬁeir lƒg›u á ﬂat hit mesta kapp, hverr betri hesta átti ‘They laid on that the most contest, who better horses owned’ ‘They made it a matter of the greatest rivalry who owned the better horses’

Mesta is acc. n. sg. sup., agreeing with kapp (n.), the direct object of lƒg›u. The adjective is used attributively; it has definite function and therefore weak inflexion (which follows the superlative -st suffix). The comparative and superlative forms meir-, mest- are suppletive (positive mikil-; see (26)). Betri is acc. m. pl. comp., agreeing with hesta (m.), the direct object of átti. The adjective is used attributively. Following the comparative suffix -r, we get the appropriate comparative inflexion (see (27)). Like the superlative bezt-, betri is a suppletive form (cf. (26)).

3.3.6 Examples of adjective usage — Exercise

1. In which of the above examples do comparative forms occur? List all that you find. 2. In which of the above examples are adjectives used predicatively? List all that you find together with the nouns or pronouns with which they agree. 3. In which of the above examples are adjectives used with definite function? List all that you find. 4. In which of the above examples do possessive adjectives occur? List all that you find and explain which other words in their respective sentences they agree with and in what way. 5. Explain the following forms (i.e. state what inflexion or inflexions they have and, where possible, the reason for the inflexion(s)): kauplaust in example (3), handtekinn (7), djúpú›gu (16), gauzku (18), ríkan (20), léttasta (25), gƒfgara (28). 96 Morphology and syntax

3.3.7 Difficulties in recognising adjective inflexions and ways of overcoming them

As in the case of nouns (cf. 3.1.6), the learner may initially experience some difficulty in recognising which adjective inflexions are which. The strong endings are by and large distinctive, and even where an ending recurs in different parts of the paradigm there are unlikely to be serious problems of understanding. Although the genitive masculine and neuter singular, for example, both end in -s, they clearly signal the genitive singular, just as -ra is an unambiguous sign of the genitive plural. The identity between nominative and accusative in the neuter singular and feminine and neuter plural may be problematic, but very often their function and therefore their case will be apparent from the context. It is when confronted with the minimal distinctions of the weak and comparative systems of endings — and their overlap with certain strong endings — that the learner will regularly have to rely on the presence or absence of other words in the noun phrase, and, where appropriate, their forms, to determine the case, gender and number of the adjective. Fortunately, as we have seen, it is the way of adjectives, and weak adjectives in particular, to be accompanied by words with which they exhibit grammatical agreement. In sentence (17), for example:

Hann bau› ambótt sinni fleirri flrœnzku at hon skyldi . . . it can be shown that flrœnzku is dat. f. sg., even though one strong and eleven other weak forms have the -u ending, because of the presence of sinni and fleirri. These words determine the noun that flrœnzku modifies, which means (a): the function of the adjective is definite and the form weak, and (b): flrœnzku will have the same case, gender and number as sinni and fleirri since all three agree with the noun ambótt. Given that sinni and fleirri are unambiguously dat. f. sg., we can thus deduce that flrœnzku represents the same combination of case, gender and number. Similarly, in sentence (22):

S‡n flik flessum enum n‡komna it can be shown that n‡komna is dat. m. sg., even though two strong Adjective inflexions and their function 97 and seven other weak forms have the -a ending. Here the noun phrase lacks a noun with which the adjective can agree, but there is agreement with the determiners flessum enum. Their presence indicates the phrase is definite and the adjective therefore weak, and although flessum enum can represent the dat. m. sg. or dat. pl., in combination with n‡komna the pair can only be dat. m. sg. since the dat. pl. adjective ending (weak and strong) is -um. In sentence (27):

Ok svá var, ﬂví at jarl var ﬂess fúsari it is clear that fúsari is nom. m. sg. even though a total of fourteen comparative forms share the -i ending. Jarl, with which fúsari agrees, is masculine and singular, and the only masculine singular comparative form ending in -i is the nominative. Sometimes direct pointers may be lacking. In sentence (15):

Erlingr jarl lét drepa Eindri›a unga unga might represent the strong acc. f. sg. or acc. m. pl., or the weak acc., gen. or dat. m. sg. or n. sg. (any case). The only word with which unga can agree, Eindri›a, is masculine singular. That excludes the possibility of feminine or neuter gender, or masculine plural, but given that weak nouns have exactly the same forms in the singular as weak adjectives, it does not help determine whether unga is acc., gen. or dat. (m. sg.). Here one has to rely on function. The verb drepa takes a direct object in the accusative, and since its -r ending shows Erlingr to be nominative and thus subject, and there are no other noun phrases in the sentence, Eindri›a unga must be the direct object and therefore accusative.

3.3.7 Difficulties in recognising adjective inflexions and ways of overcoming them — Exercise

1. Why may it sometimes be difficult to recognise the case, gender and number of adjectives in Old Norse? 2. What means can we use to help us deduce their case and number? 98 Morphology and syntax

3.3.8 Important variations in adjective inflexion

Adjectives in Old Norse are not subject to as much inflexional variation as nouns (cf. 3.1.7). Nevertheless, they exhibit a wider range of forms than those described in 3.3.4 (cf., e.g., the comparative yngri and the weak pl. gƒmlu in (29)). The significant variations will now be examined.

3.3.8.1 Labial mutation

The basics of labial mutation were discussed in 3.1.7.1. Since, as pointed out there, it is a rule of Old Norse that a cannot appear before u or v, it is clear that adjectives with a in the root, just as nouns, will change that a to ƒ whenever an ending is applied that consists of or contains a u. Thus, the strong dat. m. sg. and dat. pl. of har›r ‘hard’ is hƒr›um, and the strong dat. n. sg., weak acc., gen., dat. f. sg. and weak nom., acc., gen. pl. hƒr›u (see paradigms 2 and 14 in 3.3.9). This rule should not cause the learner problems, as long as s/he remembers that an unknown word with ƒ in the root and u in the ending must be looked up in the dictionary as though it had root a if it cannot be found there with root ƒ (for an example of the latter type, cf. fƒlr ‘pale’ — paradigm 6 below). Just as hƒr›um and hƒr›u will be found under har›r, so grƒnnum or grƒnnu must be looked up under grannr ‘thin’, lƒngum or lƒngu under langr ‘long’, snƒrpum or snƒrpu under snarpr ‘keen’, ‘hard’, etc. Like certain noun forms, adjectives may have ƒ in the root even where no u or v follows in the next syllable. The cause is the same: the presence of a following u at an earlier stage of the language. We have seen (pp. 81–2) how closely adjective inflexions parallel those of nouns, and it is therefore no surprise (and of some help to the student) to learn that it is in part in the same forms that root ƒ is encountered in adjectives. The forms concerned are: strong nom. f. sg. and strong nom./acc. n. pl. The strong nom. f. sg. and nom./acc. n. pl. of har›r is thus hƒr› (< *har›u; cf. sentence (2)), of grannr grƒnn, of langr lƒng, etc. (see paradigm 2 below). In these cases, too, an unknown word with root ƒ must be looked up in a dictionary as though it had root a if it cannot be found there with root ƒ. Adjective inflexions and their function 99

U-mutation in adjectives affects unstressed as well as stressed syllables, just as with nouns. In adjectives, too, it results in u in the unstressed syllable, and the mutation can then spread further (for the historical process, see p. 41). The superlative suffix -ast, for example, appears as -ust when a -u or -um ending follows. Thus skygnastr of sentence (23) and léttasta of (25) become skygnustu, léttustu, skygn- ustum, léttustum in the appropriate forms; adjectives with root a, e.g. har›r, exhibit u in the superlative suffix and ƒ in the root: hƒr›ustu, hƒr›ustum (see paradigms 12, 17 below). Adjectives with two-syllable stems are also affected: spurall ‘inquisitive’, ykkarr ‘your [dual]’, for example, become spurul, ykkur in the (strong) nom. f. sg. and nom./ acc. n. pl., and gamall ‘old’, with root a, has strong nom. f. sg. and nom./acc. n. pl. gƒmul (< *gamalu) (see paradigms 8, 22). Present participles are a partial exception in that the -and- suffix by which they are formed becomes -ƒnd- in the dat. pl., e.g., sofƒndum ‘sleeping’ (paradigm 19); this is because the suffix has secondary stress.

3.3.8.1 Labial mutation — Exercise

1. In which forms of the adjective does root a change to ƒ? 2. Explain the differences in vowel quality (a) between the strong nom. m. sg. sup. spakastr and the dat. pl. sup. spƒkustum ‘wisest’, and (b) between the strong nom. m. sg. atall and the strong nom. f. sg. ƒtul ‘fierce’. 3. Look up the following adjectives in an Old Norse dictionary or in the Glossary in NION III and write down the entry forms you find: sƒnnu, glƒ›, spƒkurum, ﬂƒgul, vitrustu.

3.3.8.2 Front mutation

The basics of front mutation were discussed in 3.1.7.2. The only parts of adjectival inflexion affected by this process are certain comparative and superlative forms. Those adjectives that form the comparative with the -r and the superlative with the -st suffix undergo front mutation of back root vowels. We find the following back : front correspondences (the examples contrast the strong nom. m. sg. pos. form with the nom. m. sg. comp.): 100 Morphology and syntax

a ——— e (langr ——— lengri ‘long’, ‘longer’) á ——— æ (lágr ——— lægri ‘low’, ‘lower’) ó ——— œ (stórr ——— stœrri ‘big’, ‘bigger’) u ——— y (ungr ——— yngri ‘young’, ‘younger’) ú ——— ‡ (djúpr ——— d‡pri ‘deep’, ‘deeper’) ƒ ——— ø (ﬂrƒngr ——— ﬂrøngri ‘narrow’, ‘narrower’)

Observe the loss of j in d‡pri. The corresponding superlative forms (strong nom. m. sg.) are: lengstr, lægstr, stœrstr, yngstr, d‡pstr, ﬂrøngstr. If the learner is confronted by what appears to be a comparative or superlative form with one of the above front vowels, and s/he is unable to find the word in a dictionary, it should be looked up substituting the appropriate back vowel. No entry *fegr will be found, for example, so the learner puzzled by the word fegrstu in the phrase enir fegrstu litir ‘the fairest colours’ should try under fagr.

3.3.8.3 Suppletive forms As will have become clear from certain of the examples in 3.3.6, a few comparative and superlative forms (mostly very common) are suppletive, i.e. they have a completely different root from that of their positive counterpart. There are unfortunately no rules or guide-lines here and the student will simply have to learn the positive and the suppletive forms as separate items. Some help is to be had from the fact that many of the suppletives also occur in English, cf. the following list (featuring the (strong) nom. m. sg. positive, comparative and superlative forms):

gamall —— ellri —— elztr ‘old’, ‘older’, ‘oldest’ (cf. elder, eldest) gó›r —— betri —— beztr ‘good’, ‘better’, ‘best’ illr —— verri —— verstr ‘bad’, ‘worse’, ‘worst’ lítill —— minni —— minnstr ‘little’, ‘smaller’, ‘smallest’ margr —— fleiri —— flestr ‘many a’, ‘more’, ‘most’ mikill —— meiri —— mestr ‘big’, ‘bigger’, ‘biggest’

Observe that in minni (< *minri) the r of the comparative suffix assimilates to the n of the root (cf. 3.3.8.4 below). Fleiri, flestr are used of entities that can be counted, e.g. í flestum lƒndum ‘in most Adjective inflexions and their function 101 countries’; for non-count entities, meiri, mestr are employed in the sense ‘more’, ‘most’, e.g. meira fé ‘more wealth’.

3.3.8.4 Deviations from the basic endings Certain endings occur that do not accord with those given in 3.3.4. We have already seen there that consonantal assimilations affect adjectives with the -in and -al, -il, -ul suffixes as well as the possessives minn, ﬂinn, sinn, and that the -in-suffix adjectives and the possessives have an acc. m. sg. in -n rather than -an (see paradigms 7, 8, 21, 22). Other deviations that may cause problems of recognition are: (1) Consonantal assimilations in monosyllabic adjectives that follow the pattern of the disyllabic types and the possessives just mentioned. In some monosyllabic adjectives whose root ends in l, n, s, an immediately following r (in the strong nom. m. sg., gen. and dat. f. sg. and gen. pl. endings, and in comparatives with an -r suffix) assimilates to the l, n or s (e.g. háll ‘slippery’ (< *hálr); dat. f. sg. heilli ‘whole’, ‘healthy’, (< *heilri); gen. f. sg. vænnar ‘hopeful’, ‘beautiful’ (< *vænrar); dat. pl. comp. hreinnum ‘purer’ (< *hreinrum); jafn ‘equal’, ‘even’ (< *jafnn < *jafnr); frjáls ‘free’ (< *frjálss < *frjálsr); see paradigms 3, 4, 20). Jafn and frjáls exemplify the general rule that consonant + geminate consonant is simplified to consonant + single consonant (thus also in adjectives with consonant + r in the root: contrast, for example, strong nom. f. sg. fƒgr ‘beautiful’ (< *fagru) with strong nom. m. sg. fagr (< *fagrr), strong gen. pl. fagra (< *fagrra)). (2) Consonantal assimilations that result in the loss or alteration of root -d or -› before the strong nom./acc. n. sg. -t ending (e.g. ó›r ‘furious’ — nom./acc. n. sg. ótt (< *ó›t); vandr ‘difficult’ — nom./acc. n. sg. vant (< *vandt, with simplification of -ntt to -nt, cf. above); kalla›r ‘called’ (pp.) — nom./acc. n. sg. kallat (< *kallatt < *kalla›t, with simplification of geminate tt in unstressed position); see paradigms 2, 11). (3) A miscellaneous group of very common adjectives with irregular forms. (a) Lítill ‘little’ and its antonym mikill ‘big’, with roots lítil- (contracted litl-), mikil-, have strong acc. m. sg. forms lítinn and mikinn and strong nom./acc. n. sg. lítit and mikit (i.e. they behave in these cases as though they were -in-suffix adjectives, cf., e.g., opinn ‘open’, tekinn ‘taken’ — strong acc. m. sg. opinn, tekinn, strong nom./acc. n. sg. opit, tekit; see paradigms 7 and 9). Mikill also sometimes has strong dat. n. sg. myklu. 102 Morphology and syntax

(b) The strong nom./acc. n. sg. of gó›r is gótt (cf. point (2) above) or, much more commonly, gott, of margr mart (also sometimes margt) and of sannr ‘true’ satt. (c) The two-syllable adjective heilagr ‘holy’, which drops the a of the unstressed syllable on the pattern of those in -al etc. (see 3.3.4 and 3.3.8.5 point (1)), regularly undergoes monophthongisation (i.e. the diphthong ei changes to a single vowel) in the shortened forms, cf., for example, strong nom./acc. f. pl. helgar, weak nom. m. sg. helgi.

3.3.8.5 Minor irregularities

The inflexions of Old Norse adjectives exhibit yet other deviations from the basic pattern, but these are less likely to cause the learner problems of recognition. (1) As already outlined in 3.3.4 (and cf. also 3.1.7.5 point (1)), the unstressed syllables of many disyllabic adjectives lose their vowel when the inflexional ending itself consists of a syllable — except in the strong gen. and dat. f. sg. and strong gen. pl. It remains to be added that not only adjectives with an -in or -al, -il, -ul suffix are affected, but the many in -ig, -ug as well, and that the last, together with -al, -il, -ul types, but unlike those in -in, have strong acc. m. sg. forms in -an with resulting loss of the preceding syllable (contrast gamall ‘old’ — acc. m. sg. gamlan, au›igr ‘rich’ — acc. m. sg. au›gan with hei›inn ‘heathen’, opinn ‘open’ — acc. m. sg. hei›inn, opinn; see paradigms 8, 10). The comparative -ari and superlative -ast suffixes also commonly trigger loss of the unstressed vowel of disyllabic adjectives (e.g. nom. m. sg., f. sg., etc. comp. hei›nari ‘more heathen’, strong nom. m. sg. sup. au›gastr ‘richest’; see paradigm 20). (2) In accordance with the rule stated in 3.3.8.4 point (1), to the effect that consonant + geminate consonant is simplified to consonant + single consonant, adjectives that end in consonant + t do not add a further -t in the strong nom./acc. n. sg. (e.g. fluttr ‘conveyed’ (pp.) — strong nom./acc. n. sg. flutt (< *fluttt); hvassastr ‘sharpest’ (strong nom. m. sg. sup.) — nom./acc. n. sg. hvassast (< *hvassastt; see paradigm 12). (3) Consonants may sometimes be lengthened when immediately following long, stressed vowels. This is the rule with t in the strong nom./acc. n. sg., and more or less the rule with r in the strong gen. and dat. f. sg. and gen. pl. and in the comparative (e.g. grár ‘grey’ — strong nom./acc. n. sg. grátt, strong gen. f. sg. grár(r)ar; hár ‘high’ — nom. m. Adjective inflexions and their function 103 sg., f. sg., etc. comp. hær(r)i (with front mutation); see paradigms 5, 20). (4) As with nouns (cf. 3.1.7.5 point (2)), the vowels of inflexional endings tend to be dropped when they immediately follow a long vowel of the same or similar quality (e.g. grár — strong acc. m. sg. grán, strong dat. m. sg., dat. pl. grám, strong acc. f. sg., dat. n. sg. and acc. m. pl., all weak forms except nom. m. sg. and dat. pl. grá; trúr ‘faithful’ — strong dat. n. sg., weak acc., gen., dat. f. sg. and nom., acc., gen. pl. trú; see paradigms 5, 15, 20). (5) As with nouns (cf. 3.1.7.5 point (4)), j is inserted in some adjectives before inflexional endings or suffixes consisting of or beginning in a or u; in others v is inserted before endings or suffixes consisting of or beginning in a or i (e.g. n‡r ‘new’ — strong acc. m. sg. n‡jan, strong dat. m. sg., dat. pl. n‡jum, strong acc. f. sg. and acc. m. pl., weak acc., gen., dat. m. sg., nom. f. sg. and n. sg. n‡ja, strong nom. m. sg. sup. n‡jastr; døkkr ‘dark’ — strong acc. m. sg. døkkvan, weak nom. m. sg. døkkvi, nom. m. sg., f. sg., etc. comp. døkkvari; see paradigms 6, 20). (6) As a final irregularity, it is worth noting that a few adjectives including the third person possessives are uninflected. These will cause the learner little trouble, since, like adjectives in English, their form remains unchanged whatever their function. Examples are: einskipa ‘with one ship’, fulltí›a ‘full-grown’, andvaka ‘sleepless’. Some of these, e.g. andvaka, can also appear in the nom. m. sg. with an -i ending: andvaki. The possessives are: hans ‘his’, hennar ‘her’, ﬂess ‘its’, ﬂeir(r)a ‘their’, i.e. the genitive forms of the corresponding pronouns which have taken on an additional, adjectival function.

3.3.8.2/3.3.8.3/3.3.8.4/3.3.8.5 Front mutation/Suppletive forms/ Deviations from the basic endings/Minor irregularities — Exercise

1. Where in Old Norse adjectival inflexion does front mutation play a role? Give examples. 2. What are the comparative and superlative forms of gó›r, lítill, mikill? In what way does the inflexion for degree of these adjectives differ from that of the majority? 3. In what forms of the adjective may inflexional -r(-) be assimilated to an immediately preceding l, n or s? 4. Look up the following adjectives in an Old Norse dictionary or in NION III and write down the entry forms you find: breitt, helgustu, trúm, fƒlvir, tekit, færri, mikinn, fƒrlan, mi›jum, vaknat. 104 Morphology and syntax

3.3.9 Examples of adjective inflexion

Complete paradigms of individual adjectives are now given using the same selection criteria as for nouns (cf. 3.1.8, preamble). While Old Norse grammars in general tend to be over-lavish in their exemplification of nouns, they are sparing in the number of adjective paradigms they include. The current work breaks with this tradition and prints a selection big enough to enable the learner to recognise with the minimum of difficulty the majority of forms likely to be encountered in Old Norse texts. The examples should naturally be studied in conjunction with the guidance given in 3.3.4, 3.3.7 and 3.3.8. Each paradigm is numbered for ease of reference.

Strong inflexion

(1) Basic pattern: sjúkr ‘ill’ m. f. n. Sg. nom. sjúkr sjúk sjúkt acc. sjúkan sjúka sjúkt gen. sjúks sjúkrar sjúks dat. sjúkum sjúkri sjúku

Pl. nom. sjúkir sjúkar sjúk acc. sjúka sjúkar sjúk gen. sjúkra sjúkra sjúkra dat. sjúkum sjúkum sjúkum

(2) With root a and final ›: har›r ‘hard’ m. f. n. Sg. nom. har›r hƒr› hart acc. har›an har›a hart gen. har›s har›rar har›s dat. hƒr›um har›ri hƒr›u

Pl. nom. har›ir har›ar hƒr› acc. har›a har›ar hƒr› gen. har›ra har›ra har›ra dat. hƒr›um hƒr›um hƒr›um Adjective inflexions and their function 105

(3) Monosyllable with final n: hreinn ‘pure’ m. f. n. Sg. nom. hreinn hrein hreint acc. hreinan hreina hreint gen. hreins hreinnar hreins dat. hreinum hreinni hreinu

Pl. nom. hreinir hreinar hrein acc. hreina hreinar hrein gen. hreinna hreinna hreinna dat. hreinum hreinum hreinum

(4) Monosyllable with root a and final ss: hvass ‘sharp’ m. f. n. Sg. nom. hvass hvƒss hvasst acc. hvassan hvassa hvasst gen. hvass hvass(r)ar hvass dat. hvƒssum hvass(r)i hvƒssu

Pl. nom. hvassir hvassar hvƒss acc. hvassa hvassar hvƒss gen. hvass(r)a hvass(r)a hvass(r)a dat. hvƒssum hvƒssum hvƒssum

(5) With final long vowel: grár ‘grey’ m. f. n. Sg. nom. grár grá grátt acc. grán grá grátt gen. grás grár(r)ar grás dat. grám grár(r)i grá

Pl. nom. gráir grár grá acc. grá grár grá gen. grár(r)a grár(r)a grár(r)a dat. grám grám grám 106 Morphology and syntax

(6) With v insertion: fƒlr ‘pale’ m. f. n. Sg. nom. fƒlr fƒl fƒlt acc. fƒlvan fƒlva fƒlt gen. fƒls fƒlrar fƒls dat. fƒlum fƒlri fƒlu

Pl. nom. fƒlvir fƒlvar fƒl acc. fƒlva fƒlvar fƒl gen. fƒlra fƒlra fƒlra dat. fƒlum fƒlum fƒlum

(7) With -in suffix: kominn ‘come’ (pp.) m. f. n. Sg. nom. kominn komin komit acc. kominn komna komit gen. komins kominnar komins dat. komnum kominni komnu

Pl. nom. komnir komnar komin acc. komna komnar komin gen. kominna kominna kominna dat. komnum komnum komnum

(8) With root a and -al suffix: gamall ‘old’ m. f. n. Sg. nom. gamall gƒmul gamalt acc. gamlan gamla gamalt gen. gamals gamallar gamals dat. gƒmlum gamalli gƒmlu

Pl. nom. gamlir gamlar gƒmul acc. gamla gamlar gƒmul gen. gamalla gamalla gamalla dat. gƒmlum gƒmlum gƒmlum Adjective inflexions and their function 107

(9) With -il and -in suffix: mikill ‘big’ m. f. n. Sg. nom. mikill mikil mikit acc. mikinn mikla mikit gen. mikils mikillar mikils dat. miklum mikilli miklu

Pl. nom. miklir miklar mikil acc. mikla miklar mikil gen. mikilla mikilla mikilla dat. miklum miklum miklum

(10) With -ig suffix: au›igr ‘wealthy’ m. f. n. Sg. nom. au›igr au›ig au›igt acc. au›gan au›ga au›igt gen. au›igs au›igrar au›igs dat. au›gum au›igri au›gu

Pl. nom. au›gir au›gar au›ig acc. au›ga au›gar au›ig gen. au›igra au›igra au›igra dat. au›gum au›gum au›gum

(11) With -a› suffix: elska›r ‘loved’ (pp.) m. f. n. Sg. nom. elska›r elsku› elskat acc. elska›an elska›a elskat gen. elska›s elska›rar elska›s dat. elsku›um elska›ri elsku›u

Pl. nom. elska›ir elska›ar elsku› acc. elska›a elska›ar elsku› gen. elska›ra elska›ra elska›ra dat. elsku›um elsku›um elsku›um 108 Morphology and syntax

(12) With root a and superlative suffix: har›astr ‘hardest’ m. f. n. Sg. nom. har›astr hƒr›ust har›ast acc. har›astan har›asta har›ast gen. har›asts har›astrar har›asts dat. hƒr›ustum har›astri hƒr›ustu

Pl. nom. har›astir har›astar hƒr›ust acc. har›asta har›astar hƒr›ust gen. har›astra har›astra har›astra dat. hƒr›ustum hƒr›ustum hƒr›ustum

Weak inflexion

(13) Basic pattern: sjúki ‘ill’ m. f. n. Sg. nom. sjúki sjúka sjúka acc. sjúka sjúku sjúka gen. sjúka sjúku sjúka dat. sjúka sjúku sjúka

Pl. nom. sjúku sjúku sjúku acc. sjúku sjúku sjúku gen. sjúku sjúku sjúku dat. sjúkum sjúkum sjúkum

(14) With root a and -al suffix: gamli ‘old’ m. f. n. Sg. nom. gamli gamla gamla acc. gamla gƒmlu gamla gen. gamla gƒmlu gamla dat. gamla gƒmlu gamla

Pl. nom. gƒmlu gƒmlu gƒmlu acc. gƒmlu gƒmlu gƒmlu gen. gƒmlu gƒmlu gƒmlu dat. gƒmlum gƒmlum gƒmlum Adjective inflexions and their function 109

(15) With final long vowel: grái ‘grey’ m. f. n. Sg. nom. grái grá grá acc. grá grá grá gen. grá grá grá dat. grá grá grá

Pl. nom. grá grá grá acc. grá grá grá gen. grá grá grá dat. grám grám grám

(16) With -a› suffix: elska›i ‘loved’ m. f. n. Sg. nom. elska›i elska›a elska›a acc. elska›a elsku›u elska›a gen. elska›a elsku›u elska›a dat. elska›a elsku›u elska›a

Pl. nom. elsku›u elsku›u elsku›u acc. elsku›u elsku›u elsku›u gen. elsku›u elsku›u elsku›u dat. elsku›um elsku›um elsku›um

(17) With root a and superlative suffix: har›asti ‘hardest’ m. f. n. Sg. nom. har›asti har›asta har›asta acc. har›asta hƒr›ustu har›asta gen. har›asta hƒr›ustu har›asta dat. har›asta hƒr›ustu har›asta

Pl. nom. hƒr›ustu hƒr›ustu hƒr›ustu acc. hƒr›ustu hƒr›ustu hƒr›ustu gen. hƒr›ustu hƒr›ustu hƒr›ustu dat. hƒr›ustum hƒr›ustum hƒr›ustum 110 Morphology and syntax

Comparative and present participle inflexion

(18) (With root a) har›ari ‘harder’ m. f. n. Sg. nom. har›ari har›ari har›ara acc. har›ara har›ari har›ara gen. har›ara har›ari har›ara dat. har›ara har›ari har›ara

Pl. nom. har›ari har›ari har›ari acc. har›ari har›ari har›ari gen. har›ari har›ari har›ari dat. hƒr›urum hƒr›urum hƒr›urum

(19) sofandi ‘sleeping’ m. f. n. Sg. nom. sofandi sofandi sofanda acc. sofanda sofandi sofanda gen. sofanda sofandi sofanda dat. sofanda sofandi sofanda

Pl. nom. sofandi sofandi sofandi acc. sofandi sofandi sofandi gen. sofandi sofandi sofandi dat. sofƒndum sofƒndum sofƒndum

Degree inflexion

(20) Main types, illustrated by strong and comp. nom. m. sg. forms pos. comp. sup. sjúkr ‘ill’ sjúkari sjúkastr hreinn ‘pure’ hreinni hreinstr hvass ‘sharp’ hvassari hvassastr grár ‘grey’ grár(r)i grástr fƒlr ‘pale’ fƒlvari fƒlvastr hei›inn ‘heathen’ hei›nari hei›nastr au›igr ‘wealthy’ au›igri au›gastr Adjective inflexions and their function 111

Irregular comp. and sup. forms involving front mutation and suppletion are dealt with in 3.3.8.2 and 3.3.8.3 above.

Possessive adjective inflexion

(21) minn ‘my’ m. f. n. Sg. nom. minn mín mitt acc. minn mína mitt gen. míns minnar míns dat. mínum minni mínu

Pl. nom. mínir mínar mín acc. mína mínar mín gen. minna minna minna dat. mínum mínum mínum

(22) ykkarr ‘your [dual]’ m. f. n. Sg. nom. ykkarr ykkur ykkart acc. ykkarn ykkra ykkart gen. ykkars ykkarrar ykkars dat. ykkrum ykkarri ykkru

Pl. nom. ykkrir ykkrar ykkur acc. ykkra ykkrar ykkur gen. ykkarra ykkarra ykkarra dat. ykkrum ykkrum ykkrum

3.3.9 Examples of adjective inflexion — Exercise

Identify the case, gender, number, type of inflexion (strong, weak, comparative/present participle) and, if comparative or superlative, the degree of the adjectives printed in bold in the following sentences. Comment, in addition, on the syntactic function and semantic role of the noun phrases they form part of. Where an adjective exhibits a form other than the strong nominative masculine singular positive — the one used in dictionary entries — give that form as well. 112 Morphology and syntax

(1) Hann var inn vaskasti ma›r ‘He was the most-valiant man’ ‘He was the most valiant of men’

(2) Hann var íslenzkr at kyni, skyldr honum ‘He was Icelandic by kin, related to him’

(3) Er ﬂar mikill ma›r á baki í blám klæ›um ‘Is there big man on back in dark clothes’ ‘There is a big man on horseback there in dark clothes’

(4) fiér hafi› œrnar bœtr eptir fiorkel, frænda y›varn ‘You have sufficient payments after fiorkell, kinsman your’ ‘You have sufficient compensation for fiorkell, your kinsman’

(5) Hann spur›i, hverr fyrir skipi ﬂví ré›i enu vegliga ‘He asked who over ship that commanded the magnificent’ ‘He asked who commanded the magnificent ship’

(6) ﬁeir áttu lengri lei› ‘They had longer way’ ‘They had a longer route’

(7) Nú má ok ﬂat vera, at gƒmlum manni sé eigi ósárari sonardau›i sinn ‘Now may also that be, that to-old man is not unsorer son’s- death REFL. POSS.’ ‘Now it may also be that to an old man his son’s death is not less painful’

(8) Eru honum sƒg› tí›indin ‘Are to-him said tidings-the’ ‘The news is told to him’

(9) Hann var fa›ir Eiríks ins spaka ‘He was the father of Eiríkr the wise’

(10) fieir fundu flegar sveininn flar sofanda hjá húsi einu ‘They found immediately boy-the there sleeping by house one’ ‘They at once found the boy sleeping there beside a certain building’ Adjective inflexions and their function 113

(11) Hér mun ﬂinn ﬂroski mestr ‘Here will your advancement greatest’ ‘Here is where you will prosper most’

(12) Hann hélt ƒll heit sín drengiliga vi› sína menn ‘He kept all promises REFL. POSS. nobly with REFL. POSS. men’ ‘He nobly kept all his promises to his men’

(13) Ek hefi til fás hlutazk, sí›an ek kom til Íslands ‘I have to few allocated-sk since I came to Iceland’ ‘I have been active in little since I came to Iceland’

(14) ﬁar var brekka brƒtt ofan í dalinn ‘There was slope steep down into valley-the’ ‘There was a steep slope down into the valley’

(15) Erlendr vildi ekki, at synir hans hef›i lægra hlut ﬂar í Eyjum ‘Erlendr wanted not that sons his had lower lot there in Islands’ ‘Erlendr did not want his sons to have a poorer position there in the Orkneys’

(16) Gangi sá inn gamli ma›r fyrir ‘Go that the old man in-front’ ‘Let the old man walk in front’

(17) Hlaut hann ﬂar inn mesta hei›r ‘Received he there the greatest honour’ ‘There he received the greatest honour’

(18) ﬁau váru allra skipa skjótust ‘They were of-all ships fastest’ ‘They were fastest of all ships’

(19) ﬁeir ráku fyrir sér sextán klyfja›a hesta ‘They drove before them sixteen pack-saddled horses’

(20) ﬁar er svar›laus m‡rr ‘There is grassless bog’ ‘There is a grassless bog there’ 114 Morphology and syntax

(21) Hann lét ﬂar gera steinkastala gó›an; var ﬂat ƒruggt vígi ‘He let there make stone-castle good; was that secure fortress’ ‘He had a fine stone castle made there; it was a secure fortress’

(22) Ma›rinn var nú miklu vinsælli en á›r ‘The man was now much more popular than before’

(23) Hann sótti málit til fullra laga ‘He pursued case-the to full laws’ ‘He pursued the case to the full extent of the law’

(24) Kona sú in gó›a d‡rka›i ﬂann helga konung me› mikilli ást ‘Woman that the good venerated that holy king with great love’ ‘The good woman venerated the holy king with great love’

(25) Veita skulum vér ﬂurfƒndum líkamliga fœzlu ‘Give shall we to-needing bodily food’ ‘We are to give bodily sustenance to the needy’

(26) Fƒstur eru en hvƒssustu vápn í gegn djƒfli ‘Fasts are the sharpest weapons against the devil’

(27) ﬁeir mæltu fund sín á milli í ákve›num sta› ‘They arranged meeting self be(-)tween in appointed place’ ‘They arranged a meeting between themselves in an appointed place’

(28) Einarr kva› hann mann gƒfgastan ok hana fullvel gipta ‘Einarr said him man noblest and her full-well married’ ‘Einarr said he was a most noble man and she was very well married’

(29) Bakkar hávir váru umhverfis ‘Hills high were around’ ‘High hills were all around’

(30) Hann ba› ﬂann milda konung leysa in seigu syndabƒnd af sér ‘He bade that gracious king loose the stubborn sin-bonds off self’ ‘He prayed to the gracious king to remove the stubborn bonds of sin from him’ Numerals 115

3.4 Numerals

Numerals are sometimes regarded as adjectives, and indeed several of the inflexions exhibited by the Old Norse numerals either parallel or are strongly reminiscent of adjectival forms. Numerals may also be found classified as pronouns, and, in more recent grammatical literature, as quantifiers. They are treated here as a separate word class. One of several reasons for separating them from pronouns and adjectives is that three of the Old Norse numerals inflect and function as nouns.

3.4.1 The numerals and their inflexions

As in English, the basic counting system in Old Norse is divided into cardinal numbers (one, two, three, etc.) and ordinal numbers (first, second, third, etc.). The Old Norse numerals (nom. m. sg./pl. where they inflect) are as follows.

Cardinal Ordinal

1 einn fyrstr 2 tveir annarr 3 flrír flri›i 4 fjórir fjór›i 5 fim(m) fim(m)ti 6 sex sétti 7 sjau sjaundi 8 átta áttandi, átti 9 níu níundi 10 tíu tíundi 11 ellifu ellifti 12 tólf tólfti 13 flrettán flrettándi 14 fjórtán, fjƒgurtán fjórtándi, fjƒgurtándi 15 fim(m)tán fim(m)tándi 16 sextán sextándi 17 sjaut(j)án sjaut(j)ándi 18 át(t)ján át(t)jándi 116 Morphology and syntax

19 nítján nítjándi 20 tuttugu tuttugundi 21 tuttugu ok einn tuttugundi ok fyrsti 22 tuttugu ok tveir tuttugundi ok annarr 30 flrír tigir flrítugundi 31 flrír tigir ok einn flrítugundi ok fyrsti 40 fjórir tigir fertugundi 50 fim(m) tigir fim(m)tugundi 60 sex tigir sextugundi 70 sjau tigir sjautugundi 80 átta tigir áttatugundi 90 níu tigir nítugundi

Beyond nítugundi the ordinals are not recorded. The cardinals are:

100 tíu tigir, hundra› 110 ellifu tigir, hundra› ok tíu 120 hundra›, hundra› ok tuttugu 1000 ﬂúsund 1200 ﬂúsund

As is apparent from this list, hundra› may denote either 100 (hundra› tírœtt ‘a hundred of ten tens’ (see below)) or 120 (hundra› tólfrœtt ‘a hundred of twelve tens’ ‘a “long” hundred’). Correspondingly, flúsund = either 1000 or 1200. With figures of this magnitude precision is often unimportant in Old Icelandic literature; where the intention is to express exact numbers or amounts, either the text itself or the edition may make clear what is meant by hundra› or flúsund. Many of the above numerals have variant forms (the most common are specified), but none is likely to cause the learner problems of recognition. It is worth noting that the ordinal suffix -undi also appears as -andi (though níundi and tíundi are almost universal). Tigir is nom. pl. of tigr (also tegr, tugr, tøgr), a masculine noun meaning ‘a group of ten’ ‘a decade’; flrír tigir, for example, thus literally means ‘three tens’. Hundra› is a neuter noun, and flúsund a feminine. All three inflect according to noun paradigms (tigr according to paradigm 5 but without the vowel changes associated with root a, hundra› according to 27 but without the loss of unstressed a in dat. sg. and gen./dat. pl., flúsund according to 13). Numerals 117

Of the other cardinals, only einn, tveir, flrír and fjórir inflect, einn for case, gender, number and definiteness (cf., e.g., flat eina ‘the one’), tveir, flrír and fjórir for case and gender alone. The paradigms are as follows (only the strong forms of einn are given).

einn ‘one’ m. f. n. Sg. nom. einn ein eitt acc. einn eina eitt gen. eins einnar eins dat. einum einni einu

Pl. nom. einir einar ein acc. eina einar ein gen. einna einna einna dat. einum einum einum

tveir ‘two’ m. f. n. Pl. nom. tveir tvær tvau acc. tvá tvær tvau gen. tveggja tveggja tveggja dat. tveim(r) tveim(r) tveim(r)

flrír ‘three’ m. f. n. Pl. nom. flrír flrjár flrjú acc. flrjá flrjár flrjú gen. flriggja flriggja flriggja dat. flrim(r) flrim(r) flrim(r)

fjórir ‘four’ m. f. n. Pl. nom. fjórir fjórar fjƒgur acc. fjóra fjórar fjƒgur gen. fjƒgurra fjƒgurra fjƒgurra dat. fjórum fjórum fjórum 118 Morphology and syntax

In the plural, einn has the sense ‘only’ ‘just’ (e.g. sagnir einar ‘just tales’), ‘some’ (einir hei›nir víkingar ‘some heathen vikings’) and ‘roughly’ ‘about’ (einar ﬂrjár ‘about three’). As a numeral (in the sense ‘the two’) we can include bá›ir ‘both’. It has only plural (dual) forms and inflects as follows.

m. f. n. nom. bá›ir bá›ar bæ›i acc. bá›a bá›ar bæ›i gen. beggja beggja beggja dat. bá›um bá›um bá›um

It will be seen that einn (in its strong form) inflects exactly like the pronoun hinn (3.2.2); it is also very similar in its forms to the possessives minn, flinn, sinn and adjectives with the -in suffix (3.3.9, paradigms 21 and 7). Certain of the inflexions of tveir, flrír, fjórir and bá›ir are reminiscent of corresponding noun, pronoun and adjective forms. Compare (1) nom. m. tveir with nom. m. pl. fleir ‘they’ ‘those’, and flrír, fjórir, bá›ir with the common nom. m. pl. ending -ir; (2) acc. m. tvá, flrjá with acc. m. pl. flá ‘them’ ‘those’, and fjóra, bá›a with the common acc. m. pl. ending -a; (3) nom./acc. f. tvær with nom./acc. f. pl. flær, and flrjár, fjórar, bá›ar with the common nom./ acc. f. pl. ending -ar; (4) gen. tveggja, flriggja, fjƒgurra, beggja with the ubiquitous gen. pl. ending -a; (5) dat. tveim, flrim, fjórum, bá›um with the ubiquitous dat. pl. ending -(u)m. Observe also that the nom./acc. n. of all four numerals, like the nom./acc. n. pl. of nouns, pronouns and adjectives, is without a final added -r. The ordinals all inflect as adjectives (3.3.4), but subject to considerable restrictions: fyrstr has both strong and weak inflexion (contrast hann gekk fyrstr ‘he went first’ and hit fyrsta sumar ‘the first summer’), annarr only strong, and the remaining ordinals only weak; flri›i has j insertion before -a and -u (3.3.8.5 point (5)). The paradigm of annarr shows a number of irregularities and is therefore given here in full. Numerals 119

m. f. n. Sg. nom. annarr ƒnnur annat acc. annan a›ra annat gen. annars annarrar annars dat. ƒ›rum annarri ƒ›ru

Pl. nom. a›rir a›rar ƒnnur acc. a›ra a›rar ƒnnur gen. annarra annarra annarra dat. ƒ›rum ƒ›rum ƒ›rum

In addition to these basic numerals, the learner may encounter tvinnr/tvennr ‘double’ ‘twofold’ ‘consisting of two different things or kinds’, flrennr ‘triple’ etc. Both words inflect as strong adjectives. Also adjectival is the suffix -tøgr, -tugr, which has the sense ‘of a number of tens’; it is particularly used of age, e.g. tvítøgr (flrítøgr, fertøgr, fim(m)tøgr, etc.) ma›r ‘a man of twenty’ (‘thirty’, ‘forty’, ‘fifty’, etc.). For 70 and tens above, the suffix -rœ›r is more common, e.g. áttrœ›r ‘of eight tens’, tírœ›r ‘of ten tens’, tólfrœ›r ‘of twelve tens’ (cf. above on the ‘long’ hundred). Uninflected numerals are tysvar/tvisvar ‘twice’, flrysvar/flrisvar ‘thrice’.

3.4.1 The numerals and their inflexions — Exercise

1. What types of numeral are found in the basic Old Norse counting system? 2. Which of the numerals are nouns? 3. In what way may hundra› and ﬂúsund be ambiguous? 4. Which of the cardinal numbers inflect, and what points of similarity are there between their paradigms and those of other word classes in Old Norse? 5. Which of the ordinal numbers inflect, and according to which pattern or patterns? 120 Morphology and syntax

3.4.2 Examples of numeral usage

Inflexions, where they occur, are printed in bold (or the whole word, where the inflected form is identical with the root). Notes explain the relationship between form and function, and usage in general. Compare the inflexions used with those set out or identified above. Observe, too, the differences between Old Norse and English phraseology and sentence formation. Definitions of basic concepts that have already been given are not repeated; if in doubt, the student should in the first instance consult the commentaries that accompany each of the examples of noun usage (3.1.5).

(1) ﬁat var tíunda dag jóla, er Rƒgnvaldr jarl stó› upp ‘It was tenth day of-Christmas that Rƒgnvaldr earl got up’ ‘It was on the tenth day of Christmas that Earl Rƒgnvaldr got up’

Tíunda is an ordinal number in the acc. m. sg., agreeing with dag, which is accusative because the phrase of which it is the head is a time adverbial (it answers the question: ‘When?’; see 3.1.2). Note that jól ‘Christmas’ is a plural noun.

(2) Sigur›r jarl átti ﬂrjá sonu a›ra; hét einn Sumarli›i, annarr Brúsi, ﬂri›i Einarr rangmunnr ‘Sigur›r earl had three sons other; was-called one Sumarli›i, second Brúsi, third Einarr rangmunnr’ ‘Earl Sigur›r had three other sons; one was called Sumarli›i, the second Brúsi, the third Einarr wry-mouth’

ﬁrjá is a cardinal and a›ra an ordinal number; both are acc. m. (pl.), agreeing with sonu, the direct object of the first sentence. Einn is a cardinal and annarr and ﬂri›i are ordinal numbers; all three are nom. m. sg., the subjects of their respective sentences (cf. ‘ . . . the second [was called] . . . the third [was called] . . .’). Annarr, unlike almost all other ordinals, has strong inflexion.

(3) Af herfangi ﬂví, er vér fám ﬂar, skulum vér fá fátœkum mƒnnum inn fimmtuganda penning ‘Of booty that which we get there, shall we give to-poor men the fiftieth penny’ ‘Of the booty which we win there, we will give the fiftieth part to the poor’ Numerals 121

Fimmtuganda is an ordinal in the acc. m. sg., agreeing with penning, the direct object.

(4) ﬁar var mikill skáli ok dyrr á bá›um endum ‘There was big hall and doorway on both ends’ ‘There was a big hall there and a doorway at both ends’

Bá›um is a plural numerical adjective in the dat., agreeing with endum, the noun of the preposition phrase á bá›um endum. The case of the noun is governed by the preposition á (see 3.7, 3.7.4).

(5) Sámr haf›i ok fjóra tigu manna ‘Sámr had also four tens of-men’ ‘Sámr also had forty men’

Fjóra is a cardinal in the acc. m., agreeing with the numerical noun tigu, the direct object. Together, fjóra and tigu make up the numeral ‘forty’. Numbers which include or consist of the nouns tigr, hundra› or ﬂúsund are followed by a genitive of type, that is, one which expresses the nature of the entity to which the numeral refers (cf. English hundreds of people).

(6) ﬁar var saman tólfrœtt hundra› manna ‘There were together duodecimal hundred of men’ ‘Altogether there were 120 men there’

Tólfrœtt is an adjective in the strong nom. n. sg., agreeing with the numerical noun hundra›, the subject. On the genitive manna, see (5) above.

(7) ﬁá er hann var fimtán vetra gamall, rei› hann til ﬂings ‘Then when he was fifteen of-winters old, rode he to assembly’ ‘When he was fifteen years old, he rode to the assembly’

Fimtán is an uninflected cardinal which together with vetra functions as an adverbial of measure. Where a cardinal is thus used in combination with (the appropriate form of) gamall ‘old’, the noun expressing the spans of time by which age is reckoned (here: ‘winters’) appears in the genitive.

(8) Hann rei› á Hƒskuldssta›i vi› tólfta mann ‘He rode to Hƒskuldssta›ir with twelfth man’ ‘He rode to Hƒskuldssta›ir with eleven men’ 122 Morphology and syntax

Tólfta is an ordinal in the acc. m. sg., agreeing with mann, the noun of the preposition phrase vi› tólfta mann. The case of the noun is governed by the preposition vi› (see 3.7.4). ‘With ORDINAL man’ is a common way in Old Norse of specifying the total number in a group: the subject (here: ‘he’) is included in the group and the ordinal gives the total. In this particular example there were twelve altogether: ‘he’ and eleven others.

(9) Tveir menn ins fimta tigar váru me› Eyjólfi ‘Two men of-the fifth ten were with Eyjólfr’ ‘Forty-two men were with Eyjólfr’

Tveir is a cardinal in the nom. m., agreeing with menn, the subject. Fimta is an ordinal in the gen. m. sg., agreeing with tigar; ins fimta tigar is a partitive genitive, that is, one that expresses the whole of which the number or numbers singled out for mention (here: ‘two men’) are a part (see 3.2.6, sentence 20). Note how the number is expressed: the fourth ‘ten’ ends at 40 and the fifth at 50, thus two of the fifth ten, i.e. two on the way from 40 towards 50, is 42.

(10) En frá Snæfellsnesi er fjƒgurra dœgra haf í vestr til Grœnlands ‘But from Snæfellsnes is four days’ sea in west to Green- land’ ‘But from Snæfellsnes it is four days’ sailing to the west to Greenland’

Fjƒgurra is a cardinal in the gen., agreeing with dœgra; fjƒgurra dœgra is a descriptive genitive, that is, one which modifies a noun (here: ‘sea’) by expressing a quality or characteristic associated with it.

(11) Rƒgnvaldr jarl gaf Haraldi jarli annat skipit; ﬂat hét Fífa, en annat hét Hjálp ‘Rƒgnvaldr earl gave to-Haraldr earl the-one ship-the; it was-called Fífa, and the-other was-called Hjálp’ ‘Earl Rƒgnvaldr gave Earl Haraldr the one ship; it was called Arrow and the other was called Help’

Annat is an ordinal. In the first sentence it appears in the acc. n. sg., agreeing with skipit, the direct object. In the third sentence it is nom. n. sg. and is the subject. Note that annarr not only means ‘second’, ‘other’, but ‘the one’ and ‘the other’ of two entities. Observe further that skipit is definite (i.e. it is accompanied by the (suffixed) definite article); this gives the construction partitive sense (cf. (9) above), i.e. it means literally ‘the one of the [two] ships’. Numerals 123

(12) Kómu sendimenn til jarls ﬂrimr nóttum sí›arr ‘Came messengers to earl three nights later’ ‘The messengers came to the earl three nights later’

firimr is a cardinal in the dat., agreeing with nóttum. firimr nóttum is an adverbial of degree, used together with comparatives to express by how much one entity is more than another; flrimr nóttum sí›arr thus means literally ‘later by three nights’.

3.4.2 Examples of numeral usage — Exercise

1. In what different ways may annarr be used? 2. How might one say in Old Norse: ‘with six other men’? 3. What types of genitive construction are used in conjunction with numerals? 4. How might one say ‘fifty-six’ in Old Norse? 5. Give the case, gender and number (as appropriate) of the numerals (printed in bold) in the following sentences, and explain their syntactic function and semantic role: (a) Hann haf›i fjƒgur skip ok tíu tigu manna ‘He had four ships and a hundred men’ (b) fieir gengu fla›an inn flrettánda dag jóla ‘They went from there on the thirteenth day of Christmas’ (c) Haraldr jarl var flá nær tvítøgum manni ‘Earl Haraldr was then a man of nearly twenty’ (d) fieir sátu í skemmu einni skammt frá sænum ‘They sat in a certain building a short distance from the sea’ (e) Eptir fall Rƒgnvalds jarls var Haraldr jarl í Orkneyjum átta vetr ins fimmta tigar ‘After the fall of Earl Rƒgnvaldr, Haraldr was earl in the Orkneys for forty-eight years’ (f) Hét annarr Sƒrli ok annarr fiorkell ‘The one was called Sƒrli and the other fiorkell’ 124 Morphology and syntax

3.5 Adverbs

Adverbs are sometimes defined as words that modify the verb or specify its action (e.g. English quickly in he ran quickly, which denotes the manner of the running). In fact, the function of many words that are traditionally classed as adverbs does not fit this definition. Indeed the adverb word class serves as a kind of dustbin into which items that do not obviously belong to any other category can be put. In the English sentence: unfortunately, they could not come, for example, unfortunately is classed as an adverb, yet it says nothing about the ‘coming’, but means rather: ‘I/we think it is unfortunate they could not come’. As in English, adverbs in Old Norse are a heterogeneous group. One feature they all share, however, is that they do not inflect for number, person, case or gender. Most, like adjectives, inflect for degree (see below), but that is all. The learner therefore needs to master nothing more than the meanings of adverbs and to be able to recognise their comparative and superlative forms.

3.5.1 Adverb formation

Although a number of Old Norse adverbs appear to be primary (not transparently derived from other words, e.g. mjƒk ‘very’, svá ‘thus’ ‘so’, flá ‘then’, vel ‘well’), the majority are derivatives. Many are based on adjectives. A particularly common way of forming adverbs from adjectives is by adding an -a suffix (e.g. illa ‘badly’ from illr ‘bad’); equally common is the use of the strong nom./acc. n. sg. form of the adjective with adverbial function (e.g. skjótt ‘quickly’ from skjótr ‘quick’). Adverbs derived from adjectives with the commonly occurring -ligr suffix are formed in the same way as illa (e.g. makligr ‘fitting’, makliga ‘fittingly’); sometimes -liga is added to the root of other adjectives (e.g. gløggr ‘clear’, gløggliga ‘clearly’), and thus itself becomes an adverb suffix. A number of adverbs are fossilised case- forms of adjectives or nouns (e.g. jafnan ‘always’ ‘constantly’ from jafn ‘equal’ ‘even’, alls ‘altogether’ ‘at all’ from allr ‘all’, miklu ‘much’ (emphasising comparatives as in miklu meiri ‘much greater’) from mikill ‘big’, loks ‘finally’ from lok n. ‘end’, stundum ‘sometimes’ from stund f. ‘while’ ‘time’). Many adverbs indicating movement towards a place have counter- Adverbs 125 parts formed with an -i suffix that denote rest in a place and others with an -an suffix meaning movement from a place (e.g. inn ‘in’, inni ‘inside’, innan ‘from within’). Some have only two of the forms (e.g. nor›r ‘northwards’ ‘in the north’, nor›an ‘from the north’ (with root nor›-); thus also the other compass-point adverbs — on su›r ‘southwards’, sunnan ‘from the south’, see p. 126). Certain of these locational adverbs can have special meanings (e.g. útan ‘from without’ and thus ‘from Iceland’, seen from the perspective of Norway). The threefold distinction: ‘to a place’, ‘in a place’ and ‘from a place’ is also found in the commonly occurring hingat — hér — he›an ‘hither — here — hence’, flangat — flar — fla›an ‘thither — there — thence’, hvert — hvar — hva›an ‘where (to) — where — whence’ (it should be noted that none of these words has the slightly archaic ring of some of the English equivalents). Adverbs with the -an suffix combine with a preceding fyrir (cf. 3.7.1, 3.7.4) to form prepositional phrases indicating position relative to another (fixed) position (e.g. fyrir nor›an hei›ina ‘north of the heath’, fyrir ofan húsin ‘above the buildings’; note the idiomatic fyrir nor›an/sunnan land ‘in the north/south of Iceland’).

3.5.2 Inflexion for degree

The suffixes used to form the comparative and superlative of adverbs are the same as those found in adjectival comparison, namely -(a)r, -(a)st. As examples we may cite opt ‘often’ and lengi ‘long’ ‘for a long time’. positive comparative superlative opt optar optast lengi lengr lengst Adverbs like skjótt that consist of the strong nom./acc. n. sg. adjective mostly have the corresponding adjective form in the comparative as well (e.g. skjótara ‘more quickly’, with an -ara suffix, lengra ‘farther’, from langt). In the superlative of such adverbs the strong nom./acc. n. sg. form is always used (e.g. skjótast ‘most quickly’, lengst ‘farthest’ with the -(a)st suffix (cf. 3.3.8.5 point (2)), added to the roots skjót-, leng- rather than to the positive adverb forms skjótt, langt). Occasionally the -(a)ra comparative ending can be found in adverbs other than those of the skjótt type. 126 Morphology and syntax

Other minor deviations from the above pattern include the addition of an extra r to many comparatives in -ar (e.g. optar(r) ‘more often’, framar(r) ‘farther forward’ ‘farther on’ from fram ‘forward’) and the spread of comparative r into many superlatives (e.g. frama(r)st ‘farthest forward’ ‘farthest on’, inna(r)st ‘farthest in’). As the brackets in the examples indicate, regular forms may also be found. Like adjectives, adverbs that form the comparative with the -r and the superlative with the -st suffix undergo front mutation of back root vowels (see 3.1.7.2 and 3.3.8.2). Few adverbs are in fact affected. Common ones are lengra ‘farther’, lengst ‘farthest’ (see above), fremr ‘farther forward’, fremst ‘farthest forward’ (alternative comparative and superlative forms to framar(r), frama(r)st, see above), and the irregular fjarri ‘far off’ — firr ‘farther off’ — first ‘farthest off’ and gƒrva ‘thoroughly’, ‘precisely’ — gørr ‘more thoroughly’ — gørst ‘most thoroughly’. Also in common with adjectives, a small group of adverbs have suppletive forms in the comparative and superlative (see 3.3.8.3). The ones likely to be encountered regularly by the learner are: gjarna —— heldr —— helzt ‘willingly’, ‘rather’, ‘most of all’ illa —— verr —— verst ‘badly’, ‘worse’, ‘worst’ lítt ——minnr —— minst ‘little’, ‘less’, ‘least’ mjƒk —— meir(r) —— mest ‘much’, ‘more’, ‘most’ vel —— betr —— bezt ‘well’, ‘better’, ‘best’ One or two of the deviations and minor irregularities affecting adjectives (3.3.8.4, 3.3.8.5) can be found in the comparative and/or superlative forms of adverbs also. Attention has already been drawn to the loss of neuter -t in superlatives of the skjótast type (3.3.8.5 point (2)). Further to be noted are consonantal assimilations (3.3.8.4 point (1), cf., e.g., seinna ‘more slowly’ ‘later’ < *seinra) and loss of unstressed syllables in disyllabic adverbs when a further syllable is added (3.3.8.5 point (1), cf., e.g., sjaldan ‘seldom’ — sjaldnar ‘more seldom’ —sjaldnast ‘most seldom’). Occasionally the alternation ›r — nn seen in nouns like mu›r ‘mouth’, acc. munn, gen. munns etc. (cf. 3.1.7.4 point (5)) also distinguishes different forms of adverbs. We have already noted that the -an form of su›r is sunnan; its comparative and superlative manifestations are sunnar(r), sunna(r)st respectively. Adverbs 127

3.5.3 Examples of adverb usage

On the pattern of exemplification, see the preambles to 3.1.5, 3.2.6, 3.3.6 and 3.4.2. Adverbs are given in bold type.

(1) ﬁeir kurru›u illa um brottvist sína ‘They grumbled badly about absence REFL. POSS.’ ‘They grumbled a lot about their having to be away’

Illa is an adverb of manner; it describes the way in which ‘they’ grumbled.

(2) ﬁar eru jafnan dregin skip yfir ‘There are regularly dragged ships across’ ‘Ships are regularly dragged across there’

fiar is an adverb of place; it is the ‘rest’ counterpart to flangat ‘thither’ and fla›an ‘thence’ (cf. (5) below), denoting neither movement to nor from a place. Jafnan may loosely be described as an adverb of time; it denotes the regularity with which the event described takes place. Yfir is a preposition used here as an adverb of place; it denotes movement within a specified area.

(3) Tóku menn ﬂá ró›r mikinn ok fóru ákafliga ‘Began men then rowing big and went furiously’ ‘Then men began to row hard and they travelled at a furious pace’

ﬁá is an adverb of time; it denotes the point in time at which men started to row. Ákafliga is an adverb of manner; it describes the way in which the vessels moved.

(4) ﬁessu var skjótt neitat ‘This was quickly refused’

Skjótt is an adverb of manner derived from the nom./acc. n. sg. of the adjective skjótr ‘quick’; it describes the speed with which the refusal was made.

(5) Magnús konungr helt ﬂa›an í Su›reyjar ‘Magnús king continued thence to Hebrides’ ‘King Magnús went on from there to the Hebrides’

ﬁa›an is an adverb of place; the -an suffix imparts to it the sense of movement from a place. 128 Morphology and syntax

(6) Magnús konungr helt sunnan me› Skotlandi ‘Magnús king continued from-south along Scotland’ ‘King Magnús continued northwards along the coast of Scot- land’

Sunnan is an adverb of place; the -an suffix imparts to it the sense of movement from a place. Note, however, that here it seems more natural in English to render the movement as motion towards, i.e. ‘northwards’ (cf. further: ofan ‘from above’ ‘down’, ne›an ‘from underneath’ ‘up’).

(7) Hann eignar sér svá allar eyjar fyrir vestan Skotland ‘He assigns to-self thus all islands west of Scotland’ ‘He thus takes possession of all the islands west of Scotland’

Svá is an adverb of manner; it refers to the way in which ‘he’ takes possession of the islands. Note the compound preposition fyrir vestan incorporating the adverb of place vestan (see 3.5.1).

(8) Hann fór ﬂegar austr til Nóregs ‘He went immediately east to Norway’

ﬁegar is an adverb of time; it denotes the lack of any interval before ‘he’ left for Norway. Austr is an adverb of place, here denoting movement towards the place.

(9) Eysteinn konungr tók vi› honum forkunnar vel ‘King Eysteinn received him exceedingly well’

Forkunnar is an adverb of degree; it describes how well ‘he’ was received (as the -ar ending suggests, this is in origin the gen. sg. form of a noun, forku›r f. ‘strong desire’, see 3.1.7.4 point (5)). Vel is an adverb of manner; it describes the way in which Eysteinn received ‘him’.

(10) ﬁá rœddi Kali um, at ﬂeir myndi eigi fara lengra ‘Then spoke Kali about that they would not go farther’ ‘Then Kali said that they would not go any farther’

For ﬂá, see (3) above. Lengra is an adverb of place in the comparative; it denotes movement additional to that already made towards a place.

(11) Litlu sí›arr gekk ma›rinn út ‘A little later the man went out’

Sí›arr is an adverb of time in the comparative; it compares the time the man Adverbs 129 went out with an earlier event. Út is an adverb of place; it denotes movement towards the outside. Although litlu is in form the strong dat. n. sg. of the adjective lítill (cf. 3.3.8.4 point (3)), it functions here as an adverb of degree, expressing how much later the event described took place.

(12) fiór›r vann flá allra s‡sligast ‘fiór›r worked then of-all most-briskly’ ‘Then fiór›r worked more briskly than ever’

For flá, see (3) above. S‡sligast is an adverb of manner in the superlative; it describes the way in which fiór›r worked and defines it as the highest degree of that manner of working. Although allra is in form the gen. pl. of the adjective allr, it functions here as an intensifying adverb: fiór›r did not just work most briskly, but most briskly of all (things).

3.5.1/3.5.2/3.5.3 Adverb formation/Inflexion for degree/Examples of adverb usage — Exercise

1. In what ways do adverbs inflect in Old Norse? 2. Give examples of three common ways of deriving adverbs in Old Norse. 3. What is the basic meaning of (a) the -i and (b) the -an adverb suffix? 4. How are the comparatives and superlatives of adverbs formed? 5. Give the positive and superlative forms of the following adverbs: minnr, lengra, betr, fljótara, sí›arr. 6. Explain the form (where appropriate) and the function of the adverbs (printed in bold) in the following sentences. (a) Heldu fleir flá flegar su›r í Eyjar ‘They then at once went south to the Orkneys’ (b) fieir vƒr›usk drengiliga ‘They defended themselves manfully’ (c) Hundrinn hljóp ofan til skipa ‘The dog ran down to the ships’ (d) fieir kómu heldr sí› ‘They came rather late’ (e) Skip Sveins gekk meira ‘Sveinn’s ship went faster’ (f) Sveinn var› seinst búinn ‘Sveinn was ready last’ 130 Morphology and syntax

3.5.4 Adverbs and adverbials

In the above we have dealt almost exclusively with adverbs, that is, single words whose basic function is adverbial and which are therefore assigned to the adverb word class. However, as litlu and allra in example sentences (11) and (12) above indicate, non-adverbs can sometimes be used in such a way that they assume adverbial function. This applies not only to single words, but to whole phrases. Many preposition phrases, for example, are reducible to adverbs. Thus í + a place- name is in a sense the equivalent of flar ‘there’ or hér ‘here’ in that it answers the question ‘where’ (e.g. í Nóregi ‘in Norway’), and í + a noun denoting a point in time or a period of time is the equivalent of flá, answering the question ‘when’ (e.g. í fleim tíma ‘at that time’). Noun phrases, too, may have adverbial function (e.g. flat var einn dag ‘that happened one day’ where einn dag is accusative and expresses a point in time; cf. 3.1.2 and 3.1.5, sentence 10). Even complete dependent sentences may be reducible to a single adverb and thus be shown to have adverbial function (e.g., me›an hann lif›i ‘while he lived’ refers to a period of time and can be replaced by flá ‘then’). Phrases or clauses that have adverbial function are known as adverbials. But since adverbs by definition also have adverbial function, they are clearly adverbials too. The difference between the two is a matter of perspective. Adverbs are a word class on a par with nouns, adjectives, verbs, etc., while adverbials are functional elements in the sentence, comparable to subjects, objects, etc. Although this Grammar attempts as far as practicable to integrate morphology and syntax, its different sections are rooted firmly in the word class. Adverbials will therefore not be further discussed. In fact, Old Norse and English do not differ greatly with respect to adverbial formation and use, so it is unlikely the student will encounter much difficulty in recognising Old Norse adverbials for what they are. Verb inflexions and their function 131

3.6 Verb inflexions and their function

Traditionally the verb has been defined as a ‘doing’ or ‘action’ word. This definition, based on meaning, is not wholly satisfactory, since it can be shown that many words classed as verbs do not denote actions (e.g. English seem, need, must). Verbs can also be defined by their morphology, i.e. as words which (may) have different forms to distinguish, inter alia, person, number, tense, mood, and voice. In terms of function, verbs are the non-reducible part of the predicate. On the one hand we have the subject — ‘what the sentence is about’ (cf. 3.1.5, sentence 1), on the other the predicate — what is said of the subject. Every predicate must contain a verb; it will usually contain more than this, but some predicates consist of a verb alone (e.g. English John (noun/subject) arrived (verb/predicate)). The verb in Old Norse is most easily recognised by its morphological features. It inflects for person, number, tense, mood, and, to a limited extent, voice (see further below). Analysis will also show it to be the non-reducible part of the predicate, but such analysis may often be difficult for the learner. In any case, what s/he needs first and foremost to acquire is knowledge of the different verbal forms and an understanding of their meaning. We begin, therefore, with a brief introduction to person, number, tense, mood and voice and a schematic account of how these categories are expressed in Old Norse.

3.6.1 Person and number

As explained in the case of the pronouns (cf. 3.2, 3.2.1), person in linguistic description refers to the perspective from which the participants in a situation are viewed. We saw that in Old Norse, as in Eng- lish, there were three persons, represented by the pronouns ek ‘I’, vit ‘we two’, vér ‘we [pl.]’ (1st person), flú ‘you’, (fl)it ‘you two’, (fl)ér ‘you [pl.]’ (2nd person), hann ‘he’, hon ‘she’, flat ‘it’, fleir ‘they [m.]’, flær ‘they [f.]’, flau ‘they [n.]’, sik ‘self’ ‘selves’ (3rd person). In English, the form of the verb may occasionally change depending on which person (in the grammatical sense) is used as subject (e.g. I/you/we/they sing, but he sings). In older English, and still today with the verb to be, there are further changes (e.g. I/we/ye/they sing, thou 132 Morphology and syntax singest, he singeth; I am, you/we/they are, he is). In Old Norse each person, singular and dual/plural, by and large has its own distinctive verbal inflexion. Thus if we wish to render ‘I judged’ in Old Norse, we must say ek dœm›a, but ‘you [sg.] judged’ is flú dœm›ir, ‘he judged’ hann dœm›i, ‘we [pl.] judged’ vér dœm›um, ‘you [pl.] judged’ (fl)ér dœm›u›, ‘they [m.] judged’ fleir dœm›u. Note that it is the person and number of the subject that determines the form of the verb. Further that it is only person in conjunction with the singular : plural distinction that triggers this verbal agreement (on the concept of agreement, see 3.3.1); the gender of 3rd person subjects never affects the form of the verb, nor does the dual : plural distinction (‘she judged’ is thus hon dœm›i, ‘we two judged’ vit dœm›um, ‘you two judged’ (fl)it dœm›u›, ‘they [f.] judged’ flær dœm›u, etc.)

3.6.2 Tense

Tense is a difficult concept to define. In the broadest sense it refers to the way in which a verb marks the time at which whatever it denotes takes place. The relationship between tense and time is, however, anything but clear-cut. Thus, what is generally agreed to be the past tense in English (alternatively known as the preterite or imperfect) may express a counter-factual rather than a temporal sense (e.g. if I knew — but I don’t), and what is accepted as the present may refer to the future (e.g. Helen performs there tomorrow), the past (e.g. I hear that you plan to move) or a regular occurrence (e.g. the sun rises in the east). Nor do the problems end there. While we may express past time in English with the past tense (e.g. David came yesterday), and present time with the present (e.g. I am bored), there is no corresponding verb- form with which to express the future. Indeed, English has no other morphological tenses than the present and the past. Some argue that verb phrases like shall come and will come represent the English future tense, and further that have come represents the ‘perfect’ and had come the ‘pluperfect’. Others go further and claim that would come and should come are ‘conditional’, but this is all rather far removed from English morphology. To be sure, have come and had come express something different from came and from each other (chiefly differences of time orientation), and would come does not mean the same as Verb inflexions and their function 133 will come, but if tense is to be related solely or chiefly to meaning, the need for clarity requires the creation of a separate term to denote tense- forms, that is, variations in the morphology of the verb whose primary function is to signal temporal meanings. The difficulty is, no such term obviously suggests itself. ‘Tense’ in the sense ‘tense-forms’, is well established, traditional usage. Since the lack of clarity arises from the application of the term to a variety of periphrastic (i.e. separate-word) constructions that express meanings similar or identical to those expressed by tense-forms, it seems better to choose different terms for the periphrastic constructions. Verb phrases with temporal and related meanings that are not simple tense- forms will accordingly be described as ‘phrases’ or ‘constructions’, and, where necessary, terms like ‘perfect construction’, ‘future construction’, etc. will be used. All Germanic languages share with English the minimal tense system outlined above — using ‘tense’ in the sense just defined. Old Norse thus exhibits a contrast between present and past tense inflexions, but has no set of endings whose primary purpose is to mark the future, in contrast to French or Latin, for example. Nor does it have individual inflexions for the perfect, the pluperfect or any other of the wide range of tenses that may be found in some other languages. In place of such tenses, much as English, it employs periphrastic constructions involving what are called auxiliary verbs (i.e. ones subordinate to the main verb, which express mood, voice, time orientation etc.). English I have (aux.) killed (main) the vikings thus has its Old Norse counterpart in ek hefi drepit víkingana, and I will (aux.) kill (main) the vikings in ek mun drepa víkingana (see further 3.6.7, 3.9.7.1). The past is distinguished from the present in Old Norse in much the same way as in English: either by root vowel change (e.g. Old Norse ek tek — ek tók, English I take — I took) or the suffixation of -›, -d or -t (e.g. Old Norse ek fylgi — ek fylg›a, English I follow — I followed; note, regarding the varying form of the suffix in Old Norse, that what is written ‘ed’ in English is not always pronounced as a simple d, cf. voted, walked). Traditionally these two types of past tense formation are known as strong and weak. As in the case of noun and adjective inflexion, the terms themselves have no special significance, and one could as easily speak of ‘type A’ and ‘type B’. A further difference between present and past, as fylgi versus fylg›a 134 Morphology and syntax indicates, lies in some of the personal inflexions, but this is of secondary importance compared with the root vowel alternation or the presence or absence of the -›/-d/-t suffix. The vowel alternation and the occurrence or otherwise of the suffix affect all forms of the tense concerned and are more immediately obvious. Some of the personal inflexions, on the other hand, are identical in both tenses (e.g. ﬂú fylgir ‘you follow’ — ﬂú fylg›ir ‘you followed’, and cf. tek — tók above with zero ending).

3.6.3 Mood

Mood is sometimes known as ‘modality’, and refers in its broadest sense to the attitude of a speaker or writer to what s/he is saying. Mood is thus concerned with matters like certainty, vagueness, possibility, will, obligation, etc. and the ways in which they may be expressed. In English, modal auxiliaries (subordinate verbs expressing mood, cf. 3.6.2) like ought, shall, may, etc. are widely used to convey such attitudes, and that is also the case in Old Norse. To a limited extent, Eng- lish may also employ inflexion, i.e. in addition to indicating person, number and present or past tense, forms of the verb may suggest something about the speaker’s or writer’s attitude to what is being said. In the sentence: He goes every day the ‘going’ is presented as factual — as taking place — whereas in: I suggest that he go the ‘going’ is merely something that is envisaged. Similarly, in: I was single then the speaker or writer presents his/her unmarried status at a time in the past as fact. In: If I were single . . . on the other hand, the presupposition is that the speaker/writer is married, and the counter-factual sense of the hypothesis is (in part) conveyed by the form of the verb. Both was and were are 1st person singular past tense forms of to be in English, but they indicate different atti- Verb inflexions and their function 135 tudes to the truth value of what is said on the part of speaker or writer. Was, as also goes in the previous pair of examples, represents what is known as the indicative mood, were, together with go in the previous pair, the subjunctive. Beyond these cases (3rd person singular present of most verbs and 1st (and 3rd) singular past of to be), there is little of mood inflexion in English. In Old Norse, in contrast, each verb has two full sets of endings. As in English, indicative endings are used by and large in sentences where the predicate denotes something regarded by the speaker/ writer as factual or certain. Subjunctive endings are found chiefly in sentences where the predicate denotes something regarded by the speaker/writer as hypothetical: a wish, request, instruction, supposition, possibility, etc. In addition, Old Norse has an imperative mood (used for commands — see below), but this only manifests itself in the 2nd person singular (some have reckoned with 1st and 2nd pl. imperatives, but these are distinctive usages, not forms). Contrastive examples, illustrating differences between indicative, subjunctive and imperative forms in the present tense and indicative and subjunctive forms in the past (there is no past imperative) are: flú kastar ‘you throw’ (indic.) — nema flú kastir ‘unless you throw’ (subj.) — kasta (flú) (or: kasta›u, cf. 3.2.1) ‘throw!’ (imp.); fleir dœm›u ‘they judged’ (indic.) — fló fleir dœm›i ‘though they judged’ (subj.).

3.6.4 Voice

Voice is a term used to denote the way in which the relationship between the subject and the object of a verb is expressed. The main distinction in many languages, and the only one it is useful to make in Old Norse, is between active and passive. If in English we say John hit him, the subject is also the agent (i.e. John is the one who does the hitting, cf. 3.1.5, sentence 1). But we may turn the sentence round, as it were, and say he was hit (by John), where the subject, ‘he’, is the goal of the action, or the ‘patient’, and the agent appears (optionally) in a preposition phrase (cf. 3.7). The first type of construction is known as active and the second as passive. Old Norse forms passive verb phrases in much the same way as English (e.g. ﬂeir halda hátí› mikla ‘they hold a great festival’ (act.) — hátí› mikil er haldin ‘a great festival is held’ (pass.); ﬂeir nefndu 136 Morphology and syntax hann Óláf ‘they named him Óláfr’ (act.) — hann var nefndr Óláfr ‘he was named Óláfr’ (pass.)). Morphologically, such passives are periphrastic: the main verb does not itself inflect for voice, rather we have the appropriate form of the present or past tense of the verb vera ‘[to] be’ used as an auxiliary in combination with the past participle of the main verb, which inflects as an adjective (haldin, nom. f. sg., agrees with hátí›, nefndr, nom. m. sg., agrees with hann, cf. 3.3.1). (See further 3.9.7.2.) Old Norse does, however, possess an inflexion that sometimes has passive function. This is the -sk form of the verb (so-called because in most manifestations it consists of an -sk added to the appropriate verbal ending). It would be misleading, however, to consider the -sk a passive form since it more commonly appears with other functions (see 3.6.5.3). Examples of passive usage are: hann fyrirdœmisk af illum mƒnnum ‘he is condemned by wicked men’, á hans dƒgum bygg›isk Ísland ‘in his days Iceland was settled’, hann fannsk eigi ‘he was not found’ ‘he could not be found’. Fyrirdœmisk ‘is condemned’ contrasts with fyrirdœmir ‘condemns’, bygg›isk ‘was settled’ with bygg›i ‘settled’ and fannsk ‘was found’ with fann ‘found’.

3.6.1/3.6.2/3.6.3/3.6.4 Person and number/Tense/Mood/Voice — Exercise

1. In what ways do person and number affect the form of the verb in Old Norse? 2. How many tenses may the Old Norse verb be said to have, and why? 3. How is the past tense distinguished from the present in Old Norse? 4. How is the subjunctive mood marked in Old Norse, and what are its chief functions? 5. To what extent can the passive voice be expressed by inflexions in Old Norse? Verb inflexions and their function 137

3.6.5 Basic verb inflexions Having introduced the main categories of the Old Norse verb, we will now present the basic inflexions by which these categories are expressed. The emphasis is on ‘basic’. As in the case of nouns, pronouns and adjectives, it is important for the learner not to lose sight of the wood for the trees. Deviations from the basic patterns are not infre- quent, but there is little point in trying to learn those until the essentials have been mastered. In any case, it will often be possible to recognise an irregular form for what it is once one has become familiar with the underlying system. (For students keen to see the full range of inflexions, the grammars cited in the preamble to 3.1.4 are recommended.)

3.6.5.1 Endings

This section sets out the inflexions that are attached to the verbal root, i.e. the personal endings and the past tense suffix of weak verbs (see 3.6.2). Because strong verbs lack a past tense suffix and some of their personal forms are different from those of the weak verbs, it is clearest to provide separate tables for the two types. The student should observe, however, that the majority of personal endings are common to both strong and weak verbs. With either type, each tense potentially has six different endings for the indicative and six for the subjunctive (three persons, 1st, 2nd and 3rd, times two numbers, singular and plural), and also the 2nd sg. present imperative. In reality the number is smaller because the same form can occur in more than one position. The endings are as follows (~ = zero, i.e. there is no ending, the form consisting of root alone (e.g. ek tek ‘I take’, hon tók ‘she took’); actual paradigms are given in 3.6.10). 138 Morphology and syntax

Strong verbs Indicative Subjunctive

1st sg. pres. ~ -a 2nd sg. pres. -r -ir 3rd sg. pres. -r -i 1st pl. pres. -um -im 2nd pl. pres. -i› -i› 3rd pl. pres. -a -i

1st sg. past ~ -a 2nd sg. past -t -ir 3rd sg. past ~ -i 1st pl. past -um -im 2nd pl. past -u› -i› 3rd pl. past -u -i

Imperative (2nd sg. pres.) ~

Weak verbs Indicative Subjunctive

1st sg. pres. ~/-a/-i -a 2nd sg. pres. -r/-ar/-ir -ir 3rd sg. pres. -r/-ar/-ir -i 1st pl. pres. -um -im 2nd pl. pres. -i› -i› 3rd pl. pres. -a -i

1st sg. past -›a/-da/-ta -›a/-da/-ta 2nd sg. past -›ir/-dir/-tir -›ir/-dir/-tir 3rd sg. past -›i/-di/-ti -›i/-di/-ti 1st pl. past -›um/-dum/-tum -›im/-dim/-tim 2nd pl. past -›u›/-du›/-tu› -›i›/-di›/-ti› 3rd pl. past -›u/-du/-tu -›i/-di/-ti

Imperative (2nd sg. pres.) ~/-a Verb inflexions and their function 139

Certain regularities and patterns will be observed in these paradigms. (1) The 2nd and 3rd person sg. present indic. always end in -r; this is what distinguishes them from the 1st person, which either has no ending or a vowel (the same vowel, minus the following r, as is found in the 2nd and 3rd person). (2) The 1st person pl. always ends in -m: -um in the indicative, -im in the subjunctive. (3) The 2nd person pl. always ends in -›: -i› in the present indicative and the subjunctive, -u› in the past indicative. (4) The 3rd person pl. always ends in a vowel: -a in the present indicative, -u in the past indicative, -i in the subjunctive. (5) The 1st person sg. ends in -a in most cases, the exceptions being the present indicative of many verbs, and the past indicative of strong verbs. (6) The 2nd person sg. ends in -ir in most cases, the exceptions being the same as those noted in (5). (7) The 3rd person sg. ends in -i in the past indicative of weak verbs and in the present and past subjunctive. (8) The 1st person sg. present and past indicative of strong verbs has no ending. (9) The subjunctive endings of the present and past tense are the same, except that in weak verbs they are preceded by an -›, -d or -t suffix. These are the essential verb endings of Old Norse. Certain variations on this pattern can be found, but if the student has mastered the above table s/he should be able to recognise the overwhelming majority of endings encountered.

3.6.5.1 Endings — Exercise 1. In what way does the ending of the 2nd and 3rd person sg. present indic. differ from that of the 1st? 2. Which verb-form ends in -t? 3. What endings does the 3rd person pl. exhibit, and in what forms are the different endings to be found? 4. What characterises all 1st person pl. endings? 5. Which verb-forms have zero ending? 6. In what ways do the indicative endings of strong and weak verbs differ? 7. What endings does the 2nd person pl. exhibit, and in what forms are the different endings to be found? 8. What characterises the subjunctive endings? 140 Morphology and syntax

3.6.5.2 Vowel alternations

In order to grasp the grammatical function of individual verb-forms, and thus their sense, it is not sufficient simply to be familiar with the various endings. It is also necessary to know the fundamentals of the vowel alternations that occur in the root syllables of the majority of verbs. These are of different kinds. Some are readily predictable, others less so, and some are not predictable at all. Wholly predictable is the change a > ƒ caused by labial mutation. It will have been seen that a number of verb endings contain or consist of u. As explained in relation to nouns and adjectives (3.1.7.1, 3.3.8.1), it is a rule of Old Norse that a cannot appear before u or v, but alters instead to ƒ in stressed syllables and to u in unstressed. Thus it is no surprise to find that although kasta ‘[to] throw’, for example, has root a, the 1st pl. present indic. is (vit/vér) kƒstum, the 1st pl. past indic. (vit/vér) kƒstu›um, 2nd pl. past indic. (flit/flér) kƒstu›u›, 3rd pl. past indic. (fleir) kƒstu›u. Front mutation (cf. 3.1.7.2, 3.3.8.2) also causes root vowel alternations in verbs. This too is predictable, but not directly from the verb-forms themselves since the conditioning factor has in many cases disappeared. All the student needs to know, however, is in which forms of which verbs to expect front mutation, and to be aware of the back : front correspondences arising from it. The three parts of the verbal paradigm affected by front mutation are the entire present indicative and subjunctive of one class of weak verb, the singular present indicative of strong verbs, and the past subjunctive of all verbs with the exception of one weak class. Weak verbs with a short root syllable (cf. 2.1.4) and a -ja infinitive (infinitive = the dictionary entry form, corresponding to the English ‘to’ form as in to go, to hear; see 3.6.6) have front mutation throughout the present tense (and also in the infinitive), but mostly revert to the original root vowel in the past indicative. Virtually all verbs of this type have either a or u in the past indicative, which mutates to e, y respectively in all other tensed forms (e.g. hann velr ‘he chooses’— hann val›i ‘he chose’, ek spyr ‘I ask’ — ek spur›a ‘I asked’). All strong verbs that are susceptible (i.e. those with original back root vowels) exhibit front mutation in the singular present indicative. The back : front correspondences that arise (contrasting 3rd pl. with 3rd sg.) are as follows: Verb inflexions and their function 141

a —— e (fara —— ferr ‘go’, ‘goes’) á ——æ (gráta —— grætr ‘weep’, ‘weeps’) o —— ø (sofa —— søfr (> sefr) ‘sleep’, ‘sleeps’) ó —— œ (blóta —— blœtr ‘sacrifice’, ‘sacrifices’) ú —— ‡ (lúka —— l‡kr ‘end’, ‘ends’) ƒ —— ø (hƒggva —— høggr ‘strike’, ‘strikes’) au —— ey (hlaupa —— hleypr ‘leap’, ‘leaps’) jó —— ‡ (skjóta —— sk‡tr ‘shoot’, ‘shoots’) jú —— ‡ (fljúga —— fl‡gr ‘fly’, ‘flies’)

The last two examples illustrate a more complex process than straightforward front mutation: ?*jó > *jœ > *j‡ > ‡ and *jú > *j‡ > ‡. All disyllabic past subjunctive forms with original back root vowels exhibit front mutation. The back : front correspondences that arise (contrasting 3rd pl. indic. with 3rd pl. subj. unless otherwise stated) are as follows:

a —— e (val›i (3rd sg.) —— vel›i ‘chose’) á ——æ (báru —— bæri ‘carried’) ó ——œ (fóru —— fœri ‘went’) u —— y (brunnu —— brynni ‘burnt’) jo —— y (bjoggu ——byggi ‘lived’) jó —— ‡ (hljópu —— hl‡pi ‘leapt’)

On the correspondences jo — y and jó — ‡, see above. Breaking (cf. 3.1.7.3) may also cause root vowel alternation in verbs. The plural present indicative and the present subjunctive of a small number of common strong verbs have the diphthong ja, while the singular present indicative has the original e (e.g. ﬂeir gjalda ‘they pay’ — hann geldr ‘he pays’). As with the workings of front mutation, the dichotomy is thus between the singular present indicative on the one hand and the rest of the present on the other, though here it is the latter that has undergone the change. Strong verbs, as already noted, form their past tense by root vowel change. The alternations concerned, known as ‘vowel gradation’ or by the German term Ablaut, have nothing to do with mutation or breaking, but are a feature inherited from a pre-Germanic stage of language development. With its origin rooted so far back in linguistic history, the factors that shaped vowel gradation have long since disappeared, 142 Morphology and syntax and there is therefore nothing like the u of labial mutation or even the historical i of front mutation to warn us what vowels to expect and when to expect them. The alternations concerned are not arbitrary, however, but conform to regular patterns, so as soon as one particular form of a strong verb is encountered, it is often possible to predict what the root vowels of all the other forms will be. Here we are concerned with the present and past tenses. In these a maximum of three different gradation vowels are found, one throughout the present (subject to front mutation in the singular indicative and to breaking in the plural indicative and subjunctive), another in the singular past indicative, a third in the plural past indicative and the past subjunctive (the latter also subject to front mutation). In all, there are six regular gradation series, that is, ways in which root vowels may alternate, and a few minor patterns found only in a small number of verbs, albeit some quite common ones. One series, for example, has í in the present tense, ei in the sg. past indic., and i in the remaining past tense forms. If therefore we come across the sentence hann greip sver› sitt ‘he grasped his sword’, we may deduce (a) that greip is a singular past tense form (in the absence of the -r 3rd sg. present ending or the -i of the subjunctive, and noting that there is in any case no verb *greipa), and (b) that the root of the present tense will be gríp- and of the past plural and past subjunctive grip-. Another series has a in the present, ó throughout the past. An unfamiliar verb-form fór (there being no *fóra) may therefore be taken as singular past and its present root confidently assumed to be far-, but with front mutation in the singular present indicative (cf. hon ferr ‘she goes’, ﬂér fari› ‘you [pl.] go’, hon fór ‘she went’). The six basic vowel gradation series have the following alternations in the present, past sg. indic., and past pl. indic./past subj. (front mutation forms are given in brackets):

(1) í —— ei —— i (2) jó/jú (‡) —— au —— u (y) (3) e —— a —— u (y) (4) e —— a —— á (æ) (5) e —— a —— á (æ) (6) a (e) —— ó —— ó (œ)

It will be observed that (4) and (5) are identical. This is because a complete series also takes in the past participle (see 3.6.6), and there Verb inflexions and their function 143 the root vowel of (4) and (5) does vary. As noted above, certain verbs which form their past tense by vowel change follow patterns other than the six just described. We find a — e —e, á — é — é, au — jó — jó, ei — é — é and variations on each. Most of the few verbs involved are very common, and it is probably sensible for the student to learn them individually as they are encountered. In order to flesh out this rather abstract account, a verb illustrating each of the six series and the minor patterns is now provided; the forms are cited in the following order (the pl. past subj. has the same root vowel as the sg., and indeed the 3rd pl. has exactly the same form as the 3rd sg.; only the basic meaning(s) of the verb are given):

3rd sg., pl. present indic., 3rd sg., pl. past indic., 3rd sg./pl. past subj.

rí›r —— rí›a —— rei› —— ri›u —— ri›i ‘ride’ br‡tr —— brjóta —— braut —— brutu —— bryti ‘break’ dettr —— detta —— datt —— duttu —— dytti ‘fall’ stelr —— stela —— stal —— stálu —— stæli ‘steal’ drepr —— drepa —— drap —— drápu —— dræpi ‘kill’ grefr —— grafa —— gróf —— grófu —— grœfi ‘dig’ fellr —— falla —— fell —— fellu —— felli ‘fall’ ræ›r —— rá›a —— ré› —— ré›u —— ré›i ‘advise’ ‘rule’ hleypr —— hlaupa —— hljóp —— hljópu —— hl‡pi ‘leap’ ‘run’ leikr —— leika —— lék —— léku —— léki ‘play’

3.6.5.2 Vowel alternations — Exercise

1. Enumerate the different factors that cause root vowel alternation in the Old Norse verb. 2. Why does kastar have root vowel a and kƒstum root vowel ƒ? 3. Which three parts of the verbal paradigm are affected by front mutation? 4. Account for the difference in root vowel between rá›a and ræ›r, brjóta and br‡tr, taka and tekr and gjalda and geldr. 5. Account for the difference in root vowel between tóku and tœki, brutu and bryti and krƒf›u and kref›i. 6. What is meant by vowel gradation? What part does it play in the inflexion of strong verbs? 144 Morphology and syntax

3.6.5.3 The -sk form

As indicated above (3.6.4), the -sk form of the verb consists for the most part of an -sk suffix added to existing endings. Where the final sound in an ending is -r, this is assimilated to the s and the resulting ss is then simplified (e.g. finnsk ‘is found’, 3rd sg. present indic., < *finnssk < *finnrsk). Where the final sound of an ending is -› or -t, the juxtaposition with s is rendered z (e.g. fœ›izk ‘are brought up’, 2nd pl. present indic., < *fœ›i›sk; cf. 2.1.3). This applies even where › or t is juxtaposed to s after the assimilation of r as just outlined (e.g. gezk ‘is begotten’, 3rd sg. present indic., < getsk < *getssk < *getrsk). In older texts the 1st person singular forms deviate from this pattern: they appear with an -umk ending attached to the plural root of the relevant tense and mood (e.g. ek kƒllumk ‘I am called’, with labially mutated root kall-, ek rá›umk frá ‘I refrain from’, with root rá›-, contrast ek ræ› ‘I advise’). 1st person -sk verbs are not very common at all, however, especially 1st person singular (and very rarely do they have passive sense either in the singular or plural, cf. rá›umk above). In younger texts not only is the 1st person sg. -umk replaced by the 2nd/3rd person sg. form, but a bewildering variety of suffixes is found as well as or in place of -sk, -umk. The more common are -zk (which spreads from its original domain, cf. above), -s, -z, -st and -zt; hybrids such as 1st sg. -umsk, -ums also occur. Ultimately, the -st form replaces all the others, and is the one used in modern Icelandic, Faroese and Norwegian nynorsk. Most normalised texts will use the forms set out in the table below, but even where that is not the case, or the student is confronted with an unnormalised text, there should be few problems of recognition. What needs to be remembered is, first: that -umk, -sk, -zk, -s, -z, -st, -zt, etc. are variant realisations of a single underlying form and choice of any particular one does not change the meaning; second: that in most cases the suffix — whichever is employed — will simply be attached to the verbal ending (e.g. nefndisk ‘named him/herself’ ‘was named’ consists of nefn-di-sk: root + 3rd sg. past ending + -sk); the exceptions to this rule have been described above. With these reservations, the -sk form of the verb may be set out as follows. (Both personal and -sk endings are given; actual paradigms will be found in 3.6.10.) Verb inflexions and their function 145

Strong verbs Indicative Subjunctive

1st sg. pres. -umk -umk 2nd sg. pres. -sk -isk 3rd sg. pres. -sk -isk 1st pl. pres. -umsk -imsk 2nd pl. pres. -izk -izk 3rd pl. pres. -ask -isk

1st sg. past -umk -umk 2nd sg. past -zk -isk 3rd sg. past -sk -isk 1st pl. past -umsk -imsk 2nd pl. past -uzk -izk 3rd pl. past -usk -isk

Imperative (2nd sg. pres.) -sk

Weak verbs Indicative Subjunctive

1st sg. pres. -umk -umk 2nd sg. pres. -sk/-ask/-isk -isk 3rd sg. pres. -sk/-ask/-isk -isk 1st pl. pres. -umsk -imsk 2nd pl. pres. -izk -izk 3rd pl. pres. -ask -isk

1st sg. past -›umk/-dumk/-tumk -›umk/-dumk/-tumk 2nd sg. past -›isk/-disk/-tisk -›isk/-disk/-tisk 3rd sg. past -›isk/-disk/-tisk -›isk/-disk/-tisk 1st pl. past -›umsk/-dumsk/-tumsk -›imsk/-dimsk/-timsk 2nd pl. past -›uzk/-duzk/-tuzk -›izk/-dizk/-tizk 3rd pl. past -›usk/-dusk/-tusk -›isk/-disk/-tisk

Imperative (2nd sg. pres.) -sk/-ask 146 Morphology and syntax

Although we are concerned in this section with form rather than function, a few lines on the use of the -sk form will not be amiss. The Old Norse -sk verb is often termed the ‘middle voice’. This is unhelpful because we are dealing here not with a voice in the sense of the active or passive (cf. 3.6.4), but with a verbal inflexion that has a variety of functions. One such is reflexive: the -sk suffix can often be the equivalent of the reflexive pronoun sik (e.g. hann nefndi sik/nefndisk ‘he named himself’). It will be seen, however, that ‘he named himself’ or ‘he called himself’ overlaps semantically with ‘he was named’ ‘he was called’, and it is probably in constructions of this kind that -sk first came to take on a passive function. The -sk suffix can also have reciprocal function (e.g. bítask ‘bite each other’, gefask ‘give each other’). In the case of many verbs, the addition of -sk simply imparts, or may impart, a different meaning from that of the simple form (e.g. gera ‘[to] do’ — gerask ‘[to] become’, minna ‘[to] remind’ — minnask ‘[to] remember’). Some verbs only exist in an -sk guise (e.g. óttask ‘[to] fear’). For the learner the best procedure is probably to treat -sk verbs as separate words from their non-sk counterparts, until s/he has developed some feel for Old Norse. (See further 3.9.8.3.)

3.6.5.3 The -sk form — Exercise

1. Of what elements are the majority of -sk verb-forms composed? 2. What happens when the -sk suffix is added to a verbal ending in -› or -t? 3. Why do we find the 3rd sg. present indic. -sk forms kallask, teksk, nefnisk and not *kallarsk, *tekrsk, *nefnirsk? 4. Where is the suffix -umk found, and what form of the verbal root is it attached to? 5. In what guises other than -sk and -umk does the -sk form of the verb appear? 6. Enumerate the principal functions of the -sk verb-form.

3.6.6 Finite and non-finite forms; principal parts

So far we have discussed only present and past tense forms of the verb. The reason for treating these separately, and first, is that they are Verb inflexions and their function 147 central to every sentence. It was pointed out in 3.6 that the verb is the ‘non-reducible part of the predicate’, but it would be more precise to say that it is the tensed verb that is the essential element — and in Germanic languages that means a verb in the present or past tense. Thus we may attest in English: he sings and he sang, but not: *he sing, *he sung or *he singing. Nevertheless, sing, sung and singing are considered to belong to the same lexical item (dictionary word) as sings and sang, and to that extent to represent the same word class. In terms of function, however, sing, as in to sing, behaves more like a noun (compare I want to sing and I want beer, in which to sing and the noun beer occupy the same slot in the sentence), and sung and singing more like adjectives (compare a sung chorus, the singing detective and a noisy chorus, the smart detective, in which sung, singing occupy the same slots as the adjectives noisy, smart; note that singing may also be a pure noun as in I like singing, but then it is not considered part of the verb at all). There is thus every reason to make a distinction between to sing, sung and singing on the one hand and sings and sang on the other. In grammatical description the former are commonly said to represent the non-finite parts of the verb, the latter the finite. This terminology is based on the observation that sings and sang make a contrast of tense; they are in one way or another bound by time. The same is not true of to sing, sung and singing, which are independent of time. That is perhaps not immediately obvious in the case of sung or singing. Sung appears to refer to the past (I have sung mass), and is even called a ‘past participle’. Consider, however, the hymn was/is/will be sung in unison, where the time distinctions are not applicable to sung, but are in the finite verbs, was/is/will. Singing is even harder to connect with past, present or future. It is known as a ‘present participle’, but is in fact timeless (cf. the singing detective); in verb phrases of the type was/is/will be singing, it is again the finite verbs that provide the time reference. Old Norse has the same non-finite forms as English, to wit: the infinitive — at syngja ‘to sing’, the past participle — sunginn ‘sung’, and the present participle — syngjandi ‘singing’. Mention is occasionally made of a ‘past infinitive’, but the form concerned is in origin the 3rd pl. past indic. and its use as an ‘infinitive’ seems to have arisen through the recasting of certain finite clauses on analogy with common constructions that employ the standard infinitive. Very few ‘past 148 Morphology and syntax infinitive’ forms are attested, in Old Norse prose only three regularly. The usage is illustrated in 3.9.4. Being non-finite forms, the infinitive and the participles do not have verbal inflexion. The Old Norse infinitive is not inflected at all. It regularly ends in -a, to which the -sk form may be suffixed as appropriate (e.g., berja ‘beat’, berjask ‘fight [literally: beat each other]’). The participles, as we have seen (3.3.9, paradigms 7, 11, 16, 19; also 3.3.6, sentences 1, 4, 7, 22), inflect as adjectives. The past participle of strong verbs has the adjectival -in suffix, that of weak the same -›, -d, -t suffix as the past tense (e.g. farinn, farit ‘gone’, from fara, kraf›r, kraft ‘demanded’, from krefja, strong nom. m. and nom./acc. n. sg. in both cases). The -sk inflexion is added to the nom./acc. n. sg. form in various periphrastic constructions (e.g. hafa farizk ‘have perished’ (farit + sk, with ts written z), var sætzk ‘was come to terms [i.e. terms were agreed]’ (sætt + sk)). The present participle is formed with an -and suffix, as shown in 3.3.9, paradigm 19. It does not normally take the -sk inflexion. Although the non-finite verb-forms in terms both of inflexion and function are largely non-verbal, they are nevertheless, as noted above, considered to belong to the same word class as the finite. This is because it is counter-intuitive to view the present and past tense of any given verb as a separate word from the infinitive and the participles. The non-finite forms thus have their place in the verbal paradigm. Indeed, the infinitive is usually taken as the basic form — as the word itself, of which all the other manifestations are inflected parts. That is why the infinitive regularly appears as the dictionary entry form. As we have seen, the endings of verbs in Old Norse and the root vowel alternations caused by labial and front mutation and breaking are predictable. This means that it is only necessary to cite a minimal number of basic forms for the student to be able to identify a particular verb-form s/he has encountered, i.e. to determine what verb it is part of and its person, number, tense and mood. These basic forms, known as ‘principal parts’, include the infinitive and the past participle. From the infinitive it is possible to deduce all the present tense forms (provided the person and number endings and the workings of labial and front mutation and breaking are known). From the 3rd sg. past indicative (or alternatively the 1st or 2nd person) all the past tense forms of weak verbs can be readily predicted. This is less true of strong verbs: many Verb inflexions and their function 149 undergo vowel change between the singular and plural past indicative, so they need to be cited in both a singular and plural form; the past subjunctive of strong verbs, on the other hand, can be deduced from the plural indicative (once again, provided the inflexional basics are known). Finally, the past participle needs to be given since those of strong verbs usually exhibit further root vowel change; a few weak verbs, too, show irregular forms, but for the most part their participles are deducible from the past tense. We thus have a minimum of three principal parts for weak verbs and four for strong. Front-mutated present singular indicatives and past subjunctives may be included as optional extras, but these are non-essential. The decision whether or not to cite them will depend on how much help one thinks the learner needs. This is how the system works. A strong verb like rjúfa ‘break’ ‘violate’ will be listed in a grammar or dictionary with its infinitive, rjúfa, the 3rd (or 1st) sg. past indic. rauf, 3rd (or 1st) pl. past indic. rufu (rufum), and pp. rofinn or rofit (the choice in the case of the pp. being between the strong nom. m. or nom./acc. n. sg. forms). From the infinitive, the present sg. indic. forms r‡f, r‡fr can be deduced by applying the appropriate endings and the rule: ‘in the present sg. indic. strong verbs with back root vowels undergo front mutation’. All the other present tense forms will have root rjúf-. The 1st, 2nd and 3rd sg. past indic. have root rauf- with the -t ending added in the 2nd person. The 1st, 2nd and 3rd pl. past indic. have root ruf- plus the appropriate endings, and from this the subjunctive root ryf- can be deduced, to which the appropriate subjunctive endings are added. The participial root is rof-, which remains unchanged whatever the adjective ending. A weak verb like krefja ‘demand’ will be listed with infinitive krefja, 3rd (or 1st) sg. past indic. kraf›i (kraf›a), and pp. kraf›r or kraft. From the infinitive all the present tense forms can be deduced simply by adding the appropriate endings. (One will need to recognise the type of weak verb involved (see below) to know whether the indicative sg. endings are ~, -a or -i (1st), -r, -ar or -ir (2nd/3rd), but this variation is unlikely to cause problems of understanding to the reader of Old Norse.) From the 3rd or 1st sg. past indic. all the past tense forms can be deduced by applying the appropriate endings, the labial mutation rule, and the rule: ‘all disyllabic past subjunctive forms with original back root vowels exhibit front mutation’. Thus, the pl. indic. root + -› suffix of krefja will be krƒf›-, because all three plural endings begin with u; 150 Morphology and syntax the subjunctive root + -› suffix will be kref›-, because a is a back vowel and thus susceptible to front mutation. The pp. root + suffix, kraf›-, will undergo labial mutation like any other adjective (cf. 3.3.8.1), so we find that the strong dat. m. and nom. f. sg. forms, for example, are krƒf›um and krƒf› respectively. In the case of the majority of weak verbs, which, unlike krefja, have the same root vowel in the past indic. as in the present, often only the past suffix (with ‘connecting vowel’ where appropriate; see below) is given in addition to the infinitive (e.g. kalla (a›) ‘call’, hefna (d) ‘avenge’, œpa (t) ‘shout’). From this minimal information all forms of the verb concerned are deducible. Kalla undergoes only labial mutation of the root vowel since it is trisyllabic (a three-syllable word) in the past tense; hefna and œpa already have a front-mutated root vowel and this cannot undergo further mutation. Having now established what the principal parts of strong and weak verbs are, and how any form of a given verb may be deduced from these, we conclude this section by listing the principal parts of a strong and weak verb of each major type, and then explaining more fully what is meant by ‘type’ of weak verb. The principal parts of each verb are listed in the following order (those in brackets are optional, see above; the pp. is given in the strong nom. m. sg. form): inf., indic. (3rd sg. pres.), 3rd sg. past, 3rd pl. past, (subj. 3rd sg./pl. past), pp.

Strong verb type 1: bíta ‘bite’ bíta —— bítr —— beit —— bitu —— biti —— bitinn

Strong verb type 2: skjóta ‘shoot’ skjóta —— sk‡tr —— skaut —— skutu —— skyti —— skotinn

Strong verb type 3: bresta ‘burst’ bresta —— brestr —— brast —— brustu —— brysti —— brostinn

Strong verb type 4: bera ‘bear’ bera —— berr —— bar —— báru —— bæri —— borinn

Strong verb type 5: reka ‘drive’ reka —— rekr —— rak —— ráku —— ræki —— rekinn Verb inflexions and their function 151

Strong verb type 6: fara ‘go’ fara —— ferr —— fór —— fóru —— fœri —— farinn

Minor strong verb types: falla ‘fall’, gráta ‘cry’, hlaupa ‘leap’ ‘run’, leika ‘play’ falla —— fellr —— fell —— fellu —— felli —— fallinn gráta —— grætr —— grét —— grétu —— gréti —— grátinn hlaupa —— hleypr —— hljóp —— hljópu —— hl‡pi ——hlaupinn leika —— leikr —— lék —— léku —— léki —— leikinn

Weak verb type 1: krefja ‘demand’ krefja —— krefr —— kraf›i —— krƒf›u —— kref›i —— kraf›r

Weak verb type 2: kalla ‘call’ kalla —— kallar —— kalla›i —— kƒllu›u —— kalla›i ——kalla›r

Weak verb type 3: heyra ‘hear’ heyra —— heyrir —— heyr›i —— heyr›u —— heyr›i —— heyr›r

The three types of weak verb differ in a number of ways. For the learner what will be most noticeable is: type 1 has root vowel change between the present and past indic. (krefja — kraf›i) and no vowel in the sg. present indic. endings (hann krefr); type 2 has a ‘connecting vowel’ a in the past tense (kalla›i) and a in the sg. present indic. endings (hann kallar); type 3 has the same root vowel throughout, no connecting vowel in the past tense and i in the sg. present indic. endings (hann heyrir). The three distinct past tense suffixes, -›, -d and -t, are distributed not according to type of verb, but phonetic environment, so that › occurs after vowels and most voiced consonants (kalla›i, fá›i ‘coloured’, kraf›i, heyr›i), d chiefly after n (hefndi ‘avenged’), and t after unvoiced consonants (vakti ‘wakened’, œpti ‘shouted’). In the earliest texts ﬂ is found after unvoiced consonants, and from the late thirteenth century onwards d replaces › after certain voiced consonants, particularly l and m (val›i/valdi ‘chose’, dœm›i/dœmdi ‘judged’). 152 Morphology and syntax

3.6.6 Finite and non-finite forms; principal parts — Exercise

1. What essential differences are there between finite and non-finite verb-forms? 2. What non-finite verb-forms are found in Old Norse? 3. What is meant by the ‘principal parts’ of an Old Norse verb, and why are these important? 4. Look up the verb hljóta in an Old Norse dictionary or in the Glos- sary in NION III. Give the four basic principal parts and thereafter the 1st person sg. present indic., the 3rd pl. present indic. and subj., the 2nd pl. past indic., and 3rd pl. past subj. 5. Look up the verb verja ‘[to] defend’. Perform the same operation as for hljóta in question 4. 6. How many types of strong and weak verb are there in Old Norse? 7. What distinguishes the different types of weak verb? 8. What determines the form of the past tense suffix of weak verbs?

3.6.7 Preterite presents and other irregular verbs

The preterite present verbs of Old Norse form a small but important class — important because virtually all its members are extremely common. The majority are modal auxiliaries (verbs subordinate to the main verb, which express mood, e.g. English I would come, she might go; cf. 3.6.3). The term ‘preterite present’ reflects the fact that verbs of this type have strong past tense forms in the present; in the past they inflect for the most part like weak verbs, though not all of them have the dental suffix associated with weak inflexion. The reason for the preterite present aberration lies in linguistic pre-history. Put at its most simple, the Germanic past tense is a development of an earlier perfect, which expressed completed action or the state obtaining after the action. While the perfects of most verbs happily made the transition to past, those of what became the preterite presents seem so firmly to have expressed present state that they were ultimately absorbed into the present tense by the creation of new (weak) past tense forms. Thus, ON vita ‘know’ is related to Latin videre ‘see’ ‘perceive’, and hon veit ‘she knows’ (cf. past tense beit ‘bit’, leit ‘looked’, etc.) must derive from a form that originally meant something like ‘she has perceived’. Verb inflexions and their function 153

The principal parts of the preterite presents are listed in the following order (the pp. is given in the strong nom./acc. n. sg. form, for some verbs the only one used; note the infinitives munu and skulu, modelled on the 3rd pl. present indic., which in virtually all verbs has the same form as the infinitive): inf., 3rd sg., pl. pres. indic., 3rd sg. pres. subj., 3rd sg. past indic., subj., pp.

eiga ‘own’ eiga —— á —— eigu —— eigi —— átti —— ætti —— átt

kunna ‘know’ ‘understand’ kunna — kann — kunnu — kunni — kunni — kynni — kunnat

mega ‘be able to’ mega — má — megu — megi — mátti — mætti — mátt/megat

muna ‘remember’ muna — man — munu — muni — mundi — myndi — munat

munu ‘will’ ‘shall’ (denoting future time or uncertainty) munu — mun — munu — muni/myni — mundi — myndi — (lacking)

skulu ‘shall’ (denoting obligation or intention) skulu — skal — skulu — skuli/skyli — skyldi — skyldi — (lacking)

unna ‘love’ unna — ann — unnu — unni — unni — ynni — unnt/unnat

vita ‘know’ vita — veit — vitu — viti — vissi — vissi — vitat

flurfa ‘need’ flurfa — flarf — flurfu — flurfi — flurfti — flyrfti — flurft/flurfat

Two verbs not historically preterite presents have something in common with the above. They are vilja ‘wish’ ‘want’, a weak modal auxiliary with (in later texts) 2nd sg. present indic. in -t like the other 154 Morphology and syntax preterite presents, and vera ‘be’, a highly irregular strong verb basically of type 5 but with preterite-type forms in the present indic. (2nd sg. ert, 2nd, 3rd pl. eru›, eru; note also 1st sg. em). Of vilja the same principal parts are given as for the preterite presents above; of vera the same plus the 3rd pl. past indic. (cf. the principal parts of strong verbs in 3.6.6 above):

vilja — vill — vilja — vili — vildi — vildi — viljat vera — er — eru — sé — var — váru — væri — verit

In addition to the above, there is a small group of common verbs that have regular strong present tense forms, but a past whose root undergoes radical change, metamorphosing to initial consonant(s) + er or ør, to which weak endings are attached. The pp. has the same root as the infinitive and the -in participial suffix of a strong verb. The verbs concerned are gnúa ‘rub’, gróa ‘grow’, róa ‘row’, sá ‘sow’, snúa ‘turn’. Two examples will suffice (citing the same principal parts as for the preterite presents above).

róa — rœr — róa — rói — reri/røri — reri/røri — róit snúa — sn‡r — snúa — snúi — sneri/snøri — sneri/snøri — snúit

Finally, the principal parts of valda ‘cause’, gøra/gera ‘do’ ‘make’, hafa ‘have’ and ver›a ‘become’ are given, the first because it is highly irregular (with strong forms in the present, a radically altered root and weak endings in the past), the latter three because they are extensively used in a variety of constructions (hafa and ver›a often as auxiliaries) and exhibit certain forms that may not be wholly transparent. For valda, gøra/gera and hafa, with weak pasts, it is enough to cite inf., 3rd sg. pres. indic., 3rd sg. past indic. and subj., and pp. (for gøra/gera with root vowel change only in the pp. fewer forms would in fact do); for ver›a, the full complement of strong verb principal parts is given (cf. 3.6.6). The pp. is in each case in the strong nom./acc. n. sg. form.

valda —— veldr —— olli —— ylli —— valdit gera —— gerir —— ger›i —— ger›i —— gƒrt hafa —— hefr/hefir —— haf›i —— hef›i —— haft ver›a —— ver›r —— var› —— ur›u —— yr›i —— or›it Verb inflexions and their function 155

3.6.7 Preterite presents and other irregular verbs — Exercise

1. What is the meaning of the term ‘preterite present’? 2. What inflexional features characterise preterite present verbs? 3. What function do many preterite present verbs have? 4. Study the principal parts of kunna (above), and then give the following forms: 2nd person sg. and pl. present indic., 1st pl. present subj., 3rd pl. past indic. and subj. 5. What forms do vilja and vera have in common with preterite present verbs? 6. What is unusual about the inflexion of (a) gróa, (b) valda, (c) hafa?

3.6.8 Examples of verb usage

Following the same procedure as for other word classes, examples are now given of verbs in function. With the vast range of verbal forms and functions that exists, only a selection can be illustrated, with the emphasis on the most common types. Equally, because so many different features are involved — person and number, tense, mood, voice, -sk forms, periphrastic constructions — and several features combine in the one verb phrase, it has proved difficult to order the examples in any meaningful way. Note that the verbal inflexions being illustrated (or the whole word where there is no difference from the root of the infinitive or an inflexion cannot easily be discerned) are printed in bold type. To underline the grammatical relations involved, bold is also used for the subject, which triggers the person and number form in the verb. Compare the inflexions used below with those set out and discussed in 3.6.5, 3.6.6 and 3.6.7.

(1) Hann b‡r fer› sína ok fór til Nóregs ‘He prepares journey REFL. POSS. and went to Norway’ ‘He gets ready to depart and went to Norway’

B‡r is 3rd sg. present indic. of the strong verb búa (minor type). Fór is 3rd sg. past indic. of the strong verb fara (type 6). Indicative is used because factual statements are being made about what happened. The abrupt change from present to past tense is characteristic of Old Norse prose style. 156 Morphology and syntax

(2) Jarl svarar ok ba› konung gefa sér frest at hugsa ﬂetta mál ‘Earl answers and bade king give self respite to consider this matter’ ‘The earl answers and asked the king to give him time to consider this matter’

Svarar is 3rd sg. present indic. of the weak verb svara (type 2). Ba› is 3rd sg. past indic. of the strong verb bi›ja (type 5, but with root i in the inf. and present tense, see 3.6.9.1 point (5)). Indicative is used in both cases because factual statements are being made about what happened. Gefa is an infinitive, a complement of ba›; it has no overt subject, but konung, the object of ba›, functions as covert (understood) subject (i.e. it is the king who is to do the giving; see further (24) below and 3.9.4). Hugsa is likewise an infinitive, a complement of frest; again there is only a covert subject: the earl (i.e. it is he who is to do the considering).

(3) fiorfinnr vissi eigi, at Brúsi haf›i upp gefit ríki sitt ‘fiorfinnr knew not that Brúsi had up given realm REFL. POSS.’ ‘fiorfinnr did not know that Brúsi had surrendered his realm’

Vissi is 3rd sg. past indic. of preterite present vita. Haf›i is 3rd sg. past indic. of weak hafa (type 3, but irregular, see 3.6.7); together with the pp. gefit, from gefa (strong type 5), it forms a so-called ‘past perfect’ construction, the equivalent of English ‘had given’ (the strong nom./acc. n. sg. form of the pp., when used in perfect and past perfect constructions, is known as the supine, see 3.9.7.1). On the use of the indicative mood, see (1) and (2) above.

(4) Skil›usk ﬂeir me› kærleikum ‘They parted with friendship’

Skil›usk is 3rd pl. past indic. of weak skilja (type 1) with the -sk suffix (skil›u + sk). On the use of the indicative, see (1) and (2) above. Skilja means ‘separate’ ‘divide’; the -sk form imparts a reciprocal sense: ‘they separated (from) each other’.

(5) Eptir ﬂat sefask Rƒgnvaldr ‘After that Rƒgnvaldr calms down’

Sefask is 3rd sg. present indic. of weak sefa (type 2) with the -sk suffix (sefar + sk with assimilation rs > ss and simplification ss > s in unstressed position (see 3.6.5.3)). On the use of the indicative, see (1) and (2). Sefa means ‘soothe’ Verb inflexions and their function 157

‘calm’; the -sk form is probably in origin a reflexive (‘calms himself’), but it can also be conceived as passive (‘is soothed’), and thus illustrates how the function of the -sk form could develop from reflexive to passive.

(6) Sumir menn segja, at hann hafi fallit ‘Some men say that he has fallen’

Segja is 3rd pl. present indic. of weak segja (type 3, but with vowel change in the past tense, see 3.6.9.2 point (5)). Hafi is 3rd sg. present subj. of weak hafa (see (3)); together with supine fallit, from falla (strong minor type), it forms a perfect construction (see (3)). Observe the difference between the use of the indicative and subjunctive: that ‘men say’ is what the writer reports as fact; that ‘he has fallen’ is not what the writer says, but what he claims other people say, and thus from the writer’s point of view no longer a statement of fact.

(7) Ef flú vill eigi gerask minn ma›r, flá er sá annarr kostr, at ek setja flann mann yfir Orkneyjar, er ek vil. ‘If you will not make-sk my man, then is that other choice, that I put that man over Orkneys whom I want’ ‘If you are not willing to become my man, then the alternative is that I put whatever man I want in charge of the Ork- neys’

Vill is 2nd sg. present indic. of weak vilja (type 1, but irregular, see 3.6.7 and 3.6.9.1 point (11)); together with inf. gerask, -sk form of weak gera ‘do’ ‘make’ (type 3, but irregular, see 3.6.7), it forms a modal construction (see 3.6.3). Gerask has a different meaning from gera, though the origin of the sense ‘become’ can probably be sought in the reflexive ‘make oneself’. Er is 3rd sg. present indic. of irregular vera (3.6.7). Setja is 1st sg. present subj. of weak setja (type 1, but with no vowel alternation between present and past, see 3.6.9.3). Vil is 1st sg. present indic. of vilja (see above); here, too, it functions as a modal, although not accompanied by an overt infinitive (the sense, however, is ‘whom I want to put’). Observe the difference between the use of the indicative and subjunctive. In present tense conditional sentences beginning with ef ‘if’ (see 3.8.2.4) the indicative is normally used even though no statement of fact is being made, hence vill. In the independent sentence which follows there is hardly a recording of fact either, rather a statement of the situation that will obtain if the condition is not fulfilled, but such sentences, too, have the indicative. Setja, however, denotes a wholly hypothetical action, and is accordingly subjunctive. With vil we are once again back with the indicative: the speaker’s will is presented as real and immediate. 158 Morphology and syntax

(8) Hann tók til or›a ok gneri nefit ‘He took to words and rubbed nose-the’ ‘He started to speak and rubbed his nose’

Tók is 3rd sg. past indic. of strong taka (type 6, but with root e in the pp., see 3.6.9.1 point (4)). Gneri is 3rd sg. past indic. of irregular gnúa (3.6.7). Both statements are factual and the indicative is therefore used.

(9) Váru sumir drepnir, sumir á braut reknir ‘Some were killed, some driven away’

Váru is 3rd pl. past indic. of irregular vera (3.6.7); together with the pp.s drepnir and reknir, from drepa and reka (both strong type 5), it forms passive constructions, the equivalent of English ‘were killed’, ‘(were) driven’ (in such constructions the pp. inflects as a strong adj. (see 3.6.4), here nom. m. pl., agreeing with the subjects sumir . . . sumir). For the use of the indicative, see (1) and (2).

(10) Hefir flú eigi heyrt flat, at ek em ekki vanr at bœta flá menn fé, er ek læt drepa ‘Have you not heard that, that I am not accustomed to compensate those men with-money whom I let kill’ ‘Have you not heard that I am not accustomed to paying compensation for the men I cause to be put to death’

Hefir is 2nd sg. present indic. of weak hafa (type 3, but irregular, see 3.6.7); together with the supine heyrt, from heyra (weak type 3), it forms a perfect construction (see (3)). Em is 1st sg. present indic. of irregular vera (3.6.7). Bœta is an infinitive, a complement of vera vanr ‘be accustomed’; its covert subject is the ek of the finite sentence: ek em ekki vanr (see (2)). Læt is 1st sg. present indic. of strong láta (minor type); it acts here as an auxiliary, and together with the infinitive (drepa, strong type 5) forms a construction with the sense ‘cause to be killed’ ‘have killed’. Indicative is used throughout because nothing is presented as unreal or hypothetical; after verbs meaning ‘hear’, ‘learn’, ‘discover’, etc., the indicative is almost always found, the truth value of what is ‘heard’ being taken for granted; the unwillingness of the speaker to pay compensation and his propensity to have people killed are in no doubt.

(11) Nor›menn ok Danir herju›u mjƒk í vestrvíking ok kómu optliga vi› eyjarnar, er ﬂeir fóru vestr e›a vestan, ok námu ﬂar nesnám Verb inflexions and their function 159

‘Norwegians and Danes harried much in west-viking and came often to islands-the when they went west or from-west, and took there headland-plunder’ ‘Norwegians and Danes made many raiding expeditions to the West and often called by the Orkneys when they were going west or (returning) east and plundered the headlands’

Herju›u is 3rd pl. past indic. of weak herja (type 2). Kómu, fóru and námu are likewise 3rd pl. past indic., of strong koma (historically type 4, but highly irregular, see 3.6.9.3), fara (type 6) and nema (type 4). On the use of the indicative, see (1) and (2).

(12) Fyrir ofdrambs sakar haf›i hann villzk ok snúizk ífrá gu›i ‘For arrogance sake had he bewildered-sk and turned-sk from God’ ‘Because of arrogance he had gone astray and turned from God’

Haf›i is 3rd sg. past indic. of weak hafa (type 3, but irregular, see 3.6.7); together with the -sk supines villzk and snúizk (< villt + sk, from weak type 3 villa, snúit + sk, from irregular snúa (3.6.7), both with ts written ‘z’) it forms past perfect constructions (see (3)). Both the -sk forms are in origin probably reflexives (‘led himself astray’, ‘turned himself’). On the use of the indicative, see (1) and (2).

(13) Muntu ok eigi vilja vita flat á flik, at flú liggir hér sem kƒttr í hreysi, flar er ek berjumk til frelsis hvárumtveggjum ‘Will-you also not want know that onto you, that you lie here like cat in cranny, there where I fight-sk for freedom for-both’ ‘You will also not want to be accused of lying here like a cat in a cranny while I fight for the freedom of both of us’

Muntu (either munt + flú with assimilation tfl > tt and simplification tt > t after another consonant or mun + flú with loss of -t ending before flú and partial assimilation nfl > nt, see 3.2.1) is 2nd sg. present indic. of preterite present munu; together with infinitives vilja (weak type 1, but irregular, see 3.6.7, 3.6.9.1 point (11)) and vita (preterite present) it forms a double modal construction (i.e. two modal verbs ‘will [future]’ and ‘want to’ are involved). Liggir is 2nd sg. present subj. of strong liggja (type 5, but irregular, see 3.6.9.3). Berjumk is 1st sg. present of weak berja (type 1) with the -umk suffix (which 160 Morphology and syntax replaces -sk in the 1st sg.). The -sk form of berja is in origin reciprocal (‘beat each other’), but it comes to have the more general meaning ‘fight’ — in which ‘each other’ may or may not be understood. Of the three finite verbs in this example one is indic., one subj. and one indeterminate on the basis of form: mun(t) records what the speaker presents as fact, whereas liggir refers to a hypothetical event; berjumk is almost certainly indic. since the speaker is in no doubt about the fighting in which he will be involved.

(14) Hverr veit, nema ek ver›a ví›a frægr ‘Who knows, but-that I become widely famous’ ‘Who knows whether I may not become famous far and wide’

Veit is 3rd sg. present indic. of preterite present vita. Ver›a is 1st sg. present subj. of strong ver›a (type 3, but irregular, see 3.6.7). The first sentence contains a direct present-tense question introduced by an interrogative pronoun (hverr) and, like all sentences of this type, has a verb in the indicative. The second sentence is introduced by the conjunction nema which automatically triggers a subjunctive verb-form since it presupposes a hypothetical situation.

(15) Bei›ir ﬂá Einarr, at Rƒgnvaldr skyli rá›ask til fer›ar me› ﬂeim ‘Requests then Einarr that Rƒgnvaldr shall set-out-sk on journey with them’ ‘Einarr then requests that Rƒgnvaldr should set out on the journey with them’

Bei›ir is 3rd sg. present indic. of weak bei›a (type 3). Skyli is 3rd sg. present subj. of preterite present skulu; together with inf. rá›ask, -sk form of strong rá›a ‘advise’, ‘rule’ (minor type), it forms a modal construction (see 3.6.3). Rá›ask has various meanings, mostly different from those of rá›a; the semantic development can often be hard to trace. Bei›ir is indic. because it denotes what the writer regards as fact; skyli, in contrast, refers to what Einarr wants to happen, but which may or may not take place.

(16) ﬁá hru›usk skip ﬂeira Sigur›ar ok Magnúss ‘Then cleared-sk ships their Sigur›r’s and Magnús’s’ ‘Then Sigur›r’s and Magnús’s ships were cleared of men’

Hru›usk is 3rd pl. past indic. of hrjó›a (strong type 2) with the -sk suffix. The sense of -sk here is clearly passive: some agency cleared the ships (i.e. killed those on board) but the goal of the action, ‘ships’, has been made subject and the agent is left unexpressed. On the use of the indicative, see (1) and (2). Verb inflexions and their function 161

(17) Var› engi uppreist ímóti konungi gƒr ‘No rebellion was made against the king’

Var› is 3rd sg. past indic. of strong ver›a (type 3, but irregular, see 3.6.7); together with gƒr, pp. of gøra/gera (weak type 3, but irregular, see 3.6.7), it forms a passive construction (see (9)). Ver›a, as well as vera, may be used as the equivalent of English ‘be’ in passive verb phrases (see further 3.9.7.2). On the use of the indicative, see (1) and (2).

(18) fió at flú ver›ir rei›r, flá mældu fátt ‘Though that you become angry, then speak-you little’ ‘Though you become angry, yet say little’

Ver›ir is 2nd sg. present subj. of strong ver›a (type 3, see 3.6.7). The conjunction fló at or flótt (3.8.2.2), which introduces the first sentence, automatically triggers a subjunctive verb-form since it mostly presupposes a hypothetical situation. Mældu (mæl + flú, with partial assimilation lfl > ld, see 3.2.1) is the imperative of mæla (weak type 3) with the subject pronoun attached; it expresses an instruction.

(19) Eigi vil ek, at ﬂit hittizk optarr ‘Not want I that you [dual] meet-sk more-often’ ‘I do not want you two to meet again’

Vil is 1st sg. present indic. of weak vilja (type 1, but irregular, see 3.6.7, 3.6.9.1 point (11)). As a modal auxiliary, it is regularly followed by an inf., but here that is replaced by the dependent sentence at ﬂit hittizk. Hittizk is 2nd pl. present of hitta (weak type 3) with the -sk suffix (›s being written ‘z’). The sense of -sk here is reciprocal: ‘meet each other’. The mood of the verb cannot be deduced from the form, but it is almost certainly subj., determined by the sense of the preceding independent sentence: that which is wanted or wished for is hypothetical.

(20) Ætla›a ek flá, at ek mynda hvergi fless koma, at ek mynda fless gjalda, at ek væra of fri›samr vi› óvini mína, en nú geld ek fless, er ek hefi flér gri› gefit ‘Thought I then, that I would nowhere of-that come that I would for-that pay, that I was too peaceful towards enemies my, but now pay I for-that, that I have to-you quarter given’ ‘I never thought then I would get into a situation where I would pay for being too easy on my enemies, but now I am paying for having given you quarter’ 162 Morphology and syntax

Ætla›a is 1st sg. past indic. of weak ætla (type 2). Mynda is 1st sg. past subj. of preterite present munu; together with infinitives koma (strong type 4 historically, but highly irregular, see 3.6.9.3) and gjalda (strong type 3, see 3.6.5.2) it forms modal constructions (3.6.3). Væra is 1st sg. past subj. of irregular vera (3.6.7). Geld is 1st sg. present indic. of strong gjalda (see above). Hefi is 1st sg. present indic. of weak hafa (type 3, but irregular, see 3.6.7); together with supine gefit, from gefa (strong type 5), it forms a perfect construction (see (3)). The three subjunctives, mynda (twice) and væra, all depend on ætla›a in the independent sentence: this is what the speaker thought would happen, but events have proved him wrong. With geld, we are back to statements the speaker presents as factual.

(21) Hann veitti allri hir› sinni bæ›i mat ok mungát, svá at menn ﬂyrfti eigi í skytning at ganga ‘He gave all his retainers both food and ale, so that men would not need to go to an inn’

Veitti is 3rd sg. past indic. of weak veita (type 3). fiyrfti is 3rd pl. past subj. of preterite present flurfa; together with inf. ganga (strong minor type) it forms a modal construction (see 3.6.3). Indic. veitti is used in what the writer presents as a statement of fact. The subjunctive flyrfti suggests a purpose rather than a result sentence: svá at ‘so that’ can mean either ‘in order that’ or ‘with the result that’ (see 3.8.2.2); the former is putative, normally requiring the subj., the latter factual, normally requiring the indic.

(22) Ef hann væri heill at sumri, sag›i hann, at ﬂeir skyldi finnask ‘If he were hale at summer, said he, that they should find-sk’ ‘If he were alive when summer came, he said, they should meet’

Væri is 3rd sg. past subj. of irregular vera (3.6.7). Sag›i is 3rd sg. past indic. of weak segja (type 3, but with vowel change in the past tense, see 3.6.9.2 point (5)). Skyldi is 3rd pl. past of preterite present skulu; together with inf. finnask, -sk form of strong finna ‘find’ (type 3, but irregular, see 3.6.9.2 point (2), 3.6.9.3), it forms a modal construction (see 3.6.3). The -sk form has reciprocal sense: ‘find each other’, and thus ‘meet’. Indicative sag›i presents what the writer regards as fact, namely that ‘he’ said the accompanying sentences. Væri conforms to the usage whereby past tense verbs in conditional sentences are almost always subjunctive (even when, as here, the condition is ‘open’, i.e. may or may not be fulfilled, and the past tense form is simply the reported speech equivalent of direct: ‘if I am alive when summer comes’). The mood of skyldi cannot be deduced from the form, but it is certainly subj., referring to hypothetical circumstances dependent on the indirect-speech condition of ef hann væri heill at sumri. Verb inflexions and their function 163

(23) Mun samflykki okkart mest, at vit innimsk lítt til um flann flri›jung landa ‘Will concord our [dual] greatest, that we allude-sk little to about that third of-lands’ ‘Our concord will be greatest if we make little mention of that third of the country’

Mun is 3rd sg. present indic. of preterite present munu; vera ‘be’, with which it forms a modal construction, is omitted but understood (see 3.9.5.2). Innimsk is 1st pl. present subj. of weak inna (type 3) with the -sk suffix (innim + sk). The -sk form is in origin reciprocal: ‘speak to each other’. Indicative mun expresses what the speaker regards as certain, subjunctive innimsk the hypothetical situation he envisages.

(24) Kalla›i hann sér gefit hafa verit ﬂat ríki ‘Called he to-self given have been that realm’ ‘He said that that realm had been given to him’

Kalla›i is 3rd sg. past indic. of weak kalla (type 2). Gefit is the pp. of strong gefa (type 5), acc. n. sg., agreeing with flat ríki; together with verit, supine of irregular vera (3.6.7), it forms a passive construction (see (9)). Verit for its part joins with inf. hafa (weak type 3, but irregular, see 3.6.7) to form a perfect. We thus have a non-finite perfect passive construction. The lack of a finite verb arises because the complement of kalla›i is what is known as an ‘accusative and infinitive’ clause — one that takes the object of the matrix verb as its subject. This is all somewhat complex, so a detailed analysis is now offered: kalla›i (finite verb), hann (subject), flat ríki (direct object of kalla›i and subject of gefit), gefit hafa verit (non-finite perfect passive construction), sér (indirect object of the infinitive clause, but coreferential with the subject of the independent sentence); a semi-literal translation is: ‘he said that realm to have been given to himself’. (Some would argue that sér is subject of the infinitive clause and flat ríki object. These theoretical considerations need not concern the learner, but see 3.9.3. On acc. + inf. clauses, see further 3.9.4.)

(25) fiér skulu› nú frá mér fless mest njóta, er flér gáfu› mér líf ok leitu›u› mér slíkrar sœm›ar sem flér máttu› ‘You [pl.] shall now from me that most enjoy, that you [pl.] gave me life and sought for-me such honour as you [pl.] could’ ‘What chiefly benefits you now as far as I am concerned is that you gave me my life and tried to show me as much honour as you could’ 164 Morphology and syntax

Skulu› is 2nd pl. present indic. of preterite present skulu; together with inf. njóta (strong type 2) it forms a modal construction (see 3.6.3). Gáfu› is 2nd pl. past indic. of strong gefa (type 5). Leitu›u› is 2nd pl. past indic. of weak leita (type 2). Máttu› is 2nd pl. past indic. of preterite present mega; although not accompanied by an overt infinitive, it functions as a modal (the sense is ‘as you could show me’). The indic. is used throughout because everything said is perceived by the speaker as factual.

3.6.8 Examples of verb usage — Exercise

1. In what different ways may the passive voice be expressed in Old Norse? 2. What are the principal factors that govern the choice between indicative and subjunctive? 3. What are the principal functions of the -sk form as revealed in the above examples? 4. What is meant by a ‘covert subject’? Give an example. 5. In which of the above examples do modal constructions (modal auxiliary + inf.) occur? List all that you find. 6. In which of the above examples do passive constructions occur? List all that you find. 7. In which of the above examples do perfect and past perfect constructions occur? List all that you find. 8. Explain the following forms (i.e. state what inflexion or inflexions they have and the reasons for the inflexion(s)): sefask in example (5), hafi fallit (6), váru drepnir (9), læt drepa (10), haf›i snúizk (12), hru›usk (16), ver›ir (18), mældu (18), væri (22), máttu› (25).

3.6.9 Important variations in verb inflexion

Difficulties in recognising verb-forms for what they are arise more from the irregularity of the principal parts than from the endings. Cer- tainly, verb endings show the same degree of overlap and ambiguity as those of nouns and adjectives (3.1.6, 3.3.7), but they carry less meaning. Since in Old Norse the subject is virtually always expressed (unlike, say, in Latin or Italian), the endings are largely redundant for the purposes of denoting person and number. Thus in hann drap tvá menn ‘he killed two men’, we know that drap is 3rd sg. because that is the person and number of hann, the subject. Verb inflexions and their function 165

Other parts of the verbal system are equally transparent. Those who have studied the preceding sections will not fail to recognise hann haf›i drepit tvá menn ‘he had killed two men’ as a past perfect construction and tveir menn váru drepnir ‘two men were killed’ as passive. The -sk suffix is also hard to confuse with any other ending (though occasional uncertainty may arise when it appears in its -st, -zt manifestations). Less easy to spot is the difference between indicative and subjunctive mood. To get this right consistently the student will have to be familiar with the relevant endings, but quite often it is enough to recognise the form of the root (contrast hann drap ‘he killed [indic.]’ with ﬂótt hann dræpi ‘though he killed [subj.]’). How far it is essential to know whether a verb-form is indicative or subjunctive will depend on the context. As the examples in 3.6.8 show, the choice between the moods is sometimes automatic, sometimes dependent on meaning, though the differences of meaning can often be subtle and difficult to render in English. In the light of these considerations, the deviations from the established patterns of verbal inflexion to be concentrated on here are chiefly those affecting principal parts. The presentation will be divided into three major sections. First, deviations that follow phonological rules the student can apply; second, unpredictable deviations that affect a group of verbs; third, idiosyncratic deviations.

3.6.9.1 Phonological variation

(1) In general, v is lost before rounded vowels. Strong type 3 flverra ‘decrease’, verpa ‘throw’, for example, have 3rd pl. past indic. flurru, urpu (past subj. root flyrr-, yrp-) and pp.s florrinn, orpinn (cf. also ver›a, 3.6.7). Strong type 4 vefa ‘weave’ has pp. ofinn. Strong type 6 va›a ‘wade’, vaxa ‘grow’ have 3rd sg. and pl. past indic. ó› — ó›u, óx — óxu (past subj. root œ›-, irregular eyx- or yx-). (2) Strong verbs with vowel + g as the basic root have, or may have, a long monophthong and no g in the past sg. indic. Type 1 stíga ‘step’, for example, has 3rd sg. past indic. sté or steig, type 2 fljúga ‘fly’ has fló or flaug, type 5 vega ‘kill’ vá, type 6 draga ‘drag’ dró. (3) Strong verb roots that end in -d, -nd and -ng undergo change to -t, -tt and -kk respectively in the imperative and the past sg. indic. 166 Morphology and syntax

Type 3 binda ‘bind’ (on root vowel i, see 3.6.9.2 point (2)), gjalda ‘pay’, for example, have imp. bitt, gjalt, 3rd sg. past indic. batt, galt; minor types ganga ‘walk’, halda ‘hold’ have imp. gakk, halt, 3rd sg. past indic. gekk, helt (sometimes regular imp. forms are encountered — in the above cases: bind, gjald, gang, hald). (4) Pp.s of type 6 and minor type strong verbs normally undergo front mutation of the root vowel when the root ends in -g or -k, e.g. dreginn from draga, genginn from ganga, tekinn from taka ‘take’. (5) Present roots of type 6 strong verbs undergo front mutation of the root vowel when j occurs before endings consisting of or beginning with a or u, e.g. hefja ‘lift’, sverja ‘swear’, 3rd sg. past indic. hóf, sór (see (1) above). Note also that the same conditions give root vowel i instead of e in type 5 strong verbs, e.g. bi›ja ‘ask’, sitja ‘sit’. (6) Pp.s of type 3 and 4 strong verbs have root vowel u rather than o when the immediately following consonant is m or n, e.g. bundinn from binda ‘bind’, sprunginn from springa ‘spring’ ‘burst’, unninn (see (1) above) from vinna ‘work’ (on root vowel i, see 3.6.9.2 point (2)), numinn from nema ‘take’. (7) Weak verbs undergo a number of consonantal assimilations and simplifications when the past tense and participial suffixes -›, -d, -t are added. Such phonological adjustments are not restricted to verbs, but are found elsewhere in the language (see 3.1.7.4 point (1), 3.3.8.4 point (2), 3.3.8.5 point (2)). Verbs whose root ends in consonant + ›, d or t do not add a further ›, d or t to mark the past-tense or participial/ supine suffix, e.g. vir›a — vir›i — vir›r ‘value’, senda — sendi — sendr ‘send’, svipta — svipti — sviptr ‘deprive’. This applies equally when the root ends in tt, e.g. rétta — rétti — réttr ‘straighten’ ‘stretch out’. Verbs whose root vowel is immediately followed by › show assimilation ›d > dd in the past tense and past participle, e.g. ey›a — eyddi — eyddr ‘destroy’, gle›ja — gladdi — gladdr ‘gladden’. The -t ending of the nom./acc. n. sg. of the pp. regularly amalgamates with the participial suffix (by processes of simplification or assimilation and simplification; see further 3.3.8.4 point (2) and 3.3.8.5 point (2)), e.g. flutt (< flutt + t) from flytja ‘convey’, kastat (< kasta› + t) from kasta ‘throw’, sent (< send + t) from senda, leyst (< leyst + t) from leysa ‘loosen’, ‘resolve’, hitt (< hitt + t) from hitta ‘meet’. (8) As with nouns and adjectives (3.1.7.5 point (2), 3.3.8.5 point (4)), the vowels of endings tend to be dropped when they immediately Verb inflexions and their function 167 follow a long vowel of the same or similar quality. Thus weak type 3 trúa ‘believe’, for example, has a 1st pl. present indic. form trúm (< *trúum)’, deyja ‘die’ 3rd pl. past indic. dó (< *dóu), fá ‘get’ 1st pl. present indic. fám (< *fáum), sjá ‘see’ pp. sénn (< *séinn) (these last three verbs are highly irregular and their principal parts are listed in 3.6.9.3). (9) As with adjectives, t is lengthened when immediately following long, stressed vowels. Thus the 2nd sg. past indic. of strong type 1 stíga ‘step’ (see (2) above) is stétt, of búa ‘prepare’, ‘dwell’ (3.6.9.3) bjótt. (10) Strong verbs whose root ends in -› or -t suffer changes to these consonants in the 2nd sg. past indic. The › assimilates to the -t ending (cf. (7) above), e.g. reitt, from strong type 1 rí›a ‘ride’. Where the root ends in -t, the usual ending is -zt, e.g. bazt, from strong type 3 binda ‘bind’ (3rd sg. past indic. batt, see (3) above; on root vowel i see 3.6.9.2 point (2)), lézt, from strong minor type láta ‘let’. This latter change affects preterite present vita ‘know’ too (2nd sg. present indic. veizt). Some verbs with root final -› may have the -zt ending as an alternative to -tt, e.g. bazt or batt from strong type 5 bi›ja (on root vowel i, see 3.6.9.1 point (5)). Some with root final -t may as an alternative add t in the normal way, e.g. létt from láta (see above), or have the same form as the 1st and 3rd sg. past indic., e.g. helt from strong minor type halda ‘hold’ (see (3) above). Strong verbs with root final -st have zero ending in the 2nd sg. past indic., e.g. laust from strong type 2 ljósta ‘strike’. (11) As in the case of nouns and adjectives (3.1.7.4 point (1), 3.3.8.4 point (1)), an -r ending may sometimes be assimilated to an immediately preceding l, n or s, e.g. 3rd sg. present indic. vill (< *vilr), from irregular weak type 1 (3.6.7) vilja ‘want’, skínn (< *skínr) from strong type 1 skína ‘shine’, les(s) (< *lesr) from strong type 5 lesa ‘gather’, ‘read’. (12) The 2nd sg. past indic. -t ending of strong verbs is often dropped when the 2nd person pronoun immediately follows, e.g. gekkt flú or gekk flú ‘you went’, tókt flú or tók flú ‘you took’. (13) The 1st pl. -m ending is often dropped when the 1st person dual or pl. pronoun immediately follows, e.g. tƒkum vit or tƒku vit ‘we two take’, tókum vér or tóku vér ‘we took’. (14) The 2nd pl. -› ending is often dropped when the 2nd person dual or pl. pronoun in the form flit, flér immediately follows, e.g. taki› flit or taki flit ‘you two take’, tóku› flér or tóku flér ‘you took’. 168 Morphology and syntax

(15) The 3rd sg. present indic. -r ending of the verb flyk(k)ja ‘seem’ is often dropped when the dat. of the 1st or 2nd person sg. pronoun immediately follows, e.g. flyk(k)ir mér or flyk(k)i mér ‘it seems to me’.

3.6.9.2 Morphological variation

(1) A few strong verbs of type 2 have present tense root vowel ú rather than jó or jú, e.g. lúta ‘bend down’, súpa ‘sip’. (2) Several strong verbs of type 3 have present tense root vowel i rather than e or ja, and a few have y or ø, e.g. binda ‘bind’, finna ‘find’, syngva/syngja (see (6) below) ‘sing’, søkkva ‘sink’. The verbs with present tense i and y have root vowel u in the pp. (see 3.6.9.1 point (6)); those with present y and ø have root vowel ƒ in the past sg. indic., e.g. sƒng ‘sang’, sƒkk ‘sank’. (3) Some weak verbs of type 1 and type 3 have pp.s like those of type 2, e.g. huga›r (or hug›r) from hyggja ‘think’ ‘intend’, viljat from vilja ‘want’, florat from flora ‘dare’. Many type 1 verbs have alternative pp. forms with connecting vowel -i-, e.g. bar›r or bari›r ‘beaten’. Because the nom./acc. n. sg. of the i-forms is identical with the nom./acc. n. sg. of the pp. of strong verbs (barit ~ farit), we also get analogical ‘strong’ pp.s of type 1 weak verbs, e.g. barinn nom. m. sg. (4) A few weak verbs of type 3 have an -i ending in the imperative as well as zero, e.g. vak or vaki from vaka ‘keep awake’. The imp. of flegja ‘stay silent’ is always flegi. (5) The type 3 weak verbs segja ‘say’ and flegja (3rd sg. pres. indic. segir, flegir) have root vowel a in the past indic., e in the past subj., like type 1 verbs (3rd sg. sag›i, flag›i, seg›i, fleg›i respectively). (6) As with nouns and adjectives (3.1.7.5 point (4), 3.3.8.5 point (5)), j may be found in some verbs before endings consisting of or beginning in a or u; in others v may be found before endings consisting of or beginning in a or i. With most verbs such insertions are found only in connection with the present root, but type 2 weak verbs have them throughout the paradigm. Examples are: svíkja ‘betray’ (strong type 1) — 1st pl. present indic. svíkjum — 3rd pl. past indic. sviku, syngva ‘sing’ (strong type 3, on root vowel y, see 3.6.9.2 point (2)) — 3rd pl. present subj. syngvi — 3rd pl. past subj. syngi, berja ‘strike’ (weak type 1) — 1st sg. past indic. bar›a, eggja ‘incite’ (weak type 2) — 3rd pl. past indic. eggju›u Verb inflexions and their function 169

— supine eggjat, bƒlva ‘curse’ (weak type 2) — 3rd pl. past indic. bƒlvu›u — supine bƒlvat. Note that strong verbs with v insertion and y in the present tense root may alternatively have j insertion (e.g. syngja).

3.6.9.3 Idiosyncratic variation

A number of common verbs are irregular in varying degrees. While it would be possible to offer historical explanations for their irregularity and, where this has not already been done, assign them to one or other of the weak and strong types, it is easier for the learner simply to list their principal parts. For strong verbs inf., 3rd sg. and pl. past indic. and supine are given, for weak verbs inf., 3rd sg. past indic. and supine. Forms that cannot easily be deduced from these are described in the notes that follow, as are other peculiarities.

Strong verbs

blóta —— blét —— blétu —— blótit ‘sacrifice’ breg›a —— brá —— brug›u —— brug›it ‘move’ búa —— bjó —— bjoggu —— búit ‘prepare’, ‘dwell’ deyja —— dó —— dó —— dáit ‘die’ draga —— dró —— drógu —— dregit ‘drag’ drekka —— drakk —— drukku —— drukkit ‘drink’ eta —— át —— átu —— etit ‘eat’ fá —— fekk —— fengu —— fengit ‘get’ fela —— fal —— fálu —— folgit ‘hide’ finna —— fann —— fundu —— fundit ‘find’ flá —— fló —— flógu —— flegit ‘flay’ fregna —— frá —— frágu —— fregit ‘ask’, ‘learn’ frjósa —— frøri —— frøru —— frørit ‘freeze’ ganga —— gekk —— gengu —— gengit ‘walk’ hanga —— hekk —— hengu —— hangit ‘hang’ heita —— hét —— hétu —— heitit ‘be called’, ‘promise’ hlæja —— hló —— hlógu —— hlegit ‘laugh’ hƒggva —— hjó —— hjoggu —— hƒggvit ‘strike’, ‘kill’ kjósa —— køri —— køru —— kørit ‘choose’ koma —— kom —— kómu —— komit ‘come’ 170 Morphology and syntax

liggja —— lá —— lágu —— legit ‘lie’ sjá —— sá —— sá —— sét ‘see’ slá —— sló —— slógu —— slegit ‘hit’ sofa —— svaf —— sváfu —— sofit ‘sleep’ standa —— stó› —— stó›u —— sta›it ‘stand’ sveipa —— sveip —— svipu —— sveipit ‘wrap’ svima —— svam —— svámu —— sumit ‘swim’ tro›a —— tra› —— trá›u —— tro›it ‘tread’ tyggva —— tƒgg —— tuggu —— tuggit ‘chew’ fliggja —— flá —— flágu —— flegit ‘accept’ flvá —— fló —— flógu —— flvegit ‘wash’

Weak verbs

heyja —— há›i —— há(i)t ‘perform’, ‘conduct’ kaupa —— keypti —— keypt ‘buy’ leggja —— lag›i —— lagt ‘lay’ ‘put’ ljá —— lé›i —— lét ‘lend’ ‘grant’ selja —— seldi —— selt ‘hand over’, ‘sell’ setja —— setti —— sett ‘set’ ‘place’ sœkja —— sótti —— sótt ‘seek’, ‘attack’ yrkja —— orti —— ort ‘work’, ‘make poetry’ flreyja —— flrá›i —— flrát ‘long for’ flykkja —— flótti —— flótt ‘seem’

Búa has past subj. root bjƒgg-, bjøgg- or bygg-. Frjósa and kjósa have weak endings in the past sg. indic. Both alternatively have strong type 2 forms (fraus — frusu — frosit, kaus — kusu — kosit). Hanga has a connecting vowel i in the present sg. indic. (e.g. vápnit hangir ‘the weapon hangs’), as does heita in the sense ‘be called’. Hanga lacks front mutation in the relevant forms. Koma, sofa, and tro›a have certain alternative forms. Present sg. indic. root: kem- or køm-, sef- or søf-, tre›- or trø›-; past pl. indic. root kvám-, sóf- (past subj. root is either kœm- or kvæm-, svæf- or sœf-). Svima has an alternative inf. symja, and an alternative strong type 3 paradigm (with root final mm): svimma — svamm — summu — summit. For the present tense of sjá, which has highly irregular inflexions, see p. 175. Verb inflexions and their function 171

3.6.9.1/3.6.9.2/3.6.9.3 Phonological variation/Morphological variation/Idiosyncratic variation — Exercise

1. Explain the following forms: 3rd pl. past indic. ur›u, from ver›a; 1st sg. past indic. hné, from hníga; imp. statt, from standa; pp. ekit, from aka. 2. Why can sverja (past indic. root sór-) be said to belong to the same strong verb type as fara (past indic. root fór-)? 3. Which pp.s of type 3 and 4 strong verbs have root vowel u rather than o? 4. What is the past tense root of weak verbs benda, hitta, myr›a and skipta, and why? 5. What is the past tense root of weak verbs fœ›a and ry›ja, and why? 6. Give the 1st pl. present indic. of búa. 7. Give the 2nd sg. past indic. of strong verbs láta and slá, and the 2nd sg. present indic. of preterite present vita. 8. Give the 3rd sg. present indic. of fregna, skilja, vaxa. 9. Enumerate the different present tense roots of type 2 and type 3 strong verbs. 10. What variations does the imperative form exhibit? 11. In what way are the paradigms of frjósa and kjósa unusual? 12. Give the principal parts of koma and sofa, including all alternative forms.

3.6.10 Examples of verb inflexion

Complete paradigms of selected verbs are now given. As with adjectives, Old Norse grammars tend to be somewhat parsimonious in their exemplification of verbs. To be sure, most forms likely to be encountered can be identified using the guidance provided in the preceding sections, but this can often be a long and arduous process for the novice. The present grammar therefore gives more paradigms than strictly necessary, but not so many, one hopes, that the student is overwhelmed and unable to see the wood for the trees. To illustrate the main patterns, two strong verbs are displayed, one with root-final t (skjóta) and one with root a (fara), and three weak, one of each type (berja, flakka, brenna). In addition, a preterite present verb, mega, is 172 Morphology and syntax presented, and vera and sjá, since not only are these two irregular and extremely common, but certain of their forms are easily confused. Finally, the paradigms of one strong (fara) and one weak verb (berja) are repeated with the -sk suffix added. Finite forms precede non-finite. The past participle is given in the nom./acc. n. sg. form. Rather than the abstract ‘1st sg.’ etc., pronouns are used to indicate person and number; hann ‘he’ is used for the 3rd sg., vér for the 1st pl., flér for the 2nd pl., fleir for the 3rd pl. The imperative is always 2nd sg. (cf. 3.6.3).

Strong verb (type 2): skjóta ‘shoot’

Present indicative Present subjunctive ek sk‡t ek skjóta flú sk‡tr flú skjótir hann sk‡tr hann skjóti vér skjótum vér skjótim flér skjóti› flér skjóti› fleir skjóta fleir skjóti

Past indicative Past subjunctive ek skaut ek skyta flú skauzt flú skytir hann skaut hann skyti vér skutum vér skytim flér skutu› flér skyti› fleir skutu fleir skyti

Imperative skjót Infinitive skjóta Present participle skjótandi Past participle skotit Verb inflexions and their function 173

Strong verb (type 6): fara ‘go’

Present indicative Present subjunctive ek fer ek fara flú ferr flú farir hann ferr hann fari vér fƒrum vér farim flér fari› flér fari› fleir fara fleir fari

Past indicative Past subjunctive ek fór ek fœra flú fórt flú fœrir hann fór hann fœri vér fórum vér fœrim flér fóru› flér fœri› fleir fóru fleir fœri

Imperative far Infinitive fara Present participle farandi Past participle farit

Weak verb (type 1): berja ‘beat’

Present indicative Present subjunctive ek ber ek berja flú berr flú berir hann berr hann beri vér berjum vér berim flér beri› flér beri› fleir berja fleir beri

Past indicative Past subjunctive ek bar›a ek ber›a flú bar›ir flú ber›ir hann bar›i hann ber›i vér bƒr›um vér ber›im flér bƒr›u› flér ber›i› fleir bƒr›u fleir ber›i

Imperative ber Infinitive berja Present participle berjandi Past participle bart/barit 174 Morphology and syntax

Weak verb (type 2): ﬂakka ‘thank’

Present indicative Present subjunctive ek flakka ek flakka flú flakkar flú flakkir hann flakkar hann flakki vér flƒkkum vér flakkim flér flakki› flér flakki› fleir flakka fleir flakki

Past indicative Past subjunctive ek flakka›a ek flakka›a flú flakka›ir flú flakka›ir hann flakka›i hann flakka›i vér flƒkku›um vér flakka›im flér flƒkku›u› flér flakka›i› fleir flƒkku›u fleir flakka›i

Imperative flakka Infinitive flakka Present participle flakkandi Past participle flakkat

Weak verb (type 3): brenna ‘burn’ (transitive)

Present indicative Present subjunctive ek brenni ek brenna flú brennir flú brennir hann brennir hann brenni vér brennum vér brennim flér brenni› flér brenni› fleir brenna fleir brenni

Past indicative Past subjunctive ek brennda ek brennda flú brenndir flú brenndir hann brenndi hann brenndi vér brenndum vér brenndim flér brenndu› flér brenndi› fleir brenndu fleir brenndi

Imperative brenn Infinitive brenna Present participle brennandi Past participle brennt Verb inflexions and their function 175

Irregular verb: vera ‘be’

Present indicative Present subjunctive ek em ek sjá/sé flú ert flú sér hann er hann sé vér erum vér sém flér eru› flér sé› fleir eru fleir sé

Past indicative Past subjunctive ek var ek væra flú vart flú værir hann var hann væri vér várum vér værim flér váru› flér væri› fleir váru fleir væri

Imperative ver Infinitive vera Present participle verandi Past participle verit

Irregular verb: sjá ‘see’

Present indicative Present subjunctive ek sé ek sjá flú sér flú sér hann sér hann sé vér sjám/sjóm vér sém flér sé› flér sé› fleir sjá fleir sé

Past indicative Past subjunctive ek sá ek sæa flú sátt flú sæir hann sá hann sæi vér sám vér sæim flér sá› flér sæi› fleir sá fleir sæi

Imperative sé Infinitive sjá Present participle sjándi Past participle sét 176 Morphology and syntax

Preterite present verb: mega ‘be able to’ ‘be allowed to’ ‘can’

Present indicative Present subjunctive ek má ek mega flú mátt flú megir hann má hann megi vér megum vér megim flér megu› flér megi› fleir megu fleir megi

Past indicative Past subjunctive ek mátta ek mætta flú máttir flú mættir hann mátti hann mætti vér máttum vér mættim flér máttu› flér mætti› fleir máttu fleir mætti

Imperative lacking Infinitive mega Present participle megandi Past participle mátt/megat

Strong verb (type 6): farask ‘perish’

Present indicative Present subjunctive ek fƒrumk ek fƒrumk flú fersk flú farisk hann fersk hann farisk vér fƒrumsk vér farimsk flér farizk flér farizk fleir farask fleir farisk

Past indicative Past subjunctive ek fórumk ek fœrumk flú fórzk flú fœrisk hann fórsk hann fœrisk vér fórumsk vér fœrimsk flér fóruzk flér fœrizk fleir fórusk fleir fœrisk

Infinitive farask Past participle farizk Verb inflexions and their function 177

Weak verb (type 1): berjask ‘fight’

Present indicative Present subjunctive ek berjumk ek berjumk flú bersk flú berisk hann bersk hann berisk vér berjumsk vér berimsk flér berizk flér berizk fleir berjask fleir berisk

Past indicative Past subjunctive ek bƒr›umk ek ber›umk flú bar›isk flú ber›isk hann bar›isk hann ber›isk vér bƒr›umsk vér ber›imsk flér bƒr›uzk flér ber›izk fleir bƒr›usk fleir ber›isk

Infinitive berjask Past participle barzk/barizk

Imperatives and present participles with the -sk suffix are uncommon and in many verbs unattested. To the extent they occur, they will be found to consist of the basic form + sk, e.g. dvelsk ‘stay!’, dveljandisk ‘staying’, from dvelja (weak type 1).

3.6.10 Examples of verb inflexion — Exercise

Identify the verb-forms printed in bold in the following sentences. If the form is non-finite, state whether it is an infinitive, present or past participle, and, if either of the latter, give the case, gender and number. If the form is finite, give its person (1st, 2nd or 3rd), number (sg. or pl.), tense (pres. or past), mood (indic., subj. or imp.) and voice (act. or pass.). In all cases, say what type of verb is involved (strong type X, weak type X, preterite present, etc.), and list its principal parts. Finally, comment, as appropriate, on the syntactic function and semantic role of the verb-forms, paying due attention to any with the -sk suffix.

(1) Fóru vinir á milli ok leitu›u um sættir ‘Went friends be(-)tween and sought for settlement’ ‘Friends intervened and tried to get a settlement’ 178 Morphology and syntax

(2) Hann hljóp fyrir bor› ok svam til lands ok bjó svá um í hvílu sinni, at ﬂar s‡ndisk, sem ma›r lægi ‘He jumped over side and swam to land and arranged thus around in bed REFL. POSS., that there showed-sk as man lay’ ‘He jumped overboard and swam to shore and arranged his bed in such a way that it looked as though a man lay there’

(3) ‘Eigi veit ek ﬂat’, segir Skarphe›inn ‘“Not know I that”, says Skarphe›inn’ ‘“I don’t know about that”, says Skarphe›inn’

(4) Heyrt hefi ek, at ﬂér hafi› kvisat í milli y›var, at ek væra ekki lítill ma›r vexti ‘Heard have I that you have whispered a(-)mong you that I was not little man in-stature’ ‘I have heard you whispering among yourselves that I was not a little man in stature’

(5) fietta flótti ƒllum rá›ligt, ok var fletta heit fest ‘This seemed to-all advisable, and was this vow made’ ‘This seemed a good idea to everyone, and this vow was made’

(6) Eigi vil ek, at ﬂit sé› missáttir ‘Not want I that you-two are discordant’ ‘I don’t want you two to be on bad terms’

(7) ﬁeir vƒr›usk vel um hrí› ‘They defended themselves well for a while’

(8) ﬁeir sjá, hvar tveir menn gengu frá skálanum ‘They see where two men went from hall-the’ ‘They see two men going from the hall’

(9) Hann haf›i tvau skip ok jafnmarga menn, sem mælt var ‘He had two ships and equally-many men as stipulated was’ ‘He had two ships and as many men as was stipulated’

(10) En flví næst laust flú mik me› hamrinum flrjú hƒgg ‘But to-that next hit you me with hammer-the three blows’ ‘But then you hit me three blows with the hammer’ Verb inflexions and their function 179

(11) Væntir hann ﬂess, at ﬂú mynir honum gri› gefa, ef kastalinn ver›r unninn ‘Hopes he that, that you will to-him quarter give if castle- the is won’ ‘He hopes that you will spare his life if the castle is taken’

(12) Ver kátr bóndi, ok grát eigi ‘Be cheerful, farmer, and cry not’ ‘Cheer up, master, and don’t cry’

(13) Átján váru drepnir, en tólf ﬂágu gri› ‘Eighteen were slain, and twelve received pardon’

(14) Ósœmt er, at líkamr fœ›isk ok klæ›isk ítarliga, en hinn i›ri ma›r sé óprú›r ok missi sinnar fœzlu ‘Unseemly is that body feeds-sk and clothes-sk finely, but the inner man is unadorned and lacks REFL. POSS. food’ ‘It is unseemly that the body is finely fed and clothed, but the inner man is unadorned and goes without his food’

(15) En ek á nú nor›r lei› til fjalla ﬂessa, er nú munu ﬂér sjá mega ‘But I have now northwards path to mountains these which now will you see be-able’ ‘But my path now lies northwards to these mountains which you will now be able to see’

(16) Ek vil, at vit takim menn til gør›ar me› okkr ‘I want that we-two take men for arbitration between us-two’ ‘I want us to choose men to arbitrate between us’

(17) Eigi er flat kynligt, at flér undrizk fletta ‘Not is that strange that you wonder-at-sk this’ ‘It is not strange that you are amazed at this’

(18) Hann haf›i loganda brand í hendi ‘He had a flaming brand in his hand’

(19) Heyr flú dróttinn bœn flá, er flræll flinn bi›r flik í dag, at augu flín sé upp lokin ok eyru flín heyrandi yfir hús fletta dag ok nótt 180 Morphology and syntax

‘Hear you, Lord, prayer that which servant your asks you to(-)day, that eyes your be up opened and ears your hearing over building this day and night’ ‘Hear, O Lord, the prayer which your servant asks of you today, that your eyes be opened and your ears listening over this building day and night’

(20) Fyrir hví reiztu ﬂessu hrossi, er ﬂér var bannat? ‘For why rode-you this horse which to-you was forbidden?’ ‘Why did you ride this horse which was forbidden to you?’

(21) Ma›rinn heilsar ﬂeim ok spyrr, hverir ﬂeir væri ‘The man greets them and asks who they were’

(22) Vel má ek gøra ﬂat til skaps fƒ›ur míns at brenna inni me› honum, ﬂví at ek hræ›umk ekki dau›a minn ‘Well can I do that for pleasure of-father my to burn inside with him, therefore that I fear-sk not death my’ ‘I can happily please my father by burning alive in the house with him, because I do not fear death’

(23) Lézk ﬂar Adam byskup, ok var líkit lítt brunnit, er fannsk ‘Lost-sk there Adam bishop, and was body-the little burnt when found-sk’ ‘Bishop Adam died there, and his body was scarcely burnt when it was found’

(24) Sér fiórr flá, at flat haf›i hann haft of nóttina fyrir skála ‘Sees fiórr then that that had he had during night-the for house’ ‘Then fiórr sees that that was what he had been using during the night as a house’

(25) Hann skyldi halda sætt ok fri› vi› ﬂá menn alla, er í ﬂessi rá›agør› hƒf›u vafizt ‘He should keep truce and peace with those men all who in this plot had entangled-sk’ ‘He was to keep the peace agreement with all the men who had become embroiled in this plot’ Prepositions 181

3.7 Prepositions

Prepositions are non-inflecting words that appear in conjunction with noun phrases and together with them form sentence elements known as preposition phrases. English examples, with the preposition given in bold, are: with John, in town, for two weeks, about them. Usually a preposition will immediately precede its noun phrase, although in Old Norse other words may occasionally intervene (e.g. — with the preposition phrase given in bold — nú ræ›r flú, hversu flú skalt vi› una flitt ørendi ‘now decide you how you shall with be-content your mission [i.e. now it is up to you what satisfaction you derive from your mission]’). Where the noun phrase comes first, as can also happen in Old Norse, the term ‘preposition’ is often replaced by the more precise ‘postposition’ (e.g. mælti nú engi ma›r flví í móti ‘no man now spoke against it’, with flví ‘it’ preceding í móti ‘against’). Although prepositions do not themselves inflect, in many languages they determine the case of the noun phrase they are used in conjunction with, and are thus said to ‘govern’ it (cf. about them above, not *about they). Typically prepositions convey concepts like time, place, possession, instrumentality. This means that many preposition phrases are adverbials (cf. 3.5.4). In the English sentence John did it during the interval, for example, during the interval answers the question ‘when?’ and is reducible to the adverb then. Similarly, outside the shop in we met outside the shop answers the question ‘where?’ and can be reduced to the adverb there. Some prepositions, however, simply act as connectors between verb and noun phrase: contrast English he visited them with American he visited with them. Old Norse has about thirty common prepositions, several of which occasionally function as postpositions. They trigger accusative, genitive and dative case in the noun phrases they govern, but never nominative. Some always trigger the same case, some trigger two, and one even three; among the second group, difference of case usually implies a difference of meaning. In the following, the chief Old Norse prepositions are presented, ordered according to the case or cases they trigger. A selective range of their principal meanings is given, together with examples of usage. It should be noted, however, that prepositional usage is often very 182 Morphology and syntax idiomatic, and one-to-one equivalence between the prepositions of Old Norse and English is not to be expected. ON at, for example, shares with English at a common form, origin and spatial sense, but appropriate English equivalents — as well as ‘at’ — can be ‘against’, ‘to’, ‘along’, ‘around’, ‘near’, ‘by’, ‘in’ and ‘on’, to name but some. Observe that prepositions with initial á, í, um may also be found written as single words, e.g. áme›al, ímóti, umfram.

3.7.1 Prepositions triggering the accusative

(í) gegnum ‘through’

Hallbjƒrn lag›i í gegnum skjƒldinn ‘Hallbjƒrn thrust through shield-the’ ‘Hallbjƒrn thrust his spear through the shield’ of (a) [motion] ‘over’ ‘across’

Hann fór su›r of fjall ‘He went south across the mountain’

(b) ‘during’ ‘in’

Of aptan, er myrkt var, ﬂá . . . ‘In evening when dark was, then . . .’ ‘In the evening when it was dark, then . . .’

Occasionally of is construed with the dative case, either in sense (b) or with the locational meaning ‘over’ ‘above’ (e.g. konungr sat of bor›i ‘the king sat over [i.e. at] table’). The latter usage is one of shares with the prepositions um and yfir (see below). In most functions of and um are interchangeable, and of was more or less ousted by um, and to a lesser extent yfir, in the course of the thirteenth century. um (a) [motion] ‘around’ ‘over’ ‘across’

Slógu fleir flá hring um flá ‘Threw they then ring around them’ ‘Then they encircled them’ Prepositions 183

(b) ‘during’ ‘in’

ﬁeir váru ﬂar um nóttina ‘They were there during the night’

ﬁeir tƒlu›u ﬂá um málit ‘They spoke then about the matter’

Like of, um may occasionally be construed with the dative, either in sense (b) or, rarely, with the locational meaning ‘over’ ‘above’. um fram ‘beyond’ ‘above’ ‘more than’

ﬁat er ﬂakt me› ísum, umfram ƒll ƒnnur hƒf ‘It is covered with ice, more than all other seas’ umhverfis ‘around’

Gengr hann umhverfis skemmuna ‘He walks around the hut’

Apart from the above, there is a series of complex prepositions that trigger the accusative, made up of fyrir and a following adverb with the -an suffix (cf. 3.5.1). These indicate position relative to another (fixed) position, e.g. fyrir vestan hafit ‘west of the sea’, fyrir ne›an kné ‘below the knee’ (further examples under 3.5.1). Sometimes the order fyrir + -an adverb may be reversed, but it should be noted that while, e.g., fyrir ofan always means ‘above’, ofan fyrir has two meanings: ‘above’ and ‘down past’ ‘down along’; in the latter sense it is not a complex preposition but a sequence of adverb + preposition (see 3.7.4, fyrir). 184 Morphology and syntax

3.7.2 Prepositions triggering the genitive innan ‘within’

Innan kastalans var eitt munklífi ‘Within the castle was a monastery’

Occasionally innan may be construed with the accusative or dative.

(á/í) me›al ‘among’ ‘between’

Hann settisk ni›r á me›al ﬂeirra ‘He sat (himself) down between them’

(á/í) milli/millum ‘among’ ‘between’

Ríki gu›s er y›ar í milli ‘The kingdom of God is among you’

Each of the three above prepositions can denote time as well as location (e.g. innan lítils tíma ‘within a short time’, milli jóla ok fƒstu ‘between Christmas and Lent’). til (a) ‘to’ ‘towards’

Hann fór vestr um haf til ﬁorfinns jarls ‘He went west over the sea to Earl ﬁorfinnr’

(b) ‘regarding’ ‘concerning’

ﬁeim var› gott til manna ‘To-them became good regarding men’ ‘They managed to gather together a good many men’

Helt hertoginn ƒllu sínu ríki til dau›adags ‘Kept duke-the all REFL. POSS. dominion till death-day’ ‘The duke kept all his lands until the day he died’ Prepositions 185

Somewhere between a preposition phrase and a preposition stands fyrir . . . sakar/sakir/sƒkum, fyrir sakar/sakir/sƒkum ‘because of’ ‘regarding’, which triggers the genitive (e.g. fyrir sára sakir ‘because of wounds’, fyrir vits sakir ‘as regards intelligence’, fyrir sakar ﬂess ‘for that reason’).

3.7.3 Prepositions triggering the dative af (a) ‘off’ ‘from’

Rƒgnvaldr jarl kom af hafi vi› Hjaltland ‘Rƒgnvaldr earl came off sea at Shetland’ ‘Earl Rƒgnvaldr landed in Shetland’

While af in this sense can simply denote [source] — where someone/something comes from — it often correlates with prepositions meaning ‘on’, first and foremost á: that which is ‘on’ something can come ‘off’ it (cf. the above example where Rƒgnvaldr has been on the sea sailing to Shetland).

(b) [time] ‘(gone) from’

ﬁrjár vikur váru af sumri ‘Three weeks were from summer’ ‘Three weeks of summer were gone’

ﬁorfinnr haf›i mikinn hluta af Skotlandi ‘ﬁorfinnr had a big part of Scotland’

(d) [in passive constructions] ‘by’

Ek em sendr hingat af Starka›i ‘I am sent hither by Starka›r’

(e) [cause] ‘of’ ‘from’ ‘because of’

Inn nør›ri hlutr liggr óbygg›r af frosti ok kul›a ‘The northern part lies uninhabited because of frost and cold’ 186 Morphology and syntax at (a) ‘at’ ‘to’ ‘towards’

Hleypr Kolr ﬂá at honum ‘Kolr then runs at him’

(b) ‘at’ ‘in’

Eigi má ek hér vera at h‡b‡lum mínum ‘Not can I here be at home my’ ‘I cannot stay here at my home’

The above uses of at can be temporal as well as locational (e.g. lei› at kveldi ‘it passed on to evening’, at jólum gaf jarl honum gullhring ‘at Christmas the earl gave him a gold ring’). In addition at can signify future time (e.g. at vári ‘next spring’ ‘when spring comes’).

Ari nam marga frœ›i at ﬁurí›i ‘Ari gained much knowledge from ﬁurí›r’

(d) ‘according to’

Óláfi var gefit konungs nafn at upplenzkum lƒgum ‘To-Óláfr was given king’s name according-to Upplandic laws’ ‘Óláfr was declared king in accordance with the laws of Uppland’

At + acc. in the sense ‘after’ (particularly ‘after someone’s death’) may also be encountered (e.g. sonr á arf at taka at fƒ›ur sinn ‘a son is to take inheritance after his father’). Historically this appears to be a different preposition from at + dat., probably an assimilated form of apt, related to eptir (see below). frá (a) ‘from’

ﬁau róa frá skipinu ‘They row from the ship’ Prepositions 187

(b) ‘concerning’ ‘about’

Er mér svá frá sagt konungi ‘Is to-me thus about said king’ ‘I am told so about the king’

As distinct from af, frá does not correlate with particular locational prepositions, but denotes source or origin of any kind. It can have temporal as well as locational function (e.g. frá ﬂessum degi ‘from this day’). gagnvart/gegnvart ‘opposite’

Skipa›i Hrútr honum gagnvart sér ‘Hrútr placed him opposite himself’

(í) gegn (a) ‘against’

Mestr hluti manna mælti honum í gegn ‘Most part of-men spoke him against’ ‘Most of the men spoke against him’

(b) ‘towards’

Hann rí›r út í gegn ﬂeim ‘He rides out towards them’ hjá (a) ‘at someone’s (house)’

Var hann á gistingu hjá fióri ‘Was he on night-stay at fiórir’s’ ‘He was staying the night at fiórir’s’

(b) ‘close to’ ‘next to’ ‘by’

Konungr ba› hann sitja hjá sér ‘The king bade him sit by him’ 188 Morphology and syntax

Gengr kona hjá ﬁormó›i ‘A woman walks past ﬁormó›r’

(d) ‘compared with’

fiórr er lágr ok lítill hjá stórmenni flví, er hér er me› oss ‘fiórr is short and small compared with the big men who are here with us’

In sense (a) and, to a certain extent, (b), ON hjá corresponds to French chez.

(á/í) mót(i) (a) ‘against’

Mælti ﬂá ok engi ma›r í mót honum ‘Spoke then also no man a(-)gainst him’ ‘And indeed no man then spoke against him’

(b) ‘towards’

Gengu tveir menn í móti ﬂeim ‘Two men walked towards them’ nær ‘near’

Austma›rinn kvezk vilja fyrir hafa land ok ﬂó nær sér ‘Easterner-the says-sk want for-it have land and yet near self’ ‘The Norwegian says he wants to have land in exhange for it, but near him’

Nær can have temporal as well as locational sense (e.g. nær aptni ‘near evening’). Since nær is in origin an adverb, it has comparative and superlative forms (cf. 3.5.2), and occasionally these are also used with prepositional function (e.g. nær(r) honum ‘nearer him’, næst hinum fremstum ‘closest to the foremost (people)’). Prepositions 189

ór/úr ‘out of’ ‘from’

Hann haf›i í brot komizk ór brennunni ‘He had a(-)way come-sk out-of burning-the’ ‘He had escaped from the burning’

Ór often correlates with prepositions meaning ‘inside’ ‘within’; in the above example the escape was made from within a burning building. undan ‘away from’

Ek get fless, at flú vilir eigi renna undan fleim ‘I guess that, that you want not run away-from them’ ‘I do not imagine you want to run away from them’

Where one entity is moving and another following or due to follow in orderly fashion, undan corresponds to English ‘ahead of’ ‘before’ (e.g. fara undan ﬂeim ‘go ahead of them’).

Also used with the dative is a series of constructions — with a wide range of meanings — consisting of preposition + various forms of the noun hƒnd. Like fyrir . . . sakar etc. (cf. 3.7.2), preposition + hƒnd constructions stand somewhere between a preposition phrase and a preposition. Among the most common are: á hƒnd/hendr ‘against’, til handa ‘for’ ‘on behalf of’ (e.g. fara á hendr Rƒgnvaldi jarli ‘go against [i.e. attack] Earl Rƒgnvaldr’, bi›ja konu til handa honum ‘ask woman for him [i.e. ask for a woman in marriage on his behalf]’).

3.7.4 Prepositions triggering the accusative and dative

Prepositions in this category are construed with the accusative or dative largely according to sense. The principal distinction is between motion (usually towards some goal) and location (rest), the former triggering the accusative, the latter the dative. Only eptir, me› and vi› are unaf- fected by this dichotomy. Eptir, together with fyrir, tends to trigger the accusative when denoting time. Me› may historically have been followed only or chiefly by the dative and vi› by the accusative, but in 190 Morphology and syntax classical Old Norse the two prepositions have become somewhat mixed up and the one can rather often be found with the sense and/or case of the other. In connection with the motion : location dichotomy it is worth noting first that the movement or rest involved is often denoted or suggested by a word other than the preposition (usually a verb or adverb, cf., e.g., á + acc. (a) and á + dat. (a) below), and second that an English speaker’s conception of movement and rest may not always tally with that of speakers of other languages (cf., e.g., ﬂeir sá bo›a mikinn inn á fjƒr›inn ‘they saw a great breaker [i.e. breaking wave] in the inlet [literally: (looking) into the inlet]’).

á + acc. (a) ‘onto’ ‘on’ ‘to’

Hann gekk á land ‘He went on land’ ‘He went ashore’

(b) ‘during’ ‘at’ ‘in’

Standa ﬂar yfir vƒtn á vetrinn, en á várin . . . ‘Stand there over waters in winter-the, but in springs-the . . .’ ‘It is covered with water in the winter, but in the spring . . .’

When used in a temporal sense á tends to trigger the accusative where the noun is accompanied by the definite article (contrast dat. (b) below). Á + acc. may indicate a point in time as well as a recurring period (e.g. á laugardaginn næsta ‘on the next Saturday’).

á + dat. (a) ‘on’ ‘in’

Reri hann yfir á Nes einn á báti ‘Rowed he over to Nes one in boat’ ‘He rowed over to Caithness in a boat on his own’

Note the contrast between the accusative yfir á Nes, where the adverb yfir indicates motion towards a place, and the dative á báti, which implies location. The verb reri combines with both senses. Prepositions 191

(b) ‘during’ ‘at’ ‘in’

Hann gaf Hrómundi gelding hvert haust, en lamb á várum ‘He gave to-Hrómundr wether each autumn, but lamb in springs’ ‘He gave Hrómundr a wether each autumn, but a lamb in the spring’

Á + dat. may indicate a point in time as well as a recurring period (e.g. á ﬂví sumri ‘in that summer’).

Lag›i hann í fótinn á honum ‘Thrust he into leg-the on him’ ‘He thrust (his weapon) into his leg’

Á in this sense is typically used of body parts, but can also be found in other contexts (e.g. allar dyrr á húsunum ‘all the doorways of the buildings’). eptir + acc. [time] ‘after’

Eptir orrostuna fór hann nor›r til ﬁrándheims ‘After the battle he went north to ﬁrándheimr’

Eptir + acc. can also be used in the sense of ‘after someone’s death’ (e.g. ﬂá tók hann arf eptir fƒ›ur sinn ‘then he took inheritance after his father’). eptir + dat. [motion] ‘after’ ‘following’

Hann rei› eptir ﬂeim ‘He rode after them’

The sense ‘following’ can extend to ‘along’ (e.g. gekk hann aptr eptir skipinu ‘he walked back along the ship’), and to ‘according to’ (e.g. gekk allt eptir ﬂví, sem Hallr haf›i sagt ‘everything went according to what [literally: that which] Hallr had said’). 192 Morphology and syntax fyrir + acc. (a) [motion] ‘before’ ‘in front of’

Hann kom skildinum fyrir sik ‘He came shield-the before self’ ‘He put the shield in front of him’

(b) [directional] ‘over’ ‘past’

ﬁeir drógu hann ofan fyrir brekkuna ‘They dragged him down over the slope’

En litlu fyrir jól fór hann í Papey ina litlu ‘But shortly before Christmas he went to Papa Stronsay’

(d) ‘in return for’ ‘in place of’

ﬁú skalt gjalda fyrir hana ﬂrjár merkr silfrs ‘You shall pay three marks of silver for her (a slave)’ fyrir + dat. (a) [location] ‘before’ ‘in front of’

Var› fundr ﬂeira fyrir Rau›abjƒrgum ‘Took-place meeting their before Rau›abjƒrg’ ‘They met off Roberry’

Locational fyrir has a number of extended meanings. Particularly common are: (1) ‘in charge of’, developed from the sense ‘in front of’ via the idea of ‘leading’ (e.g. vera fyrir li›i ‘be in charge of a body of men’), and (2) ‘in the presence of’, widely used with verbs of speaking (e.g. mæla fyrir honum ‘say to [literally: before] him’, kæra fyrir ﬂeim ‘complain to them’).

(b) ‘ago’

Ek skil›umk vi› Óláf konung fyrir fjórum nóttum ‘I parted from King Óláfr four nights ago’ Prepositions 193

í + acc. (a) ‘into’ ‘in’ ‘to’

Eigi miklu sí›arr sendir hann menn í Su›reyjar ‘Not much later he sends men to the Hebrides’

Í in the above sense may be used with abstract as well as concrete nouns (e.g. kominn í allmikla kærleika vi› ‘come into very great friendship with [i.e. become very great friends with]’).

(b) ‘during’ ‘in’ ‘at’

Í ﬂenna tíma kom út Geirrí›r ‘At this time came out Geirrí›r’ ‘At this time Geirrí›r came to Iceland’

Í in this temporal sense is commonly used with the words dagr ‘day’ and nótt ‘night’ as well as the names of parts of the day and the seasons to indicate ‘time now’ or ‘time closest to the present’ (e.g. í nótt ‘tonight’, í kveld ‘this evening’, í sumar ‘this summer’).

í + dat. ‘in’

Dval›isk Rƒgnvaldr skamma stund í Nóregi ‘Rƒgnvaldr stayed a short while in Norway’

Í in this sense may be used with abstract as well as concrete nouns (e.g. í miklum kærleikum vi› ‘in great friendship with’). me› + acc. ‘with’

Hann fór til Íslands me› konu sína ok bƒrn ‘He went to Iceland with his wife and children’

Me› here implies that ‘he’ took his wife and children to Iceland rather than simply going together with them (see me› + dat. (a) below). Because it carries the notion of ‘control’ over whatever entity one is ‘with’, me› + acc. is commonly found with nouns denoting inanimate objects (e.g. kom Bár›r eptir ﬂeim me› horn fullt ‘Bár›r came after them with a full horn’, i.e. carrying a horn full of drink). 194 Morphology and syntax me› + dat. (a) ‘together with’

Dóttir hans fór me› honum ‘His daughter went with him’

(b) [instrumental] ‘with’

ﬁeir ur›u at verja sik me› sver›um ‘They had to defend themselves with swords’

ﬁri›ju nótt var› gn‡r me› sama hætti ‘Third night happened clamour with same manner’ ‘The third night there was a clamour in the same way’

(d) ‘among’

ﬁat er si›r me› kaupmƒnnum, at . . . ‘It is a custom among merchants to . . .’

Case usage after me› is more fluid than the above examples suggest. In particular it is not uncommon to find me› + dat. in what appears to be the ‘control’ sense (cf. me› + acc. above). As indicated in the preamble to this sub-section, me› can sometimes take the place of vi›; thus we may attest, for example, berjask me› + acc. for earlier berjask vi› + acc. ‘fight with’ ‘fight against’, where the noun phrase following the preposition denotes the goal of the action. undir + acc. [motion] ‘under’

Lag›i fiorfinnr jarl flá undir sik allar Eyjar ‘Laid fiorfinnr earl then under self all Islands’ ‘Then Earl fiorfinnr placed all the Northern Isles under his rule’ undir + dat. [location] ‘under’

ﬁá brast í sundr jƒr›in undir hesti hans ‘Then burst a(-)sunder earth-the under horse his’ ‘Then the earth burst open under his horse’ Prepositions 195

In either of the above senses undir may be used metaphorically (e.g. gefa undir kirkjuna ‘give to the church’, i.e. with the result that what is given comes under the church’s control, undir ﬂeim biskupi eru ellifu hundru› kirkna ‘under that bishop are eleven hundred churches’). vi› + acc. (a) ‘near’ ‘by’

ﬁeir sátu lengi vi› bakelda ‘They sat long by baking-flames’ ‘They sat by the fire warming themselves for a long time’

This use of vi› may be temporal as well as locational (e.g. vi› sólarsetr ‘at sunset’, vi› ﬂetta ‘at this (point)’).

(b) [directional] ‘to’ ‘towards’ ‘vis-à-vis’

Engu skiptir mik, hversu ﬂú hefir vi› a›ra menn gƒrt ‘By-nothing concerns me how you have to other men done’ ‘It does not concern me at all how you have acted towards other men’

The noun following vi› in sense (b) denotes the entity at which an action is directed. The usage is commonly found inter alia with verbs of saying (e.g. tala vi› konung ‘speak to the king’). Because of the directional sense, the noun following vi› can sometimes have the force of a direct object (the ‘goal of the action’, cf. 3.1.5, sentence 5). That is particularly the case with phrasal verbs (those consisting of two or more words), although many of these denote mental processes rather than actions (e.g. fara til fundar vi› ‘go to meeting with’, where the sense is more or less equivalent to the English transitive phrase go to meet, ver›a varr vi› ‘become aware of’, equivalent to notice, vera hræddr vi› ‘be afraid of’, equivalent to fear). vi› + dat. ‘against’

Hann kasta›i sér ni›r vi› vellinum ‘He threw himself down against the ground’

Sometimes vi› + dat. may have the related sense ‘towards’ (e.g. horfa vi› ‘look towards’). As noted above, vi› and me› have become confused, and we may thus find vi› + dat. in all the senses of me› + dat. Potential ambiguities can usually be resolved by examining the sentence in which the preposition 196 Morphology and syntax phrase stands or the wider context (e.g. slá honum ni›r vi› steininum must mean ‘throw him down against the rock’ rather than ‘strike him down with the rock’ because of the dative honum — cf. (3.1.5, sentence 20) that verbs of throwing take the dative of the entity thrown). yfir + acc. [motion] ‘over’ ‘above’

ﬁá tók Ska›i eitrorm ok festi upp yfir hann ‘Then took Ska›i poisonous-snake and fixed up above him’ ‘Then Ska›i took a poisonous snake and tied it up above him’ yfir + dat. [location]

Hvers manns alvæpni hekk yfir rúmi hans ‘Each man’s weapons hung above his seat’

In either of the above senses yfir may be used metaphorically (e.g. hafa vƒxt yfir a›ra menn ‘have growth beyond [i.e. be taller than] other men’, konungr yfir Englandi ‘king over England’).

3.7.5 Prepositions triggering the accusative and genitive

The only preposition regularly to trigger both accusative and genitive is útan. It has two senses, and either case may have either sense.

útan + acc./gen. (a) ‘outside’

Hann nemr sta› í gar›inum útan hur› klaustrsins ‘He takes stand in yard-the outside door of-convent’ ‘He stops in the yard outside the door of the convent’

ﬁeir fóru heldr útan hera›s til kaupa ‘They went rather outside district to tradings’ ‘They preferred to go outside the district to trade’ Prepositions 197

(b) ‘without’

Eigi er enn vi› honum tekit útan ﬂitt rá› ‘Not is yet with him taken without your consent’ ‘He has not yet been received without your consent’

. . . ef ﬂeir eru útan sætta ‘. . . if they are without a settlement’

3.7.6 Preposition triggering the accusative, genitive and dative

The only preposition to trigger all three cases is án. The meaning is the same, irrespective of case.

án + acc./gen./dat. ‘without’

Kristnin mátti eigi vera lengi án stjórnarmanninn ‘The Church could not be long without its leader’

ﬁess máttu Gautar illa án vera ‘That could Gautar ill without be’ ‘The people of Gautland could not afford to be without it’

Giptisk hon Valgar›i án rá›i allra frænda sinna ‘Married-sk she to-Valgar›r without consent of-all kinsmen REFL. POSS.’ ‘She married Valgar›r without the consent of any of her kinsmen’

3.7.7 Residual remarks

Two further matters concerning Old Norse prepositions should be noted. First, they often combine with adverbs, particularly those that indicate direction. Thus a journey to Caithness from Orkney may be 198 Morphology and syntax described as yfir á Nes, one in the opposite direction as út í Eyjar, and one into the hinterland of Scotland as upp í Skotland. Sometimes such combinations develop idiomatic senses considerably removed from the meanings of the two elements of which they are made up, e.g. framan at ‘to the front side of [literally: from the front to]’ (cf. also 3.7.1 on the many combinations of fyrir + -an adverb). When confronted by an adverb + preposition (or preposition + adverb) sequence that does not appear to make immediate sense, the student is advised to look up the adverb first since often it will mainly be this that gives the sequence its meaning. Second, prepositions in Old Norse are often converted into adverbs by the omission of the noun phrase they govern. Sometimes the noun phrase can be clearly understood from the context (e.g. hann kom svá á óvart, at eigi var› fyrr vart vi› en . . . ‘he came so on unawares that not became before aware of than . . . [i.e. he arrived so unexpectedly that no one became aware of (him) before . . .]’. In other cases the reference is less specific (e.g. ni›amyrkr var á ‘pitch-darkness was on [i.e. it was pitch-dark]’. Students should be particularly on their guard against prepositions used adverbially that yet appear to be prepositions because they are immediately followed by a noun phrase (e.g. hann finnr, at flar var stungit í sver›i Sigmundar ‘he notices that there was thrust into with-sword of-Sigmundr [i.e. that Sigmundr’s sword was thrust into it]’, where sver›i is an instrumental dative (cf. 3.1.5, sentence 20) and í belongs with the adverb flar, giving the adverb phrase flar í ‘therein’, or, more idiomatically, ‘into it’). As can be seen from the translation, flar is here the equivalent of a pronoun, and flar í therefore effectively a preposition phrase. This type of construction is very common in Old Norse; mostly it involves flar, but hér ‘here’ also occurs (cf. nú ver›r flar frá at hverfa ‘now becomes there from to turn [i.e. now we must turn from that]’; . . . svá bjƒrt, at flar af l‡sti ‘. . . so bright [n. pl.] that there from shone [i.e. so bright that they shone]’; ƒll sannindi hér um ‘all truth here about [i.e. all the truth about this]’). (See further 3.9.8.3.) Prepositions 199

3.7 Prepositions — Exercise 1. Define and exemplify ‘preposition’, taking your examples from Old Norse. 2. Do Old Norse prepositions always immediately precede the noun phrase they govern? 3. List the prepositions that trigger the accusative, the genitive or the dative only. 4. How far can case usage after Old Norse prepositions be related to meaning? 5. What differences, if any, are there between the meanings of af, frá and ór? 6. In what senses and with what cases may fyrir be used? 7. In what senses and with what cases may me› be used? 8. What is the difference in meaning between ofan and fyrir ofan? 9. Which Old Norse prepositions may have temporal sense? 10. Identify the basic meaning of each of the following prepositions (printed in bold); state, where appropriate, the case of the noun phrase governed and the reason for the choice of case (where a preposition is found to be used adverbially, discuss its relationship with other words in the sentence): (a) Var Kálfr flá í miklum kærleikum vi› fiorfinn jarl ‘Kálfr was then on very friendly terms with Earl fiorfinnr’ (b) Eptir flat sendi fiorfinnr menn út í Eyjar ‘After that fiorfinnr sent men out to the Orkneys’ (c) Hann kærir fyrir fleim, at fleir ætla at fara me› her á hendr honum ‘He complains to them that they intend to advance against him with an army’ (d) Hann sigldi flegar á haf um nóttina ok svá austr til Nóregs ‘He sailed straight to sea during the night and then east to Norway’ (e) Konungr sat yfir mat ‘The king sat over food’ (f) Var kominn á byrr ‘A fair wind had sprung up’ (g) Hann er jar›a›r at Kristskirkju ‘He is buried at Christ’s Church’ (h) Mƒrg lƒnd haf›i hann lagt undir sik me› herna›i ‘Many countries he had placed under his rule by warfare’ (i) Go›in skƒpu›u flar ór mann ‘The gods created a man out of it’ 200 Morphology and syntax

3.8 Conjunctions

Conjunctions differ from most other words in that they do not form part of a sentence, but stand outside it. Their function, as the term conjunction suggests, is to join constituents together, and the constituents may be anything from sentences to single sentence elements (though even the latter can mostly be analysed as reduced sentences). A distinction is made between coordinating and subordinating conjunctions. The former join together constituents of the same level, the latter constituents of different levels. Commonly, coordinating conjunctions connect independent sentences (also known as matrix sentences or main clauses), i.e. sentences that can stand on their own as a complete utterance. The two most frequently occurring coordinating conjunctions in English are and and but. In:

Peter sat down and poured himself a drink and connects the sentences Peter sat down and [Peter] poured himself a drink (in the second sentence Peter is omitted because unless specified, the subject of poured will be understood to be the same as the subject of sat down). Both these sentences are independent in the sense that they require nothing further to complete them. The conjunction but, while introducing an element of contrast not present in and, functions in a similar way. In:

Anne opened the door but did not go in the sentences joined together are again both independent: (1) Anne opened the door; (2) [Anne/she] did not go in. Subordinating conjunctions typically function as connectors between independent and dependent sentences, introducing the latter (also known as embedded sentences or subordinate clauses). Dependent sentences are those that cannot stand on their own as complete utter- ances. Examples of subordinating conjunctions in English are because, when, if. In:

I like the summer because it is light because joins the dependent because it is light to the independent Conjunctions 201

I like the summer. The former, unlike the other sentences so far adduced, is not a complete utterance. To say because it is light, which details a reason, requires that we specify the action, event or state to which the reason applies. Equally, the dependent when he arrives, introduced by when, needs to be completed by an independent sentence which details an action, event or state that stands in a time relation to ‘his’ arrival, e.g.:

We will eat when he arrives

The conjunction if introduces the notion of condition: one action, event or state is conditional upon another. The action/event/state that will/ would take place/ensue if the condition is/were met is expressed as an independent, the condition as a dependent sentence, e.g.:

Joan will write the letter if you help her

Subordinating conjunctions are often grouped according to their meaning, and the groups given designations such as ‘causal’ (e.g. because, since), ‘temporal’ (e.g. when, while), ‘conditional’ (e.g. if, unless), ‘final’ (e.g. in order that), ‘consecutive’ (so that [i.e. ‘with the result that’]). As will be seen from these examples, some conjunctions consist of more than one word. Not all words that introduce dependent sentences have traditionally been reckoned conjunctions. English who(m), which and whose are often termed ‘relatives’ or even ‘relative pronouns’, the latter designation based on the observation that such words can have the same function as noun phrases (appearing as subjects and objects of sentences, for example), cf.:

Bill helped the girl who was drunk (subject)

This is a prize which you can win (object)

Whatever other functions they may have, however, it is undeniable that who, which in examples like the above (and in similar fashion whom, whose) join together sentences, and to that extent can be classed as conjunctions in the same way as because, when, etc. 202 Morphology and syntax

For who(m), which we may often substitute that in English (. . . that was drunk, . . . that you can win). A different function of that — likewise conjunctional, though, again, not always recognised as such — is to introduce what are often called that-clauses. These have a number of functions, but are often the complements of verbs such as say, know, think, suppose, hope, or, in a different type of construction, of be, e.g.:

He said that it was interesting

The upshot was that they all left

In such cases that is, of course, not interchangeable with who(m), which. We are dealing here with three fundamentally different types of dependent sentence: (1) those reducible to an adverb (e.g. . . . when he arrives = then); (2) those reducible to an adjective (e.g. . . . which you can win = winnable); (3) those reducible to a noun phrase (e.g. . . . that it was interesting = it, the (following) thing, etc.). All dependent sentences are reducible in this way, which accounts for their dependent status. They represent expanded versions of adverbial, adjectival or nominal elements in independent sentences. Different though the three main types of dependent sentence may be, it is unhelpful to divide the words that introduce them into three separate categories since their common function as dependent sentence introducers is thereby obscured. In keeping with this view, all Old Norse words that join sentences together will in the following be treated as conjunctions.

3.8.1 Coordinating conjunctions

The principal coordinating conjunctions in Old Norse are ok ‘and’ and en ‘but’ ‘and moreover’ ‘and’. Others are e›a ‘or’ ‘but’, né ‘nor’. Note further the expanded constructions bæ›i . . . ok ‘both . . . and’, annattveggja . . . e›a ‘either . . . or’ and hvárki . . . né ‘neither . . . nor’. As can be seen from the translations offered, the meanings of Old Norse coordinating conjunctions are sometimes less clear-cut than those of their modern English equivalents, and the student may need to examine carefully the contexts in which they appear in order to determine the precise meaning. The following examples illustrate typical usage. Conjunctions 203

Eptir flat fór fiorfinnr jarl til Orkneyja ok sat flar um vetrinn ‘After that went fiorfinnr earl to Orkneys and sat there during winter-the’ ‘After that Earl fiorfinnr went to the Orkneys and stayed there over the winter’

ﬁessu játa ﬂeir brœ›r, en Óláfr ferr heim ‘To-this agree those brothers, but Óláfr goes home’ ‘The brothers agree to this, but Óláfr goes home’

Lét ek ok ﬂar fé nƒkkut, en ek var leikinn sjálfr há›uliga ‘Lost I also there property some, but I was treated myself shamefully’ ‘I also lost some property there, and moreover I was myself treated shamefully’

Here ok appears not as a conjunction, but as an adverb with the sense ‘also’. For further uses of ok, see 3.8.2.4 and 3.9.9.

Hvárt sem hann ba› fyrir óvinum e›a hann ávita›i ﬂá . . . ‘Whether that he prayed for enemies or he rebuked them . . . ’ ‘Whether he prayed for his enemies or rebuked them . . . ’

Note that the sentences joined by e›a in this example are both dependent.

Ver vel kominn! E›a hvat mey er ﬂat, er ﬂér fylgir ‘Be well come! Or what maid is that who you follows?’ ‘Welcome! But what maid is that who is with you?’

This use of e›a to bridge two different themes is very common, especially where the sentence it introduces is a question.

Nú mun fa›ir minn dau›r vera, ok hefir hvárki heyrt til hans styn né hósta ‘Now will father my dead be, and has neither heard to him groan nor cough’ ‘Now my father must be dead, and neither a groan nor a cough has been heard from him’

Although né joins together the two nouns styn and hósta, the second of these can be seen as a reduced sentence: hefir hvárki heyrt til hans styn né [hefir heyrt til hans] hósta. 204 Morphology and syntax

3.8.2 Subordinating conjunctions

As is the case with many languages, Old Norse boasts far more subordinating than coordinating conjunctions. The field is so broad, not least because of the tendency for adverbs to metamorphose into subordinating conjunctions, that no attempt can be made here to provide a complete list. For the student the most important thing is in any case not the meaning of each individual conjunction. That can be looked up in a dictionary. It is rather to grasp those features of the system that constantly recur, in particular any which may not be immediately transparent to the learner.

3.8.2.1 The particle er

Old Norse er is an all-purpose subordinating conjunction. Having lost any meaning of its own, it is used to introduce a wide variety of dependent sentences, either alone or together with one or more other words. In order to interpret er correctly, the student will usually need to understand clearly the context in which it appears. Consider the following sentences (where the semantic emptiness of er is signalled by the literal rendering COMP (= complementiser), indicating a general complementising — sentence introducing — function):

(a) Ok ﬂá er ﬂessi or›sending kom aptr til jarls, bjó hann fer› sína ‘And then COMP this message came back to earl, prepared he journey REFL. POSS.’ ‘And when this message got back to the earl, he made ready to leave’

(b) En er hann kom á Péttlandsfjƒr›, ﬂá haf›i hann ﬂrjá tigi stórskipa ‘But COMP he came into Pentland-Firth, then had he three tens of-large-ships’ ‘And when he got into the Pentland Firth, he had thirty large ships’ Conjunctions 205

(c) En um morguninn, er menn váru vakna›ir, var kominn á byrr ‘And in morning-the, COMP men were woken-up, was come on favourable-wind’ ‘And in the morning, when men were awake, a favourable wind had sprung up’

(d) Ok er ﬂeir váru búnir, sigldu ﬂeir í haf ‘And COMP they were prepared, sailed they to sea’ ‘And when they were ready, they sailed out to sea’

(e) fiorfinnr jarl var flá fimm vetra gamall, er Melkólmr Skota- konungr gaf honum jarlsnafn ‘fiorfinnr earl was then five of-winters old COMP Melkólmr king-of-Scots gave him earl’s-name’ ‘Earl fiorfinnr was five years old when Melkólmr, king of the Scots, gave him the title of earl’

In (a) er is immediately preceded by flá, an adverb of time meaning ‘then’. The latter (in conjunction with the tense of the verbs) supplies past-time sense, while er introduces the dependent sentence; together they form a temporal subordinating conjunction with the meaning ‘when [past time]’. (b) has er as a sentence introducer without preceding flá. The sense of the dependent sentence it introduces can, however, be deduced from the occurrence of the adverb flá at the beginning of the following independent sentence: the earl commanded thirty ships ‘then’, i.e. at the point when he entered the Pentland Firth. In (c) the time adverbial um morguninn performs much the same function as flá in (a), even though um morguninn is more obviously than flá part of the independent sentence that, as it were, ‘frames’ its dependent partner (en um morguninn [ . . . ] var kominn á byrr). Past-time sense is given by the tense of the verbs (váru, var). (d) lacks any adverbial that could indicate the sense of er. Here we must be guided by context, and the context is a sequence of events occurring at a particular time in the past. Immediately following (d) is the sentence: flat var á ƒndver›um vetri ‘that was at the beginning of winter’. This makes a temporal interpretation of er fleir váru búnir the obvious one. (e) is similar to (b) in that the er introducing the dependent sentence is 206 Morphology and syntax rendered unambiguous by the occurrence of flá ‘then’ in the accompanying independent sentence. The difference lies in the order of the two sentences and in the placing of flá: in (b) it is the first element in the independent sentence, in (e) it follows the verb. The particle er appears in many temporal contexts. It commonly combines with the adverbs me›an ‘meanwhile’, sí›an ‘since’, flegar ‘at once’ (yielding the conjunctions me›an er ‘while’, sí›an er ‘since’, flegar er ‘as soon as’), with the adverb phrase flar til ‘thereto’ ‘up to that point’ (conjunction: flar til er ‘until’), and with preposition phrase adverbials (see 3.5.4) such as eptir flat ‘after that’ (conjunction: eptir flat er ‘after’), frá flví ‘from that’ (conjunction: frá flví er ‘since’), í flví ‘in that’ (conjunction: í flví er ‘at the moment when’), til fless ‘to that’ (conjunction: til fless er ‘until’). In most of these cases (and also with flá) er can be omitted, and there is then formal identity between conjunction and temporal adverbial (3.5.4) — as with English since (cf. since (conj.) he came . . . , it has since (adv.) been lost). The following can serve as a general example illustrating the use of temporal conjunctions with and without er.

Vér sœkjum flangat miskunn gu›s, flegar er vér komum í heim, ok flangat me›an vér erum í heimi, ok flangat flá er vér fƒrum ór heimi ‘We seek thither mercy of-God at-once COMP we come into world, and thither while we are in world, and thither then COMP we go from world’ ‘We seek God’s mercy there (in church) as soon as we enter the world, and (we seek it) there while we are in the world, and (we seek it) there when we leave the world’

Observe that the temporal contexts in which er operates are not restricted to past-time reference. Location is another type of context in which er is commonly to be found, usually in combination with a locational adverbial. We find flar er ‘where’ (adverb flar ‘there’), flangat er (sometimes flangat til er) ‘to where’ (adverb flangat ‘thither’, adverb til ‘to’ (cf. 3.7.7)), fla›an er ‘from where’ (adverb fla›an ‘thence’), and the further series hvar(gi) er ‘wherever’ (adverb hvar ‘where’), hvert(ki) er ‘to wherever’ (adverb hvert ‘whither’), hva›an er ‘from wherever’ (adverb hva›an ‘whence’). Conjunctions 207

Typical examples are:

Helt hann flangat, er hann spur›i til fiorfinns ‘Proceeded he thither COMP he heard of fiorfinnr’ ‘He proceeded to where he heard fiorfinnr was’

Gu› heyrir bœnir várar, hvar er vér bi›jum fyrir oss af ƒllu hjarta ‘God hears prayers our where COMP we pray for ourselves of all heart’ ‘God hears our prayers wherever we pray from our whole heart’

Er can introduce several other types of adverbial sentence. Some of these are easy enough to interpret since the words with which er combines are common and impart their characteristic meanings — e.g. hversu, hvé ‘how’, hverr ‘who’, which give the conditional-concessives hversu er, hvégi er ‘however’ (as in hversu/hvégi lengi er . . . ‘however long . . . ’), hverr er ‘whoever’. The circumstantial at ﬂví er ‘insofar as’ is not immediately deducible from its component parts, but its sense is clear and unambiguous. Circumstantial or causal ﬂar er, on the other hand, can only be distinguished from the formally identical locational conjunction (see above) by the context. In, for example:

Tƒl›u fleir flat órá› at leggja til bardaga vi› fiorgeir, flar er hann haf›i li› meira ‘Said they that bad-counsel to go to battle with fiorgeirr, there COMP he had force bigger’ ‘They said it was a bad idea to go to battle with fiorgeirr since he had the bigger force’ there can be no question of a locational interpretation since no locations are mentioned. On the other hand, in:

Muntu ok eigi vilja vita flat á flik, at flú liggir hér sem kƒttr í hreysi, flar er ek berjumk til frelsis hvárumtveggjum cited as 3.6.8, sentence 13, it can be hard to determine the precise meaning of flar er. There is the implied contrast of flar with hér ‘here’, 208 Morphology and syntax suggesting a locational interpretation, but the greater contrast seems to be circumstantial: hiding away as opposed to participating in desperate action. The translation offered in 3.6.8 is ‘while’; ‘given that’ ‘seeing that’ are possible renderings too. Another very common use of er is to introduce relative (adjectival) sentences. This arises because Old Norse has no relative pronoun proper (though in Latinate style interrogative hverr ‘who?’ is sometimes used as a relative in the same way as who(m), which, whose in English). Since er is semantically empty, it is usual for the antecedent noun phrase modified by the relative sentence to be accompanied by the appropriate form of the demonstrative sá or sjá/flessi (3.2.2). E.g.:

Erlendr átti flá konu, er fióra hét ‘Erlendr had that woman COMP fióra was-called’ ‘Erlendr was married to the woman who was called fióra’ where konu is the antecedent noun phrase, flá the accompanying demonstrative and er fióra hét the relative sentence. Note however that flá is in the same (independent) sentence as konu and agrees with it in case, gender and number (acc. f. sg.). It is thus of no help in indicating the function of whatever correlates with (i.e. refers to the same entity as) konu in the relative sentence. Whether we take this to be er or a relative pronoun that is absent but understood, it has subject function (‘the woman/she was called fióra’), and nominative would therefore be the appropriate case. This is not, however, shown, the only marker, er, being uninflected, and the student thus has to deduce the function of the correlate from the context. Further examples will make the problem clearer, and indicate strat- egies for solving it. In:

Hann beiddisk fless flri›jungs, er átt haf›i Einarr jarl ‘He demanded that third COMP owned had Einarr earl’ the antecedent and its accompanying pronoun are in the genitive (governed by beiddisk), but what of the correlate? The student may ponder two possibilities: ‘which had owned Earl Einarr’ (‘which’ = subject) or ‘which Earl Einarr had owned’ (‘which’ = object). The latter will be preferred as by far the more likely statement, and any residual doubt Conjunctions 209 can be resolved by the form Einarr. Einarr is nom. (acc. Einar). Since eiga ‘[to] own’ is construed with nom. subject and acc. direct object, the subject of the relative sentence must be Einarr, leaving the correlate of fless flri›jungs as the object (accusative, though unmarked as such). The idiomatic translation is thus:

‘He demanded the third which Earl Einarr had owned’

In:

Váru fleir menn flá út dregnir, er gri› váru gefin ‘Were those men then out dragged [from the burning building] COMP truces were given’ the antecedent and its accompanying pronoun are in the nominative (the subject of váru . . . dregnir). The main verb of the relative sentence is to be found in the pp. form gefin, from gefa ‘[to] give’. Verbs of giving are normally construed with nominative subject, accusative direct object and dative indirect object in Old Norse, but in passive constructions, which is what we have here, nominative subject (what was given) and dative indirect object (to whom it was given) normally suffice (see 3.6.8, sentence 24). The only noun phrase in the relative sentence is gri›, and this will be found to be n. pl. The auxiliary verb- form váru is pl. and its subject could thus be either the correlate of fleir menn or gri›; however, pp. gefin is either nom. f. sg. or nom./acc. n. pl. (3.3.9, paradigm 7) and cannot therefore agree with a m. pl. subject. The correlate must be indirect object (‘to whom truces were given’), and an idiomatic rendering would be:

‘The men who were given quarter were then pulled out’

Note finally that antecedent and relative sentence are discontinuous (i.e. ﬂá út dregnir intervenes), a common enough phenomenon in Old Norse. In:

Rƒgnvaldr segir, at flann hlut Eyja, er fleir kalla til, hef›i hann tekit í lén af Magnúsi konungi ‘Rƒgnvaldr says that that part of-Islands COMP they call to, had he taken in fief from Magnús king’ 210 Morphology and syntax the antecedent and its accompanying pronoun are in the accusative (the object of hef›i tekit). The verb phrase of the relative sentence consists of verb (kalla) + preposition (til). Since the verb is 3rd pl., its subject cannot be the correlate of flann hlut and must therefore be nom. pl. fleir. This means the correlate of flann hlut is governed by til. An idiomatic rendering is then:

‘Rƒgnvaldr says that he had taken in fief from King Magnús the part of the Orkneys to which they are laying claim’

(Observe that in Old Norse constructions of this type the preposition regularly comes at the end of the sentence; word-order equivalent to English to which, from whom, etc., is seldom found, and never where the particle er is used.) This last example indicates that the correlate can have functions (in addition to reference to the antecedent) other than those of subject, direct and indirect object. The instrumental dative and the various relationships expressed by the genitive — to mention the most common — can also be ‘built in’ to the correlate. Consider the following two examples:

Sá ﬂvengr, er mu›rinn Loka var saman rifa›r, heitir Vartari ‘That thong COMP mouth-the of-Loki was together sewn is- called Vartari’ ‘The thong with which Loki’s mouth was sewn up is called Vartari’

(er (or an understood correlate, cf. above) = instrumental dat. ‘with which’)

Sjá ma›r, er vér segjum nú frá jartegnum, átti marga læri- sveina ‘This man, COMP we say now from miracles, had many disciples’ ‘This man, of whose miracles we are now telling, had many disciples’

(er (or understood correlate) = subjective gen. ‘whose’) Conjunctions 211

Although pronoun + noun or noun + pronoun is the most common antecedent of a relative sentence, a noun or pronoun may also occur on its own. E.g.:

¯zurr átti son, er Leifr hét ‘¯zurr had a son who was called Leifr’

Svínbeygt hefi ek nú ﬂann, er ríkastr er me› Svíum ‘Made-root-like-a-pig have I now that-one [m.] COMP most- powerful is among Swedes’ ‘I have thoroughly humbled him who is most powerful among the Swedes’

Occasionally — mostly in early writings — a personal or demonstrative pronoun or possessive adjective may be included in the relative sentence to make the function of the correlate clearer. E.g.:

Ekkja heitir sú, er búandi hennar var› sóttdau›r ‘Widow is-called that-one [f.] COMP husband her was dead- from-illness’ ‘She whose husband died from illness is called a widow’

Sometimes the particle er is replaced by sem. This is particularly common with relative, conditional-concessive (hverr er/sem ‘whoever’ etc.) or locational ‘-ever’ sentences (hvar er/sem ‘wherever’ etc.). E.g.:

Gengu út ﬂeir, sem gløggs‡nastir váru at sjá ‘Went out those COMP most-clear-sighted were to look’ ‘Those who were most clear-sighted went out to look’

Hann var kenndr at illu hvar sem hann fór ‘He was known for bad where COMP he went’ ‘He had a bad reputation wherever he went’

More problematically, er is interchangeable with at, another extremely common Old Norse particle which participates in a wide range of constructions (3.8.2.2). 212 Morphology and syntax

For example:

En ﬂeir allir, at ﬂau tí›indi heyr›u, lofu›u sannan gu› ‘But those all, COMP those tidings heard, praised true god’ ‘And all who heard that news praised the true God’

English-speaking learners may be helped by the quirk that that can introduce both that- (noun) and relative (adjective) sentences (cf. 3.8), making ‘and all that heard that news . . . ’ a possible English rendering of the above. This superficial similarity will not help in all cases where at is substituted for er, however, nor where er is used for expected at, so it is important to understand the sentence structure. In, for example:

ﬁegar at hausta›i, tóku at vaxa reimleikar ‘At-once COMP became-autumn, began to grow hauntings’ ‘As soon as autumn arrived the hauntings began to increase’

ﬂegar combines with at rather than er to form a temporal subordinating conjunction. Here it is quite impossible to think of at as the equivalent of English ‘that’. For the beginner the best advice is to try substituting er for at and vice versa when either is met in a context where it does not make obvious sense.

3.8.2.2 The particle at

Used on its own, at introduces noun sentences and adverbial sentences of purpose. The former are far commoner. Typical examples of at noun sentences are provided by:

fieir segja, at hann væri flar á hƒf›anum hjá fleim ‘They say that he was there on the headland with them’

En ek vil, Sveinn, at ﬂú farir í Orkneyjar ‘But I want, Sveinn, that you go to Orkneys’ ‘But I want you, Sveinn, to go to the Orkneys’ Conjunctions 213

An adverbial sentence of purpose introduced by at is contained in:

Mun ek veita flér slíkt li›, sem flú vill, at fletta fari fram ‘Will I give you such aid as you want that this goes forward’ ‘I will give you as much aid as you want so that this may be accomplished’

Noun sentences are sometimes anticipated by a demonstrative pronoun standing in the associated independent sentence, e.g.:

Ræ› ek ﬂat, at vér vindim segl várt ‘Advise I that that we hoist sail our’ ‘I advise that we hoist our sail’

Er sú bœn Kveldúlfs, at flú takir vi› fiórólfi ‘Is that [f.] request of-Kveldúlfr that you take with fiórólfr’ ‘It is Kveldúlfr’s request that you receive fiórólfr’ where at vér vindim segl várt, the object of ræ›, is represented by flat in the independent sentence, and at flú takir vi› fiórólfi, the subject of er, by sú (agreeing with bœn, f.). At regularly combines with other words to form subordinating conjunctions; these introduce various kinds of adverbial sentence. More often than plain at the purpose conjunction is til fless at ‘in order that’ ‘so that’ (til fless at can alternatively, but less commonly, have the temporal sense ‘until’). Sentences of reason or cause may be introduced by flví at, af flví at, fyrir flví at, me› flví at ‘because’ ‘since’; of concession by fló at or flót(t) (the latter a compound of the former) ‘although’ ‘even though’; of result by svá at ‘so that’ ‘with the result that’; and of comparison by svá . . . at ‘so . . . that’. Examples are:

Skulu [3.6.9.1 point (13)] vér frændr flínir veita flér styrk, til fless at flú komir aldrigi sí›an í slíkt ƒngflveiti ‘Shall we kinsmen your give you support to that that you come never subsequently into such straits’ ‘We your kinsmen will give you support so that you never again get into such straits’ 214 Morphology and syntax

Hrau› hann skipin skjótt, ﬂví at ﬂar var bor›amunr mikill ‘Cleared he ships-the quickly therefore that there was difference-in-height great’ ‘He cleared the ships (of men) quickly because there was a great difference in height (between his ships and the others)’

Kallar hann flat meirr verit hafa fyrir flví játtat, at fleir váru flá komnir í greipr Óláfi konungi ‘Calls he that more been have for that agreed that they were then come into clutches [belonging] to-Óláfr king’ ‘He says it was agreed more readily because they had then fallen into the clutches of King Óláfr’

ﬁó at hann deyi í mƒrgum syndum, ﬂá lifir hann í trú sinni ‘Though that he dies in many sins, then lives he in faith REFL. POSS.’ ‘Even though he may die full of sin, he lives in his faith’

Lƒg›u ﬂeir á flótta, svá at fá ein skip váru eptir me› jarls skipi ‘Set-off they to flight, so that few only ships were behind with earl’s ship’ ‘They took to flight, so that only a few ships were left with the earl’s ship’

Ekki eru ﬂeir enn svá nær oss, at eigi væri betr, at ek hef›a sofit ‘Not are they yet so near us that not were better that I had slept’ ‘They are not yet so near us that it would not have been better if I had slept’

Note that conjunctions that consist of more than one word can be discontinuous (fyrir ﬂví . . . at; comparative svá . . . at is always so). Conjunctions 215

Sometimes whole sentences may intervene between the different elements, e.g.:

Af ﬂví eigum vér, gó›ir vinir, at leggja mikla rœkt á kirkjur várar, at vér sœkjum ﬂangat miskunn gu›s ‘From that ought we, good friends, to place great care on churches our that we seek thither grace of-God’ ‘We ought, dear friends, to take great care of our churches because we seek there the grace of God’

This in no way exhausts the list of subordinating conjunctions incorporating at, but students will find that once the basics are understood the sense of most can be deduced from the context. In addition to result and comparison, for example, svá at can introduce sentences of purpose, e.g.:

Af ﬂví er oss nau›syn, gó›ir brœ›r . . . at vér hreinsim brjóst- kirkjur várar, svá at ekki finni gu› í mysteri sínu . . . ﬂat er hann styggvisk vi› ‘From that is to-us necessity, good brothers . . . that we cleanse breast-churches our, so that not finds God in temple REFL. POSS. . . . that COMP he offends-sk with’ ‘Therefore it is necessary for us, dear brethren . . . to purify the churches of our hearts, so that God does not find in his temple . . . anything by which he is offended’

Note that af ﬂví here is the adverbial ‘therefore’, and does not belong with the following at, which introduces the noun sentence subject of er oss nau›syn (‘that we purify the churches of our hearts is to us a necessity’). Observe also a further example of a correlate in a relative sentence governed by a preposition: er hann styggvisk vi› (3.8.2.1).

3.8.2.3 Interrogative pronouns and adverbs

The interrogative pronouns hverr ‘who’ ‘which’ ‘what’, hvat ‘what’ and hvárr ‘which of two’, and interrogative adverbs such as hvar ‘where’, hva›an ‘whence’, hvert ‘whither’ ‘where’, hvárt ‘whether’, 216 Morphology and syntax hvé, hversu, hvernig ‘how’, nær, hvenær ‘when’, hví ‘why’, introduce noun sentences. Typically such sentences occur after verbs of ‘asking’ or ‘knowing’, denoting the thing asked or known, but they may be found in many other contexts. Since these interrogatives are among the most common words in Old Norse and their meaning is usually clear, the dependent sentences they introduce are unlikely to cause the learner many difficulties. It is worth noting, however, that the pronouns always appear in a case, gender and number appropriate to their function in the dependent sentence. A selection of examples follows to illustrate the range of Old Norse ‘indirect questions’ — as dependent sentences introduced by interrogatives are often called.

Hann lét frétta eptir, hverr fyrir eldinum ré›i ‘He let ask after who of fire-the had-command’ ‘He had people ask who was responsible for the fire’

Hverr is the subject of the verb ré›i and thus nominative (cf. 3.1.5, sentence 1). The noun sentence hverr fyrir eldinum ré›i is governed by the preposition eptir (3.7.4) in the independent sentence: if hverr fyrir eldinum ré›i were reduced to a noun or pronoun, its case would be dative (e.g. hann lét frétta eptir ﬂví ‘he had people ask about that’).

Ek vil vita, hverju ﬂú vill bœta mér bró›ur minn ‘I want know with-what you will compensate to-me brother my’ ‘I want to know what compensation you will give me for my brother’s death’

Hverju is an instrumental dative denoting the means of compensation — with or by what someone or something is compensated (cf. 3.1.5, sentence 20). The noun sentence introduced by hverju is the object of the verb vita in the independent sentence: it describes what the speaker wants to know (cf. 3.1.5, sentence 5, 3.2.6, sentence 6).

Leita›i hann ﬂá eptir, hvern styrk ﬂeir vilja veita honum ‘Sought he then after what support they will give him’ ‘He then enquired what support they are willing to give him’

Styrk, with which hvern agrees, is accusative — the object of veita (what ‘they’ (may) give). As in the first example, the noun sentence is governed by the preposition eptir. Conjunctions 217

ﬁat vil ek vita, hvat ﬂú vill veita oss ‘That want I know what you will give us’ ‘I want to know what you are willing to give us’

Hvat, like hvern styrk in the preceding example, is the object of veita. Observe that the noun sentence is anticipated by (and reduced to) ﬂat in the independent sentence: ‘I want to know that — namely, what you will give us’. Such anticipation by a demonstrative pronoun is not uncommon. ﬁat is acc., because it and the noun sentence it stands for are the object of vita.

Eigi ﬂykki mér skipta, í hvárum flokki ek em ‘Not seems to-me matter in which-of-the-two party I am’ ‘It does not seem to me to matter in which of the two parties I am’

Hvárum agrees with flokki, which is dat., governed by the preposition í (3.7.4). The noun sentence introduced by í hvárum flokki is the subject of the independent sentence — in which of the two parties the speaker finds himself is what does not seem to him to matter.

Veit ek eigi, hva›an ﬂjófsaugu eru komin í ættar várar ‘Know I not whence thief’s-eyes are come into families our’ ‘I do not know from where thief’s eyes have come into our kin’

Engi veit, nær sú stund kømr ‘No one knows when that time will come’

Nú vil ek vita, hvárt ﬂú vill ﬂessa fer› fara me› mér ‘Now want I know whether you will this journey go with me’ ‘Now I want to know whether you will make this journey with me’

Hva›an, nær and hvárt are interrogative adverbs and thus not inflected. The noun sentences they introduce are the objects of veit/vita — what the speaker does not know, what no one knows, and what the speaker wants to know.

Engu skiptir mik, hversu ﬂú hefir vi› a›ra menn gƒrt ‘By-nothing concerns me how you have to other men done’ ‘It does not concern me at all how you have treated other men’ 218 Morphology and syntax

Hversu is an interrogative adverb. The noun sentence it introduces is the subject of skiptir — what does not concern the speaker.

Hann spur›i, hví at eigi skyldi drepa flugumenn ‘He asked why that not should kill assassins’ ‘He asked why assassins should not be killed’

Hví is an interrogative adverb. The noun sentence it introduces is the object of spur›i — what is asked. Observe that not only hví but also the particle at is used to introduce the dependent sentence. Such ‘doubling’ is not uncommon and can also involve er, e.g.:

En nú haf ﬂú njósn af, nær er ﬂeir koma til bœjarins ‘But now have you watch of when COMP they come to town-the’ ‘But now keep watch and see when they come to town’

The addition of at or er makes no difference to the meaning. It strengthens the impression of these particles as general complementisers, and suggests that interrogatives were sometimes felt to be unequal to the task of introducing dependent sentences on their own.

3.8.2.4 Other adverbial sentence introducers

We have already seen that the particles er and at can introduce adverbial sentences (3.8.2.1, 3.8.2.2). There are in addition several conjunctions with more specific meaning that perform this task. Commonest among these are the conditionals ef ‘if’, nema, útan ‘unless’, the temporals á›r ‘before’, unz ‘until’, the temporal and circumstantial sí›an ‘since’ ‘seeing that’ (see 3.8.2.1), and the comparatives en ‘than’, sem ‘as’ ‘as though’. The following examples illustrate typical usage.

(a) En ef vart ver›r vi› vára fer›, ﬂá látum vér enn hafit gæta vár ‘But if aware becomes of our movement, then let we again sea-the guard us’ ‘But if people notice our movements then we will once again let the open sea hide us’

(a) provides a good illustration of the way in which dependent sentences are reducible to a single word. The adverb ﬂá ‘then’ ‘in that case’, which heads Conjunctions 219 the independent sentence, encapsulates and repeats the adverbial sense of the preceding conditional en ef vart ver›r vi› vára fer›. Observe further that the conditional sentence has no subject (cf. 3.9.3).

(b) Nú ﬂykki mér Rƒgnvaldr eigi vel launa mér, ef ek skal nú eigi ná bró›urarfi mínum, nema ek berjumk til ‘Now seems to-me Rƒgnvaldr not well repay me if I shall now not get brother’s-inheritance my unless I fight-sk for’ ‘Now it seems to me Rƒgnvaldr is not repaying me well if I am not now to get my brother’s inheritance unless I fight for it’

Conditional sentences introduced by nema or útan are most often dependent on a negative, as in (b).

(d) ﬁeir kómu ﬂar árdegis, á›r menn váru uppsta›nir ‘They came there early-of-day before men were risen’ ‘They came there early in the day before men had got up’

(e) Ferr hann í Geirfljófsfjƒr› ok er flar unz haustar ‘Goes he into Geirfljófsfjƒr›r and is there until becomes-autumn’ ‘He goes to Geirfljófsfjƒr›r and stays there until autumn arrives’

As in (a), the dependent sentence of (e) is subjectless.

(f) Einarr haf›i verit me› Óláfi Svía konungi sí›an Sveinn jarl anda›isk ‘Einarr had been with Óláfr of-Swedes king since Sveinn earl died-sk’ ‘Einarr had been with Óláfr, the Swedish king, since Earl Sveinn died’

(g) Villtu, at ek gæta vitans, sí›an ek geri ekki annat? ‘Want-you that I look-after beacon-the, since I do nothing other?’ ‘Do you want me to look after the beacon seeing that I am not doing anything else?’ 220 Morphology and syntax

Observe that sí›an may have circumstantial as well as temporal meaning, testifying to the close relationship between a temporal sequence and the closed condition or premise (sí›an ek geri ekki annat) that ties a circumstantial sentence to an independent fellow expressing the conclusion (villtu . . . ?). (In English since and as function as temporal, circumstantial and also as causal conjunctions.)

(h) ﬁeir létu ok eigi fleiri menn sjá á skipinu en jarli hƒf›u fylgt ‘They let also not more men see on ship-the than earl had followed’ ‘Nor did they let more men be seen on the ship than had accompanied the earl’

(i) Hann létti eigi fyrr en hann kom á fund Magnúss konungs ‘He stopped not earlier than he came to finding of-Magnús king’ ‘He did not stop before he found King Magnús’

Just as English than, ON en requires a comparative adjective (here fleiri) or adverb (fyrr) in the independent sentence. It is possible to analyse fyrr en as a complex temporal conjunction (cf. the idiomatic English rendering ‘before’), although, like most other compound conjunctions in Old Norse, it may be discontinuous (i.e. the parts may be separated) as in: eigi var› fyrr vart vi› en ﬂeir hƒf›u tekit allar dyrr á húsunum ‘not became earlier aware of than they had taken all doorways on buildings-the [i.e. people did not become aware of anything before they had seized all the exits from the buildings]’.

(j) Konungr bau› honum me› sér at vera, svá lengi sem honum líka›i ‘King invited him with self to be as long as him pleased’ ‘The king invited him to stay with him as long as he pleased’

(k) Muntu gƒrr sekr, slíkir menn sem hér eigu eptirmæli ‘Will-you made outlawed, such men as here have prosecution’ ‘You will be condemned to outlawry, seeing what kind of men have to follow up the case’

(l) Magnús konungr ba› hann fara sem honum líka›i ‘Magnús king bade him go as him pleased’ ‘King Magnús said he could go as he pleased’ Conjunctions 221

(m) Sveinn lét, sem hann heyr›i eigi ‘Sveinn acted as-though he heard not’ ‘Sveinn pretended he did not hear’

Comparative sem is often dependent on a preceding svá (j) or slíkr (k) — with slíkr in the appropriate case, gender and number — though it may appear without either (l), and commonly does when the sense is ‘as though’ (m). The precise syntactic function of svá and slíkr — with or without accompanying adverb or noun phrase — can be difficult to analyse (true also of comparative svá . . . at constructions, 3.8.2.2). In (j) and (k) above svá lengi and slíkir menn stand outside the independent sentence but before the sem which introduces the dependent, comparative sentence. Since, however, similar constructions — equally difficult to analyse — are found in English, understanding is unlikely to prove a problem for the learner. (On the lack of an Old Norse equivalent of ‘be’ in (k)’s muntu gƒrr sekr, see 3.9.5.2.) Note that comparative sem is sometimes replaced by ok. This normally only occurs where the comparative is dependent on an antecedent meaning ‘same’ or ‘similar’. E.g.:

ﬁat segja sumir menn, at hann yr›i aldri sami ma›r ok á›r ‘That say some men that he became never same man and before’ ‘Some men say that he was never the same man as (he was) before’

3.8 Conjunctions — Exercise 1. What is the principal function of conjunctions? In what way do they differ from most other words? 2. What is implied by the term ‘coordinating conjunction’? What are the main coordinating conjunctions in Old Norse? 3. How can the meaning of er be deduced? 4. Outline the main sentence types introduced by er. 5. What types of sentence are introduced by at on its own? 6. With what words does at combine to form complex subordinating conjunctions? Give the Old Norse forms and their meaning(s). 7. List the interrogative pronouns that introduce dependent sentences in Old Norse and give their meaning(s). 8. Apart from er and at, which simplex (single-word) conjunctions introduce adverbial sentences in Old Norse? Give the words and their meaning(s). 9. Find three examples of discontinuous conjunctions (either from sentences in this section or elsewhere) and quote them. 222 Morphology and syntax

10. Analyse the conjunctions (printed in bold) in the following sentences. State whether they are coordinating or subordinating and, if subordinating, the type of sentence they introduce (noun, adjectival, adverbial; conditional, temporal, causal, etc.).

(a) fiá spur›i hann, at Haraldr var farinn yfir til Kataness ‘Then he learnt that Haraldr had gone across to Caithness’ (b) Er flér eigi forvitni á, hversu mér líkar sagan? ‘Aren’t you curious to know how I like the story?’ (c) Fór flá Erlendr austr í Nóreg, en Anakol var eptir í Orkneyjum ‘Then Erlendr went east to Norway, but Anakol remained in the Ork- neys’ (d) Íflrótt er flat, ef flú efnir ‘That is a feat if you can perform it’ (e) Hann var flá barn at aldri, er hann tók ríkit ‘He was only a child when he came to the throne’ (f) fió at flú ver›ir rei›r, flá mældu fátt ‘Though you become angry, yet say little’ (g) Konungr kalla›isk flá vilja fá honum skip ok li›, svá sem hann flurfti ‘The king said he would give him ships and men then as (many as) he needed’ (h) Tóku fleir flá byr›inginn ok allt flat, er á var ‘They then seized the cargo-boat and everything that was on it’ (i) fieir váru í Orkahaugi, me›an él dró á ‘They were in Orkahaugr, while a storm passed over’ (j) Gaf hann meir en fjór›ung biskupsdóms síns, til fless at heldr væri tveir biskupsstólar á Íslandi en einn ‘He gave more than a quarter of his bishopric so that there should be two episcopal seats in Iceland rather than one’ (k) Sveinn skyldi fyrir sjá, hvert rá› er skyldi taka ‘Sveinn was to decide what plan should be adopted’ (l) Konungr var› svá rei›r Agli, at hann vill eigi fara at finna hann ‘The king became so angry with Egill that he will not go to see him’ (m) Hann sendi flá or› ƒ›rum hƒf›ingjum fleim, er honum var li›s at ván ‘He then sent word to the other leaders from whom he expected help’ (n) fiví var hann kalla›r bló›øx, at ma›rinn var ofstopama›r ‘He was called “bloodaxe” because he was an overbearing man’ Points of syntax 223

3.9 Residual points of syntax

The aim of this section is to introduce the learner to various aspects of Old Norse syntax that may cause difficulty (some will have been briefly alluded to in earlier parts of this Grammar). Only the essentials are dealt with. For more thorough accounts, see Faarlund 2004, Haugen 2001, Heusler 1932, Iversen 1973, Nygaard 1905.

3.9.1 Sentence word-order

Word-order in Old Norse is freer than in modern English. That does not mean, however, that words may appear in any sequence. One clear rule is that the finite verb must be the first or second element in a sentence, in dependent sentences most often the second. Awareness of this pattern can help to determine whether a sentence is to be analysed as independent and beginning with an adverb or dependent and introduced by a conjunction. For example:

(a) Sí›an gekk hann til messu and:

(b) Sí›an hann gekk til messu . . . are to be interpreted differently. (a) is an independent sentence in which the adverb sí›an ‘then’ occupies first position, the finite verb gekk ‘went’ second, and the subject hann ‘he’ third. (b) is a dependent sentence introduced by the subordinating conjunction sí›an ‘since’, in which the subject hann occupies first position and the finite verb gekk second. The full meaning of (a) is thus ‘then he went to mass’ and of (b) ‘since he went to mass . . .’ Being dependent, (b) requires the addition of an independent sentence to complete the utterance (cf. 3.8). In English a finite verb in first position normally signals either a question (can you come?) or a command (come here!). In Old Norse declarative sentences too may have verb-first order. Thus:

Hefir ﬂú mikit li› 224 Morphology and syntax may either be the question ‘have you a big force?’ or the declarative ‘you have a big force’. Normally the context will make clear how such a sentence is to be understood. Ambiguity can also be avoided by the use of the question introducer hvárt (in origin nom./acc. n. sg. of the interrogative pronoun hvárr ‘which of two’, cf. 3.2.5). Thus, while

Lifir hann enn ‘Lives he still’ may either be the question ‘is he still alive?’ or the statement ‘he is still alive’,

Hvárt lifir hann enn? can only be the question. As noted in 3.1.5 and elsewhere, the unmarked order of noun phrases in Old Norse (order not deliberately altered for emphasis) is subject — object. Often the subject will precede the finite verb giving subject — verb — object:

ﬁeir fundu konung ‘They met the king’

However, where some other word is in first position (a) or the verb is first (b), the order will be verb — subject — object (cf. above):

(a) ﬁar fundu ﬂeir konung

(b) Fundu ﬂeir konung

The position of the direct and indirect object in relation to one another is not fixed, morphological case (mostly) indicating the function (see 3.1.5, sentences 5, 16–19). A tendency for the indirect to precede the direct object is however noticeable. The subject complement (3.1.5, sentence 1) also follows the subject in unmarked word-order, and the object complement (3.3.6, sentence 7) the object, as in: Points of syntax 225

Var hann inn mesti hƒf›ingi ‘Was he the greatest ruler’ ‘He was a very great ruler’

ﬁeir ger›u hann ﬂegar líflátinn ‘They made him at-once life-lost’ ‘They killed him at once’

Many sentences will of course contain more than subject, finite verb, object(s) and/or complement. However, the learner is unlikely to be much confused by the order in which such additional elements appear, even though this can vary considerably. Three features are worth noting. First, non-finite verb-forms may follow as well as precede objects and complements. E.g.:

Hann haf›i heit strengt ‘He had oath sworn’ ‘He had sworn an oath’

Eigi var hann jafna›arma›r kalla›r ‘Not was he fair-man called’ ‘He was not called a fair man’

Second, although a finite verb may immediately follow a subordinating conjunction, it is common to insert a sentence element between them. This element may be of almost any type. E.g. (with intervening pronoun vér, supine byggt and adverb ﬂar in bold):

Af fleira ætt er sú kynsló› komin, er vér kƒllum Ása ættir, er byggt hafa Ásgar› ok flau ríki, er flar liggja til ‘From their union is that family-line come COMP [3.8.2.1] we call of-Æsir kinsfolk, COMP inhabited have Ásgar›r and those realms COMP there lie to’ ‘From them has come the family line we call the Æsir kinsfolk, who have inhabited Ásgar›r and the realms which belong to it’ 226 Morphology and syntax

Third, provided the subject is the only noun phrase in the sentence, it may be postponed to the end. E.g.:

Tók ﬂá brátt at brenna bœrinn ‘Took then soon to burn farmhouse-the’ ‘Then the farmhouse soon began to burn’

Not uncommonly, an object or complement is fronted (moved into first position), either because it is an established discourse topic or to give it emphasis. These are cases of marked word-order (see 3.1.5, sentence 1). A fronted object will usually be detectable from the fact that it has a case other than the nominative and one different from that of any other noun phrase in the sentence, but a complement will have the same case as one of the other noun phrases (cf. above and 3.1.5, sentence 1, 3.3.6, sentence 7), often the nominative. Thus, in:

Ásu dóttur sína gipti hann Gu›rø›i konungi ‘Ása, daughter REFL. POSS., married he to-Gu›rø›r king’ He gave his daughter, Ása, in marriage to King Gu›rø›r’ the accusative case of Ásu dóttur sína should warn the student against trying to interpret it as subject, notwithstanding it is the first noun phrase in the sentence. The student will either know, or can ascertain from a dictionary, that gipta is construed with a nominative subject, accusative direct object and dative indirect object. Since Gu›rø›i konungi is clearly dat., and Ásu dóttur sína clearly acc., hann must be nom. (rather than acc., cf. 3.2.1) and is thus the only candidate for subject. On the other hand, in:

Vitr ma›r ertu ‘Wise man are-you’ ‘You are a wise man’ both vitr ma›r and flú (ertu = ert flú, cf. 3.2.1) are nominative. There is nevertheless no doubt that flú is subject and vitr ma›r subject complement. In sentences of the X is Y type X is the topic and Y the comment. Thus, you are a wise man is acceptable English since you can be interpreted as an established discourse topic about which something Points of syntax 227 is being said, whereas *a wise man is you is impossible because of the difficulty of interpreting a wise man as topic and you as something said about it. Not all examples are as clear-cut as this. Consider:

Dóttir Njar›ar var Freyja ‘Daughter of-Njƒr›r was Freyja’ ‘Freyja was Njƒr›r’s daughter’

Here we may legitimately wonder what is subject and what subject complement. The reason for identifying Freyja as subject is that dóttir Njar›ar is more likely as a description of a named individual than a named individual is as a description of dóttir Njar›ar (cf. English ?John’s daughter was Sally). It is not only objects and complements that are fronted in Old Norse. Adverbials (cf. flar fundu fleir konung, eigi var hann jafna›arma›r kalla›r above) and non-finite verbs (flakka viljum vér y›r ‘we want to thank you’) may also be topicalised or emphasised in this way. Observe that in all these cases of fronting the finite verb remains the second sentence element (though not necessarily the second word). This is even the case where a dependent precedes an independent sentence — the former being reducible to a single element (cf. 3.8), e.g.:

Er jarl heyr›i ﬂetta, var› hann rei›r mjƒk ‘COMP earl heard this, became he angry much’ ‘When the earl heard this, he became very angry’

Dependent er jarl heyr›i fletta can be reduced to flá ‘then’, and where flá heads an independent sentence the finite verb, here var›, must be the next element. 228 Morphology and syntax

3.9.1 Sentence word-order — Exercise

1. What sentence positions may the finite verb occupy in Old Norse? Give three examples. 2. In what order do the different noun phrases appear in an unmarked Old Norse sentence? Give three examples. 3. What is meant by fronting? Give three examples. 4. Analyse the word-order of the following sentences: (a) Fé flat allt gaf hann li›smƒnnum sínum ‘He gave all that wealth to his followers’ (b) Fornjótr hefir konungr heitit ‘There was a king called Fornjótr’ (c) Hug›u fleir, er fyrir váru, at Rƒgnvaldr jarl myndi flar fara ‘Those who were present thought that Earl Rƒgnvaldr would be on the move there’

3.9.2 Word-order in noun phrases

Noun phrase word-order, like word-order in general, is freer in Old Norse than English. Words modifying a noun may, with certain restrictions, appear either before or after it. Thus we find both gamall ma›r (adj. + noun) and ma›r gamall (noun + adj.) ‘old man’, flann gu› (pron. + noun) and gu› flann (noun + pronoun) ‘that god’. Phrases containing a pronoun, definite article and adjective may have three different orders (cf. 3.3.5): sá (h)inn blindi ma›r (pron. + def. art. + adj. + noun), ma›r sá (h)inn blindi (noun + pron. + def. art. + adj.), and sá ma›r (h)inn blindi (pron. + noun + def. art. + adj.) ‘the blind man’. Possessive adjectives tend to come after the noun they modify unless they are stressed: li› várt ‘our army’, mó›ir mín ‘my mother’, tungu hennar ‘her language’, but flat er ekki mitt skap ‘that is not my inclination’ — with stress on ‘my’. This applies also to genitive modifiers: flræll konungs ‘the king’s slave’, haugr Hálfdanar ‘Hálfdan’s mound’, but margra manna vitor› ‘many men’s knowledge [i.e. known to many men]’ with stress on ‘many’. Regularly placed after the noun are epithets and appositional modifiers: Eiríkr rau›i ‘Eiríkr the red’, fiorfinnr jarl ‘Earl fiorfinnr’. Points of syntax 229

Comparative and superlative adjectives normally precede the nouns they modify: (h)in stœrri skipin ‘the larger ships’, (h)inir spƒkustu menn ‘the wisest men’. This is also true of adverbs modifying adjectives, though a few, such as the common mjƒk, vel, betr, bezt, tend to follow their head word: ákafliga rei›r ‘furiously angry’, but gott mjƒk ‘very good’, hær›r vel ‘well haired [i.e. with fine hair]’. A further feature of noun phrases in Old Norse of which students should be aware is their proneness to discontinuity. Elements which belong together may be found at some distance from each other, separated by other elements. Consider the following examples (with the separated elements in bold):

Er menn váru út dregnir flestir, gekk ma›r út í dyrrnar ‘COMP men were out dragged most, went man out into doorway’ ‘When most men had been dragged out, a man went out into the doorway’

Ma›r gekk í lyptingina í rau›um kyrtli mikill ok vaskligr ‘Man went onto poop-deck-the in red tunic large and manly’ ‘A large and valiant-looking man in a red tunic came up onto the poop-deck’

ﬁorfinnr haf›i mikit skip ok vel búit ‘ﬁorfinnr had a large and well-equipped ship’

fiórr fór fram á lei› ok fleir félagar ‘fiórr went forward on way and those companions’ ‘fiórr and his companions went on their way’

Such discontinuity should not on the whole cause students too much difficulty provided they pay proper attention to case, gender and number. The inflexions of nouns, pronouns and adjectives will normally suffice to make clear what belongs with what. 230 Morphology and syntax

3.9.2 Word-order in noun phrases — Exercise

1. Where is the place of the adjective (including the possessive) in relation to the noun in Old Norse noun phrases? Give four examples, two indefinite, two definite, of Old Norse noun phrases containing adjectives. 2. Where is the place of genitive modifiers in relation to the noun in Old Norse? 3. Where is the place of adverbs in Old Norse in relation to the adjectives they modify? 4. What is meant by discontinuity? Give two examples of its occurrence in Old Norse noun phrases.

3.9.3 Impersonal constructions

Certain verbs in Old Norse are construed without a subject. Many of these have to do with the weather, with the coming of the seasons or of parts of the day or night. Common to all of them is that they denote an event which has no obvious instigator; it is the event itself that the sentence ‘is about’ (cf. 3.1.5, sentence 1). Examples are (with the subjectless verb in bold):

Frost var ve›rs, en á›r haf›i snjófat nƒkkut ‘Frost was of-weather, but earlier had snowed somewhat’ ‘The weather was frosty, but earlier it had snowed a bit’

ﬁegar at hausta›i, tóku at vaxa reimleikar ‘At-once COMP became-autumn, began to grow hauntings’ ‘As soon as autumn arrived the hauntings began to increase’

En at morni flegar daga›i, stendr fiórr upp ok fleir félagar ‘But in morning as-soon-as dawned gets fiórr up and those companions’ ‘But in the morning as soon as dawn broke fiórr and his companions get up’ Points of syntax 231

Because of their lack of a subject, constructions such as these are often known as ‘impersonal’ — a reference to the absence both of an instigator and of person agreement in the verb (cf 3.3.1, 3.6.1), 3rd person sg. being used as the default form. ‘Impersonal’ is not only applied to cases where the verb cannot have a subject, however, but also to those where a potential subject is left unexpressed. This often happens in Old Norse when the focus is on the object and the subject is of no interest in the context, e.g. (once again with the relevant verb(s) in bold):

(a) Hér hefr kristni sƒgu ‘Here begins of-Christianity saga’ ‘Here begins the history of the Church (in Iceland)’

(b) Standi menn upp ok taki hann, ok skal hann drepa ‘Stand men up and seize him, and shall him kill’ ‘Let men stand up and seize him; he is to be killed’

(c) Sjá má nú, at ekki n‡tir ﬂú hér af ‘See can now that nothing benefit you here from’ ‘One can see now that you get no benefit at all from this’

It is not uncommon for learners to take sƒgu in (a) or the second hann in (b) as the subject. However, the form sƒgu, which differs from nom. saga, and the meaning of hann, which can hardly be agent, warn against such hasty conclusions. Sƒgu is acc., the object of hefr, and the sense is something like ‘here one begins the history of the Church’. The Old Norse sentence has no word corresponding to ‘one’, however, and given that the subject and agent — the person or thing beginning the history — is unspecified, there are several ways of rendering the sense into English, e.g. ‘here we begin . . . ’, rather than ‘here one begins’ or the passive ‘here is begun’ (cf. 3.6.4 and further below). Similarly in (b) both occurrences of hann are acc., the objects of taki and drepa, but whereas taki (3rd pl. pres. subj.) has menn as its subject (understood because coreferential with the expressed subject of standi), drepa is subjectless; menn cannot be subject here since the finite verb, the auxiliary skal, is sg. In English we must once again introduce an unspecified ‘one’, ‘we’, ‘you’, etc. as subject and agent — the person 232 Morphology and syntax or persons who are to do the killing — or we can make the rendering passive, whereby the Old Norse object hann will correspond to the English subject and the agent can be omitted: ‘he shall be killed’, ‘he is to be killed’ — by whom in particular is neither here nor there in the context. In (c) the impersonal construction is slightly easier to spot because there is no noun phrase at all in the independent sentence sjá má nú, the object of sjá being the dependent at ekki n‡tir ﬂú hér af. Otherwise (c) is not different in type from (a) or (b): the focus is on the object of sjá — the thing seen — not the subject — the person or persons who see. The seer or seers are unspecified and can thus be rendered ‘one’, ‘people’, etc. in English, or omitted altogether by substituting a passive for the Old Norse active phrase: ‘that you get no benefit at all from this can now be seen’. Insofar as the direct object in active verb phrases becomes the subject when the verb is made passive, active phrases lacking a direct object will, if turned directly into passives (i.e. without further change), tend to be without a subject. In English such passivisation does not occur: we may say the bed was slept in, but not *was slept in the bed. In Old Norse, on the other hand, subjectless passives are a regular feature. Thus, active:

ﬁá lƒg›u ﬂeir at jarlsskipinu ‘Then laid they at earl’s-ship-the’ ‘Then they attacked the earl’s ship’

Gekk hann inn nƒkkut fyrir l‡sing ‘Went he in somewhat before dawn’ ‘He went in shortly before dawn’ correspond to passive:

ﬁá var lagt at jarlsskipinu ‘Then was laid at earl’s-ship-the’ ‘Then the earl’s ship was attacked’

Var gengit inn nƒkkut fyrir l‡sing ‘Was gone in somewhat before dawn’ ‘Someone went in shortly before dawn’ Points of syntax 233

Students should take careful note of these and the other types of ‘impersonal’ construction mentioned above. By one means or another they will have to supply a subject when translating them into English. The designation ‘impersonal’ has further been applied to Old Norse verbs construed without a nominative, or where the nominative noun phrase is not the first in unmarked word-order (see 3.9.1, 3.1.5, sentence 1). This is a moot point. Where there is no nominative, there is no person agreement in the verb — the default 3rd sg. being used (see above); to that extent ‘impersonal’ might be deemed an appropriate term. On the other hand, it has been shown that oblique (non- nominative) noun phrases that appear first in unmarked word-order behave like subjects in virtually every respect except the triggering of person agreement. And such phrases may certainly denote ‘persons’. While the question how constructions of this type are best described is not of primary concern to the learner, it is important for him/her to realise that where a noun phrase in a case other than the nominative is the first in a sentence, it is not automatically to be taken as a fronted object (see 3.9.1). Thus, in:

ﬁá skal hana engan hlut skorta ‘Then shall her no thing lack’ ‘Then she shall lack nothing’

Ávalt er ek sé fagrar konur, ﬂá minnir mik ﬂessarrar konu ‘Always COMP I see beautiful women, then reminds me of- this woman’ ‘Whenever I see beautiful women, then I remember this woman’

Tók konungi at orna undir feldinum ‘Began to-king to warm undir cloak-the’ ‘The king began to get warm under the cloak’

Líka›i y›r vel Finnskattrinn, er fiórólfr sendi y›r? ‘Liked to-you well Lapp-tribute-the COMP fiórólfr sent to-you?’ ‘Were you pleased with the Lapp-tribute that fiórólfr sent you?’ 234 Morphology and syntax the accusatives hana and mik and the datives konungi and y›r are the first noun phrases in sentences whose word-order is not obviously marked. Even in líka›i y›r vel Finnskattrinn, where the second noun phrase is nominative, the difficulty of showing that dat. y›r has been fronted makes it hard to cast it in the role of object, and that in turn raises doubts about whether Finnskattrinn can be subject. In semantic terms, hana, mik, konungi and y›r represent ‘experiencers’ (the people experiencing the events denoted by the verbs), a sense regularly conveyed by the nominative in modern English and certain other European languages (cf. I lack, I remember, I get warm, I am pleased) — seemingly reflecting a common tendency to make the experiencer subject rather than the thing experienced. Certainly, natural English translations of Old Norse sentences like the above will tend to bring out the subjecthood of the first noun phrase. Also regularly construed without nominatives are the passives of verbs whose direct object is in the genitive or dative, e.g.:

ﬁess var leitat vi› jarl ‘Of-that was sought of earl’ ‘That was asked of the earl’

Mƒnnum var borgit flestum ‘To-men was saved most’ ‘Most people were saved’

In the active, leita ‘seek’ ‘ask’ has a nominative subject and genitive object, bjarga ‘save’ a nominative subject and dative object. When passivised such verbs lose their nominative subject in the normal way (3.6.4), but the object does not become the new nominative subject. It remains in its original case. However, since in unmarked word-order (cf. 3.1.5, sentence 1) it precedes the verb phrase in the passive sentence, there is some justification for treating it as subject. It certainly becomes the theme of the sentence — ‘what it is about’ (cf. 3.1.5, sentence 1). Only partially analogous are passives of verbs construed in the active with a nominative subject, a dative indirect object and a further argument in the genitive or dative. To active: Points of syntax 235

ﬁeir ljá jarli lífs ‘They grant [to-]earl [of-]life’ ‘They spare the earl’s life’

ﬁeir hétu honum bana ‘They promised [to-]him [with-]death’ ‘They threatened him with death’ correspond passive:

Engum er alls lét ‘To-none is [of-]all granted’ ‘No one is granted everything’

Honum var heitit bana ‘To-him was promised [with-]death’ ‘He was threatened with death’

In the passive versions the nominative subject is lost as before, but it is the indirect object (engum, honum) which moves into subject position rather than gen. alls or dat. bana. Although genitive and dative arguments of this type have been termed ‘direct objects’ (e.g. 3.1.5, sentences 11, 12, 16, 18, 19 and above in this section), their failure here to move into subject position suggests they retain something of the original syntactic and semantic role that caused them to be expressed by the genitive or dative in the first place. Just as, for example, the dative with which kasta is construed can be viewed either as direct object or instrumental phrase — ‘[to] throw something’ or ‘[to] throw with something’ (cf. 3.1.5, sentence 20) — so ljá + dat. + gen. may be taken as ‘[to] grant someone something’ or ‘[to] give to someone possession of something’, and heita + dat. + dat. as ‘[to] promise someone something’ or ‘[to] threaten someone with something’. Nominativeless passive constructions are relatively easy to spot, and — where relevant — the student will normally be able to render the, or the first, genitive or dative noun phrase as the subject when translating, as above. More difficult is to recognise the accusative, genitive or dative that precedes other noun phrases in an active sentence not because it is fronted, but because the verb is thus construed. The student 236 Morphology and syntax should try to be alert to verbs that do not have a nominative subject (relatively few) and make an effort to learn them as a special category. It is important this be done. Subject and object can otherwise easily be confused. (See further the ‘postscript’ pp. 262–3.)

3.9.3 Impersonal constructions — Exercise

1. What do you understand by the term ‘impersonal’? 2. Give Old Norse examples (a) of a verb always construed without a subject, and (b) of a construction in which a potential subject is left unexpressed. 3. How would you translate examples (a) and (b) in your answers to the previous question into English? 4. In what circumstances do Old Norse passive constructions lack a subject? 5. The first noun phrase in an Old Norse sentence is often in the accusative, genitive or dative case. What are the different possibilities of interpretation in such examples? 6. How are the main verbs in the following sentences construed? (a) Lí›r fram haustinu ok tekr at vetra ‘The autumn passes and winter comes on’ (b) ﬁess er enn ekki hefnt ‘That is not yet avenged’ (c) Ekki sá skipit fyrir laufinu ‘The ship could not be seen for the foliage’ (d) Draum dreym›i mik í fyrri nátt ‘I dreamt a dream the night before last’ (e) Engum mun bóta synjat ‘No one will be refused compensation’

3.9.4 Accusative and infinitive

In English we may say: I saw her open it, he asked the boys to sing. What follows saw and asked is sometimes described as a non-finite clause object: we have a clause or sentence which is the equivalent of an object (cf. I saw the letter, he asked a favour), and it contains an Points of syntax 237 infinitive (open, sing) but no finite verb. This analysis, however, leaves out of account the fact that in a sense her is both the object of saw and the subject of open, and the boys both the object of asked and subject of sing (cf. (I saw that) she opened it, (he asked the boys that) they should sing). The term mostly used to describe the Old Norse counterparts of such English constructions is ‘accusative and infinitive’. While hardly achieving descriptive adequacy, this designation has the merit of emphasising accusative case, which marks direct object status, and suggesting a connection between the accusative and the following infinitive. Above all, it is a more precise term than non-finite clause object, which can cover a variety of constructions. Old Norse accusatives and infinitives occur regularly after verbs of saying, thinking, and experiencing. E.g.:

Magnús ba› hann fara sem honum líka›i ‘Magnus bade him go as to-him pleased’ ‘Magnús said he could go as he pleased’

Vér ætlum hana litla hrí› svá hafa verit kalla›a ‘We think her little while thus have been called’ ‘We think she has been called that only a short while’

Opt hefi ek heyrt y›r ﬂat mæla ‘Often have I heard you that say’ ‘I have often heard you say that’

In cases where the accusative object/subject of the infinitive is identical with the subject of the finite verb, the former is not expressed as a separate word; instead it is denoted by the -sk suffix (3.6.5.3), which can be considered to have reflexive function. Thus in:

Hon sag›isk vera dóttir fiorkels ‘She said-sk be daughter of-fiorkell’ ‘She said she was fiorkell’s daughter’ the -sk can be interpreted literally as ‘herself’. Observe that the subject complement dóttir is nominative. This is the rule where the accusative of an acc. + inf. construction is to be found in the -sk suffix. 238 Morphology and syntax

Where the accusative appears as a separate word denoting an entity different from the subject of the finite verb, a subject complement will agree with it by also appearing in the accusative — cf. acc. f. sg. kalla›a in the second example above agreeing with hana, and:

Hann sag›i Sigmund vera óbœttan ‘He said Sigmundr be unatoned’ ‘He said Sigmundr was unatoned [i.e. his death was uncom- pensated]’ where acc. m. sg. óbœttan agrees with Sigmund. In the case of the verb flyk(k)ja ‘seem’ ‘think’ we normally find a ‘nominative and infinitive’ construction. There are two variants of this. Occasionally the subject of the infinitive is ‘raised’ (i.e. moved into the higher sentence) and becomes the subject of flyk(k)ja (a), but more commonly flyk(k)ja appears in the default 3rd sg. form, with dative experiencer — denoting the person to whom the matter of the infinitive sentence ‘seems’ — as its most likely subject (see 3.9.3) and a nominative as the subject of the infinitive (b).

(a) Eiríki konungi . . . ﬂóttu ﬂeir mjƒk hafa spottat sik ‘To-Eiríkr king seemed they much have mocked self’ ‘King Eiríkr thought they had mocked him greatly’

(b) fiá flótti mér fleir sœkja at ƒllum megin ‘Then seemed to-me they come against on-all sides’ ‘Then it seemed to me they attacked on all sides’

In (a) nom. fleir is the subject of flóttu as can be seen from the 3rd pl. verb-form. In (b), on the other hand, where flótti is 3rd sg., fleir can only be the subject of inf. sœkja. When the subject of the infinitive is 3rd sg., as it often is, the two constructions are difficult to distinguish. In:

fiótti honum hon vel hafa gert ‘Seemed to-him she well have done’ ‘He thought she had acted well’ hon can according to traditional analysis be the overt subject either Points of syntax 239 of flótti or of gert. In some modern approaches dat. honum, the first noun phrase, would be deemed the subject of flótti, as also mér in (b) above. Subject raising is the norm with flyk(k)ja where the subject of the following infinitive denotes the same person as the experiencer (the person to whom the matter of the infinitive sentence ‘seems’). In, for example:

fiú flykkisk of fá drepit hafa mína hir›menn óbœtta ‘You seem-sk too few killed have my retainers unatoned’ ‘You think you have killed too few of my retainers without paying compensation’ a putative *flykkir flér flú of fá drepit hafa . . . is restructured in such a way that flú, the subject of drepit, becomes the subject of the finite sentence and the dative experiencer is converted into an -sk suffix. This is not unlike what happens with the hon sag›isk vera . . . type of construction above, though there there is no subject raising and the -sk suffix takes the place of an accusative rather than a dative. If we render -sk in the above example as ‘to yourself’, and translate fairly literally ‘you seem to yourself to have killed too few . . . ’ we get something of the flavour of the original. Concerning flyk(k)ja, it should finally be noted that the 3rd singular present indicative is often flyk(k)i rather than flyk(k)ir (see 3.6.9.1 point (15)). Sometimes in accusative and infinitive constructions a past infinitive is encountered (see 3.6.6). In prose this is only likely to involve the forms mundu, skyldu, vildu, and occurs chiefly when the finite verb is past tense. E.g.:

Hann lézk heldr mundu at sinni gefa upp ríkit ‘He said-sk rather would for time give up earldom-the’ ‘He said he would rather give up the earldom for the time being’

fiór›r kva› beggja fleira rá› fletta vera skyldu ‘fiór›r said of-both their decision this be should’ ‘fiór›r said this should be their joint decision’ 240 Morphology and syntax

It is difficult to get the literal sense of mundu and skyldu across since English ‘would’ and ‘should’ are finite forms. Semi-literal renderings may be helpful here, using the infinitive marker to to direct attention to the past infinitive.

‘He said himself rather to would give up the earldom . . . ’

‘ﬁór›r said this their joint decision to should be’

3.9.4 Accusative and infinitive — Exercise

1. Why are Old Norse accusative and infinitive constructions so called? 2. What happens to the accusative in an accusative and infinitive construction when it denotes the same entity as the subject of the finite verb? 3. Describe the different kinds of nominative and infinitive construction in which the verb ﬂyk(k)ja is found. 4. In what type of construction do past infinitives occur in Old Norse?

3.9.5 Omissions

Certain elements are regularly omitted from Old Norse sentences. Some can be readily understood from the context and will cause the learner no difficulty. A subject that is already established, for example, is usually omitted in Old Norse just as in English. Thus, in:

Karl hljóp á annat skip ok ba› ﬂá taka til ára ‘Karl jumped onto another ship and bade them take to oars’ ‘Karl jumped onto another ship and told them to start rowing’ the subject of ba› is not expressed — any more than in the English renderings — because it refers to the same person as the subject of the previous sentence, Karl. Points of syntax 241

3.9.5.1 Objects

Slightly more problematic for the learner, because characteristic of Old Norse but not of English, is the omission of the object where already established. E.g.:

(a) Njáll tók fésjó›inn ok seldi Gunnari ‘Njáll took money-bag-the and gave to-Gunnarr’ ‘Njáll took the bag of money and gave it to Gunnarr’

(b) Konungr greip til sver›s ok brá ‘King grasped at sword and drew’ ‘The king grabbed hold of the sword and drew it’

Here ‘it’, referring in (a) to the bag of money, in (b) to the sword, is lacking in Old Norse. This is because there is identity of reference with a preceding noun, fésjó›inn in (a), sver›s in (b). Observe that object omission is not dependent on case equivalence. In (a) the missing noun phrase would have had accusative case, just as fésjó›inn, but in (b) it would have been dative, while sver›s, the noun establishing the reference in (b), is genitive, governed by the preposition til (3.7.2). Indirect objects, too, may be omitted, as in:

Konungr lét skíra Hákon ok kenna rétta trú ‘King let baptise Hákon and teach true faith’ ‘The king had Hákon baptised and taught the true faith’

Note that the idiomatic English rendering obscures the omission; insertion of ‘him’ between ‘taught’ and ‘the’ would give a different sense — that it was the king himself who taught Hákon the true faith.

3.9.5.2 vera

The verb vera is often omitted, especially the infinitive (a) in connection with auxiliary verbs and (b) in accusative and infinitive constructions. The student should pay particular attention to this phenomenon since it can often cause misunderstanding. 242 Morphology and syntax

Consider the following examples:

ﬁú munt ﬂá ekki hér vel kominn ‘You will then not here well come’ ‘You will not then be welcome here’

ﬁat mæltu sumir, at leitat skyldi um sættir ‘That said some, that sought should about settlement’ ‘Some said that an attempt should be made to reach a settlement’

fiorfinnr kva› flat ósannligt, at . . . ‘fiorfinnr said that unjust that . . .’ ‘fiorfinnr said it was unjust that . . .’

Tƒl›u sumir várkunn, at hann vildi eigi mi›la ríkit ‘Said some cause that he wanted not divide earldom-the’ ‘Some said there was understandable cause for his unwillingness to divide the earldom’

In the first example the copula (vera, the verb ‘be’) is the missing link needed to connect subject flú and the subject complement vel kominn (cf. flú ert vel kominn ‘you are welcome’). In the second vera is required to complete the passive construction leitat skyldi vera ‘should be sought’. The third and fourth examples illustrate accusative and infinitive constructions from which the infinitive is omitted. In the third the copula is what is wanted to connect flat and its complement ósannligt (cf. flat er ósannligt — subject + copula + subject complement), so the construction is to be understood as fiorfinnr kva› flat ósannligt vera, at . . . The fourth example too requires vera to be understood since várkunn can only be the object of tƒl›u in an accusative and infinitive construction (i.e. tƒl›u sumir várkunn vera at . . . is perfectly acceptable, but *tƒl›u sumir várkunn without the ellipsis of vera is not). Because all four contexts so clearly demand vera, it is readily understood or supplied by the reader familiar with Old Norse. The beginner will have to proceed more slowly and analytically: faced by a sentence that seems to lack an infinitive, and in doubt about the meaning, s/he should always try supplying vera. In most cases this will provide the solution. Points of syntax 243

Finite forms of vera are also sometimes omitted. As with the above, the prerequisite seems to be that the verb should be recoverable from the context. Consider:

Fimm menn hƒf›u bana af li›i Helga, en sárir allir a›rir ‘Five men had death from force of-Helgi, but wounded all others’ ‘Five of Helgi’s men were killed, and all the others were wounded’

The finite verb of the first sentence is hƒf›u, but that will not fit the context of the second. What we have in sárir allir a›rir is a fronted subject complement (sárir) followed by the subject (allir a›rir), and the copula is needed to connect them. The second sentence is thus to be understood: en sárir váru allir a›rir.

3.9.5.3 Verbs of motion

The infinitives of verbs of motion are often omitted when modified by an adverb or preposition phrase indicating destination. E.g.:

Sámr sag›isk vilja heim aptr ‘Sámr said-sk want home again’ ‘Sámr said he wanted to go back home’

Ætla›i hann yfir á Nes ‘Intended he over to Nes’ ‘He intended to go across to Caithness’

Because of the clear directional sense indicated by adverb or preposition phrase, such constructions are unlikely to cause the learner great problems.

3.9.5 Omissions — Exercise

1. In what circumstances may the object be omitted in Old Norse? Give examples. 2. In what kinds of construction is vera commonly omitted? Give examples. 3. What is understood in the sentence: nú b‡sk hann út til Íslands ‘now he gets ready to go to Iceland’? 244 Morphology and syntax

3.9.6 Points of nominal syntax

Important aspects of nominal syntax not dealt with elsewhere are (1) certain idiomatic uses of personal pronouns and possessive adjectives; (2) what are often loosely termed ‘the genitive and dative of respect’.

3.9.6.1 Idiomatic uses of personal pronouns and possessive adjectives

Sometimes in Old Norse personal names are accompanied apposition- ally by a 3rd person pronoun of the same gender and number. Instead of flar sitr Selsbani ‘there sits Selsbani’, we find flar sitr hann Selsbani ‘there sits he [i.e. that fellow] Selsbani’, instead of hann var fa›ir Eiríks hins sigrsæla ok Óláfs ‘he was the father of Eiríkr the victorious and Óláfr’, hann var fa›ir fleira Eiríks hins sigrsæla ok Óláfs ‘he was the father of-them [i.e. of the pair] Eiríkr the victorious and Óláfr’. More commonly a 3rd plural or 1st or 2nd dual or plural pronoun is found together with a single name. E.g.:

Báru ﬂeir Rƒgnvaldr eld at bœnum ‘Carried they Rƒgnvaldr fire to house-the’ ‘Rƒgnvaldr and the others set fire to the house’

Vit Arnvi›r munum fara ‘We-two Arnvi›r will go’ ‘Arnvi›r and I will go’

Here, as will be seen from the idiomatic translations, the pronouns are only partly in apposition to the personal names since they also contain a reference to one or more other people known from the context. The dual pronouns denote one additional person, the 1st and 2nd plural more than one. Thus vér Arnvi›r would mean ‘Arnvi›r and we (others)’, flit Arnvi›r ‘Arnvi›r and you [sg.]’, flér Arnvi›r ‘Arnvi›r and you (others)’. Since there is no dual 3rd person pronoun, fleir Rƒgnvaldr can mean ‘Rƒgnvaldr and he’ as well as ‘Rƒgnvaldr and the others’, depending on the context. Where men and women or a man and a woman are involved, the 3rd person neuter plural is used (cf. 3.2.1):

ﬁau dróttning tala jafnan ‘They queen talk constantly’ ‘The queen and he talk constantly’ Points of syntax 245

From the context of this particular example we know that only the queen and a single male are involved; in another context ﬂau dróttning could mean ‘the queen and the others (including at least one male)’. This usage is not confined to personal pronouns, but can also be found with possessive adjectives. E.g.:

Hverja ætlan hefir ﬂú á um deilu ykkra Óláfs digra? ‘What view have you on about quarrel your-two Óláfr’s stout?’ ‘What is your view of Óláfr the stout’s and your quarrel?’

Here the dual 2nd person possessive ykkra carries the same ‘inclusive’ sense as the personal pronouns in the previous examples. There is however a significant syntactic difference between ykkra Óláfs digra and, say, vit Arnvi›r. The pronoun vit stands in the same case as Arnvi›r (nom.), whereas ykkra takes its case (and gender and number) from deilu (acc. f. sg.) while Óláfs digra is in the genitive. The difference is occasioned by the fact that vit and Arnvi›r form a joint subject, a pair- ing of two noun phrases, whereas ykkra and Óláfs, though both modify deilu, represent different word classes: adjective and noun. The possessive signals its modifier role by case, gender and number agreement, but the noun cannot — instead it goes into the genitive (the ‘possessive’ case, see 3.1.5, sentence 13). The close relationship between possessive adjectives and genitives is shown by the 3rd person pronouns (non-reflexive), whose genitive forms, hans, hennar, ﬂess, ﬂeira, double up as possessives (3.3.8.5 point (6)). It should be observed that the juxtaposition of possessive adjectives and genitive noun phrases is also common in more unambiguous cases of apposition. E.g.:

Er ﬂat vili várr búandanna ‘Is that will our of-farmers-the’ ‘That is the will of us farmers’

Two further points of nominal syntax involving possessives and pronouns require discussion. In partitive constructions (3.2.6, sentence 20, 3.4.2, sentence 9) where a pronoun is the head word denoting the part, and the modifier denoting the whole would be expected to be a personal pronoun, the latter is usually replaced by the corresponding possessive adjective, which agrees in case, gender and number with the head word. E.g.: 246 Morphology and syntax

Skal hverr y›varr fara í fri›i fyrir mér ‘Shall each your go in peace before me’ ‘Each of you shall go in peace as far as I am concerned’

ﬁá skal sá okkarr kjósa bœn af ƒ›rum, er sannara hefir ‘Then shall that-one our-two choose favour of other COMP truer has’ ‘Then the one of us (two) who is right shall choose a favour of the other’

Instead of nom. m. sg. hverr ‘each’ + gen. y›var ‘of you’ and nom. m. sg. sá ‘that one’ + gen. okkar ‘of us two’, we find nom. m. sg. hverr y›varr ‘each your’ and nom. m. sg. sá okkarr ‘that one our-two’. Students should take careful note of this construction since experience has shown it can cause much confusion. Contemptuous reference is a further case in which a possessive adjective is used where on the basis of English one might expect a personal pronoun. This can occur in both direct and indirect speech. Thus we find not only fóli ﬂinn ‘fool your [i.e. you fool!]’, but also:

Hann ba› ﬂegja bikkjuna hans ‘He bade be-silent bitch-the his’ ‘He told the dog to shut up’ where ‘the dog’ is used insultingly of a man.

3.9.6.2 The genitive and dative of respect

The genitive and dative can be used in Old Norse to specify the appli- cability of the verb phrase. The basic sense of such constructions is ‘with respect to’ ‘in respect of’ ‘as regards’, but idiomatic English will usually require a different translation. E.g. (with the genitive or dative phrases in bold):

fiegi flú fleira or›a ‘Be-silent you of-those words’ ‘Keep quiet with those words’ Points of syntax 247

Vesall ertu ﬂinnar skjaldborgar ‘Wretched are-you of-your shield-fortification’ ‘You and your wretched wall of shields!’

Er Haraldr konungr var› ﬂessa tí›inda víss, ﬂá dró hann her saman ‘When Haraldr king became of-these tidings aware, then drew he army together’ ‘When King Haraldr got news of these events, he gathered together an army’

¯ll váru bƒrn Svíakonungs vel viti borin ‘All were children of-Swedes-king well with-wit endowed’ ‘All the children of the Swedish king were endowed with a good understanding’

Var› ﬂeim mart talat ‘Became to-them much talked’ ‘There was much talk between them’

Vín er honum bæ›i drykkr ok matr ‘Wine is to him both drink and food’

Dative phrases of respect often have the force of possessives. This applies notably where they complement preposition phrases denoting body parts. E.g. (with dative and preposition phrase in bold):

Skar›i fell fyrir fœtr fiorkeli ‘Skar›i fell before feet to-fiorkell’ ‘Skar›i fell in front of fiorkell’s feet’

Loki greip upp mikla stƒng ok rekr á kroppinn erninum ‘Loki grasped up big pole and drives onto body-the to-eagle-the’ ‘Loki seized a big pole and drove it against the eagle’s body’

ﬁá laust hann sver›it ór hƒndum honum ‘Then struck he sword-the out-of hands to-him’ ‘Then he struck the sword out of his hands’ 248 Morphology and syntax

3.9.6 Points of nominal syntax — Exercise

Analyse the phrases printed in bold in the following sentences: (a) fieir fiorfinnr dvƒl›usk í eyjunni um nóttina ‘fiorfinnr and the others stayed on the island for the night’ (b) Me› henni mun nú vera beggja ykkur hamingja ‘With her lies the good fortune of you both now’ (c) En ek hefi hér vitnismenn flá, er handsal okkart jarls sá ‘But I have witnesses here who saw the earl’s and my agreement’ (d) Hverjum y›rum flótti flat rá›ligast? ‘Which of you thought it most advisable?’ (e) Hrani sag›i henni hverra erinda Haraldr fór á fund Sigrí›ar dróttningar ‘Hrani told her for what purpose Haraldr had gone to see Queen Sigrí›r’ (f) fiá lét Loki fallask í kné Ska›a ‘Then Loki let himself drop onto Ska›i’s knees’

3.9.7 Points of verbal syntax

A few remarks on verbal syntax need to be added to the basics set out at various points in section 3.6. These concern four areas: (1) the perfect and past perfect (3.6.2, 3.6.8, sentence 3); (2) the passive (3.6.4); (3) the ‘dative absolute’; (4) present participles expressing potentiality or obligation.

3.9.7.1 The perfect and past perfect

The perfect and past perfect of intransitive verbs of movement and change are construed with vera as well as hafa. E.g.:

Hann haf›i komit út me› fiorkatli ‘He had come out with fiorkell’ ‘He had come to Iceland with fiorkell’

Ma›r er hér kominn úti fyrir durum ‘Man is here come outside before doorway’ ‘A man has arrived here outside the door’ Points of syntax 249

Svá mun Hallger›i s‡nask, sem hann hafi eigi sjálfdau›r or›it ‘So will to-Hallger›r seem, as he has not self-dead become’ ‘It will seem to Hallger›r as though he has not died a natural death’

ﬁá er myrkt var or›it, leitu›u ﬂeir sér til náttsta›ar ‘Then COMP dark was become, searched they for-self for night- place’ ‘When it had become dark, they looked for a place to spend the night’

The choice of auxiliary depends on the sense. Where the focus is on the action itself, hafa is used, where the state following the action is emphasised, we find vera (contrast English he has gone there a lot recently and he is gone (= he is no longer present)). Thus the first example above focuses on the travelling to Iceland rather than the being there, the third on the dying rather than the being dead. In the second and fourth examples, in contrast, the emphasis is on the man’s being outside the door and the state of darkness in which the searching took place. It will be observed that where vera is the auxiliary, the past participle inflects as an adjective, agreeing with the subject in case, gender and number (cf. 3.6.6). Thus ma›r and kominn are both nom. m. sg. (ﬂá er myrkt var or›it has no subject, so the nom. n. sg. (or›it) is used as the default form). With hafa as the auxiliary, on the other hand, the past participle tends to adopt the neuter nom./acc. sg. form, and is then often known as the supine (3.6.8, sentence 3). The reason for this difference lies in the auxiliaries themselves. Elements linked by vera, whatever its function, stand in the same case, the one element modifying the other, whereas non-auxiliary hafa is construed with a nominative subject and accusative object (cf., e.g., hann haf›i tvá knƒrru ‘he had two merchant ships’). In perfect constructions with hafa the past participle does not normally modify anything; it combines with the auxiliary to form a single verb phrase. Thus in hann haf›i keypt tvá knƒrru ‘he had bought two merchant ships’ haf›i keypt is the verb phrase of which tvá knƒrru is the object. In origin, however, the perfect seems to have been a subject — verb — object — object complement construction (‘I have them bought’), which was gradually re- analysed as subject — verb phrase — object (‘I have bought them’). 250 Morphology and syntax

One of the chief reasons for assuming this development is that in early Old Norse texts the past participle quite often agrees with an accusative object (never a genitive or dative, since hafa governed the accusative only). It seems, however, that at this relatively late stage in the history of the Old Norse perfect, participle-object agreement had ceased to carry the original ‘I have them bought’ meaning. Agreement and non-agreement give the appearance of being interchangeable — indeed, sometimes we find an inflected and an uninflected participle dependent on the same auxiliary, e.g. (with the participles in bold):

En jarlsmenn hƒf›u bar›a marga eyjarskeggja, en tekit Kúga bónda ok settan í fjƒtra ‘But earl’s-men had beaten many islanders, but taken Kúgi farmer and placed in shackles’ ‘But the earl’s men had beaten many islanders and taken the farmer, Kúgi, and put him in shackles’

There is agreement here between bar›a and marga eyjarskeggja (acc. m. pl.), and settan and Kúga bónda (acc. m. sg.), but not between Kúga bónda (acc. m. sg.) and tekit (nom./acc. n. sg.). The function of the participle is however the same in all three cases: each combines with hƒf›u to form a verb phrase of which marga eyjarskeggja or Kúga bónda are the objects. The student may thus consider inflected participles in perfect constructions as ordinary supines and treat them in exactly the same way they would their uninflected counterparts (as in modern French). Several other verbs combine with past participles to form periphrastic constructions, but of these only fá and geta are at all common. Both have the basic sense ‘get’, and their use with past participles is paralleled in English (cf. he got it done). As in the hafa constructions, the participle may either agree with an accusative object or not; where the object is genitive or dative, or there is no object, the nom./acc. n. sg. form is always used. E.g. (with the periphrastic verb phrases in bold):

Abraham gat frelsta frændr sína ‘Abraham got saved kinsmen his’ ‘Abraham was able to save his kinsmen’ Points of syntax 251

Ambáttirnar fengu dregit steininn ‘Bondwomen-the got dragged stone-the’ ‘The bondwomen managed to drag the stone’

Sá fekk ﬂó borgit sér nau›uliga ‘He got though saved self narrowly’ ‘He just about managed to save himself, though’

In the first example frelsta agrees with frændr sína (acc. m. pl.), in the second and third examples the nom./acc. n. sg. form of the participle is used, once where the object is acc. m. sg. (steininn), once where it is dat. reflexive.

3.9.7.2 The passive

The Old Norse periphrastic passive formed with vera may be dynamic or static, just as its English counterpart with be. Dynamic passives denote an action or event, static passives the state after an action or event. Two typical examples illustrating the difference are:

Var sá hƒggvinn fyrr, er sí›ar gekk ‘Was he cut-down earlier COMP later walked’ ‘He (of two) who walked behind was slain first’

Hann nefndi mennina ﬂá, er vegnir váru ‘He named men-the those COMP slain were’ ‘He named the men who were slain’

The passive var sá hƒggvinn, er . . . is the equivalent of the past tense active: fleir hjoggu flann, er . . . ‘they slew the one who . . . ’, whereas er vegnir váru corresponds to the past perfect active er fleir hƒf›u vegit ‘whom they had slain’, and could itself be expressed as a past perfect: er vegnir hƒf›u verit ‘who had been slain’. Of itself, vera + pp. is ambiguous; it is the context that determines whether the construction is to be understood as dynamic or static, just as in English (cf., e.g., ambiguous the house was sold, which may be expanded into the dynamic the house was sold by the new agent or the static the 252 Morphology and syntax house was already sold). A further contrastive pair of Old Norse examples illustrating present tense usage is:

Fjórir hleifar brau›s eru honum fœr›ir hvern dag ‘Four loaves of-bread are to-him brought each day’ ‘Four loaves of bread are brought to him each day’

Frá flessu segir í flokki fleim, er ortr er um fiormó› ‘From this says in poem that COMP composed is about fiormó›r’ ‘It tells of this in the poem that is composed about fiormó›r’

The passive eru honum fœr›ir is dynamic, the equivalent of active ﬂeir fœra honum ‘they bring to him’, while ortr er is static, corresponding to active einnhverr hefir ort ‘someone has composed’. Sometimes passives are formed with auxiliary ver›a rather than vera. Such passives are always dynamic, and usually have one or more additional senses — commonly the notion of futurity and/or possibility. E.g.:

Hversu megu synir hans, ﬂeir er getnir ver›a í útleg›, njóta ﬂeira gjafa? ‘How may sons his, those COMP born are in exile, enjoy those gifts?’ ‘How may his sons, those who will be born in exile, enjoy those gifts?’

Var› engi uppreist í móti konungi gƒr í flat sinn í firándheimi ‘Was no uprising a(-)gainst king made on that occasion in firándheimr’ ‘No rebellion was made against the king on that occasion in firándheimr’

In the first example the talk is of sons who may be born in the future. The interpretation of the second example is less certain: it need be no more than a dynamic passive, but it could carry the additional sense that an uprising against the king was not possible on that occasion Points of syntax 253

(because of his superior force). More firmly endowed with the notion of (im)possibility is:

Hallbjƒrn hleypr til bú›ar, en sveinarnir til skógar, er ﬂar var nær, ok ver›a eigi fundnir ‘Hallbjƒrn runs to booth, but boys-the to scrub, COMP there was near, and are not found’ ‘Hallbjƒrn runs to the booth, but the boys run into the scrub which was nearby and cannot be found’

Occasionally in ver›a-passives the agent may be expressed by the dative, e.g.:

Honum var› litit upp til hlí›arinnar ‘By-him was looked up to hillside-the’ ‘He looked up at the hillside’

Such constructions usually carry the implication that the action was a chance one, a sense of ver›a being ‘[to] happen’ (cf. slíkt ver›r opt ungum mƒnnum ‘such things often happen to young men’). A more precise idiomatic rendering of the above would therefore be: ‘He chanced to look up at the hillside’.

3.9.7.3 The ‘dative absolute’

The Old Norse ‘dative absolute’ construction consists of a noun phrase in the dative accompanied by a present or past participle in agreement, the two conveying what would otherwise be expressed by a dependent temporal sentence. Commonly the construction takes the form of a prepositional phrase introduced by at, but in more formal style the preposition may be dispensed with. E.g. (with the dative absolute in bold):

Ok at li›num ﬂrimr nóttum fór hann at finna vísendamann ‘And with passed three nights went he to find soothsayer’ ‘And when three nights had passed he went to find the soothsayer’ 254 Morphology and syntax

Vér skulum hér koma svá margir ﬂingmenn, sem nú eru til nefndir, at uppverandi sólu ‘We shall here come as many assembly-members as now are to appointed, with up-being sun’ ‘We are to come here, as many assembly members as are now appointed for the purpose, when the sun is up’

fiessum flrettán útgengnum váru a›rir flrettán inn leiddir ‘These thirteen out-gone were other thirteen in led’ ‘When these thirteen had gone out, another thirteen were led in’

Hƒfum vér ﬂar um talat herra Erlingi ok ƒ›rum gó›um mƒnnum hjáverƒndum ‘Have we there about spoken lord Erlingr and other good men present-being’ ‘We have spoken about it in the presence of Lord Erlingr and other good men’

The idiomatic English renderings make clear the equivalence between dative absolutes and dependent temporal sentences. An alternative to ‘in the presence of Lord Erlingr and other good men’ is ‘when Lord Erlingr and other good men were present’. The construction with the past participle corresponds to a finite perfect or past perfect, that with the present to a finite present or past, depending on the context.

3.9.7.4 Present participles expressing potentiality or obligation

Present participles can appear in Old Norse as subject complements with the sense of what is suitable, possible or necessary, and with a passive interpretation. In this function, geranda, for example, means ‘do-able’ — ‘fit to be done’, ‘able to be done’ or ‘necessary to be done’, according to the context. A few examples will suffice to make the usage clear: Points of syntax 255

Hann fór su›r me› landinu at leita, ef ﬂar væri byggjanda ‘He went south along land-the to search if there might-be settleable’ ‘He went south along the coast to see if it might be suitable for settlement there’

Jarl kva› ﬂetta vera óﬂolanda ‘Earl said this be intolerable’ ‘The earl said this was intolerable’

At kveldi er dagr lofandi ‘At evening is day to-be-praised’ ‘The day should be praised when evening comes (and not before)’

The clarity of the context will determine the degree of precision with which the participle can be translated into English. Outside this construction, the Old Norse present participle tends to correspond to the English -ing form of the verb and will give the learner little trouble: e.g. hlæjandi ‘laughing’, skínandi ‘shining’, sofandi ‘sleeping’.

3.9.7 Points of verbal syntax — Exercise

1. When is hafa and when vera used to form perfect and past perfect constructions? 2. To what in Old Norse does the term ‘supine’ refer? 3. What is the difference between an inflected past participle and an inflected supine in Old Norse? 4. Give an example of a dynamic and a static passive in Old Norse and explain the difference. 5. What characterises ver›a-passives? 6. What is the Old Norse ‘dative absolute’? Give examples of the construction. 7. Explain the meaning of the present participle in: flat flótti fló ógeranda, at konungr vissi eigi fletta. 256 Morphology and syntax

3.9.8 Points of syntax affecting more than one type of phrase

Three matters require brief treatment: (1) adjectival and adverbial complements; (2) agreement between subject, verb and subject complement; (3) -sk verb forms and ‘preposition adverbs’.

3.9.8.1 Adjectival and adverbial complements

Complements of vera ‘[to] be’ and ver›a ‘[to] become’ are sometimes adverbs in Old Norse. In the case of the pair vel ‘well’ and illa ‘badly’, English tends to use adjectives in corresponding phrases. E.g.:

ﬁat er vel ‘It is good’ ‘It is right’

Konungr segir, at ﬂat var illa at Arnljótr haf›i eigi farit á hans fund ‘King says that it was badly that Arnljótr had not gone on his meeting’ ‘The king says that it was bad that Arnljótr had not gone to see him’

ﬁú skalt heita ﬂræll, ok svá vera ‘You shall be-called slave and so be’ ‘You shall be called a slave and be so’

Var› Eyjólfr ﬂá framarlega ‘Became Eyjólfr then forward’ ‘Eyjólfr then came to be near the front’

In contradistinction to usage in the first two of the above sentences, adjectives may stand in apposition to subjects, objects or prepositional complements in Old Norse where English would employ an adverb or adverbial (cf. 3.5.4). This applies to comparatives and superlatives where a sequence or order is denoted, to quantifiers such as einn ‘one’, allr ‘all’, hálfr ‘half’, and to the locational terms mi›r ‘middle’, ﬂverr ‘transverse’. E.g.: Points of syntax 257

Skulu› ﬂit brœ›r fyrstir fara ‘Shall you-two brothers [as the] first go’ ‘You two brothers shall go first’

firym drap hann fyrstan ‘firymr killed he [as the] first’ ‘He killed firymr first’

Hann var einn konungr yfir landi ‘He was one king over country’ ‘He alone was king over the country’

Hví ertu í bló›i einu allr? ‘Why are-you in blood one all?’ ‘Why are you completely covered in blood?’

Kom sú á hann mi›jan ‘Came she onto him middle’ ‘It hit him in the middle (of his body)’

(Cf. also 3.1.5, sentence 20.)

3.9.8.2 Agreement between subject, verb and subject complement

Although the verb in Old Norse normally agrees in number with the (nominative) subject of the sentence (3.1.1, 3.2, 3.6.1), there are exceptions to the rule. Where the verb precedes one or more of a sequence of conjoined subjects, it will often appear in the same number as the subject which is closest. E.g. (with the relevant agreement in bold):

Var ﬂá Ulfr ok allir stafnbúarnir komnir at lyptingunni ‘Was then Ulfr and all forecastle-men-the come to poop- deck-the’ ‘Then Ulfr and all the forecastle men had got to the poop- deck’ 258 Morphology and syntax

T‡ndisk fé allt ok meiri hlutr manna ‘Lost-sk property all and greater part of-men’ ‘All the property was lost and most of the men’

Konungr var allmjƒk drukkinn ok bæ›i ﬂau ‘King was all-much drunk and both they’ ‘The king was very drunk and she as well’

Observe that in the first sentence the past participle komnir agrees with the plural subject allir stafnbúarnir (or, equally possible, both subjects together) rather than the singular subject Ulfr and the singular verb. (On the use of ﬂau in the last sentence, see 3.9.6.1.) Even where it precedes a lone plural subject, a verb may appear in the singular if several words intervene. E.g. (with the singular verb in bold):

Eptir flat dreif at fleim fóstbrœ›rum vinir fleira ór Fir›afylki ‘After that drifted to those foster-brothers friends their from Fir›afylki’ ‘After that their friends from Fir›afylki thronged to (join) the foster-brothers’

In sentences of the type X is Y, the verb often agrees in number with Y, the subject complement, especially when the subject is ﬂat ‘that’ ‘it’ or ﬂetta ‘this’. E.g. (with the relevant agreement in bold):

Váru ﬂat lítil sár ok mƒrg ‘Were that small wounds and many’ ‘The wounds were small and many’

Ekki munu ﬂetta fri›armenn vera ‘Not will this peace-men be’ ‘These will not be men of peace’

Slíkt eru konungsmenn, sem ﬂú ert ‘Such are king’s men as you are’ ‘You are the sort of person to be a king’s man’ Points of syntax 259

Notice further the propensity of past participles in such constructions to agree with the subject complement rather than the subject:

Var ﬂat mikill fjƒl›i or›inn ‘Was it great multitude become’ ‘It had become a great number’

Sometimes, however, agreement is with the subject:

fiat var fiorkell nefja, Karlshƒfu›, ok fiorsteinn ok Einarr flambarskelfir ‘That was fiorkell nefja, Karlshƒfu›, and fiorsteinn and Einarr flambarskelfir’

ﬁat var sí›an kallat Kvernbítr ‘It was thereafter called Kvernbítr [m.]’

3.9.8.3 -sk verb forms and ‘preposition adverbs’

As pointed out in 3.6.5.3, the -sk form may have reflexive and reciprocal function. Often this is combined with use of a preposition, which, in an abstract sense, governs the reflexive or reciprocal to which the -sk form gives expression. Since, however, there is no overt prepositional complement in such constructions, the preposition has the appearance of an adverb (cf. 3.7.7). E.g. (with the -sk form and preposition given in bold):

Kormakr litask um ‘Kormakr looks-sk around’ ‘Kormakr looks around him’

ﬁeir lƒg›usk allir ni›r fyrir kirkjunni ok bá›usk fyrir ‘They laid-sk all down before church-the and prayed-sk for’ ‘They all laid themselves down before the church and prayed for themselves’ 260 Morphology and syntax

Ek hefi nú vel um búizk ‘I have now well around prepared-sk’ ‘I have now protected myself all around’

Áttusk ﬂeir vi› drykkju ok or›askipti ‘Had-sk they with drinking and conversation’ ‘They had drinks and conversation with each other’

Horf›usk ﬂeir Gizurr at hƒf›unum ‘Faced-sk they Gizurr towards with-heads-the’ ‘Gizurr and he faced towards each other with their heads’

Where the preposition is immediately followed by a noun phrase (or noun phrases) as in the last two sentences, the student should be particularly careful not to jump to the conclusion that the two belong together. Neither *vi› drykkju ok or›askipti nor *at hƒf›unum is a preposition phrase, drykkju ok or›askipti being the accusative direct object of áttu, hƒf›unum a manner adverbial in the dative case.

3.9.8 Points of syntax affecting more than one type of phrase — Exercise

1. Old Norse sometimes employs adverbs as complements of vera ‘[to] be’ and ver›a ‘[to] become’. Give examples and compare and contrast Old Norse usage with English in this respect. 2. In Old Norse an adjective standing in apposition to subject, object or prepositional complement often corresponds to an adverb or adverbial in English. Give examples and compare and contrast Old Norse usage with English in this respect. 3. In what circumstances may an Old Norse verb not agree in number with a nominative subject? 4. Give a grammatical analysis of the sentence ﬂau rœddusk opt vi› ‘they often talked together’. Points of syntax 261

3.9.9 Adverbial ok

Sometimes ok appears at the beginning of an independent sentence with a sense equivalent to ﬂá ‘then’. In such cases a dependent temporal or conditional sentence almost always precedes (indeed, the ok or ﬂá represents a recapitulation, in the form of an adverb, of the dependent sentence, cf. 3.8, 3.9.1). E.g.:

Ok í annat sinn er ﬂeir raufa sey›inn, ﬂá er stund var li›in, ok var ekki so›it ‘And for second time COMP they open cooking-pit-the, then COMP short-while was passed, and was not cooked’ ‘And the second time they break open the cooking pit after a short while had passed, then it was not cooked’

Ef ma›r andask í úteyjum, ok eru ﬂeir menn skyldir at fœra lík til kirkju, er . . . ‘If man dies-sk in out-islands, and are those men bound to take body to church, COMP . . .’ If a man dies on some outlying island, then those men are responsible for taking the body to a church, who . . .

The second example is from a law text, where this use of ok for ﬂá is very common. 262 Morphology and syntax

A postscript on ‘impersonal’ constructions

The student may legitimately wonder why some verbs in Old Norse are construed without a nominative, and thus, apparently (cf. 3.9.3), without a subject. It was explained in 3.9.3 that sometimes this is because the focus is on the object and the subject is of no interest in the context. In, e.g.,

Hér hefr kristni sƒgu ‘Here begins of-Christianity saga’ ‘Here begins the history of the Church (in Iceland)’ the writer draws attention solely to the work and its commencement. Who caused it to commence is of no relevance, and indeed the individual(s) concerned would probably be hard to identify. There is a similarity here with some passive constructions in English. In, e.g.,

The church was built in the fourteenth century the point of interest is the time at which the building work took place, not who carried it out, which, as in the ON example, may not be (generally) known. What is missing in both the ON and the English sentence is of course the agent — which is nevertheless there in the background, understood although unspecified. But it has been argued by some that an agent has also been omitted from those types of ON ‘impersonal’ (i.e. non- nominative) construction in which an animate instigator cannot be conceived (e.g. daga ‘dawn’, skorta ‘lack’, dreyma ‘dream’; cf. further 3.9.3, pp. 230, 233–4). The verbs concerned tend to denote natural events, the passing of time, (chance) occurrences, want, feelings, im- pressions, etc. What is suggested is that at the time such constructions arose there was a belief in a mythological agency or agencies which controlled the events by which people were affected. Thus in, e.g.,

Gaf ﬂeim vel byri ‘Gave to-them well winds’ ‘They got favourable winds’ Points of syntax 263

Rak ﬂá ví›a um hafit ‘Drove them widely across sea-the’ ‘They drifted far across the sea’

Ragnhildi dróttning dreym›i drauma stóra ‘Ragnhildr queen [acc.] dreamt dreams big [acc.]’ ‘Queen Ragnhildr dreamt great dreams’ a recognised but (for whatever reason) unspecified power may have been conceived as directing the wind, driving boats across the sea, causing people to dream, and so on (cf. the further examples pp. 230, 233). It is not claimed that speakers of Old Norse thought in these terms; rather that they were using linguistic constructions inherited from an earlier age (many Indo-European and non-Indo-European languages exhibit similar types of phrase). The interconnection between nominative case and agent role suggested by this line of reasoning can also be viewed as having a historical basis. In 3.1.2 it was stressed that no morphological case is uniquely associated with a particular syntactic function in Old Norse, and that is equally true of semantic roles. It is conceivable, however, that to begin with each case did have a unique semantic role and syntactic function, and that in this pristine system nominative denoted the agent. Then, over the thousands of years that followed, much restructuring took place, including perhaps loss and amalgamation of several cases — leading to the Old Norse system in which morphological case, syntactic function and semantic role are far less obviously interconnected. Regardless of the correctness or otherwise of these ideas, the student may find them helpful in getting to grips with ‘impersonal’ constructions — a type alien to modern English. The closest equivalents are constructions such as it is raining, where it simply fills what would otherwise be an empty subject slot, or it seems to me, where the experiencer does not become subject but is presented as the recipient of external stimuli. We may also note the archaic construction methinks, comparable to ON ﬂyk(k)ir mér. 264 A New Introduction to Old Norse References to linguistic terms explained in the Grammar

References (by page number) are to the place or places where the term is most clearly explained and/or exemplified, usually the first occurrence. Items which form the subject matter of a (sub-)section or (sub-)sections of the Grammar are not normally included; these can be located using the list of contents (pp. vii–xi). Terms that are used only once or twice and are explained where they occur are also mostly omitted. absolute superlative 93 dual 62 accusative 22–7 accusative and infinitive 236–40 experiencer 70, 234 active 135–6 adverb of degree 128 front(ing) [vowels] 41–2 adverb of intensification 129 fronting [sentence elements] 226–7 adverb of manner 127 adverb of place 127 genitive 22–7 adverb of time 127 genitive of type 35 agent 31 agreement 38, 77–8, 131–2 imperative 135 analogical levelling 42 independent sentence 200 anaphoric pronoun 27 indicative 134–5 antecedent 208 indirect object 32–3, 35 attributive 77 infinitive 140, 147–8 auxiliary verb 133 instrumental(ity) 24 intonation 4 back vowel 42 labial 39 comparative 79 lexical item 147 complementiser 204 consonant cluster 13 marked 226–7 copula 242 matrix sentence 200 correlate 208–11 modal auxiliary 152 monophthongisation 102 dative 22–7 morphology 22 dative absolute 253–4 mutation 39, 41 definite article 56 dependent sentence 200–02 nominative 22–7 determiner 78–9 noun phrase 31–2 diphthong 9–10 direct object 32–3 object 32–3 discontinuity 220, 229 object complement 89 Linguistic terms 265 objective genitive 34, 90 reflexive 62 oblique 72 reflexive possessive 83 relative (pronoun) 201 paradigm 28 relative sentence 208 partitive 74 rounded, rounding 39 passive 135–6, 251–3 past infinitive 147–8, 239–40 subject 31 past participle 147 subject complement 32, 224–7 periphrastic 133 subjective genitive 34, 91 positive 79 subjunctive 134–5 possessive adjective 83 subordinate clause 200–02 possessive genitive 34 superlative 79 postposition 181 supine 156 preaspiration 18–19 syntax 22 predicate 131 predicative 77 that-clause 202 preposition phrase 181 present participle 147 unmarked 31–2 principal parts 148–9 unvoiced 12 raised subject 238–9 voiced 12 reciprocal 146 vowel gradation 141–2 266 A New Introduction to Old Norse Select glossary of linguistic terms not explained in the Grammar apposition The relationship between two or more sentence elements with the same syntactic function and identity or similarity of reference. E.g. hann átti Ragnhildi, dóttur Hrólfs ‘he was married to Ragnhildr, the daughter of Hrólfr’, where Ragnhildi and dóttur Hrólfs are in apposition. assimilation The influence of one sound on another, so that they become more alike or identical. E.g. lykill ‘key’ < *lykilr, with assimilation lr > ll. beneficiary The entity to which something is given, said, etc. or for which something is done, made, etc. E.g. fleir veittu honum li› ‘they gave him support’, where honum is the beneficiary. complement A syntactic element that ‘completes’ another element. E.g. var hann inn mesti hƒf›ingi ‘he was a very great ruler’, where hann is the subject and inn mesti hƒf›ingi the subject complement; í flenna tíma ‘at this time’, where í is a preposition and noun phrase flenna tíma the prepositional complement. complex Consisting of two or more separate elements. E.g. the preposition fyrir nor›an ‘north of’. compound Consisting of two or more elements which are combined. E.g. fjárskipti ‘division of property’ a compound noun made up of gen. fjár, from fé ‘property’ ‘money’, and skipti ‘division’. covert Not expressed, understood. In, e.g., fleim var engi kostr í brott at fara ‘there was no possibility for them to go away’, the subject of fara is not expressed, but is understood as identical with the fleim of fleim var engi kostr. declarative A sentence type used for statements, contrasting with interrogative, imperative, etc. E.g. Páll jarl fór til Orkneyja ‘Earl Páll went to the Orkneys’ is a declarative sentence, whereas hvárt fór Páll jarl til Orkneyja? ‘did Earl Páll go to the Orkneys?’ is interrogative and far›u til Orkneyja! ‘go to the Orkneys!’ imperative. goal The entity affected by the action expressed by a verb. In, e.g., fleir brenndu hann inni ‘they burnt him in his house’, hann ‘him’ is the goal of the action, the person burnt. govern(ment) A syntactic linkage whereby one word requires a particular morphological form of another word. E.g. the ON verb hefna ‘avenge’ governs the genitive of the person or thing avenged (hann hefndi bró›ur síns ‘he avenged his brother’); the preposition frá governs the dative (frá skipinu ‘from the ship’). Linguistic terms 267 head word The central word in a phrase. E.g. in ma›r gamall ‘an old man’, the noun ma›r is the head word, on which the adjective gamall is dependent; we find ma›r gekk út ‘a man went out’, but not *gamall gekk út ‘old went out’. infinitive clause A clause (sentence) with one or more infinitives but no finite verb — one of several types of non-finite clause. E.g. in dvel flú eigi at snúask til dróttins ‘do not wait to turn to the Lord’, at snúask til dróttins is an infinitive clause whose covert (understood) subject is the flú of the finite dvel flú eigi (see covert). infix An affix (a word element that can only be used when joined to another form) added within a word (see p. 65). inflexion A change to any part of a word (root, affix, ending) signalling grammatical relations (case, gender, number, tense, mood, etc.), e.g. hestr ‘horse’ (nom. sg.), hests (gen. sg.); hƒr› ‘hard’ (nom. f. sg., nom./ acc. n. pl.), har›ir (nom. m. pl.); bít ‘bite’ (1st sg. pres. indic.), beit (1st/ 3rd sg. past indic.). intransitive A verb which cannot take a direct object, e.g. liggja ‘lie’ ‘be situated’. modifier (modify) A word that is dependent on another word or phrase and qualifies its meaning. In, e.g., sá inn gamli ma›r ‘the old man’, the words sá inn gamli are all dependent on the head word ma›r: they qualify the meaning of ma›r, introducing the attribute of age and making the phrase definite. In draumr Hálfdanar, the genitive Hálfdanar is dependent on draumr and qualifies its meaning, indicating whose the dream was (see head word). overt Expressed, observable in the structure (see covert). past perfect A verb construction found in Germanic (and some other) languages consisting of the past tense of have (hafa etc.) and a supine, usually expressing a time prior to some past point of time. In, e.g., er fleir hƒf›u upp borit fƒngin, fóru fleir á land ‘after they had carried up the baggage, they went ashore’, the carrying precedes the going ashore, which is itself in the past. perfect As past perfect, but consisting of the present tense of have (hafa etc.) and a supine, and commonly expressing time viewed in relation to the present. In, e.g., vér hƒfum fengit mikinn ska›a á mƒnnum várum ‘we have suffered great losses to our men’, the losses are presented as relevant to the situation in which the words are spoken. phrase A sentence element consisting of one or more words, but usually reducible to a single word. E.g. skrín ins helga Magnúss jarls ‘the shrine of St Magnús the earl’ is a noun phrase, reducible to flat ‘it’; í flann 268 A New Introduction to Old Norse

tíma ‘at that time’ is a preposition phrase functioning as an adverbial, reducible to ﬂá ‘then’. root The basic form of a word, to which nothing has been added. E.g. tak-, root of the verb taka ‘take’, hei›-, root of the feminine noun hei›r ‘moor’, ‘heath’, lang-, root of the adjective langr ‘long’. semantics The study of meaning in language; sometimes simply used as a synonym for meaning. sentence The largest unit of grammar or syntax, i.e. the largest unit over which a grammatical or syntactic rule can operate. A sentence will always include one finite verb, and one only. Thus (finite verbs given in bold) Go! or John kicked the ball into the net are each sentences, whereas Gosh! or Looking to the future are not. The utterance She smiled because she was given a toy, but she often scowls contains three sentences: the independent (3.8) she smiled and [but] she often scowls and the dependent [because] she was given a toy. In traditional grammatical parlance what is here termed ‘sentence’ is known as a ‘clause’, ‘sentence’ being employed for broader and less clearly defined concepts such as ‘a statement that can stand on its own’. sentence element Used in the Grammar synonymously with phrase. simplex Consisting of a single element — non-complex or non-compound. E.g. á ‘on [etc.]’ is a simplex preposition as opposed to the complex fyrir nor›an ‘north of’; konungr ‘king’ is a simplex noun as opposed to the compound konungsma›r ‘king’s man’. stress Prominence given to a particular syllable because of the degree of articulatory force used in producing it. In, e.g., Skotlandi ‘Scotland’ (dat. n. sg.) there is primary stress on the first syllable, secondary stress on -land-, and little or no stress on the dative -i ending. substantive An alternative term for ‘noun’ — the part of speech denoting persons, places, concrete objects, concepts (e.g. Hrólfr, Ísland ‘Iceland’, hús ‘house’, gle›i ‘joy’). Formally substantives/nouns display certain types of inflexion, in Old Norse number: konungr ‘king’, konungar ‘kings’, case: konungr (nom.), konungi (dat.), and to a certain extent gender: dropi (m. with -i ending) ‘drop’, gata (f. with -a ending) ‘path’. Substantives/nouns also perform specific syntactic functions, appearing, e.g., as subject or object of a sentence or the complement of a preposition in a preposition phrase (examples under 3.1.5). substantivised Used as a substantive/noun. The term is applied to adjectives that stand in place of a substantive/noun, e.g. gott ‘good [nom./ acc. n. sg.]’, fáir ‘few [nom. m. pl.]’, hit ellra ‘the older [nom./acc. n. sg.]’ (see 3.3, 3.3.6, sentences 19–22, 26). Linguistic terms 269 suffix An affix (see infix) coming after the form to which it is joined. Examples of ON suffixes are the weak past tense markers -›, -d, -t (cf. kasta-›-i ‘threw’, with root kasta-, past tense suffix -› and 3rd sg. ending -i), and the definite article -inn (cf. hest-r-inn ‘the horse’, with root hest-, nom. sg. ending -r and suffixed nom. m. sg. def. art. -inn). transitive Verb which can take a direct object, e.g. drepa ‘kill’, hefna ‘avenge’. Bibliography

Cleasby, Richard and Gudbrand Vigfusson 1957. An Icelandic–English Dictionary (2nd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. Faarlund, Jan Terje 2004. The Syntax of Old Norse. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Gordon, E. V. 1957. An Introduction to Old Norse (2nd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. Haugen, Einar 1972. First Grammatical Treatise (2nd ed.). London: Longman. Haugen, Odd Einar 2001 (and later printings). Grunnbok i norrønt språk (4th ed.). Oslo: Ad Notam Gyldendal. Heusler, Andreas 1932 (and later printings). Altisländisches Elementar- buch (3rd ed.). Heidelberg: Carl Winter. Hreinn Benediktsson 1972. The First Grammatical Treatise. Reykjavík: University of Iceland. Höskuldur Thráinsson 1994. ‘Icelandic’. In: (E. König and J. van der Auwera eds) The Germanic Languages. London: Routledge, 142–89. Iversen, Ragnvald 1973 (and later printings). Norrøn grammatikk (7th ed.). Oslo: Aschehoug. Noreen, Adolf 1923. Altisländische und altnorwegische Grammatik (4th ed.). Halle: Niemeyer. Nygaard, M. 1905. Norrøn syntax. Kristiania: Aschehoug. Spurkland, Terje 1989. Innføring i norrønt språk. Oslo: Universitets- forlaget. Stefán Einarsson 1945 (and later printings). Icelandic. Baltimore: John Hopkins. Thomson, Colin D. 1987. Icelandic Inflections. Hamburg: Helmut Buske. Zoëga, Geir T. 1910. A Concise Dictionary of Old Icelandic. Oxford: Clarendon Press. A NEW INTRODUCTION TO OLD NORSE

PART II: READER

A NEW INTRODUCTION TO OLD NORSE

PART II READER

FOURTH EDITION

EDITED BY ANTHONY FAULKES

VIKING SOCIETY FOR NORTHERN RESEARCH UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON 2007 © VIKING SOCIETY FOR NORTHERN RESEARCH

ISBN: 978-0-903521-69-7

First published 2001 Second edition with corrections and additions 2002 Third edition with corrections and additions 2005 Fourth edition with corrections and additions 2007 Reprinted with minor corrections 2008

Printed by Short Run Press Limited, Exeter PREFACE This fourth edition of A New Introduction to Old Norse, Part II: Reader contains, in addition to all those in previous editions, nine new texts: extracts from The Book of Settlements, the Saga of Eiríkr the Red (about an expedition to Vínland), Njáls saga, a law-book (Grágás), a learned text (treatise on physiognomy), examples of Old Danish and Old Swedish writings and the Norwegian King’s Mirror; and two complete poems, another eddic (heroic) poem (Ham›ismál) and the ríma about St Óláfr. The vocabulary of these texts is included in the fourth edition of Part III: Glossary and Index of Names. The texts have been prepared and annotated by the following: I , XVII and XX: Michael Barnes. II, XVI and XIX: Anthony Faulkes. III, VIII, XXI and XXVII: Richard Perkins. IV, IX, X, XI and XXIV: Rory McTurk. V, VI, XV and XXVI: Alison Finlay. VII: Diana Whaley. XII and XXIII: David Ashurst. XIII and XXII: Carl Phelpstead. XIV: Peter Foote. XVIII: Elizabeth Ashman Rowe. XXV: John McKinnell. The introductions are by the same writers, except in the case of Text I. This is by Anthony Faulkes, who has also been general editor of the whole volume, and compiled the main Glossary and Index in Part III, the fourth edition of which includes supplementary Glossaries and Indexes to the East Norse texts and the runic inscriptions by Michael Barnes. The general ‘Introduction to the Study of Old Norse’ is by Alison Finlay. The plan of this volume was that it should include at least one extract from works in each of the main genres of Old Norse literature. This plan has now been fulfilled, and NION now offers an introduction to the whole range of early Scandinavian writings. Users of this book are reminded that several further complete Old Icelandic texts with glossaries are available in other Viking Society publications (see p. xxxiv below). The first part of Text I, the extract from Hrólfs saga, has a comprehensive grammatical commentary. The remainder of the extract is fully glossed with virtually complete references. It is recommended that vi A New Introduction to Old Norse students begin with this text to ensure that they understand the grammatical structure of Old Icelandic before proceeding to others where the grammatical information in the glossary and notes is much sparser. The succeeding texts are glossed with progressively fewer references, though it is hoped that all words have been explained on their first occurrence in each extract, so that it will not be necessary for them to be read in the order in which they are printed. Idioms and constructions are explained much more fully in the Glossary than is usual in teaching books because experience has shown that it is these that cause the greatest difficulty in understanding Old Icelandic texts; and numerous cross-references are included to help elementary students identify the entry forms of words that appear in the texts in guises that are difficult to recognise—another of the persistent problems of learning this language. Spelling, of both texts and textual notes, has been normalised, using the symbols listed in NION I, §§ 2.1.1–2.1.3 (with the addition of ‘∂’ for the short open e in Old Norwegian). This also applies to the verses, and the language of these has not been archaised as has been the custom in most previous editions. Word forms have on the whole not been changed from what appears in the manuscripts, either to conform to what is believed to have been normal in the early thirteenth century for early sagas or to replace the modern forms that appear in late manuscripts (e.g. in those of Hrólfs saga); or to replace the Norwegian forms that appear in Fagrskinna and Konungs skuggsjá. This is intended to help students to become accustomed to the wide variety of forms (archaic, dialectal, post-classical or analogical) that appear commonly in editions (and dictionaries and grammars), and also to ensure that they are aware of the different forms that underlie the normalised texts that have traditionally been used in teaching, and of the variations in the language between AD 900 and 1400 over the wide cultural area inhabited by Vikings in the Middle Ages. It should also make it easier for them to progress to independent reading of texts where the language is not fully normalised. All such variant forms are included in the Glossary in NION III, with cross-references as necessary. Emendations to the base texts have been marked by pointed brackets ‹ › around letters added to the manuscript readings, square brackets [ ] around letters supplied that are illegible and italics for letters changed (the manuscript readings in the last case are given in footnotes). Introduction to the study of Old Norse vii CONTENTS ABBREVIATIONS ...... viii INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF OLD NORSE ...... ix CHRONOLOGY ...... xxxvii MAP OF ICELAND ...... xl LIST OF LAWSPEAKERS ...... xlii I: HRÓLFS SAGA KRAKA ...... 1 II: Snorri Sturluson: EDDA ...... 15 III: Sturla fiór›arson: ÍSLENDINGA SAGA ...... 23 IV: KORMAKS SAGA ...... 35 V: BJARNAR SAGA HÍTDŒLAKAPPA ...... 43 VI: FAGRSKINNA ...... 55 VII: Snorri Sturluson: HEIMSKRINGLA ...... 79 A: ÓLÁFS SAGA TRYGGVASONAR ...... 82 B: HARALDS SAGA SIGUR‹ARSONAR ...... 89 C: THE ART AND CRAFT OF THE SKALDIC STANZA ...... 94 VIII: Ari fiorgilsson: ÍSLENDINGABÓK ...... 99 IX: fiRYMSKVI‹A ...... 127 X: V¯LUNDARKVI‹A ...... 141 XI: fiI‹REKS SAGA ...... 155 XII: SAGA AF TRISTRAM OK ÍS¯ND ...... 163 XIII: MARÍU SAGA ...... 173 XIV: JÓNS SAGA HELGA ...... 179 XV: LAXDŒLA SAGA ...... 191 XVI: AU‹UNAR fiÁTTR...... 201 XVII: RUNIC INSCRIPTIONS ...... 211 XVIII: MÖ‹RUVALLABÓK ...... 239 XIX: LANDNÁMABÓK ...... 255 XX: EAST NORSE ...... 261 XXI: EIRÍKS SAGA RAU‹A ...... 281 XXII: ÓLÁFS RÍMA HARALDSSONAR ...... 307 XXIII: PHYSIOGNOMY ...... 323 XXIV: KONUNGS SKUGGSJÁ ...... 333 XXV: HAM‹ISMÁL ...... 343 XXVI: NJÁLS SAGA ...... 363 XXVII: GRÁGÁS ...... 381 ABBREVIATIONS

BS = The Book of the Settlements. Landnámabók, tr. Hermann Pálsson and Paul Edwards (1972). CCIMA = Corpus Codicum Islandicorum Medii Aevi I–XX (1930–56). CSI = The Complete Sagas of Icelanders I–V, ed. Vi›ar Hreinsson et al. (1997). C–V = Richard Cleasby and Gudbrand Vigfusson, An Icelandic–English Dictionary. 2nd ed. by William A. Craigie (1957). DMA = Dictionary of the Middle Ages, ed. Joseph R. Strayer, 13 vols (1982–89). EÓS = Einar Ól. Sveinsson, The Age of the Sturlungs: Icelandic Civilization in the Thirteenth Century, tr. Jóhann S. Hannesson (1953). Gr = Michael Barnes, A New Introduction to Old Norse. Part I. Grammar (2004). Hkr = Snorri Sturluson, Heimskringla. History of the Kings of Norway, tr. Lee M. Hollander (1964 and reprints). HOIC = Jón Jóhannesson, A History of the Old Icelandic Commonwealth, tr. Haraldur Bessason (1974). ÍF = Íslenzk fornrit I– , 1933– . ION = E. V. Gordon, An Introduction to Old Norse. 2nd ed. by A. R. Taylor (1957). Laws = Laws of Early Iceland. Grágás I–II, tr. Andrew Dennis, Peter Foote, Richard Perkins (1980–2000). LP = Sveinbjörn Egilsson, Lexicon Poeticum, rev. Finnur Jónsson (1931). MRN = E. O. G. Turville-Petre, Myth and Religion of the North (1964 and reprints). MS = Phillip Pulsiano (ed.), Medieval Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia (1993). NION = A New Introduction to Old Norse. OddrÓT = Saga Óláfs Tryggvasonar af Oddr Snorrason munk, ed. Finnur Jónsson (1932). ON = Old Norse. PE = Edda: die Lieder des Codex Regius nebst verwandten Denkmälern, ed. Gustav Neckel, 4th ed., rev. Hans Kuhn (1962). Skj = Den norsk-islandske skjaldedigtning A I–II, B I–II, ed. Finnur Jónsson (1912–15). SnE, Gylfaginning = Snorri Sturluson, Edda. Prologue and Gylfaginning, ed. Anthony Faulkes (2005). SnE, Háttatal = Snorri Sturluson, Edda. Háttatal, ed. Anthony Faulkes (1999). SnE, Skáldskaparmál = Snorri Sturluson, Edda. Skáldskaparmál, ed. Anthony Faulkes (1998). VAch = Peter Foote and David M. Wilson, The Viking Achievement (1970). INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF OLD NORSE 1. Old Norse or Old Icelandic? The main aim of this Reader, and ultimately of A New Introduction to Old Norse as a whole, is to introduce students to representative extracts from works in each of the major genres of literature surviving in Old Icelandic, along with the necessary apparatus for reading these texts in their original language. This introduction offers a brief overview of these genres, together with an account of their context. Some bibliographical references are given at the end of each section, and more general suggestions for further reading are listed at the end of this Introduction, but these bibliographies are not exhaustive, and tend to favour works available in English. More specific introductory material and bibliographical suggestions can be found in the Intro- duction to each text in the Reader. The term ‘Old Norse’ has traditionally been used to refer to the language, literature and culture of medieval Scandinavia in the Middle Ages. Some scholars condemn the term as an appropriation of the culture and heritage of Iceland, and prefer the label ‘Old Icelandic’, since virtually all the surviving literary texts were either written in Iceland, or are preserved only in Icelandic manuscripts (Jónas Kristjánsson 1994). But ‘Old Norse’ does capture the fact that this literary heritage ultimately represents a culture originating in mainland Scandinavia, which was taken during the Viking Age (see 2 below) not only to the Viking colonies, including Iceland, that were established in the Atlantic, but also as far afield as Greenland and North America. According to accounts in the sagas, the impetus for the settlement of these colonies came primarily from Norway, though attempts have been made to gauge the accuracy of this account by scientific means, and to argue for a strong Celtic element in the early Icelandic population. The picture of strong cultural links between Norway, Iceland and settlements in Orkney, the Hebrides and northern Britain (including Ireland) has not been seriously challenged. The language of Norway and its colonies is referred to as West Norse, to distinguish it from East Norse, the language of Sweden and Denmark. For an account of the term ‘Old Norse’ as it applies to the language, see Grammar, ‘Introduction’ 1.2. Apart from the runic inscriptions in Text XVII, the texts included in this Reader have an Icelandic emphasis, which reflects the x A New Introduction to Old Norse predominance of the Icelanders in recording the history of the Scandinavian peoples, developing new literary forms, and preserving texts of many kinds through copying and reworking over many centuries. But Texts VI, XI and XXIV originated in Norway and a selection of East Norse extracts is included in Text XX. Even those primarily interested in the material culture — the history or archaeology — that comes within the sphere of Old Norse will find themselves extrapolating information from Icelandic texts. The study of Old Icelandic is also a starting point for runic studies, although there are virtually no genuinely medieval runic inscriptions in Iceland. But the medieval culture of Iceland is a rewarding study in itself. This remote outpost of Norway, first settled in the late ninth century, was the location for a unique political experiment; until 1262–64, when it became subject to the Norwegian crown, it remained a society without a king, ruled by an oligarchy of the most substantial landowners and chieftains. Though an Icelandic historian has recently described Iceland in this ‘Free State’ or ‘Commonwealth’ period as ‘a headless, feuding society’ (Helgi ﬁorláksson in McTurk 2005, 136), medieval Icelandic writers developed an ideology which represented it as self-sufficient and, within limits, egalitarian. The early history of their own society was represented in detail by Icelandic authors, but the historical account developed largely in the thirteenth century inevitably casts a mythologising glow over the period of settlement, and is treated with caution (if not dismissed) by modern historians. The literature of medieval Iceland is extraordinarily rich and includes at least two genres unparalleled elsewhere: the Sagas of Icelanders, highly sophisticated prose narratives relating the semi-fictionalised lives of early farmer heroes; and the highly-wrought skaldic poetry found in praise poems for Scandinavian and other rulers, usually composed by Icelandic poets, but also in less formal lausavísur (‘occasional verses’) scattered through the Sagas of Icelanders. Though in Germany and North America Old Norse is usually taught in departments of Germanic or Scandinavian studies, in Britain it has traditionally been studied as part of a degree in English. This is a historical survival of the development of antiquarian interest in the Anglo-Saxon past which began in the seventeenth century; scholars seeking to fill gaps in their knowledge of Anglo-Saxon antiquities turned to the rich heritage of Norse texts. The Scandinavian and Anglo- Introduction to the study of Old Norse xi

Saxon peoples were both offshoots of a common Germanic past: as well as speaking related languages, they shared a pre-Christian religion. There is evidence for this shared religion in the account of the Roman historian Tacitus, writing at the end of the first century AD, who refers in his Germania to the cult among the Germanic tribes of the goddess Nerthus, whose name is etymologically identical with that of the Norse god Njƒr›r. Yet extended accounts of this pagan religion are found only in Norse sources, the Prose Edda of Snorri Sturluson and the mythological poems of the Poetic Edda; early, sometimes pre-Christian references also survive in the diction of skaldic verses which Snorri’s Edda was written to explicate. Tacitus also refers to the warlike ideology of these early Germanic warrior peoples, for whom ‘it is infamy during life, and indelible reproach, to return alive from a battle in which their prince was slain. To preserve their prince, to defend him, and to ascribe to his glory all their own valorous deeds, is the sum and most sacred part of their oath.’ This so-called ‘heroic code’ of extreme bravery in battle has been seen as informing poems in English such as Beowulf and The Battle of Maldon, no less than the poems of Sigur›r and other heroes in the Poetic Edda, and their literary heirs, the warrior-farmers of the Sagas of Icelanders. And Beowulf reveals a more tangible link with early Scandinavia, since it tells of the deeds of legendary heroes of the Danes, Swedes and other early Germanic peoples, and alludes to legendary history also reworked in Icelandic sources such as the fourteenth-century Hrólfs saga kraka (see Text I). Tacitus, Agricola and Germania, tr. H. Mattingly (1973). R. W. Chambers, Beowulf: An Introduction (1921). Jónas Kristjánsson, ‘Er Egilssaga “Norse”?’, Skáldskaparmál 3 (1994), 216–31. R. I. Page, Norse Myths (1990, 1994). G. Turville-Petre, Myth and Religion of the North (1964). A. Wawn, The Vikings and the Victorians (2000).

2. The Vikings The period c.750–1050, known as the Viking Age, saw widespread incursions of Scandinavian peoples, mainly Norwegians and Danes, on the cultures of Western Europe. English and Frankish sources record the impact of the wælwulfas ‘slaughter-wolves’, as they are called in the Old English poem The Battle of Maldon, first as pagan despoilers of the rich resources of the monasteries on the Northumbrian coast, xii A New Introduction to Old Norse and across the Channel north of the Seine estuary, in the late eighth century. They conquered and established colonies in Orkney, Shetland, the Hebrides and around the Irish coast in the ninth century, the time also of the settlement of the previously uninhabited Atlantic islands, Iceland and the Faroes. The further colonisation of Greenland, and exploration in North America, are recorded in the Icelandic ‘Vinland sagas’ (see Text XXI), though these settlements did not turn out to be permanent. The battle of Maldon in 991 was probably part of a campaign led by the Danish king Sven Forkbeard (Sveinn tjúguskegg in Icelandic texts), which culminated in his conquest of the English kingdom in 1013. England was ruled after him by his son Knut (Canute in English, Knútr in Icelandic texts); Scandinavian claims to English rule ended, however, with the defeat of the Norwegian Haraldr har›rá›i at Stamford Bridge in 1066. While Viking raiders were ravaging in the west, similar activity was directed at eastern Europe and Russia from what is now Sweden. These Vikings targeted local resources, largely furs and slaves, which they obtained by seizure and the exaction of tribute. The term Rus, probably first used by the Finns of north-western Russia to refer to Scandinavians operating in their lands, gave what is now Russia its name. Trading routes were established to the Black Sea and as far south as Constantinople, where Scandinavians served the Byzantine Emperor as mercenary warriors in the Varangian guard. The Anglo-Saxon and Frankish chroniclers who recorded the Viking raids from the point of view of their victims gave these heathen plunderers an understandably bad press. A more sympathetic representation had to await the development of written culture in Scandinavia following the conversion to Christianity c.1000 AD; Icelandic writers of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, recreating the history of the Viking period, cast a contrastingly heroic glow over the activities of their ancestors. Some testimony contemporaneous to events survives in the form of skaldic verse, derived from eulogies to warlike leaders of the Viking Age. This must have survived for two centuries or more in oral form before it was embedded in the prose works of later writers. Sagas based on these verses and reproducing their warlike ideology record the history of the Norwegian and other Scandinavian kings, and the writers of Sagas of Icelanders elaborated the deeds of ordinary Icelandic farmers into Viking heroic epics. Introduction to the study of Old Norse xiii

Further evidence from pre-Christian times survives in the form of runic inscriptions. The runic alphabet was used in Scandinavia before the introduction of Latin alphabet. Although inscriptions appear most often on memorial stones and are brief and formulaic, they chart the movements of those commemorated, frequently travellers from Sweden via the Baltic and Russia to Constantinople. Runic inscriptions also provide valuable linguistic evidence for the early development of the Scandinavian languages (see Text XVII). The origin of the word Viking (víkingr) is obscure. It may derive from the region of Norway around Oslo, known in the Middle Ages as Víkin, or from the substantive vík ‘small bay’, suggesting that Vikings were prone to lurk in coves or bays, or from Old English wic ‘settlement’, particularly used in place-names of ports, associating them rather with centres of trade — whether as legitimate traders or attackers. In The Battle of Maldon, wicingas is used synonymously with many terms identifying the Norsemen as aggressors (wælwulfas) and, especially, seafarers (brimliﬂende, sæmenn). In Old Icelandic texts the word víkingr appears tainted with the same disapproval, and is usually applied not to heroic figures but to thugs and ‘berserkir’; but fara í víking (to go on a Viking expedition) was a proper rite of passage for the young saga hero. M. P. Barnes and R. I. Page, The Scandinavian Runic Inscriptions of Britain (2006). S. Blöndal, The Varangians of Byzantium, tr. B. S. Benedikz (1978). P. Foote and D. Wilson, The Viking Achievement (1970, repr. 1980). G. Jones, A History of the Vikings (1984). G. Jones, The Norse Atlantic Saga (1986). J. Jesch, Women in the Viking Age (1991). R. I. Page, Runes (1987). Peter Sawyer, ed., The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings (1997).

3. The Early History of Iceland The history of Iceland from its first settlement (dated to 870) down to 1118 is told in the Íslendingabók of Ari fiorgilsson (see Text VIII and p. 56 below), probably written about 1134. This book, which in the surviving manuscripts is called Libellus Islandorum — or rather the first, now lost version from 1122–33 on which it is based, which Ari refers to as Íslendingabók — is probably the first narrative work to xiv A New Introduction to Old Norse be written in Icelandic, though Ari himself refers to the first recording of parts of the laws in the eleventh century. Ari uses a system of chronology that relates events in the history of Iceland to the larger picture of the Christian history of Europe. He deals with the settlement and the establishment of the law; the founding of the Alflingi, the annual general assembly held at fiingvellir in south-west Iceland each summer at which legislation was passed and litigation pursued; the division of the country into fjór›ungar (‘quarters’ or administrative districts; see map on pp. xl–xli); the settlement of Greenland; and — as a climax — the conversion to Christianity and the history of the early bishops. A more detailed account of the settlement of Iceland is given in Landnámabók (‘The Book of Settlements’), which may originally have been compiled as early as 1100 by contemporaries of Ari, who has been thought to have had a role in the compilation himself (see Text XIX). It records in topographical order the arrival in Iceland of some 430 settlers, giving details of their families and descendants. Surviving versions are from the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries and later, much expanded with material from Sagas of Icelanders and elsewhere, so that their historicity is hard to assess. Ari’s account of the conversion to Christianity in about 1000 AD tells a remarkable story of the adoption of the new religion by a consensus reached by the ruling oligarchy of large landholders and chieftains. A more detailed account is given in the thirteenth-century Kristni saga, probably written by Sturla fiór›arson. The history of the Church in the years 1056–1176 is chronicled in another thirteenth- century work, Hungrvaka (‘Awakener of Hunger’), relating the history of the first five bishops of Iceland. The Biskupa sögur, more extensive biographies of the bishops of the eleventh to the fourteenth centuries, were often written by contemporaries of the bishops themselves or other clerics (see Text XIV). The laws of the Icelandic commonwealth are preserved in the composite collection known as Grágás (‘Grey Goose’), found in various fragments and copies the earliest of which is from the mid- twelfth century (see Text XXVII). It is difficult to assess the relation of the surviving material to the originally oral law, recited annually at the Alflingi by the lawspeaker, part of which, according to Ari, was first committed to writing in 1117–18. With the submission of Iceland to Norway in 1262–64 Grágás was superseded first by a law code Introduction to the study of Old Norse xv called Járnsí›a and then by Jónsbók, of which many fine manuscripts survive. These codes were drafted in Norway. The later secular history of Iceland down to the 1260s was told in Sturlunga saga, actually a compilation of sagas sometimes called samtí›arsögur (‘Contemporary Sagas’, or more accurately ‘Sagas of Con- temporaries’) (see section 10 below and Text III), since they were written by contemporaries and sometimes eyewitnesses of the events related. Íslendingabók. Landnámabók, ed. Jakob Benediktsson, Íslenzk fornrit I (1968). Biskupa sögur I, ed. Sigurgeir Steingrímsson, Ólafur Halldórsson and P. Foote, Íslenzk fornrit XV (2003) (Includes Kristni saga, Kristni flættir, Jóns saga ins helga). Biskupa sögur II, ed. Ásdís Egilsdóttir, Íslenzk fornrit XVI (2002) (Includes Hungrvaka, fiórláks saga byskups, Páls saga byskups). Biskupa sögur III, ed. Gu›rún Ása Grímsdóttir, Íslenzk fornrit XVII (1998) (Includes Árna saga biskups, Lárentíus saga biskups). Sturlunga saga I–II, ed. Jón Jóhannesson, Magnús Finnbogason and Kristján Eldjárn (1946). Íslendingabók – Kristni saga. The Book of the Icelanders – The Story of the Conversion, tr. S. Grønlie (2007). The Book of Settlements, tr. Hermann Pálsson and P. Edwards (1972). Laws of Early Iceland I–II, tr. A. Dennis, P. Foote and R. Perkins (1980– 2000). Jón Jóhannesson, A History of the Old Icelandic Commonwealth (1974). Jón Vi›ar Sigur›sson, Chieftains and Power in the Icelandic Commonwealth (1999). D. Strömbäck, The Conversion of Iceland (1957). Einar Ól. Sveinsson, The Age of the Sturlungs, Islandica XXXVI (1953). J. Byock, Viking Age Iceland (2001). Orri Vésteinsson, The Christianization of Iceland: Priests, Power and Social Change 1000–1300 (2000).

4. The Language This Reader offers texts, mostly in excerpts, in the original language from the full range of Old Icelandic literary genres. Many of the best- known texts can be read in translation, and references to some available translations are included at the end of each section of this Introduction and on pp. xxxiv–xxxvi as well as in the separate introductions to each extract. But experiencing the texts in their original language repays the difficulty of learning the language in many ways. This is of course true of literature in any language. In the particular case of xvi A New Introduction to Old Norse

Icelandic, the distinctive laconic and often ironical style of the sagas is often diluted in translation. The highly specialised linguistic requirements of poetry, particularly the highly technical demands of skaldic poetry, cannot be adequately met in translation; and leaving aside issues of literary style, there are pitfalls in attempting to assess the validity of Old Norse texts as historical sources without reference to their original form and idiom, especially where their import depends on the intricate interweaving of prose with verse citation. A basic introduction to the Old Norse language and its relation to Modern Icelandic can be found in A New Introduction to Old Norse. Part 1: Grammar, Chapter 1, and a bibliography of grammatical and linguistic works on p. 267 of the same book (2nd edition). A supplementary list is included below, concentrating on dictionaries of most use to students, and works available in English. Stefán Karlsson, The Icelandic Language (2004). J. Fritzner, Ordbog over det gamle norske Sprog I–III (1883–96); IV, Finn Hødnebø, Rettelser og Tillegg (1972) (Old Norse–Danish/Norwegian). R. Cleasby and G.Vigfusson, An Icelandic-English Dictionary (1874). G. T. Zoega, A Concise Dictionary of Old Icelandic (1919). Ordbog over det norrøne prosasprog/A Dictionary of Old Norse Prose (1: a–bam, 2: ban–da, 3: de–em) (1995–, in progress) (Old Norse–Danish and English). Sveinbjörn Egilsson, Lexicon Poeticum, rev. Finnur Jónsson (1931) (Old Norse–Danish; poetic, particularly skaldic, vocabulary). B. La Farge and J. Tucker, Glossary to the Poetic Edda (1992).

5. Sagas The word saga is related to the verb segja ‘to say’, meaning to say or tell, and refers in medieval texts to almost any kind of narrative predominantly in prose (though the term is not used of some books that we would call chronicles). Icelandic medieval narratives are of many different kinds, some of them unique to Icelandic, others translations or adaptations of other European genres. Their division into different categories or types of saga is largely the work of modern scholars, however; though the terms konungasögur (‘Kings’ Sagas’) and riddarasögur (‘Knights’ Sagas’ or romances) occur occasionally in medieval contexts, the others are modern inventions. The development of saga writing has sometimes been represented as a progression from the early translation of Latin Saints’ Lives into Introduction to the study of Old Norse xvii the vernacular, to the full flowering of the Sagas of Icelanders, and then to a decline into a fashion for more fantastic forms; but this is misleading. The writing of one kind of saga did not cease with the development of new types, and some of the translations of ‘fantastic’ European romances are among the earliest sagas to be written. The reality is that most of these kinds of saga were being written con- currently throughout the medieval period, and cross-fertilised and influenced each other. According to the Preface to Snorri Sturluson’s Saga of St Óláfr, ﬁat var meirr en tvau hundru› vetra tólfrœ› er Ísland var byggt, á›r menn tœki hér sƒgur at rita ‘It was more than 240 years after the settlement of Iceland that people began to write sagas here’ (Heims- kringla II, 422). This places the beginning of saga writing at about 1110, which agrees with modern estimates; there is evidence of vernacular writing in Iceland from the early twelfth century (for an account of this early period of Icelandic writing, see Turville-Petre 1953). Snorri’s phrase sƒgur at rita highlights the necessary question whether there was such a thing as a pre-literary, oral saga. It is assumed that most of the sagas must go back to oral roots, but the question of the forms that oral narrative might have taken is still much debated (see Clover 1986), and discussions of the sagas as literary types must be limited to the written texts we know. ‘Ór Óláfs sƒgu ins helga inni sérstƒku’ in Heimskringla II, ed. Bjarni A›albjarnarson, Íslenzk fornrit XXVII (1945), pp. 419–51. C. Clover, ‘The Long Prose Form’, Arkiv för nordisk filologi 101 (1986), 10–39. P. Foote, ‘Sagnaskemtan: Reykjahólar 1119’, Saga-Book XIV, 226–39 (1953– 56) (repr. in Aurvandilstá (1984), 65–83). Gísli Sigur›sson, The Medieval Icelandic Saga and Oral Tradition (2004). G. Turville-Petre, Origins of Icelandic Literature (1953).

6. Sagas of Icelanders The best-known category of saga is the Íslendingasögur or Sagas of Icelanders, also known as Family Sagas. These are now taken to be the most distinctive and significant Icelandic saga form, although this was not always the case; in the nineteenth century, when the sagas were read more literally as historical sources, the Kings’ Sagas were valued more highly, at least by readers outside Iceland. There are about 40 Sagas of Icelanders, narrating events that mostly took place or were said to have taken place in the period 930–1030, which is therefore xviii A New Introduction to Old Norse often called the ‘Saga Age’. Many begin with preludes reaching back before the beginning of the settlement of Iceland in 870. The sagas range in length from just a few pages to the epic scope of Njáls saga (see Text XXVI), 159 chapters in the standard edition. Some, such as Gísla saga or Grettis saga, are biographically structured on the life of a single individual; others, such as Laxdœla saga (see Text XV), deal with several generations of the same family or of the inhabitants of a district. Most of the main characters, and some of the events of the sagas, are clearly historical, though their treatment is fictional. Since the sagas were written during the thirteenth century about events some three centuries earlier, they have been compared with historical novels (see Harris 1986), but this undervalues their genuinely historical intent to reconstruct the past in a manner which the author and audience probably thought of as likely to be true. From a modern perspective we can see that thirteenth-century preoccupations, and sometimes reflections of thirteenth-century events, have been projected onto the sagas’ recreation of the past, and in fact the whole project of the writing of the Sagas of Icelanders is often interpreted as a reaction to the turbulent political situation in thirteenth-century Iceland, a deliberate idealising of the distinctively Icelandic Commonwealth period at a time when Iceland was submitting to the Norwegian throne. It is also significant that the period covered by the sagas exactly spans the period of Iceland’s conversion to Christianity in 1000 AD, and a major preoccupation in many sagas is either the event of the conversion itself, or the contrast of the author’s attitude to the pagan past with his own Christian world view. These sagas can be divided into sub-groups on the basis of their geographical origin within Iceland; those from the east (such as Hrafnkels saga) tend to be shorter, those from the north and west, such as Kormaks saga (see Text IV) and Bjarnar saga Hítdœlakappa (see Text V), more often include skaldic verses, allegedly spoken by the characters in the sagas themselves. There are also thematic groupings: the ‘outlaw sagas’ about Grettir, Gísli and Hƒr›r, and the poets’ sagas, including those believed to be the very earliest Sagas of Icelanders, dealing with Icelanders who served as skalds at the courts of Scandinavian rulers. Also included in the Sagas of Icelanders are the so-called Vinland Sagas, dealing with the settlement of Greenland and the expeditions made from there to North America; the name derives from Vínland, meaning ‘land of wine’, the name given to one Introduction to the study of Old Norse xix of the places visited (see Text XXI). Archaeological investigations in North America have confirmed the presence of Viking settlers at L’Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland, although the Vinland sagas include a good deal of fanciful and confused material. The Sagas of Icelanders are sometimes described as feud sagas. Some critics have interpreted feud as a fundamental structuring device in these sagas, others have drawn the conclusion that feud was as much a preoccupation in medieval Icelandic society as it was in the literary world of the sagas. Íslenzk fornrit II–XIV (1933–91). Íslendinga sögur, ed. Jón Torfason et al., 2 vols (1985–86) (Version in Modern Icelandic spelling, also available on CD-rom with searchable concordance (1996)). The Complete Sagas of Icelanders I–V, tr. Vi›ar Hreinsson et al. (1997); several of the sagas in this collection are reproduced in The Sagas of Icelanders, introduction by R. Kellogg (2000). T. M. Andersson, The Problem of Icelandic Saga Origins: A Historical Survey (1964). T. M. Andersson and W. I. Miller, ‘Introduction’. In Law and Literature in Medieval Iceland: Ljósvetninga saga and Valla-Ljóts saga (1989). Einar Ól. Sveinsson, Dating the Icelandic Sagas (1958). J. Harris, ‘Saga as Historical Novel’. In Structure and Meaning in Old Norse Literature. New Approaches to Textual Analysis and Literary Criticism. Ed. John Lindow, Lars Lönnroth and Gerd Wolfgang Weber (1986), 187–219. K. Liestøl, The Origin of the Icelandic Family Sagas (1930). W. I. Miller, Bloodtaking and Peacemaking: Feud, Law and Society in Saga Iceland (1990). P. M. Sørensen, Saga and Society (1993). J. Tucker, ed., Sagas of Icelanders. A Book of Essays (1989). Vésteinn Ólason, Dialogues with the Viking Age: Narration and Represen- tation in the Sagas of the Icelanders (1998).

7. Kings’ Sagas The sagas known as konungasögur or Kings’ Sagas are mainly historical biographies of the kings of Norway, though other Scandinavian states are represented too: Kn‡tlinga saga concerns the kings of Denmark, and Orkneyinga saga the rulers of Orkney, technically not kings but jarls. According to a chronological model the Kings’ Sagas would have to precede the Sagas of Icelanders, since their roots lie in earlier historical works, some in Latin, some in the vernacular, written xx A New Introduction to Old Norse in both Norway and Iceland in the twelfth century. The Íslendingabók of Ari ﬁorgilsson (see Text VIII), from about 1130, is an example of this early historiography, and of course the surviving version concentrates on the history of Iceland; but Ari’s preface tells us of an earlier version, now lost, that included konunga ævi (‘lives of kings’). It is not clear what form these took or how detailed they were. For further details of early historiography, see the Introduction to Text VI below (pp. 56–58, and bibliography p. 60). The Kings’ Sagas also have roots in hagiography (the lives of saints or heilagra manna sögur), since they draw on early lives of the two missionary kings of Norway, Óláfr Tryggvason, credited with the conversion of the Nordic countries, and his successor Óláfr Haraldsson inn helgi (‘the Saint’). The fact that Icelanders were involved in historical writing from the start, in Norway as well as in Iceland, either as authors or as authoritative sources, must be linked with the fact that Icelanders had a virtual monopoly of the profession of court poet to Scandinavian rulers, composing the complex dróttkvætt (‘court metre’) or skaldic verse (see 12 below) that was used as an essential oral source by the writers of Kings’ Sagas. It is said in the Prologue to Snorri Sturluson’s Heimskringla that this poetry is the most reliable kind of historical source since the complexity of the metre renders it less prone to corruption and change than oral report not in verse would be. The stylistic technique developed in the Kings’ Sagas, where a verse is cited as authority for what has been said in a prose passage, undoubtedly influenced the practice of citing verse in the Sagas of Icelanders too, where it is used to promote a realistic impression even in cases where it is not difficult to see that the verse cited has no historical authenticity. The most distinguished example of the Kings' Saga genre is Snorri Sturluson’s Heimskringla (see Text VII), a collection of sixteen sagas of kings of Norway from its legendary origins to the late twelfth century, structured as a triptych of which the central and longest third is the biography of King Óláfr the Saint. Snorri probably wrote the collection in the 1220s or 1230s; he had already written the saga of King Óláfr as a free-standing work before incorporating it in the collection. Snorri drew on earlier, shorter works covering all or some of the same historical span, such as Morkinskinna and Fagrskinna (see Text VI), but these are continuous narratives rather than being divided into biographies of individual kings. The writing of Kings' Introduction to the study of Old Norse xxi

Sagas after Snorri became a process of expansion, using his work as a basis but interpolating material of different kinds; ironically enough, a late compilation such as the fourteenth-century Flateyjarbók re- instates some of the more fantastic hagiographical or legendary material that Snorri had pruned from his sources. Another kind of elaboration found in both Morkinskinna and Flateyjarbók is the inclusion of flættir (the singular form is fláttr), often thought of as comparable to the modern short story but characterised by their context within the texture of the Kings' Sagas; they typically relate an encounter between the king in question and a visitor to his court, usually an Icelander, and help to reveal the king’s character in a fictional, and often humorous mode (see Au›unar fláttr, Text XVI). The assembling of the Kings’ Sagas into these larger wholes tends to mask their diversity; in Heimskringla the mythological and legendary Ynglinga saga, drawing on poetic and oral sources to relate the descent of the early kings of Sweden and Norway from the pagan gods, contrasts both with the hagiographical Saga of St Óláfr and with sagas giving near-eyewitness accounts of events of the late twelfth century. Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar, indeed, written by Sturla fiór›arson, chronicles the life of the king who oversaw the submission of Iceland to Norway, and can be read alongside Sturlunga saga as a source for the thirteenth-century history of Iceland.

Flateyjarbók, ed. Gu›brandur Vigfússon and C. R. Unger, 3 vols (1860–68). Heimskringla I–III, ed. Bjarni A›albjarnarson, Íslenzk fornrit XXVI–XXVIII (1941–51). Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar, ed. G. Vigfusson, tr. G. Dasent, Icelandic Sagas II and IV, Rolls series (1887–94). Kn‡tlinga saga, in Danakonunga sögur, ed. Bjarni Gu›nason, Íslenzk fornrit XXXV (1982). Orkneyinga saga, ed. Finnbogi Gu›mundsson, Íslenzk fornrit XXXIV (1965). Stories from the Sagas of the Kings, ed. A. Faulkes (1980). Two Icelandic Stories, ed. A Faulkes (1967, repr. 1978). Heimskringla, tr. L. M. Hollander (1964). S. Bagge, Society and Politics in Snorri Sturluson’s Heimskringla (1991). J. Harris, ‘Theme and Genre in some Íslendinga ﬂættir’, Scandinavian Studies 48, 1–28 (1976). J. Knirk, Oratory in the Kings’ Sagas (1981). E. A. Rowe, The Development of Flateyjarbók (2004). D. Whaley, Heimskringla, An Introduction (1991). xxii A New Introduction to Old Norse

8. Legendary sagas (fornaldarsögur) The category of fornaldarsögur (‘sagas of the ancient time’), known as Legendary or Mythical–Heroic Sagas, is more miscellaneous, encom- passing about thirty texts many of which are based in the remote Germanic past and include many fantastic episodes and themes. The increasing popularity of these sagas in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and the fact that the Sagas of Icelanders believed to be comparatively late (such as Grettis saga) show a taste for this kind of material, has led the fornaldarsögur to be dismissed as a late and even decadent form, the suggestion being that at a time of cultural decline the Icelanders sought refuge in an escapist view of the golden age of the heroic past. More recently an opposing interpretation has been that the increased taste, from the late thirteenth century onwards, for more fictional forms, including a readiness to engage with foreign models, represents a new literary self-confidence in Iceland. As far as chronology is concerned, it is important to bear in mind that what may have been the earliest example of this genre, Skjƒldunga saga, a history of the earliest Danish kings which is now mostly lost, was written probably near the end of the twelfth century, before any of the Sagas of Icelanders were written. The legendary Ynglinga saga would also come into this category if it were not subsumed into Snorri’s historical scheme. So sagas of this kind were being produced throughout the period of composition of the Sagas of Icelanders. Some fornaldarsögur are prose retellings of known heroic poems; Vƒlsunga saga, for instance, is a rather flat paraphrase of the legendary poems of the Poetic Edda, with the story of the dragon-slaying Sigur›r at its centre. Another group closer to folktale in its origins is sometimes called ‘Adventure Tales’ and includes themes such as the quest, sometimes but not always for a wife and kingdom. The way in which the fornaldarsögur put their diverse sources to use as entertainment can be illustrated by the story of Bƒ›varr Bjarki in Hrólfs saga kraka (see Text I), which tells the essentially heroic story of a hero who rids the hall of the Danish King Hrólfr (the Hroﬂulf of Beowulf) of a marauding beast. A similar story is told in Beowulf in epic mode, but gets a burlesque treatment in the Icelandic saga. Fornaldar sögur Nor›urlanda I–IV, ed. Gu›ni Jónsson (1950). Hervarar saga ok Hei›reks, ed. C. Tolkien and G. Turville-Petre (1956). Saga Hei›reks konungs ins vitra ( = Hervarar saga), ed. and tr. C. Tolkien (1960). Introduction to the study of Old Norse xxiii

The Saga of the Volsungs, ed. and tr. R. G. Finch (1965). Icelandic Histories and Romances, tr. R. O’Connor (2002). The Saga of King Hrolf Kraki, tr. J. Byock (1998). Seven Viking Romances, tr. Hermann Pálsson and P. Edwards (1985). Ármann Jakobsson et al., eds, Fornaldarsagornas struktur och ideologi (2003) (includes several articles in English). C. Clover, ‘Maiden-Warriors and Other Sons’, Journal of English and Germanic Philology 85, 35–49 (1986). Torfi Tulinius, The Matter of the North. The Rise of Literary Fiction in Thirteenth-Century Iceland (2002).

9. Heilagra manna sögur Other saga genres are more closely related to their European counterparts. The genre of heilagra manna sögur (‘sagas of holy people’, Saints’ Lives) has the distinction of being the first kind of saga to be written in Iceland. The practice of writing was introduced to Iceland by the Church, as elsewhere in Europe, and the first documents written in the vernacular language were, not surprisingly, translations of foreign religious texts, such as Saints’ Lives, for the instruction of lay people. One of the earliest surviving is Matheus saga, one of the postola sögur (Sagas of Apostles), which must date from earlier than 1150; at the other extreme Thómas saga erkibyskups, a life of the twelfth-century English saint Thomas Becket, whose cult was enormously popular in Iceland, is extant in several versions from the thirteenth century and later. The genre is represented in this Reader by the account of a miracle from Maríu saga (Text XIII). Although this group belongs to an international genre, Turville-Petre and others argue that the realistic mode and use of dialogue of the native Icelandic genres can be traced back to the style of these early translated texts: as he says (1953, xx), ‘the learned literature did not teach the Icelanders what to think or what to say, but it taught them how to say it’. Clemens saga, ed. and tr. H. Carron (2005). The Icelandic Legend of Saint Dorothy, ed. K. Wolf (1997). Heilagra manna sögur, ed. C. R. Unger (1877). The Old Norse–Icelandic Legend of Saint Barbara, ed. and tr. K. Wolf (2000). Postola sögur, ed. C. R. Unger (1874). Matheus saga postula, ed. Ólafur Halldórsson (1994). Thómas saga erkibyskups, ed. C. R. Unger (1869). Jónas Kristjánsson, ‘Learned Style or Saga Style?’ In Speculum Norrœnum, ed. U. Dronke et al. (1981), 260–92. xxiv A New Introduction to Old Norse

O. Widding et al., ‘The Lives of the Saints in Old Norse Prose: A Handlist’. Updated version in M. Cormack, The Saints in Iceland: Their Veneration from the Conversion to 1400 (1963).

10. Contemporary Sagas (samtí›arsögur) The genre of Heilagra manna sögur has connections both with the lives of the missionary kings (see above under Kings’ Sagas), and with the biskupa sögur, lives of the bishops of Iceland from the eleventh to the fourteenth centuries. Of these, the lives of the two bishops who achieved sanctity, ﬁorlákr and Jón of Hólar (see Text XIV), though classic hagiographies in their rhetoric and cataloguing of miracles, have features in common with the samtí›arsögur (‘Contemporary Sagas’). These last are mainly collected into a large compilation called Sturlunga saga (see Text III), and deal with more recent events in Iceland’s history than the Sagas of Icelanders, in particular the extensive feuds and factional war leading up to the submission of Iceland to Norway in 1262–64. With these sagas we come closest to the modern conception of history, and they are generally accepted as historically reliable in a way that the Sagas of Icelanders are not, but their effect of realism is often created using the same carefully contrived conventions as those of the more fictional genre. Hrafns saga Sveinbjarnarsonar, ed. Gu›rún P. Helgadóttir (1987). Sturlunga saga, ed. Jón Jóhannesson et al., 2 vols (1946). ﬁorgils saga ok Hafli›a, ed. U. Brown (1952). Sturlunga saga, tr. J. McGrew and R. G. Thomas (1970–74). Einar Ól. Sveinsson, The Age of the Sturlungs. Icelandic Civilization in the Thirteenth Century, tr. Jóhann S. Hannesson, Islandica XXXVI (1953). P. Foote, ‘Sturlusaga and its Background’, Saga-Book 13, 207–37 (1950–51). G. Nordal, ‘Sturlunga saga and the Context of Saga-Writing’, in Introductory Essays on Egils saga and Njáls saga, ed. J. Hines and D. Slay (1992), 1–14. G. Nordal, Ethics and Action in Thirteenth-Century Iceland (1998). S. Tranter, Sturlunga saga: The Role of the Creative Compiler (1987).

11. Riddarasögur The riddarasögur (‘Sagas of Knights’) or chivalric sagas can be divided into translations of romances popular in Europe and England, and indigenous Icelandic romances making use of the same courtly milieu and themes. As with the fornaldarsögur, the writing of riddarasögur is sometimes seen as a late development, but we know Introduction to the study of Old Norse xxv from a preface attached to the earliest surviving one, Tristrams saga ok Ísƒndar (see Text XII), that it was composed in 1226 at the court of King Hákon of Norway, which makes it squarely contemporaneous with the writing of the earliest Sagas of Icelanders. Although a new florid style was developed for the writing of riddarasögur, these early translations at least are strikingly similar to the Sagas of Icelanders in their use of an apparently impersonal narrative perspective, and while tending to stick closely to the events recorded in their originals, strip out most of the elements of description and refined analysis of emotion characteristic of their French originals. Riddarasögur, ed. Bjarni Vilhjálmsson, 6 vols (1949–54). Norse Romance I–III, ed. M. Kalinke (1999). G. Barnes, ‘The Riddarasögur: A Medieval Exercise in Translation’, Saga- Book 19 (1977), 403–41. G. Barnes, ‘Arthurian Chivalry in Old Norse’, in Arthurian Literature VII (1987), 50–102. M. Kalinke, King Arthur North by Northwest. The matière de Bretagne in Old Norse–Icelandic Romances (1981). M. Kalinke, ‘Scribes, Editors, and the riddarasögur’, Arkiv för nordisk filologi 97 (1982), 36–51. H. G. Leach, Angevin Britain and Scandinavia (1921, repr. 1975). P. M. Mitchell, ‘Scandinavian Literature’, in Arthurian Literature in the Middle Ages, ed. R. S. Loomis (1959), 462–71. M. Schlauch, Romance in Iceland (1934, repr. 1973). G. W. Weber, ‘The Decadence of Feudal Myth: Towards a Theory of Riddarasaga’, in Structure and Meaning in Old Norse Literature. New Approaches to Textual Analysis and Literary Criticism, ed. John Lindow, Lars Lönnroth and Gerd Wolfgang Weber (1986), 415–54.

12. Eddic poetry Eddic poetry is so named after the collection of 29 poems called the Poetic Edda, preserved in a manuscript from c.1270 known as the Codex Regius, and dating from the ninth to the twelfth centuries. The origin of the term edda is uncertain. It was used of the Codex Regius collection by its seventeenth-century owner, Bishop Brynjólfur Sveinsson, who called it ‘Sæmundar Edda’ (mistakenly believing it to be written by the early Icelandic historian, Sæmundr Sigfússon) to distinguish it from Snorra Edda, the prose work by Snorri Sturluson. This suggests that in the seventeenth century the term was taken to imply a collection of mythological material, though it is clear that in xxvi A New Introduction to Old Norse the Middle Ages, as for Snorri Sturluson, it meant ‘Art of Poetry’. The poems of the Codex Regius are arranged thematically, ten dealing with mythological material, nineteen with heroes of the legendary Germanic past. A section of perhaps eight leaves, now missing from the manuscript, would have included further heroic poems. Six mythological poems (or parts of them), one of which is not in the Codex Regius, are preserved in the fragmentary manuscript AM 748 I a 4to, from about 1300, which may have been another, similar poetical compilation, and a few others in manuscripts of Snorra Edda and elsewhere. The metres of eddic poetry derive from the Germanic alliterative pattern essential also to Old English, Old Saxon and some Old High German verse. While the structural unit in these languages is the long line made up of two linked half-lines, eddic verse breaks up into stanzas of variable length, but most usually of eight lines (equivalent to four Old English long lines, the lines linked in pairs by alliteration). The prevailing metre, fornyr›islag ‘old story (or ‘talk’) metre’, normally includes two stressed syllables and a varying number of unstressed syllables in each line, and either one or two stressed syllables in the first half-line alliterate with the first stressed syllable of the second half-line. Variant metres are málaháttr ‘speeches metre’, in which each line is heavier, and made up of no fewer than five syllables, and ljó›aháttr ‘songs-form’, in which two lines of fornyr›islag are followed by a third, so called full line, which alliterates within itself. A basic account of eddic metres is found in Turville-Petre 1976, xiii–xvi. The first four poems of the Edda focus on the god Ó›inn, and — through his perpetual quest for wisdom — on mythological and gnomic lore. All are cast in direct speech. Vƒluspá, made up of Ó›inn’s dialogue with a sybil from the giant world, relates the events — past, present and future — in the history of the gods, ending in their downfall at ragnarƒk (‘the doom of the gods’) and the regeneration of the world and a new generation of gods. Vafflrú›nismál and Grímnismál are both catalogue poems set in narrative frameworks; Hávamál ‘the speeches of the high one’ is itself a compilation of several separate poems, incorporating catalogues of gnomic wisdom as well as events from the god’s own history. Skírnismál narrates the winning by the god Freyr of the giant-bride Ger›r. The remaining mythological poems are concerned with fiórr, including the humorous Hárbar›sljó›, in Introduction to the study of Old Norse xxvii which fiórr is outwitted by the cunning of Ó›inn, and firymskvi›a, the burlesque account of fiórr’s journey to Jƒtunheimr to retrieve his stolen hammer (see Text IX). Lokasenna is a satirical poem in which the gods are comprehensively attacked by the ambiguous god-giant Loki, who accuses each of them in turn of immorality; it ends with fiórr’s forcible silencing of Loki. Vƒlundarkvi›a (see Text X), which tells of the supernatural smith Vƒlundr (‘Weland’ in Old English, later Wayland) and his revenge against the tyrant Ní›u›r, may be seen as a bridge between the mythological poems proper, and those dealing with the world of men (though it is followed by the mythological Alvíssmál, another catalogue set in the narrative frame of a wisdom contest, about fiórr’s encounter with a dwarf). The heroic poems of the Edda deal with legendary figures — the two Helgis, Sigur›r, Gunnarr and Ham›ir (see Text XXV) whose stories must originally have been distinct, but who, even before the compilation of the Codex Regius, were beginning to be linked into a cycle. This process culminated in the fourteenth-century Vƒlsunga saga, a prose retelling that completes the fusion of these legends into a single family saga and attempts to smooth out the elements of contradiction and overlap introduced by the juxtaposition of originally separate poems from a variety of styles and periods. At the centre is the hero Sigur›r, slayer of the dragon Fáfnir (Siegfried in German versions of the story), who is betrothed to the valkyrie Brynhildr but marries Gu›rún Gjúkadóttir, and suffers vengeance at the hand of Gu›rún’s brother Gunnarr, who is married to Brynhildr. Some figures in the eddic poems, such as the Atli of Atlakvi›a (Attila the Hun) and his enemy Gunnarr, king of the Burgundians, have an identifiable historical background and elements of their stories can be found in early histories such as that of the sixth-century Jordanes (see Dronke 1969, 29–38 and 192–96). The story of Sigur›r is told with considerable differences in the Middle High German Nibelungenlied.

Die Lieder des Codex Regius nebst verwandten Denkmälern, ed. G. Neckel, rev. H. Kuhn (1962). Hávamál, ed. D. Evans, with Glossary and Index by A. Faulkes (1986–87). Vƒluspá, ed. S. Nordal, tr. B. Benedikz and J. McKinnell (1978). The Poetic Edda I: Heroic Poems, ed. and tr. U. Dronke (1969). The Poetic Edda II: Mythological Poems, ed. and tr. U. Dronke (1997). xxviii A New Introduction to Old Norse

The Poetic Edda, tr. C. Larrington (1996). P. Acker and C. Larrington, eds, The Poetic Edda: Essays on Old Norse Mythology (2002). B. Fidjestøl, The Dating of Eddic Poetry: A Historical Survey and Methodo- logical Investigation (1999). R. J. Glendinning and Haraldur Bessason, eds, Edda. A Collection of Essays (1983). T. Gunnell, The Origins of Drama in Scandinavia (1995). P. Hallberg, Old Icelandic Poetry (1975). J. McKinnell, Both One and Many. Essays on Change and Variety in Late Norse Heathenism (1994). K. von See et al., Kommentar zu den Liedern der Edda I–V (1993–2006).

13. Skaldic poetry This term derives from the Old Norse word skáld ‘poet’, appropriately in that, while eddic poetry is anonymous, most skaldic poetry is attributed to a named poet. The Icelandic term for the metre most common in skaldic poetry is dróttkvætt, an adjective derived from dróttkvæ›r ‘poetry in court metre’, referring to the aristocratic milieu of this poetic style. The earliest surviving skaldic poetry dates from the ninth century, but poems in skaldic metres, usually on religious subjects, continued to be composed throughout the fourteenth century. Skaldic poetry is famous for its convoluted syntax, elaborate diction and taxing alliterative, rhyming and syllable-counting requirements (for an exposition of these, see VII C below). The Kings’ Sagas include accounts of skalds appearing at courts, in Norway and elsewhere, to offer poems in praise of rulers, and it seems there was a premium set on length and elaborate construction (there are stories of skalds who get into trouble by offering a mere flokkr or sequence of verses in place of a drápa, a formal poem of at least twenty stanzas, including at least one refrain); but most surviving poems are experienced in more fragmentary form, in quotations in Kings’ Sagas, often of no more than a single stanza, in the context of the event they refer to. Their reconstitution into long poems, few of which can be considered complete, and where the order of the stanzas is often in doubt, is the work of modern editors. On the other hand, the authors of the histories who cite these verses as corroboration for their historical narrative, and for whom they must often have been the only source, usually identify the poet by name and often give a Introduction to the study of Old Norse xxix name to the poem to which the verse belongs as well (see Texts VI and VII for the citing of verses as historical evidence). Most early court poets were Norwegian, but from c.1000 most skalds seem to have come from Iceland. In the Sagas of Icelanders the citing of verse is superficially similar in that an episode may be supported by the citation of a single verse, but the verse is more often woven into the fabric of the narrative as dialogue, or the comment of an individual on the events of the saga. These verses are usually lausavísur or free-standing verses, specific to the occasion they refer to, though attempts have been made to reconstruct longer poems from some. Like the verses in the Kings’ Sagas, some of these verses must have survived in oral form from the time of their composition (which may often have been later than the events or claimed events to which they are tied in the sagas), and have been the sources for the thirteenth-century prose narratives in which they are incorporated. But their historical authenticity is harder to establish than that of the Kings’ Sagas verses, and some are taken to be ‘forgeries’, or in less emotive terms, embellishments composed by the saga authors themselves to enhance the apparent historicity of their narratives. A sub-group among the Sagas of Icelanders is the so-called poets’ sagas, written mostly early in the thirteenth century, which seem to indicate an interest in the biographies of Icelandic poets. But although they quote a good deal of occasional verse attributed to the poet, they seem almost to avoid the public or historical role of the court poet (see Text IV, which features love verse by the poet Kormakr, and even a stanza he shares with his beloved, Steinger›r; and Text V, in which the rival poets Bjƒrn Hítdœlakappi and ﬁór›r Kolbeinsson recite verses). The saga which investigates most closely the temperament and sensibility of the poet is Egils saga Skallagrímssonar, often supposed to be the work of Snorri Sturluson. Another repository of skaldic poetry dismembered into single stanzas, and an invaluable source of information about it, is the Prose Edda of Snorri Sturluson (also known as Snorra Edda). In this treatise Snorri set out, according to his own account, to instruct young poets in the mysteries of skaldic verse at a time when its conventions may have become less popular and memories of the pagan religion that underpinned it were beginning to fade. The work consists of four parts: a Prologue; Gylfaginning, an outline of the pre-Christian Norse xxx A New Introduction to Old Norse religion supported by quotations from eddic mythological poems; Skáldskaparmál (‘the language of poetry’) giving an account of the kennings (poetic periphrases) and heiti (poetic synonyms) used by the skalds, and liberally exemplified by quotations; and Háttatal (‘catalogue of verse-forms’), which takes the form of a poem, composed by Snorri himself, in 102 stanzas, each exemplifying a variant skaldic verse-form. His Edda is thus a vital source of information on both mythology and the skaldic craft. Although it is primarily a learned work, the stories in Gylfaginning and Skáldskaparmál are told with verve and humour (see Text II below). Háttatal was most probably composed after Snorri’s first visit to Norway in 1218–20, and the rest of his Edda may well have been written later. While the art of skaldic poetry had acknowledged roots in the pagan religion, its conventions were adapted after the Conversion to Christian themes. Poets of the Conversion period straddle the two religions: Hallfre›r vandræ›askáld, for instance, composed for both the pagan Jarl Hákon and, later, Hákon’s proselytising Christian successor, Óláfr Tryggvason, and the poet’s saga dramatises the story of his own conversion (in which he demands, and gets, the king’s agreement to act as his godfather) and its implications for his poetic craft. By the twelfth century Church patronage was encouraging the development of a genre of religious drápur, adapting the conventions of dróttkvætt within a literate monastic culture, in contrast to the oral context of their predecessors. Where earlier encomiastic poems survive fragmentarily as scattered references within the Kings’ Sagas, twelfth-century drápur such as Geisli, composed by the Icelander Einarr Skúlason for recitation at the shrine of St Óláfr in Ni›aróss (Trondheim), probably in 1153, are the earliest to survive complete. Poets continued to compose extended poems in dróttkvætt into the fourteenth century, fusing traditional skaldic elements with themes derived from continental material. A development from skaldic poetry, probably originating early in the fourteenth century and remaining popular well into the nineteenth, was the distinctively Icelandic genre of rímur. These long narrative poems, sometimes interspersed with lyrical passages called mansöngvar (‘love poems’), often reworked the narrative material of sagas, usually fornaldarsögur and riddarasögur. They made use of skaldic diction but with rhythms closer to those of ballads. Óláfs ríma Haraldssonar (Text XXII) is the earliest surviving example. Introduction to the study of Old Norse xxxi

Den norsk-islandske skjaldedigtning, A I–II: Tekst efter håndskrifterne, B I–II: Rettet tekst, ed. Finnur Jónsson (1912–15). Einarr Skúlason’s Geisli, A Critical Edition, ed. M. Chase (2005). Fourteenth-Century Icelandic Verse on the Virgin Mary, ed. K. Wrightson (2001). Snorri Sturluson, Edda: Prologue and Gylfaginning, ed. A. Faulkes (2nd edn 2005). Snorri Sturluson, Edda: Skáldskaparmál, ed. A. Faulkes, 2 vols (1998). Snorri Sturluson, Háttatal, ed. A. Faulkes (1991). Snorri Sturluson, Edda, tr. A. Faulkes (1987). K. Attwood, ‘Intertextual Aspects of the Twelfth-Century Christian drápur’. Saga-Book 24, 221–39. A. Faulkes, What was Viking Poetry For? Inaugural Lecture, University of Birmingham (1993). B. Fidjestøl, Det norrøne fyrstediktet (1982). B. Fidjestøl, Selected Papers (1997). R. Frank, Old Norse Court Poetry, Islandica XLII (1978). K. E. Gade, The Structure of Old Norse Dróttkvætt Poetry, Islandica XLII (1994). E. A. Kock, Notationes Norrœnæ (1923–41). R. Meissner, Die Kenningar der Skalden (1921, repr. 1984). G. Nordal, Tools of Literacy. The Role of Skaldic Verse in Icelandic Textual Culture of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries (2001). R. Perkins, ‘Rowing Chants and the Origins of dróttkvæ›r háttr’. Saga-Book 21 (1984–85), 155–221. R. Poole, Viking Poems on War and Peace: A Study in Skaldic Narrative (1991). G. Turville-Petre, Scaldic Poetry (1969). Website: Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages: www.skaldic.arts.usyd.edu.au

14. Modern Icelandic Icelandic is a conservative language and has changed less since the Middle Ages than the other Scandinavian languages, so that medieval texts are still comparatively accessible to the modern Icelandic reader. Many editions of medieval texts, including most of those in this Reader, are printed in a normalised spelling that aims to represent the language of the thirteenth century; though this differs somewhat from modern Icelandic spelling, it is much closer to modern spelling than is that of the original manuscripts. Although pronunciation has changed considerably, this is masked by the fact that many teachers of Old Norse xxxii A New Introduction to Old Norse adopt modern pronunciation. For an account of differences between Old and Modern Icelandic pronunciation, see NION I, pp. 14–21. Ásgeir Blöndal Magnússon, Íslensk or›sifjabók (1989) [etymological dictionary]. Ásta Svavarsdóttir and Margrét Jónsdóttir, Íslenska fyrir útlendinga. Kennslu- bók í málfræ›i (1998). D. Neijmann, Colloquial Icelandic. The Complete Course for Beginners (2001). Sverrir Hólmarson et al., Concise Icelandic–English Dictionary (1989).

15. Manuscripts Attitudes to medieval literature in post-medieval Iceland were also conservative. As in other European countries, antiquarian interest in the medieval past began to develop in the Renaissance, but this went alongside an unbroken tradition of the copying of medieval texts. This continued long after the introduction of printing, with handwritten and printed texts existing side by side. Several thirteenth-century sagas are now preserved only in manuscripts from the seventeenth century and later. The spelling of texts reproduced in this Reader has been normalised, with conventional abbreviations expanded editorially; as an introduction to reading texts as they appear in early manuscripts, an extract from the fourteenth-century Mö›ruvallabók (Text IV) has been reproduced in facsimile as Text XVIII. With the revival of antiquarian interest in the Nordic medieval past, and the consciousness of its preservation largely in Icelandic manuscripts, scholars in Scandinavia made collections of Icelandic manuscripts. The largest of these was built up over a lifetime by the Icelandic scholar Árni Magnússon, who was employed as assistant to the Danish Royal Antiquarian, Thomas Bartholin, and later as Professor of History at the University of Copenhagen. During a ten-year stint (1702–12) on a royal commission making a census of all the farms in Iceland he scoured the country for manuscripts and documents of all kinds; after his return to Denmark in 1713 he continued to obtain manuscripts in Norway and Denmark, as well as those he was given or sold by connections in Iceland. Many that he was unable to buy he copied, or commissioned others to copy; he also painstakingly researched the provenance of manuscripts. Despite a fire in Copenhagen in 1728 that destroyed a few dozen of Árni’s manuscripts (together with all his printed books and some of his notes), Árni did more than anyone Introduction to the study of Old Norse xxxiii else to preserve Iceland’s medieval literary heritage. His collection was bequeathed to the University of Copenhagen when he died in 1730, and was the basis for the manuscript institute there that still carries his name. As a result of negotiations in the mid-twentieth century, a large proportion of this collection (mainly manuscripts whose subject matter related specifically to Iceland) has now been returned to Iceland, where it is housed in an institute that also bears Árni’s name, The Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies. The first manuscripts to be returned were the Codex Regius of the Poetic Edda and the great Kings’ Saga compilation Flateyjarbók. Many Icelandic manuscripts have been printed in facsimile editions. Some can also be viewed on the internet at: http://am.hi.is/WebView/ http://arnamagnaeansk.ku.dk/haandskriftssamlingen/eks/ Hreinn Benediktsson, Early Icelandic Script (1965). Corpus Codicum Islandicorum Medii Aevi I–XX (1930–56). Early Icelandic Manuscripts in Facsimile I–XX (1958–93). Íslenzk handrit. Icelandic Manuscripts I– (1956–). Gísli Sigur›sson and Vésteinn Ólason (eds), The Manuscripts of Iceland (2004). Jónas Kristjánsson, Icelandic Illuminated Manuscripts (1993). O. Bandle et al., The Nordic Languages. An International Handbook of the History of the North Germanic Languages I (2002).

General reference and further reading C. Clover and J. Lindow, eds, Old Norse–Icelandic Literature. A Critical Guide. Islandica XLV (1985). M. Clunies Ross, ed., Old Icelandic Literature and Society (2000). P. Foote, Aurvandilstá: Norse Studies (1984). E. V. Gordon, ed., An Introduction to Old Norse, 2nd ed. rev. A. R. Taylor (1957). J. Jesch, Ships and Men in the Late Viking Age: the Vocabulary of Runic Inscriptions and Skaldic Verse (2001). J. Jochens, Old Norse Images of Women (1996). Jónas Kristjánsson, Eddas and Sagas (1988). Kulturhistorisk leksikon for nordisk middelalder I–XXII (1956–78). R. McTurk, ed., A Companion to Old Norse-Icelandic Literature and Culture (2005). Sigur›ur Nordal, Icelandic Culture, tr. Vilhjálmur T. Bjarnar (1990). P. Pulsiano, ed., Medieval Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia (1993). Stefán Einarsson, A History of Icelandic Literature (1957). xxxiv A New Introduction to Old Norse

Icelandic texts in English editions Texts with notes and glossary: Bandamanna saga, ed. H. Magerøy (1981). Egils saga, ed. Bjarni Einarsson (2003). Einar Skúlason’s Geisli, A Critical Edition, ed. M. Chase (2005). Gunnlaugs saga, ed. P. Foote and R. Quirk (1953). Hávamál, ed. D. Evans, with Glossary and Index by A. Faulkes (1986–87). Hervarar saga, ed. C. Tolkien and G. Turville-Petre (1956). Hrafns saga Sveinbjarnarsonar, ed. Gu›rún P. Helgadóttir (1987). Snorri Sturluson, Edda: Prologue and Gylfaginning, ed. A. Faulkes (2nd edn 2005). Snorri Sturluson, Edda: Skáldskaparmál, ed. A. Faulkes, 2 vols (1998). Snorri Sturluson, Háttatal, ed. A. Faulkes (1991, repr. 1999). Stories from the Sagas of the Kings, ed. A. Faulkes (1980). Two Icelandic Stories, ed. A. Faulkes (1978). Two Tales of Icelanders: Ögmundar fláttr dytts og Gunnara Helmings. ¯lkofra fláttr, ed. I. Wyatt and J. Cook (1993). Vafflrú›nismál, ed. T. W. Machan (1989). Víga-Glúms saga, ed. G. Turville-Petre (1960). Vƒluspá, ed. S. Nordal, tr. B. Benedikz and J. McKinnell (1978). fiorgils saga ok Hafli›a, ed. U. Brown (1952).

Texts with parallel translation: Ágrip af Nóregskonungasƒgum, ed. M. J. Driscoll (1995). The Book of the Icelanders, ed. Halldór Hermannsson, Islandica XX (1930). Clemens saga, ed. H. Carron (2005). The First Grammatical Treatise, ed. Einar Haugen (1972), ed. Hreinn Benediktsson (1972). Fourteenth-Century Icelandic Verse on the Virgin Mary (2001), ed. K. Wrightson (2001). R. Frank, Old Norse Court Poetry, Islandica XLII (1978). Gunnlaugs saga, ed. P. Foote, tr. R. Quirk (1957). Guta saga, ed. C. Peel (1999). Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar, ed. G. Vigfusson, tr. G. Dasent, Icelandic Sagas II and IV, Rolls series (1887–94). Hávamál, ed. D. E. M. Clarke (1923). Historia Norwegie, ed. I. Ekrem and L. B. Mortensen, tr. P. Fisher (2003). Jómsvíkinga saga, ed. N. Blake (1962). Norse Romance I–III, ed. M. Kalinke (1999). The Old Norse–Icelandic Legend of Saint Barbara, ed. and tr. K. Wolf (2000). The Poetic Edda I: Heroic Poems, ed. and tr. U. Dronke (1969). The Poetic Edda II: Mythological Poems, ed. and tr. U. Dronke (1997). Introduction to the study of Old Norse xxxv

The Poetry of Arnórr jarlaskáld, ed. and tr. D. Whaley (1998). Saga Hei›reks konungs ins vitra ( = Hervarar saga), ed. and tr. C. Tolkien (1960). The Saga of the Volsungs, ed. and tr. R. G. Finch (1965).

Translations of the Sagas of Icelanders: The Complete Sagas of Icelanders I–V, ed. and tr. Vi›ar Hreinsson et al. (1997). Many of these translations are reproduced by Penguin under the heading ‘World of the Sagas’, as follows: The Sagas of Icelanders, introduction by R. Kellogg (2000) [Egils saga, Vatnsdœla saga, Laxdœla saga, Hrafnkels saga Freysgo›a, Bandamanna saga, Gísla saga, Gunnlaugs saga, Refs saga, Grœnlendinga saga, Eiríks saga rau›a, ﬂættir] Egil’s Saga, tr. B. Scudder, introduction by Svanhildur Óskarsdóttir (2004). Gisli Sursson’s Saga and the Saga of the People of Eyri, tr. Vésteinn Ólason, J. Quinn and M. Regal (2003). Njál’s saga, tr. R. Cook (2002). Sagas of Warrior Poets, ed. D. Whaley (2002) [Kormaks saga, Bjarnar saga Hítdœlakappa, Hallfre›ar saga, Gunnlaugs saga, Víglundar saga]. The Saga of Grettir the Strong, tr. Bernard Scudder (2005).

Other translations: Arrow-Odd: a medieval novel, tr. Hermann Pálsson and P. Edwards (1970). The Book of Settlements, tr. Hermann Pálsson and P. Edwards (1972). T. M. Andersson and W. I. Miller, Law and Literature in Medieval Iceland: Ljósvetninga saga and Valla-Ljóts saga (1989). Bar›ar saga, tr. Jón Skaptason and P. Pulsiano (1984). The Confederates and Hen-Thorir, tr. Hermann Pálsson (1975). Erik the Red and other Icelandic sagas, tr. G. Jones (1961). Eyrbyggja saga, tr. P. Schach and L. M. Hollander (1959). Fagrskinna, tr. A. Finlay (2004). Fljotsdale saga and the Droplaugarsons, tr. E. Howarth and J. Young (1990). Gautrek’s Saga, tr. D. Fox and Hermann Pálsson (1974). Gongu-Hrolfs saga, tr. Hermann Pálsson and P. Edwards (1981) Heimskringla, tr. L. M. Hollander (1964). A History of Norway and the Passion and Miracles of the Blessed Óláfr, tr. D. Kunin, ed. C. Phelpstead (2001). Hrafnkel’s Saga and Other Icelandic Stories, tr. Hermann Pálsson (1971). Hrolf Gautreksson, tr. Hermann Pálsson and P. Edwards (1972). Icelandic Histories and Romances, tr. R. O’Connor (2002). King Haralds Saga by Snorri Sturluson, tr. Magnus Magnusson and Hermann Pálsson (1976). Íslendingabók – Kristni saga. The Book of the Icelanders – The Story of the Conversion. tr. S. Grønlie (2007). xxxvi A New Introduction to Old Norse

Karlamagnús saga: the saga of Charlemagne and his heroes, tr. C. B. Hieatt (1975). Knytlinga saga: History of the Kings of Denmark, tr. Hermann Pálsson and P. Edwards (1986). Laws of Early Iceland I–II, tr. A. Dennis, P. Foote and R. Perkins (1980–2000). Laxdaela Saga, tr. Magnus Magnusson and Hermann Pálsson (1975). The Life of Gudmund the Good, Bishop of Hólar, tr. G. Turville-Petre and E. S. Olszewska (1942). Morkinskinna, tr. T. M. Andersson and K. E. Gade, Islandica LI (2000). Oddr Snorrason, The Saga of Olaf Tryggvason, tr. T. M. Andersson, Islandica LII (2003). Orkneyinga Saga: The History of the Earls of Orkney, tr. Hermann Pálsson (1981). The Poetic Edda, tr. C. Larrington (1996). The Saga of Bjorn, Champion of the Men of Hitardale, tr. A. Finlay (2000). The Saga of the Jomsvikings, tr. L. M. Hollander (1988). The Saga of King Hrolf Kraki, tr. J. Byock (1998). The Saga of King Sverri of Norway, tr. J. Sephton (1899, reissued 1994). The Saga of Tristram and Isond, tr. P. Schach (1973). The Saga of the Volsungs: The Norse Epic of Sigurd the Dragon Slayer, tr. J. Byock (1999). The Sagas of Kormak and the Sworn Brothers, tr. L. M. Hollander (1949). Saxo Grammaticus, History of the Danes, tr. P. Fisher, ed. H. E. Davidson (1979–80). The Schemers and Víga-Glúm: Bandamanna saga and Víga Glúms saga, tr. G. Johnston (1999). Seven Viking Romances, tr. Hermann Pálsson and P. Edwards (1985). J. Simpson, The Northmen Talk (1965). J. Simpson, Icelandic Folktales and Legends, 2nd ed. (2004). The Skalds, A Selection of their Poems, tr. L. M. Hollander (1968). Snorri Sturluson, Edda, tr. A. Faulkes (1987). Sturlunga saga, tr. J. McGrew and R. G. Thomas (1970–74). Sven Aggesen, Works, tr. E. Christiansen. Theodoricus Monachus, Historia de Antiquitate Regum Norwagiensium. An Account of the Ancient History of the Norwegian Kings, tr. D. and I. McDougall (1998). Three Icelandic Outlaw Sagas. The Saga of Gisli, the Saga of Grettir, the Saga of Hord, tr. A. Faulkes and G. Johnston (2004). Viga-Glums saga, tr. J. McKinnell (1987). Vikings in Russia: Yngvars saga and Eymund’s saga, tr. Hermann Pálsson and P. Edwards (1989). The Vinland sagas: Grænlendinga saga and Eirik’s saga, tr. Magnus Magnusson and Hermann Pálsson (1973). Introduction to the study of Old Norse xxxvii

CHRONOLOGY

AD Poets fl. c.725 Beowulf written 793 First viking raid on Northumbria c.850 Beginning of viking settlement in England [Bragi the Old c.870 Beginning of viking settlement in Iceland 871 Alfred the Great becomes king of England c.885 Haraldr finehair becomes king of all [fijó›ólfr of Hvinir Norway [fiorbjƒrn hornklofi 930 Foundation of Alflingi c.965 Division of Iceland into quarters [Eyvindr skáldaspillir c.985 Beginning of settlement of Greenland [Egill, Kormakr 995 Óláfr Tryggvason becomes king of Norway [Einarr skálaglamm 999/1000 Christianity accepted in Iceland [Hallfre›r c.1000 Discovery of America by vikings c.1005 Fifth court established 1010 Burning of Njáll 1014 Battle of Clontarf [Sighvatr 1030 Fall of St Óláfr at Stikla(r)sta›ir [Arnórr jarlaskáld 1056 First bishop at Skálaholt. Sæmundr the Wise born [fijó›ólfr Arnórsson 1066 Fall of Haraldr har›rá›i in England. Battle of Hastings 1067/8 Ari the Wise born 1096 Tithe laws introduced 1106 First bishop at Hólar 1117–18 Laws first written down c.1125 Íslendingabók compiled 1133 First monastery established (at fiingeyrar) c.1150 Earliest Icelandic manuscript fragments 1153 Archbishopric established at Ni›aróss [Einarr Skúlason c.1170 First Grammatical Treatise. Hryggjarstykki 1179 Snorri Sturluson born c.1190–1210 Sverris saga 1197 Jón Loptsson dies 1199 Bishop fiorlákr of Skálaholt declared saint 1200 Bishop Jón of Hólar declared saint 1214 Sturla fiór›arson born 1215–18 Snorri lawspeaker 1217 Hákon Hákonarson becomes king of Norway 1218–20 Snorri’s first visit to Norway c.1220 The Prose Edda 1222–31 Snorri lawspeaker again 1226 Tristrams saga xxxviii A New Introduction to Old Norse

1237–9 Snorri’s second visit to Norway 1240 Duke Skúli killed 1241 Snorri Sturluson killed 23rd September c.1250 Oldest surviving manuscript fragment of a saga of Icelanders (Egils saga) 1261 Magnús Hákonarson crowned king in Norway 1262–4 Icelanders acknowledge the king of Norway as their sovereign 1263 King Hákon dies c.1275 Codex Regius of eddic poems. Morkinskinna c.1280 Njáls saga. Hrafnkels saga. King Magnús Hákonarson dies 1284 Sturla ﬁór›arson dies c.1320 Grettis saga c.1340 Chaucer born c.1350 Mö›ruvallabók written [Eysteinn Ásgrímsson 1382 Flateyjarbók begun 1397 Norway and Iceland come under Danish rule 1550 Reformation in Iceland 1944 Iceland regains complete independence

Introduction to the study of Old Norse xxxix

○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

Lygisƒgur

○○○○ ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ ○○○○○

≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈⇒

Rímur

≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈⇒

≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈

≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈

Bishops’ Sagas ≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈

Sagas of Icelanders

Heroic Sagas

Romances

≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈

≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈

≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈

○ ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

Christian poetry ≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈ Dansar ≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈

Learned prose

Saints’ lives ≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈ Kings’ Sagas

Sagas of Contemporaries

‘Saga Age’ ‘Age of Peace’ Age Age’ Sturlung ‘Saga

Settlement

lines mark the time of the conversion to Christianity (1000), the end of the Commonwealth (1262) and the Reformation (1550).

The diagram shows the approximate periods during which the various medieval Icelandic literary genres were cultivated. The dotted The diagram shows the approximate periods during which the various medieval Icelandic literary genres were cultivated.

Eddic poetry ⇐≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈ Skaldic poetry ⇐≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈

AD 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600

BREI‹FIR‹INGA-

Skagafjƒr›r

g n u T

Skálmarfjƒr›r Mi›fjƒr›r Ví Hólar ›im‡rr • Ur›ir• FJÓR‹UNGR • Flugum‡rr •ﬁingeyrar • • ﬁorskafjƒr›r•Ingunnarsta›ir Garpsdalr • r •EYFIR‹INGA- HallsteinsnesKróksfjƒr›r Skálmarnes Gilsfjƒr›r• Brei›abólssta› jaldanes •Hóll T SaurbœrHvammsdalr • Steinssta›ir Brei›afjƒr›r Sælingsdalr Laugar•

•

unga Helgafell Snæfellsnes • Hvítingshjalli

Hellisdalr • Hólmr Klifsdalr

Hítardalr Hvita Kjƒlr ara HHítaráit Hofs- M‡rar Langjƒkull

Brynjudalr Borgarfjƒr›r Brynjudalsá Haukadalr • Hvalfjƒr›r ﬁingvƒllr ellankatla Kjalarnes Øxará × V RANGÆINGA-× Laugardalr Reykjarvík ¯lfossvatn Kalfa Grímsnes Skálaholt Mosfell • • •Vífilssta›ir Skálafell ﬁjórsárdalr ° Thiorsa Vífilsfell ° ¯lfus Trƒllaskógr ls °a a ° lfu s O or Ingólfsfel¯lfossá i h

V T RangáFJÓR‹ in ‡tri - íkarsskei› Rangárhverfifiríhyrningr Hof• in eystri Reykjanes Rangá ° •OddiTh firíhyrningshálsar veFljótshlí›ra E y j a r • Hlí›arendi Hólar• Bergflórshváll• •Mƒrk

Ei› Dufﬂaksskor

Vestmannaeyjar WEST ICELAND Grímsey

Eyjafjƒr›r

ápnafjƒr›r Mƒ›ruvellir V •

• • Bakki unga FJÓR‹UNGRﬁverá T• Hallfre›arsta›ir

Djúpidalr Laxárdalr Øxnadalr Rangá

Jƒkulsdalr

Lagarfljót • Hrafnkelssta›ir • Geitdalr Fljótsdalshei›r Brei›dalr • A›alból

jƒkull Papey Álptafjƒr›r sy›ri FJÓR‹UNGR Lón Vatnajƒkull -

AUSTFIR‹IR Djúpárbakki UNGR • Sí›a AUSTFIR‹INGAIngólfshƒf›i

0 50 km Minﬂakseyrr Hjƒrleifshƒf›i

EAST ICELAND LAWSPEAKERS OF THE MEDIEVAL ICELANDIC COMMONWEALTH 1. Úlfljótr (cf. Text VIII, note 19; Laws I 1–2) 2. Hrafn Hœngsson ...... c.930–949 3. fiórarinn Ragabró›ir Óláfsson ...... c.950–969 4. fiorkell máni fiorsteinsson ...... 970–984 5. fiorgeirr Ljósvetningago›i fiorkelsson ...... 985–1001 6. Grímr Svertingsson...... 1002–1003 7. Skapti fióroddsson ...... 1004–1030 8. Steinn fiorgestsson ...... 1031–1033 9. fiorkell Tjƒrvason...... 1034–1053 10. Gellir Bƒlverksson ...... 1054–1062 11. Gunnarr inn spaki fiorgrímsson...... 1063–1065 12. Kolbeinn Flosason ...... 1066–1071 13. Gellir Bƒlverksson (second time) ...... 1072–1074 14. Gunnarr inn spaki fiorgrímsson (second time) ...... 1075 15. Sighvatr Surtsson ...... 1076–1083 16. Markús Skeggjason ...... 1084–1107 17. Úlfhe›inn Gunnarsson...... 1108–1116 18. Bergflórr Hrafnsson ...... 1117–1122 19. Gu›mundr fiorgeirsson ...... 1123–1134 20. Hrafn Úlfhe›insson ...... 1135–1138 21. Finnr Hallsson ...... 1139–1145 22. Gunnarr Úlfhe›insson ...... 1146–1155 23. Snorri Húnbogason ...... 1156–1170 24. Styrkárr Oddason ...... 1171–1180 25. Gizurr Hallsson ...... 1181–1202 26. Hallr Gizurarson ...... 1203–1209 27. Styrmir inn fró›i Kárason ...... 1210–1214 28. Snorri Sturluson ...... 1215–1218 29. Teitr fiorvaldsson ...... 1219–1221 30. Snorri Sturluson (second time) ...... 1222–1231 31. Styrmir inn fró›i Kárason (second time) ...... 1232–1235 32. Teitr fiorvaldsson (second time)...... 1236–1247 33. Óláfr hvítaskáld fiór›arson...... 1248–1250 34. Sturla fiór›arson ...... 1251 35. Óláfr hvítaskáld fiór›arson (second time) ...... 1252 36. Teitr Einarsson ...... 1253–1258 37. Ketill fiorláksson ...... 1259–1262 38. fiorleifr hreimr Ketilsson ...... 1263–1265 39. Sigur›r fiorvaldsson ...... 1266 40. Jón Einarsson ...... 1267 41. fiorleifr hreimr Ketilsson (second time) ...... 1268 42. Jón Einarsson (second time) ...... 1269–1270 43. fiorleifr hreimr Ketilsson (third time) ...... 1271 I: HRÓLFS SAGA KRAKA Hrólfs saga is one of the sagas known as heroic, mythical, or ‘of ancient time’ (Modern Icelandic fornaldarsögur). Their main distinguishing feature is that they take place before the settlement of Iceland, chiefly in northern Europe (whereas most of the ‘Romance Sagas’ take place in southern Europe). They are often based on poems like the heroic lays of the Poetic Edda. Hrólfs saga contains stories associated with the Danish Skjƒldung dynasty (also celebrated in the earlier but now mostly lost Skjƒldunga saga), which seem to underlie some parts of the Anglo-Saxon poem Beowulf too. Hrólfr kraki corresponds to Hro›ulf, nephew of King Hro›gar, and the historical background of the legends about these kings was Scandinavia in the fifth and sixth centuries of our era. In Hrólfs saga, however, the story has come under the influence of later genres, and Hrólfr and his kappar (‘champions’) are to a certain extent based on Charlemagne and his peers; the kastali (‘castle’) mentioned in the present extract, which appears to be separate from the traditional hƒll (‘hall’), also belongs to a later period. The double fight against the monster has certain similarities to Beowulf’s fights against Grendel and Grendel’s mother, and Bƒ›varr bjarki inherits some of Beowulf’s characteristics from his own bear-like father. The story as it is told here, however, lacks the high seriousness of Beowulf and the Chansons de Geste, and contains some of the comedy and irony which feature in other medieval Icelandic tales. All the surviving manuscripts of Hrólfs saga were written in the seventeenth century or later, and although the original saga is believed to have been compiled in the fourteenth, none of the manuscripts seems to preserve the original text unchanged, and their language is more like Modern than Old Icelandic. Many late forms and spellings are retained here. They are explained in the grammatical notes. The present text is based on the manuscript AM 285 4to. Where this manuscript is incoherent it is emended from AM 9 fol. The passage begins mid-way through chapter 23 with Bƒ›varr bjarki arriving at King Hrólfr’s court where he has come to seek service with the king (in the first part of the chapter Bƒ›varr has been visiting his two brothers, cf. line 149). On his way there through rain and mud he had lodged with a poor peasant and his wife who told him that their son Hƒttr was at the court and being badly treated by the courtiers; they asked Bƒ›varr to be kind to him. 2 I: Hrólfs saga kraka

King Hrólfr’s courtiers had been throwing bones into the corner where Hƒttr was cowering. There is a historical example of viking bone-throwing in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle under the year 1012 (the martyrdom of Archbishop Alphege or Ælfheah) and a mythical one in Snorri Sturluson’s Edda, Gylfaginning ch. 44; and one might also compare the Odyssey XX 287–319 and XXII 284–91; Judges 15: 15. The abbreviations used in the grammatical notes are explained at the beginning of the Glossary in Part III; the figures in brackets refer to sections of the Grammar in Part I. Unlike the Grammar and Glossary, the grammatical notes here distinguish strong masculine nouns (sm.) from weak masculine (wm.), strong feminine nouns (sf.) from weak feminine (wf.), and strong neuter nouns (sn.) from weak neuter (wn.); see 3.1.4 and 3.1.8 in the Grammar.

Bibliography The standard edition is Hrólfs saga kraka, ed. D. Slay (1960). There is a text with normalised spelling in Fornaldarsögur Nor›urlanda I–IV, ed. Gu›ni Jónsson (1950), I 1–105. The saga appears in English in Eirik the Red and other Icelandic Sagas, tr. G. Jones (1961); and in The Saga of King Hrolf Kraki, tr. Jesse L. Byock, Penguin Books (1998). On the connection with Beowulf see Beowulf and the Fight at Finnsburg, ed. F. Klaeber (1950), xviii–xx; R. W. Chambers, Beowulf: An Introduction (1959). On the genre, see P. Hallberg, ‘Some Aspects of the Fornaldarsögur as a Corpus’, Arkiv för nordisk filologi 97 (1982), 1–35. I: Hrólfs saga kraka 3

I: HRÓLFS SAGA KRAKA Chapter 23 . . . Sí›an ferr Bƒ›varr lei› sína til Hlei›argar›s. Hann kemr til konungs atsetu. Bƒ›varr lei›ir flegar hest sinn á stall hjá konungs hestum hinum beztu ok spyrr øngvan at; gekk sí›an inn í hƒll ok var flar fátt manna. 3 sí›an adv. ‘then’. ferr sv. ‘goes’: 3rd sg. pres. indic. of fara (3.6.10). Bƒ›varr sm. 1 (personal name): nom., the subject of the sentence; the adv. sí›an occupies the first position in the sentence, so Bƒ›varr is in third position since the finite verb must be in first or second place (3.9.1). lei› sf. ‘way’ ‘journey’ ‘path’: acc., the direct object of the sentence; fara does not normally take an object, but may be construed with so- called ‘locative objects’ (ones that indicate where something took place, cf. Eng. he jumped the ditch) — here we might translate ‘on his way’. sína REFL. POSS. (referring back to the subject; 3.2.1) ‘his’: acc. f. sg., agreeing with lei›. til prep. ‘to’. Hlei›argar›s sm. (place-name): gen., the case always triggered by the prep. til; on the question of case, gender and number in compound nouns, see the analysis of mannshƒnd in line 6. hann pron. ‘he’: nom., the subject. kemr sv. ‘comes’: 3rd sg. pres. indic. of koma—kom—kómu—komit. til prep. ‘to’. konungs sm. ‘king’s’: gen., indicating possession or association, cf. the corresponding -’s in English. atsetu wf. ‘residence’: 2 gen., the case always triggered by the prep. til. Bƒ›varr sm. (personal name): nom., the subject. lei›ir wv. ‘leads’: 3rd sg. pres. indic. of lei›a. flegar adv. ‘at once’ ‘immediately’. hest sm. ‘horse’: acc., the direct object. sinn REFL. POSS. (referring back to the subject) ‘his’: acc. m. sg., agreeing with hest. á prep. ‘into’. stall sm. ‘stable’: acc., the case triggered by the prep. á when motion is denoted. hjá prep. ‘alongside’ ‘next to’. konungs sm. ‘king’s’: gen., indicating possession, cf. the corresponding -’s in English. hestum sm. ‘horses’: dat., the case always triggered by the prep. hjá. hinum art. ‘the’: dat. pl., agreeing with hestum. beztu adj. ‘best’: weak dat. 3 pl. sup. — weak because the noun phrase is definite (‘the best horses’; 3.3.2), dat. pl. agreeing with hestum (note that in classical ON the weak dat. pl. of adjectives ends in -um (3.3.4), but that in later texts this is increasingly replaced by -u by analogy with all other weak pl. adj. endings); on the word-order see 3.3.5, 3.9.2. ok conj. ‘and’. spyrr wv. ‘asks’: 3rd sg. pres. indic. of spyrja; the subject, Bƒ›varr or hann, is understood. øngvan pron. ‘no one’: acc. m. sg., the direct object; masculine is used since a human being is denoted and feminine gender has not been specified, masculine being the default gender (cf. fáir line 23). at prep. ‘about’: the prep. is here used absolutely, i.e. without a following noun or noun phrase, ‘it’ — Bƒ›varr’s action — being understood (3.7.7); such usage is often classed as adverbial rather than prepositional. gekk sv. ‘walked’ ‘went’: 3rd sg. past indic. of ganga—gekk—gengu—gengit; the subject, Bƒ›varr or hann, is understood. sí›an adv. ‘then’. inn adv. ‘in’. í prep. ‘to’: the combination of adv. inn and prep. í corresponds to the English prep. ‘into’. hƒll sf. ‘hall’: acc., the case triggered by í when motion is denoted. ok conj. ‘and’. var sv. ‘was’: 3rd sg. past indic. of vera (3.6.10); in this sentence the finite verb (var) occupies first position, as is common in ON narrative style. flar adv. ‘there’. fátt adj. ‘few’: strong nom. n. sg., the subject; n. sg. is used because the adj. does not modify a noun with a particular number or gender; in the absence of such a noun, the adj. takes over the function of head of the noun phrase (3.3; 3.3.6 (19–21)) and is modified by manna. manna sm. ‘of men’: gen., indicating type, i.e. menn are the type or class of which few were present. 4 I: Hrólfs saga kraka

Hann sezk útarliga, ok sem hann hefr setit flar nƒkkra hrí›, heyrir hann flrausk nƒkkut útar í hornit í einhverjum sta›. Bƒ›varr lítr flangat 6 ok sér at mannshƒnd kemr upp ór mikilli beinahrúgu, er flar lá; hƒndin var svƒrt mjƒk. Bƒ›varr gengr flangat ok spyrr hverr flar væri í beina- 4 hann pron. ‘he’: nom., the subject. sezk wv. ‘sits down’: 3rd sg. pres. indic., -sk form (3.6.5.3), of setja; the sense is reflexive, the literal meaning being ‘sets/places himself’. útarliga adv. ‘far out [i.e. near the door]’. ok conj. ‘and’; this conj. connects the immediately preceding independent sentence with the one beginning heyrir hann flrausk nƒkkut at the end of line 4. sem conj. ‘when’ (3.8.2.1, end). hann pron. ‘he’: nom., the subject. hefr wv. ‘has’: 3rd sg. pres. indic. of hafa (3.6.7). setit sv. ‘sat’: supine (= pp. nom./acc. n. sg.) of sitja—sat—sátu—setit; hefr + setit forms a so-called perfect construction, the equivalent of Eng. has sat (3.6.2). flar adv. ‘there’. nƒkkra pron. ‘some’ ‘a little’: acc. f. sg.; here used adjectivally, nƒkkra (an abbreviated form of nƒkkura) agrees with hrí›. hrí› sf. ‘while’: acc., since the phrase nƒkkra hrí› functions here as time adverbial (3.1.2, 3.1.5 (10)). heyrir wv. ‘hears’: 3rd sg. pres. indic. of heyra; the finite verb is in first position because the independent sentence in which it 5 occurs is immediately preceded by a dependent sentence (3.9.1). hann pron. ‘he’: nom., the subject. flrausk sn. ‘rummaging’: acc., the direct object. nƒkkut pron. ‘some’ ‘a’: acc. n. sg.; here used adjectivally, nƒkkut agrees with flrausk. útar adv. ‘farther out’: comp., consisting of út + comp. suffix -ar. í prep. ‘in’. hornit sn. + art. (horn-it) ‘the corner’: acc., the case triggered by í when motion is denoted; the English speaker may not conceive of hearing something somewhere as involving motion, but the clue is provided by the motion adv. útar — the hearing of hann, the subject, is directed farther out into the corner. í prep. ‘in’. einhverjum pron. ‘some’: dat. m. sg.; here used adjectivally, einhverjum agrees with sta›. sta› sm. ‘place’: dat., the case triggered by í when location is denoted; note that sta› is one of those masculine nouns that has no ending in the dat. sg. (3.1.4, 3.1.8, paradigm 2). Bƒ›varr sm. (personal name): nom., the subject. lítr sv. ‘looks’: 3rd sg. pres. indic. of líta—leit—litu—litit. flangat adv. 6 ‘thither’ ‘there’. ok conj. ‘and’. sér sv. ‘sees’: 3rd sg. pres. indic. of sjá (3.6.10). at conj. ‘that’. mannshƒnd sf. ‘man’s hand’: nom., the subject; note that although manns, gen. sg. of ma›r, is sm., the gender of the compound is determined by the second element, hƒnd; note further that the nom. case and sg. number of the compound is expressed by hƒnd alone. kemr sv. ‘comes’: 3rd sg. pres. indic. of koma—kom—kómu—komit. upp adv. ‘up’. ór prep. ‘out of’. mikilli adj. ‘big’: strong dat. f. sg., agreeing with beinahrúgu. beinahrúgu wf. ‘bone-pile’ ‘pile of bones’: dat., the case always triggered by ór; like mannshƒnd above, beinahrúgu is a compound, whose gender is determined and case and number expressed by the second element, hrúgu; in the following the structure of compounds will receive no further analysis. er conj. ‘which’. flar adv. ‘there’. lá sv. ‘lay’: 3rd sg. past indic. of liggja—lá—lágu—legit: the finite verb does not often immediately follow a subordinating conjunction, and here flar intervenes (3.9.1). hƒndin sf. 7 + art. (hƒnd-in) ‘the hand’: nom., the subject. var sv. ‘was’: 3rd sg. past indic. of vera (3.6.10). svƒrt adj. ‘black’: strong nom. f. sg. (3.3.2), agreeing with hƒndin. mjƒk adv. ‘very’ (3.9.2). Bƒ›varr sm. (personal name): nom., the subject. gengr sv. ‘goes’: 3rd sg. pres. indic. of ganga—gekk—gengu—gengit. flangat adv. ‘thither’ ‘there’. ok conj. ‘and’. spyrr wv. ‘asks’: 3rd sg. pres. indic. of spyrja. hverr pron. (interrog.) ‘who’: nom. m. sg.; hverr fulfils a double function here, (1) as a conjunction introducing the sentence, (2) as the subject (3.8.2.3); since a human being is denoted, masculine, the default gender, is used (see øngvan, line 3). flar adv. ‘there’. væri sv. ‘was’: 3rd sg. past subj. of vera (3.6.10); the subj. is normally used in dependent interrogative sentences where the main verb of the independent sentences of which they are the object is one of ‘asking’; on the word-order hverr flar væri, see the analysis of lá in line 6. í prep. ‘in’. I: Hrólfs saga kraka 5 hrúgunni. fiá var honum svarat ok heldr óframliga: ‘Hƒttr heiti ek, bokki sæll.’ 9 ‘fiví ertu hér,’ spyrr Bƒ›varr, ‘e›a hvat gørir flú?’ Hƒttr svarar, ‘Ek gøri mér skjaldborg, bokki sæll.’ Bƒ›varr segir, ‘Vesall ertu flinnar skjaldborgar!’ 12 beinahrúgunni wf. + art. (beinahrúgu-nni) ‘the bone-pile’ ‘the pile of bones’: dat., the 8 case triggered by í when location is denoted. flá adv. ‘then’. var sv. ‘was’: 3rd sg. past indic. of vera (3.6.10). honum pron. ‘to him’: dat., the indirect object; note that in the absence of a nominative subject, honum is the first (and only) noun phrase in the sentence (for an alternative analysis of the syntactic role of honum here, see 3.9.3); on the word-order flá var honum, see the analysis of Bƒ›varr in line 1. svarat wv. ‘answered’: pp. nom. n. sg. of svara; in the absence of a subject with a particular gender and number with which svarat could agree, n. sg. is used; nom. case is assumed since were there a subject, e.g. flat, it would be in the nom.; var svarat, the equivalent of Eng. was answered, forms the passive counterpart to active NN svara›i ‘NN answered’ (3.6.4). ok conj. ‘and’. heldr adv. ‘rather’. óframliga adv. ‘timidly’. Hƒttr sm. (personal 9 name): nom., the subject complement — here in first position because it is emphasised (3.9.1). heiti sv. ‘am called’: 1st sg. pres. indic. of heita—hét—hétu—heitit. ek pron. ‘I’: nom., the subject. bokki wm. ‘buck’ ‘fellow’: nom., the case used when someone is being addressed. sæll adj. ‘happy’ ‘fortunate’: strong nom. m. sg., agreeing with bokki; the phrase bokki sæll may be translated ‘good fellow’ ‘good friend’ ‘kind sir’ or the like — it is a slightly formal term of endearment. flví adv. (interrog.) ‘why’ (the 10 more common word for ‘why’ is hví). ertu = ert flú. ert sv. ‘are’: 2nd sg. pres. indic. of vera (3.6.10). flú pron. ‘you’: nom., the subject. hér adv. ‘here’. spyrr wv. ‘asks’: 3rd sg. pres. indic. of spyrja. Bƒ›varr sm. (personal name): nom., the subject. e›a conj. ‘or’: when introducing a question e›a is often closer in meaning to English and or but — here the former. hvat pron. (interrog.) ‘what’: acc. n. sg., the direct object; neuter is used because the pron. denotes a state or action — what Hƒttr is doing — and neuter is the gender for inanimate or abstract reference. gørir wv. ‘are . . . doing’: 2nd sg. pres. indic. of gøra (3.6.7); note that ON does not distinguish between simple (e.g. do) and continuous constructions (e.g. are doing), but expresses both meanings by the same form. flú pron. ‘you’: nom., the subject. Hƒttr sm. (personal name): nom., the 11 subject. svarar wv. ‘answers’: 3rd sg. pres. indic. of svara. ek pron. ‘I’: nom., the subject. gøri wv. ‘am making’: 1st sg. pres. indic. of gøra (3.6.7); on the English translation of the present tense, see gørir in line 10. mér pron. ‘myself’ ‘for myself’: dat., the indirect object; note that there is no separate reflexive form of the 1st or 2nd person pronouns, and that mér can thus mean both ‘me’ and ‘myself’ (3.2.1). skjaldborg sf. ‘shield fortification’ ‘shield wall’: acc., the direct object; skjaldborg — a term denoting a battle formation in which men confront the enemy with an impenetrable wall of shields — is used here metaphorically to denote the protective construction Hƒttr is building out of the pile of bones. bokki wm. ‘buck’ ‘fellow’ (see line 9). sæll adj. ‘happy’ ‘fortunate’ (see line 9). Bƒ›varr sm. (personal name): nom., the subject. 12 segir wv. ‘says’: 3rd sg. pres. indic. of segja. vesall adj. ‘wretched’: strong nom. m. sg., agreeing with flú (ertu = ert flú, cf. line 10), which has masculine reference; vesall is moved into first position in the sentence to give it emphasis, and since the verb, the ert of ertu, must be in either first or second position in an independent sentence, it comes next, pushing the subject, the flú of ertu, into third place (3.9.1). ertu (see line 10 and the analysis of vesall immediately above). flinnar poss. adj. ‘in respect of your’: gen. f. sg., agreeing with skjaldborgar. skjaldborgar sf. ‘shield fortification’ ‘shield wall’ (see line 11): gen., dependent on the adj. vesall and imparting the sense ‘in respect of’ ‘with regard to’. 6 I: Hrólfs saga kraka

Bƒ›varr flrífr til hans ok hnykkir honum upp ór beinahrúgunni. Hƒttr kva› flá hátt vi› ok mælti: 15 ‘Nú viltu bana mér! Gør eigi fletta, svá sem ek hefi nú vel um búizk, en flú hefr nú rofit í sundr skjaldborg mína, ok haf›a ek nú gƒrt hana 15 Gør eigi fletta] at flú gørir fletta 285. 13 Bƒ›varr sm. (personal name): nom., the subject. flrífr sv. ‘grabs’: 3rd sg. pres. indic. of flrífa—flreif—flrifu—flrifit. til prep. ‘at’: the sense indicated is of movement towards Hƒttr — verb + prep. might be translated ‘grabs hold of’ or simply ‘grasps’. hans pron. ‘him’: gen., the case always triggered by til. ok conj. ‘and’. hnykkir wv. ‘pulls’: 3rd sg. pres. indic. of hnykkja. honum pron. ‘him’: dat., the direct object (3.1.5 (16) and (18)). upp adv. ‘up’. ór prep. ‘out of’. beinahrúgunni wf. + art. (beinahrúgu- nni) ‘the bone-pile’ ‘the pile of bones’: dat., the case always triggered by ór. Hƒttr sm. 14 (personal name): nom., the subject. kva› sv. ‘cried out’: 3rd sg. past indic. of kve›a— kva›—kvá›u—kve›it. flá adv. ‘then’. hátt adv. ‘loudly’ (3.5.1). vi› prep. ‘at’: the prep. is used here absolutely, ‘this’ or ‘this treatment’ being understood as following vi› (3.7.7; see also at in line 3). ok conj. ‘and’. mælti wv. ‘said’: 3rd sg. past indic. of 15 mæla. nú adv. ‘now’. viltu = vilt flú. vilt wv. ‘want’: 2nd sg. pres. indic. of vilja (3.6.7). flú pron. ‘you’: nom., the subject; nú occupies the first position in the sentence, so flú is in third position since the finite verb must be in first or second place (3.9.1). bana wv. ‘kill’: inf. mér pron. ‘me’: dat., the direct object (3.1.5 (16) and (18)). gør wv. ‘do’: imp. (2nd sg. pres.) of gøra (3.6.7); the subject of the imperative, flú, is omitted here as in English. eigi adv. ‘not’: since in English negative verb phrases are constructed with auxiliary do (e.g. I do not drink rather than *I drink not), we must translate ‘do not do!’. fletta pron. ‘this’: acc. n. sg.; neuter is used because the pronoun refers to an action — the destruction of the pile of bones — and neuter is the gender for inanimate or abstract reference. svá adv. ‘so’: the construction here is discontinuous — svá, which has its natural place before the sem that introduces the dependent sentence (3.8.2.4), modifies the adv. vel, which would normally immediately follow, but vel itself modifies the verb phrase um búizk, and has been attracted to the position preceding it inside the dependent sentence. sem conj. ‘as’ (3.8.2.4). ek pron. ‘I’: nom., the subject. hefi wv. ‘have’: 1st sg. pres. indic. of hafa (3.6.7). nú adv. ‘now’. vel adv. ‘well’ (see the analysis of svá in this line). um prep. ‘around’: the prep. is used here absolutely since the noun phrase it governs is expressed by the -sk inflexion of búizk (3.9.8.3). búizk sv. ‘protected myself’ ‘made myself secure’: supine (= pp. nom./ acc. n. sg.), -sk form (3.6.5.3), of búa—bjó—bjoggu—búit: as is clear from the translation, the -sk suffix here imparts a reflexive sense to the verb; hefi + búizk forms a so- 16 called perfect construction, the equivalent of Eng. have protected (myself)(3.6.2). en conj. ‘but’. flú pron. ‘you’: nom., the subject. hefr wv. ‘have’: 2nd sg. pres. indic. of hafa (3.6.7). nú adv. ‘now’. rofit sv. ‘broken’: supine (= pp. nom./acc. n. sg.) of rjúfa—rauf—rufu—rofit; hefr + rofit forms a so-called perfect construction, the equivalent of Eng. have broken (3.6.2). í sundr adv. ‘asunder’ ‘to pieces’: although formally this phrase consists of prep. + adv., it functions as an adverb just like English asunder — historically prep. + adj.; often sundr is used on its own with the same meaning as í sundr. skjaldborg sf. ‘shield fortification’ ‘shield wall’: acc., the direct object of rofit. mína poss. adj. ‘my’: acc. f. sg., agreeing with skjaldborg; note that the possessive follows the noun it modifies, the usual word-order in ON (3.9.2). ok conj. ‘and’. haf›a wv. ‘had’: 1st sg. past indic. of hafa (3.6.7). ek pron. ‘I’: nom., the subject. nú adv. ‘now’. gƒrt wv. ‘made’: supine (= pp. nom./acc. n. sg.) of gøra (3.6.7); haf›a + gƒrt forms a so-called pluperfect or past perfect construction, the equivalent of Eng. had made (3.6.2). hana pron. ‘her’: acc., the direct object of gƒrt: note that the femi- I: Hrólfs saga kraka 7 svá háva útan at mér, at hon hefr hlíft mér vi› ƒllum hƒggum ykkar, svá ekkert hƒgg hefr komit á mik lengi, en ekki var hon fló enn svá 18 búin sem ek ætla›a hon skyldi vera.’ Bƒ›varr mælti: ‘Ekki muntu nú fá skjaldborgina gƒr›a lengr.’ nine 3rd person pron. is used because the reference is to the feminine noun borg. svá 17 adv. ‘so’. háva adj. ‘high’: acc. f. sg., agreeing with hana; the nom. m. sg. form of this adj. is hár (3.3.8.5, point (5)). útan adv. ‘from without’ ‘externally’ (3.5.1). at prep. ‘towards’ ‘up to’: together útan at might be translated ‘around’ — the wall extending towards Hƒttr affords him protection from the outside world. mér pron. ‘me’: dat., the case always triggered by at. at conj. ‘that’. hon pron. ‘she’: nom., the subject; on the feminine gender, see hana in line 16. hefr wv. ‘has’: 3rd sg. pres. indic. of hafa. hlíft wv. ‘protected’: supine of hlífa. mér pron. ‘me’: dat., the direct object (3.1.5 (16) and (18)). vi› prep. ‘against’. ƒllum adj. ‘all’: dat. pl., agreeing with hƒggum. hƒggum sn. ‘blows’: dat., the case triggered by vi› in the sense ‘against’ (3.7.4). ykkar poss. adj. ‘your [dual]’: originally the 2nd dual poss. adj. was inflected for case, gender and number (3.3.9), but in later ON the invariable form ykkar (formally gen. of the pronoun (fl)it; 3.2.1) came to be the norm; the use of the dual here is unexpected since the reference is to a large number of people, as the text goes on to make clear — possibly Hƒttr is categorising Bƒ›varr as one entity and the courtiers as another, but more likely this is a modern Icelandic usage, where the originally dual 1st and 2nd person forms are used to denote all numbers higher than one; note that the possessive follows the noun it modifies, the usual word-order in ON. svá conj. ‘so’: svá is normally an adverb, but it 18 regularly combines with a following at to form a two-word conjunction introducing sentences of result or purpose (‘so that’; 3.8.2.2); occasionally the at is omitted, as here, and svá then adopts the role of conjunction. ekkert pron. ‘no’: nom. n. sg.; here used adjectivally, ekkert (a later form of ekki) agrees with hƒgg. hƒgg sn. ‘blow’: nom., the subject. hefr wv. ‘have’: 3rd sg. pres. indic. of hafa. komit sv. ‘come’ ‘landed’: supine of koma—kom—kómu—komit. á prep. ‘on’. mik pron. ‘me’: acc., the case triggered by á when motion is denoted. lengi adv. ‘for a long time’. en conj. ‘but’. ekki adv. ‘not’: although formally the nom./acc. n. sg. form of the pron. engi ‘no one’ ‘none’, ekki is often used synonymously with the adv. eigi ‘not’. var sv. ‘was’: 3rd sg. past indic. of vera (3.6.10). hon pron. ‘she’: nom., the subject: ekki occupies first position in the sentence (for reasons of emphasis), so the subject comes in 3rd place since only one element may precede the finite verb (3.9.1); on the use of the feminine gender, see line 16: hana. fló adv. ‘all the same’ ‘nevertheless’. enn adv. ‘yet’. svá adv. ‘so’. búin sv. ‘prepared’ ‘constructed’: pp. nom. f. sg., agreeing with hon, of 19 búa—bjó—bjoggu—búit. sem conj. ‘as’. ek pron. ‘I’: nom., the subject. ætla›a wv. ‘intended’: 1st sg. past indic. of ætla. hon pron. ‘she’: nom., the subject. skyldi pret.- pres. vb. ‘should’: 3rd sg. past; formally skyldi may be either indic. or subj. (3.6.7), but in a dependent sentence describing a hypothetical situation, i.e. what was intended, it is likely to be subj. vera sv. ‘be’: inf. (3.6.10). Bƒ›varr sm. (personal name): nom., the 20 subject. mælti wv. ‘said’: 3rd. sg. past indic. of mæla. ekki adv. ‘not’ (see the analysis of ekki in line 18). muntu = munt flú. munt pret.-pres. vb. ‘will’: 2nd sg. pres. indic. of munu (3.6.7). flú pron. ‘you’: nom., the subject; on the word-order adv. + finite verb + subject, see the analysis of hon in line 18. nú adv. ‘now’. fá sv. ‘get’: inf. of fá— fekk—fengu—fengit. skjaldborgina sf. + art. (skjaldborg-ina) ‘the shield fortification’ ‘the shield wall’: acc., the direct object. gƒr›a wv. ‘made’ ‘constructed’: pp. acc. f. sg. (a later form of gƒrva), agreeing with skjaldborgina, of gøra; fá + gƒr›a forms a periphrastic construction, the equivalent of Eng. get made (3.9.7.1). lengr adv. ‘any longer’: comp. 8 I: Hrólfs saga kraka

21 Hƒttr mælti, ‘Skaltu nú bana mér, bokki sæll?’ Bƒ›varr ba› hann ekki hafa hátt, tók hann upp sí›an ok bar hann út ór hƒllinni ok til vatns nƒkkurs sem flar var í nánd, ok gáfu fáir at 24 flessu gaum. Hann flvá›i hann upp allan. Sí›an gekk Bƒ›varr til fless rúms sem hann haf›i á›r tekit, ok leiddi

21 Hƒttr sm. (personal name): nom., the subject. mælti wv. ‘said’: 3rd sg. past indic. of mæla. skaltu = skalt flú. skalt pret.-pres. vb. ‘shall’: 2nd sg. pres. indic. of skulu (3.6.7); the usual implication of skulu is intention, so that although ‘shall’ is the English cognate of skalt, an idiomatic English translation would be ‘do [you] intend to’ ‘are [you] going to’. flú pron. ‘you’: nom., the subject. nú adv. ‘now’. bana wv. ‘kill’: inf. mér pron. ‘me’: dat., the direct object (3.1.5 (16) and (18)). bokki wm. ‘buck’ ‘fellow’ 22 (see line 9). sæll adj. ‘happy’ ‘fortunate’ (see line 9). Bƒ›varr sm. (personal name): nom., the subject. ba› sv. ‘bade’ ‘told’: 3rd sg. past indic. of bi›ja—ba›—bá›u—be›it. hann pron. ‘him’: acc., the direct object of ba› (but see the analysis of hafa in this line). ekki adv. ‘not’ (see line 18). hafa wv. ‘behave’ ‘act’: inf. (3.6.7); the basic meaning of hafa is ‘have’, but when construed with an adv. and nothing further it takes on the sense of behaving in the manner denoted by the adv; ba› hann ekki hafa is an acc + inf. construction, in which acc. hann can be analysed both as the direct object of ba› and the subject of hafa (3.9.4). hátt adv. ‘loudly’, ‘noisily’ (3.5.1). tók sv. ‘took’ ‘lifted’: 3rd sg. past indic. of taka—tók—tóku—tekit. hann pron. ‘him’: acc., the direct object. upp adv. ‘up’. sí›an adv. ‘then’. ok conj. ‘and’. bar sv. ‘carried’: 3rd sg. past indic. of bera—bar—báru—borit. hann pron. ‘him’: acc., the direct object. út adv. ‘out’. 23 ór prep. ‘from’. hƒllinni sf. + art. (hƒll-inni) ‘the hall’: dat., the case always triggered by ór. ok conj. ‘and’. til prep. ‘to’. vatns sn. ‘lake’: gen., the case always triggered by til. nƒkkurs pron. ‘some’ ‘a certain’: gen. n. sg.; here used adjectivally, nƒkkurs agrees with vatns and follows it. sem conj. ‘which’. flar adv. ‘there’. var sv. ‘was’: 3rd sg. past indic. of vera (3.6.10); on the word-order sem flar var, see the analysis of lá in line 6. í prep. ‘in’. nánd sf. ‘proximity’: dat., the case triggered by í when location is denoted; idiomatic English for í nánd would be ‘near by’. ok conj. ‘and’. gáfu sv. ‘gave’ ‘paid’: 3rd pl. past indic. of gefa—gaf—gáfu—gefit. fáir adj. ‘few’: strong nom. m. pl., the subject; although fáir is the sole element in the noun phrase and thus has no noun to agree with, it takes nom. m. pl. form because the referent is plural and probably exclusively male, and masculine is in any case the default gender where people in gen- 24 eral are denoted (3.3; 3.3.6 (19–21)). at prep. ‘to’. flessu pron. ‘this’: dat. n. sg. — dat. case is automatic after at; on the neuter gender, see fletta in line 15. gaum sm. ‘heed’, ‘attention’: acc., the direct object. hann pron. ‘he’: nom., the subject. flvá›i wv. ‘washed’: 3rd sg. past indic. of flvá; more commonly this verb is strong (3.6.9.3). hann pron. ‘him’: acc., the direct object. upp adv. ‘up’ ‘thoroughly’. allan adj. ‘all’: acc. m. sg., agreeing with hann; more idiomatic English for allan would be the adverbial phrase 25 ‘all over’. sí›an adv. ‘then’. gekk sv. ‘went’: 3rd sg. past indic. of ganga—gekk— gengu—gengit. Bƒ›varr sm. (personal name): nom., the subject. til prep. ‘to’. fless pron. ‘that’: gen. n. sg.; here used adjectivally, fless agrees with rúms. rúms sn. ‘seat’ ‘place’: gen., the case always triggered by til. sem conj. ‘which’. hann pron. ‘he’: nom., the subject. haf›i wv. ‘had’: 3rd sg. past indic. of hafa. á›r adv. ‘previously’ ‘before’. tekit sv. ‘taken’: supine of taka—tók—tóku—tekit. ok conj. ‘and’. leiddi 26 wv. ‘led’: 3rd sg. past indic. of lei›a. eptir prep. ‘after’. sér refl. pron. (referring back to the understood subject, Bƒ›varr; 3.2.1; 3.2.6 (6) and (10)) ‘him’: dat., the case triggered by eptir in the sense ‘after [motion]’ ‘following’. Hƒtt sm. (personal name): acc., the direct object. ok conj. ‘and’. setr wv. ‘places’: 3rd sg. pres. indic. of setja (3.6.9.3). I: Hrólfs saga kraka 9 eptir sér Hƒtt ok setr hann flar hjá sér. En hann er svá hræddr at skelfr á honum leggr ok li›r, en fló flykisk hann skilja at flessi ma›r vill 27 hjálpa sér. Eptir flat kveldar ok drífa menn at hƒllunni ok sjá Hrólfs kappar at Hƒttr var settr í bekk upp ok flykir fleim sá ma›r hafa gƒrt hann pron. ‘him’: acc., the direct object. flar adv. ‘there’. hjá prep. ‘next to’. sér refl. pron. ‘him’: dat., the case always triggered by hjá; on the use of the refl. pron., see the previous sér in this line. en conj. ‘but’. hann pron. ‘he’: nom., the subject. er sv. ‘is’: 3rd sg. pres. indic. of vera. svá adv. ‘so’. hræddr adj. ‘frightened’: strong nom. m. sg., agreeing with hann. at conj. ‘that’. skelfr sv. ‘trembles’: 3rd. sg. pres. indic. of skjálfa—skalf—skulfu—skolfit. á prep. ‘on’. honum pron. ‘him’: dat., the case trig- 27 gered by á when location is denoted; body-part possession is often indicated in ON by á + dat., corresponding to a possessive adj. in English — thus á honum here should be rendered ‘his’. leggr sm. ‘hollow bone [of arm or leg]’: nom., the subject. ok conj. ‘and’. li›r sm. ‘joint’: nom., the subject; the conjoined nouns leggr ok li›r are used here by synecdoche for the whole body, the sense being that Hƒttr trembled all over — that may be in part why the verb skelfr is sg., even though together leggr ok li›r make a pl. subject, but another possible reason is that skelfr precedes the subject, and that the writer was not clear in his mind at that point what form the subject was going to take (3.9.8.2). en conj. ‘but’. fló adv. ‘nevertheless’. flykisk wv. ‘thinks’: 3rd. sg. pres. indic., -sk form (3.6.5.3), of flykja (3.6.9.3); the sense is reflexive, the literal meaning being ‘thinks himself’ — the -sk takes the place of the direct (reflexive) object in an acc. + inf. construction ‘thinks himself to . . . [i.e. thinks that he . . .]’ (3.9.4). skilja wv. ‘understand’: inf. at conj. ‘that’. flessi pron. ‘this’: nom. m. sg.; here used adjectivally, flessi agrees with ma›r. ma›r sm. ‘man’: nom., the subject. vill wv. ‘wants’: 3rd sg. pres. indic. of vilja (3.6.7); indic., rather than subj., is used because the dependent sentence describes not a hypothetical situation, but what Hƒttr understands to be a fact. hjálpa sv. ‘[to] help’: inf. of hjálpa—h(j)alp—hulpu—hólpit. sér refl. pron. 28 (referring back to Hƒttr, the subject of the higher sentence, rather than flessi ma›r; 3.2.1) ‘him’: dat., the direct object (3.1.5 (16) and (18)). eptir prep. ‘after’. flat pron. ‘that’: acc., the case triggered by eptir in the sense ‘after [time]’; on the neuter gender, see fletta in line 15. kveldar wv. ‘evening draws on’: 3rd sg. pres. indic. of kvelda; the construction is impersonal in the sense that no subject is conceived or expressed (3.9.3). ok conj. ‘and’. drífa sv. ‘drift’: 3rd. pl. pres. indic. of drífa—dreif—drifu—drifit. menn sm. ‘men’: nom., the subject. at prep. ‘to’ ‘towards’. hƒllunni sf. + art. (hƒllu-nni; 3.1.7.4 (3)) ‘the hall’: dat., the case always triggered by at. ok conj. ‘and’. sjá sv. ‘see’: 3rd pl. pres. indic. of sjá (3.6.10). Hrólfs sm. (personal name): gen., indicating possession or association. kappar wm. ‘champions’ ‘warriors’: nom., the subject. at conj. 29 ‘that’. Hƒttr sm. (personal name): nom., the subject. var sv. ‘was’: 3rd. sg. past indic. of vera. settr wv. ‘placed’ ‘put’: pp. nom. m. sg. of setja, agreeing with Hƒttr. í prep. ‘in(to)’ ‘on’. bekk sm. ‘bench’: acc., the case triggered by í when motion is denoted. upp adv. ‘up’. ok conj. ‘and’. flykir wv. ‘seems’: 3rd sg. pres. indic. of flykja (3.6.9.3). fleim pron. ‘to them’: dat., representing the experiencer, i.e. the person experiencing the process denoted by the verb (3.9.4); the construction flykir fleim is impersonal in the sense that there is no nominative subject (3.9.3) — though see ma›r in this line. sá pron. ‘that’: nom. m. sg.; here used adjectivally, sá agrees with ma›r. ma›r sm. ‘man’: nom., the subject: we have here a hybrid construction, nom. + inf., where sá ma›r is taken as the subject of the immediately following inf. clause rather than as the object of flykir (3.9.4); on a more abstract level the whole of the inf. clause sá ma›r hafa gƒrt sik œrit djarfan can be analysed as the subject of flykir in that this is what ‘seems’ to ‘them’. hafa wv. ‘have’: inf. gƒrt wv. ‘made’: supine of gøra. 10 I: Hrólfs saga kraka

30 sik œrit djarfan, er fletta hefr til tekit. Illt tillit hefr Hƒttr, flá hann sér kunningja sína, flví hann hefr illt eitt af fleim reynt; hann vill lifa gjarnan ok fara aptr í beinahrúgu sína, en Bƒ›varr heldr honum, svá at hann 33 náir ekki í burt at fara, flví hann flóttisk ekki jafnberr fyrir hƒggum

30 sik refl. pron. (referring back to the subject, sá ma›r; 3.2.1; 3.2.6 (6) and (10)) ‘himself’: acc., the direct object. œrit adv. ‘enough’, ‘sufficiently’. djarfan adj. ‘bold’ ‘arrogant’: strong acc. m. sg., the object complement agreeing with sik, which has masculine singular reference; an idiomatic translation of flykir fleim sá ma›r hafa gƒrt sik œrit djarfan would be ‘it seems to them the man has shown considerable arrogance’. er conj. ‘who’. fletta pron. ‘this’: acc. n. sg., the direct object; on the neuter gender, see fletta in line 15. hefr wv. ‘has’: 3rd sg. pres. indic. of hafa. til prep.: the prep. is used here absolutely, i.e. without a following noun or noun phrase (3.7.7), its function being to modify the sense of the verb. tekit sv. ‘taken’ ‘undertaken’ ‘done’: supine of taka— tók—tóku—tekit; it is the prep. til, used in close collocation with taka ‘take’, that gives the sense ‘undertaken’ ‘done’. illt adj. ‘bad’ ‘expressing dislike’: strong acc. n. sg., agreeing with tillit. tillit sn. ‘look’ ‘glance’: acc., the direct object. hefr wv. ‘has’: 3rd. sg. pres. indic. of hafa. Hƒttr sm. (personal name): nom., the subject. flá conj. ‘when’: flá is normally an adverb meaning ‘then’, but it regularly combines with a following er to form a two-word conjunction with the meaning ‘when’; sometimes the er is omitted, as here, and flá then adopts the role of conjunction (3.8.2.1). hann pron. 31 ‘he’: nom., the subject. sér sv. ‘sees’: 3rd sg. pres. indic. of sjá (3.6.10). kunningja wm. ‘acquaintances’: acc., the direct object. sína REFL. POSS. (referring back to the subject; 3.2.1) ‘his’: acc. m. pl., agreeing with kunningja. flví conj. ‘because’: flví is normally an adverb meaning ‘therefore’, but it regularly combines with a following at to form a two-word conjunction introducing sentences of reason or cause (3.8.2.2); sometimes the at is omitted, as here, and flví then adopts the role of conjunction. hann pron. ‘he’: nom., the subject. hefr wv. ‘has’: 3rd sg. pres. indic. of hafa. illt adj. ‘bad’ ‘evil’: strong acc. n. sg., the direct object; on the absence of a noun with which illt can agree and the use of the n. sg., see fátt in line 3. eitt adj. ‘alone’: strong acc. n. sg., agreeing with illt; this is the same word as the numeral ‘one’, and although used here adjectivally, it corresponds most naturally to the Eng. adverbs ‘only’, ‘just’. af prep. ‘of’ ‘from’. fleim pron. ‘them’: dat., the case always triggered by af. reynt wv. ‘experienced’: supine of reyna. hann pron. ‘he’: nom., the subject. vill wv. ‘wants’: 3rd sg. pres. indic. of vilja (3.6.7). lifa wv. ‘[to] live’: inf. gjarnan adv.: the function of gjarnan here is to emphasise vill — we might translate the sentence ‘he wants very 32 much to live’. ok conj. ‘and’. fara sv. ‘go’: inf. of fara (3.6.10). aptr adv. ‘back’. í prep. ‘in(to)’. beinahrúgu wf. ‘bone-pile’ ‘pile of bones’: acc., the case triggered by í when motion is denoted. sína REFL. POSS. (referring back to the subject, hann) ‘his’: acc. f. sg., agreeing with beinahrúgu. en conj. ‘but’. Bƒ›varr sm. (personal name): nom., the subject. heldr sv. ‘holds’: 3rd sg. pres. indic. of halda—helt—heldu—haldit. honum pron. ‘him’: dat., the direct object. svá adv. ‘so’. at conj. ‘that’: see svá (1) in 33 line 18. hann pron. ‘he’: nom., the subject. náir wv. ‘gets’ ‘manages’ ‘is able’: 3rd sg. pres. indic. of ná. ekki adv. ‘not’: see ekki in line 18. í burt adv. ‘away’. at inf. marker ‘to’. fara sv. ‘go’: inf. of fara. flví conj. ‘because’: see flví in line 31. hann pron. ‘he’: nom., the subject. flóttisk wv. ‘thought’ ‘felt’: 3rd sg. past indic., -sk form (3.6.5.3) of flykja (3.6.9.3); the -sk suffix here corresponds to a dative experiencer (as in honum flótti ‘to him seemed’), while hann, the subject of the infinitive clause (with omitted infinitive; 3.9.5.2) hann ekki [vera] jafnberr ‘he not [to be] equally exposed [i.e. he would not be equally exposed]’ is moved into the higher sentence and becomes the subject of flóttisk (3.9.4). ekki adv. ‘not’. jafnberr adj. ‘equally exposed’: strong I: Hrólfs saga kraka 11

fleira, ef hann næ›i flangat at komask. Hir›menn hafa nú sama van›a, ok kasta fyrst smám beinum um flvert gólfit til Bƒ›vars ok Hattar. Bƒ›varr lætr sem hann sjái eigi fletta. Hƒttr er svá hræddr at hann tekr 36 eigi á mat né drykk, ok flykir honum flá ok flá sem hann muni vera lostinn. Ok nú mælir Hƒttr til Bƒ›vars: 34 sama van›a] samt van›a sinn 285. nom. m. sg., agreeing with hann (see the analysis of flóttisk in this line). fyrir prep. ‘before’ ‘to’. hƒggum sn. ‘blows’: dat., the case triggered by fyrir when location in front of is denoted. fleira poss. adj. ‘their’: the gen. of the 3rd pl. personal pronoun 34 used with adjectival function (3.3.8.5 (6)). ef conj. ‘if’. hann pron. ‘he’: nom., the subject. næ›i wv. ‘managed’ ‘were able’: 3rd sg. past subj. of ná; the subjunctive is normally used in sentences introduced by ef where the verb is in the past tense. flangat adv. ‘thither’ ‘there’. at inf. marker ‘to’. komask sv. ‘come’ ‘get’: inf., -sk form, of koma—kom—kómu—komit; the -sk suffix imparts a reflexive sense to the verb, the literal meaning being ‘move oneself’. hir›menn sm. ‘courtiers’: nom., the subject. hafa wv. ‘have’ ‘maintain’: 3rd pl. pres. indic. of hafa. nú adv. ‘now’. sama adj. ‘the same’: weak acc. m. sg., agreeing with van›a; the weak form of this adjective suffices to express definite sense, though it is often found in conjunction with the def. art. van›a wm. ‘custom’ ‘practice’: acc., the direct object. ok conj. ‘and’. kasta wv. ‘throw’: 3rd 35 pl. pres. indic. of kasta. fyrst adv. ‘at first’. smám adj. ‘small’: dat. pl., agreeing with beinum. beinum sn. ‘bones’: dat., with instrumental sense (3.1.5 (20)). um prep. ‘over’. flvert adj. ‘transverse’: strong acc. n. sg., agreeing with gólfit; the sense of flvert is adverbial (‘over the floor crossways’) and strong forms of this adj. are normally used whether the noun phrase in which it occurs is definite or indefinite. gólfit sn. + art. (gólf-it) ‘the floor’: acc., the case always triggered by um. til prep. ‘to’. Bƒ›vars sm. (personal name): gen., the case always triggered by til. ok conj. ‘and’. Hattar sm. (personal name): gen., the case always triggered by til. Bƒ›varr sm. (personal name): 36 nom., the subject. lætr sv. ‘acts’: 3rd sg. pres. indic. of láta—lét—létu—látit. sem conj. ‘as though’. hann pron. ‘he’: nom., the subject. sjái sv. ‘sees’: 3rd sg. pres. subj. of sjá (3.6.10; sjái is a later variant of sé); the subjunctive is used in sentences introduced by sem with the meaning ‘as though’, because what is expressed is unreal — Bƒ›varr does see what is happening, but he pretends not to. eigi adv. ‘not’. fletta pron. ‘this’: acc. n. sg., the direct object; on the neuter gender, see fletta in line 15. Hƒttr sm. (personal name): nom., the subject. er sv. ‘is’: 3rd sg. pres. indic. of vera. svá adv. ‘so’. hræddr adj. ‘afraid’: strong nom. m. sg., agreeing with Hƒttr. at conj. ‘that’. hann pron. ‘he’: nom., the subject. tekr sv. ‘takes’: 3rd sg. pres. indic. of taka—tók—tóku—tekit. eigi adv. ‘not’. á prep. ‘on(to)’: tekr á, literally ‘takes on(to)’, 37 means ‘touches’. mat sm. ‘food’: acc., the case triggered by á when motion is denoted. né conj. ‘nor’ (3.8.1). drykk sm. ‘drink’: acc., the case triggered by á when motion is denoted (eigi á mat né [á] drykk). ok conj. ‘and’. flykir wv. ‘seems’: 3rd sg. pres. indic. of flykja (3.6.9.3). honum pron. ‘to him’: dat., the case marking the experiencer of the ‘seeming’. flá adv. ‘then’. ok conj. ‘and’. flá adv. ‘then’: flá ok flá means ‘at every moment’. sem conj. ‘as though’. hann pron. ‘he’: nom., the subject. muni pret.-pres. vb. ‘will’ ‘must’: 3rd sg. pres. subj. of munu (3.6.7); on the use of the subjunctive, see sjái in line 36. vera sv. ‘be’: inf. lostinn sv. ‘hit’: pp. nom. m. sg., 38 agreeing with hann, of ljósta—laust—lustu—lostit; vera + lostinn form a passive construction, the equivalent of Eng. be hit (3.6.4). ok conj. ‘and’. nú adv. ‘now’. mælir wv. ‘speaks’ ‘says’: 3rd. sg. pres. indic. of mæla. Hƒttr sm. (personal name): nom., the subject. til prep. ‘to’. Bƒ›vars sm. (personal name): gen., the case always triggered by til; on the word-order of nú mælir Hƒttr, see Bƒ›varr in line 1. 12 I: Hrólfs saga kraka

39 ‘Bokki sæll, nú ferr at okkr stór knúta, ok mun fletta ætlat okkr til nau›a.’ 39 bokki wm. ‘buck’ ‘fellow’ (see line 9). sæll adj. ‘happy’ ‘fortunate’ (see line 9). nú adv. ‘now’. ferr sv. ‘travels’ ‘comes’: 3rd sg. pres. indic. of fara (3.6.10). at prep. ‘towards’. okkr pron. ‘us [dual]’: dat., the case always triggered by at. stór adj. ‘big’: strong nom. f. sg., agreeing with knúta. knúta wf. ‘knuckle-bone’: nom., the subject; when the subject comes after the verb, as here (see Bƒ›varr in line 1), it is common for it to be postponed, allowing phrases dependent on the verb, like at okkr, to follow it immediately. ok conj. ‘and’. mun pret.-pres. vb. ‘will’: 3rd sg. pres. indic. of munu (3.6.7). fletta pron. ‘this’: nom. n. sg., the subject: on the neuter gender, see fletta in line 15. ætlat wv. ‘intended’: pp. nom. n. sg., agreeing with fletta, of ætla; mun . . . ætlat is a contracted form of mun . . . vera ætlat (3.9.5.2), a passive construction, the equivalent of Eng. will be intended (3.6.4). okkr pron. ‘for us [dual]’: dat., the case of 40 the intended beneficiary (a type of indirect object). til prep. ‘for’ ‘as’. nau›a sf. ‘difficulties’ ‘harm’: gen., the case always triggered by til; pl. nau›ir commonly corresponds to an Eng. sg.; a more idiomatic translation of mun fletta ætlat okkr til nau›a is ‘this will be intended to harm us’. Bƒ›varr ba› hann flegja. Hann setr vi› holan lófann ok tekr svá vi› 42 knútunni ok fylgir flar leggrinn me›. Bƒ›varr sendir aptr knútuna ok setr á flann sem kasta›i, ok rétt framan í hann me› svá har›ri svipan at hann fekk bana. Slær flá myklum ótta yfir hir›mennina. 45 Kemr nú flessi fregn fyrir Hrólf konung ok kappa hans upp í kastalann, at ma›r mikilú›ligr sé kominn til hallarinnar ok hafi drepit einn hir›mann hans, ok vildu fleir láta drepa manninn. Konungr spyrr, 48 hvárt hir›ma›rinn hef›i verit saklauss drepinn. ‘fiví var næsta,’ sƒg›u fleir. Komsk flá fyrir Hrólf konung ƒll sannindi hér um. Hrólfr konungr 51 sag›i flat skyldi fjarri, at drepa skyldi manninn. ‘Hafi flit hér illan van›a upp tekit, at berja saklausa menn beinum; er mér í flví óvir›ing, en y›r stór skƒmm, at gøra slíkt. Hefi ek jafnan 54 rœtt um fletta á›r, ok hafi flit hér at øngvan gaum gefit, ok hygg ek at flessi ma›r muni ekki alllítill fyrir sér, er flér hafi› nú á leitat; ok kalli› hann til mín, svá ek viti hverr hann er.’ 57 Bƒ›varr gengr fyrir konung ok kvaddi hann lystiliga. Konungr spyrr hann at nafni. ‘Hattargri›a kalla mik hir›menn y›ar, en Bƒ›varr heiti ek.’ 60 Konungr mælir, ‘Hverjar bœtr viltu bjó›a mér fyrir hir›mann minn?’ Bƒ›varr svarar, ‘Til fless gør›i hann, sem hann fekk.’ Konungr mælir, ‘Viltu vera minn ma›r ok skipa rúm hans?’ 63 Bƒ›varr svarar, ‘Ekki neita ek at vera y›ar ma›r, ok munu vit ekki skiljask svá buit, vit Hƒttr, ok dveljask nær flér bá›ir, heldr en flessi hefr setit; elligar vit fƒrum burt bá›ir.’ 66 Konungr segir, ‘Eigi sé ek at honum sœm›, en ekki spara ek mat vi› hann.’ I: Hrólfs saga kraka 13

Bƒ›varr gengr nú til fless rúms sem honum líka›i, en ekki vildi hann flat skipa sem hinn haf›i á›r. Hann kippti upp í einhverjum sta› flremr 69 mƒnnum, ok sí›an settusk fleir Hƒttr flar ni›r ok innar í hƒllinni en fleim var skipat. Heldr flótti mƒnnum ódælt vi› Bƒ›var, ok var fleim inn mesti íhugi á honum. 72 Ok sem lei› at jólum, gør›usk menn flar ókátir. Bƒ›varr spur›i Hƒtt hverju flat sætti; hann sag›i honum at d‡r eitt hafi komit flar tvá vetr í samt, mikit ok ógurligt. 75 ‘Ok hefr vængi á bakinu ok fl‡gr jafnan. Tvau haust hefr flat nú hingat vitjat ok gƒrt mikinn ska›a. Á flat bíta ekki vápn, en kappar konungs koma ekki heim, fleir sem eru einna mestir.’ 78 Bƒ›varr mælti, ‘Ekki er hƒllin svá vel skipu› sem ek ætla›a, at eitt d‡r skal hér ey›a ríki ok fé konungsins.’ Hƒttr sag›i, ‘fiat er ekki d‡r, heldr er flat it mesta trƒll.’ 81 Nú kemr jólaaptann. fiá mælir konungr: ‘Nú vil ek at allir menn séu kyrrir ok hljó›ir í nótt, ok banna ek ƒllum mínum mƒnnum at ganga í nƒkkurn háska vi› d‡rit, en fé ferr 84 eptir flví sem au›nar, flví ek vil eigi missa menn mína.’ Allir heita hér gó›u um, at gøra eptir flví sem konungr bau›. Bƒ›varr leynisk í burt um nóttina; hann lætr Hƒtt fara me› sér, ok 87 gør›i hann flat nau›ugr ok kallar sér st‡rt til bana. Bƒ›varr segir betr muni til takask. fieir ganga í burt frá hƒllinni, ok ver›r Bƒ›varr at bera Hƒtt, svá er hann hræddr. Nú sjá fleir d‡rit, ok flví næst œpir Hƒttr 90 slíkt sem hann má ok kva› d‡rit mundi gleypa hann. Bƒ›varr ba› bikkju flá flegja ok kastar honum ni›r í mosann, ok flar liggr hann ok eigi me› ƒllu óhræddr, ok eigi florir hann heldr heim at fara. Nú gengr 93 Bƒ›varr í móti d‡rinu; flat hœfir honum, at sver›it er fast í umgjƒr›inni, er hann vildi breg›a flví. Bƒ›varr eggjar nú fast sver›it ok flá brag›ar í umgjƒr›inni, ok nú fær hann brug›it umgjƒr›inni svá sver›it gengr 96 ór slí›runum, ok leggr flegar undir bœgi d‡rsins ok svá fast at flegar stó› í hjartanu, ok datt flá d‡rit til jar›ar dautt ni›r. Eptir flat ferr hann flangat sem Hƒttr liggr. Bƒ›varr tekr hann upp ok berr hann flangat 99 sem d‡rit liggr dautt. Hƒttr skelfr ákaft. Bƒ›varr mælir: ‘Nú skaltu drekka bló› d‡rsins.’ Hann er lengi tregr, en fló florir hann víst eigi annat. Bƒ›varr lætr 102 hann drekka tvá sopa stóra; hann lét hann ok eta nƒkkut af d‡rshjartanu. Eptir fletta tók Bƒ›varr til hans ok áttusk fleir vi› lengi. Bƒ›varr mælti: ‘Helzt ertu nú sterkr or›inn, ok ekki vænti ek flú hræ›isk nú hir›menn 105 Hrólfs konungs.’ Hƒttr svarar, ‘Eigi mun ek flá hræ›ask upp frá flessu ok ekki flik.’ ‘Vel er flá or›it, Hƒttr félagi,’ segir Bƒ›varr. ‘Fƒrum nú til ok reisum 108 upp d‡rit ok búum svá um at menn hyggi kvikt muni vera.’ 14 I: Hrólfs saga kraka

fieir gøra nu svá. Eptir flat fara fleir heim ok hafa kyrrt um sik, ok 111 veit enginn ma›r hvat fleir hafa i›jat. Konungr spyrr um morguninn hvat fleir viti til d‡rsins, hvárt flat hafi nƒkkut flangat vitjat um nóttina. Honum var sagt at fé allt væri 114 heilt í grindum ok ósakat. Konungr ba› menn forvitnask hvárt engin sæi líkindi til at flat hef›i heim komit. Var›menn gør›u svá ok kómu skjótt aptr ok sƒg›u konungi at d‡rit fœri flar ok heldr geyst at borginni. 117 Konungr ba› hir›menn vera nú hrausta ok duga nú hvern eptir flví sem hann hef›i hug til, ok rá›a af óvætt flennan; ok svá var gƒrt, sem konungr bau›, at fleir bjuggu sik til fless. Konungr horf›i á d‡rit ok 120 mælti sí›an: ‘Øngva sé ek fƒr á d‡rinu, en hverr vill nú taka kaup til ok ganga í móti flví?’ 123 Bƒ›varr mælti, ‘fiat væri næsta hrausts manns forvitnisbót. Hƒttr félagi, rektu af flér illmæli flat at menn láta, sem enginn krellr e›r dugr muni í flér vera. Farflú nú ok dreptu d‡rit. Máttu sjá at enginn er allfúss 126 til annarra.’ ‘Já,’ svara›i Hƒttr, ‘ek mun til flessa rá›ask.’ Konungr mælti, ‘Ekki veit ek hva›an flessi hreysti er at flér komin, 129 Hƒttr, ok mikit hefr um flik skipazk á skammri stundu.’ Hƒttr mælti, ‘Gef mér til sver›it Gullinhjalta, er flú heldr á, ok skal ek flá fella d‡rit e›a fá bana.’ 132 Hrólfr konungr mælti, ‘fietta sver› er ekki beranda nema fleim manni sem bæ›i er gó›r drengr ok hraustr.’ Hƒttr sag›i, ‘Ætla svá til, konungr, at mér muni svá háttat.’ 135 Konungr mælti, ‘Hvat má vita, nema fleira hafi skipzk um hagi flína en sjá flykir? fiví fæstir menn flykjask flik kenna, at flú sért hinn sami ma›r. Nú tak vi› sver›inu ok njót manna bezt, ef fletta er til unnit.’ 138 Sí›an gengr Hƒttr at d‡rinu alldjarfliga ok høggr til fless, flá hann kemr í hƒggfœri. D‡rit fellr ni›r dautt. Bƒ›varr mælir: ‘Sjái› nú, herra, hvat hann hefr til unnit.’ 141 Konungr segir, ‘Víst hefr hann mikit skipazk, en ekki hefr Hƒttr einn d‡rit drepit; heldr hefr flú flat gƒrt.’ Bƒ›varr segir, ‘Vera má at svá sé.’ 144 Konungr mælir, ‘Vissa ek, flá flú komst hér, at fáir mundi flínir jafningjar vera, en fló flyki mér flat flitt verk frægiligast, at flú hefr gert hér annan kappa flar er Hƒttr er, ok óvænligr flótti til mikillar gæfu. 147 Nú vil ek hann heiti eigi Hƒttr lengr ok skal hann heita Hjalti upp frá flessu; skaltu nú heita eptir sver›inu Gullinhjalta.’ Ok endar hér flennan flátt frá Bƒ›vari ok brœ›rum hans. II: Snorri Sturluson, EDDA: SKÁLDSKAPARMÁL Skáldskaparmál is the second part of the Prose Edda, written by Snorri Sturluson in Iceland, probably after his first visit to Nor- way in 1218–20, and he may have been intermittently engaged on the work until his death in 1241. It is a treatise on poetry, claim- ing to be addressed to young poets; Skáldskaparmál (‘the language of poetry’) is mainly about poetic diction, and Háttatal (‘enumeration of verse-forms’), the third part, is about metre and formal devices such as alliteration and rhyme. Gylfaginning, the first part, and the first section of Skáldskaparmál, given here, contain a series of mythological narratives that give the background to many of the kennings (periphrastic expressions, often metaphorical, for various concepts which sometimes require knowledge of the mythology of heathen Scandinavia for their understanding). A purportedly historical introduction to the mythology is provided in a Prologue to Gylfaginning, and in this first section of Skáldskaparmál the mythological narratives told to explain various kennings lead up to a story about the origin of the mead of poetry. Like most of the rest of the Prose Edda, the first section of Skáldskaparmál is in dialogue form, the questions being asked by Ægir, a personification of the sea, and the stories being told by the god Bragi, according to Snorri a god of poetry. The setting is a feast, as in the eddic poem Lokasenna, and the dialogue, between one of the gods and a visitor to their hall, is reminiscent of both Gylfaginning and Vafflrú›nismál, another of the eddic poems. The first story has a close parallel in the skaldic poem Haustlƒng by fijó›ólfr of Hvinir, a Norwegian poet of the ninth century, which is quoted by Snorri in other parts of his Edda, and the story of the origin of the mead of poetry is paralleled in Hávamál verses 104–10. There are allusions to all the stories told in this selection in skaldic kennings, but even though there are analogues for some of them from mythologies outside the Norse area, it is uncertain how ancient they are. The text here is based on the Codex Regius (GkS 2367 4to; = R). Emendations are from Codex Wormianus (AM 242 fol.) or Codex Trajectinus (MS No. 1374, University Library, Utrecht). 16 II: Skáldskaparmál

Bibliography Editions: Snorri Sturluson: Edda. Prologue and Gylfaginning. Ed. A. Faulkes. Clarendon Press (1982), repr. Viking Society for Northern Research (1988, 2000). Snorri Sturluson: Edda. Skáldskaparmál. Ed. A. Faulkes. 2 vols. Viking Society for Northern Research (1998). Snorri Sturluson: Edda. Háttatal. Ed. A. Faulkes. Clarendon Press (1991), repr. Viking Society for Northern Research (1999). Translation: Snorri Sturluson. Edda. Tr. A. Faulkes. Everyman (1987). II: Skáldskaparmál 17

II: Snorri Sturluson: EDDA

Skáldskaparmál E[inn ma]›r er nefndr Ægir e›a Hlér. Hann bjó í ey fleiri er nú er kƒllu› [Hlé]sey. Hann var mjƒk fjƒlkunnigr. Hann ger›i fer› sína til Ásgar›s, en er Æsir vissu fer› hans var honum fagnat vel 3 ok fló margir hlutir me› sjónhverfingum. Ok um kveldit er drekka skyldi, flá lét Ó›inn bera inn í hƒllina sver›, ok váru svá bjƒrt at flar af l‡sti, ok var ekki haft ljós annat me›an vi› drykkju var 6 setit. fiá gengu Æsir at gildi sínu ok settusk í hásæti tólf Æsir, fleir er dómendr skyldu vera ok svá váru nefndir: fiórr, Njƒr›r, Freyr, T‡r, Heimdallr, Bragi, Vi›arr, Váli, Ullr, Hœnir, Forseti, Loki; 9 slíkt sama Ásynjur: Frigg, Freyja, Gefjun, I›unn, Ger›r, Sigyn, Fulla, Nanna. Ægi flótti gƒfugligt flar um at sjásk. Veggflili ƒll váru flar tjƒldu› me› fƒgrum skjƒldum. fiar var ok áfenginn mjƒ›r 12 ok mjƒk drukkit. Næsti ma›r Ægi sat Bragi, ok áttusk fleir vi› drykkju ok or›askipti. Sag›i Bragi Ægi frá mƒrgum tí›indum fleim er Æsir hƒf›u átt. 15 Hann hóf flar frásƒgn at ‘flrír Æsir fóru heiman, Ó›inn ok Loki ok Hœnir, ok fóru um fjƒll ok ey›imerkr ok var illt til matar. En er fleir koma ofan í dal nakkvarn, sjá fleir øxna flokk ok taka einn 18 uxann ok snúa til sey›is. En er fleir hyggja at so›it mun vera, raufa fleir sey›inn ok var ekki so›it. Ok í annat sinn er fleir raufa sey›inn, flá er stund var li›in, ok var ekki so›it. Mæla fleir flá sín á milli 21 hverju fletta mun gegna. fiá heyra fleir mál í eikina upp yfir sik at sá er flar sat kvazk rá›a flví er eigi so›na›i á sey›inum. fieir litu til ok sat flar ƒrn ok eigi lítill. fiá mælti ƒrninn: 24 ‘“Vili› flér gefa mér fylli mína af oxanum, flá mun so›na á sey›inum.” ‘fieir játa flví. fiá lætr hann sígask ór trénu ok sezk á sey›inn ok 27 leggr upp flegar it fyrsta lær oxans tvau ok bá›a bógana. fiá var› Loki rei›r ok greip upp mikla stƒng ok rei›ir af ƒllu afli ok rekr á kroppinn erninum. ¯rninn bregzk vi› hƒggit ok fl‡gr upp. fiá 30 var fƒst stƒngin vi› kropp arnarins ok hendr Loka vi› annan enda. ¯rninn fl‡gr hátt svá at fœtr taka ni›r grjótit ok ur›ir ok vi›u, [en] hendr hans hyggr hann at slitna munu ór ƒxlum. Hann kallar 33 ok bi›r allflarfliga ƒrninn fri›ar, en hann segir at Loki skal aldri 18 II: Skáldskaparmál

lauss ver›a nema hann veiti honum svardaga at koma I›unni út of 36 Ásgar› me› epli sín,1 en Loki vil flat. Ver›r hann flá lauss ok ferr til lagsmanna sinna ok er eigi at sinni sƒg› fleiri tí›indi um fleira fer› á›r fleir koma heim. En at ákve›inni stundu teygir Loki I›unni 39 út um Ásgar› í skóg nokkvorn ok segir at hann hefir fundit epli flau er henni munu gripir í flykkja, ok ba› at hon skal hafa me› sér sín epli ok bera saman ok hin. fiá kemr flar fijazi jƒtunn í arnarham 42 ok tekr I›unni ok fl‡gr braut me› ok í firymheim til bús síns. ‘En Æsir ur›u illa vi› hvarf I›unnar ok ger›usk fleir brátt hárir ok gamlir. fiá áttu fleir Æsir fling ok [spyrr hverr annan] hvat sí›arst 45 vissi til I›unnar, en flat var sét sí›arst at hon gekk ór Ásgar›i me› Loka. fiá var Loki tekinn ok fœr›r á flingit ok var honum heitit bana e›a píslum. En er hann var› hræddr flá kvazk hann mundu 48 sœk‹j›a eptir I›unni í Jƒtunheima ef Freyja vill ljá honum valshams er hon á. Ok er hann fær valshaminn fl‡gr hann nor›r í Jƒtunheima ok kemr einn dag til fijaza jƒtuns. Var hann róinn á sæ, en I›unn 51 var ein heima. Brá Loki henni í hnotar líki ok haf›i í klóm sér ok fl‡gr sem mest. [E]n er fijazi kom heim ok saknar I›unnar, tekr hann arnarhaminn ok fl‡gr eptir Loka ok dró arnsúg í flugnum. 54 En er Æsirnir sá er valrinn flaug me› hnotina ok hvar ƒrninn flaug, flá gengu fleir út undir Ásgar› ok báru flannig byr›ar af lokarspánum, ok flá er valrinn flaug inn of borgina, lét hann fallask ni›r vi› 57 borgarvegginn. fiá slógu Æsirnir eldi í lokarspánu en ƒrninn mátti eigi stƒ›va er hann missti valsins. Laust flá eldinum í fi›ri arnarins ok tók flá af fluginn. fiá váru Æsirnir nær ok drápu fijaza jƒtun 60 fyrir innan Ásgrindr ok er flat víg allfrægt. ‘En Ska›i, dóttir fijaza jƒtuns, tók hjálm ok brynju ok ƒll hervápn ok ferr til Ásgar›s at hefna fƒ›ur síns. En Æsir bu›u henni sætt 63 ok yfirbœtr, ok hit fyrsta at hon skal kjósa sér mann af Ásum ok kjósa at fótum ok sjá ekki fleira af. fiá sá hon eins manns fœtr forkunnar fagra ok mælir: 66 ‘“fienna k‡s ek, fátt mun ljótt á Baldri.”2 ‘En flat var Njƒr›r ór Nóatúnum. fiat haf›i hon ok í sættargjƒr› sinni at Æsir skyldu flat gera er hon hug›i at fleir skyldu eigi mega, 69 at hlœgja hana. fiá ger›i Loki flat at hann batt um skegg geitar nokkvorrar ok ƒ›rum enda um hre›jar sér ok létu flau ymsi eptir

51 o R. II: Skáldskaparmál 19 ok skrækti hvárttveggja vi› hátt. fiá lét Loki fallask í kné Ska›a ok flá hló hon. Var flá gjƒr sætt af Ásanna hendi vi› hana. 72 ‘Svá er sagt at Ó›inn ger›i flat til yfirbóta vi› hana at hann tók augu fijaza ok kasta›i upp á himin ok ger›i af stjƒrnur tvær.’ fiá mælir Ægir: ‘Mikill flykki mér fijazi fyrir sér hafa verit, e›a 75 hvers kyns var hann?’ Bragi svarar: ‘¯lvaldi hét fa›ir hans, ok merki munu flér at flykkja ef ek segi flér frá honum. Hann var mjƒk gullau›igr, en er hann 78 dó ok synir hans skyldu skipta arfi, flá hƒf›u fleir mæling at gullinu er fleir skiptu at hverr skyldi taka munnfylli sína ok allir jafnmargar. Einn fleira var fijazi, annarr I›i, flri›i Gangr. En flat hƒfum vér 81 or›tak nú me› oss at kalla gullit munntal flessa jƒtna, en vér felum í rúnum e›a í skáldskap svá at vér kƒllum flat mál e›a or›ta‹k›, tal flessa jƒtna.’ 84 fiá mælir Ægir: ‘fiat flykki mér vera vel fólgit í rúnum.’ Ok enn mælir Ægir: ‘Hva›an af hefir hafizk sú íflrótt er flér kalli› skáldskap?’ 87 Bragi svarar: ‘fiat váru upphƒf til fless at gu›in hƒf›u ósætt vi› flat fólk er Vanir heita, en fleir lƒg›u me› sér fri›stefnu ok settu gri› á flá lund at fleir gengu hvárirtveggju til eins kers ok sp‡ttu 90 í hráka sínum. En at skilna›i flá tóku go›in ok vildu eigi láta t‡nask flat gri›amark ok skƒpu›u flar ór mann. Sá heitir Kvasir. Hann er svá vitr at engi spyrr hann fleira hluta er eigi kann hann órlausn. 93 Hann fór ví›a um heim at kenna mƒnnum frœ›i, ok flá er hann kom at heimbo›i til dverga nokkvorra, Fjalars ok Galars, flá kƒllu›u fleir hann me› sér á einmæli ok drápu hann, létu renna bló› hans 96 í tvau ker ok einn ketil, ok heitir sá Ó›reyrir, en kerin heita Són ok Bo›n. fieir blendu hunangi vi› bló›it ok var› flar af mjƒ›r sá er hverr er af drekkr ver›r skáld e›a frœ›ama›r. Dvergarnir sƒg›u 99 Ásum at Kvasir hef›i kafnat í mannviti fyrir flví at engi var flar svá fró›r at spyrja kynni hann fró›leiks. ‘fiá bu›u flessir dvergar til sín jƒtni fleim er Gillingr heitir ok 102 konu hans. fiá bu›u dvergarnir Gillingi at róa á sæ me› sér. En er ‹fleir› fóru fyrir land fram, røru dvergarnir á bo›a ok hvelf›i skipinu. Gillingr var ósyndr ok t‡ndisk hann, en dvergarnir réttu skip sitt 105 ok reru til lands. fieir sƒg›u konu hans flenna atbur›, en hon kunni

91 sína R. 97 heitu R. 20 II: Skáldskaparmál

illa ok grét hátt. fiá spur›i Fjalarr hana ef henni mundi hugléttara 108 ef hon sæi út á sæinn flar er hann haf›i t‡nzk, en hon vildi flat. fiá mælti hann vi› Galar bró›ur sinn at hann skal fara upp yfir dyrrnar er hon gengi út ok láta kvernstein falla í hƒfu› henni, ok tal›i sér 111 lei›ask óp hennar, ok svá ger›i hann. fiá er fletta spur›i Suttungr bró›urson Gillings, ferr hann til ok tók dvergana ok flytr á sæ út ok setr flá í flœ›arsker. fieir bi›ja Suttung sér lífsgri›a ok bjó›a 114 honum til sættar í fƒ›urgjƒld mjƒ›inn d‡ra, ok flat ver›r at sætt me› fleim. Flytr Suttungr mjƒ›inn heim ok hir›ir flar sem heita Hnitbjƒrg, setr flar til gæzlu dóttur sína Gunnlƒ›u. Af flessu kƒllum 117 vér skáldskap Kvasis bló› e›a dverga drekku e›a fylli e›a nakkvars konar lƒg Ó›reris e›a Bo›nar e›a Sónar e›a farskost dverga, fyrir flví at sá mjƒ›r f[lut]ti fleim fjƒrlausn ór skerinu, e›a Suttunga 120 mjƒ› e›a Hnitbjarga lƒgr.’ fiá mælir Ægir: ‘Myrkt flykki mér flat mælt at kalla skáldskap me› flessum heitum, en hvernig kómu fleir Æsir at Suttunga mi›i?’ 123 Bragi svarar: ‘Sjá saga er til fless at Ó›inn fór heiman ok kom flar er flrælar níu slógu hey. Hann spyrr ef fleir vili at hann br‡ni ljá fleira. fieir játa flví. fiá tekr hann hein af belti sér ok br‡ndi, en 126 fleim flótti bíta ljárnir myklu betr ok fƒlu›u heinina. En hann mat svá at sá er kaupa vildi skyldi gefa vi› hóf, en allir kvá›usk vilja ok bá›u hann sér selja, en hann kasta›i heininni í lopt upp. En er 129 allir vildu henda flá skiptusk fleir svá vi› at hverr brá ljánum á háls ƒ›rum. Ó›inn sótti til náttsta›ar til jƒtuns fless er Baugi hét, bró›ir Suttungs. Baugi kalla›i illt fjárhald sitt ok sag›i at flrælar 132 hans níu hƒf›u drepizk, en tal›isk eigi vita sér ván verkmanna. En Ó›inn nefndisk fyrir honum Bƒlverkr. Hann bau› at taka upp níu manna verk fyrir Bauga, en mælir sér til kaups einn drykk af 135 Suttunga mi›i. Baugi kvazk enskis rá› eiga af mi›inum, sag›i at Suttungr vildi einn hafa, en fara kvezk hann mundu me› Bƒlverki ok freista ef fleir fengi mjƒ›inn. Bƒlverkr vann um sumarit níu 138 mannsverk fyrir Bauga, en at vetri beiddisk hann Bauga leigu sinnar. fiá fara fleir bá›ir ‹til Suttungs›. Baugi segir Suttungi bró›ur sínum kaup fleira Bƒlverks, en Suttungr synjar flverliga hvers dropa 141 af mi›inum. fiá mælir Bƒlverkr til Bauga at fleir skyldu freista véla nokkvorra, ef fleir megi ná mi›inum, en Baugi lætr flat vel

135 kva› R. rá›s R. II: Skáldskaparmál 21 vera. fiá dregr Bƒlverkr fram nafar flann er Rati heitir ok mælir at Baugi skal bora bjargit ef nafarrinn bítr. Hann gerir svá. fiá segir 144 Baugi at gƒgnum er borat bjargit, en Bƒlverkr blæss í nafars raufina ok hrjóta spænirnir upp í móti honum. fiá fann hann at Baugi vildi svíkja hann, ok ba› bora gƒgnum bjargit. Baugi bora›i enn. En er 147 Bƒlverk‹r› blés annat sinn, flá fuku inn spænirnir. fiá brásk Bƒlverkr í orms líki ok skrei› í nafars raufina, en Baugi stakk eptir honum nafrinum ok missti hans. Fór Bƒlverkr flar til sem Gunnlƒ› var ok 150 lá hjá henni flrjár nætr, ok flá lofa›i hon honum at drekka af mi›inum flrjá drykki. Í inum fyrsta drykk drakk hann all‹t› ór Ó›reri, en í ƒ›rum ór Bo›n, í inu‹m› flri›ja ór Són, ok haf›i hann flá allan 153 mjƒ›inn. fiá brásk hann í arnarham ok flaug sem ákafast. En er Suttungr sá flug arnarins, tók hann sér arnarham ok flaug eptir honum. En er Æsir sá hvar Ó›inn flaug flá settu fleir út í gar›inn 156 ker sín, en er Ó›inn kom inn of Ásgar› flá sp‡tti hann upp mi›inum í kerin, en honum var flá svá nær komit at Suttungr mundi ná honum at hann sendi aptr suman mjƒ›inn, ok var fless ekki gætt. Haf›i 159 flat hverr er vildi, ok kƒllum vér flat skáldfífla hlut. En Suttunga mjƒ› gaf Ó›inn Ásunum ok fleim mƒnnum er yrkja kunnu. fiví kƒllum v[ér] skáldskapinn feng Ó›ins ok fund ok drykk hans ok 162 gjƒf hans ok drykk Ásanna.’

Notes 1 According to Gylfaginning ch. 26, Bragi’s wife I›unn had charge of the golden apples from which the gods needed to take bites so as to remain eternally young.

2 Baldr is described in Gylfaginning ch. 22 as the most beautiful of the gods and Ska›i naturally hopes that she has chosen him.

151 ljá R. 155 ﬁjazi R. 156 ﬂú R. 160 lit R.

III: Sturla ﬁór›arson: ÍSLENDINGA SAGA

Sturla fiór›arson (1214–84) belonged to the great Sturlung family and was nephew of Snorri Sturluson (d. 1241). His Íslendinga saga is the longest single saga in the compilation known as Sturlunga saga, which was probably made about 1300 and covers the history of Iceland from 1117 to 1264 with special attention to the thirteenth century. Other sagas in the collection (and by other authors than Sturla) are, for example, fiorgils saga ok Hafli›a (covering the period 1117–21), Hrafns saga Sveinbjarnarsonar (about a chieftain and notable physi- cian from the Western Fjords killed in 1213), fiór›ar saga kakala (about Sturla’s cousin, fiór›r kakali Sighvatsson, and with a description of a famous sea-battle fought in Húnaflói in 1244) and Svínfellinga saga (about family feuds in south-eastern Iceland in the years 1248–52). The sagas of the Sturlunga-compilation (often referred to as ‘Sagas of Contemporaries’) have significant value as contemporary historical sources for the turbulent period leading up to the country’s submission to Norway in 1262–64. This, perhaps paradoxically, was also a time of intense literary activity during which many of the Sagas of Icelanders were written. Sturla’s Íslendinga saga covers the period 1183–1262 and was probably composed towards the end of his life, between 1271 and 1284. Sturla’s other literary works include Hákonar saga gamla, a biography of the Norwegian king Hákon Hákonarson (r. 1217–63; written 1264– 65); Magnúss saga lagabœtis, about Hákon’s son Magnús (r. 1263– 80), probably completed shortly after his death; a redaction of Landnámabók; and probably Kristni saga, which describes the conversion of Iceland and the early history of its church. Further, he may have written a version of Grettis saga. Sturla was also a poet and, for example, composed skaldic poetry in praise of the kings Hákon Hákonarson and his son Magnús lagabœtir. He probably played a significant part in the compilation of the law-code Járnsí›a which replaced the laws of the Commonwealth in 1271–73 (but which was itself replaced in 1281 by another called Jónsbók). Like other members of the Sturlung family, Sturla was closely involved in the often tumultuous political events of thirteenth-century Iceland (described not least in Íslendinga saga); but unlike several of them (for example, Snorri Sturluson), he survived the violence of the age and died of natural causes on the day after his seventieth birthday. 24 III: Íslendinga saga

The protagonist of the story told in this extract, Gizurr fiorvaldsson (1208–68), played a central part in the history of Iceland in the period leading up to the end of the Commonwealth. After returning from Nor- way in 1252, Gizurr established himself at the farm Flugum‡rr (modern Icelandic Flugum‡ri) in Skagafjƒr›r in northern Iceland, in territory which fiór›r Sighvatsson kakali had entrusted to Eyjólfr fiorsteinsson and Hrani Ko›ránsson. At the same time Gizurr sought to cement his relationship with Sturla fiór›arson by marrying his son Hallr to Sturla’s daughter Ingibjƒrg. The wedding was celebrated at Flugum‡rr in October 1253, and it was here, after many of the guests (including Sturla) had departed, that Eyjólfr and Hrani with a band of followers made their attack and eventually set fire to the farm. The extract describes the burning and the loss of Gizurr’s wife Gróa and their three sons. Gizurr escaped, however, to take a dreadful revenge, and within two years many of the attackers of Flugum‡rr, including Eyjólfr and Hrani, were dead by the actions of Gizurr and his allies. Sturla’s account of the burning has been admired for its vivid detail and objective narrative skill. It should be remembered that he had left the scene of the event only shortly before Eyjólfr’s attack and that his own thirteen-year-old daughter Ingibjƒrg, the bride, was one of the major figures in the drama as, fatally, was his newly-acquired son-in- law, Hallr, son of Gizurr. He was probably, however, writing his account some twenty years after the event. Accounts of the burning at Flugum‡rr (though not necessarily Sturla fiór›arson’s) may well have influenced the story of the burning of Njáll and his sons as told in chapters 127–130 of Njáls saga. The context of the episode given here may be summarised as follows. As noted above, fiór›r Sighvatsson kakali had put Eyjólfr and Hrani Ko›ránsson in control of the territory (in effect the whole of Iceland) which had been assigned to him by King Hákon Hákonarson. Eyjólfr had control over the westerly part of the area, including Skagafjƒr›r, and Hrani the easterly part with Eyjafjƒr›r. When Gizurr arrived back from Norway in 1252, however, the farmers of Skagafjƒr›r accepted him as their leader and the following year Gizurr drove Eyjólfr out of Skagafjƒr›r and settled at Flugum‡rr. Eyjólfr moved to Mƒ›ruvellir in Hƒrgárdalr. Goaded on by his wife fiúrí›r (the daughter of Sighvatr Sighvatsson who had been killed by Gizurr at the Battle of Ørlygssta›ir in 1238), Eyjólfr, together with Hrani Ko›ránsson, III: Íslendinga saga 25 attacked Gizurr at Flugum‡rr in an episode the latter part of which is described in this selection. The intention was to kill Gizurr, but as will be seen, he escaped. After Gizurr went abroad in 1254, hostilities continued between Eyjólfr and Gizurr’s ally, Oddr fiórarinsson, and in these Eyjólfr appears to have had the support of Heinrekr Kársson (bishop of Hólar, 1247–60). Eyjólfr and Hrafn Oddsson, a prominent chieftain from north-western Iceland, killed Oddr at his home in Skagafjƒr›r early in 1255. Oddr’s brother fiorvar›r allied himself with fiorgils Bƒ›varsson skar›i, Sturla fiór›arson and a third chieftain and attacked and killed Eyjólfr at fiveráreyrar on 19th July, 1255. At the point where the selection begins, Gizurr and his companions in the farm at Flugum‡rr have put up a stout and lengthy resistance to Eyjólfr and his band of assailants before the expedient of fire is resorted to. Time was not on the side of Eyjólfr and his band, who were in hostile territory (cf. lines 122–23). Their power base was in Eyjafjƒr›r and eastwards from there, and they had to do something to resolve the impasse. Sturlunga saga, and with it Íslendinga saga, is preserved in two medieval vellums, Króksfjar›arbók (AM 122 a fol.; written c.1350– 70) and Reykjarfjar›arbók (AM 122 b fol.; written c.1375–1400). Both manuscripts (particularly the latter) are now defective and, in reconstructing lost parts of their texts, recourse must be had to the many copies in paper manuscripts (including a good one in the British Li- brary) which were derived from them when they were more complete than now. The text of the selection here follows Króksfjar›arbók (ff. 101vb28–102vb26) but with certain emendations and additions mostly based on British Library Add. 11,127.

Bibliography Facsimile edition: Jakob Benediktsson (ed.), Sturlunga saga: Manuscript no. 122 a fol. in the Arnamagnæan Collection, Early Icelandic manuscripts in facsimile I (1958). [= Króksfjar›arbók] Critical edition: Kr. Kålund (ed.), Sturlunga saga, 2 vols. (1906–11). Popular editions: Jón Jóhannesson, Magnús Finnbogason and Kristján Eldjárn (eds), Sturlunga saga, 2 vols. (1946). Örnólfur Thorsson (ed.), Sturlunga saga, 3 vols. (1988). 26 III: Íslendinga saga

English translation: Julia McGrew and R. George Thomas (tr.), Sturlunga saga, 2 vols. (1970–74).

Background reading: Gunnar Karlsson, Samband vi› mi›aldir (1992), 164–71. Jónas Kristjánsson, Eddas and sagas (1988), Index, s.v. Sturla ﬁór›arson. W. P. Ker, Epic and romance, 2nd ed. (1908), 246–74. MS, under Hákonar saga gamla Hákonarsonar; Landnámabók; Magnúss saga lagabœtis; Sturla ﬁór›arson; Sturlung Age; Sturlunga saga. Gu›rún Nordal, ‘Sturlunga saga and the context of saga-writing’, in Introduc- tory essays on Egils saga and Njáls saga, ed. John Hines and Desmond Slay (1992), 1–14. III: Íslendinga saga 27

III: Sturla ﬁór›arson: ÍSLENDINGA SAGA

Gizurr ﬁorvaldsson’s escape from the burning at Flugum‡rr, 1253

Chapter 172 . . . Ok flá er Eyjólfr sá at fleim sóttisk seint, ‹en ugg›i› at hera›smenn myndi at koma, flá báru fleir eld at. Jón af Bakka haf›i haft tjƒrupinn1 me› sér, ok flá tóku fleir gærur af flƒnum ‹er flar váru úti›2 ok báru flar 3 í eld ok tjƒruna. Sumir tóku tƒ›u ok trá›u í gluggana ok lƒg›u flar eld í, ok var› flá reykr mikill brátt í húsunum ok svælumikit. Gizurr lag›isk ni›r í skálanum me› setstokkinum ƒ›rum megin ok 6 lag›i nasirnar ok hƒfu›it vi› gólfit3 ok flar Gróa, kona hans, hjá honum.4 fiorbjƒrn nef lá flar hjá fleim, ok horf›usk fleir Gizurr at hƒf›unum.5 fiorbjƒrn heyr›i at Gizurr ba› fyrir sér á marga vega háleitliga til 9 Gu›s, svá at eigi kvazk hann slíkan formála heyrt hafa, en hann flóttisk eigi sinn munn mega í sundr hefja fyrir reyk. Ok eptir flat stó› Gizurr upp, ok helt Gróa á honum. Gizurr gekk í anddyrit sy›ra, ok var honum 12 flá erfitt mjƒk, bæ›i af reyk ok hita, ok var flat flá í hug at leita út heldr en vera lengr inni svældr. Gizurr gla›i stó› vi› dyrrin ok tala›i vi› Kolbein grƒn ok bau› 15 Kolbeinn honum gri›, flví at fleir hƒf›u fyrr flat vi› mælzk at hvárr skyldi ƒ›rum gri› gefa, hvárr sem vald hef›i til.6 Gizurr fiorvaldsson stó› at baki nafna sínum me›an fleir tƒlu›u fletta, ok svala›i honum 18 heldr me›an. Gizurr gla›i beiddisk at hann mundi kjósa mann me› sér til gri›a. Kolbeinn játa›i flví, flegar frá væri Gizurr ok synir hans. fiá kom flar til Gró í anddyrit Ingibjƒrg Sturludóttir ok var í náttserk 21 einum ok berfœtt.7 Hon var flá flrettán vetra gƒmul ok var bæ›i mikil vexti ok skƒrulig at sjá. Silfrbelti haf›i vafizk um fœtr henni, er hon komsk ór hvílunni fram; var flar á pungr ok flar í gull hennar mƒrg. 24 Haf›i ‹hon› flat flar me› sér. Gróa var› fegin henni mjƒk ok segir at eitt skyldi yfir flær ganga bá›ar. Ok er Gizuri haf›i heldr svalat, flá var honum flat í hug at hlaupa 27 eigi út. Hann var í línklæ›um ok í brynju, stálhúfu á hƒf›i, sver›it Brynjubít í hendi. Gróa var ok í náttserk einum. Gizurr gekk at henni Gró ok tók fingrgull tvau ór brókabeltispungi sínum ok fekk henni í 30 hƒnd, flví at hann ætla›i henni líf en sér dau›a. Annat fingrgullit haf›i átt Magnús biskup, fƒ›urbró›ir hans, en annat fiorvaldr, fa›ir hans.8 Kvazk hann vilja at fleira gripa nyti vinir hans, ef svá fœri sem hann 33 28 III: Íslendinga saga

vildi. Gizurr fann flá á Gró at henni fannsk mikit um skilna›inn fleira. Leita›i Gizurr flá innar eptir húsunum ok me› honum Gu›mundr, 36 frændi hans. Hann vildi aldri vi› hann skilja. fieir kómu at litlustofu ok ætlu›u flar út at leita. fiá heyr›i hann flar mannamál úti ok bƒlvan. Brott hvarf hann fla›an.

Chapter 173

39 Nú ver›r flar frá at hverfa. fiær Gróa ok Ingibjƒrg gengu nú út at durunum. Gróa ba› Ingibjƒrgu útgƒngu. fiat heyr›i Kolbeinn grƒn, frændi hennar,9 ok ba› hana út ganga til sín. Hon kvazk eigi flat vilja, 42 nema hon køri mann me› sér. Kolbeinn kva› eigi flat mundu. Gróa ba› hana út ganga, — ‘en ek ver› at leita sveinsins fiorláks, systursonar míns,’ segir hon — fiorleifr hreimr var fa›ir hans.10 Sveinninn haf›i út 45 hlaupit á›r, ok logu›u um hann línklæ›in er hann kom ofan á vƒllinn. Hann var tíu vetra gamall. Komsk hann til kirkju.11 fiat er sumra manna sƒgn at fiorsteinn genja hryndi Gró inn í eldinn, 48 ok flar fannsk hon í anddyrinu.12 Kolbeinn grƒn hljóp inn í eldinn eptir Ingibjƒrgu ok bar hana út til kirkju. Tóku flá húsin mjƒk at loga. 51 Hallr Gizurarson kom litlu sí›ar at fleim inum sy›rum durunum ok Árni beiskr me› honum, fylg›arma›r hans.13 fieir váru bá›ir mjƒk flreyttir ok mó›ir af hita. Bor›i var skotit um flverar dyrrnar.14 Hallr 54 horf›i lítt á ok hljóp flegar út yfir bor›it. Hann haf›i sver› í hendi ok ekki fleira vápna. Einarr fiorgrímsson var nær staddr er Hallr hljóp út, ok hjó í hƒfu› honum me› sver›i, ok var flat banasár.15 Ok er hann 57 fell, hjó annarr á fótinn hœgra fyrir ne›an kné svá at nær tók af. fiórólfr munkr frá fiverá, ƒlger›arma›r, var n‡genginn á›r út ok var flar í túninu.16 Hann tók gæru, er flar lá, ok skaut undir Hall, flá er fleir 60 Einarr gengu frá honum. Hann kippti ƒllu saman, Halli ok gærunni, á lei› til kirkjunnar, flá er fleir hug›u eigi at. En Hallr var fáklæddr ok kom kul›i í sár hans. Munkrinn var ok berfœttr, ok kól hann ok. Gat 63 hann fló komit fleim bá›um í kirkju of sí›ir.17 Árni beiskr hljóp flegar út eptir Halli. Hann drap fótum í bor›it — var flá vi› aldr — ok fell, er hann kom út. fieir spur›u, hverr flar fœri 66 svá hrapalliga. ‘Árni beiskr er hér,’ segir hann, ‘ok mun ek ekki gri›a bi›ja. Sé ek ok, at sá liggr hér skammt frá mér er mér líkar eigi illa at ek hafa slíka 69 fƒr ok hann.’18 III: Íslendinga saga 29

Kolbeinn mælti flá: ‘Man engi nú Snorra Sturluson, ef flú fær gri›.’19 Bá›ir unnu fleir Kolbeinn á honum ok Ari Ingimundarson; ok fleiri hjoggu fleir hann, ok lét hann flegar líf sitt. 72 fiá fell ofan skálinn, fyrst nor›an af skálanum su›r um loptit er í var skálanum. fiessir menn ur›u flar undir: Ísleifr Gizurarson, Ketil- bjƒrn, bró›ir hans, Bjƒrn Óláfsson, Steinn smi›r, Kolbjƒrn, Ásgrímr. 75 Gu›laugr piltr, Ketill sútari, Kormakr bryti létusk í klefanum. Sokki Ormsson lézk í litlustofu. Páll hét lausama›r einn er fannsk dau›r í bor›húsi í stofunni. Snau›ir menn kƒfnu›u níu í gestahúsi ok hét 78 ma›r fiorfinnr, fa›ir fiórólfs tinsmi›s. Hálfr flri›i tugr manna lézk í brennunni. Halldórr Gu›mundarson20 gekk út su›rdyrr af búrinu, ok var flar 81 fyrir Eyjólfr fiorsteinsson ok gaf honum gri›. Ok er hann kom mjƒk at kirkjunni, var flar fyrir sá ma›r er fiorkell smi›r hét, er sí›an var veginn á Mƒ›ruvƒllum.21 Hann tók til hans ok kva› eigi svá ótt í kirkjuna, en 84 annarr hjó til hans me› sver›i vi› forkirkjuna ok kom framan á hálsinn inum hœgra megin, ok hraut bló›it allt á kirkjuna. Var flat mikill áverki. Komsk hann vi› flat í kirkju. 87 Nú tóku ƒll húsin at loga, nema eldhús brann eigi ok litlastofa ok skyrbúr.

Chapter 174

Nú er at segja frá Gizuri fiorvaldssyni at hann kom at skyrbúri, ok 90 hann Gu›mundr, frændi hans, fylg›i honum.22 Gizurr ba› hann fara frá sér, kva› heldr mega einn fá nokkut undanbrag› ef fless vildi au›na, flar sem fleir fengu eigi bá›ir. fiar kom flá ok Jón prestr Halldórsson,23 93 ok kva› Gizurr flá bá›a skyldu brott fara frá sér at sinni. Gizurr steypti flá af sér brynjunni ok stálhúfunni, en haf›i sver›it í hendi. fieir Jón prestr leitu›u til su›rdura af búrinu ok fengu bá›ir gri›. Gizurr 96 fiorvaldsson gekk í búrit. Hann sá hvar skyrker stó› á stokkum í búrinu. fiar hleypti ‹hann› sver›inu Brynjubít ofan í skyrit svá at flat sƒkk upp um hjƒltin. Gizurr sá at flar var ker í jƒr›u hjá, lítit, ok var í s‡ra.24 En 99 skyrkerit stó› flar yfir ofan ok hul›i mjƒk s‡rukerit flat er í jƒr›unni var. fiar var rúm flat er ma›r mátti komask í kerit, ok fór Gizurr flar í kerit flat er ‹í› jƒr›unni var ok settisk ni›r í s‡runa í línklæ›um einum, 102 ok tók honum s‡ran í geirvƒrtur. Kalt var í s‡runni. Skamma hrí› haf›i hann flar setit á›r hann heyr›i mannamál ok heyr›i at um var talat, ef hann fyndisk, at flrír menn váru til ætla›ir til 105 30 III: Íslendinga saga

áverka vi› hann, ok skyldi sitt hƒgg hƒggva hverr ok fara ekki ótt at, ok vita hvernig hann yr›i vi›. Hrani25 var til ætla›r ok Kolbeinn grƒn 108 ok Ari Ingimundarson. Nú kómu fleir í búrit me› ljósi ok leitu›u allt. fieir kómu at kerinu er Gizurr sat í kerinu,26 ok lƒg›u í kerit flrír menn me› spjótum e›a fjórir. fieir flrættu um: sƒg›u sumir, at fyrir yr›i, en 111 sumir ekki. Gizurr haf›i lófana fyrir kvi›i sér sem hógligast, at fleir skyldi sem sízt kenna at fyrir yr›i. Hann skeindisk á lófunum ok svá framan á beinum á skƒfnungunum. Váru flat lítil sár ok mƒrg. Svá 114 hefir Gizurr sagt sjálfr, á›r fleir kœmi í búrit, at hann skalf af kul›a, svá at svagla›i í kerinu; en er fleir kómu í búrit, flá skalf hann ekki. Tvisvar leitu›u fleir um búrit, ok fór svá í hvárttveggja sinn. Eptir ‹flat 117 gengu› fleir í brott ok út ok bjoggusk í brott. Gengu menn flá til gri›a, fleir er lífs váru, Gu›mundr Fálkason, fiór›r djákni, Óláfr er sí›an var kalla›r gestr, ok haf›i Einarr fiorgrímsson 120 unnit á honum.27 fiá var í dagan. Stigu brennumenn flá á bak ok ri›u út ór gar›i. Fótar-¯rn28 rei› sí›ast ok segir Eyjólfi at hann sá mann ganga til kirkju ok var leiddr, ok kvazk hyggja at Gizurr væri; kva› flat eitt 123 rá› at snúa aptr. fieir svƒru›u margir, kvá›u flat ekki vera mega. Var› ok ekki af, at fleir sneri aptr. Gizurr haf›i flá gengit til kirkju, sem ¯rn ætla›i, flví at svá var honum 126 kalt or›it at hann flol›i eigi lengr flar at vera. Ok er Gizurr kom í kirkju, váru klæ›i borin at honum, ok verm›i sú kona hann á lærum sér er Hallfrí›r hét ok var kƒllu› Gar›afylja, er sí›an var heimakona 129 me› Kálfi Brandssyni á Ví›im‡ri.29 Hann var háss or›inn mjƒk af reyk ok kul›a. Gizurr hresstisk brátt ok bar sik vel ok drengiliga eptir slíka mannraun ok harma. Hallr, son hans, anda›isk flá er nær var hálfljóst . . . III: Íslendinga saga 31

Notes 1 Jón and his son, Ljótr (‘Ugly’) were probably the last to join Eyjólfr’s party. His farm lay in Øxnadalr, only a little to the east of Øxnadals- hei›r, the high ground to be crossed before Skagafjƒr›r, where Flugum‡rr lay, was reached. It is natural, then, that it was he who should provide the tjƒrupinnr, particularly if it were a relatively heavy object (see below). After the burning, in October 1253, a band of men under Gizurr ravaged Bakki while Jón was absent. And in late January of the following year, they surprised him while he was sleeping in his house (rather than in the church there where he had slept since the burning) and killed him. The meaning of the word tjƒrupinnr is uncertain. It may refer to a piece of wood covered in tar which could be used in starting a fire. But it more probably refers to a small barrel (or other vessel) containing tar (cf. older English pin, ‘small cask, keg’). 2 There would have been sheepskins stretched out to dry outside the farm at Flugum‡rr. 3 Gizurr did this to be able to breathe the fresher air near the floor. 4 Gróa Álfsdóttir was Gizurr’s second wife, whom he had only married in 1252. She was certainly mother of Hallr (line 51) and Ísleifr (line 74), and possibly also of Ketilbjƒrn (line 74). 5 fiorbjƒrn nef was son of fiór›r Narfason, brother of Helga, mother of the bride, Ingibjƒrg Sturludóttir. 6 On gri›, cf. Laws, I 183–84, 210, 260. Gizurr gla›i appears to have been a close companion and supporter of Gizurr fiorvaldsson for at least a quarter of a century. He survived the burning at Flugum‡rr, quite possibly by accepting Kolbeinn’s offer mentioned here. His home was at Lang(a)holt in Flói in southern Iceland. His by-name gla›i means ‘the Cheerful’. Kolbeinn Dufgusson grƒn was one of the incendiaries. He was subsequently apprehended and killed at Espihóll in Eyjafjƒr›r in January, 1254, by one of a band of men under Gizurr fiorvaldsson. Gizurr composed a skaldic verse commemorating the killing. Cf. lines 40–41 and note 9. 7 Ingibjƒrg Sturludóttir was the daughter of Sturla fiór›arson, the author of Íslendinga saga, by Helga fiór›ardóttir. She was newly wed to Hallr Gizurarson. 32 III: Íslendinga saga

8 fiorvaldr Gizurarson (d. 1235), Gizurr’s father, is known for, among other things, his foundation (1226) of the Augustinian monastery on the island of Vi›ey (off modern Reykjavík), of which he was first prior. See HOIC, 197–98 and Index. 9 Kolbeinn’s father Dufgus was a nephew of fiór›r Sturluson, father of Sturla fiór›arson, father of Ingibjƒrg. Cf. line 15 and note 6. 10 fiorleifr Ketilsson hreimr (died 1289; married to Gróa’s sister) had left the wedding-feast the day before the night of the burning (i.e. on Tuesday, 21st October, 1253), apparently leaving his son at Flugum‡rr. He also joined Gizurr in the revenge for the burning. fiorleifr later distinguished himself by being elected lawspeaker (lƒgsƒguma›r) on three occasions (1263–1265, 1268, 1271) and was the last person to hold the position. 11 Most of the churches of thirteenth-century Iceland were attached to farms and privately owned. It is natural that there should have been one at an important farm like Flugum‡rr. In situations like the one described here, churches would have been regarded as places of sanctuary. 12 This refers to the gruesome scene where Gizurr returns to the farm soon after the burning and finds the remains of his wife and his son, Ísleifr. fiorsteinn genja may well be identical with fiorsteinn Gu›- mundarson, who after the event praised the stout resistance presented by the defenders at Flugum‡rr. 13 Árni beiskr was the man who dealt Snorri Sturluson his death-blow at Reykholt on 23rd September, 1241. He was killed by Kolbeinn grƒn Dufgusson and Ari Ingimundarson at Flugum‡rr. 14 A board had been put across the doorway by the attackers to prevent escape from the burning building. 15 Einarr fiorgímsson was from Øxnahóll in Øxnadalr (cf. note 1). He was killed there in January, 1254, by Óláfr gestr in Gizurr’s revenge for the burning (cf. lines 119–20). 16 fiórólfr munkr frá fiverá was presumably from fiverá, often called Munka-fiverá, in Eyjafjƒr›r. A Benedictine monastery was established there in 1155 (cf. HOIC, 194). Ale was specially brewed for great III: Íslendinga saga 33 feasts such as this one at Flugum‡rr and fiórólfr had presumably played at least some part in this.

17 ﬂeim bá›um must refer to Hallr and ﬁórólfr himself.

18 Árni’s reference to Hallr here presupposes a situation prior to the events described in lines 58–63; in other words, the narrative is here going back in time. Sturla recognised the difficulties of telling of a number of more or less simultaneous events. Earlier in the description of the events at Flugum‡rr, he explicitly writes: ‘Now a number of things happened simultaneously, but one can only tell about one thing at a time’ (Nú ur›u margir atbur›ir senn, ok má ﬂó frá einum senn segja).

19 It is appropriate that Kolbeinn should draw attention to Snorri Sturluson’s killing. His father was Snorri’s nephew as well as ﬁór›r Sturluson’s. Cf. lines 15–16, 40 and notes 6 and 9.

20 Gu›mundarson: so Króksfjar›arbók; but some manuscripts have ¯gmundarson here, and earlier in Íslendinga saga (ch. 172), a Halldórr ¯gmundarson is mentioned amongst the defenders of Flugum‡rr ‘er sí›an var kalla›r hálshƒgg’ (who afterwards was known as ‘neck- chop’); cf. lines 85–86.

21 Mƒ›ruvellir was a farm in Hƒrgárdalr (not to be confused with Mƒ›ruvellir in Eyjafjƒr›r, about 33 km further south) some 50 km north-eastwards from Flugum‡rr. In late January, 1254, three of the incendiaries were seized at Mƒ›ruvellir and killed. One of the three is named fiorgils Sveinsson, and it is quite possible that ‘fiorkell’ here is an error for ‘fiorgils’.

22 Excavations of the eleventh-century farmhouse at Stöng in southern Iceland have revealed the remains of a skyrbúr and evidence of large vats, some half-buried in the earthen floor, and similar remains have also been found at the Augustinian monastery on the island of Vi›ey off modern Reykjavík (cf. note 8 above). Skyr was a common dish in Scandinavia of the Middle Ages and is still widely consumed in present- day Iceland (often eaten with sugar and milk or cream); it consists of milk, soured and thickened, and is sometimes likened to yoghurt. 34 III: Íslendinga saga

Although modern skyr has something of the consistency of cream- cheese, medieval sources refer to it being drunk.

23 Probably not the same as Prest-Jóan, who was involved in the killing of Kolbeinn grƒn (cf. note 6 above).

24 S‡ra was sour whey; this was a common drink in medieval Iceland and would have been stored in large quantities on farms. It was often mixed with water to make a drink called blanda.

25 Hrani Ko›ránsson, of Grund in Eyjafjƒr›r, one of the incendiaries, was subsequently killed in revenge (May, 1254) on the island of Grímsey by a band of men under the leadership of Oddr ﬁórarinsson, an ally of Gizurr ﬁorvaldsson.

26 The repetition of the antecedent kerinu is perhaps for emphasis, though er Gizurr sat í may mean ‘while Gizurr was sitting in [it]’ rather than ‘which Gizurr was sitting in’.

27 Óláfr gestr survived the burning at Flugum‡rr; cf. note 15 above.

28 We learned earlier that Fótar-¯rn acted as look-out for Eyjólfr’s band. We are also told that during the attack he spent most of his time on his horse. The latter circumstance might be consistent with the suggestion that he may have been called Fótar-¯rn because he had something wrong with his leg or foot.

29 Kálfr Brandsson had himself been at the wedding-feast but had presumably left before the attack by Eyjólfr. He later married Gu›n‡, another daughter of Sturla fiór›arson. In 1259 he also allied himself with Gizurr fiorvaldsson against his enemy, fiór›r Andrésson. Like his father and grandfather before him, he lived at Ví›im‡rr, a major farm in Skagafjƒr›r. IV: Kormaks saga 35

IV: KORMAKS SAGA

The other Family Sagas with which Kormaks saga has most in common are Hallfre›ar saga, Bjarnar saga Hítdœlakappa, Gunnlaugs saga ormstungu and Laxdœla saga. In all of these apart from Laxdœla saga the hero, as in Kormaks saga, is a poet; and in all five sagas the hero seems to hesitate between, on the one hand, the idea of committing himself in marriage to a woman with whom he is intimately involved in Iceland and, on the other, the lure of the útanfer› (‘journey abroad’), the need (as the hero sees it) to travel abroad to win fame and fortune. Kormaks saga is exceptional among these sagas in that its hero’s hesi- tation is attributed to supernatural causes, as this extract shows; and in the fact that the hero, Kormakr, does not travel abroad until relatively late in the history of his relations with Steinger›r, the woman with whom he is involved. Kormaks saga also resembles Bjarnar saga and Gunnlaugs saga but differs from Hallfre›ar saga and Laxdœla saga in that its hero’s journey abroad does not lead to his marrying another woman. Kormaks saga nevertheless raises the question of whether the supernatural explanation of Kormakr’s failure to marry Steinger›r is to be seen as symbolic of an emotional ambivalence in his character, such as the heroes of the other four sagas all have, in greater or lesser degree. Opinions have been divided as to whether these stories with the motif of the wavering hero owe more to European romances such as the story of Tristan and Isolde, a prose version of which was made in Norwegian in the thirteenth century as Tristrams saga ok Ísƒndar, or to Germanic stories such as that of Sigur›r Fáfnisbani (‘the slayer of Fáfnir’), a relatively full version of which is preserved in Vƒlsunga saga, a thirteenth-century Icelandic fornaldarsaga based largely on the heroic lays of the Poetic Edda. See Bjarni Einarsson, Skáldasögur (‘sagas of poets’, 1961; English summary, pp. 280–99). Kormaks saga is probably the oldest of the five Family Sagas listed above (see Paul Bibire’s review of Bjarni Einarsson’s To skjaldesagaer (1976) in Saga- Book XX:3 (1980), 238–40, p. 239), and may have influenced the other four. All five are anonymous, but probably written in the west or north-west of Iceland. There has also been disagreement about whether or not the verses of Kormaks saga were composed along with the prose by the author of the saga at the time of its composition, i.e. early in the thirteenth 36 IV: Kormaks saga century. The claim that the author of the prose also composed the verse is made in spite of the apparent discrepancy in content between some of the verses and the prose (e.g. in the first verse in the extract here, it is Kormakr’s shield that the scythe strikes against, rather than a sword as in the prose). Those who decide that the saga author did not compose the verse then debate whether the verses were made by the persons to whom they are attributed in the saga or indeed by any other poet or poets living between the time in which the events of the saga are set (the tenth century) and the author’s time. See, besides the works already cited, Theodore M. Andersson, ‘Skalds and troubadours’, Medi- aeval Scandinavia 2 (1969), 7–41; Bjarni Einarsson, ‘The lovesick skald: a reply to Theodore M. Andersson’, Mediaeval Scandinavia 4 (1971), 21–41; Einar Ól. Sveinsson, ‘Kormakr the Poet and his Verses’, Saga-Book XVII:1 (1966), 18–60; Peter Hallberg, Old Icelandic poetry: eddic lay and skaldic verse, tr. Paul Schach and S. Lindgrenson (1975), 141–53. Kormaks saga is preserved in its entirety in Mö›ruvallabók (AM 132 fol.; = M), a mid fourteenth-century collection of Family Sagas. A small part of the saga (beginning half-way through chapter 3 and ending at a point corresponding to the end of line 56 of this extract) is also preserved on one of the three surviving leaves of the late fourteenth- century manuscript AM 162 F fol. (= 162; the other two leaves preserve parts of Bjarnar saga Hítdœlakappa). The saga has been edited from these manuscripts by Theodor Möbius (1886) and by Einar Ól. Sveinsson (ÍF VIII, 1939, 201–302), and it is in the latter edition that the full text of the saga is most readily available. The present extract is based mainly on the text of that edition, though it has been collated with that of M as edited in facsimile by Einar Ól. Sveinsson (in CCIMA V, ff. 121v–122r). The interpretations of the verses reflected in the present text differ in several respects from those of Möbius and Einar Ólafur, and indeed from those of Finnur Jónsson in his critical edition of the verses in Skj B I 73–74. The readings from 162 given in the textual notes are derived from those supplied in the two editions of Kormaks saga just mentioned, as well as from those given by Finnur Jónsson in his diplomatic edition of the verses in Skj A I 82–83. Read- ings from 162 are, however, given only in cases where the text of M is in one way or another problematic. IV: Kormaks saga 37

The spelling of Kormakr’s name with a short a (Kormakr as opposed to Kormákr), recommended by Einar Ól. Sveinsson in his article of 1966 referred to above, in preference to the long á spelling used in his 1939 edition of the saga, has been adopted here. In this extract, which corresponds to chs 5–6 in ÍF, to a single chapter in M, Steinger›r’s father ﬁorkell takes steps to end Kormakr’s visits to his daughter, of which he disapproves. A literal transcription of the text of M can be found in extract XVIII, and a facsimile of the two pages of the manuscript at http://vsnrweb-publications.org.uk/NION- 2-facs.pdf.

Bibliography Edition: Vatnsdœla saga, ed. Einar Ól. Sveinsson, ÍF VIII, 201–302. Translations: The Sagas of Kormák and the Sworn Brothers, tr. Lee M. Hol- lander (1949), 1–72; Kormak’s saga, tr. Rory McTurk, in CSI I, 179–224. McTurk’s translation has been reprinted in revised form, and with notes, in Sagas of Warrior-poets: Kormak’s saga, the Saga of Hallfred Troublesome- poet, the Saga of Gunnlaug Serpent-Tongue, the Saga of Bjorn, Champion of the Hitardal People, Viglund’s Saga, ed. Diana Whaley (2002), 3–67, 269–74. Russell Poole, ed., Skaldsagas: Text, Vocation and Desire in the Icelandic Sagas of Poets (2001). 38 IV: Kormaks saga

IV: KORMAKS SAGA

Chapter 5: Fall fiorveigarsona fiorveig hét kona; hún var mjƒk fjƒlkunnig. Hún bjó á Steinsstƒ›um í Mi›fir›i. Hon átti tvá sonu. Hét hinn ellri Oddr en hinn yngri Gu›mundr; 3 fleir váru háva›amenn miklir. Oddr venr kvámur sínar í Tungu til fiorkels ok sitr á tali vi› Steinger›i. fiorkell gerir sér dátt vi› flá brœ›r ok eggjar flá at sitja fyrir Kormaki. Oddr kva› sér flat ekki ofrefli. 6 fiat var einnhvern dag er Kormakr kom í Tungu; var Steinger›r í stofu ok sat á palli. fiorveigarsynir sátu í stofunni ok váru búnir at veita Kormaki tilræ›i er hann gengi inn, en fiorkell haf›i sett ƒ›rum 9 megin dyra sver› brug›it, en ƒ›rum megin setti Narfi ljá í langorfi. En flá er Kormakr kom at skáladyrum, skara›i ofan ljáinn ok mœtti hann sver›inu, ok brotna›i í mikit skar›. fiá kom fiorkell at ok kva› Kormak 12 mart illt gera ok var máló›i; sn‡r inn skyndiliga ok kve›r Steinger›i af stofunni. Ganga flau út um a›rar dyrr, ok l‡kr hann hana í einu útibúri; kva› flau Kormak aldri sjásk skulu. Kormakr gengr inn ok 15 bar hann skjótara en flá var›i, ok var› fleim bilt. Kormakr litask um ok sér eigi Steinger›i, en sér flá brœ›r er fleir st‹r›uku vápn sín, sn‡r í brott skyndiliga ok kva› vísu:

18 Hneit vi› Hrungnis fóta hallvitj‹ƒ›ndum stalli, inn var ek Ilmi at finna, 21 engisax, of genginn; vita skal hitt, ef hœtir hand-Vi›ris mér grandi, 24 — ne Yggs fyr li› leggjum — líti‹l›s meira vítis.

Kormakr finnr ‹eigi› Steinger›i, ok kva› vísu:

27 Braut hvarf ór sal sæta, sunds erum hugr á Gunni, hvat merkir nú, herkis, 30 hƒll ﬂverligar alla?

21 engi sár M. fenginn M. 22 hann hættir M. IV: Kormaks saga 39

Rennda ek allt it innra Eir ‹h›árgeirs at ﬂeiri, húns erum Hƒrn at finna, 33 hús brágeislum, fúsir.

Eptir flat gekk Kormakr at húsi‹nu› er Steinger›r var í ok braut upp húsit ok tala›i vi› Steinger›i. 36 Hon mælti, ‘fiú breytir óvarliga, sœkir til tals vi› mik, flví at fiorveigarsynir eru ætla›ir til hƒfu›s flér.’ fiá kva› Kormakr:

Sitja sver› ok hvetja 39 sín andskotar mínir, eins karls synir, inni; erut ﬂeir banar mínir. 42 En á ví›um velli vega tveir at mér einum; ﬂá er sem ær at úlfi 45 órœknum fjƒr sœki.

fiar sat Kormakr um daginn. Nú sér fiorkell at fletta rá› er farit er hann haf›i stofnat. Nú bi›r hann 48 fiorveigarsonu at sitja fyrir Kormaki í dal einum fyrir útan gar› sinn. fiá mælti fiorkell: ‘Narfi skal fara me› ykkr, en ek mun vera heima ok veita y›r li›, ef flér flurfu›.’ 51 Um kveldit ferr Kormakr í brott, ok flegar er hann kemr at dalnum, sá hann menn flrjá ok kva› vísu:

Sitja menn ok meina 54 mér eina Gná steina; fleir hafa víl at vinna er mér var›a Gná bor›a; 57 flví meira skal ek fleiri er fleir ala meira ƒfund um órar gƒngur 60 unna sƒlva Gunni.

ﬁá hljópu ﬁorveigarsynir upp ok sóttu at Kormaki lengi. Narfi skrjá›i

33 hlíns erumk M. 42 erat M. 40 IV: Kormaks saga

63 um it ‡tra. fiorkell sér heiman at fleim sœkisk seint, ok tekr vápn sín. Í flví bili kom Steinger›r út ok sér ætlan fƒ›ur síns; tekr hon hann hƒndum, ok kemsk hann ekki til li›s me› fleim brœ›rum. Lauk svá 66 flví máli at Oddr fell, en Gu›mundr var› óvígr ok dó fló sí›an. Eptir fletta fór Kormakr heim, en fiorkell sér fyrir fleim brœ›rum. Litlu sí›ar ferr Kormakr at finna fiorveigu ok kvezk ekki vilja bygg› 69 hennar flar í fir›inum. ‘Skaltu flytja flik í brott at ákve›inni stundu, en ek vil allra bóta varna um sonu flína.’ 72 fiorveig mælti, ‘fiat er líkast at flví komir flú á lei› at ek ver›a hera›flótta, en synir mínir óbœttir, en flví skal ek flér launa at flú skalt Steinger›ar aldri njóta.’ 75 Kormakr segir, ‘fiví mantu ekki rá›a, in vánda kerling.’

‹Chapter 6› Sí›an ferr Kormakr at finna Steinger›i jafnt sem á›r; ok eitt sinn, er ﬂau tala um ﬂessa atbur›i, lætr hon ekki illa yfir. Kormakr kve›r vísu:

78 Sitja menn ok meina mér ásjánu flína; fleir hafa lƒg›is Loddu 81 linna fœtr at vinna, flví at upp skulu allar, ƒlstafns, á›r ek flér hafna, 84 l‡sigrund, í landi, linns, fljó›ár rinna.

‘Mæl flú eigi svá mikit um,’ segir Steinger›r. ‘Mart má flví breg›a.’ 87 fiá kva› Kormakr vísu:

Hvern myndir ﬂú, Hrundar, Hlín, skapfrƒmu›, línu, 90 — líkns‡nir mér lúka ljós — ﬂér at ver kjósa?

Steinger›r segir:

88 Grundar M. IV: Kormaks saga 41

Brœ›r mynda ek blindum, 93 bauglestir, mik festa; yr›i go›, sem ger›isk, gó› mér ok skƒp, Fró›a. 96

Kormakr segir, ‘Nú kaustu sem vera ætti; opt hefi ek higat mínar kvámur lag›ar.’ Nú bi›r Steinger›r Kormak stunda til fƒ›ur hennar ok fá hennar, ok 99 fyrir sakir Steinger›ar gaf Kormakr fiorkatli gjafar. Eptir fletta eigu margir menn hlut í, ok flar kom um sí›ir at Kormakr ba› Steinger›ar, ok var hon honum fƒstnu› ok ákve›in brullaupsstefna, ok stendr nú 102 kyrrt um hrí›. Nú fara or› á milli fleirra, ok ver›a í nokkurar greinir um fjárfar, ok svá veik vi› breytiliga, at sí›an flessum rá›um var rá›it, fannsk Kormaki fátt um, en flat var fyrir flá sƒk at fiorveig seiddi til at 105 flau skyldi eigi njótask mega. fiorkell í Tungu átti son roskinn er fiorkell hét ok var kalla›r tann- gnjóstr; hann haf›i verit útan um stund. fietta sumar kom hann út ok 108 var me› fƒ›ur sínum. Kormakr sœkir ekki brullaupit eptir flví sem ákve›it var, ok lei› fram stundin. fietta flykkir frændum Steinger›ar óvir›ing er hann breg›r 111 flessum rá›ahag, ok leita sér rá›s.

93 Brá›r M. 100 gjƒfum M.

V: Bjarnar saga Hítdœlakappa 43

V: BJARNAR SAGA HÍTDŒLAKAPPA Bjarnar saga Hítdœlakappa, like Kormaks saga, belongs to the group of poets’ sagas which tell of the rivalry between men for a woman’s love. In the case of Bjarnar saga, the hero’s rival, fiór›r Kolbeinsson, is a historically-attested court poet, whose eulogistic verses are preserved in texts of the Kings’ Sagas; the more fictitious poetic reputation of the hero Bjƒrn Arngeirsson depends entirely on the frequently scurrilous verses preserved in his saga. The feud arises from competition for the love of Oddn‡ fiorkelsdóttir, originally betrothed to Bjƒrn but married instead to fiór›r, who treacherously spreads a false report of the hero’s death during his youthful adventures in Russia and England. On Bjƒrn’s return to Iceland his justifiable antagonism to fiór›r inaugurates a lifelong hostility, involving an adulterous relationship with Oddn‡ and a series of slanderous exchanges between the two poets, reflecting the details of life in a farming community in Borgarfjƒr›r in the west of Iceland. Slander, especially in verse, was an offence heavily punished by law in Iceland, a law also breached by Bjƒrn’s erection of ní› — a carved representation of fiór›r involved in a homosexual encounter. The sexual connotations of the insult correspond metaphorically to Bjƒrn’s sexual appropriation of fiór›r’s wife, as does the saga’s unusually negative representation of fiór›r as a paradoxical blend of coward and aggressor. The feud finally modu- lates into the physical violence conventionally found in the Sagas of Icelanders, culminating in the scene reproduced below, in which fiór›r, assisted by a host of minor characters who have been drawn into the feud — including fiór›r’s nominal son Kolli, who learns only in the course of battle that Bjƒrn is his real father — finally gets the better of the hero. The saga is poorly preserved, mainly in the seventeenth-century paper manuscript AM 551 D a 4to (= 551). The first five chapters are missing, although a summary text survives in an expanded version of Snorri Sturluson’s separate Saga of St Óláfr. Two leaves survive of the medieval manuscript (AM 162 F fol., = 162; late fourteenth century) from which the seventeenth-century copy was made; the first part of the text below (to line 45) is found on the second of these leaves. The saga’s relatively unsophisticated structure and absence of overt influence from other sagas suggest an early date of composition, around 1220, although an attempt has recently been made to establish it as a 44 V: Bjarnar saga Hítdœlakappa late and derivative work (Bjarni Gu›nason 1994). The text refers to earlier traditions which served as its sources, and to the twelfth-century cleric Runólfr Dálksson, who may have written a short biography of Bjƒrn. Most of the verses cited must also be older than the prose. The full text of the saga can be found in ÍF III. The following extract is based on that edition, with some modifications from A Critical Edition of Bjarnar saga hítdœlakappa, edited by John LeC. Simon, unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of London, 1966.

Bibliography Bjarnar saga hítdælakappa. In Borgfir›inga sƒgur, ed. Sigur›ur Nordal and Gu›ni Jónsson (1938; reprinted with supplement 1951). ÍF III. John LeC. Simon, ed., A Critical Edition of Bjarnar saga hítdælakappa. Un- published Ph.D thesis, University of London (1966). Bjarnar saga Hítdœlakappa, ed. R. C. Boer (1893). The Saga of Bjorn, Champion of the Hitardal People, tr. Alison Finlay. In CSI I, 255–304. The Saga of Bjorn, Champion of the Men of Hitardale, tr. Alison Finlay (1999). Bo Almqvist, ‘The death forebodings of Saint Óláfr, King of Norway, and Rögnvaldr Brúsason, Earl of Orkney. A folkloristic and philological study’. In Viking Ale: Studies on folklore contacts between the Northern and West- ern worlds, ed. Éilís Ní Dhuibhne-Almqvist and Séamas Ó Cathaín (1991), 30–64, and notes 243–55. Reprinted from Béaloideas 42–44 (1974–76), 1–40. Theodore M. Andersson, The Icelandic Family Saga: An Analytic Reading (1967). Harvard Studies in Comparative Literature 28. Theodore M. Andersson and William Ian Miller, Law and Literature in Medi- eval Iceland: Ljósvetninga saga and Valla-Ljóts saga (1989). Bjarni Gu›nason, ‘Aldur og einkenni Bjarnarsögu Hítdælakappa’. In Sagnaﬂing helga› Jónasi Kristjánssyni sjötugum 10. apríl 1994, ed. Gísli Sigur›sson, Gu›rún Kvaran and Sigurgeir Steingrímsson (1994), 69–86. Ursula Dronke, ‘Sem jarlar for›um. The influence of Rígsﬂula on two saga episodes’. In Speculum Norrœnum: Norse Studies in Memory of Gabriel Turville-Petre, ed. Ursula Dronke, Gu›rún P. Helgadóttir, Gerd Wolfgang Weber and Hans Bekker-Nielsen (1981), 56–72. Preben Meulengracht Sørensen, The Unmanly Man: Concepts of Sexual Defa- mation in Early Northern Society (1983). The Viking Collection 1. W. H. Vogt, ‘Die Bjarnar saga hítdœlakappa. Lausavísur, frásagnir, saga’. Arkiv för nordisk filologi, 27 (1921), 27–79. Russell Poole, ed., Skaldsagas: Text, Vocation and Desire in the Icelandic Sagas of Poets (2001). V: Bjarnar saga Hítdœlakappa 45

V: BJARNAR SAGA HÍTDŒLAKAPPA

Chapter 32 fiat er sagt í ƒ›ru lagi frá Birni, at hann var snimma á fótum flann morgin ok mata›isk, en Sigmundr, húskarl hans, var farinn upp í dal. Birni flótti illar húsgƒngur, er hann átti sƒkótt, ok flótti aldri ørvænt á 3 hverri stundu hann flurfti manna vi›, ok var hann nokkut brúnvƒlr ok sag›i fiórdísi, konu sinni, at hann myndi fara á Hvítingshjalla ok skera mƒn á hrossum fiorsteins, á›r hann sendi flau vestr;1 ok fló kva› hann 6 heldr hafa harkat um draumana um nóttina ok kvazk fló ógƒrla vita fyrir hverju flat mun vera. Hann kvazk mjƒk opt á flá lei› dreyma sem nú ok kva› fló nú mest um vera. 9 Hon mælti, ‘fiat vilda ek at flú fœrir hvergi frá húsi í dag, ok ertu óvarr um flik, flar er fjándmenn flínir sitja umhverfum flik; e›a hvat dreym›i flik?’ 12 ‘Ekki læt ek drauma rá›a fƒrum mínum,’ segir hann. ‘Eigi vilda ek at flú fœrir frá húsi, ok værir sem varastr um flik ok hefir flat fyrir engum spillt; en mér vir›isk sem raunillar hafi verit 15 svefnfararnar í nótt, ok seg mér hvat fyrir bar.’ En Bjƒrn kva› vísu:2

Undr er, ef ekki bendir, opt vakir drengr at lengrum, 18 ógn hef ek fyr›a fregna, framvísar mér dísir, ﬂví at armleggjar orma 21 Ilmr dagleygjar hilmis heim ór hverjum draumi hjalmfaldin b‡›r skaldi. 24

‘fietta hefir mik opt dreymt,’ sag›i hann, ‘ok nú me› mestu móti í nótt.’ Hon latti hann frá húsi at fara, en hann lét ekki letjask. Húskarlar, fleir sem heima váru, fóru í skóg at hƒggva vi›, ok var Bjƒrn einn 27 roskinna manna. Nú b‡r hann til hrossanna ok hefir manskæri mikil á linda ok hƒtt á hƒf›i ok skjƒld á hli›; sver› haf›i hann í hendi, er fiorfinnr fivarason átti.3 Bjƒrn var mikill ma›r vexti ok vænn ok 30 freknóttr, rau›skeggja›r, skrofhárr ok dapreyg›r ok manna bezt vígr.4

22 dagleggjar 162. 46 V: Bjarnar saga Hítdœlakappa

Sveinn fimmtán vetra gamall fór me› honum. Ok er ﬂeir gengu ór 33 túni, kva› Bjƒrn vísu:

Út geng ek me› li› lítit, lítt sé ek hers vi› víti; 36 sver› fylgir menmyr›i5 mítt ok skjƒldr enn hvíti; en fyrir einum runni 39 ægis d‡rs of M‡rar, vƒndr skal hjalts ór hendi hrøkkva, fyrr en ek støkkva.

42 fieir fóru flá gƒtu er liggr til Hvítingshjalla; en fleir eigu at fara yfir Hítará, skammt frá flví er hon fellr ór vatninu. Ok er fleir hafa farit um hrí›, flá sér sveinninn sex menn fara í móti fleim frá stakkgar›i af 45 Hvítingshjalla. Bjƒrn spyrr sveininn ef hann sæi hrossin6 á hjƒllunum, kva› au›sæ vera munu fyrir litar sakir. Hann kvazk sjá hrossin ok svá sex menn fara í mót fleim. Bjƒrn kva› flá enn vísu:

48 Tveir eru‹m›, vƒr›r,7 en várum, vápn-Eirar, vel fleiri; opt ‹v›ar ‹s›kald und skildi 51 skól‹kinn›i‹s› at jólum; enn hraustge›i á hausti, hoddlestis, kom vestan, 54 sveit vara seggja lítil snarfengs, me› li› drengja.

Bjƒrn haf›i kyrtil gó›an ok var í hosum ok vafit silkiræmu um fót sér, 57 fleiri er hann haf›i skipt um vi› inn helga Óláf konung.8 Hann brá sver›inu er fiorfinnr fivarason átti, ok mælti: ‘Illt sver› á hér gó›r drengr,’ segir hann. 60 Kálfr sér flá brátt, flar sem hann var kominn, ok heldr eptir fleim ok mælti: ‘Eigi er minni ván,’ segir hann, ‘at skipti me› oss gæfunni; fleir 63 flóttusk mik hafa í hættu settan,9 en ek hygg at ek vei›a nú flann bjƒrn, er vér vildum allir vei›a.’

48 Tvær 551. 52 hraustgo›i 551. 54 leggja 551. V: Bjarnar saga Hítdœlakappa 47

‘Skammt eigu fleir nú hingat, Bjƒrn,’ segir sveinninn, ‘flví at fleir fara hart.’ 66 Bjƒrn svarar, ‘fiví au›veldara mun okkr at taka hrossin sem fleiri beina at.’ Sveinninn mælti, ‘Ekki munu fletta fri›armenn vera; fleir eru allir 69 me› vápnum. Ok enn sé ek fleiri menn, flví at sumir fara eptir okkr ok enn vápna›ir.’ ‘Eigi skyldir flú of mikit um gera,’ segir Bjƒrn; ‘kann vera, at flat sé 72 réttamenn.’10 Sveinninn mælti, ‘Ek sé enn fleiri menn, ok fara frá Hólmi; ok er okkr flat eitt rá› at snúa til Hellisdals, ok fƒrum sí›an Klifsdal ok 75 for›um okkr.’11 Bjƒrn mælti, ‘Ekki hefi ek enn eltr verit hér til, ok svá mun enn, ok mun ek eigi aptr hverfa; fƒrum eptir Klifsandi til Klifsjƒrva, ok gjarnan 78 vilda ek fara til Grásteins ins mikla, ef vit mættim flangat komask.’ ‘Eigi má ek flat vita,’ segir sveinninn, ‘hvé okkr má flat endask, flví at menn sœkja at okkr ƒllum megin, ok sé ek flat gƒrla, at sex eru hvar 81 saman, flótt sumir eigi lengra til okkar en sumir; ok sé ek nú alls eigi færi menn en fjóra ok tuttugu.’ Bjƒrn spyrr, ‘Hvern veg er fleim mƒnnum varit, er okkr eru næstir?’ 84 Sveinninn segir, ok flóttisk Bjƒrn kenna Kálf at frásƒgn hans.12 Kálfr var ma›r mikill ok svartr, ok átti skammt til fleira á bak fleim, er Kolli ok synir Ei›s kómu fyrir flá. Dálkr ferr at frá Hólmi ok er s‡nu first 87 fleim ok fleir er honum fylgja. Bjƒrn mælti vi› sveininn: ‘Far flú nú upp í hjallann eptir hrossunum, en ek mun hér bí›a; ekki mun sto›a at fara lengra.’ 90 Nú settisk Bjƒrn ni›r, en sveinninn ferr at taka hrossin ok vildi víkja ok mátti eigi, flví at flá haf›i tekizk fundr fleira. fieir koma fyrst at Birni, Kálfr vi› sétta mann, Kolli ok synir Ei›s 93 me› honum vi› sex menn. fiorvaldr Ei›sson sk‡tr spjóti at Birni flegar er hann náir til hans. Bjƒrn tók spjótit á lopti ok sendi aptr til eiganda. fiat kom á fiorvald mi›jan, ok fell hann dau›r til jar›ar. fieir hƒf›u 96 komizk á milli hans ok Grásteins, svá at Bjƒrn komsk eigi flangat. fiór›r vildi hefna bró›ur síns ok hjó til Bjarnar mikit hƒgg; en Bjƒrn helt á skildinum svá at handleggr hans var í mundri›anum, ok kom 99 hƒggit á skjƒldinn ok var› svá mikit, at handleggr Bjarnar gekk í sundr, ok fell skjƒldrinn ni›r. fiá flreif Bjƒrn spor› skjaldarins hinni hendinni

69 fyrirmenn 551. 48 V: Bjarnar saga Hítdœlakappa

102 ok rak í hƒfu› fiór›i, svá at hann fekk flegar bana; en sumir menn segja at hann leg›i hann me› sƒxunum til bana.13 Kolli sótti Bjƒrn fast, nær í mesta lagi einna manna í sífellu, flótt vér kunnim eigi at 105 greina hvert sárafar hann veitti honum. Kálfr mælti, kva› honum nú fyrir allt eitt koma, flótt hann felldi nokkura menn, ok kva› hann skyldu nú eigi undan ganga. 108 ‘Er oss nú eigi mannfátt,’ segir hann. Sumir mæltu at slá skyldi hring um Bjƒrn ok var›veita hann, at hann komisk hvergi í brott, ok bí›a fiór›ar Kolbeinssonar at vega at 111 honum til lyk›a. Ok me›an fleir rœddusk fletta vi›, flá leysti Bjƒrn manskæri af linda sér, ok váru flau n‡hvƒtt er hann fór heiman, bæ›i mikil ok bitrlig. Nú kom Dálkr til me› sex menn ok vill flegar sœkja at 114 Birni, flví at hann var hraustr karlma›r, ok flóttisk hann varla á‹n› hólmsƒk vi› Bjƒrn, er hann átti sonar síns at hefna. En Bjƒrn breg›r sver›inu fiorfinns, er hann haf›i heiman haft, ok høggr á fót Dálki svá 117 hart at fótrinn brotna›i, en eigi beit, ok var› Dálkr óvígr ok fluttr á brott flangat sem honum var óhætt. Ok flví næst kom fiór›r Kolbeinsson; ok er Bjƒrn sá hann, flá mælti 120 hann: ‘Seinn til slíks móts, lítill sveinn.’14 ‘Sá skal flér fló nú nær standa í dag,’ segir fiór›r, ‘ok hƒggva flik 123 klækishƒgg.’ ‘fiau ein muntu hƒggva,’ segir Bjƒrn, ‘me›an flú lifir.’ fiór›i var› mismælt, ok vildi hann sagt hafa at sá skyldi hann hƒggva 126 klámhƒggvi flann dag.15 Bjƒrn grípr nú skærin, flví at hann veit at sver›it dugir ekki, ok hleypr at fiór›i ok ætlar at reka á honum skærin. fiór›r veiksk undan, en fyrir var› húskarl fiór›ar er Grímr hét, ok 129 fekk flegar bana. Ok í flví bili hjó Kálfr til Bjarnar ok veitti honum mikit sár, ok fell Bjƒrn nú, svá at hann stó› á knjám ok var›isk me› skærunum af mikilli hugpr‡›i, flví at hann var inn mesti fullhugi, sem 132 opt hƒf›u raunir á or›it, ok veitti fleim mƒrg sár er hann sóttu. fieir sóttu hann nú svá fast, ok engi meir en Kolli. Bjƒrn mælti, ‘Fast sœkir flú mik í dag, Kolli,’ segir Bjƒrn. 135 ‘Eigi veit ek hverjum í er at flyrma,’ segir hann. ‘Svá er ok,’ segir Bjƒrn, ‘mó›ir flín mun fletta fyrir flik hafa lagt at flú skyldir mér har›asta atgƒngu veita; en sjá flykkjumk ek at annat 138 mun flér betr gefit en ættvísin.’16 Kolli segir, ‘Eigi flykkir mér flú flat snimma sagt hafa, ef mér er nokkurr vandi á vi› flik.’ V: Bjarnar saga Hítdœlakappa 49

Ok flegar gengr Kolli brott ok hættir atsókninni. 141 Bjƒrn var›isk mjƒk lengi me› skærunum, svá at hann stó› á knjám, ok allir undru›usk fleir hví hann mátti slíka vƒrn veita, næsta vápnlauss ma›r, svá margir sem fleir sóttu hann, ok flóttusk fló allir hafa fullleiksa, 144 er honum ur›u næstir. Nú er flat sagt at fiór›r hjó til Bjarnar, ok beit af honum fljóhnappana, ok fellr Bjƒrn flá. fiór›r vill flá eigi láta hƒggva á milli ok høggr af Birni hƒfu› í ƒ›ru hƒggvi ok gengr á milli bols ok 147 hƒfu›s,17 ok flá kva› fiór›r vísu:

Láskat, snarr at snerru, (segg ﬂann bitu eggjar, 150 hinn er fyrir hei›i sunnan hugpr‡›i mér fr‡›i) at, mor›vandar, myndak, 153 mei›s hlutum rán af bei›i (bitu ﬂann fyrir sƒk sanna sver›) hans bani ver›a. 156

fiór›r tók hƒfu› Bjarnar ok batt vi› álar sér; lét flar hanga vi› sƒ›ul sinn.18 Kálfr kvazk vilja at fleir kœmi í Hólm ok l‡sti flar víginu, ok lézk vilja fœra fleim men, er Bjƒrn haf›i haft á sér. Dálkr svarar ok 159 kva› flat óskylt vera ok kappsamligt, kva› flat betr sóma at s‡na sik í yfirbótum vi› frændr Bjarnar eptir fletta verk heldr en auka vansem› vi› flá. fiór›r lag›i flar hvártki til. Kálfr rei› flegar af vetfangi. Ok er 162 fleir ri›u í brott ok váru komnir ofan yfir Klifsand, flá flugu móti fleim hrafnar nokkurir, ok flá orti fiór›r vísu flessa:

Hvert stefni flér, hrafnar, 165 hart me› flokk enn svarta? Fari› ljóst matar leita landnor›r frá Klifsandi. 168 fiar liggr Bjƒrn, en Birni bló›gƒgl of skƒr stó›u; flollr hné hjalms á hjalla 171 Hvítings ofar lítlu.

152 kvi›a 551. 153 ek mor›vandan 551. 50 V: Bjarnar saga Hítdœlakappa

Notes 1 The trimming of horses’ manes has aristocratic and heroic resonances. firymr, lord of the giants, is said to trim his horses’ manes and twist golden collars for his dogs as he sits on his ancestors’ burial mound (firymskvi›a 6); it is also named as one of the activities (along with making shafts for their spears and driving horses) which the murdered young sons of the great king Atli have not lived to perform (Atlakvi›a 37). The horses are a gift from Bjƒrn to the influential chieftain, fiorsteinn Kuggason, who had attempted to bring about a settlement between Bjƒrn and fiór›r.

2 The verse includes a strange blend of pagan and Christian symbolism. The helmeted woman who invites the poet home — that is, to his death — suggests the valkyrie, one of the supernatural ‘shield-maidens’ whose function was to help Ó›inn in his task of choosing warriors doomed to die. The chosen heroes would join the god in Valhƒll and engage in perpetual warfare in preparation for the final battle against the predestined enemies of gods and men. But this apparition is explicitly associated with the ‘ruler of day’s fire’, clearly a kenning for the Christian God, though it has been argued that the kenning may refer to Ó›inn, or to a deity blending pagan and Christian conceptions. There is a parallel in a number of verses in Gísla saga in which the poet describes two women, one benign and one hostile, who appear to him in dreams; in one of these the expression bjó›a heim ‘invite home’ is used, as in Bjƒrn’s verse. It has been argued that the ‘good’ dream- woman is the poet’s fylgja or protective spirit.

3 fiorfinnr fivarason, Bjƒrn’s cousin, is said earlier in the saga to have borrowed Bjƒrn’s famous sword, though no reason is given. fiorfinnr has little role in the saga other than to account for the hero’s weaponless state.

4 It is not uncommon for sagas to include a description of the hero shortly before his death, a passage described by Theodore M. Andersson as a ‘necrology’ (1967, 60–62), and generally used to present him in a positive light. It has been suggested that skalds were stereotypically portrayed as dark and ugly; Bjƒrn does not conform to this type, but shares his red hair and freckled colouring with another hero with V: Bjarnar saga Hítdœlakappa 51 poetic leanings, Grettir. There are some indications that red hair or beard was associated with shrewdness and wit; Snorri go›i in Eyrbyggja saga is also red-bearded, and Rau›grani ‘Red-beard’ was one of Ó›inn’s names. The purpose of the reference to Bjƒrn’s poor sight must be to motivate the dialogue between him and the boy who describes the approaching attackers (lines 44–85).

5 The man-kenning menmyr›ir must refer to Bjƒrn himself, although it seems inappropriate that the verse stresses his ownership of the sword and shield he is carrying (Bjƒrn’s own weapons have, according to the prose narrative, been borrowed by his father, and he is carrying the inadequate sword of his cousin ﬁorfinnr ﬁvarason). This has been cited as one instance of the disparity between verse and prose in this part of the saga (Vogt 1921, 54, 65); it would be more accurate, in fact, to refer it to the multiplicity of traditions, in both verse and prose, about Bjƒrn’s last battle and the weapons he carried to it.

6 At this point the text preserved in the second of the two surviving medieval manuscript fragments breaks off; the remaining text comes from the seventeenth-century paper copy of this manuscript which is the major source for the saga.

7 Again it is inappropriate, though not unprecedented, for Bjƒrn to address the boy accompanying him with a full-blown warrior kenning (vápn-Eirar vƒr›r). The author seems determined to push the idea of an unequal encounter to its extremity. Bjƒrn is attacked by no fewer than twenty-four, and while the saga’s presumed source, the verse, emphasizes the vulnerability of the warrior stripped of all but one of his supporters, the prose pares this down to the point where Bjƒrn’s companion, though adequate as an audience for his last verse, is negligible as a combatant, and in fact leaves the scene before the fight begins. The ‘bold man’ who ‘brought a band from the west in autumn’ may be Bjƒrn’s powerful ally ﬁorsteinn Kuggason.

8 Chapter 9 of the saga relates how Bjƒrn accidentally exchanges garters with King (later Saint) Óláfr of Norway as they dress after a communal bath; Bjƒrn continues to wear the garter all his life and is buried with it after his death. When his bones are later disinterred the garter is found 52 V: Bjarnar saga Hítdœlakappa uncorrupted — a testimony to the king’s sanctity — and is claimed to be still in existence at the time of the saga’s writing, used as a belt on a set of mass vestments. Another version of this story exists in some manuscripts of Snorri’s Saga of St Óláfr.

9 í hættu: ‘in danger [of missing him]’. This must be the sense of Kálfr’s remark. It is improbable that he should be the first attacker to catch up with Bjƒrn in view of the detailed account of ﬁór›r’s disposition of forces, which places Kálfr not on the way to Hvítingshjalli, but in the opposite direction, towards Vellir. The subsequent narrative, however, makes it clear that Kálfr is overtaking Bjƒrn from behind; the six men the boy sees in front of them must be the sons of Ei›r, Kolli and their companions. Kálfr’s pun on the meaning of the name Bjƒrn, ‘bear’, is taken up later as the attackers encircle their disarmed opponent (line 109).

10 Bjƒrn’s insistence that the attackers are men of peace is clearly a heroic pretence, since he has already drawn his sword.

11 The names appear in this order in the manuscripts, but have apparently been mistakenly reversed, as the route to Hellisdalr lies through Klifsdalr.

12 For the literary convention of characters identified from a distance by their clothing, see Laxdœla saga ch. 63; Andersson and Miller (1989), 141 n. 38, 172 n. 90. See note 4 above.

13 This reference to two conflicting versions of the narrative is the strongest indication of the existence of differing traditions, presumably oral, about Bjƒrn’s life before the writing of the saga. In his examination of the relationship between verse and prose in the saga, Vogt (1921) suggests that the author was attempting to reconcile the testimony of the verse Út geng ek me› li› lítit, lines 34–41, which says that Bjƒrn is carrying a sword and shield, with that of a narrative in which he is unarmed except for the mane-shears (his weapons having been borrowed by his father).

14 Bjƒrn’s slighting epithet lítill sveinn is also used of ﬁór›r in verses earlier in the saga. V: Bjarnar saga Hítdœlakappa 53

15 Bo Almqvist, analysing this and other slips of the tongue in saga literature, argues that in folk-belief a slip of the tongue was a portent of death, and speculates that ‘it is not impossible that the folk tradition upon which the saga was based ascribed the slip of the tongue to Björn’ (1991, 248 note 30). But Almqvist also acknowledges that in literary manifestations of the theme, the person whose tongue slips is frequently made to reveal an accidental truth, in this case the cowardly strain in fiór›r’s own character. fiór›r intends to threaten Bjƒrn with a klámhƒgg, a blow struck from behind on the thighs or buttocks, shaming both because it implies that the victim was turning to flee, and also, as Meulengracht Sørensen argues, as ‘a symbolic action with a sexual component, corresponding to that of ní›; the mutilated man was deprived of his manhood’ (1983, 68). The law-code Grágás includes klámhƒgg among injuries categorised as in meiri sár, ‘major wounds’. By involuntarily substituting the word klækishƒgg, ‘coward’s blow’, similar in sound and structure but opposite in meaning, fiór›r turns the shame upon himself.

16 This dramatic revelation to Kolli of his relationship with Bjƒrn concludes the ‘paternity theme’ (Dronke 1981) running through the saga. Once again traditional heroic motifs are called upon; in the Old High German Hildebrandslied, father and son fight to the death.

17 This phrase might conceivably have something to do with the ancient ritual of passing between a severed head and trunk in order to prevent the dead person from returning.

18 The cutting off of an enemy’s head as a trophy is frequently mentioned in the sagas. Orkneyinga saga tells of Jarl Sigur›r of Orkney tying the head of his defeated enemy, Melbrikta ‘Tooth’, to his saddle ‘for his own glory’, but wounding his leg on Melbrikta’s protruding tooth and eventually dying of the wound. The custom is thought to be of Irish origin.

VI: Fagrskinna 55

VI: FAGRSKINNA Fagrskinna is a history of Norway written in the early thirteenth century in Norway, possibly by an Icelander. It covers in a more compressed form the same time-span as Snorri Sturluson’s Heimskringla, excluding the legendary Ynglinga saga: the period from the reign of the ninth- century Hálfdan svarti to 1177. Whether Snorri knew Fagrskinna is uncertain, but Fagrskinna and Heimskringla certainly share many features and at times the wording is identical, though the author of Fagrskinna falls short of Snorri’s sophistication and skill. The author’s taste for set-piece battles is well illustrated in the extract reproduced here; he gives full value to the account of this climactic scene found in his source, but dispenses with its hagiographic dwelling on the missionary efforts of Óláfr Tryggvason and does not aspire to the psychological and political depth of Snorri’s account of the manœuv- rings preceding the battle. The name Fagrskinna, ‘beautiful parchment’, was applied in the seventeenth century to a now lost manuscript of the work, which was apparently known in medieval times as Nóregs konunga tal, ‘Catalogue of the kings of Norway’. Compared with the earlier prose Latin and vernacular histories which were its sources, the work is a well- constructed and serious attempt at historical objectivity, avoiding excesses of piety and fantastic elements, as witness the measured treatment in this extract of the legend of Óláfr Tryggvason’s survival of the Battle of Svƒl›r. The high proportion of verses, many of them unknown elsewhere, which are interwoven with the prose text and drawn on for authenticating detail, shows this author as a pioneer of the historiographical techniques perfected by Snorri. The text survives in two versions, both now existing only in seventeenth- century and later copies of two medieval manuscripts. The older version (B, c.1250) is the basis of the text edited in Bjarni Einarsson’s edition in ÍF XXIX and is that followed in this extract. This version, however, has numerous gaps which are filled by reference to the later version (A, c.1300); the latter third of the extract below follows the A version because of a lacuna in B. Although the surviving copies are Icelandic, the survival of many Norwegian word-forms reflects the origin of the text in Norway (see below). 56 VI: Fagrskinna

The place of Fagrskinna in early Norse historiography Histories of Norway and other Scandinavian topics were among the first texts to be written in Iceland, and provide important evidence of the transition from Latin to vernacular composition and of the shifting of the literary focus from continental Scandinavia to Iceland. The interrelationship of the various texts is difficult to disentangle, since some are completely lost, and others are now found only in later copies and reworkings that have often incorporated material from supposedly later works. The following is a summary account of historians and texts relevant to Fagrskinna: Adam of Bremen, Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum. The author was an eleventh-century canon who wrote (c.1073), in Latin, on matters of concern to the Archbishop of Bremen. Book 4 includes material, valuable because of its early date but sometimes of dubious accuracy, about the pre- Christian practices of the Scandinavian peoples. Sæmundr Sigfússon ‘inn fró›i’ (the Wise), an Icelandic scholar (d. 1133), is referred to as an authority in many historical texts. His lost work probably took the form of a chronological summary of the lives of the Norwegian kings. It is presumed to have been in Latin, since Ari, whose work was composed later, is referred to by Snorri Sturluson as the first writer of history in the vernacular. Ari ﬁorgilsson is best known for his surviving short vernacular history of Iceland, now known as Íslendingabók; but the manuscript gives the surviving book a Latin title, Libellus Islendorum, and refers to an earlier, now lost, version as Íslendingabók, which it seems to say included lives of kings and genealogies. Whether these were in Latin or the vernacular, and whether they were more than brief regnal lists, is not known. The first version was written between 1122 and 1133 (see the introduction to VIII below). Theodoricus monachus, Historia de Antiquitate Regum Norwagiensium ‘The Ancient History of the Norwegian Kings’. This is an account in Latin, brief but with many digressions, of the Norwegian kings from Haraldr hárfagri to Sigur›r Jórsalafari (d. 1130). Theodoricus (ﬁórir) was probably a Benedictine monk at Ni›arhólmr in Trondheimsfjord in Norway who wrote the work for presentation to Archbishop Eysteinn (1161–88) of Ni›aróss (modern Trond- heim). Theodoricus claims to be the first to write down the material he records, naming as sources the memories preserved by Icelanders and in particular their poems, though he may not have known these directly. He may also have had access to regnal lists and chronologies such as those attributed to Ari and Sæmundr. VI: Fagrskinna 57

Historia Norwegiae. A Latin text found only in a fragmentary manuscript from 1500 or later, but originally written probably in Norway before 1200. After a geographical preface, it deals briefly with the history of Norway down to 1015, and probably concluded with an account of its conversion to Christi- anity. Ágrip af Nóregskonunga sƒgum. A short history (ágrip ‘summary’) in Norse, surviving, though incompletely, in an Icelandic copy (c.1230) of a Norwegian manuscript. The text was probably written sometime before 1200, and probably originally covered the reigns from Hálfdan svarti to 1177, though it now breaks off in the middle of the twelfth century. It is believed that the author made use of Theodoricus and of Historia Norwegiae, but the relative dating of the three texts is difficult to establish; it also incorporates vernacular poetry. Oddr Snorrason, Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar. Oddr Snorrason was a monk at fiingeyrar in the north of Iceland who wrote a Latin life of Óláfr Tryggvason c.1190 (according to some c.1170). It now survives only in three different redactions (one fragmentary) of an Icelandic translation. Oddr made use of the early Latin histories as well as oral traditions, including skaldic verse. It is clear that Oddr’s work is the main source for Fagrskinna’s account of Óláfr, though the relationship is made problematic by the late date of the surviving translation, some versions of which may in turn have been influenced by Fagrskinna itself, as well as other later texts. Gunnlaugr Leifsson, Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar. Gunnlaugr, also a monk at fiingeyrar, wrote another Latin life of Óláfr Tryggvason which probably used and expanded Oddr’s version. It is now lost, but some passages survive translated into Icelandic in the form of interpolations in The Greatest saga of Óláfr Tryggvason (Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta). This early fourteenth-century work is based on a version of the saga of Óláfr Tryggvason in Heimskringla, expanded with material relevant to the king’s life from a variety of texts. Morkinskinna. In its present state this history, covering approximately the years 1035–1177, is found in an Icelandic manscript from about 1275, of which about a third is apparently missing. This version is considered to be a reworking, including interpolations from Ágrip and additional skaldic stanzas, of an older text written c.1220, which may have lacked the many digressive anecdotes or flættir about Icelanders abroad; some argue, however, that these are integral to the work. The early Morkinskinna was an important source for the latter parts of Fagrskinna and Heimskringla. Heimskringla. Snorri Sturluson is generally accepted as the author. He is believed to have written it c.1230, reworking his own earlier Óláfs saga helga as the centrepiece. It covers the same chronological range as Fagrskinna, with the addition of the largely legendary Ynglinga saga, but on a more ambitious scale, with the biographies of individual kings presented as self-contained 58 VI: Fagrskinna sagas. Snorri made wide use of existing prose sources although they are rarely overtly acknowledged; his account of the battle of Svƒl›r depends as heavily as Fagrskinna does on Oddr’s Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar, but is more economically narrated, and more fully supported by Snorri’s account of the events preceding it. Snorri famously articulated the importance of skaldic verse as historical source material and cites it extensively, though there is proportionately more in Fagrskinna. Scholars disagree as to whether Snorri knew Fagrskinna; it may not have been known in Iceland before the composition of Heimskringla, though Snorri could have encountered it during his first visit to Norway. There are many similarities of structure and wording, but these can often be attributed to common sources, such as Oddr’s Óláfs saga. It has been suggested that Snorri came to know Fagrskinna only at a late stage in the composition of Heimskringla.

The Battle of Svƒl›r This extract (chapter 24 of the ÍF edition) tells of the defeat and death at Svƒl›r of King Óláfr Tryggvason in 999/1000, at the end of a five-year reign. He was celebrated as the bringer of Christianity to northern lands, as Fagrskinna relates: ‘He was the first of the kings of Norway to hold the true faith in God, and from his direction and power all the kingdom of Norway became Christian, and the Orkneys, Faroes, Shetland, Iceland and Greenland.’ This is an overstatement, since it was only the coastal areas of Norway that were touched by Óláfr’s proselytising; it was left to his more celebrated namesake, King Óláfr Haraldsson (the Saint) to complete the conversion. Hagiographic legends concerning both kings began to spring up almost immediately after their deaths, and there is considerable transference of material from one body of legend to another: for instance, the famous tale of the breaking of Einarr ﬂambarskelfir’s bow at Svƒl›r, found in Heims- kringla but not in Fagrskinna, is told of Óláfr Haraldsson at the Battle of Nesjar in the early thirteenth-century Legendary Saga of St Óláfr. Fagrskinna’s main source for the life of Óláfr was the hagiographic account by the Icelandic monk Oddr Snorrason, but Fagrskinna minimises the hagiographic element and heavily compresses the narration of the king’s life, though the account of the battle, with its colourful heroic and rhetorical devices, is more expansive. We know of the events leading up to the battle from a variety of contradictory sources and traditions, most of which the author of Fagrskinna ignores. VI: Fagrskinna 59

The language of Fagrskinna Although the text exists in late Icelandic copies, its Norwegian provenance is clear from the prevalence of Norwegian spellings. These are found in both versions, though the distribution is somewhat different in the two. At the time of the settlement of Iceland, the language was that taken there by settlers mostly from the western districts of Norway; by the thirteenth century, significant dialectal divergences can be detected in manuscripts. The following are the most conspicuous Norwegian features, and are retained where they occur in the extract edited here: œy for ey. Where Icelandic ey is produced by i-mutation of au, the corresponding Norwegian form is œy or øy (lœypizk, Icel. hleypizk; lœyniliga, Icel. leyniliga). a for ƒ. The vowel produced by u-mutation of a, rendered in Old Icelandic by ƒ, often does not occur in Norwegian where the u is, or would normally be, retained; in this text the u is often lost (fa›r, Icel. fƒ›ur; annr, Icel. ƒnnur). The absence of mutation (i.e. the spelling with a) is more consistent in the B version (compare frásƒgur, line 320, from A, with fa›r, line 42, and hafu›, line 76, from B). l, r, n for hl, hr, hn. The voiceless initial consonant groups hl, hr, hn, were voiced to l, r, n in Norwegian (ló, Icel. hló; ræddr, Icel. hræddr). In one of the verses attributed to Hallfre›r hnekkir is required for alliteration with hertrygg›ar and hyggja, so the h is added here to the manuscript form nekkir (line 178). ú for ó. The negative prefix, more commonly ó- in Icelandic, was more commonly ú- in Norwegian; see here úkristni alongside ókristni. sunr for son(r). The Icelandic form -son is probably a reduction, because of its frequent unstressed use in nominal compounds, of the form represented in Norwegian as sunr. hánum for honum. The Icelandic form honum derives from mutation of á to ó under the influence of a nasal consonant and following back vowel; the vowel was then reduced to o because it was frequently unstressed. me›r and vi›r for me› and vi›. These forms are more prevalent in the A version (the latter part of this extract). Other Norwegianisms (frequent occurrence of æ for e, vowel harmony in unaccented syllables, y for i, gh for g) are also found in this text but are not represented in this extract. Where the text is extant in both versions, the earlier (B) version has been followed, but some emendations have been adopted from the A version without annotation. 60 VI: Fagrskinna

Bibliography Fagrskinna: Nóregs kononga tal, ed. Finnur Jónsson (1902–03). Samfund til Udgivelse af Gammel Nordisk Litteratur 30. Fagrskinna: Nóregs konunga tal, in Ágrip af Nóregskonunga sƒgum. Fagr- skinna — Nóregs konunga tal, ed. Bjarni Einarsson (1985). ÍF XXIX. Fagrskinna, A Catalogue of the Kings of Norway, tr. Alison Finlay (2004). Adam of Bremen, Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum, ed. W. Trillmich and R. Buchner in Quellen des 9. und 11. Jahrhunderts zur Geschichte der hamburgischen Kirche und des Reiches (1978), 135–499. Adam of Bremen, History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen, tr. Francis J. Tschan (1959). Ari ﬁorgilsson, Íslendingabók, in Íslendingabók. Landnámabók, ed. Jakob Benediktsson (1968). ÍF I. The Book of the Icelanders (Íslendingabók) by Ari Thorgilsson, ed. and tr. Halldór Hermannsson (1930). Islandica 20. Theodoricus monachus, Historia de antiquitate regum Norwagiensium, in Monumenta Historica Norvegiæ, ed. G. Storm (1880, repr. 1973), 1–68. Theodoricus monachus, Historia de antiquitate regum Norwagiensium. An account of the Ancient History of the Norwegian Kings, tr. David and Ian McDougall (1998). Historia Norwegiae. In Monumenta Historica Norvegiæ, ed. G. Storm (1880, repr. 1973), 69–124. Translation in A History of Norway and The Passion and Miracles of the Blessed Óláfr, tr. Devra Kunin, ed. Carl Phelpstead (2001). Ágrip af Nóregskonungasƒgum. A Twelfth-Century Synoptic History of the Kings of Norway, ed. and tr. M. J. Driscoll (1995). Saga Óláfs Tryggvasonar af Oddr Snorrason munk, ed. Finnur Jónsson (1932). Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta I–III, ed. Ólafur Halldórsson (1958–2000). Editiones Arnamagnæanæ. The Saga of King Olaf Tryggwason who Reigned over Norway A.D. 955 to A.D. 1000, tr. John Sephton (1895). [The Greatest Saga of Óláfr Tryggvason] Morkinskinna, ed. Finnur Jónsson (1932). Samfund til Udgivelse af Gammel Nordisk Litteratur 53. Morkinskinna: The Earliest Icelandic Chronicle of the Norwegian Kings (1030– 1157), tr. T. M. Andersson and Kari Ellen Gade (2000). Islandica 51. T. M. Andersson, ‘Kings’ Sagas (Konungasögur)’. In Old Norse-Icelandic Literature. A Critical Guide, ed. Carol J. Clover and John Lindow (1985). Islandica 45. Gustav Indrebø, Fagrskinna (1917). Avhandlinger fra Universitetets historiske Seminar 4. Bjarni Einarsson, ‘Fagrskinna’, MS 177. VI: Fagrskinna 61

VI: FAGRSKINNA

Chapter 24: The Death of Óláfr Tryggvason Sveinn Danakonungr flóttisk missa mikilla eigna fleira er vera skyldu í tilgjƒf Gunnhildar konu hans, flví at fiyri haf›i eignir flær er Haraldr konungr, fa›ir hennar, haf›i gefit henni. En Búrizleifr flóttisk flá mjƒk 3 svikinn, fló at hann hef›i tilgjƒf flá er fiyri skyldi hafa, flví at konan kom eigi til hans.1 Af atkalli Gunnhildar ok áeggjun sendi Sveinn konungr menn eptir fiyri ok lét fylgja henni nau›gri á Vin›land til 6 fundar Búrizleifs konungs, ok ger›i hann brullaup til hennar. En hon vildi eigi eiga hei›inn mann flá heldr en fyrr, ok var hon svá nætr sjau me› konunginum at hon flá at fleim hvárki mat né drykk, ok me› 9 rá›um fóstrfa›r síns gat hon lœypizk á braut á skóg einn ok svá til fless er hon kom til sjóvar, ok fengu flau flar eitt lítit skip ok fóru til Danmarkar. En hon flor›i flar eigi at leggja, flví at hon ugg›i at Sveinn 12 konungr, bró›ir hennar, myndi flegar láta fylgja henni til Vin›lands aptr, ef hann vissi at hon væri flar komin. Hon fór flá lœyniliga til Nóregs á fund Óláfs konungs ok ba› hann leggja til hjálpræ›i me› 15 sér. Hann tók vi› henni ok ger›i sér at eiginkonu án rá›i Sveins konungs, bró›ur hennar. Hon ba› Óláf konung opt at hann skyldi heimta fé hennar at Búrizleifi 18 konungi á Vin›landi, ok kalla›isk hafa lítit af flví er hon átti me› réttu at hafa. fiá ger›i konungr fer› sína ór landi, bau› út li›i miklu ok haf›i sex tigu skipa, fór austr til Vin›lands í gegnum Danakonungs ríki fyrir 21 útan hans flƒkk ok vilja. Óláfr konungr fær mikit fé, ok allt eigna›isk hann flat er hann vildi, ok olli flví mest li›veizla Ástrí›ar, dóttur Búrizleifs konungs, er átti Sigvaldi jarl at Jómi. 24 fiá er Óláfr konungr fór af Vin›landi, sigldi hann yfir til Danmarkar lítinn byr ok fagrt ve›r, ok fóru flau skip fyrir er smæri váru, en flau sí›ar er stœrri váru, fyrir flví at flau flurftu meira ve›rit en flau er smæri 27 váru. Vi› einn hólma fyrir Vin›landi váru saman komnir margir stórir hƒf›ingjar. fiessi hólmi heitir Svƒl›r.2 Í flessum flota var Sveinn Danakonungr, er miklar sakar flóttisk eiga vi› Óláf konung. Sú var ein 30 at Óláfr átti fiyri, systur hans, ok fengit hennar at ólœyfi hans. Annr sƒk var at hann sag›i at Óláfr haf›i sezk í skattlƒnd hans, Nóregs ríki, er Haraldr konungr, fa›ir hans, haf›i lagt undir sik.3 Sigvaldi jarl var 33 flar me› Danakonungi fyrir flá sƒk at hann var Danakonungs jarl. Í flessum flota var ok mikill hƒf›ingi, Óláfr svænski Svíakonungr, er 62 VI: Fagrskinna

36 hefna flóttisk eiga á Óláfi konungi mikillar svívir›ingar. Hann haf›i slitit festarmálum ok lostit me› glófa sínum Sigrí›i, mó›ur Óláfs konungs, dóttur Skƒglar-Tósta.4 fiá samu Sigrí›i átti flá Sveinn 39 Danakonungr, ok var hon mjƒk f‡sandi at Sveinn Danakonungr ger›i Óláfi konungi mein e›a svívir›ing. Ok í flessu li›i var Eiríkr jarl Hákonarsunr, er mestar sakar flóttisk eiga vi› Óláf konung ok hans 42 menn, er verit haf›u nær drápi fa›r hans, Hákonar, ok flæmt ór landi alla sunu hans ok sezk í ríkit eptir. Ástrí›r haf›i fengit Óláfi konungi ellifu skip, ok skyldi fletta li› 45 fylgja konunginum til fless er hann kœmi um Danmƒrk. En flat var mest til at flau Búrizleifr ok Ástrí›r tóku svá vel vi› Óláfi konungi, at Geila haf›i verit dóttir Búrizleifs konungs ok systir Ástrí›ar, er Óláfr 48 konungr haf›i átta flá er hann var á Vin›landi.5 Óláfr Tryggvasunr haf›i alls eitt skip ok sjau tigu skipa, sem segir Halldórr ókristni:6

Œyna fór ok einu, 51 unnviggs, konungr sunnan, sver› rau› mætr at mor›i mei›r, sjau tigum skei›a, 54 ﬂá er húnlagar hreina haf›i jarl7 um kraf›a, sætt gekk seggja áttar 57 sundr, Skánunga fundar.

fiessir hƒf›ingjar haf›u úvígjan her ok lágu í hƒfn einni innan at hólmanum, en skip Óláfs konungs sigldu hit ‡tra fyrir, flá er hƒf›ing- 60 jarnir váru uppi á hólmanum ok sá til er flotinn sigldi austan. fieir sá at smá skip sigldu fyrir. Nú sjá fleir eitt mikit skip ok mjƒk glæsiligt. 63 fiá mælti Sveinn konungr, ‘Farum til skipa sem tí›ast, flar siglir nú Ormr enn langi austan.’8 fiá svara›i Eiríkr jarl, ‘Bí›um enn, fleiri hafa fleir stór skip en Orm 66 enn langa.’ Ok svá var. fietta skip átti Styrkárr af Gimsum. fiá sá fleir enn annat skip mikit ok vel búit, hƒf›askip. 69 fiá mælti Sveinn konungr, ‘Nú man hér fara Ormr enn langi, ok ver›um eigi of seinir í móti fleim.’

54 hanum MS. 55 skræf›an, kraf›an MSS. 56 ættar MS. VI: Fagrskinna 63

fiá svara›i Eiríkr jarl, ‘Eigi man fletta vera enn Ormr enn langi; fá hafa enn farit stór skip fleira, en mƒrg munu til vera.’ 72 Svá var flat sem jarlenn sag›i. Nƒkkur skip fóru flá um á›r en skip sigldi me› stafa›u segli. fiat var skei› ok miklu meira en annr skip flau er siglt haf›u. fiá er Sveinn konungr sá at fletta skip haf›i engi 75 hafu›, stó› hann upp, mælti ok ló vi›: ‘Ræddr er Óláfr Tryggvasunr nú, eigi florir hann at sigla me› hƒf›um dreka síns; farum nú ok leggjum at sem har›ast.’ 78 fiá svara›i Eiríkr jarl, ‘Eigi er fletta, herra, Óláfr konungr. Kenni ek fletta skip, opt hefi ek flat sét, flat á Erlingr Skjálgssunr,9 ok er betr at vér leggim um skut hánum til flessar orrostu.10 fieir drengir eru flar 81 innan bor›s at vér megum víst vita ef vér hittum Óláf Tryggvasun. Betra er oss skar› í flota hans en skei› flessi svá búin.’ fiá mælti Óláfr Svíakonungr, ‘Eigi skyldum vér æ›rask at leggja til 84 bardaga vi› Óláf, fló at hann hafi skip mikit. Er flat skƒmm ok neisa, ok man flat spyrjask á ƒll lƒnd, ef vér liggjum hér me› óvígjan her, en hann siglir fljó›lei› fyrir útan.’ 87 fiá svara›i Eiríkr jarl, ‘Herra, lát sigla fletta skip; ek man segja flér gó› tí›endi, at eigi man Óláfr Tryggvasunr um oss hafa siglt, ok flenna dag munum vér kost eiga at berjask vi› hann. Nú eru hér margir 90 hƒf›ingjar ok væntir mek fleirar rí›ar at allir vér skulum hafa œrit at vinna fyrr en vér skiljumsk.’ fiá mæltu fleir enn, er fram kom eitt mikit skip, ‘fietta man vera 93 Ormr enn langi, ok eigi vill Eiríkr jarl,’ sag›u Danir, ‘berjask ok hefna fa›r síns, ef hann vill eigi nú.’ Jarlenn svara›i rei›r mjƒk, ok lét vera eigi minni ván at Danum 96 myndi eigi vera ólei›ari at berjask en hánum e›a hans mannum. fiá var eigi langt at bí›a fless er flrjú skip sigla ok eitt miklu mest, ok haf›i drekahafu› gyllt. 99 fiá mæltu allir at jarlenn haf›i satt sagt, ‘ok hér ferr nú Ormr enn langi.’ Eiríkr jarl svara›i, ‘Eigi er fletta Ormr enn langi,’ ok ba› flá fló til 102 leggja ef fleir vildi. fiá tók Sigvaldi jarl skei› sína ok reri út til skipanna, lét skjóta upp skildi hvítum.11 fieir la›a seglum ok bí›a. fietta et mikla skip er Tranan, er st‡r›i fiorkell nefja, konungs frændi.12 fieir spyrja 105 Sigvalda hver eru tí›endi. Hann sag›i fleim flau tí›endi af Sveini Danakonungi, ‘flau er Óláfi Tryggvasyni er skylt at vita, ok flarf hann fless, at hann varisk.’ 108 fiá létu fleir fiorkell fljóta skipen ok bí›a. fiví næst sá fleir Sveinn 64 VI: Fagrskinna

konungr sigla fjƒgur skip ok eitt miklu mest ok á drekahafu›, flau er 111 gull eitt váru á at sjá. fiá mæltu allir senn: ‘Fur›u mikit skip er Ormr enn langi. Ekki langskip man jafnfrítt í verƒldu vera, ok mikil rausn er at láta gera slíkan grip.’ 114 fiá mælti Sveinn Danakonungr, ‘Hátt mun Ormr enn langi bera mik. Hánum skal ek st‡ra í kveld fyrr en sól setisk,’ ok hét á li› sitt at búask skyldi. 117 fiá mælti Eiríkr jarl svá at fáir menn hœyr›u, ‘fió at Óláfr Tryggvasunr hef›i ekki meira skip en flat er nú má sjá, flá man Sveinn konungr vi› Danaher einn aldrigi flessu skipi st‡ra.’ 120 Sigvaldi, er hann sá hvar skipen sigldu, ba› flá fiorkel nefju draga Ormenn undir hólmenn, lét ve›ret fleim betr standa at sigla á hafet ok at fara landhallt vi› stór skip ok lítinn byr. fieir ger›u svá, heimtu 123 undir hólmann flessi fjƒgur, fyrir flví at fleir sá sum sín skip undir hólmann róa, ok gruna›i flá at vera myndi nƒkkur tí›endi, beita á ve›r fleim nær hólmanum, ló›u seglum ok taka til ára. fietta et mikla skip 126 er kallat Ormr enn skammi. fiá sá fleir hƒf›ingjarnir hvar sigla flrjú skip allstór ok et fjór›a sí›ast. fiá mælti Eiríkr jarl vi› Svein konung ok vi› Óláf Svíakonung: 129 ‘Standi› nú upp ok til skipa; nú man ek eigi flræta at Ormr enn langi siglir, ok flar megu flér nú hitta Óláf Tryggvasun.’13 fiá flagna›u fleir allir ok var› at ótti mikill, ok margr ma›r ræddisk 132 flar vi› sinn bana. Óláfr Tryggvasunr sá hvar menn hans haf›u lagt undir hólmann, ok flóttisk vita at fleir myndu hafa spurt nƒkkur tí›endi, vendir ok flessum 135 skipum inn at hólmanum ok ló›u seglum. Sigvaldi st‡r›i skei› sinni inn me› hólmanum í móti li›i konunganna, er innan fóru. Fyrir flessa sƒk kva› Stefnir fletta um Sigvalda:14

138 Mankat ek nefna — nær man ek stefna: ni›rbjúgt er nef 141 á ní›ingi — ﬂann er Svein konung sveik ór landi, 144 en Tryggva sun á tálar dró.

Sveinn Danakonungr ok Óláfr Svíakonungr ok Eiríkr jarl haf›u gƒrt VI: Fagrskinna 65

flat rá› á milli sín, ef fleir felldi Óláf Tryggvasun, at sá fleira er flessu 147 væri næstr skyldi eignask skip hans ok allt lutskipti flat sem fengisk í orrostu, en veldi Nóregskonungs skyldi hafa at flri›jungi hverr vi› annan. 150 fiá sá Óláfr konungr ok menn hans at fleir váru sviknir, ok at sjór allr var flak›r í nánd fleim af herskipum, en Óláfr konungr haf›i lítit li›, sem segir Hallfrø›r, er li› haf›i siglt í fra hánum:15 153

fiar hygg ek mjƒk til misstu — mƒrg kom drótt á flótta — gram flann er gunni fram›i, 156 gengis firœnzkra drengja. Nœfr vá einn vi› jƒfra allvaldr tvá snjalla 159 — frægr er til slíks at segja si›r — ok jarl enn flri›ja.

fiá lag›i í sinn sta› hverr fleira flriggja hƒf›ingja, Sveinn Danakonungr 162 me› sitt li›, Óláfr Svíakonungr me› Svíaher; flri›ja sta› bjó Eiríkr jarl sitt li›. fiá mælti vi› Óláf konung einn vitr ma›r, fiorkell dyr›ill: 165 ‘Hér er ofrefli li›s, herra, vi› at berjask. Dragum upp segl vár ok siglum út á haf eptir li›i váru. Er flat engum manni blœy›i at hann ætli hóf fyrir sér.’ 168 fiá svara›i Óláfr konungr hátt, ‘Leggi saman skipen ok tengi›, herklæ›isk menn ok breg›i› sver›um. Ekki skulu mínir menn á flótta hyggja.’ 171 fietta or› vátta›i Hallfrø›r á flá lund:

Geta skal máls fless, er mæla menn at vápna sennu 174 dolga fangs vi› drengi dá›ƒflgan bƒr kvá›u. Ba›at hertrygg›ar hyggja 177 ‹h›nekkir sína rekka — fless lifa fljó›ar sessa flróttar or› — á flótta. 180

160 fræg›, frægt MSS. 161 ﬂí›r, su›r MSS. 176 búr MS. 66 VI: Fagrskinna

fiá spur›i Óláfr Tryggvasunr menn sína, ‘Hverr er hƒf›ingi fyrir flessu li›i, er hér liggr næst oss?’ 183 fieir svara›u, ‘fiat hyggjum vér at Sveinn Danakonungr sé.’ fiá mælti Óláfr konungr, ‘Eigi skulum vér óttask flat li›, flví at aldrigi báru Danir sigr í orrostu, flá er fleir bar›usk á skipum vi› Nor›menn.’ 186 Enn spur›i Óláfr konungr, ‘Hverir liggja flar út í frá ok hafa mƒrg skip?’ Hánum var sagt at flar var Óláfr Svíakonungr. Óláfr konungr segir: ‘Ekki flurfum vér at óttask Svía, rossæturnar. fieim man vera blí›ara 189 at sleikja blótbolla sína en ganga upp á Orm enn langa undir vápn y›r.’16 fiá spur›i enn Óláfr Tryggvasunr, ‘Hverir eigu flau skip en stóru, er flar liggja út í frá flotanum?’ 192 Hánum var sagt at flat var Eiríkr jarl Hákonarsunr me› Járnbar›ann, er allra skipa var mest.17 fiá mælti Óláfr konungr: ‘Mjƒk hafa fleir tignum mannum í flenna her skipat í móti oss, ok af 195 flessu li›i er oss ván har›rar orrostu. fieir eru Nor›menn sem vér ok hafa opt sét bló›ug sver› ok margt vápnaskipti, ok munu fleir flykkjask eiga vi› oss skapligan fund, ok svá er.’ 198 fiessir fjórir hƒf›ingjar, tveir konungar ok tveir jarlar, leggja til orrostu vi› Óláf Tryggvasun, ok er Sigvalda lítt vi› orrostuna getit. En fló segir Skúli fiorsteinssunr í sínum flokki at Sigvaldi var flar:18

201 Fygl›a ek Frísa dolgi,19 fekk ungr flar er spjƒr sungu — nú finnr ƒld at eldumk — 204 aldrbót, ok Sigvalda, flá er til móts vi› mœti malmflings í dyn hjalma 207 sunnr fyrir Svƒl›rar mynni20 sárlauk ro›inn bárum.

fiessi orrosta var› har›la snƒrp ok mannskœ›. Fellu Danir mest, flví at 210 fleir váru næstir Nor›mannum. fieir heldusk eigi vi› ok leggja í frá ór skotmáli, ok fór flessi herr, sem Óláfr Tryggvasunr sag›i, me›r alls engan or›stír, en eigi at sí›r21 var hƒr› orrosta ok lƒng; fell af hvárum- 213 tveggja mikit li› ok mest af Svíum, ok flar kom at Óláfr svænski sá flat at bezta rá›i fyrir sér ok sínu li›i at vera sem fjarst ok lét síga á hƒmlur aptr undan, en Eiríkr jarl lá vi›r síbyr›t. Óláfr konungr Tryggvasun

207 munni, my›e MSS. VI: Fagrskinna 67 haf›i lagt Orm enn langa í millum Orms ins skamma ok Trƒnunnar, 216 en hin smæstu skipin ‡zt. En Eiríkr jarl lét frá hƒggva hvert sem ro›it var, en lag›i at fleim er eptir váru. Nú er smæri skip Óláfs konungs ru›usk, stukku mennirnir undan 219 ok gengu upp á hin stœrri skipin. Var› í flví mikit mannspjall í hvárn- tveggja flokkenn. En svá sem li›it fell af skipum Eiríks jarls, flá kom annat eigi minna í sta›enn af Svíum ok Danum, en ekki kom í sta›enn 222 fless li›s er fell af Óláfi konungi. Ru›usk flá skip hans ƒll ƒnnr nema Ormr enn langi eigi, fyrir flví at hann var bor›i hæstr ok bazt skipa›r, en me›an li›it var til, flá haf›i flangat á gengit, ok haf›i hann haldit 225 sinni fullri skipan at manntali, fló at sumir létisk fyrir hánum. En flá er ro›inn var Ormr enn skammi ok Tranan, flá lét Eiríkr flau í frá hƒggva, en sí›an lag›isk Járnbar›inn síbyr›r vi›r Orm enn langa, sem segir 228 Halldórr úkristni:22

Fjƒr› kom heldr í har›a, hnitu rœyr saman drœyra, 231 tungl skrusk ﬂá tingla tangar, Ormr enn langi, ﬂá er bor›mikinn Bar›a 234 brynflag‹››s reginn lag›i — jarl vann hjalms und holmi hrí› — vi› Fáfnis sí›u.23 237

Ger›isk snarpra sver›a, slitu drengir fri› lengi, ﬂá er gullin spjƒr gullu, 240 gangr um Orm enn langa. Dolgs kvá›u fram fylgja fráns leggbita hánum 243 svænska menn at sennu sunnr ok danska runna.

Hykkat ek væg› at vígi 246 — vann drótt jƒfur sóttan, fjƒr› kom‹sk› jarl at jƒr›u — ógnhar›an sik spƒr›u, 249

234 bor›mikill MS. 245 í MS. 68 VI: Fagrskinna

ﬂá er fjar›m‡ils fœr›u› folkhar›r á trƒ› Bar›a 252 — lítt var Sifjar sóti svangr — vi›r Orm enn langa.

fiessi orrosta var svá hƒr›, fyrst af sókn drengiligri ok fló mest af 255 vƒrnenni, er alla vega lƒg›u skip at Ormenum, en fleir er vƒr›usk gengu svá í mót at fleir stigu ni›r af bor›unum ok í sjóinn ok sukku ni›r me› vápnum sínum ok gættu eigi annars en fleir ber›isk á landi 258 ok vildu æ fram.24 Svá kva› Hallfrø›r:25

Sukku ni›r af Na›ri, naddfárs í bƒ› sárir, 261 baugs, ger›ut vi› vægjask, verkendr He›ins serkjar. Vanr man Ormr, ﬂótt Ormi 264 alld‡rr konungr st‡ri, ﬂar er hann skrí›r me›r li› l‡›a, lengi slíkra drengja.

267 fiá fellu menninir fyrst um mitt skipit, flar sem bor›en váru lægst, en fram um stafnenn ok aptr í fyrirrúminu heldusk menninir lengst vi›r. fiá er Eiríkr jarl sá at Ormrinn var au›r mi›skipa, flá gekk hann upp 270 me›r fimmtánda mann, ok er flat sá Úlfr enn rau›i ok a›rir stafnbúar, flá gengu fleir ór stafninum framan ok svá hart at flar er jarlenn var at jarlenn var› undan at røkkva ok aptr á skip sitt, ok flá er hann kom á 273 Bar›ann, flá eggja›i jarlenn sína menn at sœtti at vel, ok gengu flá upp í annat sinn me›r miklu li›i. Var flá Úlfr ok allir stafnbúarnir komnir at lyptingunni, en ro›it var allt skipit fram. Sótti flá li› Eiríks jarls 276 allumveginn at fleim Óláfi konungi, svá sem Halldórr úkristni segir:26

Hét á heiptar n‡ta hugreifr — me› Óleifi 279 aptr stƒkk fljó› um floptur — flengill sína drengi,

250 fjar›mykils MS, m‡ils Oddr Snorrason. VI: Fagrskinna 69

ﬂá er hafvita hƒf›u hallands um gram snjallan 282 — var› um Vin›a myr›i vápnrei› — lokit skei›um.

fiá sótti Eiríkr jarl aptr at fyrirrúminu me›r sína menn ok var flar hƒr› 285 vi›rtaka. Óláfr konungr haf›i verit flann dag allan í lyptingunni á Orminum. Hann haf›i gylltan skjƒld ok hjálm, flunga ringabrynju ok svá trausta at ekki festi á henni, ok er fló svá sagt at ekki skorti vápna- 288 bur›enn at lyptingunni, fyrir flví at allir menn kenndu konungenn, af flví at vápn hans váru au›kennd ok hann stó› hátt í lypting. En í hjá konungenum stó› Kolbjƒrn stallari me›r flvílíkan vápnabúna› sem 291 konungrenn haf›i. Nú fór flessi orrosta sem líkligt var, flar sem hvárttveggja hƒf›u raustir á hizk, at fleir létusk fló er fámennari váru, ok flá er allt var fallit li› Óláfs konungs, flá ljóp hann sjálfr fyrir bor›, 294 ok brá skildinum upp yfir hafu› sér ok svá Kolbjƒrn stallari, en hans skjƒldr var› undir honum á sjónum, ok kom hann sér eigi í kafit, ok fleir menn er váru á smám skipum tóku hann ok hug›u at konungrinn 297 væri sjálfr. Hann fekk fló gri› af jarlenum. En eptir flat, flá ljópu allir fyrir bor›, fleir er eptir lif›u ok fló flestir sárir, ok fleir er gri›in fengu váru af sundi teknir. fiat var fiorkell nefja, Karlshafu› ok fiorsteinn ok 300 Einarr flambarskelfir.27 En eptir flat er orrostunni var lokit, flá eigna›isk Eiríkr jarl Orm enn langa ok ƒnnr skip Óláfs ok margs manns vápn, fleira er drengiliga 303 haf›u borit til dau›adags. fiat hefir Hallfrø›r váttat, at fiorkell nefja fl‡›i svá at ƒll váru skip Óláfs konungs ro›in:28

Ógrœ›ir sá au›a 306 armgrjóts Tranu fljóta — hann rau› geir at gunni gla›r — ok bá›a Na›ra, 309 á›r en hjaldrﬂorinn heldi, hugframr í bƒ› ramri, snotr á snœrivitni 312 sunds ﬁórketill29 undan.

ﬁessi orrosta hefir frægust verit á Nor›rlandum, af ﬂví at sagt er um

311 æ MS. 70 VI: Fagrskinna

315 vƒrn drengiliga, flar næst af atsókn ok sigrenum, er flat skip var› unnit á djúpum sæ er engi ma›r ætla›i vápnum sótt ver›a, en fló mest fyrir sakar fless er flvílíkr hƒf›ingi fell er flá var frægastr á danska tungu. 318 Svá mikit ger›u menn sér um at vingask í allri umrœ›u vi› Óláf konung at mestr lutr manna vildi eigi hœyra at hann myndi fallit hafa, nema létu at hann var í Vin›landi e›a í Su›rríki, ok eru margar frásƒgur um 321 flat gƒrvar. En hans ástvinir ræddusk at flat myndi logit vera, ok l‡sti Hallfrø›r flví vandræ›askáld, sá ma›r er svá mikit haf›i unnt konungenum at menn segja at eptir fall konungsins fekk hann vanheilsu 324 af harmi, flá er hánum vannsk til dau›adags.30 fietta vitni bar Hallfrø›r:31

Veit ek eigi hitt, hvár‹t› Heita hungrdœyfi skal ek lœyfa 327 dynsæ›inga dau›an d‡rbliks e›a ﬂó kvikvan, alls sannliga segja 330 — sárr mun gramr at hváru, hætt er til hans at frétta — hvárttveggja mér seggir.

333 Samr var árr um ævi oddflag‹››s hinn er ﬂat sag›i, at lof›a gramr lif›i, 336 læstyggs burar Tryggva. Vera kve›r ƒld ór éli Óláf kominn stála; 339 menn geta máli sƒnnu — mjƒk er verr en svá — ferri.

Ok enn kva› hann ﬂetta:

342 Mundut fless, er flegnar flrótthar›an gram sóttu, — fer ek me›r l‡›a lí›i 345 landher›ar — skƒp ver›a,

325 hætta MS. 344 lifi MS, lí›i Heimskringla. VI: Fagrskinna 71

at mundjƒkuls myndi margd‡rr koma st‡rir — geta ﬂykkjat mér gotnar 348 glíkli‹g›s — ór her slíkum.

Ok enn kva› hann:

Enn segir au›ar kenni 351 austr ór malma gnaustan seggr frá sárum tyggja sumr e›a brott of komnum. 354 Nú er sannfregit sunnan siklings ór styr miklum, kann ek eigi margt at manna, 357 mor›, veifanar or›i.

Ok enn sag›i hann:32

Nor›manna hygg ek nenninn 360 — nú er ﬂengill fram genginn, d‡rr hné dróttar stjóri — dróttin und lok sóttan; 363 grams dau›i brá gœ›i gó›s úfárar ﬂjó›ar. Allr glepsk f‹r›i›r af falli 366 flug‹s›tyggs sunar Tryggva.

351 kennir MS. 72 VI: Fagrskinna

Notes 1 Fagrskinna, ch. 19, outlines the abortive betrothal of fiyri, arranged by Jarl Sigvaldi of Jómsborg as part of a peace settlement between King Sveinn of Denmark and Búrizleifr, King of the Wends: Next Sigvaldi sent word to his father-in-law, King Búrizleifr, and said that King Sveinn had come to Jómsborg, and that he himself was willing to arbitrate between them or else allow King Sveinn to go back to Den- mark. In turn, he persuaded King Sveinn to make peace with King Búrizleifr according to the settlement that Sigvaldi decided between them. If he was not willing to do that, then he would come into the presence and power of King Búrizleifr. They came to terms in this way, that each of the kings agreed to Jarl Sigvaldi’s judgement, and when they had settled this by a binding agreement between them, the jarl pronounced the terms of their settlement, saying first that King Sveinn should marry Gunnhildr, daughter of King Búrizleifr, and her dowry should be that part of Wendland which the Danes had conquered in the realm of the king of the Wends. On the other hand, King Búrizleifr was to marry fiyri, daughter of King Haraldr and sister of King Sveinn. She had previously been married to Styrbjƒrn, son of King Óláfr of the Swedes; her father, King Haraldr, was still alive then. He had given her extensive estates on Fyn and south in Falster and Bornholm. Jarl Sigvaldi made a division in this way: Búrizleifr was to keep that part of Wendland which had previously been apportioned to the estates of Gunnhildr, Búrizleifr’s daughter, whom King Sveinn was to marry, and King Haraldr’s daughter fiyri was now to have that; and Gunnhildr Búrizleifsdóttir was now to possess all those estates in Den- mark which fiyri had owned, and receive all her bridal gift in Denmark, and fiyri all her bridal gift in Wendland, except that the jarl reserved from the division Jómsborg and all the districts that he specified. Then King Búrizleifr and Jarl Sigvaldi prepared a great feast in Jómsborg, and at that feast the wedding of King Sveinn and the betrothal of King Búrizleifr were celebrated. After that, King Sveinn went home to his kingdom with his wife Gunn- hildr. They later had two sons, the elder called Knútr ríki (the Great), the younger Haraldr. When King Sveinn came back from Wendland, he sent word to his sister fiyri, and told her everything he had agreed in Wendland with King Búrizleifr. fiyri was not pleased at this news, for she was Christian, and said that she would rather die among Christians than come into the power of a heathen king and violate her Christianity. She stayed on her estates and looked after her property for some years after that.

2 The site of the battle is uncertain. Fagrskinna and Heimskringla agree VI: Fagrskinna 73 in locating it by an unidentified island, Svƒl›r, in the southern Baltic, while Ágrip and Adam of Bremen say that it took place in Øresund, between Sjælland and Skåne.

3 Sveinn’s father, Haraldr Gormsson, had seized power in Norway in alliance with Jarl Hákon, after the death in battle of King Haraldr gráfeldr (976). Óláfr Tryggvason established himself as king on the death of Jarl Hákon (995).

4 Heimskringla (Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar, ch. 61) relates Óláfr Tryggva- son’s breach of his betrothal to the pagan Sigrí›r (mother of King Óláfr of Sweden), on her refusal to accept Christianity, calling her hundhei›in ‘absolutely heathen, ?heathen as a dog’ and slapping her face with his glove. The words me› glófa sínum occur only in the A version of Fagrskinna.

5 Óláfr’s marriage to Geila during his early Viking adventures is mentioned only briefly in Fagrskinna, but Heimskringla, in which she is called Geira, gives a probably fictitious account of the marriage and of Geira’s death three years later.

6 This verse is also cited in Heimskringla and Oddr Snorrason’s saga of Óláfr. Nothing is known of the poet Halldórr ókristni other than the verses cited in the Kings’ Sagas, four of them in Fagrskinna; some or all of these belong to a poem in honour of Jarl Eiríkr, to which Snorri refers. This verse supports the timing of the battle during Óláfr’s return from Wendland (sunnan), rather than on his way south as Adam and Ágrip assert, and is the source for the statement in the prose that Óláfr commanded 71 ships. This is contradicted in other sources; Historia Norwegiae assigns the 71 ships to Óláfr’s opponents, and according to Theodoricus, ‘it is said that with only eleven ships he engaged in battle against seventy’. Fagrskinna is vague about the size of the úvígr herr opposing Óláfr, although he is still overwhelmed by force of numbers, presumably because the actual battle involves only the small number of Óláfr’s ships lured into Sigvaldi’s trap.

7 It is unclear whether this jarl is Eiríkr Hákonarson — referred to elsewhere in Halldórr’s verses, as here, as jarl without further quali- fication — or the treacherous Sigvaldi. The verse is also cited in Heimskringla (ÍF XXVI, 352), where Snorri explicitly uses it as a source 74 VI: Fagrskinna for his account of Sigvaldi’s apparent support for Óláfr: ‘This verse says that King Óláfr and Jarl Sigvaldi had 71 ships when they sailed from the south.’ See note 14 below. 8 Fagrskinna (ch. 23) recounts the building of Ormr inn langi, Óláfr’s famous ‘Long Serpent’: King Óláfr had a ship built at Hla›ahamrar. It was much larger and more splendidly built than other longships. It had thirty-four rowing-benches. On it were placed dragon-heads decorated with gold, and that ship was called Ormr inn langi (the Long Serpent). On this ship there was to be no man younger than twenty and none older than sixty. Many things were forbidden to the men who were to be on the Ormr, and none was to be on it unless he was an impressive man in some way, and many examples show that on that ship were only heroes, and no cowards or weaklings. 9 Erlingr Skjálgsson was Óláfr Tryggvason’s brother-in-law. 10 leggim um skut hánum til flessar orrostu: go into this battle round his stern, that is, after he has sailed on, avoiding a confrontation with him. 11 lét skjóta upp skildi hvítum: showing a white shield was a token of peaceful intentions. 12 fiorkell nefja was Óláfr Tryggvason’s half-brother, according to Heimskringla (Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar, ch. 52). 13 The long, tension-building scene in which the leaders wrongly identify one ship after another as the Long Serpent is an obvious literary device, and has been traced to the ninth-century De Gestis Karoli Magni by the Monk of St Gall, where it occurs in an account of the approach of Charlemagne’s army against the Langobards. Its treatment in Fagrskinna is somewhat confused and repetitive. In the more succinct version of Heimskringla, there are four rather than six false alarms; the sightings help to identify two of the leaders serving with the king, as well as his two lesser named ships, the Trana ‘Crane’ and Ormr inn skammi ‘the Short Serpent’, both of which were introduced earlier in the narrative of Óláfr’s reign. Fagrskinna mentions both these ships here for the first time, and is undecided whether fiorkell nefja commands the Trana or Ormr inn skammi. According to Heimskringla, Ormr inn skammi was commanded by fiorkell nefja, the Trana by fiorkell dyr›ill, the king’s uncle (mentioned in Fagrskinna simply as ‘a wise man’). VI: Fagrskinna 75

14 This fornyr›islag verse, attributed to the poet Stefnir fiorgilsson, is also found in Oddr Snorrason’s saga, which also quotes a Latin version of it said to have been composed by Oddr. Heimskringla does not cite the verse but, like Oddr’s saga, gives a clearer account of Sigvaldi’s treachery. He is sent by the alliance against Óláfr to lure him from Wendland, assuring him that there is no army lying in wait for him. Fagrskinna presents him less ambiguously as a subordinate of King Sveinn of Denmark, and Skúli fiorsteinsson’s verse (below) associates him with Eiríkr’s force. The allusion in the verse to Sigvaldi’s tricking Sveinn into leaving his country is to the story recorded in ch. 19 of Fagrskinna (see note 1 above) of Sigvaldi feigning sickness in order to capture King Sveinn and carry him off to an enforced settlement with the Wends. 15 Hallfre›r vandræ›askáld (‘troublesome poet’) was an Icelandic poet who composed extensively in honour of King Óláfr, and also, paradoxically, for the king’s enemies, the jarls Hákon and Eiríkr. Hallfre›ar saga records his conversion to Christianity by Óláfr, who agreed to act as his godfather, and his probably fictitious love affairs. This and the subsequent verse are also found in Oddr Snorrason’s saga and Heimskringla, and these and the other verses of Hallfre›r’s in this extract are believed to belong to the erfidrápa ‘memorial lay’ composed by Hallfre›r after the king’s death. Hallfre›ar saga relates his composition of another poem in Óláfr’s honour during his lifetime; nine surviving verses or half-verses about the king’s early viking adventures, preserved in Fagrskinna and elsewhere, are attributed to this poem. 16 These are conventional gibes at the stereotypically pagan Swedes. A verse in Hallfre›ar saga includes a similar taunt (ÍF VIII, 188): heldr mun hœli-Baldri hrævinns fyr flví minna, vn erumk slíks, at sleikja sinn blóttrygil innan. [The boastful Baldr of the carrion-maker (god of the sword = warrior, man) will find it less trouble — so I expect — to lick out the inside of his sacrifice-bowl (than to fight).]

17 Eiríkr’s ship Járnbar›inn (‘the Iron-Beak’) or Bar›i (as the ship is named in Halldórr’s next verse), is mentioned earlier in Fagrskinna, 76 VI: Fagrskinna but without description. The related neuter noun bar› was used of a ship’s prow and of the edge of a steep hill.

18 Skúli ﬁorsteinsson was an Icelandic poet, grandson of Egill Skalla- Grímsson. Egils saga ends with a reference to his presence at Svƒl›r: ‘hann var stafnbúi Eiríks jarls á Járnbar›anum, ﬂá er Óláfr konungr Tryggvason fell’ (ÍF II, 300). Little is known of him in historical sources, and of his poetry only this verse and a number of half-stanzas preserved in Snorra Edda survive, most of them probably belonging to the flokkr referred to here, about the poet’s deeds.

19 Frísa dolgr ‘enemy of Frisians’ is presumably Eiríkr.

20 Svƒl›rar mynni ‘mouth’ suggests that Svƒl›r may actually have been a river; Icelandic authors, presumably unfamiliar with the topography, seem to have interpreted the references to it in verse sources as the name of the island referred to in the subsequently cited verse of Halldórr (line 236).

21 At this point a lacuna begins in the older (B) text. The remainder of this extract follows the A version, and some changes in the spelling conventions are noticeable: vi›r, me›r instead of vi›, me›, and definite article forms with i rather than e (inn for enn); on the other hand, the mutated vowel ƒ before u occurs more frequently.

22 The next three verses are also found in Oddr Snorrason’s saga and the first two of them also in Heimskringla.

23 Fáfnir, the name of the legendary dragon killed by Sigur›r, refers to Ormr inn langi.

24 The suggestion that the defenders fought so furiously that they stepped overboard as if they were fighting on land is presumably an over-literal interpretation of Hallfre›r’s following verse, ‘sukku ni›r af Na›ri’.

25 Also in Oddr Snorrason’s saga and in Heimskringla.

26 Also in Oddr Snorrason’s saga and in Heimskringla.

27 MS flambaskelmir, emended in accordance with Heimskringla and VI: Fagrskinna 77 other texts. Heimskringla, following Oddr’s saga, includes a colourful anecdote in which the breaking of Einarr the master-archer’s bow by an enemy arrow signals Óláfr’s downfall: ‘Hvat brast flar svá hátt?’ Einarr svarar, ‘Nóregr ór hendi flér, konungr.’ [‘What broke so loudly there?’ Einarr answered, ‘Norway, out of your hands, King.’] The story may be inspired by a misinterpretation of the element flƒmb ‘belly’, which could also mean ‘bowstring’, in the nickname flambarskelfir (see VII B:2, note 12). As recorded here, Einarr survives the battle to become a significant figure in the histories of Óláfr Haraldsson and his successors (cf. Haralds saga Sigur›arsonar in Heimskringla, extract VII B below).

28 This verse is also in Heimskringla and Oddr Snorrason’s saga.

29 ﬁórketill is an archaic form of ﬁorkell, its trisyllabic form necessary to preserve the metre of the verse. The use of such archaic forms tends to confirm the authentic age of the verse, although they are common enough to be imitated by later poets.

30 Legends of Óláfr’s survival and possible future return to Norway are widespread, and sprang up almost immediately after the battle, as the reference in Hallfre›r’s verse testifies. According to Theodoricus, ‘some say that the king then escaped from there in a skiff, and made his way to foreign parts to seek salvation for his soul.’ Oddr Snorrason’s saga records a tradition that he ended his life as a monk in Syria or ‘Girkland’, i.e. the Byzantine empire. The author of Fagrskinna more sceptically sees in the rumours evidence for the sense of loss suffered by the king’s followers.

31 The next four verses are also found in Heimskringla. Only the first half-verse is found in Oddr Snorrason’s saga.

32 This verse is found only in Fagrskinna, except for the last two lines, which are quoted as the second half of the poem’s stef ‘refrain’ in Hallfre›ar saga and Oddr Snorrason’s saga.

VII: Heimskringla 79

VII: Snorri Sturluson: HEIMSKRINGLA Snorri’s cycle of sixteen sagas about Norwegian kings is often regarded as supreme among the konungasögur ‘Kings’ Sagas’. Works such as Morkinskinna, Fagrskinna and sagas of individual kings including Óláfr Tryggvason and Óláfr Haraldsson have chronological precedence, and they provided Snorri both with material and with literary models (see the list of historiographical antecedents in the introduction to extract VI above). Nevertheless, Heimskringla is outstanding for its scope, balance, literary verve, and shrewd penetration of human nature and political motive. Heimskringla may be seen as a triptych, in which the great saga of Óláfr Haraldsson (St Óláfr), adapted from Snorri’s earlier separate saga, is flanked by sagas about his predecessors and successors. Extract A, from the concluding saga of the first ‘third’ of Heimskringla, shows something of the variety of the work. The narrative follows the adventures of Óláfr Tryggvason in the British Isles before his coming to power in Norway c.995, as he engages in routine raiding and acquires, through a mix of supernatural influences and his own practical flair, a new religion, a distinguished wife and a famous dog. Many of the plot motifs have a distinctly folkloristic tinge — test, assumed identity, prophecy, rivalry in love and a ‘helpful animal’ — and can be paralleled, for instance, in I. Boberg’s Motif-Index of Early Icelandic Literature (1966). The theme of Icelandic independence under threat — of contemporary interest to Snorri writing probably in the years around 1230 — is then dramatised in the famous landvættir incident (ch. 33). Extract B, from the racy Haralds saga Sigur›arsonar, is set in the mid eleventh century. It illustrates on a small scale Snorri’s gift for constructing powerful narrative, as he builds an expectation of treachery through skilful disposition of information and through manipulation of viewpoint as we follow the jealous gaze of Haraldr watching his rival from a balcony, and enter the darkened chamber with the doomed Einarr. Within Haralds saga as a whole the episode contributes to the portrayal of the power-hungry monarch who so well deserved his nickname har›rá›i ‘the hard-ruler, the ruthless’, and it explores themes which run throughout Heimskringla: law, leadership, and the precarious balance of power between the royal descendants of Haraldr hárfagri, the dynasty of the Hla›ajarlar, the lendir menn and the free farmers. Both extracts also illustrate the construction of prose 80 VII: Heimskringla narratives from the suggestions of skaldic verses, of which Snorri cites over six hundred in the work as a whole. Most of the events told in the two extracts appear in others of the Sagas of Kings, but never with the same literary or ideological emphasis. There is, for instance, a strongly clerical flavour to the account of Óláfr’s baptism in Oddr Snorrason’s Óláfs saga Tryggva- sonar and The Greatest Saga of Óláfr Tryggvason (Óláfs saga Tryggva- sonar en mesta; this is partly dependent on Heimskringla). The Morkinskinna account of the death of Einarr ﬂambarskelfir contains some of the same fine dramatic strokes as Snorri’s, including Einarr’s words, Myrkt er í málstofu konungs, ‘it is dark in the king’s council- chamber’, but the circumstances leading up to his killing are quite different, and, as in Fagrskinna, the narrative is much more favourable to King Haraldr. Snorri’s account bears a strong resemblance to that in the fragmentary Hákonar saga Ívarssonar (an unusual early thirteenth-century Icelandic biography of an eleventh-century Norwegian chieftain who was neither a king nor a saint), but being more streamlined it has greater dramatic impact. Snorri Sturluson had much experience of the world, which to some extent conditioned his view of the past. An ambitious Icelandic magnate honoured with office at the Norwegian court, lawyer, poet and mytho- grapher, he lived at a time when struggles between the leading Icelandic families, tensions between ecclesiastical and secular powers and pressure from Norway were opening the way for Iceland’s formal submission to the Norwegian crown in 1262–64. His fascination with the complexities of political and social relationships is as apparent in Heimskringla as it is in Snorri’s own life as glimpsed through Sturlunga saga and other prose works (see further Bagge 1991; Whaley 1991). The present text is based on the manuscript readings presented in Finnur Jónsson’s four-volume Heimskringla (1893–1901, I 307–18 and III 132–37), supplemented by Bjarni A›albjarnarson’s edition (Íslenzk fornrit XXVI 264–72 and XXVIII 122–26). Of the manuscripts, Kringla, a thirteenth-century vellum of which only one leaf survives, is considered to have, in general, the text closest to Snorri’s original; and it is from its opening words Kringla heimsins ‘the circle of the world’, that the grandiose modern title of the work derives. The text of Kringla is preserved in seventeenth-century copies, especially AM 35, 36 and 63 fol. (which cover the three parts of VII: Heimskringla 81

Heimskringla respectively and are referred to in the notes as K), and 18 fol. in the Royal Library Stockholm (Stock. papp. fol. nr 18). The ‘K’ readings have been adopted except where an alternative is clearly superior. The manuscripts most closely related to K are AM 39 fol. (= 39) and Codex Frisianus or Fríssbók (= F), while a second group is formed by Jöfraskinna (surviving mainly in two paper copies known as J1 and J2) and AM 47 fol. (= 47), known as Eirspennill, which contains little more than the final third of Heimskringla. Chapter headings are taken from 18; most are supported in at least one other manuscript, often J2.

Bibliography Editions: Heimskringla. Nóregs konunga sögur af Snorri Sturluson I–IV, ed. Finnur Jónsson (1893–1901); Snorri Sturluson, Heimskringla I–III, ed. Bjarni A›albjarnarson, ÍF 26–28 (1941–51). Translations: Snorri Sturluson, Heimskringla. Part One: The Olaf Sagas I–II, tr. Samuel Laing, revised Jacqueline Simpson (1964); Part Two: Sagas of the Norse Kings, tr. Samuel Laing, revised Peter Foote, Everyman’s Library (1961). Heimskringla or the Lives of the Norse Kings, tr. Erling Monsen and A. H. Smith (1932); Heimskringla. History of the Kings of Norway by Snorri Sturluson, tr. Lee M. Hollander (1964, repr. 1977).

Background: Diana Whaley, Heimskringla: An Introduction. Viking Society for Northern Research (1991). Sverre Bagge, Society and Politics in Snorri Sturluson’s Heimskringla (1991). Bo Almqvist, Norrön niddiktning I: Nid mot furstar (1965). Hákonar saga Ívarssonar, ed. Jón Helgason and Jakob Benediktsson, Samfund til Udgivelse af Gammel Nordisk Litteratur 62 (1952). R. Meissner, Die Kenningar der Skalden (1921). For other Kings’ Sagas see Introduction and Bibliography to VI above. 82 VII: Heimskringla

VII A: ÓLÁFS SAGA TRYGGVASONAR

Chapter 30: Herna›r Óláfs konungs Sí›an helt Óláfr Tryggvason til Englands ok herja›i ví›a um landit. 3 Hann sigldi allt nor›r til Nor›imbralands ok herja›i flar. fia›an helt hann nor›r til Skotlands ok herja›i flar ví›a. fia›an sigldi hann til Su›reyja ok átti flar nƒkkurar orrostur. Sí›an helt hann su›r til Manar 6 ok bar›isk flar. Hann herja›i ok ví›a um Írland. fiá helt hann til Bretlands ok herja›i ví›a flat land, ok svá flar er kallat er Kumraland. fia›an sigldi hann vestr til Vallands ok herja›i flar. fiá sigldi hann 9 vestan ok ætla›i til Englands. fiá kom hann í eyjar flær er Syllingar heita, vestr í hafit frá Englandi. Svá segir Hallfre›r vandræ›askáld:1

Ger›isk ungr vi› Engla 12 ofvægr konungr bægja. Naddskúrar ré› nœrir Nor›imbra sá mor›i. 15 Eyddi ulfa greddir ógnblí›r Skotum ví›a (ger›i seims) me› sver›i 18 (sver›leik í Mƒn sker›ir).

†drógar lét œgir eyverskan her deyja 21 — T‡r var tjƒrva d‡rra tírar gjarn — ok Íra. Bar›i brezkrar jar›ar 24 byggvendr ok hjó tyggi — grá›r ﬂvarr geira hrí›ar gjó›i — kumrskar ﬂjó›ir.

27 Óláfr Tryggvason var fjóra vetr í herna›i sí›an er hann fór af Vin›landi til ﬂess er hann kom í Syllingar.

22 t‡jar K; most manuscripts have tírar. VII: Heimskringla 83

Chapter 31: Skír›isk Óláfr konungr í Syllingum

Óláfr Tryggvason, flá er hann lá í Syllingum, spur›i hann at flar í 30 eyjunni var spáma›r nƒkkurr, sá er sag›i fyrir óor›na hluti, ok flótti mƒrgum mƒnnum flat mjƒk eptir ganga. Ger›isk Óláfi forvitni á at reyna spádóm manns fless. Hann sendi flann af mƒnnum sínum er 33 frí›astr var ok mestr, ok bjó hann sem vegligast, ok ba› hann segja at hann væri konungr, flví at Óláfr var flá frægr or›inn af flví um ƒll lƒnd at hann var frí›ari ok gƒfugligri ok meiri en allir menn a›rir. En sí›an 36 er hann fór ór Gar›aríki haf›i hann eigi meira af nafni sínu en kalla›i sik Óla ok kvazk vera gerzkr. En er sendima›r kom til spámannsins ok sag›isk vera konungr, flá 39 fekk hann flessi andsvƒr: ‘Ekki ertu konungr, en flat er rá› mitt at flú sér trúr konungi flínum.’ Ekki sag›i hann fleira flessum manni. Fór sendima›r aptr ok segir 42 Óláfi, ok f‡sti hann fless at meir at finna flenna mann er hann heyr›i slík andsvƒr hans, ok tók nú ifa af honum at hann væri eigi spáma›r. Fór flá Óláfr á hans fund ok átti tal vi› hann ok spur›i eptir hvat 45 spáma›r seg›i Óláfi fyrir, hvernug honum myndi ganga til ríkis e›a annarrar hamingju. Einsetuma›rinn svara›i me› helgum spádómi: 48 ‘fiú munt ver›a ágætr konungr ok ágæt verk vinna. fiú munt mƒrgum mƒnnum til trúar koma ok skírnar. Muntu bæ›i flér hjálpa í flví ok mƒrgum ƒ›rum. Ok til fless at flú ifir eigi um flessi mín andsvƒr, flá 51 máttu flat til marks hafa: flú munt vi› skip flín svikum mœta ok flokkum, ok mun á bardaga rœtask, ok muntu t‡na nƒkkuru li›i ok sjálfr sár fá, ok muntu af flví sári banvænn vera ok á skildi til skips borinn. En af 54 flessu sári muntu heill ver›a innan sjau nátta ok brátt vi› skírn taka.’ Sí›an fór Óláfr ofan til skipa sinna, ok flá mœtti hann flar ófri›ar- mƒnnum fleim er hann vildu drepa ok li› hans. Ok fóru fleira vi›skipti 57 svá sem einsetuma›r haf›i sagt honum, at Óláfr var sárr borinn á skip út, ok svá at hann var heill á sjau nóttum. fióttisk flá Óláfr vita at flessi ma›r myndi honum sanna hluti sagt hafa ok flat, at hann var 60 sannr spáma›r, hva›an af sem hann hef›i flann spádóm. Fór flá Óláfr annat sinn at finna flenna mann, tala›i flá mart vi› hann, spur›i vendiliga hva›an honum kom sú speki er hann sag›i 63 fyrir óor›na hluti. Einsetuma›r segir at sjálfr Gu› kristinna manna lét hann vita allt flat er hann forvitna›isk, ok segir flá Óláfi mƒrg stórmerki 84 VII: Heimskringla

66 Gu›s. Ok af fleim fortƒlum játti Óláfr at taka skírn, ok svá var at Óláfr var skír›r flar ok allt fƒruneyti hans.2 Dval›isk hann flar mjƒk lengi ok nam rétta trú, ok haf›i fla›an me› sér presta ok a›ra lær›a menn.

69 Chapter 32: Óláfr fekk Gy›u Óláfr sigldi ór Syllingum um haustit til Englands, lá flar í hƒfn einni, fór flá me› fri›i, flví at England var kristit ok hann var ok kristinn. En 72 flar fór um landit flingbo› nƒkkut, ok allir menn skyldu til flings koma. En er fling var sett, flá kom flar dróttning ein er Gy›a er nefnd, systir Óláfs kvárans er konungr var á Írlandi í Dyflinni. Hon haf›i 75 gipt verit á Englandi jarli einum ríkum. Var sá flá anda›r, en hon helt eptir ríkinu. En sá ma›r var í ríki hennar er nefndr er Alvini, kappi mikill ok hólmgƒnguma›r. Hann haf›i be›it hennar, en hon svara›i 78 svá at hon vildi kjør af hafa, hvern hon vildi eiga af fleim mƒnnum er í hennar ríki váru, ok var fyrir flá sƒk flings kvatt at Gy›a skyldi sér mann kjósa. Var flar kominn Alvini ok búinn me› inum beztum 81 klæ›um, ok margir a›rir váru flar vel búnir. Óláfr var flar kominn ok haf›i vásklæ›i sín ok lo›kápu ‡zta, stó› me› sína sveit út í frá ƒ›rum mƒnnum. 84 Gy›a gekk ok leit sér á hvern mann flann er henni flótti nƒkkut mannsmót at. En er hon kom flar sem Óláfr stó›, ok sá upp í andlit honum ok spyrr hverr ma›r hann er, hann nefndi sik Óla. 87 ‘Ek em útlendr ma›r hér,’ segir hann. Gy›a mælti, ‘Viltu eiga mik, flá vil ek kjósa flik.’ ‘Eigi vil ek neita flví,’ segir hann. 90 Hann spur›i hvert nafn flessarar konu var, ætt e›a ø›li. ‘Ek em,’ segir hon, ‘konungsdóttir af Írlandi. Var ek gipt higat til lands jarli fleim er hér ré› ríki. Nú sí›an er hann anda›isk, flá hefi ek 93 st‡rt ríkinu. Menn hafa be›it mín ok engi sá er ek vilda giptask. En ek heiti Gy›a.’ Hon var ung kona ok frí›. Tala flau sí›an fletta mál ok semja flat sín 96 á milli. Festir Óláfr sér Gy›u. Alvina líkar nú ákafliga illa. En flat var si›r á Englandi, ef tveir menn kepptusk um einn hlut, at flar skyldi vera til hólmganga. B‡›r 99 Alvini Óláfi Tryggvasyni til hólmgƒngu um fletta mál. fieir leggja me› sér stefnulag til bardaga, ok skulu vera tólf hvárir. En er fleir finnask, mælir Óláfr svá vi› sína menn at fleir geri svá sem hann gerir. Hann VII: Heimskringla 85 haf›i mikla øxi. En er Alvini vildi hƒggva sver›i til hans, flá laust 102 hann sver›it ór hƒndum honum ok annat hƒgg sjálfan hann, svá at Alvini fell. Sí›an batt Óláfr hann fast. Fóru svá allir menn Alvina at fleir váru bar›ir ok bundnir ok leiddir svá heim til herbergja Óláfs. 105 Sí›an ba› hann Alvina fara ór landi brott ok koma eigi aptr, en Óláfr tók allar eigur hans. Óláfr fekk flá Gy›u ok dval›isk á Englandi en stundum á Írlandi. 108 fiá er Óláfr var á Írlandi, var hann staddr í herfer› nƒkkurri, ok fóru fleir me› skipum. Ok flá er fleir flurftu strandhƒggva, flá ganga menn ‹á land› ok reka ofan fjƒl›a búsmala. fiá kømr eptir einn bóndi ok ba› 111 Óláf gefa sér k‡r flær, er hann átti. Óláfr ba› hann hafa k‡r sínar, ef hann mætti kenna. ‘Ok dvel ekki fer› vára.’ 114 Bóndi haf›i flar mikinn hjar›hund. Hann vísa›i hundinum í nautaflokkana, ok váru flar rekin mƒrg hundru› nauta. Hundrinn hljóp um alla nautaflokkana ok rak brott jafnmƒrg naut sem bóndi sag›i at hann 117 ætti, ok váru flau ƒll á einn veg mƒrku›. fióttusk fleir flá vita at hundrinn myndi rétt kennt hafa. fieim flótti hundr sá fur›u vitr. fiá spyrr Óláfr ef bóndi vildi gefa honum hundinn. 120 ‘Gjarna,’ segir bóndi. Óláfr gaf honum flegar í sta› gullhring ok hét honum vináttu sinni. Sá hundr hét Vígi ok var allra hunda beztr. Átti Óláfr hann lengi sí›an.3 123

Chapter 33: Frá Haraldi Gormssyni Haraldr Gormsson Danakonungr spur›i at Hákon jarl haf›i kastat kristni en herjat land Danakonungs ví›a. fiá bau› Haraldr Danakonungr 126 her út ok fór sí›an í Nóreg. Ok er hann kom í flat ríki er Hákon jarl haf›i til forrá›a, flá herjar hann flar ok eyddi land allt ok kom li›inu í eyjar flær er Sólundir heita. Fimm einir bœir stó›u óbrenndir ‹í Sogni› 129 í Læradal, en fólk allt fl‡›i á fjƒll ok markir me› flat allt er komask mátti. fiá ætla›i Danakonungr at sigla li›i flví til Íslands ok hefna ní›s 132 fless, er allir Íslendingar hƒf›u hann níddan. fiat var í lƒgum haft á Íslandi, at yrkja skyldi um Danakonung ní›vísu fyrir nef hvert er á var landinu.4 En sú var sƒk til, at skip flat, er íslenzkir menn áttu, braut 135 í Danmƒrk, en Danir tóku upp fé allt ok kƒllu›u vágrek, ok ré› fyrir 86 VII: Heimskringla

bryti konungs, er Birgir hét. Var ní› ort um ﬂá bá›a. ﬁetta er í ní›inu:5

138 fiá er sparn á mó Marnar mor›kunnr Haraldr sunnan, var› flá Vin›a myr›ir6 141 vax eitt, í ham faxa, en bergsalar Birgir bƒndum rækr í landi 144 — fla‹t› sá ƒld — í jƒldu óríkr fyrir líki.7

Haraldr konungr bau› kunngum manni at fara í hamfƒrum til Íslands 147 ok freista hvat hann kynni segja honum.8 Sá fór í hvalslíki. En er hann kom til landsins, flá fór hann vestr fyrir nor›an landit. Hann sá at fjƒll ƒll ok hólar váru fullir af landvéttum, sumt stórt en sumt smátt.9 En er 150 hann kom fyrir Vápnafjƒr›, flá fór hann inn á fjƒr›inn ok ætla›i á land at ganga. fiá fór ofan ór dalnum dreki mikill ok fylg›u honum margir ormar, pƒddur ok e›lur ok blésu eitri á hann. En hann lag›isk í brott 153 ok vestr fyrir land, allt fyrir Eyjafjƒr›. Fór hann inn eptir fleim fir›i. fiar fór móti honum fugl svá mikill at vængirnir tóku út fjƒllin tveggja vegna, ok fjƒl›i annarra fugla, bæ›i stórir ok smáir. Braut fór hann 156 fla›an ok vestr um landit ok svá su›r í Brei›afjƒr› ok stefndi flar inn á fjƒr›. fiar fór móti honum gri›ungr mikill ok ó› á sæinn út ok tók at gella ógurliga. Fjƒl›i landvétta fylg›i honum. Brott fór hann fla›an ok 159 su›r um Reykjanes ok vildi ganga upp á Víkarsskei›i. fiar kom í móti honum bergrisi ok haf›i járnstaf í hendi, ok bar hƒfu›it hæra en fjƒllin, ok margir a›rir jƒtnar me› honum.10 162 fia›an fór hann austr me› endlƒngu landi. ‘Var flá ekki,’ segir hann, ‘nema sandar ok ørœfi ok brim mikit fyrir útan, en haf svá mikit millim landanna,’ segir hann, ‘at ekki er flar 165 fœrt langskipum.’ fiá var Brodd-Helgi í Vápnafir›i, Eyjólfr Valger›arson í Eyjafir›i, fiór›r gellir í Brei›afir›i, fióroddr go›i í ¯lfusi.11 168 Sí›an snøri Danakonungr li›i sínu su›r me› landi, fór sí›an til Danmerkr, en Hákon jarl lét byggva land allt ok galt enga skatta sí›an Danakonungi.

138 mƒrnis K, Mƒrnar Jómsvíkinga saga (291). 145 ríki K, líki J1, F, Jómsvíkinga saga (291). VII: Heimskringla 87

Notes 1 The following two stanzas belong to a sequence of verses about Óláfr’s viking exploits which also appears in Oddr Snorrason’s Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar and in Fagrskinna and is edited by Finnur Jónsson in Skj A I 156–59, B I 148–50, where the two are printed as stanzas 8 and 9. Oddr Snorrason and the Fagrskinna author quote 8a and 9b as a single stanza, then 8b (lines 7–8 then 5–6) and 9a as another. Bjarne Fidjestøl suggests that Snorri’s ordering and his prefatory prose represent a rearrangement in the interests of greater geographical coherence (Det norrøne fyrstediktet, 1982, 106–09). 2 According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (E and F versions), Óláfr (Anlaf) was confirmed at Andover in 994, with King Æthelred as his sponsor. 3 The faithful Vígi is portrayed as pining to death after his master’s fall in Oddr Snorrason’s saga and The Greatest Saga of Óláfr Tryggvason. 4 One verse per head (literally ‘nose’) of the population would of course have resulted in an impossibly long poem, unless only the chieftains were meant; but it is likely that each person was supposed to contribute a single free-standing verse (lausavísa). As Almqvist (1965, 164– 65 and 232) suggests, this may be a play on the idea of a poll-tax. 5 This verse is also quoted in AM 291 4to, a manuscript of Jómsvíkinga saga. Almqvist (1965, 119–85 and 221–35) gives a full discussion of the verse and the whole episode. 6 Almqvist (1965, 182–84) suggests that Vin›a myr›ir ‘slayer of Wends’ and mor›kunnr ‘battle-famed’ may be ironic, taunting the Danes for their lack of success against the Wends. 7 Birgir is fyrir ‘in front’, and í . . . jƒldu líki ‘in a mare’s form’ neatly parallels í ham faxa ‘in the shape of a horse’, hence implying a jibe about passive homosexuality of the sort common in ní› ‘slander’. The association of horses with sexual energy is also traditional. 8 The following episode is virtually unique to Heimskringla. Elsewhere Snorri frequently prefers more rational explanations to supernatural ones, but here he vividly dramatises the hazards of sailing a fleet to a land whose coast is unfamiliar and inhabitants hostile. In The Greatest Saga of Óláfr Tryggvason these are merely presented in the form of 88 VII: Heimskringla sober arguments which dissuade Haraldr from his intended invasion. 9 The landvættir (or landvéttir: ‘land-beings’ or ‘land-spirits’) appear in other sources, including Landnámabók, as supernatural guardians or rulers of the land. 10 The resemblance of the four main creatures — a dragon, a huge bird, an ox and a giant — to the Evangelist symbols of Christian icono- graphy has been pointed out, e.g. by Einar Ól. Sveinsson in Minjar ok Menntir, Afmælisrit helga› Kristjáni Eldjárn (1976), 117–29, but Almqvist (1965, 136–47 and 225–27) argues for origins in the native concepts of fetches, shape-shifters and dream figures. Whether or not these four are to be counted among the landvættir is unclear. The case against is put by Almqvist (1965, 147–50 and 227–28), who is supported by Jón Hnefill A›alsteinsson, ‘Landvættir, verndarvættir lands’, in Skæ›agrös (1997), 83. The four figures were adopted to support the armorial bearings of Iceland in 1919. 11 The neat representation of all four quarters of Iceland by fabulous defenders and a parallel set of prominent chieftains is characteristic of Snorri’s often systematic approach. Almqvist points out (1965, 146–47 and 227) the match of ﬁór›r gellir’s nickname, which means ‘bellower’ and is recorded as a name for an ox, with the bellowing ox of Brei›afjƒr›r. VII: Heimskringla 89

VII B: HARALDS SAGA SIGUR‹ARSONAR

Chapter 40: Frá Einari flambarskelfi Einarr flambarskelfir var ríkastr lendra manna í firándheimi.12 Heldr var fátt um me› fleim Haraldi konungi. Haf›i Einarr fló veizlur sínar, flær 3 sem hann haf›i haft me›an Magnús konungr lif›i. Einarr var mjƒk stórau›igr. Hann átti Bergljótu, dóttur Hákonar jarls, sem fyrr var ritat.13 E‹i›ndri›i var flá alroskinn, sonr fleira. Hann átti flá Sigrí›i, dóttur 6 Ketils kálfs ok Gunnhildar, systurdóttur Haralds konungs. Eindri›i haf›i frí›leik ok fegr› af mó›urfrændum sínum, Hákoni jarli e›a sonum hans, en vƒxt ok afl haf›i hann af fƒ›ur sínum, Einari, ok alla flá atgørvi 9 er Einarr haf›i um fram a›ra menn. Hann var inn vinsælsti ma›r.14

Chapter 42: Frá Haraldi konungi

Haraldr konungr var ríklunda›r, ok óx ﬂat sem hann festisk í landi‹nu›, 12 ok kom svá at flestum mƒnnum dug›i illa at mæla í móti honum e›a draga fram annat mál en hann vildi vera láta. Svá segir ﬁjó›ólfr skáld:15

Gegn skyli herr sem hugnar 15 hjaldrvitja›ar sitja dolgstœranda d‡rum dróttinvandr ok standa. 18 L‡tr folkstara feiti (fátt er til nema játta flat sem flá vill gotnum) 21 fljó› ƒll (konungr bjó›a).

Chapter 43: Frá Einari ﬂambarskelfi

Einarr flambarskelfir var mest forstjóri fyrir bóndum allt um firándheim. 24 Helt hann upp svƒrum fyrir flá á flingum er konungs menn sóttu. Einarr kunni vel til laga. Skorti hann eigi dirf› til at flytja flat fram á flingum, fló at sjálfr konungr væri vi›. Veittu honum li› allir bœndr. Konungr 27 reiddisk flví mjƒk, ok kom svá at lyk›um at fleir flreyttu kappmæli. Segir Einarr at bœndr vildu eigi flola honum ólƒg, ef hann bryti lands- rétt á fleim. Ok fór svá nƒkkurum sinnum milli fleira. fiá tók Einarr at 30 hafa fjƒlmenni um sik heima, en fló miklu fleira ‹flá› er hann fór til 90 VII: Heimskringla

b‡jar svá at konungr var flar fyrir. fiat var eitt sinn at Einarr fór inn til 33 b‡jar ok haf›i li› mikit, langskip átta e›a níu ok nær fimm hundru›um manna. En er hann kom til bœjar, gekk hann upp me› li› flat. Haraldr konungr var í gar›i sínum ok stó› út‹i› í loptsvƒlum ok sá er li› Einars 36 gekk af skipum, ok segja menn at Haraldr kva› flá:16

Hér sé ek upp enn ƒrva Einar, flann er kann skeina 39 fljalfa, flambarskelfi, flangs, fjƒlmennan ganga. Fullafli bí›r fyllar 42 (finn ek opt, at drífr minna) hilmis stóls (á hæla húskarla li› jarli).

45 Rjó›andi mun rá›a randa bliks ór landi oss,17 nema Einarr kyssi 48 øxar munn enn ﬂunna.

Einarr dval›isk í b‡num nƒkkura daga.

Chapter 44: Fall Einars ok Eindri›a

51 Einn dag var átt mót, ok var konungr sjálfr á mótinu. Haf›i verit tekinn í b‡num fljófr einn ok var haf›r á mótinu. Ma›rinn haf›i verit fyrr me› Einari, ok haf›i honum vel getizk at manninum. Var Einari sagt. 54 fiá flóttisk hann vita at konungr myndi eigi manninn láta undan ganga fyrir flví at heldr flótt Einari flœtti flat máli skipta. Lét flá Einarr vápnask li› sitt, ok ganga sí›an á mótit. Tekr Einarr manninn af mótinu me› 57 valdi. Eptir fletta gengu at beggja vinir ok báru sáttmál milli fleira. Kom flá svá at stefnulagi var á komit. Skyldu fleir hittask sjálfir. Málstofa var í konungsgar›i vi› ána ni›ri. Gekk konungr í stofuna 60 vi› fá menn, en annat li› hans stó› úti í gar›inum. Konungr lét snúa fjƒl yfir ljórann, ok var lítit opit á. fiá kom Einarr í gar›inn me› sitt li›. Hann mælti vi› Eindri›a, son sinn: 63 ‘Ver flú me› li›inu úti, vi› engu mun mér flá hætt.’

39 ﬂjalma K, ﬂjalfa Hulda, Hrokkinskinna, Flateyjarbók; -skelmi K, -skelfi 39, Fagrskinna (B), Hulda. VII: Heimskringla 91

Eindri›i stó› úti vi› stofudyrrin. En er Einarr kom inn í stofuna, mælti hann: ‘Myrkt er í málstofu konungsins.’ 66 Jafnskjótt hljópu menn at honum, ok lƒg›u sumir en sumir hjoggu. En er Eindri›i heyr›i flat, brá hann sver›inu ok hljóp inn í stofuna. Var hann flegar felldr ok bá›ir fleir. 69 fiá hljópu konungsmenn at stofunni ok fyrir dyrrin, en bóndum fellusk hendr, flví at fleir hƒf›u flá engan forgƒngumann. Eggja›i hverr annan, segja at skƒmm var er fleir skyldu eigi hefna hƒf›ingja síns, en fló 72 var› ekki af atgƒngunni. Konungr gekk út til li›s síns ok skaut á fylking ok setti upp merki sitt, en engi var› atganga bóandanna. fiá gekk konungr út á skip sitt ok allt li› hans, røri sí›an út eptir ánni ok svá út 75 á fjƒr› lei› sína. Bergljót, kona Einars, spur›i fall hans.18 Var hon flá í herbergi flví er flau Einarr hƒf›u haft út í bœnum. Gekk hon flegar upp í konungsgar›, 78 flar sem bóndali›it var. Hon eggja›i flá mjƒk til orrostu, en í flví bili røri konungr út eptir ánni. fiá mælti Bergljót: ‘Missum vér nú Hákonar Ívarssonar, frænda míns. Eigi mundu 81 banamenn Eindri›a róa hér út eptir ánni, ef Hákon stœ›i hér á árbakkanum.’ Sí›an lét Bergljót búa um lík fleira Einars ok Eindri›a. Váru fleir 84 jar›a›ir at Óláfskirkju hjá lei›i Magnúss konungs Óláfssonar. Eptir fall Einars var Haraldr konungr svá mjƒk óflokka›r af verki flessu at flat einu skorti á, er lendir menn ok bœndr veittu eigi atfer› 87 ok heldu bardaga vi› hann, at engi var› forgƒnguma›r til at reisa merki fyrir bóandaherinum. 92 VII: Heimskringla

Notes 12 Einarr ﬂambarskelfir Eindri›ason’s adult life spans the first half of the eleventh century, and he plays a prominent role in the sagas of several rulers of Norway (see the Fagrskinna extract in this volume). The meaning of his nickname has been debated, but ‘bow-string trembler’ or ‘paunch-shaker’ are among the possible interpretations (B. Fidjestøl argues for the former in Nordica Bergensia 14 (1997), 6–8). Lendir menn, literally ‘landed men’, were powerful royal offic- ers who had been granted rights to revenues and entertainment from farms in a certain territory. Veizla, literally ‘grant, allowance’, hence ‘feast’, was applied to the entertainment of the lendr ma›r and his followers, and extended to encompass broader rights and the farms from which they were extracted. According to Óláfs saga helga ch. 21 in Heimskringla, Einarr’s veizlur in ﬁrándheimr go back to the reign of the earls Eiríkr and Sveinn at the beginning of the eleventh century, as does his marriage to their sister Bergljót. 13 See Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar (in Heimskringla) ch. 19. 14 Ch. 41, an account of Ormr jarl and other descendants of the earls of Hla›ir, still a notable force in Norway at this time, is omitted here. 15 The stanza is from Sexstefja ‘Poem with six refrains’; its second half comprises the only one of these that is preserved. It is also quoted in Hákonar saga Ívarssonar p. 7 and in the manuscripts Hulda and Hrokkinskinna. 16 The next stanza is also in Hákonar saga Ívarssonar p. 8, Fagrskinna (manuscripts B, A), Hulda, Hrokkinskinna and Flateyjarbók; in Snorra Edda the second half (only) is quoted to illustrate the use of húskarlar to refer to hir›menn ‘king’s followers, retainers’. The following half- stanza is also in Hákonar saga Ívarssonar p. 9, Fagrskinna (manuscripts B, A), Hulda, Hrokkinskinna and Flateyjarbók. 17 The pronoun oss ‘us’ seems to be used here for sg. ‘me’ — perhaps an instance of the ‘royal we’, though such use of pl. personal pronouns for sg. is common in skaldic poetry. Alternatively, the sense could be ‘me and mine’. 18 Bergljót was the daughter of Earl Hákon inn ríki (‘the mighty’) Sigur›arson. Her fleeting appearance as a ‘female inciter’ figure here VII: Heimskringla 93 is emphasised in manuscripts 39, F and 47, where this sentence begins a new chapter, headed Frá Bergljót (39), Frá Bergljótu H. dóttur (47; untitled in F). On this figure, see J. M. Jochens, ‘The female inciter in the Kings’ Sagas’, Arkiv för nordisk filologi 102 (1987), 100–19. Bergljót’s scene is absent from Morkinskinna and Fagrskinna. 94 VII: Heimskringla

VII C: THE ART AND CRAFT OF THE SKALDIC STANZA This section offers a brief introduction to the techniques of skaldic poetry as illustrated by a stanza from VII A above. It was composed, according to medieval sources, by Hallfre›r vandræ›askáld (‘troublesome poet’) in praise of King Óláfr Tryggvason at the end of the tenth century. It has been chosen here because it typifies in so many ways the court poetry which is the best-known application of the skaldic art. The text follows the Heimskringla version (see VII A above, and Glossary and Notes; also Den norsk-islandske Skjaldedigtning, ed. Finnur Jónsson (1912–15), A I 158–9 for text in manuscript spelling with variant readings). †drógar lét œgir eyverskan her deyja — T‡r var tjƒrva d‡rra tírar gjarn — ok Íra. Bar›i brezkrar jar›ar byggvendr ok hjó tyggi, — grá›r flvarr geira hrí›ar gjó›i — kumrskar fljó›ir. Stanza re-ordered as if prose: Œgir ‡drógar lét eyverskan her ok Íra deyja. T‡r d‡rra tjƒrva var tírar gjarn. Tyggi bar›i byggvendr brezkrar jar›ar ok hjó kumrskar fljó›ir. Grá›r flvarr geira hrí›ar gjó›i. Translation: The foe of the bow-string [warrior] caused the island army and the Irish to die. The T‡r of precious swords [warrior] was eager for glory. The prince beat the inhabitants of the ‘British’ land and felled the Cumbrian peoples. Hunger diminished for the osprey of the storm of spears [battle > raven]. Metrical features: The metre is dróttkvætt ‘court metre’, that of some five-sixths of the skaldic corpus. Its main features, setting aside certain licences, variations and complications, are these: VII: Heimskringla 95

i. The stanza (vísa) consists of eight lines (vísuor›). The two half- stanzas (vísuhelmingar or helmingar, sg. helmingr) are metrically independent and often syntactically so. (In some cases they are also preserved as separate entities.) ii. Each line has six syllables. iii. Each line ends with a trochee (´– x, i.e. heavy, stressed syllable followed by an unstressed one). iv. Lines are linked in pairs by alliteration, shown here in bold: two alliterating sounds (stu›lar) in each odd line and one (the hƒfu›stafr ‘chief stave/post’) in the first stressed syllable of each even line. Any vowel or diphthong alliterates with any other, though preferably an unlike one (as in lines 1–2 of the stanza above, where it will also be noted that the pattern of alliteration helps to mark the clause boundaries). v. Individual lines contain pairs of internal rhymes or hendingar, indicated here by italics. These link the sounds in stressed syllables, the second rhyme in the line always falling on the penultimate syllable. The rhyme involves the vowel (or diphthong) in each syllable and one or more postvocalic consonant(s), but where there is no postvocalic consonant belonging to the same syllable, the rhyme consists of vowel only. There are two types of internal rhyme. Odd lines normally have half-rhyme (skothending) in which the vowels are different but one or more of the postvocalic consonants are identical. Even lines have full rhyme (a›alhending ‘chief rhyme’) in which vowels and one or more postvocalic consonant(s) are identical. Quite frequently an a›alhending is introduced into an odd line, as in lines 3 and 5 of the stanza above. vi. There are further constraints on the patterns of stress within the line, and on the distribution of alliteration and internal rhyme.

Clause arrangement and word order: The highly inflected nature of the Old Norse language means that syntactic relations can usually be made clear by grammatical endings and are less heavily dependent on word order than they are in languages such as modern English; and the skalds exploit this potential flexibil- ity to an often quite extraordinary extent. Within clauses there are frequent departures from the ‘normal’, ‘prose’ order, though because the syntax is usually quite straightforward this rarely causes real difficulties. It is in the arrangement of clauses within the helmingr that skaldic style differs most from the everyday. Although skalds frequently use a 96 VII: Heimskringla straightforward sequential pattern, each clause finishing before the next starts (pattern ab, or abc etc.), they also play with clause boundaries, suspending a clause while interrupting with another and hence making what can be termed ‘frame’ patterns (as in the first helmingr of the specimen stanza, where the clauses form a pattern aba) or ‘in- terlace’ patterns (abab etc.). Combined patterns are also possible, as in the second helmingr of the specimen stanza. This could be analysed in two ways: i) as ‘sequence’ and ‘frame’ in the pattern abcb, since the a clause bar›i . . . byggvendr could be understood as complete, with an understood ‘he’ as subject of bar›i; or ii) as ‘frame’ and ‘in- terlace’ in the pattern abacb, since once tyggi in line 6 has been reached, it can be taken as subject of bar›i in the a clause as well as of hjó in the b clause. This is the analysis represented above in ‘Stanza re-ordered as if prose’. By breaking the linear flow of language, the skalds can allow phrases to float free, resonating with more than one clause in the helming, and they can also produce special effects, for instance mimicking simultaneous actions or expressing the brokenness of intense emotion. Content: The stanza promotes a general military ideology and the reputation of a specific, though unnamed, viking leader, who is grammatical subject of four out of the five verbs. The defeated enemy is always referred to by collective terms, and is always the grammatical and con- ceptual object. The claims about the slaughter of these enemies are extremely generalised, as are the intercalated clauses about the hero’s desire for glory and the waning of the raven’s hunger (because, it is understood, the hero provides carrion), and all these belong to an informal repertoire of motifs which are constantly deployed, and ingen- iously varied, by skalds. Diction: Much of the skalds’ virtuosity goes into expressing recurrent key concepts such as ‘man, ruler, battle, ship, sword, gold, woman’ by means of i. Poetic appellations known as heiti, such as tjƒr(r) ‘sword’ (or possibly ‘spear’), and tyggi ‘ruler, prince’ in the stanza by Hallfre›r. Heiti are words which are rare or non-occurring in prose, and often redolent with connotations in addition to the main concepts to which they re- VII: Heimskringla 97 fer. Thus hilmir ‘ruler, prince’ has etymological associations with hjalmr ‘helmet’ and therefore may hint at a ‘helmet-provider’, ‘helmet- bearer’ or ‘defender’, while huginn ‘raven’ contains a mythological allusion since it is a generalised application of a proper name referring to one of Ó›inn’s two raven scouts. ii. Kennings, stereotyped and more or less figurative periphrases consisting of at least two elements, usually heiti, one functioning as the ‘base word’ and the other as the ‘determinant’ or qualifier. The base word is in whatever grammatical case is required by the syntax, while the determinant is either in the genitive case and separate from the base word, as in grœ›is hestr ‘ocean’s horse’ = ship, or is com- pounded with the base word, as in sk‡rann ‘cloud-hall’ = sky. Some kennings, including one in the Hallfre›r stanza, are ‘double’ (tvíkennt) since the determinant of a kenning is itself a kenning. Where this device is repeated, the kenning is ‘extended’, ‘driven’ or perhaps ‘inlaid’ (rekit). The kennings in the specimen stanza are: ‡drógar œgir: ‘bow-string’s terrifier / foe’ = warrior. T‡r tjƒrva d‡rra: ‘T‡r (god) of precious swords = warrior’: the adj. d‡rra ‘precious’ is not essential to the working of the kenning. geira hrí›: ‘spears’ storm’ = battle, its gjó›r ‘osprey’ = raven; a tvíkennt expression. The elements are juxtaposed according to certain stereotyped patterns which are almost infinitely variable. Here battle is ‘spears’ storm’, but almost any word for weather could be substituted, and any word for weapons or armour. The difficulty of skaldic poetry: Skaldic poetry has a reputation for tortuous and riddling complexity, and some poems, for example the best of the tenth-century pagan compositions, are indeed extremely challenging to the textual skills, mythical knowledge and historical imagination of modern readers. Verses such as the specimen here, however, are (local textual problems aside) readily interpretable. Although the skalds liked to surprise by novelty and by ingenious variation on themes, their art is very much based on the fulfilment of expectations, grammatical and poetic. In the verse above, for example, the past tense lét ‘caused’ is extremely likely to be completed by an infinitive, so that although deyja is separated from 98 VII: Heimskringla it by three words, the audience will be listening or looking for such a completion. The god-name T‡r similarly sets up the expectation of a ‘warrior’ or ‘man’ kenning with a term for battle, weapon, ship or treasure as its determinant, and this is fulfilled almost immediately by tjƒrva ‘of swords’ (cf. Meissner 1921, 259–63, 273–79). Again, since many skaldic battle poems refer to the beasts of battle (raven, eagle or wolf) being fed or cheered (since the hero makes carrion of his enemies), grá›r ‘hunger, greed’ triggers anticipation of a motif of this kind. It is therefore fully possible for modern readers, like the original early Nordic audiences, to acquire a set of frameworks for interpretation, above all by gaining experience of the poetry, but also by consul- ting reference works on poetic diction such as Snorri Sturluson’s Edda, the medieval ﬂulur or lists of heiti (printed in Skj A I 649–90; B I 656– 80), LP, or Meissner 1921, though in all these cases we should beware of a too normative approach, and in the last two cases the examples are sometimes based on heavily emended texts. Preservation: On the preservation of skaldic poetry in general, see p. xxv above. The specimen stanza, together with others in praise of Óláfr, is preserved in the Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar by Oddr Snorrason ch. 82, Fagrskinna ch. 23, Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar ch. 30 in Heimskringla, and Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta ch. 77 (cf. note 1 on p. 87 above; on these sources see p. 60 above). In the first two sources, this and others of Hallfre›r’s verses about Óláfr are cited continuously, whereas in the last two they are punctuated by prose narrative and are in a somewhat different order. The two helmingar of the specimen above do not form a single stanza in Oddr’s saga and Fagrskinna but are the second helmingar of two different stanzas. VIII: Ari ﬁorgilsson: ÍSLENDINGABÓK

Ari fiorgilsson was probably born in 1068 on the Snæfellsnes peninsula of Iceland and died in 1148. He lost his father and grandfather while still a boy and at the age of seven went to live with a maternal relative, Hallr fiórarinsson of Haukadalr (cf. line 184) in the south- western part of the country. At Haukadalr he must have come into contact with some of the most prominent, learned and travelled Ice- landers of the time, in particular various members of the great Mosfellingar family (cf. note 35 below) to which belonged the first bishops of Iceland, Ísleifr Gizurarson and his son, Gizurr Ísleifsson, who would have resided at Skálaholt some 25 km. away. And Ísleifr’s son Teitr (cf. line 8) actually lived in Haukadalr where he ran a small school. Ari became one of Teitr’s pupils and he refers to him as his fóstri ‘fosterer’ and the wisest man he knew. It must have been at Haukadalr and under the influence of men like Teitr and Hallr that Ari developed his interest in history and related subjects. Ari tells us in ch. 9 of Íslendingabók that he spent fourteen winters at Haukadalr, which means he must have quit the place in about 1089. We have no precise knowledge of how and where he spent the remaining years of his long life. But he was an ordained priest and it can reasonably be inferred that he lived for some of this time at least in his ancestral area of Snæfellsnes. He could well have held a chieftaincy (go›or›) there. Ari’s only preserved work, the second version of his Íslendingabók, covers less than twenty pages in its main manuscript. Its contents may be summarised as follows. The Prologue (= lines 1–6) tells us of the circumstances surround- ing the writing of the first (now lost) version of the work and, in rather unclear terms, of the changes made in producing the second version. There follows a genealogy (which may well be a later interpolation) of Haraldr hárfagri going back to the Swedish king Óláfr trételgja. Then comes a list of contents of the book’s ten chapters. Chapter 1 (lines 7–34) deals with the settlement of Iceland, presenting Ingólfr as the first settler. Chapter 2 names four main settlers of the east, south, west and north of the country and tells (lines 35–43) how a Norwe- gian called Úlfljótr first ‘brought law’ out to Iceland. Chapter 3 (lines 44–63) deals with the establishment of the Alflingi. Chapter 4 gives an account of certain changes made in the Icelandic calendar (see HOIC, 44–45). Chapter 5 describes the events which led to the division of the 100 VIII: Íslendingabók country into quarters (see HOIC, 49–52). A short chapter 6 (lines 64– 74) and a lengthier chapter 7 (lines 75–149) cover respectively the discovery and settlement of Greenland by Eiríkr enn rau›i and the formal acceptance of Christianity by the Icelandic Alflingi. Chapter 8 tells of the so-called ‘foreign’ or ‘missionary’ bishops who visited Iceland in the tenth and eleventh centuries (see HOIC, 138–44) and of events during the long lawspeakership of Skapti fióroddsson (1004– 30), including the establishment of the so-called Fifth Court (see HOIC, 70–74; Laws I, 83–88, 244–45). Ísleifr Gizurarson, the first man to be formally consecrated as bishop of Iceland (1056–80), is the subject of Chapter 9 (see HOIC, 144–46). And the final chapter 10 (of which lines 150–97 form a major part) deals with Gizurr Ísleifsson (bishop of Iceland from 1082 to 1106; bishop of Skálaholt from 1106 to 1118). Although the last words of ch. 10 are Hér l‡ksk sjá bók (‘This book ends here’), two further items follow in both the extant manuscripts: (i) genealogies from original settlers of Iceland down to these five bishops: Ísleifr Gizurarson and his son Gizurr, Jón ¯gmundarson (cf. line 191), fiorlákr Rúnólfsson (cf. line 1) and Ketill fiorsteinsson (cf. also line 1); (ii) a genealogy from the mythical Yngvi Tyrkjakonungr down to Ari himself, ending with the words en ek heitik Ari, ‘and I am called Ari’. As noted, Ari’s information in his Prologue on the changes he made in the first version of his work to produce the second is rather unclear and there has been much modern scholarly discussion on the matter. This has led to only uncertain and differing conclusions. The primary issue to be addressed in this context is whether the second version of Íslendingabók represents an abridgement or an expansion of the first (cf. notes 1 and 3 below). It is normally assumed that Ari had virtually no written sources about the early history of Iceland. But he may well have used Sæmundr Sigfús- son’s now lost work on the Norwegian kings which, it is assumed, was written in Latin (see p. 56 above; cf. line 145). And there is evidence to suggest that he knew such written works on non-Icelandic matters as Adam of Bremen’s Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum (cf. again p. 56), various works by the Venerable Bede and, quite clearly, a life of the martyr King Edmund, whoever its author (cf. lines 12–14). But it was primarily oral sources that he relied on for information about Icelandic history. He obviously learnt a great deal from acquain- VIII: Íslendingabók 101 tances from his time at Haukadalr: Teitr Ísleifsson would have been of particular importance to him in this respect (cf. lines 8–9, 36, 144), as well as Hallr fiórarinsson, Sæmundr Sigfússon (cf. lines 2, 145) and bishop Gizurr Ísleifsson himself. He also received information from people from his home area in the west of Iceland, his uncle fiorkell Gellisson (cf. lines 10, 73–74) and fiórí›r Snorradóttir (cf. line 11). At least two lawspeakers, Markús Skeggjason (cf. line 152) and Úlfhe›inn (cf. line 55) would have been his informants (cf. note 51 below). The preserved version of Íslendingabók was, then, based on an earlier one which Ari says he wrote for the bishops fiorlákr Rúnólfsson and Ketill fiorsteinsson and subsequently showed to them and to the priest Sæmundr Sigfússon. From the wording of his statement and other factors it is clear that the first version must have been written between 1122 (when Ketill became bishop) and 1133 (when both fiorlákr and Sæmundr died). The preserved version of Íslendingabók refers to the lawspeakership of Go›mundr fiorgeirsson (lines 170–71) which ran from 1123 to 1134. If this reference is original to the second version, then it must, of course, have been written in or after 1134. But there are good reasons for assuming that it is a later interpolation. Further there are reasons for thinking that Ari wrote his first version fairly early on in the period 1122–33 and produced the second version within four or five years of it. Ari’s work has great importance for the study of Icelandic history and literature. It is, in effect, the oldest original prose work in Icelan- dic and decades passed before other works of historiography were written in that language. Íslendingabók exercised considerable influence on later Icelandic literature, as did Landnámabók, the original (and now lost) version of which is probably also from his hand. Snorri Sturluson, writing some hundred years later, makes particular reference to him in the prologue to his Heimskringla. It is Ari’s specific mention of his oral sources and his careful attention to chronology in Íslendinga- bók that give his work such value. It is true that he does not always tell his story well. For example, his description of the foundation of the Alflingi (lines 44–55) is somewhat inconsequential. But his account of the conversion of Iceland shows him as an excellent narrator. And however desultory Ari’s narrative may occasionally seem, the value of his whole book can hardly be overestimated. Although there are various minor witnesses, we have to rely mainly 102 VIII: Íslendingabók on two seventeenth-century paper manuscripts written by Jón Erlendsson (died 1672) for our text of the second version of Íslendingabók. AM 113 b fol. (the better of the two) and AM 113 a fol. both go back directly to a lost original probably written about 1200 or perhaps a little earlier (and thus, of course, not Ari’s original). AM 113 a fol. was written in 1651, AM 113 b fol. probably rather later. The text of the selections here is based on AM 113 b fol. (designated ‘A’) as follows: (a): f. 1r2–11; (b): ff. 1v4–2r14; (c): ff. 2r23–3r9; (d): f. 4r25–v13; (e): ff. 4v14–6v10; (f): ff. 8r17–9v2. Most of the emendations are from AM 113 a fol. (designated ‘B’).

Bibliography Facsimile edition: Jón Jóhannesson (ed.), Íslendingabók Ara fró›a. AM 113 a and 113 b, fol. Íslenzk handrit. Icelandic manuscripts I (1956). [Contains a useful ‘Introduction’ in English] Critical edition: Ari ﬁorgilsson hinn fró›i, Íslendingabók, ed. Anne Holtsmark (1951); rev. Hallvard Magerøy and Tor Ulset (1978). Normalised edition with English translation: Ari Thorgilsson, The Book of the Icelanders (Íslendingabók), ed. and tr. Halldór Hermannsson (1930). Íslenzk fornrit edition (ÍF I): Íslendingabók. In Íslendingabók, Landnámabók, ed. Jakob Benediktsson (1968).

Background reading: Björn ﬁorsteinsson, Thingvellir. Iceland’s National Shrine, tr. Peter Foote (1987). The Book of the Settlements. Landnámabók, tr. Hermann Pálsson and Paul Edwards (1972). Finn Gad, The History of Greenland, I. Earliest Times to 1700, tr. Ernst Dupont (1970). Jónas Kristjánsson, Eddas and Sagas, tr. Peter Foote (1988), Index, under ‘Ari ﬁorgilsson the Wise’. Gwyn Jones, The Norse Atlantic Saga, 2nd ed. (1986). Knud J. Krogh, Viking Greenland (1967). MS, under Íslendingabók. Dag Strömbäck, The Conversion of Iceland, tr. Peter Foote (1975). G. Turville-Petre, Origins of Icelandic Literature (1953), 88–108. VIII: Íslendingabók 103

VIII: Ari ﬁorgilsson: ÍSLENDINGABÓK

(a) Prologue1

‹Í›slendingabók gør›a ek fyrst byskupum órum, fiorláki ok Katli, ok s‡ndak bæ›i fleim ok Sæmundi presti.2 En me› flví at fleim líka›i svá at hafa e›a flar vi›r auka, flá skrifa›a ek flessa of et sama far, fyr útan 3 áttartƒlu ok konungaævi,3 ok jókk flví er mér var› sí›an kunnara ok nú er gerr sagt á flessi en á fleirri. En hvatki es mi‹s›sagt es í frœ›um flessum, flá er skylt at hafa flat heldr, er sannara reynisk . . . 6

(b) The settlement of Iceland4

Chapter 1 ‹Í›sland bygg›isk fyrst úr Norvegi á dƒgum Haralds ens hárfagra,5 Hálfdanar sonar ens svarta, í flann tí› — at ætlun ok tƒlu fleira Teits fóstra míns,6 fless manns er ek kunna spakastan, sonar Ísleifs byskups; 9 ok fiorkels fƒ›urbró›ur míns Gellissonar, er langt mun›i fram;7 ok fiórí›ar Snorra dóttur go›a,8 es bæ›i vas margspƒk ok óljúgfró› — es Ívarr, Ragnars sonr lo›brókar,9 lét drepa Eadmund enn helga Engla- 12 konung.10 En flat vas sjau tegum ‹vetra› ens níunda hundra›s eptir bur› Krists, at flví es ritit es í sƒgu hans.11 Ingólfr hét ma›r nórœnn, es sannliga er sagt at fœri fyrst fla›an til 15 Íslands, flá es Haraldr enn hárfagri var sextán vetra gamall, en í annat sinn fám vetrum sí›arr.12 Hann bygg›i su›r í Reykjarvík. fiar er Ingólfs- hƒf›i kalla›r fyr austan Minflakseyri, sem hann kom fyrst á land, en 18 flar Ingólfsfell fyr vestan ¯lfossá, es hann lag›i sína eigu á sí›an. Í flann tí› vas Ísland vi›i vaxit á mi›li fjalls ok fjƒru.13 fiá váru hér menn kristnir, fleir er Nor›menn kalla papa.14 En fleir 21 fóru sí›an á braut, af flví at fleir vildu eigi vesa hér vi› hei›na menn, ok létu eptir bœkr írskar ok bjƒllur ok bagla; af flví mátti skilja at fleir váru menn írskir.15 24 En flá var› fƒr manna mikil mjƒk út hingat úr Norvegi til fless unz konungrinn Haraldr banna›i, af flví at honum flótti landau›n nema. fiá sættusk fleir á flat, at hverr ma›r skyldi gjalda konungi fimm aura,16 sá 27 er eigi væri frá flví skili›r ok fla›an fœri hingat. En svá er sagt at

4 jóki A. 5 nú sagt A. 104 VIII: Íslendingabók

Haraldr væri sjau tegu vetra konungr ok yr›i áttrœ›r. fiau hafa upphƒf 30 verit at gjaldi flví es nú er kallat landaurar.17 En flar galzk stundum meira en stundum minna, unz Óláfr enn digri18 gør›i sk‡rt at hverr ma›r skyldi gjalda konungi hálfa mƒrk, sá er fœri á mi›li Norvegs ok 33 Íslands, nema konur e›a fleir menn es hann næmi frá. Svá sag›i fiorkell oss Gellissonr.

Chapter 2 . . . En flá es Ísland vas ví›a byggt or›it, flá haf›i ma›r austrœnn fyrst 36 lƒg út hingat úr Norvegi sá er Úlfljótr hét — svá sag›i Teitr oss — ok váru flá Úlfljótslƒg kƒllu› — hann var fa›ir Gunnars er Djúpdœlir eru komnir frá í Eyjafir›i20 — en flau váru flest sett at flví sem flá váru 39 Golaflingslƒg e›a rá› fiorleifs ens spaka Hƒr›a-Kárasonar21 váru til, hvar vi› skyldi auka e›a af nema e›a annan veg setja. Úlfljótr var austr í Lóni. En svá es sagt at Grímr geitskƒr væri fóstbró›ir hans, sá 42 er kanna›i Ísland allt at rá›i hans, á›r Alflingi væri átt. En honum fekk hverr ma›r penning til á landi hér, en hann gaf fé flat sí›an til hofa.22

Chapter 3 ‹A›lflingi vas sett at rá›i Úlfljóts ok allra landsmanna flar er nú es. En 45 á›r vas fling á Kjalarnesi, flat es fiorsteinn Ingólfs sonr landnáma- manns, fa›ir fiorkels mána lƒgsƒgumanns, haf›i flar, ok hƒf›ingjar fleir es at flví hurfu.23 En ma›r haf›i sekr or›it of flræls mor› e›a 48 leysings, sá er land átti í Bláskógum; hann es nefndr fiórir kroppinskeggi; en dóttursonr hans es kalla›r fiorvaldr kroppinskeggi, sá es fór sí›an í Austfjƒr›u ok brenndi flar inni Gunnar, bró›ur sinn. Svá 51 sag›i Hallr Órœkjusonr.24 En sá hét Kolr es myr›r var. Vi› hann es kennd gjá sú es flar es kƒllu› sí›an Kolsgjá, sem hræin fundusk. Land flat var› ‹sí›an› allsherjarfé, en flat lƒg›u landsmenn til Alflingis neyzlu. 54 Af flví es flar almenning at vi›a til Alflingis í skógum ok á hei›um hagi til hrossa hafnar. fiat sag›i Úlfhe›inn oss. Svá hafa ok spakir menn sagt at á sex tegum vetra yr›i Ísland albyggt 57 svá at eigi væri meirr sí›an.

51 Órœkjasonr A. 53 sí›an B. VIII: Íslendingabók 105

fiví nær tók Hrafn lƒgsƒgu,25 Hœngs sonr landnámamanns, næstr Úlfljóti, ok haf›i tuttugu sumur; hann var úr Rangárhverfi. fiat var sex tegum vetra eptir dráp Eadmundar konungs, vetri e›a tveim á›r Haraldr 60 enn hárfagri yr›i dau›r, at tƒlu spakra manna. fiórarinn Ragabró›ir, sonr Óleifs hjalta, tók lƒgsƒgu næstr Hrafni ok haf›i ƒnnur tuttugu; hann vas borgfirzkr. 63

(d) The settlement of Greenland26

Chapter 6 ‹L›and flat es kallat es Grœnland fannsk ok bygg›isk af Íslandi. Eiríkr enn rau›i hét ma›r brei›firzkr es fór út he›an flangat ok nam flar land er sí›an es kalla›r Eiríksfjƒr›r.27 Hann gaf nafn landinu ok kalla›i 66 Grœnland ok kva› menn flat myndu f‡sa flangat farar, at landit ætti nafn gott.28 fieir fundu flar manna vistir bæ›i austr ok vestr á landi,29 ok keiplabrot 69 ok steinsmí›i flat es af flví má skilja at flar haf›i fless konar fljó› farit es Vínland hefir byggt ok Grœnlendingar kalla Skrælinga.30 En flat vas, es hann tók byggva landit, fjórtán vetrum e›a fimmtán 72 fyrr en kristni kvæmi hér á Ísland, at flví er sá tal›i fyrir fiorkeli Gellissyni á Grœnlandi er sjálfr fylg›i Eiríki enum rau›a út.31

(e) The Alﬂingi accepts Christianity32

Chapter 7

‹Ó›láfr rex Tryggva sonr, Óláfs sonar, Haralds sonar ens hárfagra, kom 75 kristni í Nóreg ok á Ísland.33 Hann sendi hingat til lands prest flann er hét fiangbrandr ok hér kenndi mƒnnum kristni ok skír›i flá alla es vi› trú tóku.34 En Hallr á 78 Sí›u, fiorsteins sonr, lét skírask snimhendis, ok Hjalti Skeggjasonr úr fijórsárdali ok Gizurr enn hvíti Teits son, Ketilbjarnar sonar, frá Mosfelli, ok margir hƒf›ingjar a›rir.35 En fleir váru fló fleiri es í gegn 81 mæltu ok neittu. En flá er hann haf›i hér verit einn vetr e›a tvá, flá fór hann á braut ok haf›i vegit hér tvá menn e›a flrjá flá er hann hƒf›u nítt.36 En hann sag›i konunginum Óláfi es hann kom austr allt flat es 84 hér haf›i yfir hann gingit, ok lét ørvænt at hér mundi kristni enn takask.

60 vetrum A. 63 borgfir›ir A. 106 VIII: Íslendingabók

En hann37 var› vi› flat rei›r mjƒk ok ætla›i at láta mei›a e›a drepa 87 ossa landa fyrir, flá es flar váru austr. En flat sumar et sama kvámu útan he›an fleir Gizurr ok Hjalti, ok flágu flá undan vi› konunginn, ok hétu honum umbs‡slu sinni til á 90 n‡ja leik at hér yr›i enn vi› kristninni tekit, ok létu sér eigi annars ván en flar mundi hl‡›a. En et næsta sumar eptir fóru fleir austan, ok prestr sá es fiormó›r hét, ok kvámu flá í Vestmannaeyjar es tíu vikur váru af 93 sumri,38 ok haf›i allt farizk vel at. Svá kva› Teitr flann segja es sjálfr var flar.39 fiá vas flat mælt et næsta sumar á›r í lƒgum at menn skyldi svá koma til Alflingis es tíu vikur væri af sumri, en flangat til kvámu 96 viku fyrr. En fleir fóru flegar inn til meginlands ok sí›an til Alflingis ok gátu at Hjalta at hann vas eptir í Laugardali me› tólfta mann, af flví at hann 99 haf›i á›r sekr or›it fjƒrbaugsma›r et næsta sumar á Alflingi of go›gá.40 En flat vas til fless haft, at hann kva› at Lƒgbergi kvi›ling flenna:41 Vil ek eigi go› geyja; 102 grey flykir mér Freyja.42 En fleir Gizurr fóru unz fleir kvámu í sta› flann í hjá ¯lfossvatni, es kalla›r es Vellankatla, ok gør›u or› fla›an til flings, at á mót fleim 105 skyldi koma allir fulltingsmenn fleira, af flví at fleir hƒf›u spurt at andskotar fleira vildi verja fleim vígi flingvƒllinn. En fyrr en fleir fœri fla›an, flá kom flar rí›andi Hjalti ok fleir er eptir váru me› honum. En 108 sí›an ri›u fleir á flingit, ok kvámu á›r á mót fleim frændr fleira ok vinir, sem fleir hƒf›u æst. En enir hei›nu menn hurfu saman me› alvæpni ok haf›i svá nær at fleir myndi berjask at ‹eigi› of sá á mi›li. 111 En annan dag eptir gengu fleir Gizurr ok Hjalti til Lƒgbergs ok báru flar upp erindi sín. En svá er sagt, at flat bæri frá, hvé vel fleir mæltu. En flat gør›isk af flví, at flar nefndi annarr ma›r at ƒ›rum vátta, ok 114 sƒg›usk hvárir úr lƒgum vi› a›ra, enir kristnu menn ok enir hei›nu, ok gingu sí›an frá Lƒgbergi. fiá bá›u enir kristnu menn Hall á Sí›u at hann skyldi lƒg fleira upp 117 segja, flau es kristninni skyldi fylgja. En hann leystisk flví undan vi› flá, at hann keypti at fiorgeiri lƒgsƒgumanni, at hann skyldi upp segja; en hann vas enn flá hei›inn.43 En sí›an er menn kvámu í bú›ir,44 flá

106 flingvellinn A. 110 eigi] a space is left for this word in A. VIII: Íslendingabók 107 lag›isk hann ni›r fiorgeirr ok breiddi feld sinn á sik ok hvíldi flann 120 dag allan ok nóttina eptir ok kva› ekki or›. En of morguninn eptir settisk hann upp ok gør›i or› at menn skyldi ganga til Lƒgbergis. En flá hóf hann tƒlu sína upp, es menn kvámu flar, ok sag›i at honum 123 flótti flá komit hag manna í ón‡tt efni ef menn skyldi eigi hafa allir lƒg ein á landi hér, ok tal›i fyrir mƒnnum á marga vega at flat skyldi eigi láta ver›a, ok sag›i at flat mundi at flví ósætti ver›a, es vísaván vas at 126 flær barsmí›ir gør›isk á mi›li manna es landit eyddisk af. Hann sag›i frá flví, at konungar úr Norvegi ok úr Danmƒrku hƒf›u haft ófri› ok orrostur á mi›li sín langa tí›, til fless unz landsmenn gør›u fri› á mi›li 129 fleira, flótt fleir vildi eigi. En flat rá› gør›isk svá, at af stundu sendusk fleir gersemar á mi›li; enda helt fri›r sá me›an fleir lif›u.45 ‘En nú flykkir mér flat rá›,’ kva› hann, ‘at vér látim ok eigi flá rá›a 132 er mest vilja í gegn gangask, ok mi›lum svá mál á mi›li fleira, at hvárirtveggju hafi nakkvat síns máls, ok hƒfum allir ein lƒg ok einn si›. fiat mon ver›a satt, es vér slítum í sundr lƒgin, at vér monum slíta 135 ok fri›inn.’ En hann lauk svá máli sínu at hvárirtveggju játtu flví, at allir skyldi ein lƒg hafa, flau sem hann ré›i upp at segja. 138 fiá vas flat mælt í lƒgum at allir menn skyldi kristnir vesa ok skírn taka, fleir er á›r váru óskír›ir á landi hér. En of barna útbur› skyldu standa en fornu lƒg ok of hrossakjƒts át.46 Skyldu menn blóta á laun, 141 ef vildu, en var›a fjƒrbaugsgar›r ef váttum of kvæmi vi›. En sí›ar fám vetrum var sú hei›ni af numin sem ƒnnur. fienna atbur› sag›i Teitr oss at flví er kristni kom á Ísland. 144 En Óláfr Tryggvason fell et sama sumar at sƒgu Sæmundar prests.47 fiá bar›isk hann vi› Svein Haraldsson Danakonung ok Óláf enn sœnska Eiríks son at Uppsƒlum Svíakonungs, ok Eirík, es sí›an vas jarl at 147 Norvegi, Hákonarson.48 fiat vas flremr tegum vetra ens annars hundra›s eptir dráp Eadmundar, en flúsundi eptir bur› Krists at alfl‡›u tali.49

(f) Events during Gizurr’s episcopacy50

Chapter 10

. . . Gizurr byskup vas ástsælli af ƒllum landsmƒnnum en hverr ma›r 150 annarra ﬂeira es vér vitim hér á landi hafa verit. Af ástsæld hans ok af

148 vetrum A. 151 vitam A. 108 VIII: Íslendingabók

tƒlum fleira Sæmundar me› umbrá›i Markúss lƒgsƒgumanns51 vas 153 flat í lƒg leitt, at allir menn tƒl›u ok vir›u allt fé sitt ok sóru at rétt virt væri, hvárt sem vas í lƒndum e›a í lausaaurum, ok gør›u tíund af sí›an.52 fiat eru miklar jartegnir, hvat hl‡›nir landsmenn váru fleim 156 manni, es hann kom flví fram at fé allt vas virt me› svardƒgum flat es á Íslandi vas, ok landit sjálft ok tíundir af gƒrvar ok lƒg á lƒg›, at svá skal vesa, me›an Ísland es byggt. Gizurr byskup lét ok lƒg leggja á 159 flat, at stóll byskups fless es á Íslandi væri skyldi í Skálaholti vesa, en á›r vas hvergi, ok lag›i hann flar til stólsins Skálaholtsland ok margra kynja au›œfi ƒnnur, bæ›i í lƒndum ok í lausum aurum.53 En flá es 162 honum flótti sá sta›r hafa vel at au›œfum flróazk, flá gaf hann meir en fjór›ung byskupsdóms síns til fless at heldr væri tveir byskupsstólar á landi hér en einn, svá sem Nor›lendingar æstu hann til.54 En hann 165 haf›i á›r látit telja búendr á landi hér, ok váru flá í Austfir›ingafjór›ungi sjau hundru› heil, en í Rangæingafjór›ungi tíu, en í Brei›‹fir››inga- fjór›ungi níu, en í Eyfir›ingafjór›ungi tólf, en ótal›ir váru fleir es eigi 168 áttu flingfararkaupi at gegna of allt Ísland.55 ‹Ú›lfhe›inn Gunnars sonr ens spaka tók lƒgsƒgu eptir Markús ok haf›i níu sumur; flá haf›i Bergflórr Hrafnssonr sex, en flá haf›i 171 Go›mundr fiorgeirssonr tólf sumur.56 Et fyrsta sumar es Bergflórr sag›i lƒg upp vas n‡mæli flat gƒrt at lƒg ór skyldi skrifa á bók at Hafli›a Mássonar of vetrinn eptir at sƒgu ok umbrá›i fleira Bergflórs ok annarra 174 spakra manna fleira er til fless váru teknir.57 Skyldu fleir gørva n‡mæli flau ƒll í lƒgum er fleim litisk flau betri en en fornu lƒg. Skyldi flau segja upp et næsta sumar eptir í lƒgréttu ok flau ƒll halda es enn meiri 177 hlutr manna mælti flá eigi gegn. En flat var› at fram fara, at flá vas skrifa›r Vígsló›i ok margt annat í lƒgum ok sagt upp í lƒgréttu af kennimƒnnum of sumarit eptir.58 En flat líka›i ƒllum vel, ok mælti flví 180 manngi í gegn. fiat vas ok et fyrsta sumar es Bergflórr sag›i lƒg upp, flá var Gizurr byskup óflingfœrr af sótt. fiá sendi hann or› til Alflingis vinum sínum 183 ok hƒf›ingjum at bi›ja skyldi fiorlák Rúnólfs son fiorleiks sonar, bró›ur Halls í Haukadali,59 at hann skyldi láta vígjask til byskups. En flat ger›u allir svá sem or› hans kvámu til, ok fekksk flat af flví, at Gizurr 186 haf›i sjálfr fyrr mjƒk be›it, ok fór hann útan flat sumar en kom út et næsta eptir ok vas flá víg›r til byskups. Gizurr vas víg›r til byskups flá es hann var fertøgr.60 fiá vas Gregóríus 189 septimus páfi.61 En sí›an vas hann enn næsta vetr í Danmƒrku ok kom VIII: Íslendingabók 109 of sumarit eptir hingat til lands. En flá es hann haf›i verit fjóra vetr ok tuttugu byskup, svá sem fa›ir hans, flá vas Jóan ¯gmundarsonr víg›r til byskups fyrstr til stóls at Hólum;62 flá vas hann vetri mi›r en hálf- 192 sextøgr. En tólf vetrum sí›ar, flá es Gizurr haf›i alls verit byskup sex vetr ens fjór›a tegar, flá vas fiorlákr víg›r til byskups; hann lét Gizurr vígja til stóls í Skálaholti at sér lifanda. fiá vas fiorlákr tveim 195 vetrum meir en flrítøgr, en Gizurr byskup anda›isk flremr tegum nátta sí›ar í Skálaholti á enum flri›ja degi í viku ‹quinto› kalendas Junii63 . . .

193 hálffertøgr A. 196 náttum A. 110 VIII: Íslendingabók

Notes 1 On the Prologue to Íslendingabók and the difficulties it presents, see Turville-Petre 1953, 88–102; Jón Jóhannesson 1956, xiv–xxiii. The problems revolve around: (a) the meaning of fyr útan; (b) what the words áttartala and konungaævi refer to; and to some extent (c) the meaning of of et sama far. On these problems see note 3 below and NION III, s.v. far.

2 Sæmundr Sigfússon was a member of the Oddaverjar family, with its ancestral home at Oddi, just east of where the River Rangá in ‡tri flows into ﬁverá (south-western Iceland) (cf. HOIC 231–32, 362). He studied on the Continent and is credited with a now lost synoptic work about the kings of Norway believed to have been written in Latin. After his death, he became a legendary figure in Icelandic folklore and, for example, the poems of the Elder Edda were wrongly attributed to him (cf. Jónas Kristjánsson 1988, 25–26). Like Ari ﬁorgilsson, he was nicknamed inn fró›i, ‘the Learned’. Cf. p. 56 above; Turville-Petre 1953, 81–87; MS, s.v. Sæmundr Sigfússon inn fró›i.

3 of et sama far: ‘on the same subject’; or ‘covering the same ground’ (so ION 207); or possibly ‘in the same way’. The majority of scholars understand fyr útan to mean ‘without’, i.e. that áttartala and konungaævi, which were to be found in the earlier version of Íslendingabók, have been omitted in the second, preserved, version. But others have suggested that they mean ‘apart from’ and that the áttartala and konungaævi are an addition to the earlier version and are to be found in the preserved version. áttartƒlu is formally singular but is probably used here in a collective sense; the element -ævi in konungaævi is plural. The first word may be roughly translated ‘genealogies’, the second ‘lives of kings’. Precise- ly what are referred to here is less certain and depends to some extent on the interpretation fyr útan in line 3. If fyr útan is taken to mean ‘apart from’ and the items referred to are assumed to be present in the preserved version of Íslendingabók, then the word áttartala might refer (for example) to the genealogies of the bishops following ch. 10 (referred to by Ari himself as kyn byskupa Íslendinga ok áttartala), and konungaævi might refer to various chronological statements in the present Íslendingabók relating events in Icelandic history to the VIII: Íslendingabók 111 lives of foreign kings (cf. lines 7–14, 145–49). If the items in question were in the earlier version but have been removed in the preserved one, then this matter becomes a much more speculative one, and one which has received much scholarly attention (cf. note 20 below).

4 On the discovery and settlement of Iceland, see BS; Jones 1986, especially 27–72; MS, s.v. Iceland; HOIC 1–34.

5 While it is not possible to give exact dates, Haraldr hárfagri probably lived from about 855 to about 935. He is said to have been descended from the Swedish Yngling dynasty and his father, Hálfdan inn svarti, was king of Vestfold. Haraldr succeeded to the throne as a young man and, partly in alliance with the earl of Hla›ir, Hákon Grjótgar›s- son, extended a hegemony widely in Norway. Sometime in the 890s he won a decisive sea-battle at Hafrsfjorden (near Stavanger) and in so doing established control of the south-western part of the country. He may, to a certain extent, therefore, be regarded as the first ruler of all Norway, though when written sources represent his tyranny as a major cause of emigration by Norwegian chieftains to Iceland, there is doubtless some exaggeration involved. Cf. MS, s.v. Haraldr hárfagri (“fair-hair”) Hálfdanarson.

6 Teitr, a son of Ísleifr Gizurarson, was Ari’s main mentor and teacher (cf. fóstri). It is he whom Ari refers to most frequently as an informant (cf. lines 36, 93, 144). He seems to have had several other pupils as well as Ari. He died in 1110.

7 ﬁorkell Gellisson is also mentioned in Laxdœla saga. He is said to have lived at the important farm of Helgafell on Snæfellsnes. See also note 31 below.

8 ﬁórí›r died in 1112 at the age of 88. Her father, Snorri go›i ﬁorgríms- son (d. 1031), appears in Eyrbyggja saga as a major character and in several other sources.

9 Ívarr was a prominent Viking chieftain of the second half of the ninth century. The sources about him include, in addition to Icelandic ones, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Irish annals, Adam of Bremen’s 112 VIII: Íslendingabók

Gesta (cf. p. 56 above) and Saxo Grammaticus’s Gesta Danorum. He was presumably a leader of the large Danish army which invaded East Anglia in 865 (cf. note 10 below). He also took part in an attack on York at about the same time in which the rival English kings Ælla and Osbert were killed. The Annals of Ulster describe him as the ‘king of the Northmen of all Ireland and Britain’. He died in about 873. The legendary Ragnarr lo›brók could well represent a combination of two different historical figures, one of whom is likely to have been a parent of the historical Ívarr. However this may be, Ari probably conceived lo›brók as a nickname for Ragnarr and then in some such sense as ‘shaggy breeches’. Cf. Rory McTurk, Studies in Ragnars saga lo›brókar and its major Scandinavian analogues (1991).

10 Edmund the Martyr, king of the East Angles, resisted the Danish invasion of his kingdom, was taken prisoner and, when he rejected Ívarr’s demands for tribute and allegiance, was put to death (20th November 869) by being shot with arrows. On the apparent discrepancy between the date of Edmund’s death in 869 and that given by Ari in lines 13–14 (i.e. 870), see note 49 below.

11 It is uncertain what written work about St Edmund is referred to. De miraculis Sancti Eadmundi, written shortly before 1100 by the English cleric Hermannus, is perhaps the most likely, though Abbo of Fleury’s Passio Sancti Eadmundi (written c.988) is another possibility. Cf. Strömbäck 1975, 19 note 1.

12 Ingólfr is traditionally regarded as the first Scandinavian settler in Iceland and founder of modern Reykjavík. Ari gives no name for his father but some later sources refer to him as the son of ¯rn, others of Bjƒrnólfr, the latter perhaps more correctly. Cf. HOIC 13 footnote 35.

13 Modern research supports the suggestion here that, at the time of its settlement, Iceland was much more extensively wooded than in Ari’s own. In the intervening period, over-exploitation by man and overgrazing by livestock led to deforestation. The birch continues to be the main type of tree in Iceland, but various kinds of willow, as well as the rowan and juniper, are also found quite widely. VIII: Íslendingabók 113

14 papar (the word goes back ultimately to Latin papa, ‘father’) were Irish anchorite monks who had found their way to the Scottish islands, the Faroes and Iceland. Their presence in these places is suggested by place-names containing the element pap- (e.g. Papa Stour in Shetland, Papey off eastern Iceland). The Irish monk Dicuil, writing about 825, gives an account of an island in the far north he calls Thile which was visited by clerics some thirty years earlier. Most scholars have identified this with Iceland and Irishmen would thus have been first to set foot in Iceland, as early as the beginning of the ninth century. See Dicuili Liber de mensura orbis terrae, ed. and tr. J. J. Tierney (1967), 75–77; HOIC 3–7; Strömbäck (1975), 60–67; A History of Norway and The Passion and Miracles of the Blessed Óláfr, tr. Devra Kunin, ed. with introduction and notes by Carl Phelpstead (2001), 8 and 84–85.

15 It is not certain that books actually written in Irish are meant; books which were ‘Irish’ in their appearance, style and decoration may rather be intended. Cf. Ian McDougall, ‘Foreigners and Foreign Languages in Medieval Iceland’, Saga-Book XXII (1986–89), 180–82. The Irish monks would doubtless have counted their books great treasures. Bagall is a loan-word probably either from Old Irish (bachall) or Old English (cf. Middle English bag(h)el), both words themselves being ultimately derived from Latin baculus. The Icelandic word is often translated ‘crozier’ but may refer rather to the long stout walking- sticks (Latin cambutta) used by Irish monks. For illustrations of medieval croziers (though of a later date) found in Iceland, see HOIC 398 and Björn ﬁorsteinsson 1987, 52. Bjƒllur probably means small hand-bells. Such items have been found in Iceland and some of them, though they must derive from a date later than any Irish presence there, may have associations with the British Isles. See further P. W. Joyce, A Social History of Ancient Ireland (1903), I 343, 352–54, 372–78.

16 An ounce (eyrir) was a weight of about 27 g, and while basically used of silver as a medium of exchange, was also transferred to measure other media (homespun in ells, for instance) by a system of equivalences. There were eight ounces (aurar) to a mark (mƒrk) (cf. line 32 below). Cf. HOIC 328–35; Laws II 386, 389–90. 114 VIII: Íslendingabók

17 Landaurar, ‘land dues’, were primarily a toll which Icelanders were obliged to pay the king of Norway on arrival in that country. It was abolished by Gamli sáttmáli, ‘the Old Pact’, of 1262–64 which brought Iceland under Norwegian rule. But the word is also used in some sources of a tax imposed on those leaving Norway for other places. See HOIC 109–17, 282–87; Laws II 211 note 100.

18 Óláfr enn digri or Óláfr helgi Haraldsson is one of the most important figures of the Viking Age and the sources about him are numerous and diverse. He was a great-great-grandson of Haraldr enn hárfagri, born in Norway in about 995. He appears to have participated in wide- ranging Viking raids at an early age which took him to places as far apart as Finland and Spain. He was involved in the Danish attacks on England in the years 1009–1014 and was baptised in Rouen in Normandy at about this time. He returned to Norway in 1015 and established himself as the first effective ruler of the whole country. During his reign, Óláfr consolidated his power by the elimination of various petty chieftains and strengthening the civil administration of the country. He also continued the process of the conversion in which Óláfr Tryggvason had earlier played such an important part (cf. note 33 below). Because of external threats, primarily from Canute the Great, he was forced to seek asylum with Yaroslav in Russia in 1028 but returned two years later with a small army only to be defeated and killed at the Battle of Stiklarsta›ir (modern Stiklestad) in Trøndelag on 29th July 1030. Although never officially canonised, Óláfr became the object of a considerable cult after his death and is regarded as patron saint of Norway. His shrine in the cathedral at Trondheim became a place of pilgrimage and a number of churches (not least in Britain) are dedicated to him. See MS, s.v. Óláfr, St.; Óláfs saga helga.

19 On Ari’s account of Úlfljótr’s Law and the establishment, site and institutions of the Alflingi, see HOIC 35–93; Laws I 1–6, 53–138; Björn fiorsteinsson 1987; MS, s.v. Alflingi. Some scholars take Ari’s statements about Úlfljótr’s Law as historically suspect (see note 21 below). Certainly the clauses found in various sources purporting to be from Úlfljótr’s Laws (cf. Halldór Hermannsson in Ari Thorgilsson 1930, 76–77) are probably most reasonably regarded as antiquarian reconstructions from the twelfth or thirteenth century. VIII: Íslendingabók 115

20 Certain critics who think that Ari omitted the áttartala found in the earlier version of Íslendingabók when he made his second version (see note 3 above) have pointed to the words in this parenthesis as a possible vestige of material he unwittingly left behind when otherwise removing genealogical material (see Jón Jóhannesson 1956, xxi).

21 Golaflingslƒg was the law for western and southern Norway (cf. MS 385–86). It has been argued that Golaflingslƒg was not established until about 950, i.e. at a time later than the events here described. Further, the fact that the preserved Golaflingslƒg and laws of the Icelandic Commonwealth are so different makes it seem improbable that the former influenced the latter at an earlier stage of the development of both. fiorleifr is a shadowy figure who appears in a number of Kings’ Sagas. Some sources make him a relation of Úlfljótr or connect him with the establishment of Golaflingslƒg.

22 What Ari says of Grímr’s mission here is not entirely clear. The purpose of his search may have been to find a suitable meeting-place for the Alﬂingi. But it may have been to collect views on the very establishment of the assembly. The statement that each man gave Grímr a penny is also problematic. If he indeed gave the money to the temples (hof), this would suggest a close association between these institutions and the political administration of Iceland in heathen times. Cf. HOIC 38–39, 54–55.

23 It is disputed whether the reference is to a local assembly or to some sort of forerunner to the Alﬂingi. For a review of the arguments, see Halldór Hermannsson in Ari Thorgilsson 1930, 78; HOIC 35–40. A local assembly called Kjalarnessﬂing certainly existed during the Commonwealth period (see HOIC 76–77).

24 Little or nothing is known of this informant of Ari’s. He may have hailed from eastern Iceland.

25 The lawspeaker of the medieval Icelandic Commonwealth was elected for a period of three years, though he could always be re- elected. It was his duty to recite all sections of the law at Lƒgberg (see note 41 below) during his term of office and the Assembly Procedures 116 VIII: Íslendingabók

Section (ﬂingskaparﬂáttr) every year. He received a fee and half of the fines imposed by judgments at the General Assemby. Cf. Strömbäck 1975, 15 and note; HOIC 47–49; Laws I 187–88, 249–50; II 384–85.

26 On the discovery and settlement of Greenland by Scandinavians, see BS 48–50; HOIC 98–101; Krogh 1967; Gad 1970; Jones 1986, 73–114; MS, s.v. Greenland, Norse in.

27 The main sources for Eiríkr the Red and his family are Íslendinga- bók, Landnámabók, Grœnlendinga saga and Eiríks saga rau›a (cf. Jones 1986, 142–235). Eiríkr is said to have lived in the inner part of Eiríksfjƒr›r at Brattahlí› (Qassiarsuk), where extensive Norse archaeological remains have been found. Eiríksfjƒr›r, together with Einars- fjƒr›r immediately to the south of it, formed the central part of Eystribygg› (‘Eastern Settlement’), the more southerly of the two medieval Scandinavian settlements in Greenland. The other settlement, Vestribygg› (‘Western Settlement’), lay in the area to the east of Greenland’s present-day capital, Nuuk. Both settlements were on the southern part of the west coast of Greenland. See the map in ÍF IV.

28 It is easier to understand the reasoning attributed to Eiríkr here if we remember that, as well as denoting the colour green, Old Norse grœnn can mean ‘good; hopeful; advantageous’, where no notion of physical colour is present (cf. C–V 218). Thus in Finnboga saga ch. 6 (ÍF XIV 262), the superlative of the adjective is used with an understood noun kostr, the expression meaning ‘the best alternative’: sá mun grænstr at segja satt. Further, the noun kostr is used in the compound land(s)kostr, ‘quality, potential of (a) land for settlement’ (cf. Eiríks saga rau›a ch. 11 (ÍF IV (1985), 430); Vatnsdœla saga ch. 15 (ÍF VIII 40–41).

29 austr ok vestr á landi is probably a reference to the two Scandinavian settlements in Greenland, Eystribygg› and Vestribygg› (cf. note 27 above).

30 The first element of the compound keiplabrot appears to be genitive plural of keipull, attested otherwise only in SnE, Skáldskaparmál 128. Different etymologies have been suggested for keipull: it may be a VIII: Íslendingabók 117 loan-word (cf. Latin caupulus, Old English cuopel, ‘small ship’; Welsh ceubol, ‘ferry-boat’). Or it may be a diminutive of keipr, ‘boat’. It is not certain that the word keipull by itself necessarily denoted a skin boat, though doubtless it was remains of skin boats of some kind that Eiríkr and his men found. But for these, the word hú›keipr was the most precise term (e.g. in Flóamanna saga ch. 23 (ÍF XIII 289), and was used of the vessels of the Skrælingar in Grœnlendinga saga ch. 4 (ÍF IV (1985), 255–56 — also keipr) and Eiríks saga rau›a ch. 11 (ÍF IV (1985), 428). The artefacts referred to by Ari in this paragraph were probably left behind by some early culture of Inuit, most probably the Dorset culture, which had visited and moved on from the areas of Greenland in question centuries before the arrival of the Scandinavians. Certainly vestiges of Dorset-culture settlement have been found in both the Eastern and Western Settlements by modern archaeologists. Vínland (literally ‘Wine-land’) refers to some area on the eastern side of the North American continent visited by Scandinavians from about AD 1000 onwards. The name is also known to us from Adam of Bremen’s Gesta (see p. 56 above) and e.g. Grœnlendinga saga and Eiríks saga rau›a. Although we do not know its exact definition, it may have included Newfoundland, on the northern tip of which island a Scandinavian site has been discovered at L’Anse aux Meadows. While there is archaeological evidence to suggest that there may have been contacts between Scandinavians and Dorset-Inuits in Newfoundland, we have no need to assume that in using the word Skrælingar here Ari is referring specifically to Dorset-Inuits. The word seems to have been applied indiscriminately by medieval Scandinavians to any non- Scandinavian people they encountered in Greenland or North America. Moreoever, it is perfectly possible that the Scandinavians had not met with the Inuit in Greenland at the time from which Ari has his information; the Thule-Inuit (ancestors of the Inuit of modern Green- land) probably did not enter the northern part of the country from the Canadian islands until about AD 1100 at the earliest.

31 ﬁorkell’s visit to Greenland, which must have taken place in the period c.1050–70 (cf. ÍF I 14 note 3), is mentioned only here. For another example of Ari mentioning his informants’ own sources, see lines 93–94 below and note 39. 118 VIII: Íslendingabók

32 On the conversion of Iceland, see Turville-Petre 1953, 48–69; HOIC 118–38; Strömbäck 1975; MS, s.v. Conversion. In addition to this account by Ari, the chief primary sources are Theodoricus monachus’s Historia de antiquitate regum Norwagiensium, Historia Norwegiae, Ágrip, Oddr Snorrason’s Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar, Snorri Sturluson’s Heimskringla, Njáls saga, Kristni saga and Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta. The account in Kristni saga is particularly detailed.

33 At an early age (he was born c.968) Óláfr Tryggvason took part in Viking expeditions and The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle tells of his attacks on England in the early 990s (which involved the extortion of Danegeld). According to some sources, he was baptised in the Isles of Scilly (cf. pp. 83–84 above). He became king of Norway in 995 and during his short reign strove to further the cause of Christianity not only in Norway itself but also in the Scandinavian colonies in the west. In Norway his success was only partial. He died fighting King Sveinn Haraldsson (see lines 145–49 below and Text VI above). Cf. Strömbäck 1975, 31–37; MS, s.v. Óláfr Tryggvason; Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar. Ari uses a number of Latin words (such as rex instead of konungr) and Latinisms in Íslendingabók (cf. line 197 below). This he may have done under the influence of specific Latin sources.

34 ﬁangbrandr (also known as Theobrand(us)) is mentioned in a number of sources (cf. note 32 above), some of which cite what are ostensibly contemporary verses about him. He appears to have been of either Flemish or Saxon origin. The element ﬁangbrand- appears in a number of Icelandic place-names, suggesting perhaps that he travelled widely in the country; see HOIC 128–31; Strömbäck 1975, 25–26.

35 Hjalti Skeggjason was Gizurr enn hvíti’s son-in-law, and plays an important part in Njáls saga. Gizurr belonged to what was perhaps one of the most distinguished Icelandic families of the Commonwealth period, the descendants of Ketilbjƒrn the Old, the original settler of a large part of south-western Iceland which included Mosfell, Skálaholt and Haukadalr. As seen here, he played an important part in the introduction of Christianity into Iceland and is a major figure in Njáls VIII: Íslendingabók 119 saga. Among his descendants were his son Ísleifr, first bishop of Iceland (1056–80), Gizurr, second bishop of Iceland (1082–1106) and first bishop of Skálaholt (1106–18), and Gizurr ﬁorvaldsson (1208– 68), who played an important part in the history of Iceland leading up to the end of the Commonwealth (see extract III above). The family (or parts of it) are sometimes referred to as the Mosfellingar, sometimes as the Haukdœlir.

36 ﬂá er hann hƒf›u nítt, ‘who had insulted him’; probably more specifically ‘who had composed scurrilous verses about him’ The noun ní› has roughly the sense of ‘defamation’, often of a sexual character; cf. Preben Meulengracht Sørensen, The Unmanly Man. Concepts of Sexual Defamation in Early Northern Society, tr. Joan Turville-Petre (1983), 28–32, 79–81; Laws II 197 note 16. Some of the verses said to have been composed about ﬁangbrandr have been preserved.

37 I.e. Óláfr Tryggvason.

38 The first day of summer was Thursday, 9th–15th April (cf. Laws II 15 note 84). Gizurr and Hjalti’s arrival in Iceland must have been 18th–24th June and thus more or less coincided with the beginning of the Assembly (Alﬂingi) (cf. Laws I 57).

39 Strömbäck (1975, 19) cites this sentence as an instance of how meticulous Ari could be in referring to his informants and their sources: ‘We may note, for example, that he establishes the fact that the two chieftains who were to bring Christianity to Iceland first landed in mid-June . . . in Vestmannaeyjar by referring to one of his best- informed source-men [i.e. Teitr; cf. lines 8–9, 36, 144], who had himself been told this by a man who was there on the islands at the time.’

40 Fjƒrbaugsgar›r, ‘lesser outlawry’, involved banishment from Iceland for three years (see Laws I 250). Under the laws of the Commonwealth, the penalty for reciting shaming slander (ní›; see note 36 above) about another person was full outlawry (skóggangr); see Laws II 197–99. 120 VIII: Íslendingabók

41 On Lƒgberg, see Laws I 251; HOIC 41–44; Björn ﬁorsteinsson 1987, 41–42 and passim. It was at Lƒgberg that the recital of the laws by the lawspeaker took place (cf. note 25 above).

42 At geyja go› probably means ‘to blaspheme (the) gods’; cf. the word go›gá (line 99) which must mean ‘blasphemy’ (the second element of this word comes from the same root as geyja). The verse is ironical: ‘I do not wish to blaspheme the gods; (but) Freyja seems to me to be a bitch.’ It is in the metre málaháttr with internal and end- rhymes (cf. ION 317; SnE, Háttatal st. 83, or, in some versions, st. 80, 81, 85, 88, and p. 87). On the voluptuous fertility-goddess Freyja, see MRN 175–79; MS, s.v. Freyr and Freyja. In OddrÓT, Njáls saga (ch. 102) and Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta two further lines are added: Æ mun annat tveggja / Ó›inn grey e›a Freyja, ‘One of the two, either Ó›inn or Freyja, will always be a bitch.’ Cf. Strömbäck 1975, 13–14.

43 It seems probable that Hallr was simply bribing ﬁorgeirr; OddrÓT says that Óláfr Tryggvason had given Gizurr and Hjalti a substantial sum of money before they left Norway ‘to make friends with chieftains’. Cf. Strömbäck 1975, 30–31.

44 bú›ir were the temporary shelters used by those attending the Alflingi at fiingvellir and assemblies elsewhere in Iceland. Their walls would have been made of turf and stone and when in use they would have been roofed with awnings of canvas or homespun. See Björn fiorsteinsson 1987, 32–34.

45 ﬁorgeirr’s exemplum cited here is not historical and no real events are referred to. In Kristni saga the names of the two fictitious kings are given as Tryggvi (of Norway) and Dagr (of Denmark).

46 The exposure of unwanted infants (especially females) after birth (barna útbur›r) appears to have been practised in heathen Iceland and is referred to in the sagas (e.g. Gunnlaugs saga ormstungu ch. 3). There was general Christian opposition to the consumption of horse- meat (hrossakjƒts át) in the Middle Ages, probably due to its association with heathen ritual rather than to the Mosaic Law, and, as Ari VIII: Íslendingabók 121 implies, it was later forbidden in the laws of the Icelandic Common- wealth (cf. Laws I 49). Cf. Strömbäck 1975, 17 note 1 and 29 note 2.

47 The location of the battle is disputed. It may have taken place off the German island of Rügen (cf. p. 58 above and Svƒl›r in NION III).

48 Sveinn Haraldsson (Sven Forkbeard) revolted against his father, Haraldr Gormsson, to ascend the throne of Denmark in about 986. In the 990s he was involved in attacks on England, one of them together with Óláfr Tryggvason. He also laid claim to Norway and after his defeat of Óláfr Tryggvason recorded here had control of much of that country. In 1013 he led a speedy invasion of England. Ethelred the Unready was driven into exile and Sveinn was king of the country for a few months until his death at Gainsborough on 3rd February 1114. Cf. MS, s.v. Sven Haraldsson (Forkbeard). Óláfr enn sœnski (known in Swedish as Olof Skötkonung), son of King Erik the Victorious, ruled from c.995 and died c.1021. He is probably the first king who could be said to have ruled all Sweden, though only for a limited time. He embraced Christianity himself and attempted to impose it on his subjects, but was eventually frustrated by the heathen faction. Eiríkr Hákonarson was son of Hákon Sigur›arson Hla›ajarl who had ruled Norway c.970–95. After the fall of Óláfr Tryggvason, Eiríkr and his brother Sveinn had control of parts of the country, though as subordinates of Sveinn Haraldsson. After Eiríkr was summoned to England by Canute in 1015, Óláfr Haraldsson (digri) returned to Norway and defeated Sveinn at the Battle of Nesjar. Eiríkr died in England as earl of Northumbria in about 1024.

49 Modern chronological investigations suggest that Christianity was in fact accepted at the Alﬂingi in June 999, and that Óláfr Tryggvason fell in battle in the September of that same year. The apparent discrepancy arises from the fact that Ari began his year on 1st Septem- ber, as was not uncommon at the time. Cf. Strömbäck 1975, 2 note 1. By the expression at alﬂ‡›u tali Ari refers to the system (now common) of dating historical events from the birth of Christ. This was introduced by Dionysius Exiguus (fl. AD 500) and fostered by the Venerable Bede (d. 735). Systems using other dates for Christ’s birth 122 VIII: Íslendingabók were known in medieval Iceland, including that connected with Gerlandus of Besançon (fl. AD 1100) which assumes that Christ was born seven years later than Dionysius and Bede reckoned.

50 On Bishop Gizurr Ísleifsson, see HOIC 147–53; Turville-Petre 1953, 79–82. He was son of Ísleifr, first bishop of Iceland, and grandson of Gizurr enn hvíti who played such a notable role in the introduction of Christianity to Iceland (see lines 80, 88, 111 above). He was born in 1042, consecrated in 1082 (cf. note 60 below) and died in 1118. On laws of tithe, see Laws II 221–35, 398–99 and references; HOIC 147–50, 169–78. On the writing down of the secular laws, cf. HOIC 89–93; Laws I 9–16. And on Jón ¯gmundarson and the foundation of the see of Hólar, see Turville-Petre 1953, 109–42, 197–99; HOIC 153– 56; MS, s.v. Jóns saga ens helga. Cf. note 62 below and section XIV.

51 Earlier in chapter 10 of Íslendingabók, Ari mentions Markús as his informant for the terms of office of all the lawspeakers before his own time and gives Markús’s sources for the lawspeakers before his (Markús’s) time. Markús was a poet and composed, for example, a memorial poem in honour of King Eirik Ejegod of Denmark (d. 1103).

52 Iceland was the first of the Scandinavian countries to introduce tithes, at the Alﬂingi in 1096 or 1097. The amount was one per cent of a man’s unencumbered possessions; one quarter was sent to the bishop, a second quarter to the priest, a third to the local church and a fourth to the poor.

53 The land at Skálaholt had originally been part of Gizurr’s family estate (cf. note 35 above). After the death of his mother, Gizurr had it established by law that the bishop of Iceland should live at Skálaholt. Before that, no particular place of residence had existed.

54 The diocese of Skálaholt was to cover the eastern, southern and western quarters, while that of Hólar (established in 1106) was to cover the northern quarter. But the northern quarter was the largest and most populous, so Gizurr was giving up claim to more than one fourth of the tithes he had previously received. See HOIC 151. VIII: Íslendingabók 123

55 For the boundaries of the four quarters of medieval Iceland, see the map in Laws I 280. Rangæingafjór›ungr is often called Sunnlendinga- fjór›ungr, Brei›fir›ingafjór›ungr Vestfir›ingafjór›ungr and Eyfir›inga- fjór›ungr Nor›lendingafjór›ungr. Most (but not all) scholars regard the word hundra›, ‘hundred’, used here as referring to the so-called ‘long’ or ‘duodecimal’ hundred (i.e. 120) rather than the ‘decimal’ hundred (i.e. 100) (cf. C–V 292–93; Gr 3.4.1). If this is right, then the total number of farmers who paid assembly attendance dues in Iceland was about 4,560, otherwise about 3,800. These figures have been used to calculate the total population of Iceland at the end of the eleventh century and have produced estimates as high as 80,000. ﬁingfararkaup was paid by every householder with means above a prescribed level if he or a proper substitute did not attend the General Assembly and was received by those who did attend (cf. HOIC 61; Laws II 366 and references; Björn ﬁorsteinsson 1987, 25).

56 The words en ﬂá haf›i Go›mundr ﬁorgeirssonr tólf sumur are probably not original to the second version of Íslendingabók, that is, they were very likely added to it later, either by Ari himself or by someone else. Cf. p. 101 above.

57 Hafli›i Másson (d. 1130) lived at Brei›abólssta›r (in modern Vestur- Húnavatnss‡sla). He was one of the most powerful chieftains of his time. His feud with ﬁorgils Oddason over the years 1117–21 is the subject of ﬁorgils saga ok Hafli›a, one of the sagas of the compilation known as Sturlunga saga (cf. p. 23 above). The text written at Brei›abólssta›r in the winter of 1117–18, referred to by modern scholars as ‘Hafli›askrá’, is mentioned in the Konungsbók version of Grágás, the laws of the Icelandic Commonwealth, where it is said that ‘everything in the book which Hafli›i had made is to be accepted unless it has since been modified, but only those things in the accounts given by other legal experts which do not contradict it, though anything in them which supplies what is left out there or is clearer is to be accepted’; cf. Laws I 190–91, 4–5, 9–16.

58 It was probably read out by clerics rather than the lawspeaker, Bergﬂórr, because the latter could not read. 124 VIII: Íslendingabók

59 It was at Hallr’s home in Haukadalr that Ari was brought up (cf. p. 99 above). Hallr has been referred to as ‘one of the main channels through which tradition flowed from ancient to medieval Iceland’ (Turville-Petre 1953, 89). He died at the age of ninety-four in 1089. Although he could neither read nor write, he had an excellent memory and could, for example, remember his baptism by the missionary ﬁangbrandr. He had been in the service of King Óláfr Haraldsson of Norway and was renowned for his good works.

60 Gizurr’s consecration was attended with certain difficulties. Gizurr would normally have been consecrated by the archbishop of Hamburg– Bremen, under whose authority the church in Iceland came. In the Investiture Controversy between the papacy and the German Empire (cf. DMA VI, 498–500 and references), however, the archbishop of the time, Liemarus, had allied himself with the Emperor (Henry IV) against Pope Gregory VII (see note 61 below) who had then suspended and excommunicated him (1074). Gizurr, who supported the Pope, was therefore forced to travel to visit Gregory to seek advice, and it was at his bidding that Gizurr was consecrated by archbishop Hartwig of Magdeburg (on 4th September 1082). It was partly these circumstances which were the cause of the relatively long interval between Ísleifr’s death (5th July 1080) and Gizurr’s consecration. Cf. HOIC 147.

61 Gregory VII (originally Hildebrand) is regarded as one of the great reforming popes of the Middle Ages. His letters attest to his concern for the fortunes of the Church in places as far apart as Spain, Norway and Hungary.

62 Jón ¯gmundarson was born about 1052 and was first bishop of Hólar from 1106 until his death in 1121. Hafli›i Másson may have been involved in the choice of Hólar as a suitable location for the centre of the northern see (cf. HOIC 153). As bishop, Jón established a school at Hólar and also planned the foundation of the first Icelandic monastery at ﬁingeyrar, though this was not established until 1133. He strove against the remnants of heathen practice and belief which were still alive in his diocese. For example, he forbade the naming of the days of the week after the pagan gods and this prohibition is reflected in present-day Icelandic (see XIV:79–82 below). The Alﬂingi VIII: Íslendingabók 125 officially endorsed the cult of Jón as a saint in 1200. See references in note 50 above.

63 quinto kalendas Junii is short for quinto die ante kalendas Junii, ‘the fifth day before the calends of June’. According to the Roman calendar, the calends (kalendae) of a month was its first day. The ordinal numeral quintus is inclusive, counting the days at both ends (i.e. the day referred to and the day of the calends). The date is, therefore, 28th May. The addition of the word quinto is made on the basis of Hungrvaka, a synoptic history of the early bishops of Iceland. On the Roman calendar, see e.g. Benjamin Hall Kennedy, The Revised Latin Primer, ed. and revised by James Mountford (1962), 215–17.

IX: ﬁRYMSKVI‹A

firymskvi›a, an eddic poem in which the god fiórr, disguised as the goddess Freyja, recovers his hammer from the giant firymr, who has refused to give it back unless he is granted Freyja in marriage, is preserved only in the Codex Regius of the Poetic Edda, GkS 2365 4to. This manuscript dates from the second half of the thirteenth century, but gives clear signs of having been copied from an older exemplar. Few scholars would now accept E. V. Gordon’s view (ION, 136) that firymskvi›a ‘was probably composed about 900’; compelling reasons have been adduced for regarding it as much younger than that, perhaps even from the first half of the thirteenth century. One of these is the fact that it departs occasionally from the traditional rules of Old Norse alliterative poetry; in its first two lines it uses end-rhyme, and in line 112, which echoes line 104, it appears to sacrifice alliteration for an effect of near-repetition. With its frequent use of repetition, indeed (most notably at lines 10, 35 and 45), it may show the influence of European ballad poetry, Scandinavian examples of which are not reliably attested until the thirteenth century. Furthermore, the fundamentally comic tone and subject-matter of firymskvi›a strongly suggest that, in the many cases where it shows close similarity of wording to other eddic poems, it is more likely to have been the borrower than the lender, since the contexts in which the relevant words occur in the other poems are mostly serious, and the borrowing of a serious passage for comic purposes in a poetic tradition is a more likely development than the reverse process. This at least suggests that firymskvi›a is relatively late among the surviving eddic poems, even if it does not tell us much about its precise date. Examples are firymskvi›a line 5 (repeated at lines 10, 35 and 45), which is word for word the same as the line in Brot af Sigur›arkvi›u (st. 6) introducing Gu›rún Gjúka- dóttir’s question to her brothers about the whereabouts of her husband Sigur›r, whom they have slain; firymskvi›a line 23 (echoed at line 25), which is identical with the sybil’s rhetorical question about the end of the world in Vƒluspá (st. 48); firymskvi›a lines 53–55, which are identical with the lines in Baldrs draumar (st. 1) describing the debate among the gods and goddesses as to the reason for Baldr’s ominous dreams; and firymskvi›a lines 108–09, which recall the description in Gu›rúnarkvi›a I (st. 27) of how Brynhildr Bu›ladóttir’s eyes flashed fire at the sight of Sigur›r’s dead body. In at least one 128 IX: firymskvi›a case, rather than placing a serious passage from an earlier eddic poem in a comic context, firymskvi›a may be building on a situation in such a poem where elements of comedy are already present. It is especially tempting, for example, to regard Loki’s words to fiórr in line 69, flegi flú, as an echo of Lokasenna, where the phrase occurs altogether sixteen times, and is four times used by fiórr in addressing Loki with the accompanying insult rƒg vættr ‘effeminate creature’ (Lokasenna, st. 57, 59, 61, 63); in firymskvi›a it is used by Loki in addressing fiórr at the very moment when fiórr is afraid of being accused of effeminacy himself, as a result of having to dress up as a bride. The comic tone of firymskvi›a does not in itself justify the view that the poem is of late, post-pagan date. ‘It does not follow that those who told humorous tales about the gods had ceased to believe in them’ (Turville-Petre 1953, 19). On the other hand, the fact that virtually no record is found outside firymskvi›a, either in Snorri Sturluson’s Prose Edda or elsewhere, of a myth of fiórr’s loss and recovery of his hammer, might suggest, together with the tone of the poem, that firymskvi›a was composed as a relatively late, comic, literary response to pre-Christian Scandinavian mythology, and that the story it tells was largely the product of literary invention. It was considerations of this kind that led Peter Hallberg (1954, 51– 77) to argue that Snorri Sturluson (died 1241) was the author of firymskvi›a. Snorri, with his vast knowledge of Old Norse mythology and poetry, would certainly have been well equipped to compose a convincing pastiche of a mythological eddic poem. In doing so in the case of firymskvi›a, according to Hallberg, Snorri invented the ‘myth’ of fiórr’s loss and recovery of his hammer, but was too conscientious a scholar to include any reference to it in his Prose Edda, which was intended as, among other things, a compendium of ancient myths. Tak- ing the view that Snorri was especially fascinated by the idea of an awe-inspiring glance of the eye, Hallberg compared lines 108–09 of firymskvi›a to the description of fiórr hooding his eyes in Gylfaginning 37/18–21 and to the description of King Eiríkr Bloodaxe’s piercing gaze in Arinbjarnarkvi›a (st. 5), a poem attributed in Egils saga Skalla- grímssonar, of which Hallberg believed Snorri was the author, to the tenth-century poet Egill Skallagrímsson, the saga’s hero (see ÍF II 259). It has recently been argued by Baldur Hafsta› (1994) that Snorri was the author of Arinbjarnarkvi›a itself, as well as of Egils saga. IX: firymskvi›a 129

This view, if it can be accepted, might lend some slight support to Hallberg’s argument. Those who wish to argue for a late date for firymskvi›a cannot afford to ignore (as Hallberg seems to do) the fact that it makes frequent use of the particle um (or of) before verbs, whether in the past tense (as in lines 2, 5, etc.), the past participle (as in lines 26, 81, 93, 128, etc.) or the infinitive (as in line 101, cf. line 109). In firymskvi›a this particle occurs in contexts where, in Primitive Norse, the verbs in question would have had a prefix; in the case of um komit, line 93, for example, the prefix would have been *ga-, cognate with the prefix ge- found in certain circumstances in verbs and other parts of speech in Old English and Modern German. Whereas in Old Norse, as the Glossary confirms, the of/um particle is meaningless, the prefixes it has replaced would in the prehistory of Old Norse have modified to a greater or lesser extent the senses of the words in which they occur; the prefix *ga-, for example, might have imparted a perfective aspect or perhaps the sense of ‘together’ to the verb in which it occurred, so that the primitive Norse equivalent of um komit in firymskvi›a line 93 might have meant ‘come together’, ‘assembled’. The fact that, from a historical-linguistic point of view, the of/um particle seems to be used ‘correctly’ in firymskvi›a, i.e. in positions where, in Primitive Norse, a prefix would have occurred, strongly suggests that the poem is considerably older than Hallberg (for example) would claim. On the other hand, while it is uncertain how knowledgeable Old Norse speakers were of ancient forms of their language (see Einar Ól. Sveinsson 1966, especially 38–42), the possibility that the firymskvi›a poet was using the particle as a deliberate means of archaising his style should not be discounted (though see Fidjestøl 1999, 228); and John McKinnell has recently argued (2000, 2, 14; 2001, 333, 335) that the poet has here been influenced by the use of the prefix ge- in late Old English verse. These considerations may not weigh heavily enough to allow for a date of as late as the thirteenth century for the composition of firymskvi›a, however, and Hallberg’s view that the poem dates from that century, and particularly his view that it was composed by Snorri Sturluson, should be treated with caution. 130 IX: firymskvi›a

Bibliography Stanza numbers of Eddic poems correspond to those in PE (1962). Beowulf and the Fight at Finnsburg, ed. Fr. Klaeber, 3rd ed. (1950). Margaret Clunies Ross, ‘Reading firymskvi›a’, in The Poetic Edda: Essays on Old Norse Mythology, ed. Paul Acker and Carolyne Larrington (2002), 177–94. Einar Ól. Sveinsson, ‘Kormakr the Poet and his Verses’, Saga-Book XVII:1 (1966), 18–60. Bjarne Fidjestøl, The Dating of Eddic Poetry: a Historical Survey and Meth- odological Investigation, ed. Odd Einar Haugen, Bibliotheca Arnamagnæana XLI (1999). John Frankis, ‘Sidelights on Post-Conquest Canterbury: towards a Context for an Old Norse Runic Charm (DR 419)’, Nottingham Medieval Studies 44 (2000), 1–27. Baldur Hafsta›, ‘Er Arinbjarnarkvi›a ungt kvæ›i?’ in Sagnafling helga› Jónasi Kristjánssyni sjötugum 10. apríl 1994, ed. Gísli Sigur›sson et al. (1994), 19–31. Peter Hallberg, ‘Om firymskvi›a’, Arkiv för nordisk filologi 69 (1954), 51–77. Hervarar saga ok Hei›reks, ed. G. Turville-Petre (1956). Jonna Louis-Jensen, ‘“Halt illu fran Bufa!” — til Tolkningen af Kvinneby- Amuletten fra Öland’, in Northern Lights: Following Folklore in North- Western Europe. Aistí in adhnó do Bho Almqvist: Essays in Honour of Bo Almqvist, ed. Séamas Ó Catháin et al. (2001), 111–26 (with English summary, p. 124). John McKinnell, ‘Myth as Therapy: the Usefulness of firymskvi›a’, Medium Ævum 69 (2000), 1–20. John McKinnell, ‘Eddic poetry in Anglo-Scandinavian Northern England’, ch. 19 in Vikings and the Danelaw. Select Papers from the Proceedings of the Thirteenth Viking Congress, Nottingham and York, 21–30 August 1997, ed. James Graham-Campbell et al. (2001), 327–44. Jón Karl Helgason, ‘“fiegi flú, fiórr!”: Gender, Class, and Discourse in firymskvi›a’, in Cold Counsel: Women in Old Norse Literature and Mytho- logy: a Collection of Essays, ed. Sarah M. Anderson with Karen Swenson (2002), 159–66. Preben Meulengracht Sørensen, The Unmanly Man: Concepts of Sexual Defa- mation in Early Northern Society, tr. Joan Turville-Petre (1983). Richard Perkins, ‘firymskvi›a, Stanza 20, and a Passage from Víglundar saga’, Saga-Book XXII:5 (1988), 279–84. Richard Perkins, ‘The Eyrarland Image: firymskvi›a, stanzas 30–31’, in Sagnafling helga› Jónasi Kristjánssyni sjötugum 10. apríl 1994, ed. Gísli Sigur›sson et al. (1994), 653–64. Folke Ström, Ní›, ergi and Old Norse Moral Attitudes, The Dorothea Coke Memorial Lecture in Northern Studies delivered at University College London 10 May 1973 (1974). IX: firymskvi›a 131

Sƒrla fláttr, in Fornaldarsögur Nor›urlanda, ed. Gu›ni Jónsson (1950), I 365–82. G. Turville-Petre, Origins of Icelandic literature (1953). fii›riks saga af Bern, ed. Henrik Bertelsen (1905–11). The notes below are highly selective. Entries for mythical and legendary figures and locations mentioned in the poem will be found in Rudolf Simek, Dictionary of Northern Mythology, tr. Angela Hall (1993), in Andy Orchard, Dictionary of Norse Myth and Legend (1997), and in John Lindow, Handbook of Norse Mythology (2001). Although it has entries for only the major mythological figures, much useful information, including an entry on firymskvi›a itself (by Alfred Jakobsen), will be found in MS. John Lindow’s descriptive bibliography, Scandinavian Mythology: an Annotated Bibliography, Garland Folklore Bibliographies 13 (1988), supplied as it is with a 90-page Index, will also be found helpful. Readers of German will find indispensable the commentary on firymskvi›a in Klaus von See et al., Kommentar zu den Liedern der Edda II: Götterlieder (Skírnismál, Hárbar›sljó›, Hymiskvi›a, Lokasenna, firymskvi›a) (1997), 508–75. 132 IX: firymskvi›a

IX: ﬁRYMSKVI‹A

Rei›r var flá Ving-fiórr er hann vakna›i ok síns hamars um sakna›i; 3 skegg nam at hrista, skƒr nam at d‡ja, ré› Jar›ar burr um at flreifask.

Ok hann ﬂat or›a alls fyrst um kva›: 6 ‘Heyr›u nú, Loki, hvat ek nú mæli, er engi veit jar›ar hvergi né upphimins: Áss er stolinn hamri!’

9 Gengu ﬂeir fagra Freyju túna, ok hann ﬂat or›a alls fyrst um kva›: ‘Muntu mér, Freyja, fja›rhams ljá,1 12 ef ek minn hamar mættak hitta?’

Freyja kva›: ‘fió mynda ek gefa flér, flótt ór gulli væri, 15 ok fló selja, at væri ór silfri.’

Fló ﬂá Loki, fja›rhamr dun›i, unz fyr útan kom Ása gar›a 18 ok fyr innan kom jƒtna heima.

ﬁrymr sat á haugi, ﬂursa dróttinn,2 greyjum sínum gullbƒnd snøri 21 ok mƒrum sínum mƒn jafna›i.

ﬁrymr kva›: ‘Hvat er me› Ásum? Hvat er me› álfum? 24 Hví ertu einn kominn í Jƒtunheima?’

‘Illt er me› Ásum, ‹illt er me› álfum›; hefir ﬂú Hlórri›a hamar um fólginn?’ IX: ﬁrymskvi›a 133

‘Ek hefi Hlórri›a hamar um fólginn 27 átta rƒstum fyr jƒr› ne›an; hann engi ma›r aptr um heimtir, nema fœri mér Freyju at kvæn.’ 30

Fló flá Loki, fja›rhamr dun›i, unz fyr útan kom jƒtna heima ok fyr innan kom Ása gar›a; 33 mœtti hann fiór mi›ra gar›a, ok flat hann or›a alls fyrst um kva›:

‘Hefir ﬂú erindi sem erfi›i? 36 Seg›u á lopti lƒng tí›indi; opt sitjanda sƒgur um fallask ok liggjandi lygi um bellir.’ 39

‘Hefi ek erfi›i ok ørindi; firymr hefir flinn hamar, flursa dróttinn; hann engi ma›r aptr um heimtir 42 nema hánum fœri Freyju at kván.’

Ganga fleir fagra Freyju at hitta, ok hann flat or›a alls fyrst um kva›: 45 ‘Bittu flik, Freyja, brú›ar líni. Vit skulum aka tvau í Jƒtunheima.’3

Rei› var› flá Freyja ok fnasa›i; 48 allr Ása salr undir bif›isk; stƒkk flat it mikla men Brísinga.4 ‘Mik veiztu ver›a vergjarnasta, 51 ef ek ek me› flér í Jƒtunheima.’

Senn váru Æsir allir á flingi ok Ásynjur allar á máli, 54 ok um flat ré›u ríkir tívar hvé fleir Hlórri›a hamar um sœtti.

32 ok unz R. 48 fnasasi R. 134 IX: ﬁrymskvi›a

57 fiá kva› flat Heimdallr, hvítastr Ása — vissi hann vel fram, sem Vanir a›rir5 — ‘Bindu vér fiór flá brú›ar líni; 60 hafi hann it mikla men Brísinga.

Látum und hánum hrynja lukla ok kvennvá›ir um kné falla, 63 en á brjósti brei›a steina, ok hagliga um hƒfu› typpum.’

fiá kva› flat fiórr, flrú›ugr Áss:6 66 ‘Mik munu Æsir argan7 kalla, ef ek bindask læt brú›ar líni.’

fiá kva› flat Loki Laufeyjar sonr: 69 ‘fiegi flú, fiórr,8 fleira or›a; flegar munu jƒtnar Ásgar› búa, nema flú flinn hamar flér um heimtir.’

72 Bundu fleir fiór flá brú›ar líni ok inu mikla meni Brísinga; létu und honum hrynja lukla, 75 ok kvennvá›ir um kné falla, en á brjósti brei›a steina, ok hagliga um hƒfu› typ›u.

78 fiá kva› flat Loki Laufeyjar sonr: ‘Mun ek ok me› flér ambótt vera; vit skulum aka tvau í Jƒtunheima.’9

81 Senn váru hafrar heim um reknir, skyndir at skƒklum, skyldu vel renna. Bjƒrg brotnu›u, brann jƒr› loga, 84 ók Ó›ins sonr í Jƒtunheima. IX: ﬁrymskvi›a 135

fiá kva› flat firymr, flursa dróttinn: ‘Standi› upp, jƒtnar, ok strái› bekki! Nú fœri› mér Freyju at kván, 87 Njar›ar dóttur ór Nóatúnum.

Ganga hér at gar›i gullhyrndar k‡r, øxn alsvartir jƒtni at gamni; 90 fjƒl› á ek mei›ma, fjƒl› á ek menja, einnar mér Freyju ávant ﬂykkir.’

Var flar at kveldi um komit snimma, 93 ok fyr jƒtna ƒl fram borit; einn át oxa, átta laxa, krásir allar flær er konur skyldu; 96 drakk Sifjar verr sáld flrjú mja›ar.

fiá kva› flat firymr, flursa dróttinn: ‘Hvar sáttu brú›ir bíta hvassara? 99 Sáka ek brú›ir bíta in brei›ara, né in meira mjƒ› mey um drekka.’

Sat in alsnotra ambótt fyrir, 102 er or› um fann vi› jƒtuns máli: ‘Át vætr Freyja átta nóttum, svá var hon ó›fús í Jƒtunheima.’ 105

Laut und línu, lysti at kyssa, en hann útan stƒkk endlangan sal. ‘Hví eru ƒndótt augu Freyju? 108 ﬁykki mér ór augum ‹eldr um› brenna.’

Sat in alsnotra ambótt fyrir, er or› um fann vi› jƒtuns máli: 111 ‘Svaf vætr Freyja átta nóttum, svá var hon ó›fús í Jƒtunheima.’ 136 IX: ﬁrymskvi›a

114 Inn kom in arma jƒtna systir,10 hin er brú›fjár11 bi›ja flor›i. ‘Láttu flér af hƒndum hringa rau›a, 117 ef flú ƒ›lask vill ástir mínar, ástir mínar, alla hylli.’

fiá kva› flat firymr, flursa dróttinn: 120 ‘Beri› inn hamar brú›i at vígja; leggi› Mjƒllni í meyjar kné; vígi› okkr saman Várar hendi.’12

123 Hló Hlórri›a hugr í brjósti er har›huga›r hamar um flek›i. firym drap hann fyrstan, flursa dróttinn, 126 ok ætt jƒtuns alla lam›i.

Drap hann ina ƒldnu jƒtna systur, hin er brú›fjár of be›it haf›i; 129 hon skell um hlaut fyr skillinga en hƒgg hamars fyr hringa fjƒl›. Svá kom Ó›ins sonr endr at hamri. IX: ﬁrymskvi›a 137

Notes 1 fja›rhams: what seems to be involved here is a flying suit which can be worn without the wearer himself (or herself) changing into the form of a bird. While the motif of transformation into a bird for purposes of flight is common enough in Old Norse mythology and elsewhere, the idea of a detachable and transferable flying apparatus is relatively rarely attested. See McKinnell 2000, 2, 14, and McKinnell 2001, 335–36. ljá: if four is taken as the minimum number of syllables per half- line in the metre to which ﬁrymskvi›a conforms, i.e. fornyr›islag (cf. ION §180), the monosyllable ljá, following here the disyllable fja›rhams, means that the half-line in which it occurs is of the ‘short’ type, having only three syllables. Such ‘short types’ are also known as ‘reduced’ half-lines (see ION §178), since they reflect a reduction in syllable number resulting from various sound changes that took place in the course of the development of Old Norse from Primitive Norse. While reduced half-lines were apparently regarded as ‘permissible variants’, there can be little doubt that the metre of the poem would have sounded more regular if, in this line, the older (disyllabic) form léa had been employed in recitation. This consideration may be used together with the one involving the of/um particle (see the introduction above) as an argument either for the poem’s antiquity or, alternatively, for the view that the poet was making deliberate use of archaism. See also the notes to lines 65, 69 and 115 below.

2 firymr sat á haugi: E. V. Gordon, in his note to this line (ION, 241), emphasises the royal and chieftainly associations of mounds. It may also be worth noting here that in the eddic poem Hlƒ›skvi›a (PE 302– 12), st. 14, Hlƒ›r, the illegitimate son of King Hei›rekr, is referred to as sitting on a mound by one of the other characters in the poem in what appears to be a disparaging statement; this at any rate was the view of G. Turville-Petre, who in commenting on this stanza acknowledged that a king’s authority might be symbolised by his sitting on a mound, but mainly emphasised that ‘it was the practice of herdsmen to watch their stock from a mound, and there was no trade more deeply despised than that of the herdsman’ (see Hervarar saga ok Hei›reks 1956, 87). flursa dróttinn: this phrase, which is repeated in lines 41, 85, 98, 119 and 125, also occurs in the Canterbury and Sigtuna runic charms, 138 IX: firymskvi›a dating probably from the eleventh and tenth centuries respectively, where it is used in each case as a hostile term of address with reference to the disease or infection against which the charm is directed. On these see John Frankis 2000 and Jonna Louis-Jensen 2001. On the possible significance of this usage for the interpretation of firymskvi›a, see note 12 below.

3 It is not clear whether it is fiórr or Loki who is speaking here. For a compelling argument that it is fiórr, see Perkins 1988. The view that it is fiórr is apparently also accepted by McKinnell 2000, 5; see further note 9 below.

4 men Brísinga: Freyja’s necklace. From parts of Snorri’s Skáldskapar- mál for which Snorri cites as sources the poems Húsdrápa and Haustlƒng, by Úlfr Uggason (tenth century) and fijó›ólfr of Hvinir (ninth century) respectively, it is possible to piece together a story of how Loki stole the Brísingamen from Freyja and how the god Heimdallr recovered it after he and Loki had contended for it in the form of seals (see SnE, Skáldskaparmál 19–20, 32). The anonymous fourteenth- century Sƒrla fláttr tells how Freyja obtained a necklace as a result of sleeping in turn with each of the four dwarves who made it; how Loki stole this necklace at Ó›inn’s request by biting Freyja in the form of a flea while she was asleep, thus causing her to move so that he could unclasp it from her neck; and how Ó›inn returned the necklace to Freyja after she had undertaken to start a fight between two kings that would constantly renew itself until a Christian warrior should intervene and kill them (this is the battle known as Hja›ningavíg, of which Snorri gives an account, also in SnE, Skáldskaparmál 72–73). The Brísinga men of Old Norse sources may or may not be identical with the Brosinga mene of Beowulf, line 1199, which according to that poem (lines 1197–1201) was carried off to a ‘bright stronghold’ by one Hama, who was escaping the hostility of Eormenric, and who ‘chose eternal gain’ (see Beowulf and the Fight at Finnsburg 1950, 45, 177–79). This story has an analogue in the mid-thirteenth-century Norwegian fii›riks saga af Bern, based on Low German sources. fii›riks saga does not mention any Brísinga men, but tells in chs 345 and 430 how Heimir (cf. Hama) was forced to flee the enmity of Erminrikr (cf. Eormenric) and entered a monastery, bringing with him, among other IX: firymskvi›a 139 things, ten pounds’ worth of movable property (fii›riks saga af Bern, 1905–11, II 176–77, 375–77). For the view that in firymskvi›a the Brísingamen is a symbol of female sexuality, corresponding to the hammer as a symbol of male sexuality, see McKinnell 2000, 3–7, and cf. note 12 below.

5 sem Vanir a›rir: the natural meaning of these words is ‘like other Vanir’, but since Heimdallr was one of the Æsir, not one of the Vanir, as the preceding line confirms, this half-line might perhaps be translated ‘like those others, the Vanir’. But if the poem was written in Christian times, the lines may reflect the confusion of the author about the categories of Norse mythology.

6 ﬂrú›ugr Áss: another ‘reduced’ half-line of only three syllables, where an older, disyllabic form of Áss (cf. Primitive Norse *ansuR) would have allowed perfect metrical regularity; cf. note 1 above.

7 argan: for valuable studies of what is conveyed by this adjective in Old Norse, see Ström 1974, and Meulengracht Sørensen 1983.

8 flegi flú, fiórr: since the two syllables of flegi are ‘resolved’, counting metrically as one (see ION §177), this amounts to another ‘reduced’ half-line of only three syllables, in which an older, disyllabic form of fiórr (cf. Primitive Norse *flunraR) would have allowed perfect metrical regularity; cf. note 1 above.

9 Note the exact repetition here of line 47. There the use of the neuter plural form tvau, which would be expected where the two referred to are of different sexes, is plainly justified by the fact that a god (whether fiórr or Loki, cf. note 3 above), is addressing a goddess, Freyja. Here, however, the god Loki is addressing another god, fiórr. As McKinnell (2000, 5) points out, the use of tvau here has usually been interpreted in terms of gender role, i.e. as mockery of fiórr, with Loki addressing fiórr as a woman now that he is dressed like one; this is clearly the view of Perkins (1988, 282, 284). McKinnell (2000, 5–6) argues interestingly that it is to be explained rather in terms of Loki literally turning into a female, and fiórr, though disguised as a female, actually remaining male. 140 IX: firymskvi›a

10 jƒtna systir, here and in line 127, may be just a kenning for ‘troll- wife’ rather than meaning literally ‘giants’ sister’.

11 hin er brú›fjár (cf. also line 128): since hin er might very well have been pronounced as one syllable (with substitution of older es for er permitting the elided form hin’s), this (like the identical first half of line 128) is probably to be taken as a metrically ‘reduced’ half-line, in which the older, disyllabic element -féar (as opposed to the monosyllabic -fjár) in brú›fjár would have allowed perfect metrical regularity; cf. note 1 above.

12 Richard Perkins (1994) argues that fiórr’s hammer is a phallic symbol, and that the placing of a hammer in the bride’s lap was a feature of pagan Scandinavian wedding ceremonies. His view that firymskvi›a is about the loss and recovery of fiórr’s virility may be interestingly compared with McKinnell’s view (2000) of the poem in terms of Jung- ian psychology as being about the male fear of lost manhood (symbolised by the stolen hammer) and the female fear of male betrayal (symbolised by the broken necklace), cf. note 4 above. Frankis (2000, 2–5), on the other hand, suggests that the verb vígja ‘to bless’ as used in line 122 may carry with it something of the sense of ‘consign to perdition’, in which, he believes, the same verb is used in the Canter- bury runic charm, where the object of the verb, flik, has the same referent as the phrase flursa dróttinn (cf. firymskvi›a, lines 19, 41, 85, 98, 119 and 125), which immediately follows it, and which evidently refers to the blood-poisoning against which the charm is directed. In this view, fiórr’s recovery of his hammer and his use of it to destroy firymr immediately afterwards would presumably symbolise recovery from, or the successful treatment of, some kind of medical condition. Vár, according to SnE, Gylfaginning 29/36–38, ‘listens to people’s oaths and private agreements that women and men make between each other. Thus these contracts are called várar. She also punishes those who break them.’ X: V¯LUNDARKVI‹A

Vƒlundarkvi›a, which immediately follows firymskvi›a in the Codex Regius, has long been regarded as one of the oldest eddic poems, i.e. as dating from the ninth century. A recent argument that it shows the influence of late Old English verse (see McKinnell 2001, 331–35), however, implies a date of composition in the tenth century or even later. It tells how Vƒlundr and his two brothers meet and marry three swan-maidens, who after nine years fly away and leave them. While two of the brothers, Egill and Slagfi›r, go in search of their wives, Vƒlundr stays behind, working at the craft of ring-making, and hoping for his wife’s return. He is then robbed by King Ní›u›r of one of the rings he has made, is captured by him and hamstrung, and forced to serve him as a smith. After discovering that the stolen ring has been given to the king’s daughter, Bƒ›vildr, Vƒlundr takes revenge, first by beheading the king’s two young sons and presenting their parents and Bƒ›vildr with some bowls, gems and brooches made from the boys’ skulls, eyes and teeth respectively; and secondly by seducing Bƒ›vildr, after assuring her that he will repair the ring, the breaking of which she has feared to reveal to anyone but him. Able now to fly, Vƒlundr responds from the air to a question from Ní›u›r about the fate of his two sons by first enjoining him to swear not to harm the woman by whom he, Vƒlundr, may have a child, and then telling him how he has disposed of the two princes, and that Bƒ›vildr is pregnant. He flies off, leaving the distraught Ní›u›r to hear from Bƒ›vildr herself about the nature of her relations with Vƒlundr. This story finds a lengthy parallel in that of Velent (= Vƒlundr), which forms part of fii›reks saga af Bern, a thirteenth-century Old Norse prose presentation of what are mainly German narrative traditions. Velent, the son of the giant Va›i, is trained in smithcraft by two dwarves, of whose intention to kill him, however, he learns from his father before the latter’s death. Velent kills the dwarves and takes possession of their tools and precious metal. He builds a kind of sub- marine by hollowing out a tree-trunk and fitting it with glass windows, and arrives in this vessel in the realm of King Ní›ungr, whose service he enters and who at first treats him well. The king’s smith, Amilias, challenges him to make a sword that will cut through some armour that Amilias himself undertakes to make. Taking up the challenge, and dissatisfied with the first sword he makes, Velent reduces it to 142 X: Vƒlundarkvi›a dust by filing, feeds the file-dust to some poultry, and makes another sword from the birds’ droppings. Still not fully satisfied, he follows the same procedure with the second sword, thus making a third, which he calls Mímungr. With Mímungr, he cuts through Amilias’s armour and kills him, in accordance with the terms of the challenge. He replaces him as the king’s smith, and becomes famous as such. His fortunes then change, however. King Ní›ungr, marching to meet an invading army, realises after five days’ march that he has not brought with him his victory stone, and fears defeat as a result. He promises his daughter and half his kingdom to the man who can bring him the stone by the following morning, and Velent, the only one to undertake the task, manages by riding on his horse Skemmingr to fetch the stone on time. On his return, however, the king’s steward attempts to bribe Velent into giving him the stone so that he, rather than Velent, can claim the king’s reward, whereupon Velent kills the steward. He conveys the stone to the king, whose victory is thus assured, but the king, angered by the killing of the steward, who had been his favourite retainer, makes Velent an outlaw. Velent then tries to take revenge on the king by poisoning him, but is foiled in the attempt, and is punished for it by having tendons cut in both his legs, so that he is unable to walk. He adjusts to this situation by feigning willingness to comply with the king’s requirement that he resume work as his smith. When two of the king’s three sons ask him to make missiles for them he says that they must first visit him walking backwards soon after a fall of snow, which they do the next day after snow has fallen in the night. Velent kills them, and makes various items of household equipment for the king from their bones, including cups from their skulls. When the king’s daughter breaks her finest ring (not one of Velent’s in this account) and fears to admit it to her parents, Velent tells her maid that the princess herself must visit him before he will repair it. When she does so, he locks her in the smithy with him and has intercourse with her. Hav- ing sent for his brother Egill, a skilled archer, Velent obtains from him the feathers of some birds he has shot, and uses them to make a feather- costume, which enables him to fly. In it he flies onto a tower, from which he reveals to Ní›ungr what he has done with his sons’ bones, and taunts him with the likelihood that he has made his daughter pregnant. He then flies off. The king orders Egill on pain of death to shoot at Velent, but Egill aims deliberately at Velent’s left armpit, knowing X: Vƒlundarkvi›a 143 that Velent has secreted there a bladder filled with the blood of the king’s slain sons. He punctures the bladder, and Ní›ungr, seeing the blood, believes Velent dead. When Ní›ungr dies soon afterwards, his surviving son succeeds him, and Velent establishes friendly relations with him and marries his sister, who by now has given birth to Velent’s son, Vi›ga, to whom Velent passes on in due course the sword Mímungr and a shield on which a golden serpent is depicted. While there are obviously close similarities between these two accounts, the differences between them make it safest to assume a common source for them both, rather than a direct relationship between them. Echoes of the story they tell are found in various Old English poems: in Deor, where Welund (= Vƒlundr, Velent) and Beadohild (= Bƒ›vildr) are dwelt on as examples of patience under suffering — Welund because of his subjection to bondage by Ni›had (= Ní›u›r), and Beadohild because her discovery that she was pregnant caused her even more distress than the death of her brothers; in Waldere, where Weland’s (sic) skills as a smith are praised, and from which it emerges that fieodric (= fii›rikr) intended to give Widia (= Vi›ga), the grandson of Ni›had and son of Weland, the sword Mimming (= Mímungr), because he, Widia, had once saved fieodric; and in Beowulf, where a fine battle-dress is described as ‘the work of Weland’. In a verse passage in King Alfred’s Old English translation of Boethius’s De consolatione Philosophiae reference is made to ‘the bones of the wise Weland, that goldsmith who was long ago most famous’; and in the medieval German Latin poem Waltharius there is mention of a coat of mail made by Weland, Wielandia fabrica, that shields Waltharius (= Waldere) from his attackers. Pictorial representations of the story are found in carvings on the whalebone casket of Northumbrian origin known as the Franks casket, dated to c.700, and preserved in the Brit- ish Museum; on the picture stone Ardre VIII, dated c.800, on the Swed- ish island of Gotland; and in stone carvings from northern England dating from the ninth and tenth centuries, found variously on a hogback tomb preserved fragmentarily in Bedale Church, North Yorkshire, and on stone crosses preserved, more or less fragmentarily, in the Parish Church and the City Museum of Leeds, West Yorkshire, and in Sherburn Church, near Filey, North Yorkshire. Weland and Wade (= Va›i) have come to be associated through local legend with specific places in England, Denmark, and Germany; and Chaucer twice mentions Wade, 144 X: Vƒlundarkvi›a once in Troilus and Criseyde and once in The Canterbury Tales, referring in the latter instance, in the Merchant’s Tale, to ‘Wades boot’ (Wade’s boat) in a context of ‘muchel craft’ — an allusion, surely, to the underwater boat made, according to fii›riks saga, by Velent, son of Va›i. This list of reflexes of the story is by no means exhaustive.

Bibliography Ásgeir Blöndal Magnússon, ‘Um ögurstund’, in Sjötíu ritger›ir helga›ar Jakobi Benediktssyni 20. júlí 1977, 2 vols, ed. Einar G. Pétursson and Jónas Kristjánsson (1977), I 20–29. Finn Hødnebø, Ordbog over Det gamle norske Sprog af Dr. Johan Fritzner: rettelser og tillegg (= vol. IV of the four-volume 4th edition of Fritzner’s dictionary, published in 1973) (1972). Hans Kuhn, Edda: die Lieder des Codex Regius nebst verwandten Denkmälern, herausgegeben von Gustav Neckel: II. Kurzes Wörterbuch, 3rd revised edition of Neckel’s Kommentierendes Glossar (1968). Beatrice La Farge and John Tucker, Glossary to the Poetic Edda: based on Hans Kuhn’s Kurzes Wörterbuch (1992). Alec McGuire and Ann Clark, The Leeds Crosses. Drawings by Peter Brears (1987). John McKinnell, ‘Eddic Poetry in Anglo-Scandinavian Northern England’, ch. 19 in Vikings and the Danelaw: Select Papers from the Proceedings of the Thirteenth Viking Congress, Nottingham and York, 21–30 August 1997, ed. James Graham-Campbell et al. (2001), 327–44. John McKinnell, ‘The context of Vƒlundarkvi›a’, in The Poetic Edda: Essays on Old Norse Mythology, ed. Paul Acker and Carolyne Larrington (2002), 195–212. The Poetic Edda II: Mythological Poems, ed. Ursula Dronke (1997), 239–328. Paul Beekman Taylor, ‘Vƒlundarkvi›a’, in MS, 711–13. Tvær kvi›ur fornar: Völundarkvi›a og Atlakvi›a me› sk‡ringum, ed. Jón Helgason (1966). ﬁi›riks saga af Bern, ed. Henrik Bertelsen, 2 vols (1905–11), I lxxvi–viii, 73–139. ﬁorgils saga ok Hafli›a, ed. Ursula Brown (1952).

The notes below are more selective than in the case of ﬁrymskvi›a. Exhaus- tive notes on Vƒlundarkvi›a will be found in Dronke’s edition (in The Poetic Edda II (1997) and (in Icelandic) in that of Jón Helgason (Tvær kvi›ur fornar (1966)), both listed in the Bibliography above. Entries on ‘Völund’ and ‘Völundarkvida’ (sic) will be found in Andy Orchard’s Dictionary of Norse Myth and Legend (1997), and reference may also be made to John Lindow’s Scandinavian Mythology: an Annotated Bibliography, Garland Folklore Biblio- graphies 13 (1988). X: Vƒlundarkvi›a 145

X: V¯LUNDARKVI‹A

Frá Vƒlundi Ní›u›r hét konungr í Svífljó›. Hann átti tvá sonu ok eina dóttur; hon hét Bƒ›vildr. Brœ›r ‹váru› flrír, synir Finnakonungs. Hét einn 3 Slagfi›r, annarr Egill, flri›i Vƒlundr. fieir skri›u ok veiddu d‡r. fieir kvámu í Úlfdali ok ger›u sér flar hús. fiar er vatn er heitir Úlfsjár. Snemma of morgin fundu fleir á vatnsstrƒndu konur flrjár, 6 ok spunnu lín. fiar váru hjá fleim álptahamir fleira. fiat váru valkyrjur. fiar váru tvær dœtr ‹H›lƒ›vés konungs, Hla›gu›r svanhvít ok Hervƒr alvitr. En flri›ja var ¯lrún, Kíars dóttir af Vallandi. fieir 9 hƒf›u flær heim til skála me› sér. Fekk Egill ¯lrúnar, en Slagfi›r Svanhvítar, en Vƒlund‹r› Alvitrar. fiau bjuggu sjau vetr. fiá flugu flær at vitja víga ok kvámu eigi aptr. fiá skrei› Egill at leita ¯lrúnar, 12 en Slagfi›r leita›i Svanhvítar, en Vƒlundr sat í Úlfdƒlum. Hann var hagastr ma›r, svá at menn viti, í fornum sƒgum. Ní›u›r konungr lét hann hƒndum taka, svá sem hér er um kve›it. 15

Frá Vƒlundi ok Ní›a›i Meyjar flugu sunnan, myrkvi› í gƒgnum, Alvitr unga, ørlƒg dr‡gja; 18 ﬂær á sævar strƒnd settusk at hvílask, drósir su›rœnar, d‡rt lín spunnu.

Ein nam fleira Egil at verja, 21 fƒgr mær fira, fa›mi ljósum; ƒnnur var Svanhvít, svanfja›rar dró; en in flri›ja, fleira systir, 24 var›i hvítan háls Vƒlundar.

Sátu sí›an sjau vetr at ﬂat, en inn átta allan ﬂrá›u, 27 en enn níunda nau›r um skil›i; meyjar f‡stusk á myrkvan vi›, Alvitr unga, ørlƒg dr‡gja. 30

11, 13 Svanhvítrar CR. 25 ¯nundar CR. 146 X: Vƒlundarkvi›a

Kom ﬂar af vei›i ve›reygr skyti; Slagfi›r ok Egill sali fundu au›a; 33 gengu út ok inn ok um sásk. Austr skrei› Egill at ¯lrúnu, en su›r Slagfi›r at Svanhvítu.

36 En einn Vƒlundr sat í Úlfdƒlum; Hann sló gull rautt vi› gimfastan,1 luk›i hann alla lindbauga vel; 39 svá bei› hann sinnar ljós‹s›ar kvánar, ef hánum koma ger›i.

ﬁat spyrr Ní›u›r, Níara dróttinn, 42 at einn Vƒlundr sat í Úlfdƒlum; nóttum fóru seg‹g›ir, negldar váru brynjur, skildir bliku ﬂeira vi› inn skar›a mána.

45 Stigu ór sƒ›lum at salar gafli, gengu inn ﬂa›an endlangan sal; sá ﬂeir á bast bauga dregna, 48 sjau hundru› allra, er sá seggr átti.

Ok fleir af tóku, ok fleir á létu, fyr einn útan, er fleir af létu.

51 Kom flar af vei›i ve›reygr skyti, Vƒlundr, lí›andi um langan veg. Gekk brúnni beru hold steikja; 54 hár brann hrísi, allflur‹r› fura, vi›r enn vin‹d›flurri, fyr Vƒlundi.

Sat á berfjalli, bauga tal›i, 57 álfa ljó›i, eins sakna›i; hug›i hann at hef›i Hlƒ›vés dóttir, Alvitr unga, væri hon aptr komin.

31 vegreygr CR. 34 skrei›r CR. 43 váru CR. X: Vƒlundarkvi›a 147

Sat hann svá lengi at hann sofna›i, 60 ok hann vakna›i vilja lauss; vissi sér á hƒndum hƒfgar nau›ir, en á fótum fjƒtur um spenntan. 63

‘Hverir ro jƒfrar, ﬂeir er á lƒg›u bestibyrsíma2 ok mik bundu?’

Kalla›i nú Ní›u›r, Níara dróttinn: 66 ‘Hvar gaztu, Vƒlundr, vísi álfa, vára aura í Úlfdƒlum?’

‘Gull var ﬂar eigi á Grana3 lei›u, 69 fjarri hug›a ek várt land fjƒllum Rínar; man ek at vér meiri mæti áttum, er vér heil hjú heima várum. 72

‘Hla›gu›r ok Hervƒr borin var Hlƒ›vé, kunn var ¯lrún, Kíars dóttir.’

Hon inn um gekk ennlangan sal, 75 stó› á gólfi, stillti rƒddu: ‘Era sá nú h‡rr, er ór holti ferr.’

Ní›u›r konungr gaf dóttur sinni Bƒ›vildi gull‹h›ring ﬂann er hann 78 tók af bastinu at Vƒlundar. En hann sjálfr bar sver›it er Vƒlundr átti. En dróttning kva›:

‘Tenn hánum teygjask, er hánum er tét sver› 81 ok hann Bƒ›vildar baug um ﬂekkir; ámun eru augu ormi ﬂeim enum frána; sní›i› ér hann sina magni 84 ok seti› hann sí›an í sævar stƒ›.’4

Svá var gƒrt, at skornar váru sinar í knésfótum, ok settr í hólm einn er ﬂar var fyrir landi, er hét Sævarsta›r.5 ﬁar smí›a›i hann konungi 87

83 amon CR. 85 setti› CR. 148 X: Vƒlundarkvi›a

alls kyns gørsimar. Engi ma›r flor›i at fara til hans nema konungr einn. 90 Vƒlundr kva›: ‘Skínn Ní›a›i sver› á linda, flat er ek hvesta, sem ek hagast kunna, 93 ok ek her›ak sem mér hœgst flótti: sá er mér, frán‹n› mækir, æ fjarri borinn; sékka ek flann Vƒlundi til smi›ju borinn. 96 Nú berr Bƒ›vildr brú›ar minnar — bí›ka ek fless bót — bauga rau›a.’

Sat hann, né hann svaf, ávalt, ok hann sló hamri; 99 vél gør›i hann heldr hvatt Ní›a›i.

Drifu ungir tveir á d‡r sjá, synir Ní›a›ar, í sævar stƒ›.

102 Kómu fleir til kistu, krƒf›u lukla, opin var illú›, er fleir í sá; fjƒl› var flar menja, er fleim mƒgum s‡ndisk 105 at væri gull rautt ok gørsimar.

‘Komi› einir tveir, komi› annars dags! Ykkr læt ek ﬂat gull um gefit ver›a. 108 Segi›a meyjum né salﬂjó›um, manni øngum, at it mik fyndi›.’

Snemma kalla›‹i› seggr ‹á› annan, 111 Bró›ir á bró›ur: ‘Gƒngum baug sjá!’

Kómu til kistu, krƒf›u lukla, opin var illú›, er fleir í litu. 114 Snei› af hƒfu› húna fleira, ok undir fen fjƒturs fœtr um lag›i; en flær skálar, er und skƒrum váru, 117 sveip hann útan silfri, seldi Ní›a›i.

92 hagazt CR. 115 log›i CR. X: Vƒlundarkvi›a 149

En ór augum jarknasteina sendi hann kunnigri konu Ní›a›ar; en ór tƒnnum tveggja ﬂeira 120 sló hann brjóstkringlur, sendi Bƒ›vildi.

fiá nam Bƒ›vildr baugi at hrósa, er brotit haf›i: 123 ‘fioriga ek at segja, nema flér einum.’

Vƒlundr kva›:

‘Ek bœti svá brest á gulli, 126 at fe›r flínum fegri flykkir, ok mœ›r flinni miklu betri, ok sjálfri flér at sama hófi.’ 129

Bar hann hana bjóri, ﬂví at hann betr kunni, svá at hon í sessi um sofna›i. ‘Nú hefi ek hefnt harma minna, 132 allra nema einna ívi›gjarnra.

‘Vel ek,’ kva› Vƒlundr, ‘ver›a ek á fitjum6 ﬂeim er mik Ní›a›ar námu rekkar.’ 135 Hlæjandi Vƒlundr hófsk at lopti. Grátandi Bƒ›vildr gekk ór eyju, treg›i fƒr fri›ils ok fƒ›ur rei›i. 138

Úti stendr kunnig kván Ní›a›ar, ok hon inn um gekk endlangan sal; en hann á salgar› settisk at hvílask: 141 ‘Vakir ﬂú, Ní›u›r, Níara dróttinn?’

‘Vaki ek ávalt, vilja laus‹s›, sofna ek minnst sízt mína sonu dau›a; 144 kell mik í hƒfu›, kƒld eru mér rá› ﬂín, vilnumk ek ﬂess nú, at ek vi› Vƒlund dœma.

133 ívi›gjarira CR. 143 vilja ek CR. 150 X: Vƒlundarkvi›a

147 ‘Seg ﬂú mér ﬂat, Vƒlundr, vísi álfa: af heilum hvat var› húnum mínum?’

‘Ei›a skaltu mér á›r alla vinna, 150 at skips bor›i ok at skjaldar rƒnd, at mars bœgi ok at mækis egg, at flú kveljat kván Vƒlundar, 153 né brú›i minni at bana ver›ir, flótt vér kván e‹i›gim, flá er flér kunni›, e›‹a› jó› eigim innan hallar.

156 ‘Gakk flú til smi›ju fleirar er flú gør›ir, flar fi›r flú belgi bló›i stokkna. Snei› ek af hƒfu› húna flinna, 159 ok undir fen fjƒturs fœtr um lag›ak.

‘En ﬂær skálar, er und skƒrum váru, sveip ek útan silfri, senda ek Ní›a›i; 162 en ór augum jarknasteina senda ek kunnigri kván Ní›a›ar.

‘En ór tƒnnum tveggja ﬂeira 165 sló ek brjóstkringlur, senda ek Bƒ›vildi; nú gengr Bƒ›vildr barni aukin, eingadóttir ykkur beggja.’

168 ‘Mæltira flú flat mál er mik meirr tregi, né ek flik vilja, Vƒlundr, verr um níta; erat svá ma›r hár at flik af hesti taki, 171 né svá ƒflugr at flik ne›an skjóti, flar er flú skollir vi› sk‡ uppi.’

Hlæjandi Vƒlundr hófsk at lopti, 174 En ókátr Ní›u›r sat ﬂá eptir.

148 sonum CR. X: Vƒlundarkvi›a 151

‘Upp rístu, fiak‹k›rá›r, flræll minn inn bezti, bi› flú Bƒ›vildi, meyna bráhvítu, ganga fagrvari› vi› fƒ›ur rœ›a.’ 177

‘Er ﬂat satt, Bƒ›vildr, er sƒg›u mér: sátu› it Vƒlundr saman í hólmi?’

‘Satt er ﬂat, Ní›a›r, er sag›i ﬂér: 180 sátu vit Vƒlundr saman í hólmi eina ƒgurstund7 — æva skyldi! Ek vætr hánum ‹vinna› kunnak, 183 ek vætr hánum vinna máttak.’ 152 X: Vƒlundarkvi›a

Notes

1 vi› gimfastan: the Codex Regius here has vi› gimfástaN. La Farge and Tucker (1992, 85), following Hans Kuhn (1968, 75), understand gimfastan as the masculine accusative singular of a compound adjective gimfastr ‘fireproof’, formed from gim, n., a poetic word for ‘fire’, and from the adjective fastr, meaning ‘fast’ in the sense of ‘firm’, ‘fixed’. On this basis they take gimfastan to refer here to the fireproof quality of an anvil, a suggestion which involves assuming the implicit presence in the sentence of the noun ste›i, m., ‘anvil’ in its accusative singular form, ste›ja. The phrase vi› gimfastan ‹ste›ja› would thus mean ‘on a fireproof anvil’. Another possible reading is vi› gim fastan, which would involve taking gim as the accusative singular of a masculine noun *gimr ‘gem’, which is not otherwise attested in Old Norse (where, however, the compound gimsteinn, m. ‘precious stone’ is found). Since gim, m., is the usual Old English word for ‘gem’, ‘jewel’, McKinnell (2001, 331), who adopts this reading, sees gim here as one example of Old English influence on Vƒlundarkvi›a. The meaning of the phrase, in this reading, would be ‘round the firmly-held gem’ (cf. also The Poetic Edda II, ed. U. Dronke (1997), 245, 308). A third possibility is to read vi› gim fástan, with gim taken once again as the accusative singular of a masculine noun meaning ‘gem’ and as quali- fied by fástan, the masculine accusative singular of the superlative form, fástr, of the adjective fár (found most often in compounds such as dreyrfár ‘blood-coloured’), meaning ‘multicoloured’ or ‘highly coloured’, ‘bright’. This reading, which would give the meaning ‘round the brightest (of) gem(s)’, is the one adopted in Jón Helgason’s edition, Tvær kvi›ur fornar (1966), 59. Of these three possibilities, it is the first that is favoured here.

2 bestibyrsíma: previous commentators have found the element -byr- problematic, and have preferred to discount it by emending to bestisíma, taking -síma as the accusative singular of sími, m., ‘rope’, ‘cord’, ‘bond’ (or of síma, n., ‘thread’), and as forming together with besti, n., ‘bast’, ‘bark-fibre’ (= bast, n., cf. line 47) a compound noun bestisími, m. (or bestisíma, n.), meaning ‘bast rope’, ‘cord made of bark-fibre’. It may be noted, however, that Hødnebø (1972, 67), gives under byrr, m. (‘fair wind [for sailing]’, ‘favourable wind’), the phrase binda byr vi› X: Vƒlundarkvi›a 153 as meaning ‘to delay’, ‘hold back’, though it is not clear from the example he gives whether these meanings are to be understood in a transitive or intransitive sense: ‘bundu eigi lengi sí›an byr vi› ok ri›u aptr sí›an skyndiliga.’ What seems to emerge from this example (which is from ﬁorgils saga ok Hafli›a, cf. the edition of Ursula Brown (1952, 37, 89)) is that the phrase means ‘to restrict (or tie) one’s time of departure to (the opportunity afforded by) a fair wind’, i.e. to delay or postpone a projected journey until such time as conditions are favourable. If the phrase may be taken as indicating that the noun byrr had associations of delay or restraint (as well as of auspiciousness), it is conceivable that byrsími, m., or byrsíma, n., might be interpreted as meaning ‘a rope or cord used for the purpose of (temporarily) restraining someone’, i.e. for tying someone up (until the time is ripe for his or her release). On this basis it may be very tentatively suggested that what is present here is the accusative singular of either bestibyrsími, m., or bestibyrsíma, n., meaning ‘a restrictive rope or cord made of bast or bark-fibre’.

3 Grana: Grani was the horse ridden by Sigur›r Fáfnisbani (see the introduction to IV, above), and used by him for, among other things, transporting the gold he won as a result of slaying the dragon Fáfnir; see PE, 188. Grana lei› ‘Grani’s path’ therefore presumably means Gnitahei›r (PE 180), which together with the mention of the mountains of the Rhine in the next line suggests that there has been some contamination of the story of Vƒlundr with that of Sigur›r.

4 sævar stƒ›: ‘landing place by the sea’. The landing place in question seems to have been on an island, to judge from the phrases ór eyju and í hólmi, the former occurring in line 137 and the latter in lines 179, 181. Although sær can mean ‘lake’ as well as ‘sea’, the latter meaning seems the more likely one in the present context, in view of the possible tidal connotations of the word ƒgurstund, see the note on that word below. The writer of the prose narrative accompanying Vƒlundarkvi›a in the Codex Regius has clearly understood the expression sævar stƒ› as a place-name (see note 7, below), and as the name of an island, see lines 86-87.

5 Here the expression sævar stƒ› (see the previous note) appears to 154 X: Vƒlundarkvi›a have been understood as a place-name, with the noun stƒ›, f., ‘landing place’, ‘place where boats are beached’, being replaced by the noun sta›r, m. ‘place of settlement’, here suffixed to Sævar-.

6 ver›a ek á fitjum: ‘if I could get (or rise?) on upward-pushing feet’. One meaning of fit, f., is the ‘web’ of the kind found on the feet of certain aquatic birds, which might suggest that Vƒlundr is here speaking of himself as partaking of the nature of such a bird, and envisaging leaving the island referred to in line 137 either by swimming or flying. Another meaning is the ‘hind flipper’ of a seal or walrus; according to Jón Helgason (Tvær kvi›ur fornar 1966, 74), the expression ver›a á fitjum would express well the idea of a seal moving into an upright position by sitting up on its hind flippers. Given the German connections of the story (see the Introduction) it is likely that the noun fit also carries here something of the sense of Middle Low German vittek ‘wing’ (cf. Tvær kvi›ur fornar 1966, 74, and La Farge and Tucker 1992, 61).

7ƒgurstund: Ásgeir Blöndal Magnusson (1977) argues convincingly that this word as used here reflects two meanings: (1) ‘the (brief) period of time between the reaching by the tide of its highest level and its beginning to ebb’, for which the Modern Icelandic dialect expression a› bí›a eftir ögrinu ‘to wait for the turning of the tide’ provides evidence; and (2) ‘a time of great distress’, which finds support in evidence from c.1500, cited by Ásgeir Blöndal and also by Jón Helgason (Tvær kvi›ur fornar 1966, 80), that ögr, ögur, n., could mean ‘heavy heart’. The meaning here may well be no more than ‘a brief time of great distress’, though it is perfectly possible that the tidal associations are present here as well; cf. note 4, above. XI: ﬁi›reks saga 155

XI: ﬁI‹REKS SAGA

This extract from fii›reks saga af Bern (cf. the introduction to X, above) has been chosen for the Reader partly because of the relative simplicity of its style, which makes it easy for beginners to read, and partly because it offers an opportunity for comparison of German treatments of the story of the fall of the Burgundians (called the Niflungar in the extract) with the Old Norse ones. The German traditions of this event are chiefly represented by the Nibelungenlied, an epic poem in Middle High German dating from c.1205, and the Old Norse ones by the anonymous mid thirteenth-century Icelandic prose Vƒlsunga saga and its eddic sources, most especially (as far as the extract is concerned) the anonymous poems Atlakvi›a and Atlamál. What is described in the extract is the reception by Grímhildr of her brothers at the court of her husband, the Hunnish king Attila, where she has urged him to invite them (see fii›riks saga, ed. H. Bertelsen, II, 279–80); in fii›reks saga his court is located at Soest in Westphalia, as the name Susa in the extract (line 11) shows. In the Nibelungenlied the reason for the invitation is the wish of Kriemhilt (as Grímhildr is there named) to be avenged on her brothers for the slaying of her former husband Siegfried, who corresponds to the Sigur›r (or in fii›reks saga Sigur›r sveinn) of Old Norse sources. In Vƒlsunga saga and its relevant sources, the invitation comes from Atli (the Attila of the extract), whose motive is lust for the treasure that Sigur›r had won by his slaying the dragon Fáfnir, and which, after Sigur›r had married Gu›rún (the Grímhildr of the extract), had been acquired by her brothers (i.e. the Burgundians) when they brought about his death. Gu›rún had then reluctantly married Atli, who now covets the treasure. Of these two versions of the story, the Old Norse one is thought to be the older. fii›reks saga, itself an Old Norse work, though containing mainly German narrative material, is in general closer to the German version than to the Old Norse one, but falls somewhere between the two. From the extract it is clear, for example, that while Grímhildr deeply mourns the death of her former husband, which is consistent with the revenge motive of the German version, she is also interested in whether her brothers have brought the treasure of the Niflungar with them, which is consistent with the emphasis in the Old Norse version on her new husband’s lust for it. The present discussion, which 156 XI: fii›reks saga is aimed at providing an immediate context for the extract below, concentrates on the events and characters of the story as it is told in fii›reks saga; neither the extract itself, nor what is said here specifically about fii›reks saga, should be allowed to give rise to assumptions about the content of the story as told elsewhere, whether in the German or Old Norse versions. Parts of the story not covered by the extract are referred to by volume and page numbers of Bertelsen’s edition. In the extract (lines 15–18), it is said that fires were prepared for the Niflungar on their arrival at Attila’s court, and that they dried themselves. This is to be understood in the light of the fact, reported shortly before the extract begins, that they had encountered bad weather on their way to Soest and got wet (II, 295). It is also perhaps intended to recall the fact that, earlier on their journey, their ship had capsized while they were crossing the Rhine, after which they dried themselves by fires at the castle of Ro›ingeirr, Margrave of Bakalar (Pöchlarn) (who also features in the extract; see below) (II, 286–92). On that occasion the business of drying themselves had exposed the bright armour they were wearing, as it also does in the scene described in the extract (lines 18–19). The brothers of Grímhildr mentioned in the extract are Gunnarr, Gíslher and Gernoz (see lines 28–30 and 54). Hƒgni is their half-brother, having been conceived as a result of their mother sleeping with a supernatural being in the temporary absence of their father (I, 319–23). In referring to himself (as he seems to be doing in line 25 of the extract) as óvin, a word which can mean ‘devil’ as well as ‘enemy’, Hƒgni is probably alluding partly to his semi- supernatural, illegitimate origins and partly to the fact that Grímhildr has little reason to feel friendly towards him, because it was he who had killed her husband Sigur›r sveinn, as she had suspected from the start; he had in fact speared him between the shoulder-blades (II, 264– 68), where Grímhildr, in the extract (line 35), recalls that he was wounded. Fólkher is a kinsman of the Niflungar, as the extract makes clear (line 55), and Aldrian (line 44) is the son of Attila and Grímhildr (II, 308). fii›rekr, for whom the Ostrogothic king Theoderic (d. 526) is the historical prototype, is of course the main character of fii›reks saga, from which the extract is taken; and Ro›ingeirr and Hildibrandr (lines 56–57) are among the many heroic figures with whom fii›rekr becomes associated in the course of his career, which, as T. M. Andersson (1986, 368–72) has shown, constitutes the backbone of XI: fii›reks saga 157 the saga’s plot. Hildibrandr had been fii›rekr’s foster-father when he was a boy (I, 34), and Ro›ingeirr, who had been present with fii›rekr at the marriage of Grímhildr to Attila and been given by Gunnarr on that occasion the sword Gramr, which had belonged to Sigur›r sveinn (II, 278–79), gave the sword to Gíslher (II, 294) when the Niflungar visited him, as described above, on their way to Attila’s court, on which journey he then joined them (II, 295). Ironically and tragically, it is with this same sword that Gíslher kills Ro›ingeirr in the battle that follows what is described in the extract (II, 320–21). fii›rekr, it is emphasised near the end of the extract (line 73), was the first to warn the Niflungar — albeit obliquely — of the hostile intentions of Grímhildr and her husband. That they hardly needed any warning, however, is apparent from Hƒgni’s no less oblique words to Grímhildr on his arrival (line 25), and from the fact that, earlier in the story, he had suspected treachery and advised his half-brothers against accepting the invitation (II, 281–84). There are three main manuscripts of fii›reks saga: a Norwegian vellum (Stock. Perg. fol. nr 4) marred by several lacunae and dating from the late thirteenth century, and two complete Icelandic paper manuscripts (AM 177 fol. and AM 178 fol.), both dating from the seventeenth century. The Norwegian manuscript, Stock. Perg. fol. nr 4, is referred to by Bertelsen and here as Mb. The present extract, which is in normalised spelling, has been prepared with the help of Bertelsen’s and Gu›ni Jónsson’s editions and collated with the relevant part of the text as it appears in the facsimile edition of Mb produced by P. Petersen and published in 1869. It is from this facsimile edition that the readings from Mb given below in footnotes are taken. The editor is grateful to David Ashurst for supplying photocopies of the relevant pages, 119r–120r, from the copy of this edition held in the British Library, and for guidance as to the meaning of Hƒgni’s words to Grímhildr in reply to her question about the treasure of the Niflungar. 158 XI: fii›reks saga

Bibliography Theodore M. Andersson, ‘The epic source of Niflunga saga and the Nibelungen- lied’, Arkiv för nordisk filologi 88 (1973), 1–54. Theodore M. Andersson, The Legend of Brynhild (1980). Theodore M. Andersson, ‘An interpretation of fii›reks saga’, in Structure and Meaning in Old Norse Literature: New Approaches to Textual Analysis and Literary Criticism, ed. John Lindow et al. (1986), 347–77. Theodore M. Andersson, ‘Composition and Literary Culture in fii›reks saga’, in Studien zum Altgermanischen: Festchrift für Heinrich Beck, ed. Heiko Uecker (1994), 1–23. M. J. Driscoll, review of The Saga of Thidrek of Bern, tr. E. R. Haymes (see below), Journal of English and Germanic Philology 89 (1990), 389–93. R. G. Finch, ‘fii›reks saga af Bern’, in MS 662–63. Das Nibelungenlied, ed. Helmut de Boor (on the basis of Karl Bartsch’s edition, first published in 3 vols, 1870–80), 13th ed., revised (1956). The Nibelungenlied, tr. A. T. Hatto (1969). Photo-lithographisk Aftryk af Pergamentscodex No. IV Folio i det kongelige Bibliothek i Stockholm, indeholdende Didrik af Berns Saga. Udført i Opmaalingscontorets photographiske Anstalt af P. Petersen (Christiania, 1869). The Poetic Edda I: Heroic Poems, ed. Ursula Dronke (1969). The Saga of Thidrek of Bern, tr. Edward R. Haymes (1988) (cf. the review of M. J. Driscoll, above). The Saga of the Volsungs: the Norse Epic of Sigurd the Dragon Slayer, tr. Jesse L. Byock (1990). fii›reks saga af Bern, ed. Gu›ni Jónsson, 2 vols (1954). fii›riks saga af Bern, ed. Henrik Bertelsen, 2 vols (1905–11). Vƒlsunga saga. The Saga of the Volsungs, ed. and tr. R. G. Finch (1965). XI: fii›reks saga 159

XI: ﬁI‹REKS SAGA

Frá drottning‹u› Grímhildi Drottning Grímhildr stendr í einum turn ok sér fƒr brœ›ra sinna ok flat, at fleir rí›a nú í borgina Susa. Nú sér hon flar margan n‡jan skjƒld 3 ok marga hvíta brynju ok margan d‡rligan dreng. Nú mælti Grímhildr, ‘Nú er fletta it grœna sumar fagrt. Nú fara mínir brœ›r me› margan n‡jan skjƒld ok marga hvíta brynju, ok nú 6 minnumk ek hversu mik harmar in stóru sár Sigur›ar sveins.’ Nú grætr hon allsárliga Sigur› svein ok gekk í móti fleim Niflungum ok ba› flá vera vel komna ok kyssir flann er henni var næstr, ok hvern 9 at ƒ›rum. Nú er flessi borg náliga full af mƒnnum ok hestum, ok flar eru ok fyrir í Susa mƒrg hund‹r›u› manna ok svá hesta, svá at ei fær tƒlu á komit. 12

Frá brœ›rum Grímhildar Attila konungr tekr vel vi› sínum mágum, ok er fleim fylgt í hallirnar, flær sem búnar eru, ok ger‹v›ir fyrir fleim eldar. En Niflung‹ar› fara 15 ekki af sínum brynjum, ok ekki láta fleir sín vápn at sinni. Nú kemr Grímhildr inn í hƒllina, flar er fyrir váru hennar brœ›r vi› eld ok flurka sik. Hon sér hversu fleir lypta upp sínum kyrtlum ok flar 18 undir eru hvítar brynjur. Nú sér Hƒgni sína systur Grímhildi ok tekr flegar sinn hjálm ok setr á hƒfu› sér ok spennir fast ok slíkt it sama Fólkher. 21

Frá Grímhildi ok brœ›rum fiá mælti Grímhildr: ‘Hƒgni, sitt‹u› heill. Hvárt hefir flú nú fœrt mér Niflungaskatt flann er átti Sigur›r sveinn?’ 24 ‹fiá svarar Hƒgni,› ‘Ek fœri flér,’ segir hann, ‘mikinn óvin; flar fylgir minn skjƒldr ok minn hjálmr me› mínu sver›i, ok eigi lei‹f››a ek mína brynju.’ 27 Nú mælti Gunnarr konungr vi› Grímhildi: ‘Frú systir, gakk hingat ok sit hér.’ Nú gengr Grímhildr at sínum unga brœ›r Gíslher ok kyssir hann ok 30 sitr í hjá honum ok milli ‹ok› Gunnars konungs, ok nú grætr hon sárliga.

11 hunda› Mb. 14 fylkt Mb. 160 XI: ﬁi›reks saga

33 Ok nú spyrr Gíslher, ‘Hvat grætr flú, frú?’ Hon svarar, ‘fiat kann ek vel flér segja. Mik harmar flat mest nú sem jafnan flau stóru sár, er haf›i Sigur›r sveinn sér mi›il her›a ok 36 ekki vápn var fest á hans skildi.’ fiá svarar Hƒgni, ‘Sigur› svein ok hans sár látum nú vera kyrr ok getum eigi. Attila konung af Húnalandi, gerum hann nú svá ljúfan 39 sem á›r var flér Sigur›r sveinn. Hann er hálfu ríkari, en ekki fær nú at gert at grœ›a sár Sigur›ar sveins. Svá ver›r flat nú vera sem á›r er or›it.’ 42 fiá stendr upp Grímhildr ok gengr í brott. fiví næst kemr flar fii›rekr af Bern ok kallar at Niflungar skulu fara til bor›s. Ok honum fylgir son Attila konungs, Aldrian. Nú tekr 45 Gunnarr konungr sveininn Aldrian ok berr í fa›mi sér út. En fii›rekr konungr af Bern ok Hƒgni eru svá gó›ir vinir, at hvárr fleira leggr hƒnd sína yfir annan ok ganga svá út ór hƒllinni ok alla lei› flar til er 48 fleir koma til konungs hallar. Ok á hverjum turn ok á hverri hƒll ok á hverjum gar›i ok á hverjum borgarvegg standa nú kurteisar konur, ok allar vilja Hƒgna sjá, svá frægr sem hann er um ƒll lƒnd af hreysti 51 ok drengskap. Nú kómu fleir í ‹hƒll Attila konungs›.

Frá Attila konung‹i ok› brœ›rum Grímhildar Attila konungr sitr nú í sínu hásæti ok setr á hœgra veg sér Gunnar 54 konung, sinn mág, ok flar næstr sitr junkherra Gíslher, flá Gernoz, flá Hƒgni, flá Fólkher, fleira frændi. Á vinstri hli› Attila konungs sitr fii›rekr konungr af Bern ok Ro›ingeirr margreifi, flá meistari Hildi- 57 brandr. fiessir allir sitja í hásæti me› Attila konungi. Ok nú er skipat flessi hƒll fyrst me› inum tignustum mƒnnum ok flá hverjum at ƒ›rum. fieir drekka flat kveld gott vín, ok hér er nú in d‡rligsta veizla ok me› 60 alls konar fƒngum er bezt megu vera, ok eru nú kátir. Ok nú er svá mikill fjƒl›i manna kominn í borgina, at hvert hús er fullt náliga í borginni. Ok flessa nótt sofa fleir í gó›um fri›i ok eru nú allkátir ok 63 me› gó›um umbúna›i. fiá er morgnar ok menn standa upp, kemr til Niflunga fii›rekr konungr ok Hildibrandr ok margir a›rir riddar‹ar›. Nú spyrr fii›rekr 66 konungr hversu fleim hafi sofizk flá nótt. fiá svarar Hƒgni ok lætr sér hafa vel sofnat:

38 sjá Mb. XI: ﬁi›reks saga 161

‘En fló er mitt skap ekki betra en til me›allags.’ Nú mælir fii›rekr konungr, ‘Ver kátr, minn gó›i vin Hƒgni, ok gla›r 69 ok me› oss vel kominn ok vara flik hér í Húnalandi, fyrir flví at flín systir Grímhildr grætr enn hvern dag Sigur› svein, ok alls muntu fless vi› flurfa, á›r en flú komir heim.’ 72 Ok nú er fii›rekr inn fyrsti ma›r, er varat hefir Niflunga. fiá er fleir eru búnir, ganga fleir út í gar›inn. Gengr á a›ra hli› Gunnari konungi fii›rekr konungr, en á a›ra meistari Hildibrandr, ok me› Hƒgna gengr 75 Fólkher. Ok nú eru allir Niflungar upp sta›nir ok ganga um borgina ok skemta sér.

XII: Tristrams saga 163

XII: SAGA AF TRISTRAM OK ÍS¯ND The Saga af Tristram ok Ísƒnd, also known as Tristrams saga ok Ísƒndar, occupies an important position in the history of medieval literature. In part this is because it provides the only complete, though condensed, account of the twelfth-century Roman de Tristan by Thomas (of Britain, or d’Angleterre), which now exists otherwise only in fragments, but which formed the basis for Gottfried von Strassburg’s unfinished masterpiece, Tristan und Isold. From the nineteenth century to the present day the saga has therefore been a major source for the study of the Tristan legend. And the legend itself continues to fascinate now, as it did in the Middle Ages, because it is the quintessential tale of a compulsive love that transcends all other loyalties. The importance of this saga specifically for Old Norse–Icelandic studies is that it was probably the first of the large-scale works to be translated from French at the behest of Hákon Hákonarson, king of Norway 1217–63. As such it helped to create an enthusiasm in the north for stories of the romance type — which show a concern for love as well as fighting, for the fantastic, for emotions quite freely expressed, for beauty and other sensory delights, for elegant manners, for costly display, and not least for accomplishments such as the knowledge of languages and music. The romance translations made for King Hákon, which embody these characteristics, make up a significant corpus in their own right. They would still do so, assuming that they had survived, even if they had not exerted influence beyond Norway; but in fact they soon arrived in Iceland, where themes and concerns from them were drawn into the Sagas of Icelanders, and where native imitations started to be written and to develop a character of their own. Eventually the romantic sagas, generally known today as riddarasögur (Sagas of Knights), came to be one of the dominant genres of Old Icelandic literature. As regards the saga’s origin, the main piece of evidence is the prologue found in the seventeenth-century Icelandic manuscript AM 543 4to, which contains the earliest complete version of the work now extant. This states that the translation was made at Hákon’s command in 1226 by a certain Brother Robert. Such attributions always leave room for scepticism, but in this case there is wide agreement that the statements of the prologue are highly plausible, for in most of its parts the saga bears a strong stylistic likeness to 164 XII: Tristrams saga other romance translations made for King Hákon that are preserved in Iceland, and also — most significantly — to Strengleikar, a collection of short pieces based on Breton lais, which has survived in a Norwegian manuscript from c.1270 and is probably close to its original form. It is apparent, nevertheless, that the Saga af Tristram ok Ísƒnd as we have it is by no means identical to Brother Robert’s version and that it has been modified, as one would expect, during the centuries of its transmission in Iceland. It was probably Robert himself who pushed the material in the direction of native sagas by concentrating on the story and omitting the many long passages of reflection that may be said to adorn, or alternatively to clog, the French text; but the very few leaves of the saga surviving from medieval manuscripts, which are themselves Icelandic and no earlier than the mid-fifteenth century, render Thomas’s words at somewhat greater length than is the case with the later manuscripts, and thus show that the saga has undergone at least one further round of shortening. There are signs too of material being added from sources other than Thomas. The consequence is that the work contains many discontinuities and inconsistencies, some of which are mentioned in the notes to the extract given here; but often enough, when Thomas or Gottfried seem bent on maximum elaboration, the saga strikes to the heart of the matter in a way that is astute, honest and humane (see note 11 below, for example). One of the most noticeable features of the Saga af Tristram ok Ísƒnd is the style in which many of its parts are written. It is not unlikely that this so-called ‘court style’, which is common to the Hákonian romances, was established by Brother Robert, or perhaps developed for the very first time, in this particular saga. The most obvious characteristics are the following: the frequent use of constructions based on present participles, which is regarded as unidiomatic in classical Old Norse; a good deal of alliteration, whether in formal pairs or in longer ad hoc strings; the habitual use of synonymous doublets, with or without alliteration; and repetitions of an underlying lexical item in varied forms. There is also the occasional recourse to rhyme and other forms of wordplay. These mannerisms derive from medieval Latin prose and can also be observed, in different concentrations, in the ‘learned style’ translations of Latin texts and in the ‘florid style’ of later religious works; but in the court romances they are integrated with the relatively plain manner displayed by native XII: Tristrams saga 165

Icelandic sagas, eschewing simile and working for the most part in sentences that are not especially complex. No doubt the purpose of the verbal decorations was to dignify the prose in general, and in particular to indicate the importance of passages where such decorations are in high density. All the stylistic features just mentioned, except rhyme, are well represented in the extract given here, which comes from the last third of the saga when Tristram and Ísƒnd have been forced to part, Tristram to live in Brittany and Ísƒnd to remain with her husband in Cornwall. The description of the Hall of Statues is not extant in the fragments of Thomas’s work (nor did Gottfried reach so far in the story), but the episode must originally have been present in the poem because one of the fragments (lines 941–1196) begins with Tristan recalling his love and kissing his beloved’s image, corresponding to a point in ch. 81 of the saga. Grotesque though the episode may seem to modern taste, it clearly caught the Icelandic imagination, as shown by the fact that it is echoed in several native romances (cf. Schach 1968), notably in Rémundar saga keisarasonar ch. 7. The passage has been transcribed from the manuscript mentioned above, AM 543 4to. Norwegianisms of the types listed on page 59 above do not occur in the manuscript orthography of the extract except for the occasional appearance of y in place of i; this feature has been retained here only for the name Bryngvet, which is consistently spelled thus. In general the spelling of the manuscript is post-medieval but has been normalised in line with the usage of ÍF, and the following substitutions have been made: konungr for kóngur, inn for hinn etc., lifanda for the Norwegian neuter form lifandi and eigi for ei.

Bibliography Primary: Saga af Tristram ok Ísönd samt Möttuls saga, ed. Gísli Brynjólfsson (1878). Tristrams saga ok Ísondar, ed. Eugen Kölbing (1878). Saga af Tristram og Ísönd, ed. Bjarni Vilhjálmsson in Riddarasögur I (1951), 1–247. Paul Schach, ‘An Unpublished Leaf of Tristrams Saga: AM 567 Quarto, XXII, 2’, Research Studies (Washington State University) 32 (1964), 50–62. Paul Schach, ‘The Reeves Fragment of Tristrams saga ok Ísöndar’, in Einarsbók. Afmæliskve›ja til Einars Ól. Sveinssonar. 12 desember 1969, 166 XII: Tristrams saga

ed. Bjarni Gu›nason, Halldór Halldórsson and Jónas Kristjánsson (1969), 296–308. Saga af Tristram og Ísönd, ed. Vésteinn Ólason (1987). Tristrams saga ok Ísöndar, ed. and tr. Peter Jorgenson in Norse Romance, ed. Marianne E. Kalinke, I (1999) 23–226. The Saga of Tristram and Ísönd, tr. Paul Schach (1973). Gottfried von Strassburg, Tristan und Isold, ed. Friedrich Ranke (1961). Rémundar saga keisarasonar, ed. Bjarni Vilhjálmsson in Riddarasögur V (1951), 161–339. Strengleikar: An Old Norse Translation of Twenty-one Old French Lais, ed. and tr. Robert Cook and Mattias Tveitane (1979). Norrøne Tekster 3. Thomas, Le Roman de Tristan, ed. Joseph Bédier (1902).

Background: Geraldine Barnes, ‘The Riddarasögur: A Medieval Exercise in Translation’, Saga-Book 19 (1974–77), 403–41. Geraldine Barnes, ‘The Riddarasögur and Medieval European Literature’, Medieval Scandinavia 8 (1975), 140–58. Foster W. Blaisdell Jr., ‘The So-called “Tristram-Group” of Riddarasögur’, Scandinavian Studies 46 (1974), 134–39. Alison Finlay, ‘“Intolerable Love”: Tristrams saga and the Carlisle Tristan Fragment’, Medium Ævum LXXIII.2 (2004), 205–24. Peter Hallberg, ‘Is There a “Tristram-Group” of Riddarasögur?’, Scandinavian Studies 47 (1975), 1–17. Sylvia C. Harris, ‘The Cave of Lovers in the Tristramssaga and Related Tristan Romances’, Romania 98 (1977), 306–30 and 460–500. Henry Goddard Leach, ‘Tristan in the North’, in Angevin Britain and Scandinavia (1921), 169–98. Paul Schach, ‘The Style and Structure of Tristrams saga’, in Scandinavian Studies: Essays Presented to Dr Henry Goddard Leach on the Occasion of His Eighty-fifth Birthday, ed. Carl F. Bayerschmidt and Erik J. Friis, (1965), 63–86. Paul Schach, ‘Some Observations on the Influence of Tristrams saga ok Ísöndar on Old Icelandic Literature’, in Old Norse Literature and Mythology. A Symposium, ed. Edgar C. Polomé (1968), 81–129. Maureen F. Thomas, ‘The Briar and the Vine: Tristan Goes North’, Arthurian Literature 3 (1983), 53–90. XII: Tristrams saga 167

XII: SAGA AF TRISTRAM OK ÍS¯ND

Chapter 80 Nú lætr Tristram skunda smí›inni flat er hann má, ok líkar honum flar vel undir fjallinu. Smí›a flar trésmi›ir ok gullsmi›ir, ok var nú allt kompásat ok búit saman at fella. Tristram lofa›i flá smi›unum heim 3 at fara, ok fylg›i fleim til fless ‹er› fleir váru ór eynni komnir ok sí›an h‹eim› til síns fóstrlands. Nú hefir Tristram øngvan félaga flar hjá sér nema jƒtuninn;1 ok báru fleir nú allt starf smi›anna ok felldu saman 6 hválfhúsit, svá sem efnit var á›r af smi›unum til búit, allt steint ok gyllt me› inum bezta hagleik.2 Ok mátti flá berliga sjá smí›ina fullgƒrva, svá at enginn kunni betr œskja. 9 Undir mi›ju hválfinu reistu fleir upp líkneskju eina, svá hagliga at líkams vexti ok andliti at enginn ásjáandi ma›r kunni annat at ætla en kvikt væri í ƒllum limunum, ok svá frítt ok vel gƒrt at í ƒllum heiminum 12 mátti eigi fegri líkneskju finna.3 Ok ór munninum stó› svá gó›r ilmr at allt húsit fylldi af, svá sem ƒll jurtakyn væri flar inn‹i›, flau sem d‡rust eru. En flessi inn gó›i ilmr kom me› fleiri list ór líkneskjunni, 15 at Tristram haf›i gƒrt undir geirvƒrtunni jafnsítt hjartanu eina boru á brjóstinu, ok setti flar einn bauk fullan af gullmƒlnum grƒsum, fleim sœtustum er í váru ƒllum heiminum. Ór flessum bauk stó›u tveir 18 reyrstafir af brenndu gulli, ok annarr flessara skaut ilm út undan hnakkanum flar sem mœttisk hárit ok holdit, en annarr me› sama hætti horf›i til munnsins. fiessi líkneskja var, at skƒpun, fegr› ok 21 mikilleik, svá lík Ísƒnd dróttningu svá sem hon væri flar sjálf standandi, ok svá kviklig sem lifandi væri. fiessi líkneskja var svá hagliga skorin ok svá tignarliga klædd sem sóm›i inni tignustu dróttningu. Hon haf›i 24 á hƒf›i sér kórónu af brenndu gulli, gƒrva me› alls konar hagleik — ok sett me› inum d‡rustum gimsteinum ok ƒllum litum.4 En í flví laufinu sem framan var í enninu stó› einn stórr smaragdus, at aldri 27 bar konungr e›r dróttning jafngó›an. Í hœgri hendi líkneskjunnar stó› eirvƒndr e›r valdsmerki, í inum efra endanum me› flúrum gƒrt, innar hagligustu smí›ar: leggr vi›arins var allr klæddr af gulli ok settr me› 30 fingrgullssteinum; gulllaufin váru it bezta Arabíagull; en á inu efra laufi vandarins var skorinn fugl me› fjƒ›rum ok alls konar litum fja›ranna ok fullgƒrt at vængjum, blakandi sem hann væri kvikr ok 33

18 bauk] bau›k. 32 lifum, but corrected in the manuscript. 168 XII: Tristrams saga

lifandi. fiessi líkneskja var klædd inum bezta purpura me› hvítum skinnum; en flar fyrir var hon klædd purpurapelli, at purpurinn merkir 36 harm, hryg›, válk ok vesƒl› er Ísƒnd flol›i fyrir ástar sakir vi› Tristram. Í hœgri hendi helt hon fingrgulli sínu, ok flar var á ritat or› flau er Ísƒnd dróttning mælti í skilna› fleira: ‘Tristram,’ kva› hon, ‘tak fletta 39 fingrgull í minning ástar okkar, ok gleym eigi hƒrmum okkar, válk‹i› ok vesƒl›um, er flú hefir flolat fyrir mínar sakir ok fyrir flínar.’5 Undir fótum hennar var einn fótkistill steyptr af kopar í líking fless 42 vánda dvergs er flau haf›i rœgt fyrir konunginum ok hrópat;6 líknes- kjan stó› á brjósti honum flví líkast sem hon skipa›i honum undir fœtr sér, en hann lá opinn undir fótum hennar flví líkt sem hann væri 45 grátandi. Hjá líkneskjunni var gƒr af brenndu gulli lítil skemtan, rakki hennar, hƒfu› sitt skakandi ok bjƒllu sinni hringjandi, gƒrt me› miklum hagleik.7 En ƒ›ru‹m› megin dvergsins stó› ein líkneskja lítil, eptir 48 Bryngvet, fylgismey dróttningar; hon var vel skƒpu› eptir fegr› sinni ok vel skr‡dd inum bezta búna›i, ok helt sér í hendi keri me› loki, bjó›andi Ísƒnd dróttningu me› blí›u andliti. Umbergis kerit váru flau 51 or› er hon mælti: ‘Ísƒnd dróttning, tak drykk flennan, er gƒrr var á Írlandi Markis konungi.’8 En ƒ›ru‹m› megin í herberginu, sem inn var gengit, haf›i hann gƒrt eina mikla líkneskju í líking jƒtunsins, svá 54 sem hann stœ›i flar sjálfr einfœttr ok reiddi bá›um hƒndum járnstaf sinn yfir ƒxl sér at verja líkneskjuna; en hann var klæddr stóru bukkskinni ok lo›nu — ok tók kyrtillinn honum skammt ofan, ok var 57 hann nakinn ni›r frá nafla — ok gnísti tƒnnum, grimmr í augum, sem hann vildi berja alla flá er inn gengu.9 En ƒ›ru‹m› megin dyranna stó› eitt mikit león steypt af kopar ok svá hagliga gƒrt at enginn hug›i 60 annat en lifanda væri, fleir er flat sæi. fiat stó› á fjórum fótum ok bar›i hala sínum um eina líkneskju, er gƒr var eptir ræ›ismanni fleim er hrópa›i ok rœg›i Tristram fyrir Markis konungi.10 63 Enginn kann at tjá né telja flann hagleik er flar var á fleim líkneskjum er Tristram lét flar gøra í hválfinu. Ok hefir hann nú allt gƒrt flat er hann vill at sinni, ok fær nú í vald jƒtunsins ok bau› honum, sem 66 flræli sínum ok fljónustumanni, fletta svá vel at var›veita at ekki skyldi flar nærri koma; en hann sjálfr bar lyklana bæ›i at hválfhúsinu ok líkneskjunum. En jƒtunninn haf›i allt fé sitt frjálst annat. Ok líka›i 69 fletta Tristram vel, er hann hefir slíku á lei› komit.

42 hƒf›u. XII: Tristrams saga 169

Chapter 81 Sem Tristram haf›i lokit starfi sínu, flá rei› hann heim til kastala síns sem hann var vanr, etr ok drekkr ok sefr hjá Ísodd, konu sinni, ok var kærr me› félƒgum sínum.11 En eigi er honum hugr at eiga líkamslosta 72 vi› konu sína, en fló fór hann leynt me›, flví engi ma›r mátti ætlan hans né athœfi finna, flví allir hug›u ‹at› hann bygg›i hjónskapliga sem hann skyldi me› henni. En Ísodd er ok svá lundu› at hon leyndi 75 fyrir hverjum manni svá tryggiliga at hon birti hvárki fyrir frændum sínum né vinum.12 En flá er hann var í burtu ok gør›i líkneskjur flessar, flá flótti henni mjƒk kynligt, hvar hann var e›a hvat hann gør›i. 78 Svá rei› hann heim ok heiman um einn leynistíg at enginn var› varr vi› hann, ok kom svá til hválfhússins. Ok jafnan sem hann kom inn til líkneskju Ísƒndar, flá kyssti hann hana svá opt sem hann kom, 81 ok lag›i hana í fang sér ok hendr um háls sem hon væri lifandi, ok rœddi til hennar mƒrgum ástsamligum or›um um ástarflokka fleira ok harma. Svá gør›i hann vi› líkneskju Bryngvetar, ok minntisk á ƒll 84 or› flau er hann var vanr at mæla vi› flær. Hann minntisk ok á alla flá huggan, skemtan, gle›i ok yn›i er hann fekk af Ísƒnd, ok kyssti hvert sinn líkneskit, er hann íhuga›i huggan fleira; en flá var hann hryggr 87 ok rei›r, er hann minntisk á harm fleira, vás ok vesal›ir, er hann flol›i fyrir sakir fleira er flau hrópu›u, ok kennir flat nú líkneskju hins vánda ræ›ismanns. 90 170 XII: Tristrams saga

Notes 1 The giant, Moldagog, is introduced in ch. 73 as the owner and defender of the land. Tristram defeats him in single combat by chopping off one of his legs, at which point the giant swears loyalty to Tristram and surrenders his treasures along with his territory; in return Tristram fashions a wooden leg for his new vassal (ch. 76). 2 Ch. 78 says that the main structure of the vaulted building had been made by an earlier giant who abducted the daughter of a certain Duke Orsl and brought her to the place, where he inadvertently killed her because of his size and weight (sakir mikilleik‹s› hans ok ﬂunga) while trying to have sex. The fragments of Thomas’s poem do not contain this story, but versions of it are told by Wace and Geoffrey of Monmouth. 3 Kvikt and subsequent words modifying líkneskja have the neuter form, perhaps by attraction to annat. But fullgƒrt in line 33 (modifying fugl) and gƒrt in line 46 (modifying skemtan or rakki) are also neuter where one would expect masculine or feminine forms, and it is probably to be explained as the use of ‘natural’ gender (or rather referring to animals and statues as neuter, as often in English) and the tendency to looseness in grammar that is common in seventeenth-century manuscripts and was reversed by nineteenth-century purists. In all three cases the adjective is separated from its noun. Cf. Gr 3.9.8.2. 4 The words kórónan var are to be understood in front of sett. 5 The full account of the parting is in ch. 67. 6 In the Norwegian original there would have been perfect alliteration on rœgt and hrópat (rópat; the initial breathing in such words is early lost in Norwegian, see p. 59 above); likewise on the phrase hryggr ok rei›r in the final sentence of the extract. The dwarf, who appears for the first time in ch. 54, tries to gather evidence against the lovers by sprinkling flour between their beds so that King Markis will see Tristram’s footprints (ch. 55). He is with the king when the lovers are discovered embracing in an orchard — the event that brings about their separation (ch. 67). There is no indication in the rest of the saga that he is ever punished for his enmity towards Tristram and Ísƒnd, or that he regrets it at all; nevertheless his tears, as depicted in the sculp- ture, are to be understood primarily as signifying remorse, though with XII: Tristrams saga 171 overtones of cowardice. In much Old Norse literature it is shameful for males to weep except when mourning a person of rank, but in the romances it is common even for heroes to weep at moments of strong emotion, as Tristram himself does when he parts from Ísƒnd (ch. 68). 7 Ísƒnd’s dog, a gift from Tristram, came originally from Elfland (Álfheimar, ch. 61). In the saga he is portrayed as a large animal that hunts wild boar and deer when Tristram and Ísƒnd are living together in the woods (chs 63 and 64); but Gottfried (line 16,659) specifies two separate animals and represents the one of elvish origin as a small lapdog (line 15,805). Ch. 61 of the saga lays much emphasis on the delights of sensory perception, commenting on the silkiness and wonderful colours of the dog’s coat, and saying that the sound of his bell transported Tristram ‘so that he hardly knew whether he was the same man or another one’ (svá at hann kenndi varla hvárt hann var inn sami e›a annarr).

8 Ísƒnd’s mother prepares a wine-like love potion and tells Bryngvet to serve it to Ísƒnd and King Markis on their wedding-night; but before Bryngvet can do so another servant finds it and unwittingly gives some to Ísƒnd and Tristram, thus causing all the pain that ensues from their love (ch. 46). Bryngvet perseveres with her instructions and serves more of the potion to Markis and his bride; on the evidence of the statue it appears that she hoped to rectify the situation by allowing Ísƒnd to fall in love with Markis, but ch. 46 says only that she gave the potion to the king without his knowledge, and that Ísƒnd did not drink it on that occasion.

9 The giant’s trouserless condition is not mentioned elsewhere. Possibly it is meant to recall what was said of the chamber’s previous owner and his size (note 2 above); but in any case its message is clearly ‘Keep out, or else’.

10 Maríadokk, the steward referred to, is introduced as Tristram’s friend and bed-partner, and as the man who first discovered the adulterous affair: he woke up in the night, noticed that Tristram was missing, went out in search of him and heard him talking with Ísƒnd (ch. 51). In the same chapter the saga states that it was not until a long time after this event that ‘malicious persons’ (ƒfundarmenn) told Markis 172 XII: Tristrams saga what was going on, and Maríadokk is not actually named as one of the tell-tales. Gottfried, however, states in his poem that the corresponding character, Marjodoc, quickly went to the king and pretended to have heard rumours (lines 13, 637–51). The end-on approach of the lion, which appears only in this passage, no doubt involves maximum disgrace for the steward.

11 After parting with Ísƒnd, Tristram marries Ísodd, daughter of the duke of Brittany. The saga states bluntly that he does so either in the hope that new love will drive out old or because he wants a wife ‘for benefit and pleasure’ (til gagns ok gamans, ch. 69), this and the next sentence standing in place of much logic-chopping in Thomas (lines 235–420). On his wedding night, however, Tristram decides not to consummate the marriage because thoughts of Ísƒnd intrude, and he pretends to be ill (ch. 70). The assertion that his sickness was nothing else than pining for the other Ísƒnd (ekki var ƒnnur sótt Tristrams en um a›ra Ísƒnd, ch. 70) confirms that in the saga, as in the poems of Thomas and Gottfried, the two women originally had the same name.

12 Ísodd has promised Tristram not to tell anyone that they do not have sex (ch. 70). Ch. 96 suggests that at one point she thinks he wants to become a priest or monk — possibly a joke. Eventually a chance event forces her to tell her brother Kardín, who then construes Tristram’s behaviour as an insult to the family (chs 82 and 83); but Kardín abandons any thought of a feud with Tristram when he sees the statue of Bryngvet, which he initially mistakes for a real woman, and falls in love (ch. 86). This, in fact, is the only narrative function fulfilled by the episode of the statues. XIII: Maríu saga 173

XIII: MARÍU SAGA

A Miracle of the Virgin Mary Biographies of the saints and stories of miracles demonstrating their sanctity were among the most popular and influential literary forms of the Middle Ages. The earliest written texts brought to Iceland by Christian missionaries included Latin hagiographic narratives, and scholars have argued that they exerted seminal influence on the origins of Icelandic literature (see Turville-Petre 1953; Jónas Kristjánsson 1981 and 1986; Foote 1994). Among the saints a special and pre-eminent place was accorded to Mary, the mother of Jesus. Her cult gained increasing importance in twelfth- and thirteenth-century Europe and in the thirteenth century the Marian prayer Ave Maria (known as Maríuvers in Old Norse) became one of the few texts all Christians were required to know by heart. Twice as many churches were dedicated to Mary as to the next most popular saint in pre-Reformation Iceland (St Peter) and she was the patron saint of Hólar Cathedral. Several Marian feasts were prominent in the Icelandic calendar and four were provided with sermons in the Old Icelandic Homily Book. A sizeable corpus of Marian poetry in Old Icelandic also survives (on the cult of Mary in Iceland see Cormack 1994, 126–29; some Marian poetry is accessible in Wrightson 2001). Maríu saga is an Icelandic prose account of the life of the Virgin Mary that, unusually for this type of text, intersperses biographical narrative with theological reflection on a wide range of more or less closely related topics. The deeply learned saga-writer drew on a number of source texts including the Gospels of Matthew and Luke, the apocryphal Gospel known as Pseudo-Matthew, and especially Evan- gelium de nativitate Mariae, an apocryphal account of the birth and early life of Mary believed during the Middle Ages to be by St Jerome. For historical background the writer used Books 16 and 17 of Antiqui- ties of the Jews by the first-century Jewish historian Flavius Josephus; and other sources include various books of the Old and New Testa- ments and texts by Saints Jerome, Gregory the Great, Augustine and John Chrysostom. A detailed description of the Fourth Lateran Council in chapter 23 of Maríu saga indicates that the saga must have been written after 174 XIII: Maríu saga

1215. Gu›mundar saga records that a saga of the Virgin Mary was written by a priest called Kygri-Bjƒrn Hjaltason (died 1237/38) and as there is no evidence of any Maríu saga other than the one which survives circulating in Iceland before the sixteenth century it seems probable that Kygri-Bjƒrn composed the surviving text. This would mean it was written sometime between 1216 and 1236 (in which year Kygri-Bjƒrn was elected bishop of Hólar; he then went abroad, possibly to have his election confirmed, and died shortly after his return). Turville-Petre has suggested a slightly narrower dating of between 1224 and 1236 (Turville-Petre 1972, 107). Fourteen of the nineteen surviving manuscripts of Maríu saga include collections of miracle stories involving the Virgin Mary (the other five manuscripts are fragments and may originally have included miracle stories too). An additional twenty-five manuscripts contain only miracle stories, without the saga, but as these are fragmentary manuscripts it remains unclear whether the saga and miracles were ever transmitted separately. The miracle collections vary in size, contents and origin; they appear in manuscripts dating from c.1225– 50 onwards. Unger’s edition of Maríu saga (1871) prints two slightly different texts of the saga (from Holm perg. 11 4to and AM 234 fol.) and over 200 miracle stories, many of them in more than one version. Three different versions of a miracle of the Virgin are given below in texts normalised from Unger’s edition (this miracle story, also known from Latin and Old French sources, is briefly discussed in Widding 1965, 132–35). The three versions illustrate three different prose styles. The earliest of the three is found in AM 232 fol., a fourteenth century manuscript (c.1350). The writer has rendered the narrative in a concise and straightforward style free of rhetorical elaboration and like that characteristic of the Sagas of Icelanders. The version in AM 635 4to, a paper manuscript from the early eighteenth century (c.1700–25), translates more closely from Latin, attempting greater fidelity to the style and language of the original and also providing much more circumstantial detail than AM 232 fol. The third text comes from Holm perg. 11 4to (c. 1325–75; some readings have been adopted from Holm perg. 1 4to (c. 1450–1500)). This is written in the so-called florid style, a ‘high’ style developed during the second half of the thirteenth century especially in religious writing. Characteristic features of the florid style XIII: Maríu saga 175 found in the extract below include extensive use of adjectives and adverbs, the use of doublets, and use of the present participle where Saga Style would prefer a clause with a finite verb. A delight in rhetorical amplification that is another characteristic of the Florid Style is also notable in this, the longest of the three accounts of the miracle.

Bibliography C. R. Unger, ed., Mariu saga: Legender om Jomfru Maria og hendes jertegn (1871). [The standard edition] Ásdís Egilsdóttir, Gunnar Har›arson, Svanhildur Óskarsdóttir, eds, Maríu- kver: sögur og kvæ›i af heilagri gu›smó›ur frá fyrri tí› (1996). [An edition of the saga, selected miracles and a variety of other medieval Icelandic Marian texts, in modernised Icelandic] Margaret Cormack, The Saints in Iceland: Their Veneration from the Conversion to 1400, Subsidia hagiographica 78 (1994). Margaret Cormack, ‘Sagas of Saints’, in Margaret Clunies Ross, ed., Old Icelandic Literature and Society (2000), 302–25. Peter Foote, ‘Saints’ Lives and Sagas’, in Hans Bekker-Nielsen and Birte Carlé, eds, Saints and Sagas: A Symposium (1994), 73–88. Jónas Kristjánsson, ‘Learned Style or Saga Style?’ in Ursula Dronke et al., eds, Speculum Norroenum: Norse Studies in Memory of Gabriel Turville- Petre (1981), 260–92. Jónas Kristjánsson, ‘The Roots of the Sagas’, in Rudolf Simek, et al., eds, Sagnaskemmtun: Studies in Honour of Hermann Pálsson on his 65th Birthday, 26 May 1986 (1986), 183–200. G. Turville-Petre, Origins of Icelandic Literature (1953). G. Turville-Petre, ‘The Old Norse Homily on the Assumption and Maríu saga,’ Mediaeval Studies 9 (1947), 131–40; reprinted in his Nine Norse Studies (1972), 102–17. Ole Widding et al., ‘The Lives of the Saints in Old Norse Prose: A Handlist,’ Mediaeval Studies 25 (1963), 294–337. [Lists manuscripts of Maríu saga and the associated miracle stories on pp. 321–24] Ole Widding, ‘Jartegn og Maríu saga. Eventyr’, in Hans Bekker-Nielsen et al., Norrøn fortællekunst: kapitler af den norsk–islandske middelalder- litteraturs historie (1965), 127–36. Ole Widding, ‘Norrøne Marialegender på europæisk baggrund’, Opuscula X, Bibliotheca Arnamagnæana XL (1996), 1–128. [A detailed comparison of the contents of the surviving Norse miracle collections and analysis of their relations to contemporary Latin collections; English summary on pp. 125–28] Kellinde Wrightson, ed., Fourteenth-Century Icelandic Verse on the Virgin Mary. Drápa af Maríugrát. Vitnisvísur af Maríu. Maríuvísur I–III (2001). 176 XIII: Maríu saga

XIII: MARÍU SAGA

A Miracle of the Virgin Mary AM 232 fol.: Munklífi eitt var í fjalli flví, er Tumba1 heitir. fiar stó› Mikjáls kirkja hjá munklífinu. Í musterinu var Maríu líkneskja, ok svá ger sem 3 Dróttinn sæti í knjám henni, ok var silkidúkr breiddr yfir hƒfu› fleim. fiar kómu opt rei›ar stórar ok eldingar, ok laust eitt sinn svá kirkjuna, at hon brann ƒll, en líkneskja Maríu var heil, ok svá stallrinn, er hon 6 stó› á. Hvergi var á silkidúkinn runnit, er á líkneskjunni var. Munkar l‡stu flessi jartegn, ok lofu›u allir Gu›, fleir er heyr›u. Vér eigum fless Gu› at bi›ja, at hann leysi oss svá frá eilífum eldi sem líkneskit 9 frá flessum eldshita.

AM 635 4to: Eldr brenndi eigi líkneski várrar frú Í fjalli flví, er Tumba heitir í sjónum, er kirkja hins helga Michaelis 12 engils. Í fleim sta› er mikill fjƒl›i munka, er flar fljóna Gu›i. fiat bar til einn tíma, at me› leyndum Gu›s dómi2 sló elding kirkjuna ok brenndi hana alla. fiar var líkneskja Gu›s mó›ur Marie ger me› tré. Yfir 15 hƒf›inu líkneskjunni var einn silkidúkr. Sem eldrinn kom til fless sta›ar, er skriptin stó› í, brenndi hann allt umkringis, en sjálfa líknes- kjuna tók ekki, sem hann ótta›isk at koma henni nær, svá at eigi brann 18 flat silkitjald sem var yfir líkneskjunni, ok eigi døkkna›i flat sjálft af reyk e›r hita. Eitt flabellum gert me› páfuglafjƒ›rum, er studdisk vi› líkneskit, brann ok eigi. Ger›i Gu› flessa jartegn at s‡na vi›rkvæmiligt 21 vera, at eigi mætti eldrinn granda líkneskju fleirar, sem me› hjarta ok líkam helt heilagt skírlífi me› ƒ›rum dyg›um, svá at engi hiti lostasemi mátti tendrask me› henni. Svá hlíf›i Gu›s mó›ir, sem flér heyr›u›, 24 sinni líkneskju í eldinum s‡nandi me› flví, at hon má au›veldliga me› Gu›s miskunn frelsa frá helvítis eldi flá sem henni fljóna.

2 musterinn. XIII: Maríu saga 177

Holm perg. 11 4to: Eldr granda›i eigi líkneski várrar frú.

Svá er sagt, at eitt munklífi me› miklum mannfjƒl›a í regluligum 27 lifna›i hreins skírlífis stendr á fjalli flví, er Tumba heitir. fiar er Michials kirkja hjá munklífinu. Í flví musteri var líkneski várrar frú sancte Marie sœmiliga me› tré formeru› á flann hátt, sem Dróttinn 30 várr sæti í knjám henni ok væri dúkr af silki breiddr yfir hƒfu› fleim. Í sƒg›um sta› kómu opt stórar rei›arflrumur ok eldingar, ok einn tíma kom svá hryggiliga til efnis, at kirkjuna laust, svá at hon brann ƒll ok 33 hvert flat herbergi, sem flar stó› nærri umbergis. En fyrr sƒg› líkneskja Gu›s mó›ur var heil ok óskƒdd, svá sem eldrinn hef›i hana óttazk, t‡nandi allri sinni grimm›arnáttúru svá framarliga, at engis kyns 36 reykjarflefr e›a eldsbrunalitr haf›i heldr snortit sag›an dúk en sjálfa líkneskjuna, slíkt sama fótstallinn, er hon stó› á. L‡stu munkar flessi jartegn, ok lofu›u allir Gu›, er heyr›u. fiat var vi›rkvæmiligt ok vel 39 trúanligt, sem birtisk í sƒg›u stórtákni, at flessa heims eldr flyr›i eigi at snerta fleirar líkneskju, sem bæ›i var hrein mær í hug ok líkama, flekklaus me› ƒllum greinum af hverjum sem einum bruna veraldligra 42 girnda. Nú sem Gu›s mó›ir sancta María, vernda‹n›di sína líkneskju, sem vér sƒg›um, af fleim eldsbruna, gefr oss fullkomliga skilja, at sér fljónandi menn má hon au›veldliga frelsa af eilífum eldi, flví3 sém 45 ‹vér› i›uliga verandi í hennar fljónustu standandi, at hon sé oss veitandi sem vér erum mest flurfandi, sem ‹er› alla hluti fáandi, af sínum sœtasta syni fliggjandi, fleim er lifir ok ríkir me› fe›r ok helgum anda útan enda. 48 Amen.

40 ﬂessi Holm perg. 11 4to. 43 verndandi Holm perg. 1 4to; vernda›i Holm perg. 11 4to. 46 vér i›uliga Holm perg. 1 4to; iduligast Holm perg. 11 4to. 178 XIII: Maríu saga

Notes 1 A church was built on Mount Tumba, near Avranches in south Normandy, after an apparition of the Archangel St Michael there in the eighth century. In AD 1000 a Benedictine monastery was established on the mount, which now takes its name, le Mont-Saint-Michel, from the Archangel who appeared there.

2 In Latin occulto Dei iudicio, a phrase often used of events in which God moved in a mysterious way. Cf. Job 11: 7–9; Romans 11: 33. Cf. also XIV:11 below.

3 ﬂví (‘for this reason’) seems to introduce the main clause in this im- mensely complicated sentence. XIV: Jóns saga helga 179

XIV: JÓNS SAGA HELGA

The first native bishop in Iceland was Ísleifr Gizurarson. He was consecrated in 1056 as bishop of the whole population. He was succeeded in 1081 by his son, Gizurr (died 1118), whose patrimony, Skál(a)holt, in the south of the country, was made the official episcopal seat by an act of the Alflingi. About 1100 Bishop Gizurr agreed that the people of the Northern Quarter should have a bishop of their own, with a cathedral at Hólar in Hjaltadalr (Skagafjƒr›r). With the approval of clergy and people he selected a middle-aged priest from the South of Iceland, Jón ¯gmundarson (born 1052), as the first bishop of Hólar. Jón duly went abroad to seek archiepiscopal and papal sanction and in 1106 was consecrated in Lund (then of course in Denmark) by ¯zurr (Asser), bishop there since 1089 but now newly installed as archbishop and metropolitan of the Scandinavian churches. Jón returned to Iceland by way of Norway where he collected a cargo of timber for the new church he intended to build as his cathedral. We have no contemporary record of his activities as diocesan of the Northern Quarter. He died in 1121. In 1193 Bishop fiorlákr fiórhallsson of Skálholt died and miracles attributed to his intercession were soon reported. His cult was formally established by the Alflingi in 1199. This seems to have prompted the Northerners to seek a saint for themselves. Invocation of Jón ¯gmundarson, their first bishop, was deemed successful, and Jón’s dies natalis, 23 April, was made a day of national observance in 1200. Soon after, as was essential, a work on the new saint’s vita et acta was composed in Latin by Gunnlaugr Leifsson, Benedictine monk of fiingeyrar (born c.1140, died 1219; cf. note 4 to extract below). At the same time, a similar book was composed in Icelandic; the author apparently borrowed some material from Gunnlaugr’s work. This Jóns saga Hólabyskups ins helga is known in three recensions but only one of them exists as a unified work. This is the so-called S text, found whole in AM 234 fol., written c.1340, and in fragments in other manuscripts, the oldest in AM 221 fol., written c.1300. This recension is in a plain style and is an abridgment of an early work which is also represented in the so-called H recension. This is known only in two manuscripts, paper from the early seventeenth century, Holm papp. 4:o nr 4 and AM 392 4to, independent copies of a late medieval exemplar. Its style is like that of the S recension but it is generally 180 XIV: Jóns saga helga fuller and probably often closer to the early text that was their common original. Unfortunately, it is defective at the beginning and has a large lacuna in the middle. The third recension, called L, is a revision, made c.1320–30, of a text more like H than S. It survives incomplete in Holm perg. fol. nr 5, written c.1365; part of the text missing there is supplied by fragments in AM 219 fol. from about 1400. The saga in this form has a good many passages rewritten in the Latinate style that became fashionable in Iceland towards 1300 and flourished especially between about 1320 and 1350 (cf. the introduction to extract XIII above). It is also unique in introducing two whole flættir, one concerning Sæmundr inn fró›i Sigfússon (1056–1133), which is not found elsewhere, and one concerning Gísl Illugason, known separately in the compilation of kings’ sagas found in the codexes called Hulda and Hrokkinskinna but adapted in L to suit the hagiographer’s purpose. The text printed below follows the S recension but with preference given to H in lines 17, 115–16, 128, 133–38 and 142, and to L in lines 155, 165–91 (see notes below). In this last passage typical features of ‘florid’ style and vocabulary are sag›ra 168, 172, hvern 169, prédikandi 176, undir stjórn ok yfirbo›i 177, ritandi 178, mektugir 182, jungfrú 185, sƒg›um 186, kynnandi 190.

Bibliography The text here is based on that in Biskupa sögur I (2003), ÍF XV, 202–20. There is a translation in Origines Islandicae, ed. and tr. Gudbrand Vigfusson and F. York Powell (1905, repr. 1976), I 534–67, and several extracts, including some of the text printed here, but from the L redaction, in The Northmen Talk, tr. Jaqueline Simpson (1965), 65–76. XIV: Jóns saga helga 181

XIV: JÓNS SAGA HELGA

Chapter 8 Á flessu sumri hóf Jón byskup yfirfƒr sína yfir ríki sitt ok tók at st‡ra Gu›s kristni med mikilli stjórn. Hirti hann vánda menn af flví veldi er honum var gefit af Gu›s hálfu, en styrkti gó›a menn ok si›láta í 3 mƒrgum gó›um hlutum. Inn helgi Jón byskup haf›i skamma stund at stóli setit at Hólum á›r en hann lét leggja ofan kirkju flá er flar var. Sjá kirkja haf›i gjƒr verit 6 næst fleiri er Oxi Hjaltason haf›i gjƒra látit. fiat hyggja menn at sú kirkja hafi mest gjƒr verit undir tréflaki á ƒllu Íslandi er Oxi lét gjƒra, ok lag›i til fleirar kirkju mikil au›ræ›i ok lét hana búa innan vel ok 9 vandliga ok flekja bl‡i alla. En sú kirkja brann upp ƒll med ƒllu skrú›i sínu at leyndum dómi Gu›s.1 Enn helgi Jón byskup lét gjƒra kirkju at Hólum mikla ok vir›uliga, sú er stendr flar í dag, ok hefir hún fló verit 12 bæ›i flaki› ok margir hlutir a›rir at gjƒrvir sí›an.2 Enn helgi Jón byskup spar›i ekki til flessar kirkjugjƒr›ar flat er flá væri meiri Gu›s d‡r› en á›r ok fletta hús væri sem fagrligast gjƒrt ok búit. Hann val›i flann 15 mann til kirkjugjƒr›arinnar er flá flótti einnhverr hagastr vera. Sá hét fióroddr ‹Gamlason›,3 ok var bæ›i at inn helgi Jón spar›i eigi at rei›a honum kaupit mikit ok gott, enda leysti hann ok sína s‡slu vel ok 18 gó›mannliga. fiat er sagt frá flessum manni at hann var svá næmr flá er hann var í smí›inni, flá heyr›i hann til er prestlingum var kennd íflrótt sú er grammatica heitir, en svá loddi honum flat vel í eyrum af miklum 21 næmleik ok athuga at hann gjƒr›isk enn mesti íflróttama›r í fless konar námi. fiá er Jón haf›i skamma stund byskup verit, flá lét hann setja skóla 24 heima flar at sta›num vestr frá kirkjudyrum ok lét smí›a vel ok vandliga, ok enn sér merki húsanna.4 En til fless at st‡ra skólanum ok kenna fleim mƒnnum er flar settisk í, flá val›i hann einn enn bezta klerk ok enn 27 snjallasta af Gautlandi. Hann hét Gísli ok var Finnason. Hann reiddi honum mikit kaup til hvárstveggja, at kenna prestlingum ok at veita slíkt upphald heilagri kristni me› sjálfum byskupi sem hann mátti sér 30 vi› koma í kenningum sínum ok formælum. Ok ávalt er hann prédika›i fyrir fólkinu, flá lét hann liggja bók fyrir sér ok tók flar af slíkt er hann tala›i fyrir fólkinu, ok gjƒr›i hann fletta mest af forsjá ok lítillæti, at 33

11 ok S. 17 from H and L. 22 næmlæk S. 182 XIV: Jóns saga helga

flar hann var ungr at aldri flótti fleim meira um vert er til hl‡ddu at fleir sæi flat at hann tók sínar kenningar af helgum bókum en eigi af einu 36 saman brjóstviti. En svá mikil gipt fylg›i fló hans kenningum at menninir fleir er til hl‡ddu kómusk vi› mjƒk ok tóku mikla skipan ok gó›a um sitt rá›. En flat er hann kenndi í or›unum flá s‡ndi hann flat í 39 verkunum. Kenningar hans váru linar ok léttbærar ƒllum gó›um mƒnnum, en vitrum mƒnnum flóttu vera skapligar ok skemtiligar, en vándum mƒnnum var› ótti at mikill ok sƒnn hirting. Um allar stórhátí›ir 42 flá var flar fjƒlmenni mikit, flví at flannug var flá mikit erendi margra manna, fyrst at hl‡›a tí›um, svá fagrliga sem flær váru fram fœr›ar, flar me› bo›or›um byskups ok kenningum fleim hinum d‡r›ligum er 45 flar var flá kostr at heyra, hvárt sem heldr váru fram fluttar af sjálfum byskupi e›a flessum manni er nú var frá sagt. Skamma stund haf›i enn helgi Jón byskup verit á›r hann tók at fœra 48 si›u manna ok háttu mjƒk í annat efni en á›r haf›i verit, gjƒr›isk hirtingasamr vi› ósi›amenn, en var blí›r ok hœgr ƒllum gó›um mƒnnum, en s‡ndi á sjálfum sér at allt flat er hann kenndi í or›unum, flá fylldi 51 hann flat í verkunum. S‡ndisk svá vitrum mƒnnum fleim er gjƒrst vissu hans rá› at hann yr›i sjaldan afhuga flví er sjálfr Dróttinn mælti til sinna lærisveina: ‘Luceat lux vestra coram hominibus ut videant opera 54 vestra bona et glorificent patrem vestrum qui in celis est.’5 fiessi or› mæla svá: ‘L‡si ljós y›art fyrir mƒnnum til fless at fleir sjái gó› verk y›ur ok d‡rki fleir fƒ›ur y›arn flann er í himnum er.’ 57 Enn helgi Jón byskup lag›i ríkt vi› flat sem sí›an hefir haldizk, at menn skyldu sœkja til tí›a á helgum dƒgum e›a á ƒ›rum van›atí›um, en bau› prestunum at segja optliga flá hluti er fleir flyrftu at vita. Hann 60 bau› mƒnnum at hafa hversdagliga háttu sem kristnum mƒnnum sómir, en flat er at sœkja hvern dag sí› ok snemma kross e›a kirkju ok flytja flar fram bœnir sínar me› athuga. Hann bau› at menn skyldu hafa, 63 hverr í sínu herbergi, mark ins helga kross til gæzlu sjálfum sér. Ok flegar er ma›rinn vakna›i, flá skyldi hann signa sik ok syngja fyrst Credo in Deum ok segja svá trú sína almáttkum Gu›i ok ganga svá 66 sí›an allan daginn vápna›r med marki heilags kross, flví er hann merkti sik me› flegar er hann vakna›i, en taka aldrigi svá mat e›a svefn e›a drykk at ma›r signi sik eigi á›r. Hann bau› hverjum manni at kunna 69 Pater noster ok Credo in Deum ok minnask sjau sinnum tí›a sinna á

55 til fless repeated over column break. 59 prestinum S. XIV: Jóns saga helga 183 hverjum degi, en syngja skylduliga hvert kveld á›r hann sofna›i Credo in Deum ‹ok› Pater noster.6 Ok at vér lúkum flessu máli í fám or›um, flá fekk hann svá samit 72 si›u sinna undirmanna á skƒmmu brag›i me› Gu›s fulltingi at heilug kristni í Nor›lendingafjór›ungi hefir aldrigi sta›it me› slíkum blóma, hvárki á›r né sí›an, sem flá stó› me›an fólkit var svá sælt at fleir 75 hƒf›u slíks byskups stjórn yfir sér. Hann banna›i ok me› ƒllu alla óháttu ok forneskju e›a blótskapi, gjƒrninga e›a galdra ok reis í móti flví me› ƒllu afli, ok flví haf›i eigi or›it af komit me› ƒllu me›an 78 kristnin var ung. Hann banna›i ok alla hindrvitni flá er fornir menn hƒf›u tekit af tunglkvámum e›a dœgrum e›a eigna daga hei›num mƒnnum e›a gu›um, sem er at kalla Ó›ins dag e›a fiórs, ok alla flá 81 hluti a›ra er honum flóttu af illum rótum rísa.7 Leikr sá var mƒnnum tí›r er ófagrligr er, at kve›ask skyldu at, karlma›r at konu en kona at karlmanni, klækiligar vísur ok hæ›iligar 84 ok óáheyriligar. En flat lét hann af takask ok banna›i me› ƒllu at gjƒra. Mansƒngs kvæ›i e›a vísur vildi hann eigi heyra kve›in ok eigi láta kve›a.8 fió fekk ‹hann› flví eigi me› ƒllu af komit. 87 fiat er sagt ífrá at hann kom á hljó› at Klœngr fiorsteinsson, sá er sí›an var› byskup í Skálaholti, en var flá prestlingr ok ungr at aldri, las bók flá er kƒllu› er Ovidius Episto‹la›rum.9 Í fleiri bók b‡r mansƒngr 90 mikill. En hann banna›i honum at lesa fless konar bœkr ok kalla›i fló hverjum manni mundi œrit hƒfugt at gæta sín vi› líkamligri munú› ok rangri ást, fló at hann kveykti eigi upp hug sinn til fless me›r ne einum 93 si›um e›a fless konar kvæ›um. Hann var ok i›inn at flví at sní›a af mƒnnum ljóta ‹lƒstu›, ok svá fór hann kœnliga me› flví at sá kom náliga engi á hans fund at eigi fengi 96 hann á nƒkkura lund lei›réttan fyrir sakir gu›ligrar ástar ok kostgæfi fleirar er hann lag›i á hverjum manni at hjálpa. Ok ef hann lag›i mƒnnum har›ar skriptir á hendr fyrir sakir mikilla glœpa, en fleir gengi 99 undir vel ok lítillátliga, flá var skammt at bí›a á›r helgasta hans brjóst, flat er heilagr andi haf›i valit sér til bygg›ar, flá samharma›i fleira meinlætum ok létti ‹hann› flá nƒkkut skriptunum. Ok flá sƒmu menn10 er 102 hann haf›i fyrr bar›a fyrir sakir gu›ligrar ástar ok umvandanar, fleim hinum sƒmum líkna›i hann flá miskunnsamliga er fleir váru vi› skil›ir sína annmarka. Ok sá er alla sína undirmenn elska›i sem brœ›r e›a 105

101 samharma›i] + hann S. 184 XIV: Jóns saga helga

syni, flá fœddisk hann af engra manna annmƒrkum e›a vanhƒgum, en samfagna›i flví er ƒ›rum gekk vel en harma›i flat allt er annan veg 108 var›. Hann var ma›r svá huggó›r at varla mátti hann sjá e›a vita flat er mƒnnum var til meins, en svá ƒrr ok mildr vi› fátœka menn at varla haf›i hans maki fengizk. Hann var sannr fa›ir allra fátœkra manna. 111 Hugga›i hann ekkjur ok fƒ›urlausa, ok engi kom svá harmflrunginn á hans fund at eigi fengi á nƒkkurn veg huggan af hans tilstilli. Svá var hann ástsæll vi› allt fólk at engi vildi náliga honum í móti gjƒra, ok var 114 flat meirr fyrir sakir gu›ligrar ástar fleirar er allir menn unnu honum en líkamligrar hræzlu. ‹Skƒrugliga flutti hann fram alla flá hluti er til byskupligs embættis kómu,›11 ok flar er hann braut sína f‡si í marga 117 sta›i en gjƒr›i Gu›s vilja, ef hann fann flat at flat var eigi allt eitt fyrir sakir líkamligs e›lis, flá launa›i Gu› honum flat svá í hƒnd flegar at hann oka›i undir hann alla hans undirmenn í heilagri hl‡›ni. 120 En heilagr Johannes lif›i líf sitt eptir gu›ligri setningu ok gó›ra manna dœmum, var á bœnum nætr ok daga, vak›i mikit ok fasta›i lƒngum ok deyddi sik í mƒrgum hlutum til fless at flá mætti hann meira 123 ávƒxt gjalda Gu›i en á›r af fleim hlutum ƒllum er honum váru á hendi fólgnir. Ok til fless at hann mætti flá vera frjálsari en á›r tí›ir at veita e›a formæli e›a a›ra hluti flá fram at fœra er Gu›s kristni væri mest 126 upphald at, flá val›i hann menn til forrá›a fyrir sta›inn me› sér flá er fyrir skyldu sjá sta›arins eign, me› húsfreyju fleiri gƒfugri er hann haf›i á›r átta ‹er Valdís hét›.12 Einn af fleim mƒnnum var prestr vir›uligr 129 sá er Hámundr hét Bjarnarson. Hann var afi Hildar nunnu ok einsetu- konu sem enn man getit ver›a sí›ar í flessu máli. Næst Hámundi var at rá›um prestr sá er Hjalti hét ok var frændi byskups. Af leikmƒnnum 132 var sá ma›r me‹st› í rá›um er var gƒfugr at ætt. Hann hét ¯rn ok var son fiorkels af Ví›im‡ri. fiessir menn hƒf›u a›ra menn at undir sér, flá er sumir ƒnnu›usk um eign sta›arins e›a lƒnd, en sumir um vinnu 135 e›a a›ra i›ju á sta›num, sumir at hir›a verkfœri e›r grei›a fyrir um verkrei›a, ‹sumir› til fer›a, sumir til atflutninga til sta›arins, sumir at fljóna fátœkum mƒnnum, ok var byskup áminnandi at flat væri myskunn- 138 samliga gjƒrt, sumir at taka vi› gestum ok veita fleim beina,13 flví at á hverri hátí› sóttu menn á fund byskups, hundra› manna e›a stundum tvau hundru› e›a nƒkkuru fleiri, flví at hinn heilagi Jón byskup haf›i

115–16 inserted from H. 128 inserted from H. 130 Hámunda S. 133–38 ﬁessir . . . beina thus H. XIV: Jóns saga helga 185

flat í formælum sínum at honum flótti flví at einu til fulls ef hverr ma›r 141 í ‹hans s‡slu ok allra helzt innan› hera›s, sá er fƒng hef›i á, kœmi um sinn hit sjaldnasta at vitja sta›arins at Hólum á tólf mánu›um. Ok fyrir flá sƒk var› flar svá fjƒlmennt at skírdegi e›a páskum at flar skorti flá 144 eigi fjƒgur hundru› manna allt saman, karlar ok konur. Ok fló at margir af flessum mƒnnum hef›i vistir me› sér, flá váru hinir fleiri er á byskups kosti váru, ok af honum váru saddir bæ›i andligri fœzlu ok líkamligri, 147 ok styrktir me› byskupligri blezan fóru me› fagna›i til sinna heim- kynna. Margir si›látir menn ré›usk flangat heim til sta›arins ok gáfu fé 150 me› sér, en sumir fœddu sik sjálfir til fless at hl‡›a kenningum byskups ok tí›agjƒr›, ok gjƒr›u sér hús umhverfis kirkjugar›inn. Heilagr Jón byskup tók marga menn til læringar ok fekk til gó›a 153 meistara at kenna fleim, Gísla Finnason, er fyrr gátum vér, at kenna grammaticam, en ‹einn franzeis,› Ríkina prest, kapulán sinn ok ástvin, at kenna sƒng e›a versagjƒr›, flví at hann var ok hinn mesti lærdómsma›r.14 156 fiá var flat ekki hús náliga er eigi væri nƒkkut i›nat í flat er til nytsem›ar var. fiat var hinna ellri manna háttr at kenna hinum yngrum, en hinir yngri ritu›u flá er náms var› í milli. fieir váru allir samflykkir, ok eigi 159 deildu fleir ok engi ƒfunda›i annan. Ok flegar er til var hringt tí›a, flá kómu fleir flar allir ok fluttu fram tí›ir sínar me› miklum athuga. Var ekki at heyra í kórinn nema fagr sƒngr ok heilagt bœnahald. Hinir ellri 162 menn kunnu sér at vera vel si›a›ir, en smásveinar váru svá hirtir af meistƒrum sínum at fleir skyldu eigi treystask me› gáleysi at fara. Allir hinir sœmiligstu kennimenn í Nor›lendingafjór›ungi váru 165 nƒkkura hrí› til náms at Hólum, flá sem várr aldr, segir bró›ir Gunnlaugr, mátti muna, sumir af barndómi, sumir á fulltí›a aldri. Margir af sag›ra meistara lærisveinum ƒndu›usk á várum dƒgum. 168 En einn af fleim var› Ísleifr Hallsson, hvern Jón byskup œskti at ver›a skyldi byskup næst eptir hann ok téna›armann15 síns byskupsdóms ef hann mœddi elli, en hann anda›isk fyrr en herra byskup. En at ek 171 nefna nƒkkura sag›ra lærisveina, flá er ek sá mínum augum, var einn af fleim Klœngr er sí›an var byskup í Skál‹a›holti. Var hann tólf vetra gamall á hendi fólginn Jóni byskupi af mó›ur sinni til frœ›ináms, ok 174 var› hann hinn bezti klerkr ok var lengi sí›an sœmiligr kennima›r í Hólakirkju, hinn mesti upphaldsma›r kristninnar, prédikandi fagrliga

142 inserted from H. hera›inu S. til S. 155 inserted from L. 165–91 from L. 186 XIV: Jóns saga helga

177 Gu›s or› undir stjórn ok yfirbo›i tveggja Hólabyskupa, Ketils ok Bjarnar. Haf›i hann marga vaska lærisveina undir sér, ritandi bœkr margar ok merkiligar, flær sem enn tjásk at Hólum ok ví›a annars 180 sta›ar. Vilmundr var flar ok lær›r, er fyrstr var ábóti á fiingeyrum, svá ok Hreinn er flar var hinn flri›i ábóti. Margir váru ok flar a›rir í skóla, fleir er sí›an ur›u mektugir kennimenn, Ísleifr Grímsson, frændi 183 byskups, Jón svarti, Bjarni Bergflórsson, Bjƒrn, er sí›an var hinn flri›i byskup at Hólum, ok margir a›rir fleir er langt er frá at segja. fiar var ok í frœ›inæmi hreinfer›ug jungfrú er Ingunn hét. Øngum flessum 186 var hon lægri í sƒg›um bóklistum. Kenndi hon mƒrgum grammaticam ok frœddi hvern er nema vildi. Ur›u flví margir val menntir undir hennar hendi. Hon rétti mjƒk latínubœkr, svá at hon lét lesa fyrir sér, 189 en hon sjálf sauma›i, tefldi e›a ‹vann› a›rar hannyr›ir me›r heilagra manna sƒgum, kynnandi mƒnnum Gu›s d‡r› eigi at eins me›r or›um munnnáms heldr ok me›r verkum handanna.16

187 margir val repeated. XIV: Jóns saga helga 187

Notes

1 at leyndum dómi Gu›s = Latin occulto Dei iudicio. Cf. XIII:13 above and note.

2 According to H and L, Bishop Jón shipped a cargo of Norwegian timber to Iceland on his return voyage from Lund. (Icelanders had the right to free timber from Norwegian forests that were royal property; cf. Laws II 211.) This information is omitted in S. Oxi Hjaltason’s church was probably built about 1050. It is not known when it burned down and when it was replaced by the church Bishop Jón demolished to make way for his new cathedral. Jón’s church stood, though repaired from time to time, until about 1290.

3 ﬁóroddr is called Gamlason in H and L. He has been identified as the ﬁóroddr rúnameistari mentioned in connection with a grammatical treatise, possibly the man of the same name who was a householder in Dalas‡sla (western Iceland) in the first half of the twelfth century.

4 ok enn sér merki húsanna is absent in H. L has hvern [sc. skóla] vér sám me› várum augum, segir bró›ir Gunnlaugr, er latínusƒguna hefir saman sett.

5 ‘Let your light so shine before men, that they may see your good works, and glorify your Father which is in heaven’ (Matt. 5: 16).

6 The Apostles’ creed and the Lord’s prayer were obligatory learning; see Laws I 26. In the course of the thirteenth century the Hail Mary was included as part of this basic Christian knowledge. The ultimate source for the seven canonical hours observed daily by men in secular orders and members of monastic foundations was Psalm 119: 164 (Vulgate 118: 164), ‘Seven times a day do I praise thee . . .’ (so in the Authorised Version). Laymen were also encouraged to observe them as far as possible.

7 The reform which abolished old weekday names that had reference to pagan deities is attributed to St Silvester (pope 313–35). It became common form in the Latin liturgical calendar but elsewhere in Western Europe was effective, at least in large part, only in Icelandic and Portuguese. 188 XIV: Jóns saga helga

8 Exchange of scurrilous or lewd verses, often impromptu, is attested in various sources though, naturally enough, few texts of this kind have survived. Such pastimes were always frowned on by churchmen. Mansƒngr, literally ‘maid-song’, referred to love-poetry in general; making and repeating such verse could be counted an offence punish- able at law; see Laws II 198. The term mansƒngr was later used of the conventional introduction to rímur, often addressed to a lady or ladies, but not always with love as the theme. See e.g. W. A. Craigie, Specimens of Icelandic Rímur I (1952), 291–93; T. Gunnell, The Origins of Drama in Scandinavia (1995), 85–86, 144, 346–48.

9 Ovid’s verse-epistles are Epistulae Heroidum and Epistulae ex Ponto, and presumably the title in S and H refers to the former (on the fateful loves of notable ladies). For the summary remark in S, Í fleiri bók b‡r mansƒngr mikill, H has: En í fleiri bók kennir fleim er les brƒg› til fless er horfir til saurlífis ok muna›semi; and L has: En í fleiri bók talar meistari Ovidius um kvenna ástir ok kennir me›r hverjum hætti menn skulu flær gilja ok nálgask fleira vilja. These descriptions and the account of Bishop Jón’s reaction are much more appropriate to Ovid’s Ars amatoria, as the title in L, de arte, makes explicit. The switch to [liber] Epistolarum in the joint source of S and H may stem from some editorial delicacy. All Ovid’s works, including the Art of Love, were common school reading in the Middle Ages.

10 The object of líkna›i is ﬂá sƒmu menn . . . ﬂeim inum sƒmum. The first phrase is acc., the second dat.; líkna normally takes the dat., and the explanation of the discrepancy is presumably that the writer did not know what verb was to come when he began writing the sentence. Cf. I:27 note above and Gr 3.9.8.2.

11 The words Skƒrugliga . . . kómu are introduced from H.

12 These men and Bishop Jón’s wife, Valdís, are not mentioned in other sources.

13 fiessir menn (line 133) . . . veita fleim beina: thus H. S has: fiessir menn ƒnnu›usk mest flat er til sta›arins kom ok skipu›u mƒnnum til s‡slu, sumum til atflutningar vi› sta›inn um flá hluti er ‹vi› flótti› flurfa. Sumir váru settir til verkna›ar, sumir at fljóna fátœkum mƒnnum, ok var byskup vandr at flví at flat væri miskunnsamliga gjƒrt, XIV: Jóns saga helga 189 sumir at taka vi› gestum. L says only: Sumir menn váru skipa›ir at taka me›r gestum.

14 Ríkini has a German name and was probably Frankish rather than French. The description, einn franzeis, is in L, not in S; H lacks this paragraph and the rest of the extract.

15 -mann: the case form is influenced by hvern, and would be correct in an acc. and inf. construction after œskti. It is possibly an instance of anacoluthon rather than an instance of the acc. form mann for nom. ma›r, a substitution sometimes found in late fourteenth-century manuscripts.

16 Lines 165–91 are from the L recension. A comparable passage in S is an abridgment of a similar text. Ketill fiorsteinsson was bishop of Hólar 1122–45, Bjƒrn Gilsson 1147–62. Vilmundr fiórólfsson was the first abbot of fiingeyrar, 1133–48; Hreinn Styrmisson was the third abbot there, 1166–71. The identity of Ísleifr Grímsson and Jón svarti is uncertain. Bjarni Bergflórsson is thought to be a priest of that name who is mentioned in other sources as an expert in computus (mathematics and astronomy) and nicknamed inn tƒlvisi; he died in 1173. Ingunn was probably the Ingu›r Arnórsdóttir who is recorded as an informant in a list in OddrÓT, a list which is thought to be derived from Gunnlaugr Leifsson’s work on the same king.

XV: Laxdœla saga 191

XV: LAXDŒLA SAGA

Laxdœla saga is generally thought to have been written about the middle of the thirteenth century, because of its fully developed style and structure, the reference made in it to earlier sagas and other written sources, and the apparent influence on it of European romance. At its centre is the ‘love triangle’ story involving Kjartan, Gu›rún and Bolli, which echoes, and probably draws upon, the plot common to poets’ sagas such as Kormaks saga and Bjarnar saga Hítdœlakappa (see Finlay 1997), but its range is much wider. It is the saga that perhaps most fully deserves the label ‘Family Saga’: not only is the descent of all the important characters traced from the one Norwegian chieftain, Ketill flatnefr, but many of the disputes that arise in its course involve family relationships, often the problematic ones between half- and foster-brothers, and marriage and divorce are among its prevailing themes. This in itself has the consequence that the role and concerns of women are unusually prominent in the saga, and the author’s evident interest in and sympathy for a woman’s point of view has led to speculation that the author may have been a woman (e.g. Kress 1986). It is not out of the question, of course, that a male author could enter into this point of view (an alternative candidate for authorship is Óláfr ﬁór›arson hvítaskáld, nephew of Snorri Sturlu- son and author of a treatise on prosody), particularly if, for whatever reason, he was writing for a predominantly female audience. The feminine perspective is clear from the beginning of the saga in the unusually prominent role given to Unnr in djúpú›ga, daughter of Ketill flatnefr, who takes on the conventionally masculine task of founding a settlement and a dynasty in Iceland; she is the ancestress of the Laxdœlir (‘people of Laxárdalr’), the family from whom the saga derives its name, and to which Kjartan and Bolli belong. The saga relates the evolution of this family over several generations before Gu›rún Ósvífrsdóttir (whose family is descended from one of Unnr’s brothers) is introduced. The unusual elaboration of this early part of the saga, which goes far beyond the brevity of the conventional saga prelude, has prompted much discussion of the saga’s structure; it is generally felt to introduce and define themes that play a part in the central conflict of the saga. Some have gone so far as to argue that, rather than building up a background against which Kjartan and Bolli can be seen as idealised and heroic figures (as Madelung 1972, for 192 XV: Laxdœla saga example, suggests), the opening chapters present Unnr as an exemplary figure, representing family loyalty and generosity, against which the behaviour of the three central figures is measured and found wanting (Conroy and Langen 1988). Ursula Dronke argues for a further moral decline in what she calls the ‘Age of Pewter’ (1979, 137) after the death of Kjartan. The position of Gu›rún as the focus of the saga is established not only by her dominant personality — believed to be partly modelled on two heroic women in the poems of the Poetic Edda, her namesake Gu›rún Gjúkadóttir and the valkyrie Brynhildr, who is also cheated of the man she should have married — but also by the saga’s marking out of her four marriages as a narrative sequence. This is achieved by Gu›rún’s four dreams in Chapter 33, which foreshadow the four marriages that the saga subsequently relates. The tidily predicted sequence is interrupted by her love for and loss of Kjartan, a pattern repeated in her dialogue at the very end of the saga with her son Bolli, who asks her ambiguously which man (ma›r ‘man’, but possibly also ‘husband’) she has loved most. At first she responds with a comparison of the four men she has married; but her final reply, ﬁeim var ek verst er ek unna mest (‘I treated worst the one I loved best’), must surely refer to Kjartan — though the question is debated to this day. The earliest surviving (but fragmentary) manuscripts of Laxdœla saga are from the end of the thirteenth century. The only complete medieval version of the saga is in the mid-fourteenth-century Mö›ru- vallabók, in which other Sagas of Icelanders (including Kormaks saga and Njáls saga) are also preserved (see p. 239 below). Editions of the saga are based on this text. The extract edited here follows the text of Mö›ruvallabók as it is represented in the editions of Kålund and Einar Ól. Sveinsson. The textual notes show where readings other than those of Mö›ruvallabók have been adopted; these readings are from late paper manuscripts, and may in many cases be scribal corrections. The Mö›ruvallabók text shows signs of later alteration which sometimes obscures the original reading; examples of this have not been noted here if the likely original reading is indicated by the evidence of other manuscripts. XV: Laxdœla saga 193

Bibliography Laxdœla saga, ed. Einar Ól. Sveinsson (1934). ÍF V. Laxdœla saga, ed. Kr. Kålund (1889–91). The Saga of the People of Laxardal, tr. Keneva Kunz. In CSI V 1–120. Other translations of the saga are reviewed in Auerbach 1998–2001. Loren Auerbach, ‘Female Experience and Authorial Intention in Laxdœla saga’. Saga-Book XXV (1998–2001), 30–52. Heinrich Beck, ‘Laxdœla saga — A Structural Approach’. Saga-Book XIX (1974–77), 383–402. Patricia Conroy and T. C. S. Langen, ‘Laxdœla saga: Theme and Structure’. Arkiv för nordisk filologi 103 (1988), 118–41. Robert Cook, ‘Women and Men in Laxdœla Saga’. Skáldskaparmál 2 (1992), 34–59. Ursula Dronke, ‘Narrative insight in Laxdœla saga’. In J. R. R. Tolkien, Scholar and Story-teller: Essays in Memoriam. Ed. Mary Salu and Robert T. Farrell (1979), 120–37. Alison Finlay, ‘Betrothal and Women’s Autonomy in Laxdœla saga and the Poets’ Sagas’. Skáldskaparmál 4 (1997), 107–28. Hjalmar Falk, Altwestnordische Kleiderkunde (1919). Judith Jesch, Women in the Viking Age (1991). Jenny Jochens, Women in Old Norse Society (1995). Helga Kress, ‘“You will find it all rather monotonous”; on Literary Tradition and the Feminine Experience in Laxdœla saga’. In The Nordic Mind. Current Trends in Scandinavian Literary Criticism. Ed. Frank Egholm Andersen and John Weinstock (1986), 181–95. [Originally published in Icelandic in Konur skrifa, til hei›urs Önnu Sigur›ardóttur (1980), 97– 109.] Laws of Early Iceland I–II, tr. A. Dennis et al. (1998–2000). Margaret Arendt Madelung, The Laxdœla Saga: Its Structural Patterns (1972). University of North Carolina Studies in the Germanic Languages and Literatures, 74. 194 XV: Laxdœla saga

XV: LAXDŒLA SAGA

Chapter 34: Af fiorvaldi fiorvaldr hét ma›r, sonr Halldórs Garpsdalsgo›a. Hann bjó í Garpsdal 3 í Gilsfir›i, au›igr ma›r ok engi hetja.1 Hann ba› Gu›rúnar Ósvífrs- dóttur á Alflingi flá er hon var fimmtán vetra gƒmul. fiví máli var eigi fjarri tekit, en fló sag›i Ósvífr at flat myndi á kostum finna, at flau 6 Gu›rún váru eigi jafnmenni. fiorvaldr tala›i óhar›fœrliga, kvazk konu bi›ja, en ekki fjár. Sí›an var Gu›rún fƒstnu› fiorvaldi, ok ré› Ósvífr einn máldaga, ok svá var skilt, at Gu›rún skyldi ein rá›a fyrir fé fleira 9 flegar er flau koma í eina rekkju, ok eiga alls helming, hvárt er samfarar fleira væri lengri e›a skemmri. Hann skyldi ok kaupa gripi til handa henni svá at engi jafnfjá› kona ætti betri gripi, en fló mætti hann 12 halda búi sínu fyrir flær sakar. Rí›a menn nú heim af flingi. Ekki var Gu›rún at flessu spur›, ok heldr ger›i hon sér at flessu ógetit, ok var fló kyrrt.2 Brú›kaup var í Garpsdal at tvímánu›i. Lítt unni Gu›rún 15 fiorvaldi ok var erfi› í gripakaupum; váru engar gersimar svá miklar á Vestfjƒr›um at Gu›rúnu flœtti eigi skapligt at hon ætti, en galt fjándskap fiorvaldi ef hann keypti eigi, hversu d‡rar sem metnar váru. 18 fiór›r Ingunnarson3 ger›i sér dátt vi› flau fiorvald ok Gu›rúnu ok var flar lƒngum, ok fell flar mƒrg umrœ›a á um kærleika fleira fiór›ar ok Gu›rúnar. fiat var eitt sinn at Gu›rún beiddi fiorvald gripakaups. 21 fiorvaldr kva› hana ekki hóf at kunna ok sló hana kinnhest.4 fiá mælti Gu›rún: ‘Nú gaftu mér flat er oss konum flykkir miklu skipta at vér eigim vel at 24 gƒrt, en flat er litarapt gott, ok af hefir flú mik rá›it brekvísi vi› flik.’ fiat sama kveld kom fiór›r flar. Gu›rún sag›i honum flessa svívir›ing ok spur›i hann hverju hon skyldi fletta launa. fiór›r brosti at ok mælti: 27 ‘Hér kann ek gott rá› til. Ger›u honum skyrtu ok brautgangs hƒfu›- smátt ok seg skilit vi› hann fyrir flessar sakar.’5 Eigi mælti Gu›rún í móti flessu, ok skilja flau talit. fiat sama vár 30 segir Gu›rún skilit vi› fiorvald ok fór heim til Lauga. Sí›an var gƒrt féskipti fleira fiorvalds ok Gu›rúnar, ok haf›i hon helming fjár alls, ok var nú meira en á›r. Tvá vetr hƒf›u flau ásamt verit. fiat sama vár 33 seldi Ingunn land sitt í Króksfir›i flat sem sí›an heitir á Ingunnar- stƒ›um, ok fór vestr á Skálmarnes; hana haf›i átt Glúmr Geirason,

3–4 svarat M. 13 ógott (?) M. 19 mjƒk M. 24 flú] written twice in M. XV: Laxdœla saga 195 sem fyrr var ritat. Í flenna tíma bjó Hallsteinn go›i á Hallsteinsnesi fyrir vestan fiorskafjƒr›; hann var ríkr ma›r ok ‹me›allagi› vinsæll. 36

Chapter 35: Af Kotkeli ok Grímu Kotkell hét ma›r er flá haf›i út komit fyrir litlu. Gríma hét kona hans; fleira synir váru fleir Hallbjƒrn slíkisteinsauga ok Stígandi. fiessir menn 39 váru su›reyskir. ¯ll váru flau mjƒk fjƒlkunnig ok inir mestu sei›menn. Hallsteinn go›i tók vi› fleim ok setti flau ni›r at Ur›um í Skálmar‹fir›i›, ok var fleira bygg› ekki vinsæl. 42 fietta sumar fór Gestr ‹til flings ok fór› á skipi til Saurbœjar sem hann var vanr. Hann gisti á Hóli í Saurbœ. fieir mágar lé›u honum hesta, sem fyrr var vant.6 fiór›r Ingunnarson var flá í fƒr me› Gesti ok kom 45 til Lauga í Sælingsdal. Gu›rún Ósvífrsdóttir rei› til flings ok fylg›i henni fiór›r Ingunnarson. fiat var einn dag er flau ri›u yfir Bláskóga- hei›i — var á ve›r gott — flá mælti Gu›rún: 48 ‘Hvárt er flat satt, fiór›r, at Au›r, kona flín, er jafnan í brókum ok setgeiri í, en vafit spjƒrrum mjƒk í skúa ni›r?’7 Hann kvazk ekki hafa til fless fundit. 51 ‘Lítit brag› mun flá at,’ segir Gu›rún, ‘ef flú finnr eigi, ok fyrir hvat skal hon flá heita Bróka-Au›r?’ fiór›r mælti, ‘Vér ætlum hana litla hrí› svá hafa verit kalla›a.’ 54 Gu›rún svarar, ‘Hitt skiptir hana in meira, at hon eigi fletta nafn lengi sí›an.’ Eptir flat kómu menn til flings; er flar allt tí›indalaust. fiór›r var 57 lƒngum í bú› Gests ok tala›i jafnan vi› Gu›rúnu. Einn dag spur›i fiór›r Ingunnarson Gu›rúnu hvat konu var›a›i ef hon væri í brókum jafnan svá sem karlar. ‹Gu›rún svarar:› 60 ‘Slíkt víti á konum at skapa fyrir flat á sitt hóf sem karlmanni, ef hann hefir hƒfu›smátt ‹svá› mikla at sjái geirvƒrtur hans berar, braut- gangssƒk hvárttveggja.’8 63 fiá mælti fiór›r, ‘Hvárt ræ›r flú mér at ek segja skilit vi› Au›i hér á flingi e›a í hera›i, ok gera ek flat vi› fleiri manna ‹rá››, flví at menn eru skapstórir, fleir er sér mun flikj‹a› misbo›it í flessu?’ 66 Gu›rún svarar stundu sí›ar, ‘Aptans bí›r óframs sƒk.’ fiá spratt fiór›r flegar upp ok gekk til Lƒgbergs ok nefndi sér vátta at hann segir skilit vi› Au›i, ok fann flat til saka at hon skarsk í 69 setgeirabrœkr sem karlkonur.9 Brœ›rum Au›ar líkar illa ok er fló kyrrt. 196 XV: Laxdœla saga

fiór›r rí›r af flingi med fleim Ósvífrssonum. En er Au›r spyrr flessi 72 tí›indi, flá mælti hon: Vel er ek veit flat, var ek ein um látin. 75 Sí›an rei› fiór›r til féskiptis vestr til Saurbœjar me› tólfta mann ok gekk flat greitt, flví at fiór›i var óspart um hversu fénu var skipt. fiór›r rak vestan til Lauga mart búfé. Sí›an ba› hann Gu›rúnar; var honum 78 flat mál au›sótt vi› Ósvífr, en Gu›rún mælti ekki í móti. Brullaup skyldi vera at Laugum at tíu viku‹m› sumars; var sú veizla allskƒrulig. Samfƒr fleira fiór›ar ok Gu›rúnar var gó›. fiat eitt helt til at fiorkell 81 hvelpr ok Knútr fóru eigi málum á hendr fiór›i Ingunnarsyni, at fleir fengu eigi styrk til. Annat sumar eptir hƒf›u Hólsmenn selfƒr í Hvamms- dal; ‹var› Au›r at seli. Laugamenn hƒf›u selfƒr í Lambadal; sá gengr 84 v‹est›r í fjƒllin af Sælingsdal. Au›r spyrr flann mann er smalans gætti hversu opt hann fyndi smalamann frá Laugum. Hann kva› flat jafnan vera, sem líkligt var, flví at háls einn var á milli seljanna. fiá mælti Au›r: 87 ‘fiú skalt hitta í dag smalamann frá Laugum, ok máttu segja mér hvat manna er at vetrhúsum e›a í seli, ok rœ› allt vingjarnliga til fiór›ar, sem flú átt at gera.’ 90 Sveinninn heitr at gera svá sem hon mælti. En um kveldit, er smalama›r kom heim, spyrr Au›r tí›inda. Smalama›rinn svarar: ‘Spurt hefi ek flau tí›indi er flér munu flykkja gó›, at nú er breitt 93 hvílugólf milli rúma fleira fiór›ar ok Gu›rúnar, flví at hon er í seli en hann heljask á skálasmí›, ok eru fleir Ósvífr tveir at vetrhúsum.’ ‘Vel hefir flú njósnat,’ segir hon, ‘ok haf sƒ›lat hesta tvá er menn 96 fara at sofa.’ Smalasveinn ger›i sem hon bau›, ok nƒkkuru fyrir sólarfall sté Au›r á bak, ok var hon flá at vísu í brókum. Smalasveinn rei› ƒ›rum 99 hesti ok gat varla fylgt henni, svá knú›i hon fast rei›ina. Hon rei› su›r yfir Sælingsdalshei›i ok nam eigi sta›ar fyrr en undir túngar›i at Laugum. fiá sté hon af baki, en ba› smalasveininn gæta hestanna 102 me›an hon gengi til húss. Au›r gekk at durum ok ‹var opin hur››; hon gekk til eldhúss ok at lokrekkju fleiri er fiór›r lá í ok svaf. Var hur›in fallin aptr en eigi 105 lokan fyrir. Hon gekk í lokrekkjuna, en fiór›r svaf ok horf›i í lopt

82 Lamba- M. 84 at baki dalnum M. 85 fiór›ar M. 86 dalrinn M. ánna M. 103 inn M. 105 at lockreckiunni M. XV: Laxdœla saga 197 upp. fiá vak›i Au›r fiór›, en hann snerisk á hli›ina er hann sá at ma›r var kominn. Hon brá flá saxi ok lag›i at fiór›i ok veitti honum áverka mikla ok kom á hƒndina hœgri; var› hann sárr á bá›um geirvƒrtum. 108 Svá lag›i hon til fast at saxit nam í be›inum sta›ar. Sí›an gekk Au›r brott ok til hests ok hljóp á bak ok rei› heim eptir flat. fiór›r vildi upp spretta er hann fekk áverkann, ok var› flat ekki, flví 111 at hann mœddi bló›rás. Vi› fletta vakna›i Ósvífr ok spyrr hvat títt væri, en fiór›r kvazk or›inn fyrir áverkum nƒkkurum. Ósvífr spyrr ef hann vissi hverr á honum hef›i unnit, ok stó› upp ok batt um sár 114 hans. fiór›r kvazk ætla at flat hef›i Au›r gƒrt. Ósvífr bau› at rí›a eptir henni; kva› hana fámenna til mundu hafa farit, ok væri henni skapat víti. fiór›r kva› flat fjarri skyldu fara; sag›i hana slíkt hafa at 117 gƒrt sem hon átti. Au›r kom heim í sólarupprás, ok spur›u fleir brœ›r hennar hvert hon hef›i farit. Au›r kvazk farit hafa til Lauga ok sag›i fleim hvat til 120 tí›inda haf›i gƒrzk í fƒrum hennar. fieir létu vel yfir ok kvá›u of lítit mundu at or›it. fiór›r lá lengi í sárum, ok greru vel bringusárin, en sú hƒndin var› honum hvergi betri til taks en á›r. 123 Kyrrt var nú um vetrinn. En eptir um várit kom Ingunn, mó›ir fiór›ar, vestan af Skálmarnesi. Hann tók vel vi› henni. Hon kvazk vilja rá›ask undir árabur› fiór›ar; kva› hon Kotkel ‹ok konu hans ok sonu› gera 126 sér óvært í fjárránum ok fjƒlkynngi, en hafa mikit traust af Hallsteini go›a. fiór›r veiksk skjótt vi› fletta mál ok kvazk hafa skyldu rétt af fljófum fleim flótt Hallsteinn væri at móti; snarask flegar til fer›ar vi› 129 tíunda mann. Ingunn fór ok vestr me› honum. Hann haf›i ferju ór Tjaldanesi. Sí›an heldu flau vestr til Skálmarness. fiór›r lét flytja til skips allt lausafé flat er mó›ir hans átti flar, en smala skyldi reka fyrir 132 innan fjƒr›u. Tólf váru flau alls á skipi; flar var Ingunn ok ƒnnur kona. fiór›r kom til bœjar Kotkels me› tíunda mann; synir fleira Kotkels váru eigi heima. Sí›an stefndi hann fleim Kotkeli ok Grímu ok sonum 135 fleira um fljófna› ok fjƒlkynngi ok lét var›a skóggang; hann stefndi sƒkum fleim til Alflingis ok fór til skips eptir flat. fiá kómu fleir Hallbjƒrn ok Stígandi heim er fiór›r var kominn frá 138 landi, ok fló skammt; sag›i Kotkell flá sonum sínum hvat flar haf›i í gƒrzk me›an fleir váru eigi heima. fieir brœ›r ur›u ó›ir vi› fletta ok kvá›u menn ekki hafa fyrr gengit í berhƒgg vi› flau um svá mikinn 141

140 ﬂat M. 198 XV: Laxdœla saga

fjándskap. Sí›an lét Kotkell gera sei›hjall mikinn; flau fœr›usk flar á upp ƒll; flau kvá›u flar ‹har›snúin› frœ›i. fiat váru galdrar.10 fiví næst 144 laust á hrí› mikilli. fiat fann fiór›r Ingunnarson ok hans fƒrunautar, ‹flar sem hann var á sæ staddr›, ok til hans var gƒrt ve›rit. Keyrir skipit vestr fyrir Skálmarnes. fiór›r s‡ndi mikinn hraustleik í sæli›i. 147 fiat sá fleir menn er á landi váru at hann kasta›i flví ƒllu er til flunga var, útan mƒnnum. Væntu fleir menn er á landi váru fiór›i flá landtƒku, flví at flá var af farit flat sem skerjóttast var. Sí›an reis bo›i skammt 150 frá landi, sá er engi ma›r mun›i at fyrr hef›i uppi verit, ok laust skipit svá at flegar horf›i upp kjƒlrinn. fiar drukkna›i fiór›r ok allt fƒruneyti hans, en skipit braut í spán, ok rak flar kjƒlinn er sí›an heitir 153 Kjalarey; skjƒld fiór›ar rak í flá ey er Skjaldarey er kƒllu›. Lík fiór›ar rak flar flegar á land ok hans fƒrunauta; var flar haugr orpinn at líkum fleira, flar er sí›an heitir Haugsnes.

143 frœ›i] + sín, en M. XV: Laxdœla saga 199

Notes

1 ﬁorvaldr and his father Halldórr, together with their location in Garpsdalr and ﬁorvaldr’s marriage to Gu›rún, are mentioned in Landnámabók (ÍF I 160).

2 The medieval collection of laws Grágás, written mostly in the thirteenth century but incorporating earlier material, confirms that betrothal was a contract between the prospective husband and the bride’s male relatives (Laws II 53). Some saga narratives, however, represent women protesting at not being consulted (e.g. Laxdœla saga ch. 23), or suggest that a marriage arranged without the bride’s consent could end in disaster (Njáls saga chs 9–11). Jenny Jochens (1995, 44–48) argues that this emphasis on consent arose as a response to the Church’s insistence on marriage as a contract between equal partners.

3 ﬁór›r was the son of the poet Glúmr Geirason (referred to in line 34), some of whose verses in honour of sons of King Haraldr hárfagri of Norway are cited in the Kings’ Sagas, but his second name derives from the name of his mother Ingunn. He is said in Laxdœla saga (ÍF V 87) to be sakama›r mikill ‘much given to lawsuits’; his taste for litigation is evident in this extract and leads to his downfall.

4 In other sagas too, the disgrace of a slap in the face triggers a wife’s rebellion against her husband (Bjarnar saga Hítdœlakappa ch. 12, Eyrbyggja saga ch. 14, Njáls saga chs 11, 16, 48).

5 Grágás (Laws II 63–66) refers to the possibility of divorce instigated by either party (though in this later, Christian, context the permission of the bishop is to be sought in many cases). On the basis of observations made by Arab and other visitors to Viking cultures (Jesch 91–92), as well as numerous references to divorce in the Sagas of Icelanders, this situation is generally thought to represent the remaining traces of a more liberal pre-Christian system of divorce virtually on demand, on grounds such as dishonour, or sexual or other incompatibility (Jochens 55–60). The wearing of women’s clothes, such as the low- cut shirt referred to here, by a man was an offence in law (see note 8 below), but nowhere else is this referred to as grounds for divorce. 200 XV: Laxdœla saga

6 The Gestr referred to is Gestr Oddleifsson, well-known in Laxdœla saga and elsewhere for his ability to foretell the future (in Chapter 33 he interprets the dreams of Gu›rún as foreshadowing her four marriages). It is said on his introduction to the saga that he is in the habit of staying at Hóll with ﬁór›r and his two brothers-in-law (the mágar referred to here) on his way to the Alﬂingi.

7 Brœkr ‘breeches’ here denotes an exclusively male garment. Falk (1919, 121) considers that the word could also apply to a garment worn by women (and that this is what makes Skarphe›inn’s gift to Flosi of brœkr blár in chapter 123 of Njáls saga insulting), but that the feminine version would be open around the legs; in this case it is the additional specification of a piece let in to form the seat (setgeiri í) that identifies it as masculine wear. The word spjarrar has sometimes been taken to refer to the integral socks attached to one kind of (men’s) trousers (leistabrœkr), but probably means bands of cloth wrapped around the lower legs; this is mentioned elsewhere as male dress.

8 Wearing clothes proper to the opposite sex is prohibited in Grágás (Laws II 69–70), but is not said there to be grounds for divorce: ‘If women become so deviant that they wear men’s clothing, or whatever male fashion they adopt in order to be different, and likewise if men adopt women’s fashion, whatever form it takes, then the penalty for that, whichever of them does it, is lesser outlawry.’

9 karlkonur, plural of karlkona ‘masculine woman’, is found only in Mö›ruvallabók (other manuscripts have karlma›r ‘man’ or karlar ‘men’). The word does not occur in any other text.

10 The most detailed account of the practice of the magic rite called sei›r, in chapter 4 of Eiríks saga rau›a, also refers to a pedestal or platform on which the witch sits, in that case surrounded by women, one of whom chants a traditional poem, corresponding to the galdrar referred to here. The songs of the magician-family are said later in Laxdœla saga to sound pleasant (fƒgr var sú kve›andi at heyra); on this later occasion they cause the victim’s immediate death, but more usually sei›r operates by influencing the weather, as in the case of ﬁór›r. XVI: Au›unar ﬂáttr 201

XVI: AU‹UNAR ﬁÁTTR

The word fláttr (pl. flættir) in Old Icelandic meant literally ‘a strand in a rope’, but early developed various metaphorical meanings with the basic sense of ‘a subsidiary part of something’. As a literary term it meant a short prose narrative constituting a chapter or integral episode in a saga. Though a few narratives that are classed as flættir are found as independent stories in manuscripts, the majority are found as parts of sagas, particularly Sagas of Kings. One group is associated with the missionary kings Óláfr Tryggvason and Óláfr Haraldsson, the saint, and the sagas of these kings contain various flættir relating to the victory of Christianity over heathendom in the late tenth and eleventh centuries. But the largest group of flættir is found in sagas of Haraldr har›rá›i (king of Norway 1046–66); some of these relate to the conflict between Haraldr har›rá›i and his kinsman Magnús gó›i Óláfsson during the period of their joint rule over Norway c.1046 (see MS, s.v. fláttr). Many of the flættir may be older than the sagas in which they are preserved, and may originally have been independent stories. Linguistic archaisms in some of them (e.g., in Au›unar fláttr, of, fyr, flars and the suffixed pronoun -k) suggest that they may come from the earliest period of saga-writing in Iceland, the late twelfth century; there is little to support the idea that they were orally composed, but they are all anonymous. The majority that have survived have Icelanders as their main characters (there are 49 so-called Íslendinga flættir, ‘Tales of Icelanders’, in CSI), though these are often unhistorical and their adventures fictional. The story is often about how an insignificant Icelander travels abroad to a foreign (usually Norwegian) court and surmounts various difficulties to get the better of the foreigners, including the ruler himself, and returns to Iceland having made his fortune. Though the settings are historical, the events are mostly of minor historical significance. But the way in which these stories must have supported the developing feeling of Icelandic identity and national pride is obvious. Au›unar fláttr follows this last pattern. Though nothing that happens in the story is impossible (gifts of polar bears from the Arctic to European rulers were not all that uncommon in the Middle Ages), it clearly has affinities to folk-tales (see ÍF VI, c–civ). Great emphasis is laid on the hero’s gæfa or gipta ‘luck’, ‘good fortune’ (a sort of innate power emanating from a person predisposing his undertakings to 202 XVI: Au›unar fláttr success), though Au›unn is also presented as having a deal of skill in managing the eminent persons with whom he comes into contact. Au›unn is not known from other sources, though the fláttr says he came from the Western Fjords of Iceland (line 2) and the historical fiorsteinn Gy›uson (d. 1190; mentioned in Sturlunga saga, Gu›mundar saga biskups and Icelandic annals; he lived on Flatey in Brei›afjƒr›r) is said to be descended from him (line 191 below). The story is supposed to take place about 1050–60 (the hostilities between Norway and Denmark referred to in line 33 continued, off and on, from soon after Magnús Óláfsson’s death in 1047 until 1064; the events of these years are described in detail in Morkinskinna, Fagrskinna and Heimskringla; see Gwyn Jones, A History of the Vikings (1984), 406–08). Au›unar fláttr survives in three versions. One is in Morkinskinna (GkS 1009 fol., written c.1275), a history of the kings of Norway from 1035–1177 probably first compiled c.1220 (see p. 57 above). A second is in Flateyjarbók (GKS 1005 fol.), a huge compilation of Kings’ Sagas and other texts, written c.1387–1395, with additions made c.1450– 1500; Au›unar fláttr is among these additions, in the saga of the kings Magnús Óláfsson and Haraldr har›rá›i in a redaction deriving mainly from the original Morkinskinna compilation. The third version appears in two later compilations of Kings’ Sagas, Hulda (AM 66 fol., c.1350– 1375) and Hrokkinskinna (GKS 1010 fol., c.1400–1450), which are also derived from the original Morkinskinna compilation, but have a text more similar to that in Flateyjarbók than to that in GkS 1009 fol. (see MS, s.v. Hulda–Hrokkinskinna). The version in GkS 1009 fol. seems likely to be closest to the original of the three, though it has probably been shortened, while each of the three versions contains some details that are not in either of the others. XVI: Au›unar fláttr 203

Bibliography The Morkinskinna text is printed with original spelling in Morkinskinna, ed. Finnur Jónsson (1932), 180–87, and in normalised spelling in ION 129–35 and ÍF VI, 359–68; the Flateyjarbók text is in Flateyjarbók, ed. Sigur›ur Nordal (1944–45), IV 195–200. There is a translation in CSI I 369–74 and translation and discussion in Arnold R. Taylor, ‘Au›unn and the Bear’, Saga-Book XIII (1946–53), 78– 96. The Morkinskinna version is also translated in Eirik the Red and Other Icelandic Sagas, tr. Gwyn Jones (The World’s Classics, 1961), 163–70, and the Flateyjarbók version in Hrafnkel’s Saga and Other Icelandic Stories, tr. Hermann Pálsson (Penguin Books 1971), 121–28. See also MS, s.v. Au›unar fláttr vestfirzka; Joseph Harris, ‘Theme and Genre in Some Íslendinga flættir’, Scandinavian Studies 48 (1976), 1–28. There is a translation of the whole of the Morkinskinna compilation in Morkinskinna: The Earliest Icelandic Chronicle of the Norwegian Kings (1030–1157) by Theodore M. Andersson and Kari Ellen Gade (2000). 204 XVI: Au›unar fláttr

XVI: AU‹UNAR ﬁÁTTR

Frá ﬂví er Au›unn enn vestfirzki fœr›i Sveini konungi bjarnd‡ri

Ma›r hét Au›unn, vestfirzkr at kyni ok félítill. Hann fór útan vestr flar 3 í fjƒr›um me› umbrá›i fiorsteins, búanda gó›s, ok fióris st‡rimanns, er flar haf›i flegit vist of vetrinn me› fiorsteini. Au›unn var ok flar ok starfa›i firir honum fióri ok flá flessi laun af honum, útanfer›ina ok 6 hans umsjá. Hann Au›unn lag›i mestan hluta fjár fless er var fyr mó›ur sína á›r hann stigi á skip, ok var kve›it á flriggja vetra bjƒrg. Ok nú fara fleir út he›an, ok fers‹k› fleim vel, ok var Au›unn of vetrinn eptir 9 me› fióri st‡rimanni — hann átti bú á Mœri. Ok um sumarit eptir fara fleir út til Grœnlands ok eru ‹flar› of vetrinn. fiess er vi› getit, at Au›unn kaupir flar bjarnd‡ri eitt, gjƒrsimi mikla, ok gaf flar firir alla eigu sína. 12 Ok nú of sumarit eptir flá fara fleir aptr til Nóregs ok ver›a vel rei›fara; hefir Au›unn d‡r sitt me› sér ok ætlar nú at fara su›r til Danmerkr á fund Sveins konungs ok gefa honum d‡rit. Ok er hann kom su›r í 15 landit flar sem konungr var firir, flá gengr hann upp af skipi ok lei›ir eptir sér d‡rit ok leigir sér herbergi. Haraldi konungi var sagt brátt at flar var komit bjarnd‡ri, gørsimi mikil, ok á íslenzkr ma›r. Konungr 18 sendir flegar menn eptir honum, ok er Au›unn kom firir konung, kve›r hann konung vel. Konungr tók vel kve›ju hans ok spur›i sí›an: ‘Áttu gjƒrsimi mikla í bjarnd‡ri?’ 21 Hann svarar ok kvezk eiga d‡rit eitthvert. Konungr mælti, ‘Villtu selja oss d‡rit vi› slíku ver›i sem flú keyptir?’ Hann svara›i, ‘Eigi vil ek flat, herra.’ 24 ‘Villtu flá,’ sag›i konungr, ‘at ek gefa flér tvau ver› slík, ok mun flat réttara, ef flú hefir flar vi› gefit alla flína eigu?’ ‘Eigi vil ek flat, herra,’ sag›i hann. 27 Konungr mælti, ‘Villtu gefa mér flá?’ Hann svara›i, ‘Eigi, herra.’ Konungr mælti, ‘Hvat villtu flá af gjƒra?’ 30 Hann svara›i, ‘Fara,’ segir ‹hann›, ‘til Danmerkr ok gefa Sveini konungi.’ Haraldr konungr sag›i: ‘Hvárt er at flú ert ma›r svá óvitr at flú hefir 33 eigi heyrt ófri› flann er í milli er landa flessa, e›a ætlar flú giptu flína

4 of M. 11 sínu M. 13 me› written twice over line break M. 25 flína written twice over line break M. XVI: Au›unar fláttr 205 svá mikla at flú munir flar komask me› gjƒrsimar er a›rir fá eigi komizk klakklaust fló at nau›syn eigi til?’ Au›unn svara›i, ‘Herra, flat er á y›ru valdi, en øngu játum vér ƒ›ru 36 en flessu er vér hƒfum á›r ætlat.’ fiá mælti konungr, ‘Hví mun eigi flat til at flú farir lei› flína sem flú vill, ok kom flá til mín er flú ferr aptr, ok seg mér hversu Sveinn konungr 39 launar flér d‡rit, ok kann flat vera at flú sér gæfuma›r.’ ‘fiví heit ek flér,’ sag›i Au›unn. Hann ferr nú sí›an su›r me› landi ok í Vik austr ok flá til Danmerkr; 42 ok er flá uppi hverr penningr fjárins, ok ver›r hann flá bi›ja matar bæ›i fyr sik ok fyr d‡rit. Hann kømr á fund ármanns Sveins konungs fless er Áki hét, ok ba› hann vista nokkverra bæ›i fyr sik ok fyr d‡rit. 45 ‘Ek ætla,’ sag›i hann, ‘at gefa Sveini konungi d‡rit.’ Áki lézk selja mindu honum vistir ef hann vildi. Au›unn kvezk ekki til hafa firir at gefa. 48 ‘En ek vilda fló,’ sag›i hann, ‘at fletta kvæmisk til lei›ar at ek mætta d‡rit fœra konungi.’ ‘Ek mun fá flér vistir sem it flurfi› til konungs fundar, en flar í móti 51 vil ek eiga hálft d‡rit, ok máttu á flat líta at d‡rit mun deyja fyrir flér, flars it flurfu› vistir miklar, en fé sé farit, ok er búit vi› at flú hafir flá ekki d‡rsins.’ 54 Ok er hann lítr á fletta, s‡nisk honum nƒkkvot eptir sem árma›rinn mælti firir honum, ok sættask fleir á fletta, at hann selr Áka hálft d‡rit, ok skal konungr sí›an meta allt saman. Skulu fleir fara bá›ir nú á fund 57 konungs, ok svá gjƒra fleir, fara nú bá›ir á fund konungs ok stó›u fyr bor›inu. Konungr íhuga›i hverr flessi ma›r mindi ‹vera› er hann kenndi eigi, ok mælti sí›an til Au›unar: 60 ‘Hverr ertu?’ sag›i hann. Hann svara›i, ‘Ek em íslenzkr ma›r, herra,’ sag›i hann, ‘ok kominn nú útan af Grœnlandi ok nú af Nóregi, ok ætla›ak at fœra y›r bjarnd‡r 63 fletta; keyptak flat me› allri eigu minni, ok nú er fló á or›it mikit fyrir mér: ek á nú hálft eitt d‡rit’ — ok sag›i konungi sí›an hversu farit haf›i me› fleim Áka ármanni hans. Konungr mælti: 66 ‘Er flat satt, Áki, er hann segir?’ ‘Satt er flat,’ sag›i hann. Konungr mælti, ‘Ok flótti flér flat til liggja, flar sem ek settak flik 69 mikinn mann, at hepta flat e›a tálma er ma›r gjƒr›isk til at fœra mér

36 ƒ›ru M. 59 íhuga›i written twice over line break M. 70 melma M. 206 XVI: Au›unar ﬂáttr

gørsimi ok gaf fyr alla eign, ok sá flat Haraldr konungr at rá›i at láta 72 hann fara í fri›i, ok er hann várr óvinr? Hygg flú at flá, hvé sannligt flat var flinnar handar, ok flat væri makligt at flú værir drepinn. En ek mon nú eigi flat gjƒra, en braut skaltu fara flegar ór landinu ok koma aldrigi 75 aptr sí›an mér í augs‡n. En flér, Au›unn, kann ek slíka flƒkk sem flú gæfir mér allt d‡rit, ok ver hér me› mér.’ fiat flekkisk hann ok er me› Sveini konungi um hrí›. 78 Ok er li›u nƒkkverjar stundir, flá mælti Au›unn vi› konung: ‘Braut f‡sir mik nú, herra.’ Konungr svarar heldr seint, ‘Hvat villtu flá,’ segir hann, ‘ef flú vil 81 eigi me› oss vera?’ Hann sag›i, ‘Su›r vil ek ganga.’ ‘Ef flú vildir eigi svá gott rá› taka,’ sag›i konungr, ‘flá mindi mér 84 fyr flikkja í, er flú f‡sisk í brott.’ Ok nú gaf konungr honum silfr mjƒk mikit, ok fór hann su›r sí›an me› Rúmferlum, ok skipa›i konungr til um fer› hans, ba› hann koma 87 til sín er ‹hann› kvæmi aptr. Nú fór hann fer›ar sinnar unz hann kemr su›r í Rómaborg. Ok er hann hefir flar dvalizk sem hann tí›ir, flá ferr hann aptr; tekr flá sótt mikla, gjƒrir hann flá ákafliga magran. Gengr 90 flá upp allt féit flat er konungr haf›i gefit honum til fer›arinnar, tekr sí›an upp stafkar‹l›s stíg ok bi›r sér matar. Hann er flá kollóttr ok heldr ósælligr. Hann kemr aptr í Danmƒrk at páskum flangat sem konungr 93 er flá staddr, en ei‹gi› flor›i hann at láta sjá sik ok var í kirkjuskoti ok ætla›i flá til fundar vi› konung er hann gengi til kirkju um kveldit. Ok nú er hann sá konunginn ok hir›ina fagrliga búna, flá flor›i hann eigi 96 at láta sjá sik. Ok er konungr gekk til drykkju í hƒllina, flá mata›isk Au›unn úti, sem si›r ‹er› til Rúmferla me›an fleir hafa eigi kastat staf ok skreppu. Ok nú of aptaninn, er konungr gekk til kveldsƒngs, ætla›i 99 Au›unn at hitta hann, ok svá mikit sem honum flótti fyrr fyr, jók nú miklu á, er fleir váru drukknir hir›menninir. Ok er fleir gengu inn aptr, flá flek›i konungr mann ok flóttisk finna, at eigi haf›i frama til at ganga 102 fram at hitta hann. Ok nú er hir›in gekk inn, flá veik konungr út ok mælti: ‘Gangi sá nú fram er mik vill finna; mik grunar, at sá muni vera ma›rinn.’ 105 fiá gekk Au›unn fram ok fell til fóta konungi, ok varla kenndi konungr hann. Ok flegar er konungr veit hverr hann er, tók konungr í hƒnd honum Au›uni ok ba› hann ‹vel› kominn.

75 slíku M. 98 optaninn M. XVI: Au›unar ﬂáttr 207

‘Ok hefir flú mikit skipazk,’ sag›i hann, ‘sí›an vit sámsk,’ — lei›ir 108 hann eptir sér inn. Ok er hir›in sá hann, hlógu fleir at honum, en konungr segir: ‘Eigi flurfu flér at honum at hlæja, flví at betr hefir hann sét fyr sinni 111 sál heldr en ér.’ fiá lét konungr gjƒra honum laug ok gaf honum sí›an klæ›i, ok er hann nú me› honum. 114 fiat er nú sagt einhverju sinni of várit, at konungr b‡›r Au›uni at vera me› sér áleng›ar ok kvezk mindu gjƒra hann skutilsvein sinn ok leggja til hans gó›a vir›ing. Au›unn sag›i: 117 ‘Gu› flakki y›r, herra, sóma flann allan, er flér vili› til mín leggja, en hitt er mér í skapi, at fara út til Íslands.’ Konungr sag›i, ‘fietta s‡nisk mér undarliga kosit.’ 120 Au›unn mælti, ‘Eigi má ek flat vita, herra,’ sag›i hann, ‘at ek hafa hér mikinn sóma me› y›r, en mó›ir mín tro›i stafkarls stíg út á Íslandi, flví at nú er lokit ‹bjƒrg› fleiri er ek lag›a til á›r ek fœra af Íslandi.’ 123 Konungr svara›i, ‘Vel er mælt,’ sag›i hann, ‘ok mannliga, ok muntu ver›a giptuma›r; sjá einn var svá hlutrinn, at mér mindi eigi mislíka at flú fœrir í braut he›an, ok ver nú me› mér flar til er skip búask.’ 126 Hann gørir svá. Einn dag, er á lei› várit, gekk Sveinn konungr ofan á bryggjur, ok váru menn flá at at búa skip til ‡missa landa, í Austrveg e›a Saxland, 129 til Svífljó›ar e›a Nóregs. fiá koma fleir Au›unn at einu skipi fƒgru, ok váru menn at at búa skipit. fiá spur›i konungr: ‘Hversu lízk flér, Au›unn, á fletta skip?’ 132 Hann svara›i, ‘Vel, herra.’ Konungr mælti, ‘fietta skip vil ek flér gefa ok launa bjarnd‡rit.’ Hann flakka›i gjƒfina eptir sinni kunnustu. Ok er lei› stund ok skipit 135 var albúit, flá mælti Sveinn konungr vi› Au›un: ‘fió villdu nú á braut, flá mun ek nú ekki letja flik, en flat hefi ek spurt at illt er til hafna firir landi y›ru, ok eru ví›a ørœfi ok hætt skipum. 138 Nú br‡tr flú ok t‡nir skipinu ok fénu, lítt sér flat flá á, at flú hafir fundit Svein konung ok gefit honum gjƒrsimi.’ Sí›an seldi konungr honum le›r‹hosu› fulla af silfri. 141 ‘Ok ertu flá enn eigi félauss me› ƒllu, flótt flú brjótir skipit, ef flú fær haldit flessu. Ver›a má svá enn,’ segir konungr, ‘at flú t‡nir flessu

108 sámdsk M. 109 hlóga M. 115–16 at vera me› written twice M. 121 at ek vita hafa M. 138 written ƒ›ru M; corrected in manuscript. 139 fénun M. 208 XVI: Au›unar ﬂáttr

144 fé; lítt n‡tr flú flá fless er ‹flú› fannt Svein konung ok gaft honum gjƒrsimi.’ Sí›an dró konungr ‹hring› af hendi sér ok gaf Au›uni ok mælti: 147 ‘fió at svá illa ver›i at flú br‹j›ótir skipit ok t‡nir fénu, eigi ertu félauss ef flú kemsk á land, flví at margir menn hafa gull á sér í skipsbrotum; ok sér flá at flú hefir fundit Svein konung, ef flú heldr 150 hringinum. En flat vil ek rá›a flér,’ segir hann, ‘at flú gefir eigi hringinn, nema flú flikkisk eiga svá mikit gott at launa nƒkkverjum gƒfgum manni; flá gef fleim hringinn, flví at tignum mƒnnum sómir at fliggja. 153 Ok far nú heill.’ Sí›an lætr hann í haf ok kømr í Nóreg ok lætr flytja upp varna› sinn, ok flurfti nú meira vi› flat en fyrr er hann var í Nóregi. Hann ferr 156 nú sí›an á fund Haralds konungs ok vill efna flat er hann hét honum á›r hann fór til Danmerkr, ok kve›r konung vel. Haraldr konungr tok vel kve›ju hans. 159 ‘Ok sezk ni›r,’ sag›i hann, ‘ok drekk hér me› oss.’ Ok svá gjƒrir hann. fiá spur›i Haraldr konungr: ‘Hverju launa›i Sveinn konungr flér d‡rit?’ 162 Au›unn svara›i, ‘fiví, herra, at hann flá at mér.’ Konungr sag›i, ‘Launat minda ek flér flví hafa. Hverju launa›i hann enn?’ 165 Au›unn svara›i, ‘Gaf hann mér silfr til su›rgƒngu.’ fiá sag›i Haraldr konungr, ‘Mƒrgum manni gefr Sveinn konungr silfr til su›rgƒngu e›a annarra hluta, flótt ekki fœri honum gørsimar. 168 Hvat er enn fleira?’ ‘Hann bau› mér,’ sag›i Au›unn, ‘at gørask skutilsveinn hans ok mikinn sóma til mín at leggja.’ 171 ‘Vel var flat mælt,’ sag›i konungr, ‘ok launa mindi hann enn fleira.’ Au›unn sag›i, ‘Gaf hann mér knƒrr me› farmi fleim er hingat er bezt varit í Nóreg.’ 174 ‘fiat var stórmannligt,’ sag›i konungr, ‘en launat minda ek flér flví hafa. Launa›i hann flví fleira?’ Au›unn sag›i, ‘Gaf hann mér le›rhosu fulla af silfri ok kva› mik flá 177 eigi félausan ef ek helda flví, fló at skip mitt bryti vi› Ísland.’ Konungr sag›i, ‘fiat var ágætliga gƒrt, ok flat minda ek ekki gƒrt hafa; lauss minda ek flikkjask, ef ek gæfa flér skipit. Hvárt launa›i 180 hann fleira?’

144 lítr M. 167 gørsimur M. 171 var ﬂat var M. XVI: Au›unar ﬂáttr 209

‘Svá var víst, herra,’ sag›i Au›unn, ‘at hann launa›i; hann gaf mér hring flenna er ek hefi á hendi, ok kva› svá mega at berask at ek t‡nda fénu ƒllu, ok sag›i mik flá eigi félausan, ef ek ætta hringinn, ok ba› 183 mik eigi lóga, nema ek ætta nƒkkverjum tignum ‹manni› svá gott at launa at ek vilda gefa. En nú hefi ek flann fundit, flví at flú áttir kost at taka hvárttveggja frá mér, d‡rit ok svá líf mitt, en flú lézt mik fara 186 flangat í fri›i sem a›rir ná›u eigi.’ Konungr tók vi› gjƒfinni me› blí›i ok gaf Au›uni í móti gó›ar gjafar á›r en fleir skil›isk. Au›unn var›i fénu til Íslandsfer›ar ok fór út flegar 189 um sumarit til Íslands ok flótti vera inn mesti gæfuma›r. Frá flessum manni, Au›uni, var kominn fiorsteinn Gy›uson.

XVII: Runic Inscriptions 211

XVII: RUNIC INSCRIPTIONS

The terms ‘rune’ and ‘runic’ have been used to mean many different things, as the relevant entries in the Oxford English Dictionary will confirm. It is important to stress that here (as in all serious linguistic work) ‘runes’ and ‘runic’ refer to a set of symbols used for writing language — and nothing else. Like Roman, Greek or Cyrillic letters, runes denote speech sounds: they are an alphabetic type of script, and can in principle be used to write any language (indeed a fair number of medieval runic inscriptions are in Latin). Runes do not constitute a language in themselves. Neither are they to be associated with mystical poems or with fortune-telling, supernatural powers or similar mumbo- jumbo. It should further be noted that runes are an epigraphic script: they are found carved or scratched into stone, wood, bone, metal, etc., but were not normally written with ink on parchment. This means that the messages they carry are laconic; runic inscriptions do not preserve lengthy pieces of literature. The origin of the runic alphabet has been the subject of much speculation, but as yet there is no consensus about when, where and for what reasons it was brought into being. The oldest extant rune- inscribed artefacts are dated to AD 200 or a little earlier. From the third century we have a reasonable number. Most have been found in southern Scandinavia, with a concentration in the area which now comprises Denmark, but a few have an eastern European provenance. These early inscriptions tend to consist of one or two words only and are hard to classify typologically. Names appear to be common, but it is often difficult to decide whether a particular name refers to the object on which it is carved, the owner, or the maker. Some of the inscriptions seem to belong to the world of trade. None obviously reflects a religious milieu. On the basis of the available evidence it has been suggested that the runic alphabet originated in southern Scandinavia in the first century of the Christian era. It is argued that Germanic peoples from this region trading with the Roman Empire perceived the need for a system of writing. That they did not simply adopt the Roman alphabet is put down to their distance from Roman culture. By no means all subscribe to this thesis, however. Some have sought to derive the runes from the Greek alphabet, others from various North Italic scripts. It has also been argued that several features of early runic writing, for example the fact that it can run right to left as 212 XVII: Runic Inscriptions well as left to right, point to a much earlier date of origin than the physical evidence implies. One theory has it that runic script derives from archaic Greek epigraphy and may be as old as the fifth or fourth century BC. All we can say for certain is that the runes must be somewhat older than the earliest datable inscriptions because of the latter’s relatively wide geographical distribution. It also seems likely that there is some connection between the runes and classical Roman capitals: the correspondences of form and sound are too striking to be ignored (e.g. r /r/, ˙ /h/, i /i/, t /t/, b /b/, and, less immediately transparent, 1 /f/, c /k/, u /u/, S /s/). The runic alphabet of the period AD c.200–700 is known as the older fuflark (fuflark after its first six characters), and is preserved complete or in fragmentary form in nine inscriptions. These early recordings of the runic alphabet show considerable homogeneity in the form of the individual runes and, not least, the order in which they appear. The fact that variation exists, however, means it is more helpful for the student to present a reconstructed older fuflark, based on typical forms and the most commonly attested order. 1u3årcg8˙Ni ∆É $%Stb(#lÔœD fuflarkgwhnijæpzstbemlEEE od

Fig. 1 The older fuﬂark

The EEE symbol indicates that this rune denoted the velar nasal sound of southern English sing (possibly sometimes a following /g/ as well, as in northern English). Virtually all meaningful inscriptions written with the older runes in Scandinavia are in a form of language that pre-dates Old Norse. No examples will therefore be given here. Students who wish to familiarise themselves with this early linguistic stage should consult Antonsen (1975) or Krause (1966). The runic alphabet did not remain unchanged. In Frisia and Anglo- Saxon England it was expanded to take account of sound changes in the forms of Germanic spoken in these areas (the best account of English runes and their uses is Page, 1999). For reasons that are by no means clear, the Scandinavians went the opposite way from their Anglo-Saxon XVII: Runic Inscriptions 213 cousins. At a time when the number of distinctive speech sounds in their language was rising, they ejected eight runes from the fuflark and simplified the forms of many of the characters they retained. This reform, which took place no later than c.700, seems to have been universally accepted. The new alphabet, known to modern scholars as the younger fuflark, appears in two fairly distinct variants, one more drastically simplified than the other. The simpler runes are known as ‘short-twig’, and are found chiefly in Sweden, Norway and their colonies in the period c.700–1000 (less appropriate names sometimes used of these characters are ‘Swedish-Norwegian runes’ and ‘Rök runes’ — the latter after the famous Rök stone from Östergötland, Sweden). The more complex runes are called ‘long-branch’ and are associated with Denmark throughout the Viking Age and early medieval period and with Sweden after c.1000 (less appropriate names here are ‘Danish runes’ or ‘normal runes’). In Norway post-1000 rune- writers replaced certain short-twig with long-branch characters. The resulting alphabet is often known as the ‘Norwegian mixed fuflark’. In illustrating these different manifestations of the younger fuflark, reconstructed alphabets are once again presented, based on common usage; the order of the runes is always the same.

1u3àrßç ñi !{/õ«Lã/∫\ l«

fuﬂã rkhni a s t b ml R

Fig. 2 The short-twig younger fuﬂark

1u3àrßªNinstb%/µl˚

fuﬂã rkhnia s t b m l R

Fig. 3 The long-branch younger fuﬂark

1u3ãrßªñiõ s/«L b%l˚ fuﬂorkhnia s tbml y

Fig. 4 The Norwegian mixed fuﬂark 214 XVII: Runic Inscriptions

The ã symbol indicates that this rune denoted a nasal a-sound (for most of the Viking Age, at least), as in French manger. Towards the end of the Viking Age Christianity became the official religion in Scandinavia, bringing with it the Roman alphabet and medieval European culture. Conceivably, knowledge of an alphabet in which it was possible to denote speech sounds more precisely than the runic — with its limited inventory of sixteen characters — encouraged rune-writers to seek ways of expanding their medium. Whatever the cause, between about 1000 and 1200 various expedients were adopted to increase the range of runic characters available. In some cases diacritic dots were placed on runes (ß;, for example, tended to denote a voiced velar — and perhaps palatal — as distinct from ß, which stood for the unvoiced counterpart(s); ç was used for front unrounded vowels lower than /i/). Another method was to differentiate existing variants, so that what had been two forms of the same rune became two separate characters, each denoting a different sound (õ was thus restricted to /a/ and ã to /o/, while n came to denote /æ/ and â /&/ or /ø/). The upshot of these reforms was what is generally known as the medieval fuflark. That the example given in Fig. 5 below is a modern construct must be strongly emphasised. While complete older and younger fuflarks of various kinds are attested, medieval alphabet inscriptions tend to be based firmly on the sixteen runes of the younger fuflark. Odd supplementary characters may be included, but seldom more than one or two. Quite possibly rune-writers did not consider the medieval additions to the fuflark to be new runes, simply variations on the existing sixteen.

; ; 1u 3ã rßª ñi õ «L b%l˚13; 2; ß çn»sL; b; /â

fuﬂorkhniastbmlyf¨¨¨ ﬂü¨¨¨ kïæcz¨¨¨ t¨¨¨ bpƒ¨¨¨

Fig. 5 The medieval fuﬂark

Double dots are used here in transliterating dotted runes, to indicate that not all these supplementary characters had a fixed sound value. 2; , for example, might denote /ø/ or /y/, and even /o/ in some areas, while ç regularly stood for both /æ/ and /e/ until the differentiation of õ and n. Occasionally a dotted rune may even have the same value as its undotted counterpart. XVII: Runic Inscriptions 215

During the Viking and Middle Ages many different types of runic inscription were made. Best known are perhaps the commemorative rune stones which span the period c.750–1100. After 1100 the raised stone with its emphasis on the commissioner(s) — the living — goes out of fashion and is replaced by the grave-slab which concentrates attention on the dead. Inscriptions are also found on a variety of loose objects: wood, bone, metal — even leather and pottery. Some of these are charms, some marks of ownership, some brief letters; yet others take the form of statements, express wishes, or record crude jokes; not a few seem to be pure gobbledygook. There is also a substantial corpus of runic graffiti. Those carved into the walls or furniture of churches are often of a pious nature, some of the other examples are more racy. Church furniture may also carry more formal inscriptions, recording, for example, who made an object or its purpose. After some four hundred years of coexistence with the Roman alphabet, runes dropped out of fashion in Scandinavia. It is impossible to give anything like a precise date for their demise since in one or two places they continued to be used for particular purposes long after they had been forgotten elsewhere — in Gotland until c.1600, in Iceland until well into the seventeenth century, and in the Swedish province of Dalarna — there increasingly mixed with letters of the Roman alphabet — as late as the nineteenth century. Runic inscriptions are important. Although often extremely laconic, many of them were composed in the pre-manuscript period and — unlike most manuscript texts — are originals. They can throw light on Scandinavian history, culture and language, not least the last. Runic writing tends to be more orthophonic (i.e. true to the pronunciation) than its Roman-alphabet counterpart, presumably because runes were not learnt in a school or scriptorium and carvers adopted a less disciplined approach to orthography. Through runic writing we can thus learn at first hand something of the forms of Scandinavian in use during the Viking and Middle Ages. Each of the runic texts below is presented in four different ways: (1) by a normalised representation of the runes; (2) as a transliteration (in bold); (3) as an edited text (in italics); (4) in English translation. The normalisation of runes is a process akin to printing handwritten texts in the Roman alphabet: in principle each rune appears in one form only. However, variants that are diagnostic of a particular type of alphabet are retained. 216 XVII: Runic Inscriptions

The aim of the transliteration is to make the text more accessible to the reader without knowledge of runes, while preserving as much of possible of the original orthography. What is transliterated is therefore in each case the distinctive rune (so that, for example, ß is always rendered as k, s and « as s, and so on). While it is sensible to give one’s transliteration a helpful phonological profile (rendering 1 u 3 as fuﬂ, for example, rather than, say, as xyz) it cannot be over-emphasised that we are not dealing here with phonetic transcription: ß is rendered as k whether it denotes /k/, [g] or []] (a voiced velar spirant, as the g in ON or modern Icelandic eiga, cf. NION I 11, 17), u is given as u whichever rounded vowel it stands for (/u/, /o/, /y/, /ø/ or the semi- vowel [w]), etc. Nor is modern punctuation or spacing introduced in the transliteration; the text is given line by line as it appears in the original. Separation marks are however reproduced as : for con- venience whatever their actual form. Round brackets indicate that a rune, group of runes or separator is uncertain, square brackets that the material within them is conjectured or supplied from an earlier drawing or photograph. A slur over two or more transliterated runes marks a bind-rune (a runic ligature). The distance of some of the edited texts from the Old Norse of grammars and dictionaries makes normalisation problematic. In the selection offered here Norwegian and Norwegian-inspired inscriptions have been treated like the Icelandic texts in NION II. For Danish and Swedish inscriptions the normalisation practice of Peterson (1994) has been used as a guideline, but the editor has felt free to depart from it to indicate notable phonological features. Long vowels are marked with an acute accent, as in Old Icelandic; R stands for the reflex of Germanic /z/, most recently identified as a voiced palatal fricative with sibilant quality. Note that æ can denote a short as well as a long vowel. XVII: Runic Inscriptions 217

Bibliography Elmer H. Antonsen, A Concise Grammar of the Older Runic Inscriptions (1975). Michael P. Barnes, ‘The origins of the younger fuﬂark — a reappraisal’. In Runor och runinskrifter (1987), 29–45. Kungl. Vitterhets Historie och Antikvitets Akademien, Konferenser 15. Michael Barnes, ‘Standardisation and variation in Migration- and Viking- Age Scandinavian’. In Útnor›r: West Nordic Standardisation and Variation, ed. Kristján Árnason (2003), 47–66. Solbritt Benneth et al., eds, Runmärkt: från brev till klotter — runorna under medeltiden (1994). Anders Bæksted, Islands runeindskrifter (1942). Bibliotheca Arnamagnæ- ana II. DR = Lis Jacobsen and Erik Moltke, eds, Danmarks runeindskrifter 1–2 (1941–42). Klaus Düwel, Runenkunde (3rd ed., 2001). Katherine Holman, Scandinavian Runic Inscriptions in the British Isles: Their Historical Context (1996). Senter for middelalderstudier, Norges teknisk- naturvitenskapelige universitet, Skrifter 4. Sven B. F. Jansson, Runes in Sweden (2nd ed., 1987). Wolfgang Krause, Die Runeninschriften im älteren Futhark 1–2 (1966). Abhandlungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen, philologisch- historische Klasse, dritte Folge, 65. Erik Moltke, Runes and Their Origin: Denmark and Elsewhere (1985). NIyR = Magnus Olsen et al., eds, Norges innskrifter med de yngre runer 1–6 (1941, in progress). R. I. Page, Runes (1987). R. I. Page, An Introduction to English Runes (2nd ed., 1999). Lena Peterson, Svenskt runordsregister (2nd ed. 1994). Runrön 2. SR = Sveriges runinskrifter 1–15 (1900, in progress). (This series is subdivided by province — e.g. vol. 2 is Östergötlands runinskrifter, vols 6–9 Upplands runinskrifter — and edited by a variety of scholars.) 218 XVII: Runic Inscriptions

XVII: RUNIC INSCRIPTIONS

A: KÄLVESTEN

(Photo: Michael Barnes) XVII: Runic Inscriptions 219

«Lißu«˝ßõr3i˝ßuãl3{u˝ õ1LõuiñL«uñu«iñ˝«õ1iõlõu«Lr \i«õiui«li˝uißiß«1õ3i õußri\ul1«

( stikuR:karfli:kublflau: aftauintsunusin:safialaustr miRaiuisli:uikikRfafli aukrimulfR

StygguR(?) gær›i kumbl ﬂau aft Øyvind sunu sinn. Sá fial austr meR Øyvísli. VíkingR fá›i auk GrímulfR.

‘StygguR(?) made these memorials after ØyvindR his son. He fell east with Øyvísl. VíkingR wrote and GrímulfR.’

This inscription is designated Ög 8 in SR. It is from Östergötland in central southern Sweden and dated to the ninth century. In runic writing it is not uncommon for a single character to denote the final sound of one word and the initial sound of the next, as in aukrimulfR. It is necessary only that the two sounds denoted can be expressed by one and the same rune. The spellings kubl and uikikR reflect the omission of homorganic nasals that is a feature of runic spelling. When /m/ occurs immediately before /p/ or /b/, and /n/ before /k/, /g/, /t/ or /d/, rune-writers often do not designate the nasal; the b in kubl thus indicates /mb/, the second k in uikikR /ng/. On the possible use of i for /y/, see Bryggen (2) below. The word kumbl is almost always plural and is thought to denote a monument made up of more than one element. In the earliest Viking- Age inscriptions, as in those from before the Viking Age, there seems to be no way of distinguishing between ‘that’ and ‘this’: ﬂau defines kumbl, but not obviously as something close at hand or more distant. Aft is a short form of the preposition eptir, parallel to fyr for fyrir and und for undir. The short forms are on the whole earlier than their longer counterparts. Sunu is an old acc. sg. form with the original -u preserved (as it may also possibly be in the -u- in StygguR, though the etymology of this name is uncertain). The demonstratives sá, sú are regularly used in Viking-Age runic inscriptions to denote ‘he’, ‘she’. Fial is an East 220 XVII: Runic Inscriptions

Scandinavian variant of West Scandinavian fell. The preposition miR, apparently reflecting a spoken form lacking [›], is attested only in a handful of runic inscriptions from Sweden. Outside the Swedish province of Hälsingland, use of the verb fá to denote the making of a runic inscription is an indicator of considerable age; it is a term found in older fuﬂark inscriptions (in the form fa(i)hido ‘[I] made’) and in the earliest of those in the younger fuﬂark. Auk is an older form of ok with the diphthong preserved (the conjunction is related to the verb auka ‘increase’). For personal names in the above text and for personal and place-names in Glavendrup, Jelling, Andreas II and Gripsholm below, see Dictionary of Proper Names in Scandinavian Viking Age Runic Inscriptions (available at http://www.sofi.se/SOFIU/runlex/). The Kälvesten inscription is notable for being the earliest to document a Scandinavian expedition to the east. Rune forms and language combine to suggest a date in the first half of the ninth century.

B: GLAVENDRUP

(Side A) rnßNªiltr˝sn ti˝stniN3àNsi ˝nu1t nln˝snulunßu3n uinl(i)3sªni3uinr3nN3inßN

(Photo and © National Museum of Denmark) (Side B) nln˝suNi˚˝ßnr3u ßubl˝3nusi ˝n1t˝1n3ur siN˝nuß˝ªàNs ˝ßuNn˝nu1t unr˝siN˝iN˝suti˝rnist˝ruN n˚ ˝ 3nsi˝n1t˝trutiN˝siN 3ur˝uißi˝3nsi ˝ruNn˚ 222 XVII: Runic Inscriptions

(Side A) raknhiltr:sa ti:stainflãnsi:auft ala:sauluakufla uial(i)flshaifluiarflanfliakn

(Side B) ala:suniR:karflu kubl:flausi:aft:faflur sin:auk:hãns:kuna:auft uar:sin:in:suti:raist:run XVII: Runic Inscriptions 223

aR:flasi:aft:trutin:sin flur:uiki:flasi:runaR

(Side C) at:rita:sa:uarfli:is:stainflansi ailti:ifla aft:ãnãn:traki

Ragnhildr satti stæin flennsi aft Alla, Sƒlva go›a, véa li›s, hæi›- ver›an flegn. Alla syniR gær›u kumbl flausi aft fa›ur sinn auk hans kona aft ver sinn. En Sóti ræist rúnaR flassi aft dróttin sinn. fiórr vígi flassi rúnaR. At retta(?) sá ver›i es stæin flennsi ailti(?) e›a aft annan dragi.

‘Ragnhildr placed this stone after Alli, leader of the SƒlvaR, priest of the host, a noble thane. Alli’s sons made these memorials after their father and his wife after her husband. But Sóti carved these runes after his lord. ﬁórr hallow these runes. May he be reckoned a pervert(?) who removes(?) this stone or drags it [for use as a memorial] after another.’

This inscription has the number 209 in DR. It is from Fyn and dated to the tenth century. For notes on kumbl and auk, see the Kälvesten inscription above. There is disagreement about what the sequences au, ai and ia denote in Danish inscriptions of the mid- and late Viking Age. Some argue that after the East Scandinavian monophthongisation /au/ > /ø:/, /ei/ > /e:/, /øy/ > /ø:/, digraphic spellings were used to denote vowel sounds for which the younger fuflark had no specific symbols, au denoting /ø/ or /&/ and ia or ai /æ/. Others believe that in the case of ia, at least, some kind of diphthongisation is reflected (cf. Swedish dialectal jär as a reflex of hér ‘here’). The question cannot easily be resolved. We may note that au became a common way of indicating /&/ throughout the Scandinavian runic world — including the West where there was no monophthongisation — and that the Glavendrup inscription consistently spells historical /au/ and /ei/ digraphically, indicating perhaps that the carver still used the historical diphthongs in his speech. In the East Scandinavian of the Viking Age the demonstrative pronoun meaning ‘this/these’ usually consisted of the basic pronoun sá, sú, flat plus the 224 XVII: Runic Inscriptions deictic (pointing) particle -sa or -si. Hence flennsi (acc. m. sg.), flassi (< flaR + si, acc. f. pl.), flausi (acc. n. pl.). Acc. fa›ur lacks labial mutation (cf. NION I 39–41), as commonly in East Scandinavian. The sequence ala:sauluakuflauial(i)flshaifluiarflanfliakn has been taken in different ways. DR sees sƒlva as an epithet, ‘the pale’, agreeing with Alla; go›a is reckoned to be modified by véa (gen. pl.), giving ‘priest of (the) temples’; that leaves li›s hæi›ver›an flegn, which is said to mean ‘noble thane of the retinue’, with ‘thane’ a rank in a king’s or nobleman’s body of retainers. Further permutations are possible. In favour of the interpretation offered on p. 223 above are the references to nuRa kufli ‘leader of the Ness-dwellers(?)’ in the Helnæs and Flemløse I inscriptions (DR 190; 192; cf. also Icelandic Ljósvetninga- go›i), and the suspicion that li›s would probably follow hæi›ver›an flegn if it modified the phrase, as véa supposedly follows go›a. With the order li›s hæi›ver›an flegn, which implies definition of flegn, we would perhaps also expect the adjective to have weak inflexion. It is unfortunate that this part of the inscription is so hard to interpret, for it clearly contains information on the structure of tenth-century Danish society. As construed on p. 223 above, the man commemorated was go›i (secular leader?) of a group of people, véi (priest? — cf. Gothic weiha with that meaning) of a body of men, and a flegn — perhaps the holder of some military rank. That the offices enumerated are three may be significant. The making of the monument is attributed to three agencies (Alli’s sons, Ragnhildr and Sóti), and the Trygge- vælde inscription (DR 230), apparently commissioned by the same Ragnhildr and also carved by Sóti, describes a (different) monument made up of three elements. Whatever Alli’s functions, it is clear they were not performed in a Christian society. That is amply confirmed by the invocation fiórr vígi flassi rúnaR; almost certainly by the final part of the inscription too, though important elements of this are obscure. We may surmise with Niels Åge Nielsen (Runestudier, 1968, 14–15) that rita is a way of writing retta, from earlier *hretta and related to Old Icelandic skratti ‘unmanly sorcerer’, but the meaning of ailti is hard to determine. Conceivably we are dealing here with the verb elta ‘chase’. Whatever the exact interpretation, the warning against tampering with the rune- stone has several parallels (Runestudier, 16–52), and all seem to stem from entirely heathen milieux. To this may be added the heathen ship- setting that forms part of the Glavendrup monument. XVII: Runic Inscriptions 225

C: JELLING II

(Side A) Inrnltr˛ßuNuß˚˛bn3˛ßnurun ßubl˛3nusi˛n1t˛ßurµ1n3ursiN nußn1t˛3àurui˛µu3ur˛siNn˛sn Inrnltr[˛]ins˛sà˚˝unN˝tnNµnurß

(Photo: Michael Barnes)

(Side B) nln˝nuß˝Nuruinß 226 XVII: Runic Inscriptions

(Side C) ˝nuß˛t(à)Ni[˝](ßnr3i)[˝]ßristNà

(Side A) haraltr:kunukR:bafl:kaurua kubl:flausi:aft:kurmfaflursin aukaft:flãurui:muflur:sina:sa haraltr[:]ias:sãR:uan:tanmaurk

(Side B) ala:auk:nuruiak

(Side C) :auk:t(ã)ni[:](karﬂi)[:]kristnã

Haraldr konungR ba› gƒrva kumbl ﬂausi aft Gorm fa›ur sinn auk aft ﬁórví mó›ur sína. Sá Haraldr es séR vann Danmƒrk alla auk Norveg auk dani gær›i kristna.

‘King Haraldr ordered these memorials to be made after GormR, his father, and after ﬁórví, his mother. That Haraldr who won for himself all Denmark and Norway and made the Danes Christian.’

This inscription has the number 42 in DR. It is from northern Jutland and dated to the period c.960–80. For notes on the spellings kunukR, kubl and auk, and on the word kumbl itself, see Kälvesten above; for digraphic spellings of expected monophthongs and the forms flausi and fa›ur, see Glavendrup. Conceivably ã was inserted into flãurui as a means of indicating the nasal quality of the root vowel (flór- < *flunra-); it is otherwise hard to understand why the name should have been written in this way. nuruiak represents the earliest recorded form of the name ‘Norway’; it is noteworthy that it lacks the dental spirant denotation of OE Nor›weg. The Haraldr konungR of the inscription is the Danish King Haraldr Blue-tooth, who ruled from somewhen around the middle of the tenth century until c.985; GormR is his predecessor, King Gormr the Old, and fiórví the famed fiyri Danmarkar bót (‘Denmark’s betterment’, XVII: Runic Inscriptions 227 an epithet that perhaps has its origins in the Jelling I inscription — DR 41 — made by Gormr in her memory). All three figures appear in various of the Icelandic Kings’ Sagas. Here Haraldr speaks to us directly. The stone, he states, is raised in memory of his father and mother, but he goes on to claim mighty achievements for himself, to the extent that the inscription is more a celebration of his own life than that of his parents. Scholars have wondered why Haraldr would have waited so long before erecting the memorial, and it has been suggested the part of the inscription that records Haraldr’s deeds was added later (for which there is some physical evidence). It is also possible that an earlier inscription in memory of Gormr and fiórví was replaced by Jelling II. The claim that Haraldr won for himself the whole of Denmark is probably to be understood to mean that he consolidated the strong position that Gormr had established, perhaps extending his power eastwards (it is far from clear what Danmƒrk encompassed in the tenth century). That he won Norway receives some support from Einarr Skálaglamm’s poem Vellekla (980s?), where it is said that Norway north of the Oslofjord area lay under Earl Hákon (stanza 17) and that konungr mykmarkar Hlƒ›vinjar ‘the King of Jutland’ commanded the earl to defend the Dannevirke (protective wall in southern Jutland) against the enemy (stanza 27). There are different accounts of when and in what circumstances Haraldr became Christian (940s? c.960?). The statement dani gær›i kristna must refer to the introduction of Christianity as the official religion of ‘Denmark’, an event that presumably took place not long after Haraldr’s conversion. Individual families will have been Christian before this and others will have remained heathen for a time afterwards. (The most important sources for Danish history in the tenth century are presented and translated into Danish in Jørgen Bjernum, Kilder til vikingetidens historie, 1965. See further the collection of articles entitled ‘Jelling problems’ in Mediaeval Scandinavia 7, 1974, 156–234; Moltke 1985, 202–20; Else Roesdahl, The Vikings, 1992, 161–65.) 228 XVII: Runic Inscriptions

D: ANDREAS II

(Photo: Michael Barnes)

«àñL˛ulf˛çiñ˛«uõrLi˛rõi«Li˛ßru«˛3àñõ˛õfLir˛õriñ˛ãiõurß˛ßuiñu˛«iñõ sãnt:ulf:hin:suarti:raisti:krus:ﬂãna:aftir:arin:biaurk:kuinu:sina

Sandulfr hinn svarti reisti kross ﬂenna eptir Arinbjƒrg, kvinnu sína.

‘Sandulfr the black raised this cross after Arinbjƒrg, his wife.’ XVII: Runic Inscriptions 229

This inscription is MM (Manx Museum) no. 131, from the far north of the Isle of Man. Together with the bulk of the Manx runic corpus it has been dated, chiefly on art-historical grounds, to the tenth century. For notes on the digraphic spelling of /&/, see Glavendrup. Sandulfr, the subject of the sentence, lacks the nom. m. sg. -r ending. Several of the Manx inscriptions show aberrant grammatical forms, and this has been attributed to prolonged contact with speakers of other languages (notably Gaelic). The long prepositional form aftir (see Kälvesten above) appears to conflict with the tenth-century dating of the inscription. Other runological and linguistic features of the Manx inscriptions too suggest they may be later than conventionally supposed, but art historians continue to insist on the tenth century (see Katherine Holman, ‘The dating of Scandinavian runic inscriptions from the Isle of Man’, Innskrifter og datering/Dating Inscriptions, 1998, 43–54). Kvinna ‘woman’ ‘wife’ is a variant form of kona (whose gen. pl. is kvenna). While ‘stones’ were raised in Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the Norse settlers in the Isle of Man (and some of the other colonies in the British Isles) opted for crosses. The Irish tradition of raising crosses without legend and the Norse habit of raising rune-stones seem to have merged. Whether this apparent blending of Gaelic and Norse culture is enough to explain the extraordinarily high level of runic activity in Man (over 30 inscriptions or fragments thereof survive) is uncertain. It may simply be that fashions spread more easily in a relatively small island community. 230 XVII: Runic Inscriptions

E: GRIPSHOLM

(Photo: Scott Wolter)

×tuln˛lit˛rnisn˛stniN˛3iNsnt˛suN˛siN˛Inrnlt˛bru3ur˛ iNßunrs˛3ni˚furu˛trißiln˛finri˛nt˛ßuli˛nuß˛n˛ustnrlnr˛ Ni˛ßnfu˛tuu˛suNnr˛ln˛nsirß˛lnN˛ti

:tula:lit:raisa:stain:flinsat:sun:sin:haralt:bruflur: inkuars:flaiRfuru:trikila:fiari:at:kuli:auk:a:ustarlar: ni:kafu:tuu:sunar:la:asirk:lan:ti

Tolla lét ræisa stæin ﬂennsa at sun sinn Harald, bró›ur Ingvars. XVII: Runic Inscriptions 231

ﬁæiR fóru drængila fiarri at gulli auk austarla ærni gáfu. Dóu sunnarla á Serklandi.

‘Tolla had this stone raised after her son, Haraldr, Ingvarr’s brother. They went manfully, far in search of gold, and in the east gave [food] to the eagle. Died in the south in Serkland.’

This inscription runs in one continuous line along the body of the carved snake. It is designated Sö 179 in SR and is from Söderman- land in eastern Sweden, dated to the eleventh century. The pronoun flæiR was initially forgotten and added below the line. Although the rune-writer makes regular use of separation points, the division is not always between words. In two cases a single character denotes the final sound of one word and the initial sound of the next (flinsat = flennsa at, a:ustarlar:ni = austarla ærni, see Kälvesten above), and while the separation in sunar:la:asirk:lan:ti might be thought to have morphemic (relating to word-structure) or phonological rationale, that in a:ustarlar is harder to fathom. The small number of runes available to those who carved in the younger fuflark makes a sequence like tula difficult to interpret. Initial t may stand for /t/ or /d/, u for any rounded vowel, and l for a long or short consonant. The guess that the stone’s commissioner was called Tolla is prompted by the thought that tula may conceal a hypocoristic name. These are often derived from full names and tend to exhibit weak inflexion and a long medial consonant. Tolla is a plausible hypocoristic form of fiorlaug, fiorleif/fiorlƒf or fiorljót. The preposition at ‘after’ ‘in memory of’ is most probably an assimilated form of aft; it triggers the accusative and is not to be confused with the at that triggers the dative (see NION I 186; cf. NION III, at1). The adverb suffix -la (drængila, austarla, sunnarla) is also found in Old West Norse (e.g. har›la ‘very’, sí›la ‘late’), but is less common there. Over twenty-five Swedish rune-stones commemorate men who accompanied Ingvarr on an expedition to the east. There is also an Icelandic saga telling of his exploits, Yngvars saga ví›fƒrla. Though 232 XVII: Runic Inscriptions this seems to be largely fiction, some of what it says agrees with other sources. Thus saga and rune-stones agree that the expedition headed east, and the 1041 date the saga gives for Ingvarr’s death is confirmed by three Icelandic annals. We are probably safe in assuming that all the Ingvarr stones are from the 1040s. This great expedition met its end in ‘Serkland’. The name occurs in Swedish runic inscriptions other than those raised in memory of Ingvarr’s followers, in skaldic verse, and in Icelandic prose literature. Scholars differ about the location of Serkland. An influential view connects serk- with the name Saracen and holds that Ingvarr and his followers made their way to what is now Syria and Iraq by way of the Russian rivers (see, however, Kirsten Wolf’s article ‘Yngvars saga ví›fƒrla’ and accompanying bibliography in Phillip Pulsiano and Kirsten Wolf, eds, Medieval Scandinavia, An Encyclopedia, 1993, 740). Apart from the raiser formula (the initial statement detailing who commissioned the stone, after whom, and their relationship), the inscription is composed in fornyr›islag, the metre of most of the Eddic poems. Alliteration in the first two lines is on f- (fóru, fiarri), in lines three and four on vowels (austarla, ærni), and in the last two on s- (sunnarla, Serklandi). Verse is common enough in eleventh-century Swedish inscriptions (see Frank Hübler, Schwedische Runendichtung der Wikingerzeit, 1996).

F: MAESHOWE no. 23 «iõ˝IâuIr˝uõr˝f˚r˝lõ3iñ˝Inl”r ˝ lã3brãß“r˝«˚ñçr˝Inñõr 3niruârã˝IuõLçr˝«liLuârã ˝ %nñ˝«n%3niruârãf˚rç«çr

(

( sia:hƒuhr:uar:fyr:laflin:hæltr: loflbrokar:synïr:hænar flæiruƒro:huatïr:slituƒro: mæn:sæmflæiruƒrofyrïsïr

Sjá haugr var fyrr hla›inn heldr Lo›brókar. Synir hennar, ﬂeir vru hvatir, slíkt vru menn, sem ﬂeir vru fyrir sér.

‘This mound was built before Lo›brók’s. Her sons, they were bold. Such were men, as they were of themselves [i.e. they were the sort of people you would really call men].’ XVII: Runic Inscriptions 233

(Photo: Bengt A. Lundberg, Central Board of National Antiquities, Stockholm)

This inscription is edited in Michael P. Barnes, The Runic Inscriptions of Maeshowe, Orkney (1994), 178–86. It is carved into two adjacent stones (the splits in the two lines of runes are indicated by spaces in the transcription and transliteration above) of one of the walls of the pre- historic chambered cairn known as Maeshowe on the Orkney Mainland. The likelihood is that most of the thirty-three runic inscriptions in the cairn were the work of Norwegian passers-by rather than native Orcadians and that they were all made towards the middle of the twelfth century. In medieval runic inscriptions h is commonly used to denote []] (see p. 216 above). The spelling laﬂin indicates Norwegian or at least non-Icelandic authorship (contrast Icel. hla›inn). The use of heldr in 234 XVII: Runic Inscriptions the sense ‘than’ is well documented (cf. Johan Fritzner, Ordbog over det gamle norske Sprog, 1883–1972, I 782–83). The thrice-repeated uƒro ‘were’ indicates a labially mutated root vowel. In normalised Old Icelandic this word is usually written váru, reflecting early thirteenth- century coalescence of /&:/ (a long low back rounded vowel, cf. NION I 8–9) with its non-mutated counterpart /a:/. Not all have agreed that the sequence slituƒro is to be interpreted slíkt vru. It has been read as part of a compound sléttvƒrumenn ‘smooth-hide men’, judged to be used in playful antithesis to the name Lo›brók ‘shaggy breeches’. If slit does denote slíkt we must assume a pronunciation [sli:xt], with the unvoiced velar spirant [x] (as in Scots loch, cf. NION I 11–12, 17–18) perhaps confused with preaspiration — if indeed that feature existed in twelfth-century Scandinavian. The inscription apparently makes reference to the legendary character Ragnarr lo›brók and his famous sons, but uses the feminine pronoun hennar in the process. Three possible explanations for this suggest themselves. (1) The grammatical gender of brók (f.) has overridden natural gender. (2) To the carver, Lo›brók was not Ragnarr’s nickname but the name of a woman. (3) A (puerile) joke is being made at Ragnarr’s expense based on the feminine gender of brók. Given the jocular nature of many of the Maeshowe graffiti, the last explanation is perhaps the most plausible.

G: BRYGGEN (BERGEN)

(1) B 279; NIyR 651

3“rßnll%˚ñLnrç«çñLçr3çrb; ib ; õr

( ﬂorkællmyntærïsïntïrﬂïr bi¨¨¨ bar¨¨¨

ﬁorkell myntari sendir ﬂér pipar.

‘ﬁorkell moneyer sends you pepper.’ XVII: Runic Inscriptions 235

(2) B 17 (Side A) ã«L˛%iñ˛ßi«˛%iß ßi

(Side B) f˛u3ãrß˛Iñiõ«˛Lb%l˚

(Side A) ost:min:kis:mik ki

(Side B) f:uﬂork:hnias:tbmly

Ást mín, kyss mik.

‘My love, kiss me’ (accompanied by an enigmatic ki — perhaps the beginning of a second kis — and followed or preceded by the complete younger runic alphabet).

(3) B 380

(Photo: J. E. Knirk; © Museum of Cultural History, University of Oslo, Norway) (Side B) 3ãr˛3iß˛3iß; ˛ß; i˛ã3çñ˛3iß˛niIi˛ 236 XVII: Runic Inscriptions

(Side A) hæil:sïﬂu:ok:ihuhum: koﬂom¨¨¨

(Side B) flor:flik:fli k¨¨¨ : ki:oflïn:flik:æihi:¨¨¨

Heil(l) sé flú ok í hugum gó›um. fiórr flik fliggi. Ó›inn flik eigi.

‘Be you hale and in good spirits. ﬁórr receive you. Ó›inn own you.’

Most of the Bryggen inscriptions have received only preliminary publication. They have an archaeological number prefixed by B. Those included in the corpus edition Norges innskrifter med de yngre runer have an NIyR number as well. A selection of the Bryggen runic finds was discussed by Aslak Liestøl in his article ‘Runer frå Bryggen’, Viking 27 (1963), 5–53. Vol. 6 of NIyR deals with the inscriptions in Latin and with those classified as business letters and owners’ tags. The whole corpus is available on the internet at http://www.nb.no/ baser/runer/ribwww/english/runeindex.html In terms of age the Bryggen inscriptions, which can be reasonably precisely dated by fire layers, stretch from the late twelfth to the early fifteenth century. They are written on a variety of materials, most commonly wood but also bone, leather, metal, stone and pottery. Their content is also varied. Three fairly typical examples are presented here: (1) is from the world of commerce, (2) expresses a lover’s heart- felt desire, (3) is of uncertain import but carries echoes of Norse poetry. (1) is carved on a small piece of wood and was found above the 1198 fire layer. It was presumably a note or label accompanying a parcel of pepper despatched by fiorkell. Notable in this inscription is the doubling of l to mark a long consonant — a Roman-alphabet practice sometimes adopted by medieval rune-writers. The spelling myntærï suggests weakening of both vowels in the -ari suffix. (2) is carved on both sides of a piece of wood. It was found above the 1248 fire layer. The spelling ost indicates a pronunciation in the region of /&:st/ (for /&:/ see p. 234 above), implying rounding of /a:/, XVII: Runic Inscriptions 237 a characteristic feature of most mainland Scandinavian dialects by the late Middle Ages. It is strange to find kyss written kis in the thirteenth century. As long as there was no separate rune for /y(:)/, either u or i were in theory possible symbols for this high front rounded vowel since /y/ shared the features [high] and [front] with /i/ and [high] and [rounded] with /u/ (cf. Kälvesten above). In fact u was the rune normally used to denote /y(:)/ in the Viking Age; it seems to have become the preferred symbol for all rounded vowels. Whether kis reflects unrounding of /y/, known from a few modern Norwegian dialects, is uncertain. Another Bryggen inscription, B 118, writes the same word kys. Partial or complete fuflarks are very common in the Bryggen material. Some have attributed their use to a belief in the magic powers of the runic alphabet — the conviction that it could help ward off evil or, as here, achieve a particular aim. This is highly uncertain. Fuflarks may have been carved for practice, to demonstrate literacy, or for other mundane reasons (cf. Karin Seim, De vestnordiske futhark-innskriftene fra vikingtid og middelalder — form og funksjon, 1998, 198–335). Notable in this fuflark is the use of separation points. Why there should be a separator after the initial f is uncertain. The division of the younger fuflark into three groups of six, five and five runes respectively is, however, a well-established practice — and the basis of a widespread type of runic cryptography (cf. Page 1999, 80–88). (3) is carved on both sides of a piece of wood. It was found under the 1198 fire layer. On the use of h to denote []], see Maeshowe no. 23 above. The sequence sïflu is presumably to be construed as 2nd sg. pres. subj. of vera ‘[to] be’ + pronoun. The verb-form lacks the usual -r ending, however, and is possibly to be seen as a cross between subjunctive and imperative. The text appears to be in verse. The metre has been identified as galdralag, a variant of ljó›aháttr notorious for its irregularity (see SnE, Háttatal 100–01). Certainly side A of the inscription not only has alliteration, but carries distinct echoes of Hymiskvi›a 11 (PE 90): Ver flú heill, Hymir, í hugum gó›um. How far side B’s text is to be seen as a continuation of A’s is unclear, as is its purpose. It is hard to suppose that belief in the Norse gods 238 XVII: Runic Inscriptions persisted in Bergen into the late twelfth century. Perhaps the writer intended a curse, along the lines of the well-documented troll hafi/ taki . . . ‘the trolls have/take . . .’. At the time the inscription was made Ó›inn and fiórr might well have been regarded as trolls. Alternatively there may be a further literary allusion here (cf., e.g., Hárbar›sljó› 60, PE 87). If the allusion is specific, however, it must be to literature that has not survived. XVIII: Mö›ruvallabók 239

XVIII: MÖ‹RUVALLABÓK

The Mö›ruvallabók Text of Chapter Five of Kormaks saga: A Palaeographical Commentary The manuscript known as Mö›ruvallabók (AM 132 fol., Stofnun Árna Magnússonar á Íslandi) got its name in the late nineteenth century from Mö›ruvellir in Eyjafjör›ur, where Magnús Björnsson (d. 1662), the first known owner of the book, lived. (For information about the book’s contents and history, see Einar Ól. Sveinsson 1933.) Mö›ru- vallabók is datable only by the forms of its language, spelling and letters, which suggest that it was written in the middle of the fourteenth century. Mistakes in the names of places in eastern Iceland indicate that the manuscript was not written in that part of the country, and a reference to Mi›fjör›ur as being in the west shows that it was probably put together in northern Iceland, for a scribe from southern or western Iceland would think of Mi›fjör›ur as lying to the north. Mö›ruvalla- bók contains eleven Sagas of Icelanders and must have been expensive to produce, for it is both large (consisting of 200 leaves measuring 34 × 24 cm) and elaborately decorated with coloured initials ornamented with romanesque foliage or simple pen flourishes. The book was produced by a team of scribes; one wrote the text (leaving blank spaces for the chapter headings and the initials, as well as for the verses in Egils saga), another copied in the missing verses and a third wrote the chapter headings and drew and coloured the initials. A fourth scribe wrote part of the text of Egils saga on folio 83 recto. Chapter Five of Kormaks saga begins towards the bottom of the second column on fol. 121 verso. The initial ‘fi’ is three lines high, indicating that it begins an ‘ordinary’ chapter. ‘Important’ chapters, such as the first chapter of a saga, were usually given larger initials four, five or six lines high, a graphic indication of their ‘larger’ significance. The text is written in what is called Gothic formal textual script or Gothic book hand (to distinguish it from the half-cursive script used in documents). Compared with Carolingian scripts, the letters are compressed vertically, the vertical elements have been made uniform, the serifs and curved elements have been broken into angles, and the bows of different letters that face each other are ‘fused’ or overlapped. Characteristic letter shapes are the ‘two-storey a’, whose neck bends to touch its bow, and the tall letters such as ‘l’ and ‘k’, whose ascenders start 240 XVIII: Mö›ruvallabók with a serif on the left instead of looping round to the right, as in half- cursive. Unlike their European counterparts, Icelandic scribes of Gothic script did not always use round ‘s’ in final position, and they preferred an angular form of the Carolingian ‘f’ (f), except in Latin words, where they used the proper Gothic ‘f’ that stands on the guide line. In the first half of the fourteenth century, the upper arm becomes looped, and in the second half of the fourteenth century, the bottom arm becomes looped as well (ˆ). As with the Carolingian scripts, ‘i’ and ‘j’ are not dotted, and ‘u’ and ‘v’ are used interchangeably for both the consonant and the vowel (even to the extent of sometimes putting an accent over ‘v’ to indicate a long vowel). Capital initials are not regularly used at the beginning of sentences and in proper nouns; instead, they occur at the beginning of chapters, paragraphs, verses and speeches. Occasionally they are used to signal important nouns, some of which may be names. In the following transcription, letters in italics are expansions of abbreviations. Facsimiles of the two manuscript pages can be seen at http://vsnrweb-publications.org.uk/NION-2-facs.pdf. Compare the normalised text in extract IV. fol. 121v, col. 2, line 28: fiorveig het kona. hon var fall florueigarsona | ›i Observe the ‘round r’ after the ‘o’ in fiorveig (®); the shape results from writing an ‘r’ using the right-hand curve of the ‘o’ for the upright. Round ‘r’ is generally used after a letter with a bow, such as ‘o’ or ‘d’ (which has the form ˘). The letter above the first ‘h’ is a ‘t’, though it looks like an ‘r’. Icelandic abbreviations generally have one of the omitted consonants above the word, with no indication of what the omitted vowel is or whether it goes before or after the superscript consonant. The abbreviation for hon (‘h’ with superscript ‘o’) breaks the rule just given for superscript letters, but it is because ‘h’ with a horizontal stroke through the ascender (the stroke is a general sign of abbreviation) is the abbreviation for the extremely common word hann. A different abbreviation must therefore be used for hon. The line breaks off to leave space for the chapter heading, which is in red ink. The virgule before the ‘›i’ at the very end shows that these letters belong with ‘haf’ in the line above (i.e. haf›i, the last word of Chapter 4). line 29: miog fiolkunnig hon bio asteinstodum í Note that ‘ƒ’ is written without the hook, long vowels are usually written without accent marks, and there is no point at the end of the sentence. All XVIII: Mö›ruvallabók 241 these absences are common. The second ‘n’ in fjƒlkunnig is not written but is indicated by a horizontal stroke above, which here signifies a nasal consonant. (In such abbreviations, the stroke is often to the left of the ‘n’ that is written, making it difficult to see whether the transcription should be ‘nn’ or ‘nn’.) No space separates the preposition á from its object Steinsstƒ›um; this is a frequent practice. Also frequent is the practice of using a single consonant to represent two, resulting in ‘steinstodum’ for Steinsstƒ›um. line 30: mi›fir›i. hon atti .í˝. sonu. het hinn ellri Note the regular ‘r’ after the ‘i’. Roman numerals were usually set off by a point before and after, and the last ‘i’ took the form of ‘j’. The usual abbreviations for hon and hét appear, as well as the nasal stroke for the second ‘n’ in hinn. line 31: oddr en hinn yngri gu›mundr fleir varo haua›amenn Note the round ‘r’ after the letters with bows: ‘d’ (˘) in Oddr and Gu›mundr and ‘fl’ in fleir. There were several variants of ‘y’, but all have a dot to distinguish them from ‘ij’. Note the superscript ‘i’ above the ‘g’ in ‘yng’; generally a superscript vowel stands for ‘r’ or ‘v’ plus that vowel, and here it stands for ‘ri’. Two more very common abbreviations appear here: ‘flr’ with a stroke through the ascender of the ‘fl’ stands for fleir, and ‘v’ with a superscript ‘o’ stands for varo (i.e. váru). The stroke over ‘mn’ simply signals an abbreviation; it is not a nasal stroke, although it looks like one. line 32: miklir. Oddr venr kuamur sinar itungu til As mentioned in the introduction, Icelandic scribes did sometimes use initial capitals for names, but it can be difficult to tell whether a letter is meant to be large or not. The ‘O’ here is definitely large, and some would read the ‘o’ at the beginning of line 31 as large as well, though it is not as large as this one. Note the abbreviation sign over the ‘m’ in kvámur; shaped something like ∞, it actually evolved from a round ‘r’, which as a superscript letter was the Latin abbreviation for ‘ur’ and was so used in Icelandic. line 33: florkels. & sitr a tali vi› Steinger›i. florkell gerir ser dádt vi› fla bræ›r The abbreviation for all case forms of fiorkell is ‘fl’ with a stroke through the ascender followed by ‘k’ with a stroke through the ascender. These strokes are general signals of abbreviation and do not indicate nasal consonants. 242 XVIII: Mö›ruvallabók

There is no indication of case; here it is expanded to fiorkels because the preceding til always takes the genitive. Note the shape of the ampersand. It is actually a ligature of ‘e’ and ‘t’, i.e. et, the Latin word for ‘and’. Although it is borrowed from Latin, Icelandic scribes most likely thought of it as ok rather than et, and it may be transcribed ok, which is how the scribe spells the word on fol. 122r, col. 1, line 34. The scribe’s usual abbreviation for Steinger›r (irrespective of case) appears here: a capital ‘S’, a small ‘t’, and an abbreviation sign something like a flattened ‘S’ (cf. the more rounded form of this sign in line 36 below). The ‘v’ with superscript ‘i’ is a common abbreviation for vi›. The zigzag over the ‘g’ in gerir (called a ‘tittle’, and much like the abbreviation sign in Steinger›r) stands for a front vowel or diphthong plus ‘r’. The abbreviation for bræ›r is ‘bb’; the idea is that if one ‘b’ stands for bró›ir, then two b’s stand for the plural. Note that in the text of extract IV, the vowel æ of bræ›r is archaised/normalised to brœ›r. line 34: & eggiar fla at sitia firir kormaki. Oddr qua› ser flat ecki The abbreviation for fyrir is ‘f’ with a superscript ‘i’. This word was often spelled firir (the unrounded first vowel resulting from low-stress conditions, cf. flikkja for flykkja and mindi for myndi), so without an unabbreviated example to guide us, we cannot be certain which spelling the scribe would use. If the scribe does use firir when spelling it out in full, the abbreviated form should be expanded to firir as well (a principle that applies to any abbreviated word). Kormakr is abbreviated by a stroke through the ascender of its first letter. The expansion here in the dative is controlled by the preceding preposition. The spelling of kva› is unusual; the standard form would be ‘k›’ with either a sign something like a ‘w’, which means ‘v’ or ‘r’ plus ‘a’, or a superscript ‘a’, also indicating ‘v’ or ‘r’ plus the vowel, but the scribe here employs both. Although ‘qv’ is a common alternative for ‘kv’, the spelling kua› on fol. 122r, col. 1, line 4 suggests that the use of ‘q’ here is because it affords space for an abbreviation sign (and also avoids confusion with the ‘k’ abbreviation for Kormakr). It therefore might be more representative of the scribe’s orthography to expand the abbreviation with ‘q’ as kua›, but ‘q’ is retained here to show what is actually on the page. Finally, what looks like a ‘fl’ with a superscript ‘a’ is more likely to be ‘fl’ with a stroke through the ascender, which is a very common abbreviation for flat. This abbreviation appears more clearly in the next line. line 35: ofrefli. flat var einnhuern dag er kormakr kom i tun Apart from the abbreviation for flat, the most interesting thing to see in this line is how the nasal stroke signifies an ‘n’ in einnhvern and an ‘m’ in kom. XVIII: Mö›ruvallabók 243 line 36: gu. var Steinger›r i stofu & sat a palli. florueigar synir sátv Note the superscript ‘r’ in var and fiorveigar, indicating ‘ar’. Note also the doubled ‘s’; as with the doubled ‘b’ in line 34, a single ‘s’ is an abbreviation for son, and two s’s stand for the plural synir. This abbreviation is set off by a point before and after. line 37: i stofunni & varo bunir at Ωeita kormaki til ræ›i er hann gengi The front-vowel-plus-r sign appears over ‘bun’; here the front vowel is an ‘i’. The accent over the ‘v’ must be treated as a graphical flourish, but in fol. 122r, col. 1, line 3 it represents a long vowel, cf. fol. 122r, col. 1, line 34. The scribe often abbreviates names by putting a point after the first letter, but here he has put a point before and after the ‘k’ as well, as he did with the abbreviation for synir in the previous line. Note that the elements of the compound word tilræ›i are separated by a space (cf. the running together of a preposition and its object in line 29). The very common abbreviation for hann (‘h’ with a stroke through the ascender) appears at last. line 38: inn. en florkell hafdi sett odrum megin dyra sver› Do not mistake the two t’s of sett for ‘ct’, despite the almost non-existent cross-bar of the first ‘t’. The round ‘r’ with a stroke through the tail in ‘odr’ is the Latin sign for ‘rum’, here yielding odrum. The scribe spells dura as dyra (an extension of the i-mutation forms occurring in other parts of the paradigm); note the dot over the ‘y’ (see note to line 31 above). The front- vowel-plus-r sign appears over ‘sv›’; here the front vowel is an ‘e’. line 39: brug›it. en o›rum megin setti Narfi lia i langorfi. What looks like a majuscule ‘H’ is actually a majuscule ‘N’. This letter shape is inherited from early Carolingian script and developed from the fashion of making the angle of the cross-bar of the ‘N’ shallower and shallower, until at last it was horizontal rather than diagonal. Note also how the letters of langorfi are spread rather far apart; presumably the scribe was stretching the word so that it would reach to the end of the line. line 40: en fla er kormakr kom at skaladyrum. skara›i ofan 244 XVIII: Mö›ruvallabók

The ‘r’ over the ‘e’ is not an abbreviation; it is simply the second letter of the word written superscript, perhaps to save space. This turned out not to be necessary, for when the scribe came to write skara›i ofan, he had to space the letters widely to fill the line. Scribes frequently faced the problem of whether to right-justify the line by stretching one word or compressing two. line 41: liainn. & mætti hann suer›ínu & brotna›i i mikit The accent over the ‘i’ in sver›inu does not represent a long vowel; it may be intended to help the reader distinguish between the minim of the ‘i’ and the minims of the ‘n’. The final ‘it’ of mikit is indicated by a stroke through the ascender of the ‘k’; this is another common use of that sign. fol. 122r, col. 1, line 1: skar›. fla kom florkell at & qua› kormak mart illt gera & var The expansion Kormak in the accusative case is determined by its being the object of the preceding verb. line 2: malo›i. snyr inn skyndiliga & kue›r Steinger›i af sto Similarly, the expansion Steinger›i in the dative case is determined by the preceding verb. The letters ‘sto’ at the end of the line are the first part of the word stofunni. Note that the scribe does not use a hyphen to indicate a word divided at the line break. line 3: funni. ganga flau Ωt vm a›rar dyrr. & lykr hann hana Here we see an accent placed over ‘v’ to indicate a long vowel. The small capital ‘R’ with a dot over it is a combination of two abbreviations for the same thing: small capital consonants (most frequently ‘G’, ‘N’ and ‘R’) were used to represent geminates, but doubled consonants could also be indicated by a dot over a single capital consonant. line 4: ieinu vtiburi. kua› flau kormak alldri siaz skulu. kormakr The letters ‘slu’ with a stroke through the ‘l’ is the usual abbreviation for skulu. Perhaps to fill out the line, the scribe uncharacteristically spells out the first syllable of Kormakr and indicates the rest of the word with a general abbreviation sign. XVIII: Mö›ruvallabók 245 line 5: gengr inn & bar hann skiotara at en fla var›i. & var› line 6: fleim bilt. kormakr litaz vm. & ser eigi steinger›i. en ser fla bræ›r An ‘e’ with a superscript ‘i’ was a common abbreviation for eigi. line 7: er fleir stuku vapn sín. snyr i brott skyndiliga. The scribe clearly writes stuku (which would normally represent stukku, the past plural of støkkva), but this may be an error for struku (the past plural of strjúka), which gives better sense. line 8: & qua› visu. Hneit vi› hrungnis fota. halluitindum The abbreviation ‘.q.v.’ for the phrase kva› vísu is common. Note the large initial marking the start of the verse, as well as the ‘v’ (for vísa) in the space between the columns (cf. lines 12, 19, 28). The scribe clearly writes halluitindum, but this is an error for halluitiondum (i.e. hallvitjƒndum). line 9: stalli. inn var ek ilmi at finna. engi sar of fenginn The words sár and fenginn are subject to emendation because it is difficult to interpret the line as it stands, but the letters are all quite clear. line 10: vita skal hitt ef hann hættir. handui›ris mer grandi ne The letters ‘sl’ with a stroke through the ‘l’ is the usual abbreviation for skal. line 11: yggs fir lí› leggium. litis meira vitiss. kormakr finnr. Steinger›i

Note the small capital ‘G’ (without a dot) for the geminate in yggs. The spelling ‘litis’ is an error for lítils. The sense of the passage shows that the scribe (or his exemplar) has left out eigi or ecki from the phrase Kormakr finnr Steinger›i. line 12: & qua› visu. Braut huarf or sal sæta. sunnz erum 246 XVIII: Mö›ruvallabók

Note the use of ‘z’ to represent ‘ds’. Most often it represents ‘ts’ (which is how the two sounds in sunds would have been pronounced). line 13: hugr a gunni. huat merkir nu herkiss haull fluer line 14: ligar alla renda ek allt it i›ra. eirar geirs at The scribe (or his exemplar) has left out the ‘h’ in hárgeirs. line 15: fleiri. hlins erumc haurn at finna. hus brageislum fu What looks like ‘º’ by the ‘h’ is actually the Latin abbreviation for ‘us’ and was so used in Icelandic. line 16: sir. Eptir fla› geck kormakr at husi er Steinger›r var i & braut vpp husit The scribe or his exemplar has omitted the suffixed article -nu from húsi. line 17: & tala›i vi› Steinger›i. hon mælti. flu breytir ouarliga. sækir til tals The letters ‘mli’ with a stroke through the ‘l’ is a common abbreviation for mælti. Note that the last letter of tals is superscript to keep it within the column. line 18: vi› mik flviat florveigar synir ero ætla›er til hofu›s fler. fla line 19: qua› kormakr. Sitia suer› & huetia. sin andskotar minir line 20: eins karls synir inni era› fleir banar minir. enn a line 21: vi›um velli. vega tueir at mer einum. fla er sem ærat line 22: vlfi oræknum fior sæki. flar sat kormakr vm daginn. Nu sér XVIII: Mö›ruvallabók 247 line 23: florkell. at fletta rá› er farit er hann haf›i stofnat. Nu The letters ‘flta’ with a stroke through the ascender of the ‘fl’ is the usual abbreviation for fletta. line 24: bi›r hann florveigar sonu at sitia firir kormaki i dal einum firir vtan gar› line 25: sinn. fla mælti florkell. Narui skal fara me› ykr. en ek mun The sign that looks like a ‘3’ after the ‘m’ of me› developed from the semi- colon (;). It is a Latin abbreviation used to represent several combinations of letters, including ‘et’. In Iceland it was adopted as an abbreviation for ‘e›’. line 26: vera heima & veita y›r li› ef fler flurfit. vm kue line 27: lldit ferr kormakr i brott & flegar er hann kemr at dalnum sa hann menn Note the superscript ‘o’ above ‘btt’. A superscript vowel usually stands for ‘r’ or ‘v’ plus that vowel, and here it stands for ‘ro’. line 28: .íí˝. & qua› visu. Sitia menn & meina. mer eína gnásteina line 29: fleir hafa vilat vinna er mer var›a gna bor›a. flvi meira line 30: skal ek fleiri. er fleir ala meíra aufund vm varar gongur. line 31: ynna saulua gunni. fla hliopu florueigar synir vpp & sottu at Note the ligature of the two p’s; this is a space-saving device like the use of ‘®’ after ‘o’. line 32: kormaki lengi. Narui skria›i vm it ytra. florkell ser heiman 248 XVIII: Mö›ruvallabók line 33: at fleim sækiz seint & tekr Ωapn sín i flvi bili kom steinger›r The stroke over the ‘v’ is a flourish and not an indication of a long vowel. line 34: Ωt & ser ætlan fo›ur síns. tekr hon hann hondum. ok In contrast to the ‘Ω’ in the previous line, the stroke over the ‘v’ here is an indication of a long vowel. line 35: kemz hann ecki til li›s me› fleim bræ›rum lauk sua flvi ma line 36: li at oddr fell en Gu›mundr var› ouigr & do flo si›an line 37: eptir fletta for kormakr heim. en florkell ser firir fleim bræ›rum litlu si line 38: ›arr ferr kormakr at finna florveigu. & kuez ecki. vilia by line 39: g› hennar flar i fir›inum. skaltu flytia flik i brott Note the abbreviation for skaltu: the usual abbreviation for skal (cf. line 10 above), followed by ‘tu’. line 40: at aque›inni stundu. en ek vil allra bota varna The spelling of ákve›inni with a ‘q’ shows that the scribe freely uses both ‘q’ and ‘k’ before ‘v’ (‘u’) even when he does not need to use ‘q’ in order to have space above the letter for an abbreviation. line 41: vm sonu flina. florveig mælti. flat er likaz at flvi komir flu a lei› The abbreviation ‘m.’ could stand for either mælir or mælti, but because the scribe writes mælti in lines 17 and 25, we assume that mælti is meant here as well. The last letters of the line are difficult to read because the XVIII: Mö›ruvallabók 249 word was compressed to fit the tiny space left at the end of the column. col. 2, line 1: at ek ver›a hera› flotta en synir minir obættir. en flvi skal line 2: ek fler launa at flu skalt steinger›ar alldri níota. kormakr segir. fluí Note the superscript ‘i’ after the ‘d’ in ‘alld’. A superscript vowel usually stands for ‘r’ or ‘v’ plus that vowel, and here it stands for ‘ri’. The stroke above the ‘i’ in njóta is probably meant to distinguish the ‘i’ from the ‘n’; it does not indicate a long vowel. The abbreviation ‘s.’ could stand for either segir or sag›i, and as ‘segir’ is found in line 9 below, ‘s.’ is expanded as segir here as well. line 3: mantu ecki ra›a en vanda kerling. Si›an ferr Note that Si›an does not start a new chapter in this version of the text. line 4: kormakr at finna Steinger›i iamt sem a›r. ok eitt sinn er flau tala The nasal consonant supplied in the expansion of ‘iat’ is ‘m’ because the scribe’s spelling of jafnt without ‘f’ suggests that that his pronunciation of this word was /yamt/ rather than /yant/. line 5: vm flessa atbur›i. lætr hon ecki illa ifir. kormakr qua› visu. Sitia A ligature of ‘fl’ and long ‘s’, with a stroke through the ascender, is the abbreviation for fless. Here the following ‘a’ gives the case ending. line 6: menn & meina. mer asianu flína. fleir hafa laugdis line 7: loddu. linna fætr at vinna. flviat vpp skulu allar √l Note the ligature of ‘a’ and ‘v’. The scribe does not often use ligatures, and in this case may have done so in order to fit the last word into the text column. Instead of ‘ƒ’, itself a ligature of ‘a’ and ‘o’, the spelling ‘au’ or ‘av’ was often used in Icelandic for the labial mutation of a (cf. haull in col. 1, line 13, above). 250 XVIII: Mö›ruvallabók line 8: stafns a›r ek fler hafna. lysigrund i landi. linnz The letters ‘ld’ with a general abbreviation stroke stand for land. line 9: flio›ár renna. Mælflu eigi sua mikit vm segir Steinger›r Note the uncial (i.e. Continental early medieval Latin) form of the capital ‘M’. line 10: mart ma flvi breg›a. fla qua› kormakr visu. Hvern munder line 11: flu grundar hlin skapfraumu› linu. liknsy line 12: nir mer luka. lios fler at ver kiosa. Steinger›r segir. Bra›r line 13: munda ek blindum. bauglestir mik festa. yr›i The exaggerated serif of the ‘d’ in blindum makes the minim before it look like an ‘í’, but it is not. line 14: go› sem ger›iz. go› mer & skaup fro›a. kormakr segir. Nu kaustu The ‘z’ at the end of ger›iz stands for ‘st’, which is a late alternative for the -sk suffix (see NION I, § 3.6.5.3). line 15: sem vera ætti opt hefi ek higat minar kuamur line 16: lag›ar. Nu bi›r steinger›r kormak stunda til fo›ur hennar line 17: & fa hennar & firir saker steinger›ar gaf kormakr florkatli giofum. ep The abbreviation for hennar (‘hnar’ with a stroke through the ascender of XVIII: Mö›ruvallabók 251 the ‘h’) is unusual. Perhaps influenced by the dative case of fiorkatli, the scribe has put gjafar in the dative. line 18: tir fletta eigu margir menn hlut i & flar kom vm si›ir line 19: at kormakr ba› Steinger›ar. & var hon honum fostnut & aque›in line 20: brullaupsstefna & stendr nu kyrt vm hri› nu line 21: fara or› a milli fleirra. & ver›a i nockurar greinir The letters ‘flra’ with a stroke through the ascender of ‘fl’ are the common abbreviation for fleirra. line 22: vm fiarfar. & sua veík vi› breytiliga at si›an There is a rather thick accent mark over the ‘i’ of veik which lends it the appearance of a long ‘s’, but the sense calls for veik and not vesk, which is meaningless. line 23: flessum ra›um var ra›it. fanz kormaki fatt vm. en flat var firir line 24: fla sauk at florveig seiddi til at flau skylldi eigi nio line 25: taz mega. florkell i tungu atti son roskinn er line 26: florkell het. & var kalla›r tangniostr.hann haf›i ver line 27: it vtan vm stund. fletta sumar kom hann Ωt. & var me› line 28: fo›ur sínum. kormakr sækir eigi brullaupit. eptir flvi sem a 252 XVIII: Mö›ruvallabók line 29: kue›it var & lei› framm stundin. fletta flikir fræn line 30: dum Steinger›ar ouir›íng er hann breg›r flessum ra›a hag & lei line 31: Bersi het kuanfang bersa | ta ser ra›s. As with the first line of Chapter Five, the first line of the next chapter includes a large decorated initial to signal the start of the new chapter, the heading for which is in red in the centre of the line, and the end of the last line of the previous chapter fills the space at the end of the line and is marked off by a virgule.

As has emerged from the preceding commentary, Icelandic scripts changed over time. (For illustrations of these scripts down to 1300, see Hreinn Benediktsson 1965.) The earliest script was the Carolingian minuscule that was current when Latin letters were first taught to Icelanders. This script was used through the first quarter of the thirteenth century, and was gradually superseded by a Carolingian Insular script that was used through the rest of the century. By the fourteenth century, various kinds of Gothic script had become predominant. A formal textual Gothic was used for de luxe books, but for letters, charters and other documents a half-cursive Gothic was used, and this informal script gave rise to a formal half-cursive that was used in books. Not surprisingly, most manuscripts show signs of the transition from one script to another, signs that help establish the date of the manuscripts. The formal textual Gothic script of Mö›ruvallabók suggests a date of the fourteenth or fifteenth century, and the presence of all three kinds of ‘f’ (f) on fol. 121v, col. 2, lines 29 and 30; with the upper arm looped on fol. 121v, col. 2, lines 35 and 37; and with the lower arm looped as well (ˆ) on fol. 121v, col. 2, line 36) somewhat narrows the date to closer to the middle of the fourteenth century. Scripts changed slowly, making it difficult to pinpoint the date of an undated manuscript on that basis alone, but the Icelandic language itself and its spelling evolved somewhat more rapidly, providing additional evidence for a manuscript’s age. Keep in mind that scribes often worked from written texts, and sometimes they would retain XVIII: Mö›ruvallabók 253 the earlier forms that they saw in their exemplars, although in general their copies reflect contemporary forms. This text of Kormaks saga is definitely from the fourteenth century; es has been replaced by er, ‘ﬂ’ is absent from non-initial positions, and ‘d’ has begun to replace ‘›’. Yet there are none of the changes that arose in the second half of the century: á is not written ‘aa’ (cf. fol. 121v, col. 2, line 29), ‘e’ does not become ‘ei’ before ‘ng’ and ‘nk’ (cf. fol. 121v, col. 2, line 37), and enn or inn has not been replaced by hinn as the definite article (en is used on fol. 122r, col. 2, line 3, though hinn appears, before an adjective, on fol. 121v, col. 2, lines 30 and 31). It is the combination of these various factors that has led to the dating of Mö›ruvallabók to the middle of the fourteenth century. On the basis of its orthography, it could be from the first half of the century, but the double-looped ‘ˆ’ makes it more likely to be just a little later. The chronological range of these palaeographic and linguistic forms is reflected in the way the date is given in the recent analysis by Degnbol et al. 1989, which uses the formulation ‘c.1330–1370’ instead of the near-equivalent ‘c.1350’.

Bibliography Einar Ól. Sveinsson, ed. 1933. Mö›ruvallabók (Codex Mödruvallensis): MS. No. 132 fol. in the Arnamagnæan Collection in the University Library of Copenhagen. Corpus codicum islandicorum medii aevi 5. Degnbol, Helle, Bent Chr. Jacobsen, Eva Rode and Christopher Sanders, eds 1989. Ordbog over det norrøne prosasprog / A Dictionary of Old Norse Prose. Registre / Indices. Hreinn Benediktsson. 1965. Early Icelandic Script as Illustrated in Vernacular Texts from the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries. Íslenzk handrit / Icelandic Manuscripts II.

XIX: LANDNÁMABÓK

Landnámabók (The Book of the Settlements) is thought to have been first compiled in the first half of the twelfth century, probably by several collaborators including Ari fiorgilsson, who also wrote Íslendingabók (The Book of the Icelanders, see Text VIII above), and Kolskeggr Ásbjarnarson (see ÍF I 395; both these men were nick-named inn fró›i ‘the learned’, or, in the case of the latter, inn vitri ‘the wise’). It must have been based on information provided by contemporary landowners in various parts of Iceland. It contains accounts of the first settlers in each area of Iceland in the late ninth and early tenth centuries, beginning with Ingólfr Arnarson (cf. Text VIII above, note 12) in the south- west of the country, and going round the coast clockwise until it came back to the southwest (though the original work seems to have begun in the south, at the eastern limit of the Southern Quarter). It covers about 430 settlers (men and women), contains 3,500 personal names and about 1500 farm-names. The genealogies of settlers are traced both down to the time of the compilers and back to their origins in Norway or other parts of northern Europe. Since there was no state taxation of land- holdings in the Icelandic Commonwealth, the original purpose of the work, insofar as it was not simply historical, may be presumed to have had something to do with assertion of inheritance rights, or more generally to do with the establishment of a national identity. The work does not survive in its original form, but a version of it, known as Styrmisbók, was made by the priest and historian Styrmir Kárason (died 1245; lawspeaker at the Alflingi 1210–14 and 1232–35; prior of the monastery on Vi›ey near Reykjavík 1235–45). From this were derived the five surviving redactions. Only a fragment of the Melabók version survives, on parts of two poorly preserved leaves written at the end of the fourteenth or beginning of the fifteenth century. This version was probably compiled by Snorri Markússon of Melar in Melasveit (d. 1313) and seems to have been based fairly closely on Styrmisbók, with some additions from Sagas of Icelanders. Sturlubók was compiled by the historian Sturla fiór›arson (died 1284), nephew of Snorri Sturluson, but is only preserved in AM 107 fol., written by Jón Erlendsson (died 1672). It is this version that first introduced the changed geographical arrangement of the work, beginning now with the settlement of Ingólfr. Sturla also added a great deal of new material from Sagas of Icelanders and other histories 256 XIX: Landnámabók or pseudo-historical writings (while some early Sagas of Icelanders may have themselves included material from Styrmisbók). Hauksbók was compiled by lƒgma›r (one of the two highest government officials in Iceland) Haukr Erlendsson (died 1334) in 1306–08. Part of this redaction survives in Haukr’s own hand in AM 371 4to, part in AM 105 fol., written again by Jón Erlendsson. Haukr used both Styrmisbók and Sturlubok, and also introduced material from other sources, including Sagas of Icelanders. Skar›sárbók was compiled by Björn Jónsson of Skar›sá (died 1655) in the 1630s, and survives in various copies, the most important of which is AM 104 fol., written by Ásgeir Jónsson (died 1707). It was based principally on Sturlubók and Hauksbók. Finally, there is fiór›arbók, compiled by fiór›ur Jónsson (died 1670) probably between 1644 and 1651, and preserved in what is largely fiór›ur’s autograph in AM 106 and 112 fol. It is based on Skar›sárbók and Melabók and some other sources, and can be used for reconstructing the lost Melabók text. The extract below comprises chapters 6–9 of the Sturlubók version (AM 107 fol., ff. 2v21–5v5; S), with some corrections from Hauksbók (H). They tell mainly of the settlement of Ingólfr, held to be the first Icelandic settler, in south-west Iceland, where he lived at what is now the capital of Iceland, Reykjavík (there is a parallel to most of this in Flóamanna saga chs 2–3, ÍF XIII 233–37). Like many other settlers, he initially appropriated a huge area, comprising the whole of the south-western peninsular of Iceland, but this was subsequently divided up among a number of later arrivals.

Bibliography Landnámabók is edited by Jakob Benediktsson in ÍF I. This is based on Sturlu- bók, with all the divergent passages in Hauksbók printed on facing pages, and with the whole of what survives of Melabók printed on the lower part of the relevant pages. Variants and additional material from Skar›sárbók and ﬁór›arbók are indicated in textual notes, while the whole of Skar›sárbók with full variants and most of the additional passages from ﬁór›arbók are printed in the same editor’s Skar›sárbók. Landnámabók Björns Jónssonar á Skar›sá (1958 and 1966). The Sturlubók, Hauksbók and Melabók versions are all included in full in Landnámabók (1900), ed. Finnur Jónsson. All the primary manuscripts are reproduced in facsimile in Landnámabók. Ljós- prentun handrita, ed. Jakob Benediktsson (1974), which has an introduction in English as well as in Icelandic. Sturlubók is translated into English in BS. There is discussion in English in Jakob Benediktsson, ‘Landnámabók. Some Remarks on its Value as a Historical Source’, Saga-Book XVII (1969), 275–92; MS 373–74; G. Turville-Petre, Origins of Icelandic Literature (1953), ch. 4. XIX: Landnámabók 257

XIX: LANDNÁMABÓK

‹Chapter 6›: Frá Bjƒrnólfi ‹B›jƒrnólfr hét ma›r, en annarr Hróaldr; fleir váru synir Hrómundar Gripssonar. fieir fóru af fielamƒrk fyrir víga sakir ok sta›festusk í 3 Dalsfir›í á Fjƒlum. Sonr Bjƒrnólfs var ¯rn, fa›ir fleira Ingólfs ok Helgu, en Hróalds son var Hró›marr, fa›ir Leifs. fieir Ingólfr ok Leifr fóstbrœ›r fóru í herna› me› sonum Atla jarls 6 ens mjóva af Gaulum, fleim Hásteini ok Hersteini ok Hólmsteini. Me› fleim fóru ƒll skipti vel, ok er fleir kvámu heim, mæltu fleir til samfara me› sér annat sumar. En um vetrinn gør›u fleir fóstbrœ›r veizlu sonum 9 jarlsins. At fleiri veizlu streng›i Hólmsteinn heit at hann skyldi eiga Helgu Arnardóttur e›r øngva konu ella. Um flessa heitstrenging fannsk mƒnnum fátt, en Leifr ro›na›i á at sjá, ok var› fátt um me› fleim 12 Hólmsteini er fleir skil›u flar at bo›inu. Um várit eptir bjoggusk fleir fóstbrœ›r at fara í herna› ok ætlu›u til móts vi› sonu Atla jarls. fieir fundusk vi› Hísargafl, ok lƒg›u fleir 15 Hólmsteinn brœ›r flegar til orrostu vi› flá Leif. En er fleir hƒf›u barizk um hrí›, kom at fleim ¯lmó›r enn gamli, son Hƒr›a-Kára, frændi Leifs, ok veitti fleim Ingólfi. Í fleiri orrostu fell Hólmsteinn, en Hersteinn 18 fl‡›i. fiá fóru fleir Leifr í herna›. En um vetrinn eptir fór Hersteinn at fleim Leifi ok vildi drepa flá, en fleir fengu njósn af fƒr hans ok gør›u 21 mót honum. Var› flá enn orrosta mikil, ok fell flar Hersteinn. Eptir flat dreif at fleim fóstbrœ›rum vinir fleira ór Fir›afylki. Váru flá menn sendir á fund Atla jarls ok Hásteins at bjó›a sættir, ok sættusk 24 fleir at flví at fleir Leifr guldu eignir sínar fleim fe›gum. En fleir fostbrœ›r bjoggu skip mikit er fleir áttu, ok fóru at leita lands fless er Hrafna-Flóki haf›i fundit ok flá var Ísland kallat. fieir 27 fundu landit ok váru í Austfjƒr›um í Álptafir›i enum sy›ra. fieim vir›isk landit betra su›r en nor›r. fieir váru einn vetr á landinu ok fóru flá aptr til Nóregs. 30 Eptir flat var›i Ingólfr fé fleira til Íslandsfer›ar, en Leifr fór í herna› í vestrvíking. Hann herja›i á Írland ok fann flar jar›hús mikit.1 fiar gekk hann í, ok var myrkt flar til er l‡sti af sver›i flví er ma›r helt á. 33 Leifr drap flann mann ok tók sver›it ok mikit fé af honum; sí›an var

2 Space is left for a large ornamented capital at the beginning of each chapter, and also at line 104. 4 Fjƒlum H, Fjƒllum S. 22 honum H, ﬂeim S. 258 XIX: Landnámabók

hann kalla›r Hjƒrleifr. Hjƒrleifr herja›i ví›a um Írland ok fekk flar 36 mikit fé; flar tók hann flræla tíu er svá hétu: Dufflakr ok Geirrø›r, Skjal‹d›bjƒrn, Halldórr ok Drafdittr; eigi eru nefndir fleiri. En eptir flat fór Hjƒrleifr til Nóregs ok fann flar Ingólf fóstbró›ur sinn. Hann 39 haf›i á›r fengit Helgu Arnardóttur, systur Ingólfs.

‹Chapter 7› ‹fi›enna vetr fekk Ingólfr at blóti miklu ok leita›i sér heilla um forlƒg 42 sín, en Hjƒrleifr vildi aldri blóta. Fréttin vísa›i Ingólfi til Íslands. Eptir flat bjó sitt skip hvárr fleira mága til Íslandsfer›ar; haf›i Hjƒrleifr herfang sitt á skipi en Ingólfr félagsfé fleira, ok lƒg‹››u til hafs er fleir 45 váru búnir.

‹Chapter 8› ‹S›umar flat er fleir Ingólfr fóru til at byggja Ísland, haf›i Haraldr 48 hárfagri verit tólf ár konungr at Nóregi; flá var li›it frá upphafi flessa heims sex flúsundir vetra ok sjau tigir ok flrír vetr, en frá holdgan Dróttins átta hundru› ok sjau tigir ok fjƒgur ár. fieir hƒf›u samflot flar til er fleir 51 sá Ísland; flá skil›i me› fleim. fiá er Ingólfr sá Ísland, skaut hann fyrir bor› ƒndugissúlum sínum til heilla;2 hann mælti svá fyrir at hann skyldi flar byggja er súlurnar 54 kœmi á land. Ingólfr tók flar land er nú heitir Ingólfshƒf›i, en Hjƒrleif rak vestr fyrir land ok fekk hann vatnfátt. fiá tóku flrælarnir írsku flat rá› at kno›a saman mjƒl ok smjƒr, ok kƒllu›u flat óflorstlátt; fleir nefndu 57 flat minflak. En er flat var til búit, kom regn mikit, ok tóku fleir flá vatn á tjƒldum. En er minflakit tók at mygla, kƒstu›u fleir flví fyrir bor›, ok rak flat á land flar sem nú heitir Minflakseyrr. Hjƒrleifr tók 60 land vi› Hjƒrleifshƒf›a, ok var flar flá fjƒr›r, ok horf›i botninn inn at hƒf›anum. Hjƒrleifr lét flar gjƒra skála tvá, ok er ƒnnur toptin átján fa›ma, 63 en ƒnnur nítján. Hjƒrleifr sat flar um vetrinn. En um várit vildi hann sá; hann átti einn uxa ok lét hann flrælana draga ar›rinn. En er fleir Hjƒrleifr váru at skála, flá ger›i Dufflakr flat rá› at fleir skyldu drepa 66 uxann ok segja at skógarbjƒrn3 hef›i drepit, en sí›an skyldu fleir rá›a á flá Hjƒrleif ef fleir leita›i bjarnarins. Eptir flat sƒg›u fleir Hjƒrleifi fletta. Ok er fleir fóru at leita bjarnarins ok dreif›usk í skóginn, flá

49 vı. H, íí˝. S. XIX: Landnámabók 259 settu flrælarnir at sérhverjum fleira ok myr›u flá alla, jafnmarga sér. 69 fieir hljópu á brutt me› konur fleira ok lausafé ok bátinn. firælarnir fóru í eyjar flær er fleir sá í haf til útsu›rs, ok bjoggusk flar fyrir um hrí›. Vífill ok Karli hétu flrælar Ingólfs; flá sendi hann vestr me› sjó at 72 leita ƒndvegissúlna sinna. En er fleir kvámu til Hjƒrleifshƒf›a, fundu fleir Hjƒrleif dau›an. fiá fóru fleir aptr ok sƒg›u Ingólfi flau tí›indi; hann lét illa yfir drápi fleira Hjƒrleifs. Eptir flat fór Ingólfr vestr til 75 Hjƒrleifshƒf›a, ok er hann sá Hjƒrleif dau›an, mælti hann: ‘Lítit lag›isk hér fyrir gó›an dreng, er flrælar skyldu at bana ver›a, ok sé ek svá hverjum ver›a ef eigi vill blóta.’ 78 Ingólfr lét búa grƒft fleira Hjƒrleifs ok sjá fyrir skipi fleira ok fjárhlut. Ingólfr gekk flá upp á hƒf›ann ok sá eyjar liggja í útsu›r til hafs; kom honum flat í hug at fleir4 mundu flangat hlaupit hafa, flví at bátrinn var 81 horfinn; fóru fleir at leita flrælanna ok fundu flá flar sem Ei› heitir í eyjunum. Váru fleir flá at mat er fleir Ingólfr kvámu at fleim. fieir vur›u felmsfullir ok hljóp sinn veg hverr. Ingólfr drap flá alla. fiar heitir 84 Dufflaksskor er hann5 lézk. Fleiri hljópu fleir fyrir berg flar sem vi› flá er kennt sí›an. Vestmannaeyjar heita flar sí›an er flrælarnir váru drepnir, flví at fleir váru Vestmenn. fieir Ingólfr hƒf›u me› sér konur fleira er 87 myr›ir hƒf›u verit; fóru fleir flá aptr til Hjƒrleifshƒf›a; var Ingólfr flar vetr annan. En um sumarit eptir fór hann vestr me› sjó. Hann var enn flri›ja vetr 90 undir Ingólfsfelli fyrir vestan ¯lfusá. fiau missari fundu fleir Vífill ok Karli ƒndvegissúlur hans vi› Arnarhvál fyrir ne›an hei›i.

‹Chapter 9› 93 ‹I›ngólfr fór um várit ofan um hei›i; hann tók sér bústa› flar sem ƒndvegissúlur hans hƒf›u á land komit; hann bjó í Reykjarvík; flar eru enn ƒndugissúlur flær í eldhúsi. En Ingólfr nam land milli ¯lfusár ok 96 Hvalfjar›ar fyrir útan Brynjudalsá, milli ok Øxarár ok ƒll nes út. fiá mælti Karli: ‘Til ills fóru vér um gó› heru› er vér skulum byggja útnes fletta.’ 99 Hann hvarf á brutt ok ambátt me› honum. Vífli gaf Ingólfr frelsi, ok bygg›i hann at Vífilstoptum; vi› hann er kennt Vífilsfell; flar bjó ‹hann› lengi, var› skilríkr ma›r. Ingólfr lét gjƒra skála á Skálafelli; fla›an sá 102 hann reyki vi› ¯lfusvatn ok fann flar Karla.

101 kennt Vífilsfell first written kendr Vífilsd(alr) in S. 102 Skála- H, Skalla- S (skála also witten with -llin S in line 62). 260 XIX: Landnámabók

‹I›ngólfr var frægastr allra landnamsmanna, flví at hann kom hér at 105 óbygg›u landi ok bygg›i fyrstr landit; gør›u flat a›rir landnámsmenn eptir hans dœmum. Ingólfr átti Hallveigu Fró›adóttur systur6 Lopts ens gamla; fleira 108 son var fiorsteinn, er fling lét setja á Kjalarnesi á›r Alflingi var sett.7 Son fiorsteins var fiorkell máni lƒgsƒguma›r, er einn hei›inna manna hefir bezt verit si›a›r at flví er menn vita dœmi til. Hann lét sik bera í 111 sólargeisla í banasótt sinni ok fal sik á hendi fleim Gu›i er sólina haf›i skapat; haf›i hann ok lifat svá hreinliga sem fleir kristnir menn er bezt eru si›a›ir. Son hans var fiormó›r, er flá var allsherjargo›i er kristni 114 kom á Ísland. Hans son var Hamall, fa›ir Más ok fiormó›ar ok Torf‹a›.

Notes

1 There is a record of such an event in Iceland in 874; see ÍF I cxxxvi.

2 Such high seat pillars may have had carvings of heathen gods on them; presumably the gods were believed to guide the pillars ashore at a propitious place, and they would bave been re-used in the settler’s new home in Iceland. See particularly Eyrbyggja saga ch. 4 (ÍF IV 7–10).

3 There have never been any brown bears in Iceland, though polar bears have sometimes reached there on drift ice.

4 I.e. ﬂrælarnir (so ﬁór›arbók).

5 I.e. Dufﬂakr.

6 ﬁór›arbók has, more correctly, fƒ›ursystur.

7 See Text VIII above, lines 44–47 and note 23. XX: EAST NORSE

Old Norse, as defined in NION I, 1.2, refers to Viking-Age and medieval Icelandic (c.870–1550) and Norwegian (c.750–1350). The term has, however, sometimes been used more widely, to include pre- Reformation Swedish and Danish, and also the Scandinavian colonial languages (besides Icelandic) that resulted from Viking-Age expansion and settlement. ION, for example, has separate sections devoted to ‘West Norse’ (Icelandic and Norwegian) and ‘East Norse’ (Danish and Swedish). This terminological uncertainty has various causes. Literary and historical scholars have tended to focus almost exclusively on the medieval writings of Iceland and Norway, so that for them Old Norse easily became synonymous with the shared literary idiom of those two countries. Added to that, the English word ‘Norse’ is not far removed from Scandinavian norsk(r) ‘Norwegian’ (from which language Icelandic is of course descended). Those concerned with linguistic history, on the other hand, seeking English equivalents for the Danish/Norwegian terms vestnordisk and østnordisk (Swedish västnordiska, östnordiska), tended to alight on ‘West Norse’ and ‘East Norse’, though some have preferred ‘Old West Scandinavian’ and ‘Old East Scandinavian’. Traditionally the East/West division is seen as the first major dialect split in Scandinavian. Prior to that, a relatively homogeneous North or North-West Germanic is supposed to have existed, a daughter language of Common or Proto-Germanic, itself descended from Indo- European. Differences between East and West emerge during the Viking Age (c.750–1050) and early Middle Ages (c.1050–1200), and are clearly manifested in the oldest preserved vernacular manuscripts from Scandinavia (Iceland and Norway c.1150, Denmark and Sweden c.1250–75). How far the traditional view of pre-Reformation Scandinavian linguistic history reflects reality has increasingly been questioned. In the light of what is currently known about language change and diversity, it is hard to believe that a uniform speech community stretching from Helgeland in Norway to southern Jutland, from the Baltic to the North Sea, can have existed at any period. Nor is it easy to see how the radical changes of the Scandinavian syncope period (c.550–700), whereby a language not far removed from Common Germanic developed into an idiom close to Old Norse, could have 262 XX: East Norse been accomplished without considerable dialectal variation — at least while the changes were under way. The alternative is to assume that throughout the Scandinavian-speaking world a rising generation began simultaneously to alter their speech patterns in identical ways — a scenario that runs counter to the little evidence that exists and seems to be without parallel. It is possible that political and social factors in the early Viking Age worked in favour of linguistic uniformity, giving us the ‘Common Scandinavian’ of linguistic handbooks, but it is hard to identify precisely what factors these might have been. More likely, there was always dialectal variation of one kind or another, but the sparseness of the sources hides it from our view. At the start of the manuscript age differences must have existed not only between West and East Norse, but between speech communities all over the Scandinavian world. That, at least, is what the earliest preserved vernacular texts indicate. Beneath the overlay of regional and scriptorium-based norms of writing, a dialect continuum can be glimpsed, running from southern Jutland through the Danish islands to Skåne and thence further north, east and west into Sweden and Norway. Medieval writings from Denmark and Sweden may thus be expected to show features of East Norse, of regional and of local (scriptorium- based or dialectal) type. In addition there will be variation depending on the age of text or manuscript. The Scandinavian Middle Ages (c.1050–1550) were, like the syncope period, a time of great linguistic change. It was then that the grammars of Danish, Norwegian and Swedish lost most of their inherited inflexions, and speech was Germanised through the adoption of vast numbers of words, idioms and derivational affixes from Low German, the language of the Hanseatic traders (many of whom populated the growing Scandinavian towns such as Bergen, Lund, Stockholm). The West Norse/East Norse dichotomy as it appears in manuscript sources comes down to a limited range of phonological and morphological criteria. The principal shibboleths are enumerated here (grammatical abbreviations are explained at the beginning of the glossary in NION III).

(1) In eastern Scandinavia the falling diphthongs /ei/ /au/ /øy/ were monophthongised to /e:/ /ø:/ /ø:/ respectively, e.g. O. Icel. steinn ‘stone’, lauf ‘foliage’, dreyma ‘[to] dream’, O. Swed. sten, løf, drøma. XX: East Norse 263

(2) Labial mutation (NION I, 3.1.7.1), although not infrequently attested in East Scandinavian runic inscriptions, is largely absent from Danish and Swedish vernacular manuscripts, e.g. O. Icel. hƒfn ‘harbour’ kƒllu›u ‘called [3rd pl.]’, O. Dan. hafn, kallathu/o. (3) Front mutation (NION I, 3.1.7.2) is also lacking in the East in specific cases: (a) the present tense sg. of strong verbs, e.g. O. Icel. kømr ‘comes’, O. Swed. kom(b)er; (b) the past subjunctive of strong verbs and weak verbs of the krefja ‘demand’ and hafa ‘have’ types, e.g. O. Icel. væri ‘would be’, hef›i ‘would have’, O. Dan. vare, hafdhe; (c) where the conditioning factors are /gi/ /ki/, e.g. O. Icel. tekit ‘taken [supine]’, O. Swed. takit; (d) where the conditioning factor is /z/ (which ultimately developed to /r/), e.g. O. Icel. gler ‘glass’, O. Dan. glar. (4) In eastern Scandinavia there are more occurrences and more types of breaking (NION I, 3.1.7.3) than in the West, e.g. O. Icel. ek ‘I’, syngva ‘[to] sing’, O. Swed. iak, siunga. (5) /u/ often developed to /o/ in western Scandinavia while remaining unchanged in the East, e.g. O. Icel. bo› ‘message’ ‘command’, O. Dan. buth. (6) The Germanic diphthong /eu/ developed regularly to [ju:] in most eastern forms of Scandinavian, but in the West it became [jo:] immediately before /h/, /m/ and dental consonants (and occasionally in other contexts), e.g. O. Icel. brjóta ‘break’, O. Swed. briuta. (7) Initial [w-] is lost in the West immediately before /r/, e.g. O. Icel. rangr ‘crooked’ ‘wrong’, O. Swed./Dan. wrangær. (8) Nasal + /p/ /t/ /k/ commonly assimilates to /p:/ /t:/ /k:/ in western Scandinavia, e.g. O. Icel. kroppinn ‘crooked’, brattr ‘steep’, ekkja ‘widow’, O. Swed. krumpin, branter, ænkia. (9) In eastern Scandinavia the -sk form of the verb (NION I, 3.6.4, 3.6.5.3) is simplified to -s, e.g. O. Icel. skiljask ‘[to] part [from]’, nefnask ‘[to] call oneself’ ‘[to] be called’, O. Dan. skiljas, nefnæs. (10) In western Scandinavia the 2nd pl. verb ending is -›, in Sweden and eastern Denmark (Skåne) -n; in the rest of Denmark the consonant is lost, leaving the ending -æ/-e, e.g. O. Icel. hafi› ‘have [2nd pl. pres.]’, O. Swed. hauin, (central and western) O. Dan. hauæ. (11) In western Scandinavia the dat. pl. form of the suffixed definite article is -num, in Sweden and northern Skåne it is -in/-en, in Denmark otherwise -num/-nom, e.g. O. Icel. steinunum ‘the stones [dat. pl.]’, O. Swed. stenomen, O. Dan. dyefflonom ‘the devils [dat. pl.]’. The East/West division is by no means absolute (as items 10 and especially 11 indicate). Various western features are found in Danish manuscripts, especially those from Jutland (types of palatal mutation as in slær ‘hits’, O. Swed. slar, lack of breaking as in æk ‘I’, O. Swed. iak, ‘o’ rather than ‘u’ spellings as in both ‘message’ ‘command’, O. Swed. buﬂ). Nor can the language of Gotland easily be classified as 264 XX: East Norse

West or East Norse. In common with the former it retains the falling diphthongs, e.g. bain ‘bone’, draumbr ‘dream’, droyma ‘[to] dream’; on the other hand, it prefers /u/ even where O. Swed. and O. Dan. have /o/, e.g. fulc ‘people’, lufa ‘[to] permit’, O. Swed. folk, loua. Other areas of the medieval Scandinavian world also have their linguistic peculiarities (as indicated above). Haugen offers an introduction to the variety in his ‘Checklist of dialectal criteria in O[ld] Sc[andinavian] manuscripts (1150–1350)’ (1976, 210–13). Time as well as place can affect the language of medieval Scandi- navian manuscripts. Around 1300 written Norwegian and Swedish still by and large retained the inflexional system inherited from North Germanic. By 1400, this system was in an advanced state of collapse. Danish succumbed earlier. Manuscripts from around 1300 show that Jutlandic apocope (loss of final vowels) and Zealandic reduction of unstressed vowels to /3/ had already taken place, sweeping away the many inflexions dependent on the /a/ /i/ /u/ trichotomy (e.g. corresponding to O. Icel. kalla›a, kalla›i, kƒllu›u ‘called [1st sg., 3rd sg., 3rd pl. indic.]’ we find simply kallæth or kallæthe). Only in Skåne, where little or no reduction had occurred, does the language of the earliest Danish manuscripts regularly exhibit traditional case endings and verbal inflexions. By the fifteenth century the influence of Low German had begun to make itself felt in Danish, Swedish and Norwegian manuscripts (introducing words such as æra ‘honour’, handel ‘trade’, stolter ‘splendid’ ‘gallant’, bruka ‘use’ and derivational affixes like an-, be-, -aktig, -het, Middle Low German êre, handel, stolt, brûken, an-, be-, -achtich, -heit). In Norway this influence resulted in part from the Swedicisation and ultimately Danicisation of the written language. So strong was the Danish input that by the time of the Reformation Norwegian had all but ceased to exist as a written medium. Four samples of eastern Scandinavian are now provided, two from Sweden and two from Denmark. They have been selected for their linguistic (and generic) variety. Different geographical areas are represented, different stages in the development of Swedish and Danish and different styles. Unlike Old Icelandic and to some extent Old Norwegian texts, those from eastern Scandinavia are not customarily normalised. The manuscript spellings are thus retained here, although abbreviations are expanded without comment. XX: East Norse 265

Bibliography Michael P. Barnes, ‘Language’. In Medieval Scandinavia: an Encyclopedia, ed. Phillip Pulsiano and Kirsten Wolf (1993), 376–78. Michael [P.] Barnes, ‘Language’. In A Companion to Old Norse-Icelandic Literature and Culture, ed. Rory McTurk (2005), 173–89. Einar Haugen, The Scandinavian Languages: an Introduction to their History (1976). Einar Haugen, Scandinavian Language Structures: a Comparative Historical Survey (1982). Åke Holmbäck and Elias Wessén, Svenska landskapslagar 1 (1933). Gunnar Knudsen, Mariager Legende-Haandskrift Gl. kgl. Saml. 1586 4to (Samfund til udgivelse af gammel nordisk litteratur 44, 1917–30). Erik Kroman, Danmarks gamle købstadlovgivning 1, Sønderjylland (1951). Rolf Pipping, Erikskrönikan enligt cod. Holm. D 2 (Samlingar utgivna av Svenska fornskrift-sällskapet, part 158, 1921; reprinted as part 231, 1963). Rolf Pipping, Kommentar till Erikskrönikan (Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland 187, 1926). Jerker Rosén, ‘Erikskrönikan’, Kulturhistoriskt Lexikon för nordisk medeltid 4 (1959), 28–34. C. J. Schlyter, Samling af Sweriges Gamla Lagar 3 (1834). Lars Vikør, The Nordic Languages: their Status and Interrelations (3rd ed., 2002). Elias Wessén, De nordiska språken (1965 and later printings). 266 XX: East Norse

XX A: THE PROVINCIAL LAW OF UPPLAND The age of this law is uncertain, but there are indications that parts of it may have existed in oral form in the late Viking Age. There are five medieval manuscripts. The text printed below — the preface to the law — follows Uppsala Universitetsbibliotek B 12 (from the first half of the fourteenth century), f. 1. The complete manuscript is published in Schlyter (1834), and a modern Swedish translation with extensive commentary is available in Holmbäck and Wessén (1933), see especially 7, 10–12. Many of the sentiments expressed in the passage about the purpose and role of the law (lines 5–10) are to be found in similar form in the prefaces to other Scandinavian provincial law texts.

Notes on the language 1. Monophthongisation of /ei/ /au/ /øy/ is marked throughout, e.g. heflin (11) ‘heathen’, giøtæ (3) ‘of the Geats [gen. pl.]’, gømæs (7) ‘be observed’, O. Icel. hei›inn, gauta, geymast. 2. Labial mutation is absent, e.g. lagh (1) ‘law’, allum (3) ‘to all [dat. pl.]’, O. Icel. lƒg, ƒllum. 3. Front mutation is absent in the past subj. form warin (10) ‘were [3rd pl.]’ and the supine (aff ) takit (18) ‘remove’, O. Icel. væri, tekit. 4. The scribe writes ‘v’ rather than ‘o’ in Gvfl (1) ‘God’, cf. early West Norse go›, later gu›. 5. The scribe writes ‘iu’ rather than ‘io’ in fliuffnæfl (24) ‘theft’, cf. O. Icel. fljófna›r. 6. Historical [w] is shown in initial position before /r/, e.g. wrangum (9) ‘wrongdoers [dat. pl.]’, O. Icel. rƒngum. 7. The -sk verb form appears as -s throughout, e.g. gømæs (7) ‘be maintained’, haldæs (7) ‘be kept’, skiptis (20) ‘is divided’, O. Icel. geymask, haldask, skiptisk. 8. The 3rd pl. past subj. form warin (10) ‘were’ shows the -n ending typical of O. Swed. and the O. Dan. of Skåne (contrast O. Icel. væri). Final -n was generally lost in Viking-Age Scandinavian, but retained in certain forms in East Norse, cf. O. Swed. øghon, O. Dan. øghæn ‘eyes’, O. Icel. augu. 9. A characteristic feature of O. Swed. is the development of /d/ between /n:/ and /r/ and /l:/ and /r/, of /b/ between /m/ and /l/ and /m/ and /r/, and of /p/ between /m/ and /n/ and /m/ and /t/ (the linguistic term for this phenomenon is segmentation). Examples from the passage below are: aldræ (20) ‘of all [gen. pl.]’, Fæmpti (25) ‘[the] fifth’, O. Icel. allra, fimti. XX: East Norse 267

10. Characteristic of the O. Swed. of the province of Uppland is the use of ‘-æ’ in unstressed syllables (especially endings) rather than ‘-a’. There are examples throughout the passage below, e.g. sweæ (3) ‘of the Swedes’, wæræ (5) ‘[to] be’, timæ (11) ‘time [dat. sg.]’ ‘era’. In other kinds of O. Swed. we find either ‘-a’, or a mixture of ‘-a’ and ‘-æ’ dependent either on the quantity of the preceding stressed syllable or the quality of its vowel. 11. The inflexional system inherited from Germanic is still more or less intact in the B 12 manuscript of The Provincial Law of Uppland, though there are signs of incipient breakdown. The genitive is not necessarily found after mellum ‘between’ and til ‘to’, e.g. mellum ræt ok o ræt (6–7) ‘between right and wrong’, til næfst (8) ‘for the chastisement’, nor the dative after aff ‘off’ ‘from’ and i ‘in’, e.g. aff . . . warflt rafl (17–18) ‘according to . . . our deliberations’, i. kristnu ræt (14) ‘in the Christian Law’. Acc. m. sg. flæn ‘the’ has been extended into the nom., e.g. flæn fyrsti ær (21) ‘the first is’. 268 XX: East Norse

XX A: THE PROVINCIAL LAW OF UPPLAND

Gvfl siælwær skipafli fyrstu lagh. ok sændi sinu folki mæfl moyses. ær fyrsti laghmaflær war. fore hans folki. Swa sændir ok en waldughær 3 kunungær sweæ oc giøtæ. Byrghir son magnusæ. kununx. allum flem ær byggiæ mellum haffs ok sæw strøms ok øflmorflæ bok flessæ mæfl wigers flokkum. ok laghum. upplænzkum. Lagh skulu wæræ satt ok 6 skipafl almænni til styrls bafli rikum ok fatøkum. ok skiæl mellum ræt ok o ræt. Lagh skulu gømæs ok haldæs fatøkum til wærnær. spakum til friflær. æn o spakum til næfst ok ognær. Lagh skulu wæræ 9 rætwisum ok snællum til sømdær. æn wrangum ok o snællum til rætningær. warin allir rætwisir fla flurfpti æi lagha wifl. Laghæ yrkir war wiger spa. heflin i. heflnum timæ. Hwat ær wi hittum .i. hans 12 laghsaghu ær allum mannum flarfflikt ær. flæt sætium wi[r] .i. bok flessæ. flæt o flarfft ær. ok flungi ær. at flæt uilium wi[r] utæn lykkia. Hwat ok ær hin heflne læt affat wæræ swa sum ær. i. kristnu ræt ok 15 kirkiu laghum. flæt skulum wi[r] til økiæ .i. upbyriæn flæssæri bok. Ok wilium wir fylghiæ .i. laghum flæmmæ warum forfæflrum. Erik- inum hælghæ. Byrghiri iarli. ok magnus[i] kunung[i] ok aff wari 18 brysthyggiu. ok warflt rafl. hwat wir gitum til satt. ællr aff takit. sum allum snællum samflykkis a. fla skulum wir samæn sættiæ til flarwæ aldræ mannæ. ær byggiæ flær wir fyrmer saghflum. Bok flæssi skiptis 21 .i. attæ laghæ balkæ. flæn fyrsti ær kirkiu balkær. ær man skal ‹sial› sinæ mæfl giømæ. Annær balkær ær um kunung. ok kununx eflsøre. ok skipwistir hans. ok um roflæræt. firifli balkær ær um giptæ mal. ok 24 um ærffflir. Fierfli balkær ær um drap saer. ran. fliuffnæfl. ok fyndir. Fæmpti ær um iorflir. Sætti ær um løsøræ kiøp ok giæstning. Siundi ær bygningæ balkær. Attundi ok siflærsti ær um flingmal.

12, 13, 15, 17 letters written but subsequently erased. 21 word omitted by scribe, supplied by Schlyter (1834, 7) from other manuscripts. XX: East Norse 269

XX B: THE TOWN LAW OF FLENSBORG

Apparently first written in Latin, this law was revised and put into Danish about 1300. The principal manuscript of the Danish text (now in Flensborg Stadsarkiv) stems from this period. The extracts printed below are found on ff. 1–2 (preface and Vm arf), 14–15 (skipthiuf, skip i hauæn). The complete text is published (without commentary) in Kroman (1951), 113–35, the sections below on pp. 113–14, 128.

Notes on the language 1. Monophthongisation of /ei/ /øy/ is marked throughout (except in the negative adverb ‘ey’ (6), cf. modern Danish and Swedish ej), e.g. them (5) ‘them’, døør (8) ‘dies’, (han) gømæ (19) ‘[let him] keep’, O. Icel. fleim, deyr, geymi. 2. Labial mutation is absent in (the) hafth (6) ‘they had’, O. Icel. fleir hƒf›u. It is however marked in børn (13), børnæ (11) ‘children’, logh (13) ‘law’. The product of labial mutation regularly develops to /ø/ in Danish when immediately followed by /l/ and /r/ (cf. modern Danish øl ‘beer’, ørn ‘eagle’). N. pl. logh has exceptionally retained the mutated vowel (albeit probably as /o/); other neuter nouns with root /a/ exhibit the same vowel in sg. and pl., e.g. land ‘country’ ‘countries’, blath ‘leaf’ ‘leaves’. Forms such as oll (8) ‘all’ do not reflect labial mutation, but rather rounding of /a/ immediately before /l:/ (common in manuscripts from southern Jutland), cf. ollæ (4), olt (20) ‘all’, O. Icel. allir, allt. 3. Front mutation is absent in the sg. pres. indic. forms takær (9) ‘takes’, hauær (11) ‘has’, kummær (32) ‘comes’, O. Icel. tekr, hefr, kømr. It is however found in fæær (19) ‘gets’, hæuær (22) ‘has’, which is in keeping with the position in many Jutlandic dialects past and present (cf. above). 4. Breaking is absent from stæl (29) ‘steals’. Jutlandic follows West Norse in being less prone to breaking than the generality of eastern dialects, cf. O. Icel. stelr, O. Swed. and central and eastern O. Dan. stiæl. 5. The scribe writes ‘iu’ rather than ‘io’ in iutland (5) ‘Jutland’, skipthiuf (28) ‘ship thief’, cf. O. Icel. Jótland, fljófr. Note, however, the forms spiyt (15) ‘speer’, stiyp mothær (22) ‘stepmother’, nytæ (23) ‘[let them] enjoy’, which indicate the development /iu:/ > /iy:/ > /y:/ (cf. modern Danish bryde ‘break’, dyb ‘deep’, nyde ‘enjoy’, but also Jylland ‘Jutland’). 6. Nasal + /t/ is unassimilated in wintær (3) ‘winters’, cf. O. Icel. vetr. We also find ‘nt’ written where East as well as West Norse normally has ‘(t)t’, e.g. ient (29) ‘[indef. art.]’, sint (32) ‘[refl. poss.]’, O. Icel. eitt, sitt, O. Swed. et, sit. These may be unassimilated forms too, but they could be analogical new formations in which the root morpheme (i)en-, sin- has been extended into the n. sg. 270 XX: East Norse

7. The -sk verb form appears as -s throughout, e.g. byriæs (1) ‘begins’, skiftæs (21) ‘be divided’, økæs (26) ‘increases’, cf. O. Icel. byrjask, skiptask, eyksk. 8. Characteristic of central and Jutlandic O. Dan. is the weakening of unstressed vowels: on Zealand and the other islands they tend to be reduced to [3], commonly written ‘e’ or ‘æ’; in Jutland word-final vowels are often apocopated (lost). The extracts below show both reduction to [3] and loss, e.g. liuær (8) ‘lives’, theræ (26) ‘their’, kunæ (17) ‘wife’, hafth (6) ‘had’, æfn (15) ‘means’, mell (26) ‘between’, scul (29) ‘are to’, cf. O. Icel. lifir, fleira, konu, hƒf›u, efni, milli, skulu. 9. Jutlandic dialects often exhibit diphthongisation of /e:/ and /o:/. In the extracts below we find, e.g., ien (9) ‘one’, gwoz (20) ‘property’. It is this diphthongisation that gives, for example, modern Danish hjem as opposed to Icel. heim, Swed hem. 10. The forms iauæn (9) ‘equal’, gaghin (27) ‘gain’ may reflect the syllabicisation of final /-n/ (cf. O. Icel. jafn, gagn), but it has also been suggested that these spellings could represent an early attempt to mark the glottal catch (stød), characteristic of many kinds of modern Danish. 11. Little of the inherited Germanic inflexional system remains in the Flensborg law text. With a few exceptions nominal and verbal endings are either apocopated or appear as -æ, -ær, -æs or -s (cf. the examples under item 8 above, and additionally byriæs (1) ‘begins’, thers (27) ‘theirs’, O. Icel. byrjask, fleira). Not only have many of the traditional inflexional distinctions disappeared, there has also been much analogical restructuring. We find, for example, bymens (1) ‘townsmen’s’, fathærs (24) ‘father’s’, thers (27) ‘theirs’, where the -s originally appropriate to the gen. sg. of certain nouns, pronouns and adjectives has been generalised as a possessive ending (O. Icel. bœjar- manna, fƒ›ur, fleira); further: klæthær (10) ‘clothes’ and børnæ (21) ‘children’, where the plural morphemes -r and -æ/-e (the latter not uncommon in Danish) have been extended to neuter nouns which originally had no plural ending in Old Norse (O. Icel. klæ›i, bƒrn). 12. Grammatical gender no longer follows the pattern inherited from Germanic (and ultimately Indo-European). Masculine and feminine have largely coalesced, while words modifying certain neuter nouns are not marked for neuter gender, e.g. thinnæ scra (4) ‘this legal code’, O. Icel. flessa skrá (acc. f. sg.), annæn kunæ (17) ‘another wife’, O. Icel. a›ra konu (acc. f. sg.), ien par (11) ‘one pair’, O. Icel. einu pari (dat. n. sg.), hwær barn (18–19) ‘each child’, O. Icel. hvert barn (nom. n. sg.). During the Middle Ages written Danish gradually loses the features that distinguish masculine and feminine gender, leading to the two-gender system of the modern standard language. Most Jutlandic dialects ultimately drop the neuter sg. -t marker in adjectives, while an area of western Jutland abandons the old gender system entirely, introducing a new distinction between countable nouns, which are common (m. + f.) gender, and non-countables, which are neuter. The confusion seen XX: East Norse 271 in the extract below is presumably an indication of the way grammatical gender was developing in Jutland. 13. As early as medieval Danish we find that counting between 50 and 99 may be by the score, as it is in the modern language. Here fiyrsin tiughæ (2) denotes ‘eighty’, i.e. ‘four times twenty’ (modern Danish firs). 272 XX: East Norse

XX B: THE TOWN LAW OF FLENSBORG

Hær byriæs bymens skra af flænsborgh. Fra wors hærræ aar, thusænd wintær. oc tuhundræth. fiyrsin tiughæ, 3 oc fiyræ wintær. a fyrmer wor frugh aftæn.1 aldærmen oc rathmen, oc ollæ bymæn i flænsborgh, lotæ scriuæ thinnæ scra, thær hærtugh woldemar af iutland gaf them. oc stathfæst mæth sin naath oc wold. 6 for thi at the hafth ey fyr stathæligh skra.

Vm arf. Af husbond døør i by, oc husfrugh liuær. i oll arf skift, oc af oll arf, 9 hun takæ iauæn løt with aruing thær mest takær. Thær yuær ien full sæng. Af thry par klæthær, takæ hun then mæthælst. af tu par then krankær. af ien par, faangær hun ekki. Af hun hauær athælkunæ børnæ. 12 the mugh krauæ theræ fæthærn, hwannær the wilæ. Enn liuær fathær, oc døør mothær. mæth engi logh, børn krauæ theræ mæthærn. tho at fathær takær annæn husfrø. Fathær scal tho giuæ hwær syn thre mark 15 penning. skiold. swørth. oc spiyt. af æfn ær til.

Vm arf. Thær fathær takær annæn kunæ. for brollæp. ellær brollæps dagh. 18 fathær gif ut børn mæthærn.2 ellær næfnæ gwoth witnæ til, mykæt hwær barn fæær til siit mæthærn. Oc han gømæ thet e mæth the wilæ. En for glømer han thet. tha skal olt hans gwoz, oc thet gwoz thær han 21 fæk mæth hans kunæ skiftæs iauænt i tu. oc halft takæ hans børnæ. oc halft han mæth theræ stiyp mothær. Af hun hæuær børn fyr with annæn sin gift man.3 the nytæ then samæ ræt, thær sagh ær. En brollups kost 24 skal af fathærs løt ut gangæ. sum mothærs iorthæ færth. af ien barn løt.4

Vm arf. E mæth arf ær mell fathær oc børn vskift. økæs theræ gooz, ellær 27 nøkæs. gaghin oc skathæ wæræ oll thers.

skipthiuf Hwo sum stæl i skip. skipmen scul ham sættæ i ient vbygd øland 30 mæth tundær oc eldiærn. oc thrigi dagh cost. XX: East Norse 273 skip i hauæn Hwannær skip kummær i hafn. ænik skipman ma føræ sint gooz af skip, vtæn styræman, oc skipmenz orlof. 33

Notes

1 15th August, the festival of the Assumption. The Latin text of the law has in crastino assumptionis beatae uirginis, i.e. 16th August. 2 ‘Where the father takes another wife, the father is to distribute to the children the inheritance which comes from the mother before the wedding or the wedding day.’ 3 ‘If she already has children by another husband . . .’ 4 ‘But the wedding expenses are to be taken from the father’s share, [just] as the mother’s funeral [expenses are to be taken] from one child’s share [of the inheritance].’ 274 XX: East Norse

XX C: ERIK’S CHRONICLE (ERIKSKRØNIKAN)

Erik’s Chronicle is a verse history of Swedish political affairs covering the period from the early thirteenth century until the election of Magnus Eriksson as king in 1319. Although the text was probably composed in the 1320s, the earliest extant manuscripts are from the second half of the fifteenth century. The genesis of Erik’s Chronicle is poorly understood. Some have thought to see traces of Västergötland dialect in the text, and have connected the work to that part of Sweden, but in the forms in which we have the poem it is the late medieval character of the O. Swed. that is most striking. The extract printed below, lines 862–93 of the poem, is taken from p. 20 of Royal Library, Stockholm, MS D 2, dated 1470–80. The complete manuscript is edited in Pipping (1921), and there is a detailed commentary on Erik’s Chronicle in Pipping (1926). See also Rosén (1959).

Notes on the language 1. Monophthongisation of /ei/ /øy/ is marked throughout, e.g. swena flere (5) ‘many squires’, lππst (8) ‘untied’, O. Icel. sveinar fleiri, leyst. 2. Labial mutation is absent, e.g. haffdo (8) ‘had’, allom (11) ‘all’, margh (28, 32) ‘many a’, O. Icel. hƒf›u, ƒllum, mƒrg. 3. The scribe writes ‘u’ rather than ‘o’ in skutin (27) ‘pushed aside’, brutin (28) ‘broken’, O. Icel. skotin, brotin. 4. The scribe writes ‘iw’ rather than ‘io’ in the nickname diwr (21), O. Icel. d‡r (<*deuRa), Faroese djór. 5. Segmentation of /d/ between /n:/ and /r/ and of /p/ between /m/ and /n/ is found (cf. passage A, Notes on the language 9), e.g. andre (5) ‘other’, kompne (3) ‘come [pp.]’, O. Icel. a›rir (< *annriR, *anflriR), komnir. 6. The vowels of unstressed syllables are mostly written ‘a’, ‘e’, ‘o’ as in modern Swedish, though ‘i’ and ‘u’ also occur, e.g. thera (8) ‘their’, hallande (18) ‘Halland [dat. sg.]’, waro (3) ‘were’, bordhin (27) ‘the tables’, lupu (30) ‘ran [3rd pl.]’ ‘knocked’, O. Icel. fleira, Hallandi, váru, bor›in, hlupu. The rules governing the spoken and written forms of unstressed vowels in O. Swed. are complex, but by the second half of the fifteenth century ‘a’, ‘e’ and ‘o’ predominate in writing. The form sagdo in line 11 is presumably a scribal error, since the subject is singular. 7. M. nom. pl. -r is lost, e.g. kompne (3) ‘come [pp.]’, andre slike (21) ‘other such [people]’, swena (5) ‘squires’, O. Icel. komnir, a›rir slíkir, sveinar. This is a reflection of a general tendency in O. Swed. for historical [R] (so- called ‘palatal r’) to be dropped in unstressed position immediately following XX: East Norse 275 a vowel. The tendency is seen most clearly in certain texts from Östergötland and Småland, and seems to weaken in dialects further north and east. 8. There is evidence for the lengthening of short stressed syllables, a development that affected all forms of Scandinavian in one way or another between c.1200 and 1550, e.g. samma (2) ‘same’ (lengthened consonant), wiid (9) ‘at’, maat (9) ‘food’ (lengthened vowel), O. Icel. sƒmu, vi›, mat. 9. The inherited Germanic inflexional system has in large part been abandoned. This is not the result of the merger or loss of unstressed vowels as in Zealandic and Jutlandic Danish, but stems chiefly from a failure (of uncertain cause) to maintain the inflexional distinctions still potentially available in the language. Acc. replaces dat. in gawo sik (7) ‘gave themselves’, aff sik (8) ‘from themselves’, O. Icel. gáfu sér, af sér; acc. replaces gen. in jnnan then samma tiidh (2) ‘within the same period’, mellom gardhin ok ena broo (15) ‘between the farm and a certain bridge’, O. Icel. innan + gen. (normally), (á/í ) milli/millum + gen.; indeterminate case replaces gen. in til swerike (22) ‘to Sweden’, O. Icel. til Svífljó›ar; dat. replaces acc. in ælskade them (26) ‘loved them’, O. Icel. elska›i flá; the demands of rhyme overwhelm the strong nom. m. sg. adjectival ending in, e.g., goodh (13) ‘fine’, stark (19) ‘strong’, O. Icel. gó›r, sterkr; acc. m. sg. then has replaced nom. m. sg. sa (10) ‘that’ (a very early change in O. Swed., cf. passage A, Notes on the language 11), and acc. f. sg. fla (2) ‘that’ ‘the’, O. Icel. sá, flá. 10. Middle Low German influence is seen in the loan words hælade (13) ‘warrior’, kamp (14) ‘battle’, bestoodh (14) ‘fought’, bleff (32) ‘remained’ (cf. Low German helet, kamp, bestân, blîven). Note also the prefix be- (cf. Low German be-), which becomes productive in the mainland Scandinavian languages. The phrases The danske (3) ‘the Danes’ and the vplænzske (12) ‘the Upplanders’, with their preposed definite articles, are probably also Low German inspired (cf. O. Icel. danir, upplendingar). 11. Danish influence, not uncommon in late O. Swed., is found in the replacement of the reflexive pronoun and reflexive possessive by the corresponding 3rd pl. pronoun and possessive, e.g. them (25) ‘themselves’, thera (8) ‘their’, for sik, sina(r). 276 XX: East Norse

XX C: ERIK’S CHRONICLE (ERIKSKRØNIKAN)

jNnan Etake war een striidh tha jnnan then samma tiidh1 3 The danske2 waro tha kompne tiit herra benkt aff alsπ ok palne hwit Ok andre riddare ok swena flere 6 wæl hwndrada πrss ok æn mere Ok gawo sik alle godha trπst ok haffdo thera plator aff sik lππst 9 Ok satho wiid bord ok fingo sik maat tha πpte then man i træno saat Ok sagdo them allom tidhande 12 at the vplænzske3 komo ther ridhande Herra wlff karsson een hælade goodh huilkin kamp han ther bestoodh 15 mellom gardhin ok ena broo han sagde ther aff æ til han doo wæl twhundradhe πrss waro thee 18 herra peder porsse aff hallande een rasker hælade fromer ok stark han war wt driffwen aff danmark 21 Ok offe diwr ok andre slike the waro tha rymde til swerike4 Ok haffdo eth hertoghanom5 eth hald 24 hertoghen lente them gotz ok wald6 Swa at the matto them wæl næra ok ælskade them wæl ok haffde them kæra 27 bordhin wordo tha rasklika skutin ok margh dπr sπnder brutin The hafdo summi latit sina hesta i stal 30 thera swena lupu hwar annan vm koll Thera πrss waro tha rasklika hænt margh plata bleff ther ospent

23 eth (1)] error for aff ‘from’; the scribe probably anticipated the following eth. XX: East Norse 277

Notes

1 In 1277, following certain other acts of war committed by the Danes and the deposed Swedish king Valdemar Birgirsson in south-western Sweden. 2 The Danish forces. 3 The Swedish forces, fighting on behalf of the Swedish king, Magnus Birgirsson, younger brother of Valdemar. 4 If Peder Porsse and Offe Diwr are to be identified with the Peder Porse and Uffo Dyre who were said to be among those responsible for the murder of the Danish king, Erik Klipping, we have to assume a chronological error in Erik’s Chronicle, since the murder did not take place until 1286, nine years after the events portrayed here. There is evidence to suggest that at least some of those implicated in the death of King Erik fled to Sweden and obtained protection from King Magnus (Pipping (1926), 339–40; see also note 5 below). 5 Before he became king of Sweden, Magnus bore the title ‘duke’. He was elected king in 1275, but Erik’s Chronicle has got events out of order (cf. note 4 above). 6 Magnus gave the fleeing Danes succour (hald), granting them estates and power (i.e. fiefs). 278 XX: East Norse

XX D: THE MARIAGER BOOK OF LEGENDS

The Mariager Book of Legends is the (modern) title given to manuscript GKS 1586 4to (Royal Library, Copenhagen), a compilation of hagiographic literature and miracles translated into Danish from Latin, focusing in particular on the life and works of St Jerome (c.345–420). GKS 1586 4to dates itself to 1488, and states that it was written in the Birgittine monastery of Mariager, north-eastern Jutland, by brother Nicolaus Magni. Rather than Jutlandic, the language reflects the embryonic Zealandic standard that came increasingly to characterise late medieval written Danish, although various Jutlandic features can be found here and there throughout the manuscript. The extract printed below is taken from an apocryphal letter of St Cyril (c.315–86), Bishop of Jerusalem (c.349–86), to St Augustine (354–430), Bishop of Hippo (North Africa, c.396–430), and is found on ff. 97v–98r of GKS 1586 4to. The complete manuscript is published in Knudsen (1917–30).

Notes on the language 1. Monophthongisation of /ei/ /øy/ is marked throughout (except in the negative adverb ‘ey’ (12), cf. modern Danish and Swedish ej), e.g. them (3) ‘them’, helighet (4) ‘holiness’, hørdhe (11) ‘heard [pp.]’, O. Icel. fleim, heilagleiki, heyr›. 2. Front mutation is absent in the preterite subjunctive form haffdhæ (2) ‘had’ as is usual in East Norse, O. Icel. hef›ir (though it is questionable how far a separate subjunctive mood is still a recognisable category in Danish at this late date). 3. Breaking is found in iek (8, 12) ‘I’, O. Icel ek. The original broken form is iak (thus O. Swed., cf. modern Swed. jag), but in Danish the [j] fronts the immediately following /a/ (modern Dan. jeg). 4. The form sywffn (14) for earlier sjun ‘vision’ ‘revelation’, O. Icel. sjón, s‡n, seems to reflect a north-eastern Jutlandic dialect development whereby [ju:] > [yw]. 5. The -sk form of the verb appears as -s in lighnes (5) ‘resembles’, O. Icel. líkisk. 6. The segmentation of /d/, /b/ and /p/ occurs in O. Dan. as well as O. Swed. (cf. passage A, Notes on the language 9), but in Dan. the development is in most cases reversed during the fourteenth century. However, /d/ sometimes remains between /n:/ and /r/, as in andhre (5) ‘other’ (<*annriR, *anflriR.). 7. The vowels of unstressed syllables are written ‘-e’ or ‘-æ’, both almost certainly reflecting some form of the central vowel [3], e.g. withæ (1) ‘know’, XX: East Norse 279 sændhe (4) ‘sent’, sthoræ (10) ‘great’, ware (11) ‘were’, O. Icel. vita, sendir, stóru, váru. Although the manuscript was written in Jutland, there are only occasional signs of the apocope of word-final vowels, as in the weak adjectival form hedherligh (15) ‘honourable’, O. Icel. hei›arligi. 8. Vowel + voiced velar spirant [\] is normally diphthongised in medieval Danish. Following back vowels [\] > [w], which is reflected in the forms saffdh (2) ‘told’, saw (< sagh, with analogical [\]) (15) ‘saw’, O. Icel. sagt, sá. 9. In O. Dan. /p/ /t/ /k/ > /b/ /d/ /g/ medially between vowels and finally immediately following a vowel. This development is only sporadically marked in pre-Reformation writing, cf. noghet (< nokot) (3) ‘something’, liighæ (4) ‘comparable’, but withæ (1) ‘know’, oc (passim) ‘and’, iek (8) ‘I’, O. Icel. nƒkkut, líkr, vita, ok, ek, modern Dan. noget, lig, vide, og, jeg. 10. The inherited Germanic inflexional system has been almost wholly abandoned and replaced by something akin to the system of standard modern Danish. Morphological case is not much in evidence outside personal pronouns, and verbs are inflected for number and little else (this feature was finally discarded from the written language in the late nineteenth century). Lack of case inflexion can be seen in, e.g., i thynæ breffwe (3) ‘in your letters’, aff mænneske (11) ‘by people’, for manghe daghe (16) ‘many days ago’, O. Icel. í bréfum flínum, af mƒnnum, fyrir mƒrgum dƒgum (all dat.); there is no gender marking in, e.g., thynæ breffwe (3) ‘your letters’ (with analogical plural -æ/-e, cf. O. Icel. nom./acc. pl. bréf flín), æren (5) ‘the glory’ (f. indistinguishable from m.); the absence of personal inflexion from verbs is documented in, e.g., thu haffdhæ (2) ‘you had’, Wij som withe (9) ‘we who know’, O. Icel. flú hef›ir, vér sem vitum. Preserved inflexional distinctions are, e.g., war (4) ‘was’, ware (11) ‘were’, iek (13) ‘I’, mik (16) ‘me’, Wij (9) ‘we’, oss (8) ‘us’. 11. Middle Low German influence is seen in the loan words ære(n) (5) ‘honour’ ‘glory’, bewiisthe (6) ‘demonstrated’, megtughe (6) ‘powerful’, thwiffwell (7) ‘doubt’, forklaræ (12) ‘establish’ (cf. Low German êre, bewîsen, mechtich, twîvel, vorklaren). Note also the prefixes be- and for- and the suffix -het (Low German be-, vor-, -heit), which become productive in the mainland Scandinavian languages (as already here in, e.g., helighet (4) ‘holiness’, sandhet (8) ‘truth’, where -het is used to derive abstract nouns from native adjectives). 12. The orthography reflects a tendency to employ superfluous consonants, a usage which reached its culmination in sixteenth- and seventeenth-century handwritten Danish, e.g. haffdhæ (2) ‘had’, skreffsth (3) ‘wrote’, thwiffwell (7) ‘doubt’. 280 XX: East Norse

XX D: THE MARIAGER BOOK OF LEGENDS

Kæresthe Augustine sigher sanctus Cyrillus Thu skalth withæ At manghe haffwe ther vndher paa ligherwiiss som thu haffdhæ saffdh 3 them noghet nyth oc vhørligth Ther thu skreffsth i thynæ breffwe som thu sændhe mik. at jeronimus war liighæ i helighet johanni baptisthæ. oc andhre apostelæ Oc at han lighnes them oc i æren 6 Hwicketh thu bewiisthe meth megtughe skæll oc vndherlighe sywffn Sanneligh ther er enghen thwiffwell vppa Mæn thet er alzwærdugsth at throo j all sannesthe sandhet oc gudelighet Oc wænther iek at oss 9 skall enghen vndher oc thwiffwell hændhe ther om Wij som withe hans helgesthe leffneth. oc hans sthoræ vndherlighe jærthegnæ som aldrigh ware førre hørdhe aff mænneske Oc forthy at thynæ skæll 12 ware swa sthoræ till at forklaræ thes sandhet Tha bør thet sik ey at iek skall ther till legghe noghre læthæ skæll oc eenfaldughe Thy will iek offwergiffwe them alle oc sighe aff een vndherligh sywffn som then 15 hedherligh Cyrillus biscopp i alexandria saw som han withner i sith breff ther han sændhe mik for manghe daghe XXI: EIRÍKS SAGA RAU‹A

There are various literary sources for our knowledge of medieval Norse visits to America (Vínland, Markland). As early as c.1073, Adam of Bremen writes in his Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum (see pp. 56 and 60 above) that Sven Estridsson, the Danish king and one of Adam’s main informants, ‘also told me of another island discovered by many in that ocean’. Adam continues: ‘It is called Wineland because vines grow there of their own accord, producing the most excellent wine. Moreoever, that unsown crops abound there, we have ascertained not from fabulous conjecture but from the reliable report of the Danes.’ Half a century or so later, Ari ﬁorgilsson in his Íslendingabók alludes to the inhabitants of Vínland, the Skrælingar, in connection with traces of human beings found by Eiríkr rau›i in Greenland (see p. 105 and note 30 to Text VIII above). An Icelandic geographical treatise (landal‡sing) which may be as old as the beginning of the thirteenth century mentions Helluland (cf. lines 21–25 below), Markland (cf. lines 26–29 below) and Vínland and says that some people think that Vínland is an extension of Africa (cf. HOIC 104–06; Alfræ›i íslenzk I 1908, 12). The two ‘Vínland sagas’, Grœnlendinga saga and Eiríks saga rau›a (respectively about 25 and 40 pages in the editions in the Íslenzk fornrit series) contain circumstantial, but often unreliable, accounts of various voyages said to have been made to Vínland. An Icelandic annal for the year 1347 records a visit to Markland by a party of Greenlanders that must have taken place at about that time (cf. HOIC 104). It can be safely deduced from literary evidence alone that the Norse visited the American continent centuries before Columbus’s voyages to it around 1500. In 1960, however, the Norwegian Helge Ingstad made the significant archaeological discovery of a Norse site at L’Anse aux Meadows on the northern tip of Newfoundland, and this he subsequently excavated in the following decade together with his archaeologist wife, Anne Stine Ingstad. The site at L’Anse aux Meadows consists of the remains of three largish halls and five other buildings, one of which was used for producing iron from local bog- ore. Radiocarbon analyses indicate a general dating to around the year 1000. It appears to have been occupied over a relatively short period of time and may have lain deserted for a year or more between visits. An important activity there seems to have been the repair of ships. 282 XXI: Eiríks saga rau›a

There is little or no archaeological sign at L’Anse aux Meadows of any crop or animal husbandry. Few, then, now doubt that the Norsemen visited the mainland of the North American continent in the Middle Ages. The historical realities were probably somewhat as follows. The first visits can reasonably be dated to the period 980–1010 and it is quite possible that, as some written sources suggest, it was Leifr, son of Eiríkr rau›i, or some other member of Eiríkr’s circle, who made the first landings. Over the next three and a half centuries or so there would doubtless have been many voyages to North America, of only a few of which there is any record in the written sources. Most of these would have had their starting point in the Eastern Settlement of the Norse colony in Greenland (cf. notes 26 and 27 to Text VIII above) and many would probably only have reached the closest part of the mainland, Labrador, from where much- needed timber might be fetched. The finds at L’Anse aux Meadows confirm beyond doubt the presence of the Norsemen in Newfoundland. And it is entirely probable that they got further south, very possibly to the southern side of the Gulf of St Lawrence (and there found the wild grapes growing which gave rise to the name Vínland; cf. note 8 below). On the other hand, it is far less certain that they rounded the inhospitable coasts of Nova Scotia and penetrated further down the eastern coasts of what is now the U.S.A. In such areas as they did visit, they doubtless encountered members of the indigenous population, whether Inuit or Native American, whom they called ‘Skrælingar’ (cf. note 13 below). Some of the sources (e.g. the extract from Eríks saga rau›a edited here) suggest that permanent agrarian colonisation was intended at least by fiorfinnr karlsefni fiór›arson. But while fiorfinnr may have been a historical figure who mounted a major expedition to Vínland (and whose son Snorri may indeed have been born in North America), the evidence of archaeology for actual settlement is virtually non- existent. Quite why the Norsemen failed to establish any permanent foothold in North America is difficult to say (cf. Perkins 2004, 62–63 and references there). The sources themselves suggest that the hostility of the Skrælingar played a major part in discouraging settlement by the Norsemen (cf. lines 153–54 below). This may have been a factor. But it was probably as much the length and tenuousness of lines of communication with the nearest Norse settlement in Greenland, itself small and fragile, that were decisive. At all events it seems likely that XXI: Eiríks saga rau›a 283 the last Norse voyages from Greenland to North America took place around or not long after 1350, and by the beginning of the fifteenth century the Greenland colony itself appears to have been in terminal decline. As already indicated, it is Eiríks saga rau›a and Grœnlendinga saga that give the most detailed medieval accounts of visits to Vínland. Eiríks saga rau›a must have been written before c.1302–10, the date of the oldest text (in Hauksbók, AM 544 4to). There are certain reasons to suggest that this saga was first written no earlier than 1263, but these are not entirely decisive and some scholars believe that it may have existed, in some version or other, as early as the first decades of the thirteenth century (cf. ÍF IV 1985, 367–69; Perkins 2004, 34–36, 52–53). Grœnlendinga saga cannot be dated more precisely than to between about 1200 (the time that saga-writing is thought to have begun) and c.1387 (the date of the sole manuscript, Flateyjarbók). Although some of the same main characters appear in the two sagas and they both have accounts of voyages to Vínland as an important part of their narrative, there are also substantial differences between the stories they tell. In addition to an initial sighting by one Bjarni Herjólfsson, Grœnlendinga saga tells of four separate visits to Vínland, under the leadership of Leifr (son of Eiríkr rau›i), fiorvaldr (also Eiríkr’s son), fiorfinnr karlsefni and Freydís (said to be the daughter of Eiríkr) respectively. Eiríks saga rau›a has no mention of the sighting by Bjarni Herjólfsson and tells of only two visits (an unplanned visit by Leifr in ch. 5 and fiorfinnr karlefni’s expedition in chs 8–12). It is uncertain what relationship there is between Grœnlendinga saga and Eiríks saga rau›a and which of them is the older. It is perhaps more likely that Grœnlendinga saga was written first and that it is, on the whole, truer to historical reality. Eiríks saga rau›a appears to be more concerned with telling the life-story of fiorfinnr karlsefni and more particularly that of his wife Gu›rí›r fiorbjarnardóttir. But whichever of the two sagas is taken as the older, the possibility cannot be excluded that the author of the later of them knew the earlier in some way and used it as a source. While the Vínland Sagas are the most detailed accounts of Norse visits to America, their limitations as historical sources must be emphasised. They were written at the earliest some two hundred years after the events they purport to describe took place. They contradict 284 XXI: Eiríks saga rau›a each other in various ways. They present a vague and confused picture of the topography of the lands in the West. Some of the place-names they mention are doubtless fictional and those that may be genuine are difficult or impossible to locate with any degree of certainty (cf. note 1 below). The descriptions given of the Skrælingar are distorted in certain respects (cf. note 13 below). Alongside the named persons in Eiríks saga rau›a and Grœnlendinga saga who probably existed in reality (e.g. Leifr Eiríksson, fiorfinnr karlsefni fiór›arson), there are also a number who are entirely fictional. Thus the fiórhallr vei›ima›r of Eiríks saga rau›a is an invented character (cf. line 9 and note 2 below); and doubtless the daughter of Eiríkr rau›i called Freydís who appears both in Eiríks saga rau›a and Grœnlendinga saga is also entirely fictional and the expedition she and her husband are said in ch. 7 of Grœnlendinga saga to have undertaken never took place; cf. Perkins (2004, 46–53). The narratives contain much exaggeration and the fantastic sometimes intrudes (cf. the story of Freydís in lines 132–42 and that of the uniped in lines 172–91 below). The aim of the authors was often more to tell a good story than to record history. As historical sources, then, the Vínland Sagas must be approached with a high degree of circumspection and their shortcomings never lost sight of. But with this said, it must also be stressed that the stories they tell and the picture they give of the lands in the West must often contain some kernel of historical truth, and an expedition to North America led by a historical fiorfinnr karlsefni very possibly really did take place. For his account of Vínland and fiorfinnr karlsefni’s expedition there, the author of Eiríks saga could well have had at least some genuine and accurate information, quite possibly in oral form. He may well have read Grœnlendinga saga (see above). It has been argued that he knew at first hand Adam of Bremen’s Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum (see above) and was influenced by it. He may also have been influenced by sagas (such as Yngvars saga ví›fƒrla) which tell of Scandinavian expeditions in Russia and eastwards from there. The three verses which he incorporates into his narrative (see note 11 and lines 183–90) were probably not his own compositions and must therefore be ranked amongst the saga’s sources for the passages in which they occur. The excerpts edited here are from the saga now generally known as Eiríks saga rau›a and its heading in 557 (f. 27r1) is Saga Eiríks rau›a. XXI: Eiríks saga rau›a 285

It is possible that in 544 the saga had the heading Saga fiorfinns karlsefnis, though if so it is no longer legible, and this could even have been its original name (cf. ÍF IV 1985, 338–41). Certainly the saga concerns itself more than with any other persons with fiorfinnr karlsefni, son of fiór›r hesthƒf›i, and perhaps more particularly with Gu›rí›r, daughter of the fiorbjƒrn mentioned in line 16 below. Its ch. 3 tells of Gu›rí›r’s arrival in Greenland with her father, ch. 6 of her marriage to fiorsteinn, son of Eiríkr rau›i, and fiorsteinn’s subsequent death. Ch. 7 introduces fiorfinnr karlsefni and relates how he sails to Greenland together with Snorri fiorbrandsson, Bjarni Grímólfsson and fiórhallr Gamlason (see lines 3–5 below); it also tells of fiorfinnr’s marriage to the widowed Gu›rí›r. It has been related in ch. 5 how Leifr, son of Eiríkr rau›i, went to Norway where King Óláfr Tryggvason bade him preach Christianity in Greenland. We are told in the briefest terms how, on his voyage back to Greenland, he unexpectedly came across lands before unknown, where grape-vines and self-sown wheat grew (ÍF IV 1985, 415). In Greenland he successfully preached the faith; further, there was much talk there of sailing in search of the country he had discovered. At the beginning of ch. 8, the scene is set at Brattahlí›, the home of Eiríkr rau›i in Greenland after fiorfinnr’s marriage to Gu›rí›r. It should be noted that the text of 557 is here, as elsewhere, somewhat corrupt and the start of a new chapter is not marked. Some of the characters who play a part in the subsequent narrative are only cursorily introduced or not at all (like Freydís, daughter of Eiríkr rau›i and wife of fiorvar›r, for instance; see lines 132 and 162). On the historicity of the various characters in the saga, see Perkins (2004, 46–53). Eiríks saga rau›a is preserved in two vellums: (1) AM 544 4to (= 544), part of the important codex Hauksbók (cf. MS 271–72) named after Haukr Erlendsson (d. 1334) and written in the first decade of the fourteenth century. The text of Eiríks saga was written partly by Haukr himself and partly by two other scribes. (2) AM 557 4to (Skálholtsbók; = 557), probably written around 1420 by Óláfr Loptsson (d. c.1458). These two manuscripts present the saga in somewhat different forms. 557 offers us an often rather garbled text written by a careless and unpractised scribe, but one which is probably more faithful to the original of the saga than that of 544. 544’s text (as has been shown in greatest detail by the Swedish scholar Sven B. F. Jansson in his 1945 286 XXI: Eiríks saga rau›a monograph) appears to have undergone substantial rationalisation and revision by its three scribes, including both lengthening and shortening. For this reason, 557 (ff. 32v6–33v6; 33v25–35r12) rather than 544 is made the basis for the edition of the following excerpts from the saga (ch. 8 and chs 10, 11 and 12), though obvious errors are corrected and missing words supplied from 544 unless otherwise stated. The text of 557 is, however, in need of substantial emendation, and while this can often be carried out on the basis of the Hauksbók redaction (in 544), it has not been possible to eliminate all its illogicalities (especially the topographical ones). This should not be forgotten, and readers must reconcile themselves to some measure of inconsistency and obscurity remaining (e.g. at lines 146–48). In defence of the scribe of 557, it may be said that the manuscript he was copying was quite possibly difficult to read, and that some of the imperfections of narrative in his text may also have been found in it. The chapter divisions and chapter numbering are based partly on the manuscripts, partly on previous editions. The scribe of 557 made use of various abbreviations (e.g. for the personal name Karlsefni), which are here silently expanded.

Bibliography Facsimile editions: Arthur Middleton Reeves (ed.), The finding of Wineland the Good (1890 and reprints). [Contains facsimiles with parallel transcrip- tions of Eiríks saga rau›a from both AM 557 4to and AM 554 4to (Hauksbók) as well as of Grœnlendinga saga from Flateyjarbók] Dag Strömbäck (ed.), The Arna-Magnæan manuscript 557, 4to containing inter alia the history of the first discovery of America, CCIMA XIII (1940). Jón Helgason (ed.), Hauksbók. The Arna-Magnæan manuscripts 371, 4to, 544, 4to, and 675, 4to (1960). Critical edition: the best critical edition of Eiríks saga rau›a is that incorporated into Sven B. F. Jansson’s study of its two main texts, Sagorna om Vinland. I. Handskrifterna till Erik den rödes saga (1945, 26–81). Íslenzk fornrit edition: in the original issue of ÍF IV 193–237 (1935, reprinted with corrections 1957), which contained primarily Eyrbyggja saga, Eiríks saga rau›a was edited mainly on the basis of AM 544 4to by Matthías ﬁór›arson, as well as Grœnlendinga saga based on its only manuscript, Flateyjarbók. In 1985, Ólafur Halldórsson produced a supplementary volume (Vi›auki) with continuing pagination comprising a text of Eiríks saga rau›a, now based on AM 557 4to, and a substantial introduction; the contents of this volume were also included as an appendix to the reprint of the 1935 edition. The whole is referred to here as ÍF IV (1985). XXI: Eiríks saga rau›a 287

English translations: numerous translations of the two Vinland sagas into English exist. Both the following contain translations of Eiríks saga rau›a based mainly on the version in AM 557 4to (as well as translations of Grœnlendinga saga and much background material). Gwyn Jones, The Norse Atlantic saga, 2nd edition (1986). Magnus Magnusson and Hermann Pálsson, The Vinland sagas. The Norse discovery of America. Grænlendinga saga and Eirik’s saga (1965 and reprints). Background reading: there is a huge body of secondary literature concerning the Norsemen in America. A comprehensive bibliography (best up to 1992) is Robert Bergersen, Vinland bibliography. Writings relating to the Norse in Greenland and America (1997). It should be noted that many contributions to the subject have been amateurish or biased or over-speculative and should be treated with some circumspection. Geraldine Barnes, Viking America. The First Millennium (2001). William W. Fitzhugh and Elisabeth I. Ward (eds), Vikings. The North Atlantic Saga (2000). G. M. Gathorne-Hardy, The Norse Discoverers of America (1921); 2nd ed. (1970) with a new preface by the author and a preface by Gwyn Jones. Anne Stine Ingstad, The Norse Discovery of America. Volume I: Excavations of a Norse Settlement at L’Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland 1961–1968, 2nd edition (1985). [The fullest account of the Norse finds at L’Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland] Shannon Lewis-Simpson (ed.), Vínland Revisited: the Norse World at the Turn of the First Millennium. Selected Papers from the Viking Millenium International Symposium, 15–24 September 2000, Newfoundland and Labrador (2003). Ian McDougall, ‘The Enigmatic einfœtingr of Eiríks saga rau›a’. In Frejas psalter. En psalter i 40 afdelinger til brug for Jonna Louis-Jensen, ed. Bergljót S. Kristjánsdóttir and Peter Springborg, 2nd edition (1997, 128–32). MS, under America, Norse in; L’Anse aux Meadows; Maine coin; Viking hoaxes; Vinland Map; Vinland Sagas. Fridtjof Nansen, In Northern Mists I–II (1911). Richard Perkins, ‘The Fur›ustrandir of Eiríks saga rau›a’. Mediaeval Scandinavia 9 (1976, 51–98). Richard Perkins, ‘Medieval Norse Visits to America: Millennial Stocktaking’. Saga-Book 28 (2004, 29–69). Erik Wahlgren, ‘Fact and Fancy in the Vinland Sagas’. In Old Norse Literature and Mythology. A Symposium, ed. Edgar C. Polomé (1969, 19–80). Erik Wahlgren, The Vikings and America (1986). Andrew Wawn and ﬁórunn Sigur›ardóttir (eds), Approaches to Vínland. A Conference on the Written and Archaeological Sources for the Norse Settlements in the North-Atlantic Region and Exploration of America. The Nordic House, Reykjavík, 9–11 August 1999 (2001). 288 XXI: Eiríks saga rau›a

Other works referred to: Alfræ›i íslenzk I. Ed. K. Kålund (1908). Kenneth Baitsholts, ‘Humour, Irony, and Insight: The First European Accounts of Native North Americans’. In Lewis-Simpson (2003, 365–75). Andrew Breeze ‘An Irish Etymology for kjafal “hooded cloak” in fiorfinns Saga’, Arkiv för nordisk filologi 113 (1998, 5–6). Carleton S. Coon, The Hunting Peoples (1974). Alan Crozier, ‘Arguments against the *Vinland Hypothesis’. In Lewis-Simpson (2003, 331–37). Birgitta Wallace Ferguson, ‘L’Anse aux Meadows and Vínland’. In Wawn and fiórunn Sigur›ardóttir (2001, 134–46). Helgi Gu›mundsson, Um haf innan (1997). A History of Norway and The Passion and Miracles of the Blessed Óláfr, tr. Devra Kunin, ed. Carl Phelpstead (2001). Kevin McAleese, ‘Skrælingar Abroad—Skrælingar at Home?’ In Lewis- Simpson (2003, 353–64). Daniel Odess, Stephen Loring and William W. Fitzhugh, ‘Skræling: First Peoples of Helluland, Markland, and Vinland’. In Fitzhugh and Ward (2000, 193–205). Ólafur Halldórsson, ‘The Conversion of Greenland in Written Sources’. In Hans Bekker-Nielsen, Peter Foote, Olaf Olsen (eds), Proceedings of the Eighth Viking Congress. Århus 24–31 August 1977 (1981, 203–16). Richard Perkins, ‘Potenti murmure verborum grandia cete maris in littora trahunt’. In Heinrich Beck and Else Ebel (eds), Studien zur Isländersaga. Festschrift für Rolf Heller (2000, 223–30). Haakon Shetelig and Hjalmar Falk, Scandinavian Archaeology, tr. E. V. Gordon (1937). Sverrir Jakobsson, ‘“Black Men and Malignant-Looking”. The Place of the Indigenous Peoples of North America in the Icelandic World View’. In Wawn and fiórunn Sigur›ardóttir (2001, 88–104). Birgitta Wallace, ‘Vínland and the death of fiorvaldr’. In Lewis-Simpson (2003, 377–90). XXI: Eiríks saga rau›a 289

XXI: EIRÍKS SAGA RAU‹A

fiorfinnr karlsefni fiór›arson’s expedition to Vínland ‹Chapter 8› . . . Ætlu›u fleir Karlsefni ok Snorri at leita Vínlands1 ok tƒlu›u menn margt um flat. En flví lauk svá at fleir Karlsefni ok Snorri bjuggu skip 3 sitt ok ætlu›u at leita Vínlands um sumarit. Til fleirar fer›ar ré›usk fleir Bjarni ok fiórhallr me› skip sitt ok flat fƒruneyti er fleim haf›i fylgt. 6 Ma›r hét fiorvar›r. Hann var mágr Eiríks rau›a. ‹Hann fór ok me› fleim, ok fiorvaldr, son Eiríks.› fiórhallr var kalla›r vei›ima›r.2 Hann haf›i lengi verit í vei›ifƒrum 9 me› Eiríki um sumrum ok haf›i hann margar var›veizlur. fiórhallr var mikill vexti, svartr ok flursligr. Hann var heldr vi› aldr, ódæll í skapi, hljó›lyndr, fámálugr hversdagliga, undirfƒrull ok fló atmælasamr ok 12 f‡stisk jafnan hins verra. Hann haf›i lítt vi› trú blandazk sí›an hon kom á Grœnland. fiórhallr var lítt vinsældum horfinn, en fló haf›i Eiríkr lengi tal af honum haldit. Hann var á skipi me› fleim fiorvaldi, flví at 15 honum var ví›a kunnigt í óbygg›um. fieir hƒf›u flat skip er fiorbjƒrn haf›i út flangat ok ré›usk til fer›ar me› fleim Karlsefni, ok váru flar flestir grœnlenzkir menn á. Á skipum fleira var3 fjórir tigir manna annars 18 hundra›s. Sigldu fleir undan sí›an til Vestribygg›ar ok til Bjarneyja. Sigldu fleir fla›an undan Bjarneyjum nor›anve›r. Váru fleir úti tvau dœgr. fiá 21 fundu fleir land ok reru fyrir á bátum ok kƒnnu›u landit ok fundu flar hellur margar ok svá stórar at tveir menn máttu vel spyrnask í iljar. Melrakkar váru flar margir. fieir gáfu naf‹n› landinu ok kƒllu›u 24 Helluland. fiá sigldu fleir nor›anve›r tvau dœgr ok var flá land fyrir fleim ok var á skógr mikill ok d‡r mƒrg. Ey lá í landsu›r undan landinu ok 27 fundu fleir flar bjarnd‡r ok kƒllu›u Bjarney. En landit kƒllu›u fleir Markland, flar er skógrinn ‹var›. fiá er li›in váru tvau dœgr, sjá fleir land ok fleir sigldu undir landit. 30 fiar var nes, er fleir kvámu at. fieir beittu me› landinu ok létu landit á

1 No chapter division or heading in 557. 7 ﬁorvaldr 557. 14 ﬂá 557. 18 fjórir tigir] written fjƒrutigi 557. 20 Bjarmeyja 557. 22 spelt ‘kavnnavdu’ 557. 29 var] editorial conjecture. 290 XXI: Eiríks saga rau›a

stjórnbor›a. fiar var ørœfi ok strandir langar ok sandar. Fara fleir á 33 bátum til lands ok fundu kjƒl af skipi ok kƒllu›u flar Kjalarnes. fieir gáfu ok nafn strƒndunum ok kƒllu›u Fur›ustrandir,4 flví at langt var me› at sigla. fiá gjƒr›isk vágskorit landit ok heldu fleir skipunum at 36 vágunum. fiat var flá er Leifr var me› Óláfi konungi Tryggvasyni ok hann ba› hann bo›a kristni á Grœnlandi5 ok flá gaf konungr honum tvá menn 39 skozka. Hét karlma›rinn Haki en konan Hekja. Konungr ba› Leif taka til flessara manna ef hann flyrfti skjótleiks vi›, flví at flau váru d‡rum skjótari.6 fiessa menn fengu fleir Leifr ok Eiríkr til fylg›ar vi› Karlsefni. 42 En er fleir hƒf›u siglt fyrir Fur›ustrandir, flá létu fleir ena skozku menn á land ok bá›u flau hlaupa í su›rátt ok leita landskosta ok koma aptr á›r flrjú dœgr væri li›in. fiau váru svá búin at flau hƒf›u flat klæ›i er 45 flau kƒllu›u kjafal;7 flat var svá gjƒrt at hattr var á upp ok opit at hli›um ok engar ermar á ok kneppt í milli fóta; helt flar saman knappr ok nezla, en ber váru ‹flau› annars sta›ar. fieir kƒstu›u akkerum ok lágu 48 flar flessa stund. Ok er flrír dagar váru li›nir hljópu flau af landi ofan ok haf›i annat fleira í hendi vínber en annat hveiti sjálfsáit.8 Sag›i Karlsefni at flau 51 flóttusk fundit hafa landskosti gó›a. Tóku fleir flau á skip sitt ok fóru lei›ar sinnar, flar til er var› fjar›skorit. fieir lƒg›u skipunum inn á fjƒr› ‹e›inn. fiar var ey ein út fyrir ok váru flar straumar mikli‹r› ok um 54 eyna; fleir kƒllu›u hana Straumsey. Fugl var flar svá margr at trautt mátti fœti ni›r koma í milli eggjanna. fieir heldu inn me› fir›inum ok kƒllu›u hann Straumsfjƒr› ok báru farminn af skipunum ok bjuggusk 57 flar um. fieir hƒf›u me› sér alls konar fé9 ok leitu›u sér flar landsnytja. Fjƒll váru flar ok fagrt var flar um at litask. fieir gá›u einskis nema at kanna landit. fiar váru grƒs mikil. fiar váru fleir um vetrinn ok gjƒr›isk 60 vetr mikill, en ekki fyrir unnit, ok gjƒr›isk illt til matarins, ok tókusk af vei›arnar. fiá fóru fleir út í eyna ok væntu at flar mundi gefa nƒkkut af vei›um e›a rekum. fiar var fló lítit til matfanga en fé fleira var› flar 63 vel. Sí›an hétu fleir á Gu›, at hann sendi fleim nƒkkut til matfanga ok var eigi svá brátt vi› látit sem fleim var annt til.

33 fengu skjól 557. 35 ok heldu written twice in 557. 39 Hekja written ‘h™kia’ or ‘hækia’ in 557. 41 Leifi 557. 42 written enu 557. 45 bjafal 557. hattr] hattrinn 557. 50 vínker 557. 51 ﬂóttisk 557. 53 fjƒr›inn 557. 61 vei›irnar 557. XXI: Eiríks saga rau›a 291

fiórhallr hvarf á brott ok gengu menn at leita hans. Stó› flat yfir flrjú dœgr í samt. Á hinu fjór›a dœgri fundu fleir Karlsefni ok Bjarni hann 66 fiórhall á hamargnípu einni. Hann horf›i í lopt upp ok gap›i hann bæ›i augum ok munni ok nƒsum ok klóra›i sér ok kl‡pti sik ok flul›i nƒkkut. fieir spur›u flví hann væri flar kominn. Hann kva› flat øngu 69 skipta; ba› hann flá ekki flat undrask, kvezk svá lengst lifat hafa at fleir flurftu ekki rá› fyrir honum at gjƒra. fieir bá›u hann fara heim me› sér. Hann gjƒr›i svá. 72 Litlu sí›ar kom flar hvalr, ok drifu menn til ok skáru hann, en fló kenndu menn eigi hvat hval‹a› flat var. Karlsefni kunni mikla skyn á hvƒlum ok kenndi hann fló eigi. fienna hval su›u matsveinar ok átu af 75 ok var› fló ƒllum illt af. fiá gengr fiórhallr at ok mælti: ‘Var eigi svá at hinn rau›skeggja›i var› drjúgari en Kristr y›varr? fietta haf›a ek nú fyrir skáldskap minn, 78 er ek orta um fiór fulltrúann. Sjaldan hefir hann mér brug›izk.’ Ok er menn vissu fletta vildu øngvir n‡ta ok kƒstu›u fyrir bjƒrg ofan ok sneru sínu máli til Gu›s miskunnar. Gaf fleim flá út at róa ok 81 skorti flá eigi birg›ir.10 Um várit fara fleir inn í Straumsfjƒr› ok hƒf›u fƒng af hvárutveggja landinu, vei›ar af meginlandinu, eggver ok útró›ra af sjónum.11 84

......

Chapter 10 Karlsefni fór su›r fyrir land ok Snorri ok Bjarni ok annat li› fleira. fieir fóru lengi ok til fless er fleir kvámu at á fleiri er fell af landi ofan ok 87 í vatn ok svá til sjóvar. Eyrar váru flar miklar fyrir árósinum, ok mátti eigi komask inn í ána nema at háflœ›um. Sigldu fleir Karlsefni flá til áróssins ok kƒllu›u í Hópi12 landit. fiar fundu fleir sjálfsána hveitiakra 90 flar sem læg›ir váru, en vínvi›r allt flar sem holta kenndi. Hverr lœkr var flar fullr af fiskum. fieir gjƒr›u flar grafir sem landit mœttisk ok fló›it gekk efst; ok er út fell váru helgir fiskar í grƒfunum. fiar var 93 mikill fjƒl›i d‡ra á skógi me› ƒllu móti. fieir váru flar hálfan mánu› ok skemmtu sér ok ur›u vi› ekki varir. Fé sitt hƒf›u fleir me› sér.

66 Bjarni] barma›i 557. 75 hvƒlum] hvalnum 557. 78 drjúgarr (spelt ‘driugarr’) 557. á added after ek 557. 85 Chapter division, no heading 557. 88 eyjar 557. 91 vín- written twice 557. 292 XXI: Eiríks saga rau›a

96 Ok einn morgin snemma, er fleir litu›usk um, sáu fleir níu hú›keipa13 ok var veift trjánum af skipunum ok lét flví líkast í sem í hálmflústum ok ferr sólarsinnis.14 fiá mælti Karlsefni: 99 ‘Hvat mun fletta tákna?’ Snorri svarar honum: ‘Vera kann a‹t› fletta sé fri›artákn ok tƒkum skjƒld hvítan ok berum í mót.’15 102 Ok svá gjƒr›u fleir. fiá reru hinir í mót ok undru›usk flá, ok gengu fleir á land. fieir váru smáir menn ok illiligir ok illt hƒf›u fleir hár á hƒf›i. Eyg›ir váru fleir mjƒk ok brei›ir í kinnunum ok dvƒl›usk flar 105 um stund ok undru›usk. Reru sí›an í brott ok su›r fyrir nesit. fieir hƒf›u gjƒrt bú›ir sínar upp frá vatninu ok váru sumir skálarnir nær meginlandinu en sumir nær vatninu. Nú váru fleir flar flann vetr. 108 fiar kom alls eng‹i› snjár ok allr féna›r gekk flar úti sjálfala.

Chapter 11 ‹E›n er vára tók, geta fleir at líta einn morgin snemma at fjƒl›i hú›keipa 111 reri sunnan fyrir nesit, svá margir sem kolum væri sá‹i›t ok var flá veift á hverju skipi trjánum. fieir brug›u flá skjƒldum upp ok tóku kaupstefnu sín á millum ok vildi flat fólk helzt kaupa rautt klæ›i. fieir 114 vildu ok kaupa sver› ok spjót en flat bƒnnu›u fleir Karlsefni ok Snorri. fieir hƒf›u ófƒlvan belg fyrir klæ›it ok tóku spannarlangt klæ›i fyrir belg ok bundu um hƒfu› sér, ok fór svá um stund. En er minnka tók 117 klæ›it, flá skáru fleir í sundr svá at eigi var brei›ara en flvers fingrar breitt. Gáfu fleir Skrælingar jafnmikit fyrir e›a meira. fiat bar til at gri›ungr hljóp ór skógi, en16 fleir Karlsefni áttu, ok gall 120 hátt vi›. fieir fælask vi›, Skrælingar, ok hlaupa út á keipana ok reru su›r fyrir land. Var› flá ekki vart vi› flá flrjár vikur í samt. En er sjá stund var li›in, sjá fleir sunnan fara mikinn fjƒl›a skipa Skrælinga, 123 svá sem straumr stœ›i. Var flá veift trjánum ƒllum rangsœlis ok ‡la allir Skrælingar hátt upp. fiá tóku fleir17 rau›a skjƒldu ok báru í mót. Gengu fleir flá saman ok bƒr›usk. Var› flar skothrí› hƒr›. fieir hƒf›u 126 ok valslƒngur, Skrælingar. fiat sjá fleir Karlsefni ok Snorri at fleir fœr›u upp á stƒngum, Skrælingarnir, knƒtt mikinn ok blán at lit ok fló upp á land yfir li›it ok lét illiliga vi› flar er ni›r kom. Vi› fletta sló ótta 129 miklum yfir Karlsefni ok á li› hans, svá at flá f‡sti einskis annars en

97 veitt 557. 106 bú›ir] bygg›ir 557. 109 Chapter division, no heading 557. 111 fló 557. XXI: Eiríks saga rau›a 293 halda undan ok upp me› ánni ok til hamra nƒkkurra. Veittu fleir flar vi›tƒku har›a. Freydís kom út ok sá er fleir heldu undan. Hon kalla›i: 132 ‘fiví renni flér undan slíkum ‹a›uvir›ismƒnnum, svá gildir menn er mér flœtti líkligt at flér mætti› drepa flá svá sem búfé? Ok ef ek hef›a vápn flœtti mér sem ek munda betr berjask en einnhverr y›var.’ 135 fieir gáfu øngvan gaum hvat sem hon sag›i. Freydís vildi fylgja fleim ok var› hon heldr sein, flví at hon var eigi heil. Gekk hon flá eptir fleim í skóginn er Skrælingar sœkja at henni. Hon fann fyrir sér mann 138 dau›an, fiorbrand Snorrason,18 ok stó› hellusteinn í hƒf›i honum. Sver›it lá hjá honum, ok hon tók flat upp ok b‡zk at verja sik me›. fiá koma Skrælingar at henni. Hon tekr brjóstit upp ór serkinum ok slettir 141 á sver›it. fieir fælask vi› ok hlaupa undan ok á skip sín ok heldu á brottu.19 fieir Karlsefni finna hana ok lof‹a› happ hennar. Tveir menn fellu af Karlsefni, en fjórir af Skrælingum, en fló ur›u 144 fleir20 ofrli›i bornir. Fara fleir nú til bú›a sinna ok íhuga hvat fjƒlmenni flat var er at fleim sótti á landinu. S‡nisk fleim nú at flat eina mun li›it hafa verit er á skipunum kom, en annat li›it mun hafa verit flver- 147 s‡ningar. fieir Skrælingar fundu ok mann dau›an ok lá øx hjá honum. ‹Einn fleira tók upp øxina ok høggr me› tré, ok flá hverr at ƒ›rum, ok flótti 150 fleim vera gersimi ok bíta vel.›21 Einn fleira hjó í stein ok brotna›i øxin. fiótti honum flá øngu n‡t, er eigi stó› vi› grjótinu, ok kasta›i ni›r. fieir flóttusk nú sjá, flótt flar væri landskostir gó›ir, at flar mundi 153 jafn‹an› ófri›r ok ótti á liggja af fleim er fyrir bjuggu. Bjuggusk fleir á brott ok ætlu›u til síns lands. Sigldu fleir nor›r fyrir ok fundu fimm Skrælinga í skinnhjúpum sofanda ok hƒf›u me› sér skrokka ok í 156 d‡ramerg dreyra blandinn. Virtu fleir svá at fleir mundu gjƒrvir af landinu. fieir drápu flá. Sí›an fundu fleir nes eitt ok ‹á› fjƒl›a d‡ra. Ok flann veg var nesit at 159 sjá sem mykiskán væri, af flví at d‡rin lágu flar um vetrna. Nú koma fleir í Straumsfjƒr› ok er flar alls gnóttir. Er flat sumra manna sƒgn at flau Bjarni ok Freydís22 hafi flar eptir verit ok tíu tigir 162 manna me› fleim ok hafi eigi farit lengra, en fleir Karlsefni ok Snorri hƒf›u su›r farit ok fjórir tigir manna ok hafi eigi lengr verit í Hópi en vart tvá mánu›u ok hafi hit sama sumar aptr komit. 165

154 en ﬂeir 557. 159 fjƒl›i 557. written vag 557. 161 gnóttir] konar 557. 164, 165 hafi] haf›ir 557. 294 XXI: Eiríks saga rau›a

Karlsefni fór á einu skipi at leita fiórhalls,23 en li›it var eptir, ok fóru fleir nor›r fyrir Kjalarnes, ok berr flá fyrir vestan fram ok var landit á 168 bakbor›a fleim. fiar váru ey›imerkr einar. Ok er fleir hƒf›u lengi farit fellr ‹á› af landi ofan ór austri ok í vestr. fieir lƒg‹››u inn í árósinn ok lágu vi› hinn sy›ra bakkann.

171 ‹Chapter 12› fiat var einn morgin. Sjá fleir Karlsefni fyrir ofan rjó›rit flekk nƒkkurn svá sem glita›i vi› fleim ok œptu fleir á. fiat hrœr›isk ok var flat 174 einfœtingr ok sk‡zk ofan flangat sem fleir lágu. fiorvaldr, son Eiríks hins rau›a, sat vi› st‡ri ok skaut einfœtingr ƒr í smáflarma honum. fiorvaldr dró út ƒrina ok mælti: 177 ‘Feitt er um ístruna. Gott land hƒfum vér fengit kostum en fló megum vér varla njóta.’ fiorvaldr dó af sári flessu litlu sí›ar. fiá hleypr einfœtingr á braut ok 180 nor›r aptr. fieir hljópu eptir einfœtingi ok sáu hann stundum. Ok flví næst sem hann leita›i undan, hljóp hann út á vág einn. fiá hurfu fleir aptr. fiá kva› einn ma›r kvi›ling flenna: 183 Eltu seggir, allsatt var flat, einn einfœting 186 ofan til strandar. En kynligr ma›r kosta›i rásar 189 hart of stopi‹r›. Heyr›u, Karlsefni! fieir fóru flá í brott ok nor›r aptr ok flóttusk sjá Einfœtingaland.24 Vildu 192 fleir flá eigi lengr hætta li›i sínu. fieir ætlu›u ƒll ‹ein› fjƒll, flau er í Hópi váru ok ‹flessi› er ‹nú› fundu fleir. Fóru fleir aptr ok váru í Straumsfir›i hinn flri›ja vetr.

169 lágu inn í árósinum 557. 171 No chapter division or heading in 557. 175–80 sat . . . aptr] fiá mælti fiorvaldr: ‘Gott land hƒfum vér fengit.’ fiá hleypr einfœtingrinn á brott ok nor›r aptr ok skaut á›r í smáflarma á fiorvaldi. Hann dró út ƒrina. fiá mælti fiorvaldr: ‘Feitt er um ístruna.’ 577. 180–81 flví næst] editorial conjecture; flótti 557. 192 557 adds at kanna after ætlu›u. 193 fleir before fundu 557. 194 vetr] written vintr 557. Cf. p. 269, 6 above. XXI: Eiríks saga rau›a 295

Gengu menn flá mjƒk sleitum. Sóttu ‹fleir› er kvánlausir váru í hendr 195 fleim er kvánga›ir váru. fiar kom til hit fyrsta haust Snorri, son Karlsefnis, ok var hann ‹flá flrívetr› er fleir fóru á brott.25 Hƒf›u fleir sunnanve›r ok hittu Markland ok fundu Skrælinga fimm; 198 var einn skeggja›r ok tvær konur, bƒrn tvau. Tóku fleir Karlsefni til sveinanna26 en hitt komsk undan ok sukku í jƒr› ni›r. En sveinana hƒf›u fleir me› sér ok kenndu fleim mál ok váru skír›ir. fieir nefndu 201 mó›ur sína Vætildi ok ‹fƒ›ur› Óvægi. fieir sƒg›u at konungar stjórnu›u Skrælingalandi. Hét annarr Avaldamon, en annarr hét Valdidida.27 fieir kvá›u flar engi hús ok lágu menn í hellum e›a holum. fieir sƒg›u land 204 flar ƒ›ru megin gagnvart sínu landi ok gengu menn flar í hvítum klæ›um ok œptu hátt ok báru stangir ok fóru me› flíkr. fiat ætla menn Hvítra- mannaland.28 207 Nú kvámu fleir til Grœnlands ok eru me› Eiríki rau›a um vetrinn.29

197 hann] ﬂar ﬂann 557. 205 línu 557. 296 XXI: Eiríks saga rau›a

Notes

1 This is the first mention of Vínland in Eiríks saga rau›a. The subsequent account of ﬁorfinnr karlsefni’s voyage contains various place-names, as follows: (a) (referring to Greenland and in addition to the term Grœnland itself): Vestribygg› (line 20; cf. notes 27 and 29 to Text VIII above), Bjarneyjar (lines 20, 21); (b) (referring apparently to lands in the west beyond Greenland): Vínland (lines 2, 4), Helluland (line 25), Bjarney (line 28), Markland (lines 29, 198) , Kjalarnes (lines 33, 167), Fur›ustrandir (lines 34, 42), Straumsey (line 54), Straums- fjƒr›r (lines 56, 83, 161, 194), Hóp (lines 90, 193), Einfœtingaland (line 191), Skrælingaland (line 203), Hvítramannaland (lines 206–07). 544 also refers to Írland it mikla (cf. note 28 below). In connection with the names listed under (b), two issues arise: (i) how far they were genuine place-names used for localities on the North American continent or islands off it, and (ii) how far any of those that are genuine can be identified with actual places or areas in North America. As to (i), we can be relatively certain that e.g. Markland was a genuine place- name and that e.g. Einfœtingaland was not (cf. note 24 below). Cf. also note 4 below. In connection with (ii), it should be noted that it is extremely difficult or impossible to locate any of the place-names which may be genuine with any degree of certainty. This applies, for example, to Kjalarnes, found both in Eiríks saga rau›a and in Grœnlendinga saga ch. 4. On the other hand, it is quite likely that the place-name Markland was used for Labrador. And for some conjecture as to where Hóp could have been, see note 12 below. Cf. Perkins (2004, 55–57).

2 ﬁórhallr vei›ima›r is obviously a fictional character. He conforms to the stereotype of the recalcitrant and often mischievous heathen who sometimes appears in the sagas and comes to bad end. One of his main roles in the narrative of Eiríks saga rau›a is to act as a vehicle for two verses in ch. 9, which in turn have their own special function (cf. note 11 below). The word vei›ima›r could be used of both fishermen and hunters but was particularly used of whalers. Cf. Perkins (1976, 65–66, 70).

3 Lack of concord between verb and subject is found also in lines 32 and 161; this is not all that uncommon in Old Norse when the subject XXI: Eiríks saga rau›a 297 follows the verb, cf. Text XXIV, lines 4, 14–17, 28–29, 51–52 and note 2 below and NION I, 3.9.8.2.

4 It seems unlikely that the word Fur›ustrandir was ever used by the Norsemen as a place-name for any locality or geographical feature in North America. The reason the author of Eiríks saga rau›a had for placing these beaches of such length between Greenland and Vínland may have been to represent Vínland as much further south and thus much closer to Africa than it really was. This may have been in line with current geographical theory which regarded Vínland as an extension of Africa (cf. the geographical treatise (landal‡sing) mentioned in the introduction, p. 281 above). This may also explain why the saga placed a uniped in Vínland; cf. lines 173–81 and note 24 below. But any certainty on a matter like this is impossible. See further Perkins (1976, particularly pp. 82–85).

5 The account (in Eiríks saga rau›a ch. 5) of King Óláfr Tryggvason (on whom see note 33 to Text VIII above) bidding Leifr preach Christianity in Greenland and of Leifr subsequently fulfilling this mission is in all probability entirely unhistorical. Cf. HOIC 100–01; Ólafur Halldórsson (1981).

6 The adjective skozkr is sometimes used in Icelandic sources in the sense ‘Irish’ and this meaning may be intended here. Skozkir menn seem to have had a reputation for being fleet-footed; cf. Eyrbyggja saga, ch. 18 (ÍF IV 1985, 33) where we are told of a man called Nagli, described as mikill ma›r ok fóthvatr and skozkr at kyni. Cf. Nansen (1911, I 339–43); Jones (1986, 283–85).

7 Andrew Breeze (1998, 5–6) argues that kjafal is a corruption of an early Irish word cochall (itself from Latin cucullus) which has a sense of ‘cowl, hood, hooded cloak’. On 557’s reading bjafal, cf. ÍF IV (1985, 424, note 10), and its reading vínker (an error for vínber) in line 50 below.

8 Adam of Bremen (see Introduction above), Grœnlendinga saga and Eiríks saga rau›a all imply that grapes grew in the place called Vínland (Adam of Bremen calls it Winland) and Adam and Grœnlendinga saga (ÍF IV 1985, 253) more or less specifically connect the name given to 298 XXI: Eiríks saga rau›a the country with the presence of grapes there. There has been much discussion of the grapes of Vínland. A number of scholars have argued that the Norsemen did not find wild grapes in North America and that their appearance in the sources must have some other explanation. It has, for example, been suggested that the accounts of grapes are purely literary borrowings and go back to accounts of the Insulae Fortunatae (or similar legendary places) in Isidor of Seville’s Etymologiae and classical sources (cf. Nansen 1911, I 345–84; II 1–65). But such arguments are to some extent anticipated and countered by, for instance, Adam’s own statement on this matter. Nor is there any good reason for believing that berries of some sort (rather then grapes proper) are referred to. And an interpretation of the first element of the name Vínland as originally the word vin f. (with a short vowel; cf. C–V 707) meaning ‘pasture’, may be confidently dismissed. Further, there is probably no good reason for rejecting the sources’ statement on this matter. Wild grapes (e.g. riverbank grapes, Vitis riparia) do grow in eastern North America, at present as far north as the St Lawrence River and New Brunswick. In the more favourable climatic conditions of the Middle Ages they were perhaps to be found rather further north than they are today. They were remarked upon by some of the early post-Columbian explorers of the area, for example Jacques Cartier, who explored the St Lawrence in the 1530s (cf. Gathorne-Hardy 1921, 154–59; Jones 1986, 123–24). Thus the Norsemen could well have reached the areas where grapes grew. The references to self-sown wheat (hveiti sjálfsáit in line 50, sjálfsánir hveitiakrar in line 90; cf. Adam of Bremen’s ‘unsown crops’) is more difficult to explain and there is no mention of it in Grœnlendinga saga. It is true that Cartier reports fields of wild cereals on the St Lawrence. But identification with any known North American plant appears rather uncertain. The suggestion that the accounts of wheat in Vínland were indeed literary borrowings from legends of the Insulae Fortunatae (or similar places) to pair with its grapes, which may have existed in reality, is not implausible. Cf. Perkins (2004, 59–60).

9 Both Eiríks saga rau›a and Grœnlendinga saga imply that the Norsemen took livestock with them on their expeditions to Vínland (cf. lines 95 and 119–20). There is, however, little or no archaeological evidence for this. XXI: Eiríks saga rau›a 299

10 The implication of the saga’s account here is clearly that by composing poetry in honour of his patron fiórr (cf. fiórr fulltrúinn, line 79), fiórhallr has persuaded the god to strand a whale as food for the starving company. Certainly there is evidence elsewhere that praise- poetry was composed in honour of fiórr, that the god was thought of as something of a hunter and killer of whales and that he had the control over wind and wave necessary to beach a whale. But the Norsemen had various other forms of magic for luring fish and other sea-animals (e.g. seals) to land as well. For example, Adam of Bremen tells how the inhabitants of northernmost Norway employ ‘a powerful mumbling of words’ to draw whales to land. Nor was such magic the preserve of the Norsemen: for example, in Coon (1974, 129–30) there is a description of how a whale ritualist of the Nootka tribe of Indians (Vancouver Island) sought to get whales to drift ashore by a grisly process involving a human corpse. This he did after four days of ritual fasting in a remote shrine overlooking the sea from which whales could be seen. See further on this passage in Eiríks saga rau›a, Perkins (2000, 223–30).

11 In ch. 9 of Eiríks saga rau›a (omitted in the present selection) we are told how fiórhallr vei›ima›r, apparently disappointed by the absence of wine at Straumsfjƒr›r, breaks away from the main expedition with nine others and heads north in search of Vínland. He is storm-driven by a westerly wind across to Ireland and there is brutally beaten and enslaved and dies. Before he sets sail, two stanzas in dróttkvætt are quoted, which fiórhallr is said to have declaimed. In the first of these, which the prose tells us was uttered as fiórhallr was carrying water on board his ship, he complains that despite being promised the finest drink, no wine has touched his lips; he has rather to wield a bucket. The second verse is an exhortation to put out to sea and to leave others boiling whales on Fur›ustrandir, though in the prose of the saga, it is in Straumsfjƒr›r that meat from the stranded whale is cooked. An older school of saga-criticism, which took the sagas far more seriously as history than is now customary, believed that these two verses were composed more or less under the circumstances described in the saga. They have even been claimed to be among ‘the first recorded American poetry’. But in fact it is very unlikely that the occasion for the original composition of the verses was that 300 XXI: Eiríks saga rau›a described in the prose of the saga and, as remarked in note 2 above, fiórhallr vei›ima›r is not to be regarded as a historical character. On the other hand, they were probably not composed by the author of the saga either and we can only guess at the circumstances of their origin. It is possible that the first verse was composed while the bailing of a ship was in progress. The second verse may have been used amongst groups of men engaged in hunting whales and processing their blubber (cf. Perkins 1976, 69–82). At all events, although the author of the saga probably formed his fictitious narrative partly to fit these verses, he also cunningly intended his audience to take them as corroboration of such details of his narrative as fiórhallr’s disappointment at the lack of wine at Straumsfjƒr›r and the Fur›ustrandir of lines 34 and 42, which had their own special function in his account (cf. note 4 above).

12 Place-names are often presented in this way in Old Norse writings (i.e. in the dative case preceded by the preposition normally used with them); cf. Text XV:33–34 above and NION I, 3.1.8 (p. 54). While attempting to locate the various places mentioned in the Vínland Sagas is a hazardous business (cf. note 1 above), it is not impossible that Hóp was a genuine place-name and also not impossible that it referred to a locality on the south-western side of the Gulf of St Lawrence, more specifically around the mouth of the Miramichi River in New Brunswick. Here there are lagoons, sheltered from the sea by protective sandbars, to which the Old Norse word hóp might be applicable (see C–V 281; cf. Wallace 2003, 381 for an aerial photograph). It is in this area that some scholars would locate Vínland (e.g. Ferguson 2001). Wild grapes are found there, and also the place- name Baie du Vin apparently given by post-Columbian French settlers referring to them (cf. Crozier 2003, 336). A large concentration of Micmac Indians was also to be found there (cf. note 13 below). Nevertheless, no certain identification of Hóp can be made on the basis of these facts.

13 With the arrival of these nine skin boats (hú›keipar) at Hóp, the Skrælingar are introduced into Eiríks saga rau›a and later in the saga (lines 153–54) we are told that it is fear of Skræling hostility that causes Karlsefni and his band to abandon their attempt to settle in Vínland. The Skrælingar are mentioned in various other Old Norse XXI: Eiríks saga rau›a 301 sources, including Ari’s Íslendingabók (see Text VIII, lines 69–71), Grœnlendinga saga and Historia Norwegiae (see History of Norway 2001, 3). The etymology of the word Skrælingar is uncertain but it very probably had pejorative connotations. The Norsemen certainly used it of the Inuit (Eskimo) peoples they came into contact with in Greenland. But they doubtless also had some contact with Native American (American Indian) peoples as well as Inuit in the parts of the North American mainland (with Newfoundland) they visited, and they appear to have used the word also of them. The accounts of Skrælingar in Eiríks saga rau›a and in Grœnlendinga saga may reflect such encounters. There seem to have been Dorset Inuit at least in Labrador at the time. And the Native American peoples the Norsemen might have come across could have been (the ancestors of) the Innu in Labrador, the Beothucks (now extinct) in Newfoundland or the Micmacs in Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick. Cf. Odess et al. (2000); McAleese (2003). The Norsemen would have regarded the hú›keipr (‘skin boat’) as the traditional vessel of Skrælingar. One might here here think first of the umiaks of the Inuit rather than Indian canoes made of birch-bark. But both the Beothucks and the Micmacs seem to have had canoes covered with moose or deer skins and were also practised canoeists, and at least the Micmacs were traders and evidently owned canoes in largish numbers (cf. lines 110–11 and 122–23). See also note 30 to Text VIII. Modern scholarship has expended much effort and ingenuity on attempting to square Norse accounts of the Skrælingar in the two Vínland sagas with what is otherwise known about the Inuit and Native Americans who inhabited these parts (cf. e.g. Gathorne-Hardy 1921, 173–95 for a traditional approach; and for a more modern one, Sverrir Jakobsson 2001). There is much that seems realistic in the saga’s descriptions. For example, the account of trade between the Norsemen and Skrælingar (lines 112–18) seems fairly true to life. The Skræling interest in red cloth makes one think of the Beothuks of Newfoundland whose predilection for the colour red probably gave rise to the expression ‘Red Indians’. The incident described in lines 149–52 gives quite a realistic picture of a person unacquainted with iron weapons (as both the Native Americans and Inuit of the area would have been; cf. lines 113–14). The d‡ramergr dreyra blandinn (‘marrow from animal bones mixed with blood’) which the five sleeping Skrælingar 302 XXI: Eiríks saga rau›a have with them in bark containers (lines 155–57) has been interpreted as some form of pemmican used as iron rations by certain Native American tribes while out hunting (cf. Gathorne-Hardy 1921, 179). Much less convincingly, the large sphere used as a weapon by the Skrælingar (lines 126–28) has been compared with some sort of ballista thought to have been used by an Algonquin people (cf. ION 219, note to lines 378–81). Unfortunately, the physical description of the Skrælingar in lines 103–04 (where 544 has svartir for 557’s smáir) is hardly illuminating. And there are certainly various suspect elements in the accounts of the Skrælingar in Eiríks saga. For example, the names given to four of them in lines 201–03 were clearly invented on the basis of Norse name-elements or other European names (cf. note 27 below). The accounts of them in Eiríks saga could well be influenced by stories of exotic peoples encountered by Norsemen on their journeys east of Scandinavia (e.g. in Muslim countries). And when we find that the Skræling arrow which kills ﬁorvaldr Eiríksson in ch. 4 of Grœn- lendinga saga is shot by a uniped in ch. 12 of Eiríks saga rau›a, we see that the inhabitants of Norse America were in danger of joining the ranks of the fantastic peoples known to saga-authors from the learned literature of medieval Europe.

14 As in other cultures, in the Old Norse world anticlockwise motion (cf. rangsœlis, line 123) had sinister or baleful associations. Conversely, clockwise motion (sólarsinnis) would have been regarded as auspicious and conducive to good fortune. The (saga’s) mention of the waving of pieces of wood (by the Skrælingar) may be some reminiscence (based on observation) of the movement of paddles on (an) Indian or Inuit canoe(s).

15 We hear elsewhere of the display of white shields and red shields (line 124) as tokens of peace and hostility respectively (cf. the terms fri›skjƒldr, ‘peace-shield’ and herskjƒldr, ‘war-shield’); cf. also line 112 above and Text VI above, line 104 and note 11. But for red shields as ‘peace-shields, see Shetelig and Falk (1937, 401).

16 en (er in 544) here looks as though it might be being used as a relative pronoun; cf. ÍF IV (1985, 429, note 4); C–V 128. But in this instance at any rate, it is better regarded as anacoluthon (‘— and Karlsefni and his people owned it —’). XXI: Eiríks saga rau›a 303

17 This pronoun presumably refers to the Norsemen.

18 It is not certain who is referred to here. It is possible that fiorbrandr Snorrason is an error for Snorri fiorbrandsson, mentioned earlier as fiorfinnr karlefni’s partner and one of the leaders of the expedition (e.g. lines 3, 86, 100, 114). Certainly we never hear what eventually became of Snorri fiorbrandsson at the end of the saga (though cf. lines 161–65). Alternatively (but perhaps less probably), we must assume that Snorri fiorbrandsson had with him a son called fiorbrandr on the expedition and that it is he who is referred to here, although he has not been mentioned earlier (cf. Introduction, p. 285 above). See also ÍF IV (1985, 383–84 and 437); Perkins (2004, 50–51).

19 This episode, in which Freydís appears to put the Skrælingar pursuing her to flight by slapping her naked breast with a sword, has mystified commentators. For discussion, cf. Barnes (2001, 27–30 and references).

20 This pronoun refers to Karlsefni and his band; cf. Jansson (1945, 73, 163–64, 167).

21 The words in brackets are supplied here from 544. Sven B. F. Jansson (1944, 144; cf. 73) regarded them as an addition by the redactor of the version in 544, but Ólafur Halldórsson (ÍF IV 1985, 430, note 11) is probably right in thinking that they (or words of similar meaning) were omitted by the scribe of 557.

22 544 has Gu›rí›r, which is perhaps more logical. Gu›rí›r ﬁorbjarnar- dóttir, wife of ﬁorfinnr karlsefni, plays a major part in both Eiríks saga rau›a and Grœnlendinga saga and is in all probability a historical figure. She was mother of the Snorri who was born on this expedition (cf. lines 196–97).

23 Cf. note 11 above.

24 In chapter 4 of Grœnlendinga saga (ÍF IV 1985, 256), fiorvaldr, son of Eiríkr rau›i, dies from an arrow-wound sustained in a skirmish with the Skrælingar; this account may even have some basis in historical fact (cf. Perkins 2004, 47 and 61). Here in ch. 12 of Eiríks saga rau›a, 304 XXI: Eiríks saga rau›a it is a uniped who shoots the fatal arrow into fiorvaldr’s entrails. The most plausible explanation for the introduction of this uniped is that according to medieval Icelandic notions of geography Vínland was thought to be an extension of Africa and unipeds were believed to live in Africa (cf. Jones 1986, 285; Magnusson and Hermann Pálsson 1965, 15 and 39; Barnes 2001, 27–28; see p. 281 above). The verse about the uniped (lines 183–90) has been the subject of an essay by Ian McDougall (1997), who produces good reasons for believing that it is an adaptation of a riddle about a pen. The uniped (einfœtingr) represents the pen itself and the men (seggir) who chase it are the fingers of the hand holding it; the ‘shore’ (strƒnd) down to which the men chase the pen would be the bottom margin of the page or the writing surface in general. McDougall adduces parallels from other Icelandic and Old English riddles. The verse might have been introduced by the author of the saga to give support to the place-name Einfœtingaland, which is probably fictitious and may even have been invented by the author of the saga himself (cf. notes 1, 4 and 11 above). fiorvaldr’s words in lines 177–78 resemble those attributed to fiormó›r Kolbrúnarskáld Bersason, mortally wounded by an arrow at the Battle of Stiklarsta›ir (Stiklestad) (see ÍF XXVII 393; VI 276; Hkr 520–21; cf. also ION 219, note to line 434; Perkins 1976, 87, note 46).

25 Snorri, like his father ﬁorfinnr karlsefni and mother Gu›rí›r ﬁorbjarnardóttir, may have been a historical figure and was quite possibly the first European known by name to have been born on the North American mainland, or at any rate in Newfoundland (cf. note 22 above; Perkins 2004, 64).

26 This story, in which two Skræling boys are captured and taken back to Greenland, is perhaps not unrealistic. Jacques Cartier, the post- Columbian explorer of the St Lawrence, returned to France with two captured natives after his first voyage to these parts in 1534. For further similar instances, see Baitsholts (2003, 366 and references there).

27 The names of the mother and father of the Skræling boys are inventions made up from Norse words or name-elements (cf. Barnes 2001, 30, note 81; Perkins 2004, 51–53). Vætildr: vættr f. means ‘spirit’; (h)ildr is common as the second element in a number of Norse women’s XXI: Eiríks saga rau›a 305 names (e.g. Bryn(h)ildr); Óvægir is related to the adjectives óvægr, ‘unmerciful’ and óvæginn, ‘unyielding’ (cf. the attested personal name Óflyrmir related to óflyrmir, ‘merciless man’ and óflyrmiligr, ‘unmerciful, harsh’). And the names of the two kings whom the boys say rule Skrælingaland, Avaldamon and Valdidida (in 557; Avaldidida in 544), are probably based on those of the king of Gar›aríki, Valdamarr or Valdimarr, and his consort Allogía (mentioned, for example, in OddrÓT 23). It has been suggested that the boys’ report that Skrælinga- land was ruled by two kings may reflect the situation in Norway between 1261 and 1263: Hákon Hákonarson was king 1217–63, while his son Magnús was crowned in 1261 and died in 1280 (see Helgi Gu›mundsson 1997, 63, note 42).

28 544 adds e›a Írland it mikla ‘or Ireland the Great’ after Hvítramanna- land. Írland it mikla is also mentioned in Landnámabók (ÍF I, 162; cf. BS 61). There we are told that it lay six days’ sailing (sex dœgra sigling) west of Ireland and near Vínland.

29 The account of ﬁorfinnr’s expedition to Vínland finishes here. The two following chapters (13 and 14) into which the remainder of the saga is conventionally divided tell how the ship captained by Bjarni Grímólfs- son (cf. lines 5 and 162 above) sinks under dramatic circumstances (ch. 13), and of Karlsefni and Gu›rí›r’s return to Iceland and their descendants. 544 concludes with a genealogy down to Haukr Erlends- son written in in Haukr’s own hand. 306 XXI: Eiríks saga rau›a XXII: ÓLÁFS RÍMA HARALDSSONAR

Óláfs ríma Haraldssonar was composed c.1350–70, and is preserved in the late fourteenth-century manuscript known as Flateyjarbók (GKS 1005 fol.). The poem is the earliest surviving example of what became the most popular literary genre in Iceland between the fifteenth and nineteenth centuries. Rímur are narrative poems based, in almost every case, on prose sources. They are sometimes referred to as ‘metrical romances’ in English; nearly eighty rímur survive from before 1600, and about half of these are based on riddarasögur, with about another quarter of the corpus based on fornaldarsögur. Óláfs ríma is one of only nine pre-1600 rímur based on Íslendingasögur or (as here) konungasögur. It is also an unusually short example of the genre: most rímur consist of several cantos or fits using different metrical forms, but Óláfs ríma consists of a single ríma of sixty-five stanzas. Unlike many later examples of the genre, Óláfs ríma does not begin with a mansƒngr (literally, ‘love song’), a non-narrative introduction in the tradition of courtly love poetry. Óláfs ríma is composed in feyrskeytt, the most common ríma stanza form. The first and third lines of each quatrain contain four stressed syllables, any two of which (other than the first and second) alliterate with one another. The second and fourth lines of the quatrain contain three stressed syllables, of which the first in each line alliterates with the two alliterating stresses of the preceding odd-numbered line. In addition, the quatrain rhymes abab; the a rhymes are monosyllabic and the b rhymes trochaic. Foreign literary traditions influenced the development of the rímur (the name of the genre is related to French rime, and already in this first example of the genre there is some emphasis on courtesy (st. 31), and warriors are in one place (st. 24) referred to as riddarar ‘knights’), but the influence of skaldic and eddic poetry is readily apparent, not least in the characteristically native poetic vocabulary employed, though there are also the loan-words fánga, klókr and júngr (Low German), pín (Old Saxon, Old English), strí› in the sense ‘warfare’ (Old Saxon). Heiti and kennings are more common in later rímur than in Óláfs ríma, but poetic diction employed in the poem includes fifteen heiti for ‘king’, and smaller numbers for ‘man/warrior’, ‘battle’, and ‘sword’. The few kennings in Óláfs ríma are all two-element only and simple, conventional ones found frequently in skaldic battle- 308 XXII: Óláfs ríma Haraldssonar poetry; there are six for ‘battle’ (randa glam (st. 38), darra él (st. 41), randa regn (st. 46), darra fling (st. 54), and odda hrí› and málma leikr (st. 55; maybe also hjƒrva gnau›, st. 56), one for ‘sword’ (unda na›r, st. 40), one for ‘man/warrior’ (ƒrva mei›r, st. 2), and one for ‘breast’ or ‘heart, mind’ (hyggju strendr, st. 19). As Vésteinn Ólason notes (1985, 9), the kenning fálu hestr (‘horse of a giantess’ = wolf) in stanza 41 is the only one in the poem to employ a mythological allusion. Óláfs ríma is about an important saint, but the poet makes little use of the Christian skaldic diction developed in medieval Icelandic religious poetry; examples include dróttinn himna hallar (‘Lord of the heavenly mansion’; st. 2), himna gramr (‘King of heavens’; st. 51); note also bragníngr allra fljó›a (‘king of all peoples’; st. 65) and the description of Óláfr as Kristz et bjarta blóm (‘the bright flower of Christ’; st. 62). But although the vocabulary of Óláfs ríma is influenced by that of skaldic poetry, the word order is much simpler, and according to Vésteinn Ólason 1985, 9, often ‘comes close to that of the spoken language’. The poem celebrates St Óláfr, King of Norway (r. 1015–30). It begins with general praise of his achievements, concentrates mainly on an account of events just before and during the Battle of Stiklasta›ir, in which he was killed by rebellious subjects, and ends (after brief references to his burial, translation and posthumous miracles) with a request that the saint intercede for the poet. St Óláfr, protomartyr and patron of Norway, was a figure of immense religious and ideological importance in medieval Norway and Iceland. He was the subject of a wide range of written texts, including Latin hagiography and historical writing, skaldic battle-poetry, hagiographic skaldic verse, and prosimetric sagas (for a survey of early Norwegian and Icelandic texts about St Óláfr see Kunin and Phelpstead 2001, xxvi–xli). The high point of this textual tradition is Snorri Sturluson’s Óláfs saga helga, originally composed as an independent saga and later incorporated in his Heimskringla. Snorri’s saga provided the source material for Óláfs ríma and so it is the version of the saint’s life referred to in the notes to the text below. The continuing importance of St Óláfr in the later Middle Ages is attested by his prominence in Flateyjarbók, in which Óláfs ríma immediately follows Einarr Skúlason’s Geisli (1152–53), the skaldic XXII: Óláfs ríma Haraldssonar 309 poem in praise of Óláfr composed to celebrate the establishment of an archiepiscopal see at his shrine in Trondheim. Flateyjarbók also includes a much-augmented version of Óláfs saga helga. The manuscript ascribes Óláfs ríma to Einarr Gilsson, who was briefly a lƒgma›r (law-man, one of the two highest government officials in Iceland) in the north and west of Iceland in the late 1360s. It has been suggested that Einarr was a friend of Jón Hákonarson, the man who commissioned Flateyjarbók, and that Óláfs ríma might have been copied into Flateyjarbók from the poet’s autograph manuscript (see Björn K. fiórólfsson 1934, 298–99; Rowe 2005, 299). Óláfs ríma and Geisli were added to the beginning of Flateyjarbók by its second scribe, Magnús fiórhallsson, c.1390. Rowe argues that the inclusion of Óláfs ríma in the manuscript ‘underscores the points made by the inclusion of Geisli: the reader’s focus should be on St Óláfr (and specifically on Óláfr as a martyr and saint, rather than as a king), and the manuscript should contain as many kinds of poetry as possible’ (2005, 300). This edition of Óláfs ríma has been normalised from Finnur Jóns- son’s text (1905, 1–9); for a facsimile of Flateyjarbók see CCIMA XX. One notable linguistic feature commonly found in the rímur that has been retained in this edition is the frequent apocope of the strong masculine nominative inflectional ending -r; other features of fourteenth- century Icelandic in general that are here retained are the diphthongisation or lengthening of short vowels before -ng and lowering of á to ó after v (except where á is required by the rhyme).

Bibliography Ágrip af Nóregskonungasƒgum: A Twelfth-Century Synoptic History of the Kings of Norway, ed. M. J. Driscoll (1995). Björn K. ﬁórólfsson, Rímur fyrir 1600 (1934). William A. Craigie, Specimens of Icelandic Rímur from the Fourteenth to the Nineteenth Century/S‡nisbók íslenzkra rímna frá upphafi rímna- kvedskapar til loka nítjándu aldar, 3 vols (1952). Finnur Jónsson, ed., Rímnasafn: Samling af de ældste islandske rimer, 2 vols, Samfund til udgivelse af gammel nordisk litteratur 35 (1905–22). Peter A. Jorgensen, ‘Rímur’. In MS 536–37. Devra Kunin, tr., and Carl Phelpstead, ed., A History of Norway and the Passion and Miracles of the Blessed Óláfr (2001). 310 XXII: Óláfs ríma Haraldssonar

Elizabeth Ashman Rowe, The Development of Flateyjarbók: Iceland and the Norwegian Dynastic Crisis of 1389 (2005). Snorri Sturluson, Heimskringla, ed. Bjarni A›albjanarson. In ÍF XXVI– XXVIII; translated in Hkr. Snorri Sturluson, Óláfs saga helga. In ÍF XXVII, II 3–415. Vésteinn Ólason, ‘Kve›i› um Ólaf helga: Samanbur›ur ﬂriggja íslenskra bókmenntagreina frá lokum mi›alda,’ Skirnir 157 (1983), 48–63. Vésteinn Ólason, ‘Saint Olaf in Late Medieval Icelandic Poetry’. In Carol L. Edwards and Kathleen E. B. Manley, eds, Narrative Folksong, New Directions: Essays in Appreciation of W. Edson Richmond (1985), 2–17. XXII: Óláfs ríma Haraldssonar 311

XXII: ÓLÁFS RÍMA HARALDSSONAR

Óláfs ríma Haraldzsonar er Einar Gilsson kva› 1. Óláfr kóngr ƒrr ok frí›r átti Noregi at rá›a; gramr var æ vi› bragna blí›r, borinn til sigrs ok ná›a.

2. Dƒglíng helt svó d‡ran hei›r dróttni himna hallar; eingi sk‡‹r›ir ƒrva mei›r ƒ›língs fræg›ir allar.

3. Mildíng haf›i mentir ﬂær, er mestar vóru í heimi; hvergi frægra hilmi fær hvórki af gle›i né seimi.

4. Fimm hefir kóngr kristnat lƒnd, kann ek ƒll at nefna;1 gramr vill jafnan rjó›a rƒnd ok rángan úsi› hefna.

5. Rán ok stuldi refsti hann ok ræktar stjórn í landi; hilmir lag›i á hei›ni bann ok hefndi stórt me› brandi.

6. Gramr nam lƒgmál setja svá at seggir ﬂol‹d›u valla; dáligan lét hann dau›a fá dróttinssvikara alla.

7. Rekkar ‡f›uz ræsi á mót ok rétti har›la sƒnnum; vóru kóngi heimsklig hót hafin af sjálfs síns mƒnnum. 312 XXII: Óláfs ríma Haraldssonar

8. Hárekr var fyrir brƒgnum bystr, búinn at strí›a stilli; fiórir hundr er flann veg lystr, flri›i var Kálfr enn illi.2

9. Kálfr var fyrr me› kóngi sá kærr í ƒllum rá›um; nú er hann horfinn hilmi frá, hei›ri sviptr ok dá›um.

10. firændir geingu fióri á hƒnd, fleim var ljúft at herja; háleysk fljó› vill rjó›a rƒnd ok ríkit kóngi verja.

11. Fylkir ríkr, frægr ok mildr fréttir safna› ﬂenna; ﬂá vill hilmir hraustr ok gildr hvergi undan renna.

12. Bragníng lætr byrja fer› bónda3 múg í móti; hann vill jafnan hræra sver› ok her›a skot me› spjóti.

13. Siklíng haf›i safnat ﬂá sínum gƒrpum snjƒllum; lof›úngs kann ek l‡›i at tjá, lángt bar gramr af ƒllum.

14. Hl‡ri kóngs var har›la júngr, hann vil ek fyrstan nefna, víst nam Haraldr4 flykkju flúngr firændum strí› at hefna.

15. ‘Get ek ei hrotta hƒggit rƒnd,’ Haraldr talar vi› garpa, XXII: Óláfs ríma Haraldssonar 313

‘bindi menn vi› mína hƒnd mæki ﬂann enn snarpa.’

16. Rƒgnvaldr5 var mildr ok merkr me› ﬂeim kóngi gó›a; Brúsa son nam brig›a sterkr brand í dreyra at rjó›a.

17. Finnr Árnason6 frækn ok hraustr fylgir jƒfri sterkum; Bjƒrn stallari7 tryggr ok traustr trúr vel ræsi merkum.

18. Sá var annar Árna mƒgr, ‡tar ﬁorberg kalla, hann lét stálin stinn ok fƒgr í sterkum hlífum gjalla.

19. ﬁormó›r var vi› Kolbrún kendr,8 kóngsins skáld it frí›a, sá berr hvassar hyggju strendr hvar sem garpar strí›a.

20. Ná›uz menn í niflúngs flokk nær sem risar at líta; ﬂeir hafa bragnar brynjurokk brandi skorit enn hvíta.

21. Geingu fram fyr kóngsins kné ok kvƒddu stilli enn teita; bu›u ﬂeir bæ›i fylgd ok fé frægum sjóla at veita.

22. Gramr ré› spyrja garpa ﬂá: ‘Geri› mér heiti at inna; trú skulu greina seggir svá at satt megi til ﬂess finna.’

19/2 frí›a] MS d‡ra. 314 XXII: Óláfs ríma Haraldssonar

23. ‘Opt hafa flegnar flrjózku hefnt, flat mun eingi lasta; Gauka-fióri hafa gumnar nefnt gla›an ok Hafra-Fasta.9

24. Treystum vér á mátt ok megn, er margan riddara pr‡›ir; aungva hafa af Ásum fregn okkrir sterkir l‡›ir.’

25. ‘Taki ﬂér heldr helga trú himna kóngs me› blóma, vir›ar, kasti› villu nú ok veri› me› oss í sóma.’

26. L‡›ir ger›u lykt á ﬂví at leysa ﬂenna vanda; skírnarbrunn fara skatnar í ok skynda Gu›i til handa.

27. firekstórr kom til fleingils ma›r, flann frá ek Arnljót10 heita, tók hann skírn ok gekk fló gla›r grams í flokkinn teita.

28. Garpar fleiri at fylki renn11 en fyr›ar mega ﬂat telja; siklíngr nam sæmdarmenn sér til li›s at velja.

29. Kálfr haf›i múga manns merkta vƒllu ví›a; ní›íngligt var nærsta hans niflúng ﬂeim at strí›a.

30. Bjálfa klæddiz hƒr›um Hundr ok hans sveitúngar margir; ﬂat hafa geysigrimmligt undr gert Búfinnar12 argir. XXII: Óláfs ríma Haraldssonar 315

31. Ræsir talar vi› fiorgils13 flá, flat var mest af pr‡›i: ‘fiér vil ek silfr í sjó›i fá flú se› me› auma l‡›i.’

32. fiorgils hugsar fleingils mál: ‘fiér inni› framar hóti; gef fyr fleira garpa sál er gánga oss í móti.’

33. Herrinn drífr á hilmis fund at heyja ímƒn stránga; svó var flrútin fleira lund, at flraut var› fram at gánga.

34. Múginn ﬂessi geysiz gegn gram me› sárum vilja; lƒg›u á orku ok allt sitt megn jƒfur vi› land at skilja.

35. Á Stiklastƒ›um var róman remd14 ríkum kóngi í móti; ﬂar vóru skƒpt me› hƒndum hremd ok hƒr›u kasta› grjóti.

36. Hárekr eggjar herli› sitt, heitr mƒrgum sóma. ‘Lúki garpar geysistrítt gram fyr har›a dóma.’

37. Gó›a sver›it Hneitir hét, haf›i gramr til víga; flar fyr margan fleingill lét flegn at jƒr›u hníga.

38. Gumnar hlaupa geystir fram grams fyr merkit væna, 316 XXII: Óláfs ríma Haraldssonar

reisa ﬂannig randa glam ok rísta skjƒldu græna.

39. Gellini tók at geysaz hart ok ger›i rómu stránga; sannliga lét hann seggja mart sáran dau›a fánga.

40. Árna synir sinn unda na›r einart drógu af magni; kendiz ei svó klókr ma›r kæmi hlíf at gagni.

41. ﬁormó›r nam brytja brá› bleikum fálu hesti, var›i kóng me› dyg› ok dá›, darra él hann hvesti.

42. fiórir hundr flrautar gildr flreif sitt spjót it snarpa; laga var hann ok hƒggva mildr vi› har›a kóngsins garpa.

43. fiorsteinn hét sá er fióri vi›r flar nam fram at gánga; sá var kendr knarrarsmi›r,15 kominn í villu stránga.

44. Kóngrinn hjó til fióris flá, flat frá ek undrum sætti, ekki beit hans bjálfann á, brast sem grjóti mætti.16

45. Bjƒrn stallari bystr ok rei›r bar›i Hund í móti; sí›an hné vi› sannan hei›r seggr á ﬁóris spjóti. XXII: Óláfs ríma Haraldssonar 317

46. fiorgeirr17 vó› í randa regn, ræsi ná›i at finna; snarr ré› kóngr flrjózkum flegn flessi or› at inna.

47. ‘fieygi gerir flú, fiorgeir, rétt at flreyngir mƒnnum mínum; lypta ek flér af lægri stétt, lokit mun sigri flínum.’

48. Kóngrin hjó me› Hneiti ﬂá, svó hrau› af eggjum bá›um; ﬁorgeir dau›r á l‡ngi lá, lífi sviptr ok dá›um.

49. fiorsteinn ré› á fleingils kné flunnri ƒxi at sní›a, sí›an lét hann fjƒr me› fé ok fell í ánau› strí›a.

50. Bjƒrtum varp sér brandi frá bu›lúngs hƒnd in mæta, sjóli ba› me› sƒnnu ﬂá sjálfann Gu› sín gæta.

51. ﬁórir lag›i í kóngsins kvi› kƒldum snótar rá›um;18 hilmis sál tók hæstan fri› himna grams me› ná›um.

52. Kálfr hjó til bragníngs bystr batt sér ﬂúngan vanda, ramliga var hann á rei›i lystr ræsi ﬂeim at granda.

53. Myrkri sló yfir menn ok hjƒr› vi› mildíngs d‡ran dau›a,

49/3 hann] MS adds líf. 318 XXII: Óláfs ríma Haraldssonar

litu ﬂá hvórki lƒg né jƒr›, l‡› aflar ﬂat nau›a.

54. ﬁá kom Dagr19 me› dreingi sín darra ﬂíng at heyja; margr hlaut vi› mikla pín ma›r af sút at deyja.

55. Æsilig var odda hrí›, undrum frá ek ﬂat gegna, mátti ekki meira strí› af málma leiki fregna.

56. Hræ›ilig var hjƒrva gnau›, har›ar brynjur sprúngu, dreingir feingu dapra nau›, dƒrr á hlífum súngu.20

57. Stórt var ﬂetta manna mót, mest kom hjálp til bragna, daufir feingu ok blindir bót, bjúgir heilsu fagna.21

58. fiorgils geymdi fleingils lík, flat fór heldr af hljó›i; ma›r tók s‡n fyr merkin slík af mætu kóngsins bló›i.

59. Fróni er huldr fylkir mætr fir›r nau› ok grandi; líkami kóngs var mildr ok mætr mánu›r tólf í sandi.22

60. ﬁeim kom vir›um vóndzlig ﬂraut at vísis feingu rei›i; geislar skinu um grund á braut grams af d‡ru lei›i.23 XXII: Óláfs ríma Haraldssonar 319

61. L‡›ir tóku upp líkama hans,24 lutu ﬂá kóngi snjƒllum, hár ok negl var heilags manns hátt at vexti ƒllum.25

62. Hildíngs taka ﬂá helgan dóm halir í skrín at leggja; nú er Kristz et bjarta blóm ok blí›uz miskunn seggja.

63. Dróttni fær›i ƒ›língr ƒnd, ‡tum líkam seldi; nú er hann Gu›s á hægri hƒnd himins í æzta veldi.

64. Bu›lúngs hei›r er bjartr ok ríkr bæ›i um lƒnd ok geima, fæddiz eingi fylkir slíkr fyrri nor›r í heima.

65. Rei›zt flú ei fló, fleingill, flér flyr›a ek vísu at bjó›a; bi›r ek Óláf bjarga mér vi› bragníng allra fljó›a.26 320 XXII: Óláfs ríma Haraldssonar

Notes 1 The conversion of five (or six) countries is attributed to St Óláfr’s predecessor and namesake, Óláfr Tryggvason, rather than to St Óláfr in several Icelandic and Norwegian sources; the list (and number) of countries varies slightly: see, for example, Historia Norwegiae (Kunin and Phelpstead 2001, 21); Ágrip (1995), ch. 19; OddrÓT, ch. 52; and cf. Snorri’s account of Óláfr Tryggvason’s missionary endeavours in his Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar in ÍF XXVI, chs 47, 53, 73, 95–96.

2 Hárekr ór fijóttu, son of Eyvindr skáldaspillir, fiórir hundr (‘the dog’), and Kálfr Árnason were prominent chieftains who led the rebellion against King Óláfr. fiórir hundr was, however, one of the first people to recognise Óláfr’s sanctity after his death.

3 Óláfr’s opponents are usually characterised as bœndr, but the leaders of their army were of higher social status.

4 Haraldr Sigur›arson, later known as har›rá›i (‘hard ruler’), was king of Norway 1046–66. He was Óláfr’s half-brother. On st. 15/3–4 cf. ÍF XXVII 364.

5 Rƒgnvaldr Brúsason was the son of Earl Brúsi of Orkney. When King Óláfr settled a dispute between rival earls he required Rƒgnvaldr to remain at the Norwegian court in order to ensure that Brúsi kept to the agreement. Rƒgnvaldr remained there for many years; see Óláfs saga helga ch. 102; in Haralds saga Sigur›arsonar in ÍF XXVIII, ch. 1 Snorri tells how Earl Rƒgnvaldr helped Haraldr Sigur›arson to escape from the battle at Stiklasta›ir.

6 Two brothers of Óláfr’s opponent Kálfr mentioned here supported the king, Finnr and ﬁorbergr (cf. stt. 18 and 40).

7 Earlier in Óláfr’s reign Bjƒrn stallari (‘the marshal’) had undertaken a diplomatic mission to try to make peace with the the king of Sweden. He had later visited the king in exile in Russia and reported on the state of affairs in Norway.

8 The court poet fiormó›r Kolbrúnarskáld figures prominently in the last part of Snorri’s Óláfs saga helga and is also a central character in Fóstbrœ›ra saga. Snorri records how he recited Bjarkamál in fornu XXII: Óláfs ríma Haraldssonar 321 before the battle at Stiklasta›ir and later died as a result of wounds received in the battle (Óláfs saga helga chs 208, 233–34). fiormó›r acquired his nickname after dedicating a poem to a woman called fiorbjƒrg kolbrún (‘coal brow’).

9 Gauka-ﬁórir and Hafrafasti (Afrafasti in Heimskringla and most manuscripts of Snorri’s separate Óláfs saga helga; Hafrafasti in Flateyjarbók) were brothers and robbers who decided to join Óláfr’s army before the battle, but Óláfr would accept their help only if they first submitted to Christian baptism (Óláfs saga helga chs 203, 205).

10 Arnljótr gellini (cf. stanza 39) was also required to convert to Christianity before Óláfr would accept his help in the battle: see Óláfs saga helga chs 141, 215.

11 renn is presumably for renna, with the -a elided with the vowel at the beginning of the next line so as to preserve the rhyme.

12 The Lappish inhabitants of Finnmark. Lapps were traditionally associated with sorcery. ﬁórir’s protective magic cloaks are described in Óláfs saga helga ch. 193 (cf. ch. 228).

13 ﬁorgils Hálmuson, a farmer at Stiklasta›ir, fulfilled his promise to bury the king’s body after the battle; cf. st. 58 below and see Snorri’s Óláfs saga helga chs 210 and 236–38.

14 The Battle of Stiklasta›ir (or Stiklarsta›ir) took place on 29 July 1030. Cf. note 18 to Text VIII above.

15 In Óláfs saga helga ch. 222 Snorri tells how fiorsteinn knarrarsmi›r (‘ship-builder’) fell out with King Óláfr and was punished for his violent crimes by having a large ship he had built confiscated; fiorsteinn vowed to repay the king by being the first to strike him if he could get close enough in the battle against him. Snorri’s account of the fatal blows inflicted on Óláfr by fiorsteinn, fiórir hundr and Kálfr Árnason is in Óláfs saga helga ch. 228.

16 I.e. presumably the king’s sword broke. But he is still using Hneitir at 48/1, and his sword is not said to be broken in ÍF XXVII 383–84. 322 XXII: Óláfs ríma Haraldssonar

17 According to Snorri’s account, ﬁorgeirr of Kvistssta›ir supported the rebels against Óláfr despite having earlier been elevated in social status by the king; see st. 47/3–4 and Óláfs saga helga chs 225, 227.

18 Cf. the proverb kƒld eru kvenna rá› ‘cold are the counsels of women’ in e.g. Njáls saga (ÍF XII 292); and the episode in Óláfs saga helga ch. 123 (ÍF XXVII 213) where Sigrí›r, ﬁórir hundr’s sister- in-law, urges ﬁórir to stab the king with the spear that had killed her son Ásbjƒrn.

19 Óláfr had exiled Dagr’s father King Hringr of Hei›mƒrk from Norway, but on Óláfr’s own return journey to Norway from exile in Russia he sent word to Dagr that if he were to regain Norway with Dagr’s help he would grant him dominions as great as his ancestors had held there (Óláfs saga helga ch. 199). Dagr’s renewal of the battle following Óláfr’s death is recounted in Óláfs saga helga ch. 229.

20 Craigie (1952, I 285) suggests that some verses may be missing between stanzas 56 and 57, where the story jumps to the evening after the battle when the first of the miracles took place (Óláfs saga helga ch. 236).

21 Cf. Matthew 11: 5.

22 Óláfr’s body was secretly buried in a sandbank by the River Ni› near Trondheim (Óláfs saga helga ch. 238).

23 On the light from St Óláfr’s grave see Óláfs saga helga ch. 238.

24 The translation of Óláfr’s body took place on 3 August 1031. His remains were enshrined in Trondheim, later the location of the Norwegian archiepiscopal see.

25 The miraculous growth of the dead saint’s hair and nails is recorded in many texts, including Snorri’s Óláfs saga helga chs 244–45.

26 The final prayer is presumably for the poet to be saved from the judgment of Christ on doomsday, which is a normal request, rather than from Christ himself. XXIII: ENCYCLOPEDIC LITERATURE

PHYSIOGNOMY The passage below is offered as an example of the kind of learned literature collected and edited by Kr. Kålund under the title Alfræ›i íslenzk. In line with Kålund’s title, material of this type is often known as encyclopedic literature, specimens of which are to be found in Icelandic manuscripts from as early as c.1200, though the majority of the encyclopedic manuscripts that survive are from the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. It must be stressed that the compilations in which such writing is found, in the Old Norse context, are not encyclo- pedias in the modern sense. The Middle Ages did indeed produce some influential Latin works of a truly encyclopedic nature in that their authors aimed at giving systematic and comprehensive accounts of lore concerning the whole world and its inhabitants; notable among these are the Etymologiae of St Isidore of Seville and the Imago mundi of Honorius Augustodunensis, the former being a work from the early seventh century that gained lasting currency throughout Europe, and the latter belonging to the first half of the twelfth century. The Imago mundi appears to have been especially popular in medieval Iceland: it is likely that there was a twelfth-century Icelandic translation of it, which has not survived; the fifteenth-century manuscript AM 685 a 4to contains a vernacular adaptation of the first part of the work; and AM 435 12mo, from which the passage below is drawn, refers to the work by name in the paragraph immediately before the one with which the present excerpt begins (Alfræ›i III 98). It can be said in general, however, that the Old Icelandic manuscripts which are compilations of encyclopedic literature function not as full descriptions of the world but as ‘micro-libraries’ (Clunies Ross and Simek 1993) consisting of unsystematised collections of works, or pieces of works, commonly dealing with such subjects as geography, the peoples of the world, the properties of stones, liturgical matters and computus (i.e. calculation, but in particular the art of calculating the correct dates of moveable feasts in the ecclesiastical year). AM 435 12mo, for example, includes sections on computus, the Icelandic calendar and the ceremonial of the Mass, but in addition its first fifteen folios are devoted to the subject of physiognomy. 324 XXIII: Physiognomy

As expressed pithily by the Peripatetic author of Physiognomica, long thought to be Aristotle himself, the basic proposition of the ancient and medieval science of physiognomy was that ‘dispositions follow bodily characteristics’ (Aristotle, Minor Works 1936, 85); in other words, the personality of a human individual can be perceived by observing the person’s physical appearance. This idea had been endorsed by the real Aristotle in the Prior Analytics (70b 7–38), which was available to the Middle Ages in a Latin translation by Boethius (Aristoteles latinus 1962, 5–139). The basis of physiognomy as understood by Aristotle was not simply the observation of human beings and their personalities but rather the drawing of analogies between humans and animals; as Ross’s commentary on Aristotle’s work (1949, 501) puts it, the methodology depends on ‘the inferring of mental characteristics in men from the presence in them of physical characteristics which in some other kind or kinds of animal go constantly with those mental characteristics’. Remnants of this way of thinking can be seen in the references to bears, horses, sea-monsters, snakes, birds, goats and spiders in the passage below (lines 6, 60, 63, 66, 69 and 95–96). For the Middle Ages, perhaps the most influential writer on physiognomy was Marcus Antonius Polemon (c.88–144), whose work on the subject is lost in its original Greek form but survives in Latin and Arabic translations and in a later Greek paraphrase. It is Polemon who is the ultimate source for the material included in the Old Norse passage reproduced here. Contrary to the impression given by Kålund (Alfræ›i III xv), however, the more direct source for the passage is a later Latin work based on Polemon, the Anonymi de physiognomonia liber, or something quite like it; this fact is shown by the sequence of the topics discussed, which is radically different from that of Polemon, and by the close correspondence of many sentences. Details of the correlation between the Icelandic text and the Latin works are given in the notes below. In other types of Old Norse literature, such as sagas of Icelanders and eddic poems, it is quite common for physical characteristics to be mentioned in ways that may imply some kind of significance for the personality or social status of the people who bear them. An interesting topic for further study would be that of the differences and similarities between the beliefs implicit in such references and the system of physiognomic lore outlined here. This is not the place XXIII: Physiognomy 325 to enter into such a study, but some pointers have been given in the accompanying notes. The text is a normalised version of AM 435 12mo, folios 8r–13r, based on Kålund’s transcription (Alfræ›i III 98–103). The manuscript, which has been dated to c.1500, shares its physiognomic material with another encyclopedic manuscript from Iceland, the Codex Lindesianus (John Rylands University Library, Manchester, Icel I; = L), c.1473, which has been described by Eiríkur Magnússon (1896– 97). The passage includes a high proportion of unusual vocabulary, noted by Eiríkur (pp. 11–14) and Kålund (Alfræ›i III xvi–xvii), including blauthær›r (line 3), fávitugr (line 80), fjórhyrndr (line 32), hugsanarmikill (line 2), ónæmi (line 46), rálítill (line 38; here emended to rólítill), stundanarmikill (line 19), útrau›r (line 37), ﬂunnhær›r (line 3) and ﬂykkhær›r (line 4). The word trítli (line 39; MS trillti), which does not occur in L, is especially problematical; the reading given here is based on a suggestion made by Kålund (Alfræ›i III xvii).

Bibliography Kr. Kålund with N. Beckman (vol. 2), eds, Alfræ›i íslenzk. 3 vols (1908–18). Anonymi de physiognomonia liber latinus. In R. Foerster, ed., Scriptores physiognomonici graeci et latini. 2 vols (1893), II 1–145. Marcus Antonius Polemon, Polemonis de physiognomonia liber arabice et latine, ed. G. Hoffmann. In R. Foerster, ed., Scriptores physiognomonici graeci et latini. 2 vols (1893), I 93–294. Aristotle, Minor Works, ed. and tr. W. S. Hett (1936). Aristoteles latinus III 1–4. Analytica priora, ed. L. Minio-Paluello (1962). M. Clunies Ross and R. Simek, ‘Encyclopedic Literature’. In MS 164–66. E. C. Evans, Physiognomics in the Ancient World (1969). Anne Holtsmark, ‘Encyklopedisk litteratur’. In Kulturhistoriskt Lexicon för nordisk medeltid. 22 vols. (1956–78). Eiríkur Magnússon, ‘Codex Lindesianus’, Arkiv för nordisk filologi 13 (1896– 97), 1–14. ‘Polemon’. In S. Hornblower and A. Spawforth, eds, The Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd ed (2003). W. D. Ross, ed., Aristotle’s Prior and Posterior Analytics (1949). 326 XXIII: Physiognomy

XXIII: ENCYCLOPEDIC LITERATURE

PHYSIOGNOMY ‹S›vá segja fornir frœ›imenn, at eptir náttúrligu e›li sé karlmanna hugr skjótr ok ákafr í sinni f‡st, i›jufullr ok hugsanarmikill, en kvenna 3 hugr miskunnsamr ok óttagjarn.1 Blauthær›ir menn ok flunnhær›ir s‡na skjótt hugvit; flykkhær›ir menn síngjarnir ok óhræddir. fiat hár er flrøngir mjƒk saman ok hrøkkr nƒkkut yfir enninu, s‡nir grimman hug, 6 ok flví samflykkir hárfer› á skógbjarnar hƒf›i. Gulir lokkar, flykkvir ok nƒkkut ljósir, s‡na mann ónæman. Døkkjarpir lokkar, ef fleir eru mátuliga flunnir, s‡na gó›si›uga menn ok hœgt skaplyndi.2 9 Hƒfu› mjƒk mikit s‡nir heimskan mann, en bƒllótt hƒfu› ok skammt óvitran ok óminnigan. Lítit hƒfu› ok yfir ofan svá sem slétt s‡nir lausungar mark ok óvenju. Aflangt hƒfu› ok vaxit nƒkkut svá sem 12 hamarr segir mann vera forsjálan ok athugasaman.3 Enni flat er mjƒk er mjótt, segir mann vera ónæman ok grá›gan; en flat er mjƒk er langt, segir litla skynsem›argrein. Kringlótt enni s‡nir 15 rei›an mátt. Lítit enni ok ni›rlútt s‡nir óframan hug ok l‡talausan. Ferhyrnt enni me›r mátuligum mikilleik s‡nir mann mikilhuga›an me› mikilli vizku.4 18 Ef br‡nn eru flar til bjúgar sem flær koma saman vi›r nefit, merkja gløggvan mann ok stundanarmikinn í ƒllum sínum ger›um; en ef flar ver›r nƒkkut mjótt me›al, flat s‡nir hryggan mann ok óvitran. En ef 21 bjúgleikr brúnanna hne‹i›gisk ni›r til augna ok beri ni›r af mjƒk flykkvar kinnr, merkir vanrœktar hug. En ef brúna hár eru mjƒk lƒng ok mƒrg, flat merkir grimman mann ok mikilhuga›an.5 24 Augu flau sem bjar‹t›liga skína, segja til fagrfer›ugra si›a; en ef flau eru ósta›fƒst, svá at flau renna stundum skjótt, en stundum sé flau kyr, merkja illa hluti válkask í huginum ok vera eigi fram komna.6 Gul 27 augu me› skínandi birti merkja djarfan mann ok til illger›a vakran. Mikil augu skjálfandi ok svƒrt merkja drykkjumann ok kvennamann.7 Augu hreinliga svƒrt merkja óstyrkan hug ok krap‹t›lausan. Svƒrt augu 30 me› rau›um dropum merkja réttlátan hug, dyggan ok hugvitran.8 fiar sem í svƒrtum augum s‡nask smádropar ákafliga rau›ir ok nƒkkurir fjórhyrndir ok nƒkkurir bleikir, en a›rir gulir, ok hringar fleir, er liggja 33 útan um sjáldrin, hafi á sér bló›slit, ok sé augun mikil ok birti sú sem fylgir sjáldrunum hrœrisk svá sem hrœrask sjáldrin, flvílík augu merkja

12 athugan saman XXIII: Physiognomy 327

flann hug er um fram er allan hræd‡ra hátt, flví at hvat er af óhœfunni má hugsat vera ór flvílíkum augum máttuligt at fremja, ok eigi munu 36 varna vi› heimamannligu bló›i. fiau augu sem eru mjƒk útrau› ok fló rólítil,9 birta stillingarlausan ok ‹ó›stƒ›ugan líkam. Snƒrp augu ok snƒr í trítli,10 ef flau eru vát, s‡na sannsƒglan mann, skjótan ok forsjálan í 39 sínum ger›um. fiau augu sem optliga lúkask upp ok aptr, s‡na óttafullan hug ok vanmegnan.11 Augu mjƒk opin merkja heimsku ok óframa, en flau sem mjƒk eru lukt, merkja hrœriligan hug ok í ƒllum gjƒr›um 42 sínum ósta›fastan. Eyru flau sem hátt standa ok eru mjƒk mikil, merkja athugaleysi, heimsku ok óvizku; en mjƒk lítil eyru hafa illgjƒr›a mark. Mjƒk 45 kringlótt eyru merkja ónæmi, en aflƒng ok flrƒng merkja ƒfundar mark; flau sem liggja nær hƒf›inu s‡na leti.12 Feitar kinnr ok mjƒk flykkvar merkja leti ok ofdrykkju, en flær er mjƒk 48 eru flunnar merkja illgirni. Kringlóttar kinnr s‡na ƒfund.13 Opnar nasir gefa af sér gle›imark ok styrktar, en flunnar ok langar ósta›festi ok léttleika. fiat nef er ni›r af enni ok fram er hvárki mjƒk 51 hátt né lágt, heldr jafnt vi›r sik ok rétt, s‡nir af sér karlmannligt mark me› sta›festi ok vizku. Nasir minni en hœfiligt er, er fljófa mark.14 Allt saman andlit, ef flat er kjƒtsfullt, flykkt ok feitt, merkir óflrifna›ar 54 mark ok munhug›ar. Bjúgleitt andlit vísar til undirferli ok vælar me›r slœg›.15 fiunnar varrir, ef hin efri er nƒkkuru meiri en hin ne›ri, s‡nir mikil- 57 huga›an mann ok sterkan; en flunnar varrir me›r litlum munni s‡na óstyrkan hug ok slœgan. Ef varrir hanga nƒkkut svá ni›r frá munninum, s‡na óflrifna›ar mark, flví at flat mark finnsk á ƒsnum ok hestum. Lítill 60 munnr hœfir kvenna áliti og fleim hugum er kvennligir eru. Sá munnr er um fram hátt er ví›r, s‡nir mann grá›gan, ómjúkan ok ómildan, flví at svá mikit gin hœfir sjóskrímslum.16 63 Haka sú er nƒkkut svá er lƒng, s‡nir manninn mi›r rei›an ok mi›r skelf›an. fieir sem hafa litla hƒku eru ómjúkir ok ƒfundsjúkir; flessa sag›i meistari Plato hƒggormum líka. Nytsamligra manna haka er vel 66 mátuliga mikil ok nƒkkut svá ferhyrnd. Sú haka er mjƒk er lƒng, s‡nir prettóttan hug.17 Sú rƒdd er lík er fugla rƒdd e›r geita s‡nir heimsku mark, en fleir er 69 sína rƒdd hefja upp á fugla hátt, eru léttir ok au›veldir. Sú rƒdd sem er óstyrk ok nƒkkut grátlig, s‡nir hryggan ok grunsem›arfullan hug. fieira

38 rálítil 39 ‘trillti’ 70 littir 328 XXIII: Physiognomy

72 manna rƒdd er rennr í nefit, svá at nefit samhljó›i rƒddinni, fleir eru lygnir ok illgjarnir ok fagna annarra illgjƒr›um.18 Langr háls ok flunnr merkir flann er illt hugsar. Kringlóttr háls s‡nir 75 hugar krapt ok líkams lítillæti. Skammr háls er mark fless er djarfr er. Sá háls er mjƒk berr sik réttan s‡nir óvenju ok flrjótlyndi.19 Brjóst flat sem lengra er en kvi›rinn, s‡nir vitran mann.20 Brjóst flat 78 sem me› kvi›inum er hult miklu hári, merkir óstƒ›ugan mann útan si›- læti ok mildi. Brjóst flat er mjƒk er hult miklu kjƒti, segir ónæma menn ok fávituga, en ef eitt saman brjóstit hefir hárit, s‡nir hugfullan mann.21 81 fiunnar her›ar ok uppréttar vísa til fless manns er gjarna sitr um a›ra.22 Armleggir, ef fleir eru svá langir at flá er ma›rinn stendr me› réttum líkama, taki lengstu fingr mjƒk til knjá, fló at a›rir fingr taki eigi jafnlangt, 84 s‡nir lítilláta menn ok styrka; en ef fingr eru ‹eigi› lengri en á mjƒ›mina e›a litlu lengra, s‡nir illgjarna menn flá er fagna annarra illgjƒr›um.23 Mjƒk skammar hendr ok litlar s‡na styrka menn ok vituga. Feitar 87 hendr ok meir skammir fingr en hœfiligt er, birta mann ómerkan. Snúnar hendr ok flunnar s‡na málgan mann ok grá›gan. Hvítir negl ok blautir, sléttir ok flunnir ok líttat rjó›ir har›la vel skínandi, segja it hæsta hugvit; 90 bjúgir negl s‡na óvitra ok grá›ga. Mjƒk samfelldir fingr s‡na illgjarnan ok ágjarnan, en litlir fingr ok feit‹i›r segja djarfan ok ƒfundsjúkan. Litlir fingr ok flunnir s‡na hei‹m›skan mann.24 93 fiunnar ok flrƒngvar sí›ur s‡na hræddan mann, en kjƒtmiklar ok har›ar s‡na mann ónæman; flví eru flær af spekingum kalla›ar kƒngur- váfum líkar.25 96 Sá hlutr fótleggjar sem undir knénu er, kallask at bókmáli sura; ef flar er fullt mjƒk, svá at flat flyngi fótinn, merkir mann stillingarlausan ok óhreinan. Blautar surae eru kvensligar.26 99 Feitir fœtr ok skammir s‡na mjƒk óstyrkan mann, en mjƒk langir prettóttan, mjƒk flunnir ok skammir illgjarnan. fieir er langa fœtr hafa ok stíga hátt ok langt, eru vanir at vera mikilhuga›ir menn ok fljótvirkir. 102 Sá er fljótliga gengr ok haldi sér fló svá aptr, l‡tr ni›r, sem hann beri allan líkamann bjúgan,27 merkir ƒfundsjúkan ok slœgan. Sá sem hefir skamma fœtr ok berr flá skjótliga, er sag›r vera illgjarn ok óstyrkr.28 105 Svartr skinnslitr segir mann slœgan, en hvítr skinnslitr ok nƒkkut rjó›r segir styrka menn ok hugfulla. Ákafliga hvítr skinnslitr me› bleikum merkir flrotnanda krapt ok óstyrkt af ofkaldri náttúru. Eldsligr skinnslitr

91 litlir] lit|litir over line break fœtr XXIII: Physiognomy 329 me› skínƒndum augum sn‡sk til œ›i. Me›alskinnslitr, hvítr ok svartr, ok 108 breg›i á nƒkkut brúnu, s‡nir mann me› gó›u hugviti ok gó›um si›um.29

Notes

1 For the probable source of this sentence see Anonymi de physiognomonia liber 4 (hereafter Anon., all references being to section numbers).

2 For the material on hair see Anon. 14, which includes the reference to the bear (ursus) whereas Polemon ch. XL specifies only a likeness to a wild animal (similitudo ferae agrestis). In connection with this topic it should be noted that hair curling over the forehead seems to have been regarded as an ugly feature in medieval Iceland, since in Kormaks saga (ÍF VIII 210) Steinger›r fiorkelsdóttir refers to this characteristic as the one blemish in the otherwise handsome Kormakr. An emphasis on particularly beautiful hair, however, is often taken to indicate points at which Old Norse literature has been influenced by European romance traditions, as in the case of the description of Sigur›r in Vƒlsunga saga (ed. R. G. Finch 1965, 41), which is probably based on a passage in fii›reks saga (ed. Gu›ni Jónsson 1954, 255), the latter work being a translation of some German romance. See also the descriptions of various characters in Trójumanna saga (ed. Jonna Louis-Jensen 1963, 64–70), an Icelandic work that dates from the first half of the thirteenth century and is based on a well-known Latin text that the Middle Ages ascribed to Dares Phrygius; the passage gives prominence to the hair colour of each person mentioned, though it is not clear whether personality traits are to be inferred from the descriptions. Colouring, however, is definitely associated with social status, and hence character type, in the eddic poem Rígsflula, which has been dated as early as the eleventh century or as late as the mid- thirteenth and which gives black hair to the prototypical flræll, whereas it declares the original jarl to have been blond. It is most likely that nobility and beauty are the associations that the author of Njáls saga (ÍF XII 53) has in mind when he says that Gunnarr Hámundarson had thick golden hair, rather than the characteristic that could be inferred from the physiognomic text above.

3 Anon. 16. See also Polemon XXX. 330 XXIII: Physiognomy

4 Anon. 17. See also Polemon XXVII.

5 Anon. 18. See also Polemon XLVIII.

6 The material on eyes is a greatly abridged version of Anon. 21–44 (see also Polemon I) generally conforming to the sequence of topics in the Latin text but with interpolations. The sources of individual statements, where it has been possible to identify them, are indicated in the notes that follow. The two parts of the paragraph’s first sentence are from Anon. 21 and 23 respectively.

7 Anon. 23.

8 This and the following sentence concerning black eyes are from Anon. 27, which includes references to wild beasts and the slaying of close kindred, which may be reflected in the references to hræd‡ra háttr and heimamannligt bló› in lines 35 and 37. In Old Norse literature there is an association between black eyes and Icelandic poets: in Kormaks saga (ÍF VIII 211) the eponymous skald says Svƒrt augu berk in a stanza replying to criticism of this feature made by a handmaid of Steinger›r fiorkelsdóttir, the object of the poet’s love; and Heimskringla (ÍF XXVII 140) preserves a stanza by Sigvatr fiór›arson referring to augun flessi íslenzk . . . svƒrtu, apparently replying to a comment made by a woman in the court of Rƒgnvaldr jarl of Gautland, to the effect that Sigvatr has come with his black eyes to gain the gold ring that the jarl gives him. The latter exchange seems to be somewhat flirtatious, as is the comment in Kormaks saga; but it may also imply an accusation of avarice on the part of the poet, which would accord with the statement in Anon. 27, omitted in the Old Norse text above, that black eyes lucri avidum indicant ‘indicate a person greedy for gain’.

9 The MS reading rálítill, though it is explained by Eiríkur Magnússon as an otherwise unrecorded term meaning something like ‘with rather indistinct corners’ (rá f. corner), is more likely to be an error in the archetype for rólítill, which fits the context much better.

10 The MS reading ‘trillti’ is not a known word in Icelandic, but Kålund in the introduction to Alfræ›i III (p. xvii) suggests a link with Norwegian trilla, trilta ‘toddle, run’, Modern Icelandic trítla ‘mince, XXIII: Physiognomy 331 trot’. Cf. also trítill ‘top’; ‘urchin’. It might then be dative of trítill m., meaning ‘small movements’, and here it has accordingly been emended to trítli. Alternatively the word might be *trilt n., with the same meaning, and the text would then require no emendation.

11 Anon. 41.

12 Anon. 47. See also Polemon XXIX.

13 Anon. 49. See also Polemon XXVIII.

14 Anon. 51, but here the correspondence is closer to Polemon XXVI, which includes a reference to the mark of thieves. Note that in Njáls saga (ÍF XII 7) it is the eyes rather than the nose that can carry physical signs of a propensity to commit theft, since Hrútr Herjólfsson, on seeing Hallger›r Hƒskuldsdóttir for the first time, asks hva›an ﬂjófsaugu eru komin í ættir várar ‘whence thief’s eyes are come into our family’.

15 Anon. 50. See also Polemon XXVIII.

16 Anon. 48, but the passage is closer to Polemon XXV, which includes a reference to crocodiles, corresponding to sjóskrimsl.

17 Anon. 52 refers to snakes but not to Plato; Polemon XXIV does not mention either.

18 The material on the voice corresponds to Anon. 78, though the Latin text refers to sheep rather than geitr. Polemon LII mentions neither sheep nor goats.

19 Anon. 53–55, Polemon XXIII. There appears to be some confusion or corruption here as both Latin texts declare a short neck to be a sign of timidity.

20 Anon. 63. See also Polemon XV.

21 Anon. 73. See also Polemon XLIV.

22 Anon. 58. This statement is not present in the corresponding passage of Polemon, XX. 332 XXIII: Physiognomy

23 Anon. 59. See also Polemon XXI.

24 Anon. 59–60. See also Polemon III–IV. Concerning the words samfelldir fingr, Kålund (Alfræ›i III xvii) declares that they answer to the phrase digitos cum unguibus cohaerantes ‘joined fingers with nails’ in Polemon IV; in fact, however, the sentence in which they occur is a rendering of digiti cum coniuncti sunt et cohaerent, immundum hominem significant ‘when fingers are conjoined and cohere, they signify an impure man’ (Anon. 60). The phrase litlir fingr ok feitir, in the emended text above, corresponds to digiti . . . parvi et crassi ‘small and thick fingers’ in Anon. 60 and provides a clear antithesis with litlir fingr ok ﬂunnir, which correspond to digiti . . . parvi et tenues ‘small and slender fingers’.

25 Anon. 65. The Latin word corresponding to kƒngurváfa is rana ‘frog’. This is not in Polemon, and it is possible that the Latin text used by the Norse compiler had a spelling for rana that he took for the Greek ajravcnh ‘spider’, and he perhaps understood the simile to refer to thinness of limbs. At this point the Old Norse text omits material relating to the back, lower spine, pelvis, thigh and knee found in Anon. 66–70.

26 Anon. 71 mentions sfura ‘ankles’ rather than sura ‘calf’. The final sentence, to the effect that soft calves are womanish, corresponds to one in Anon. 72, which actually refers to feet. See also Polemon VII.

27 ‘. . . and yet holds himself backwards, bowing down, so that he carries his whole body curved.’ This rather confusing description appears to mean that the person bends himself in the middle with head and knees forward, putting his body in the shape of a C.

28 The first sentence of this paragraph corresponds to one in Anon. 72; the rest relates to Anon. 75. See also Polemon V and L.

29 Anon. 79. See also Polemon XXXVI. The phrase me› bleikum (line 106) does not have a correlative in the corresponding sentences of either Latin text. XXIV: KONUNGS SKUGGSJÁ

Konungs skuggsjá, or Speculum regale, was written in Norway, most probably in the 1250s, in the form of a dialogue between a father and his son, the former answering the latter’s questions. It is in three parts, the first dealing with matters of interest to a merchant, the second with life at court and how a king’s retainer should behave, and the third with the duties of the king, especially his duties as a judge. The work is anonymous, but it may safely be assumed that the author was a cleric closely associated with the royal circle, who probably wrote his ‘king’s mirror’ for the enlightenment of King Hákon Hákonarson’s sons, Hákon the Young (1232–57) and Magnús (1238–80), the latter of whom, Magnús the Lawmender, succeeded his father in 1263. Konungs skuggsjá is preserved in some sixty manuscripts, both Norwegian and Icelandic; their interrelationship is discussed in Holm- Olsen 1952, 116–79 and Holm-Olsen 1987, 12–17. The text of the extract below reflects that of the so-called main manuscript, AM 243 b a fol., as edited in Holm-Olsen 1983, 48–49; it has also been collated with the relevant folios (62–64) of that manuscript as edited in facsimile by Flom (1915). The manuscript was written in Norway, most probably in Bergen, in c.1275 (Holm-Olsen 1983, xii). In the extract as edited here, Norwegian spellings and word-forms have been retained, as in the extract from Fagrskinna (cf. p. 59 above), though with the main differences that short, open e is represented by ∂ (corresponding to the long sound æ), and the Norwegian i-mutation of au by øy (often written œy). The extract, from the second part of Konungs skuggsjá, is of great historical sociolinguistic interest for the light it throws on the uses of the singular, dual and plural forms of the first and second person pronouns (cf. Gr 3.2, 3.2.1) in the spoken language(s) of Norway and Iceland in the thirteenth century (cf. Gr 1.2). As Helgi Gu›mundsson (1972, 39) notes: ‘Of course the usage in question may not have been precisely the same in Iceland as in Norway, but in view of the close connections between the two countries at that time it cannot have been widely divergent.’ The father is here advising the son on the appropriate uses of the pronominal forms. The plural is to be used in addressing the king (lines 3–4) or an influential person (57–58) or someone who deserves respectful treatment (61), such as a chieftain (72–75); this has become established as the custom among wise and 334 XXIV: Konungs skuggsjá courteous men (59–60). One should however guard against using the plural with reference to oneself when speaking to the king (4–6), or (it is implied) to anyone of higher rank than oneself, lest it be thought that one considers oneself the equal of such a person (82–84). Even when talking to an equal or to an inferior one should not seek to elevate oneself by speaking of oneself in the plural (84–86). Only a fool would refer to himself in the plural and to the king in the singular when addressing the king (4–6). In other words, the first and second person plural forms, used respectively with reference to oneself and to the one addressed, are both felt to be honorific. Although in Konungs skuggsjá as a whole the father and son do not always follow in their own dialogue the father’s recommendations as given here, as Helgi Gu›mundsson (1972, 41) has noted, they do so in the extract itself: the son uses the plural in addressing the father (lines 22–23, 54), while referring to himself in the singular (22, 24, 50, 54), and the father addresses the son in the singular (1–10, 12–13, 25–26, 30, 47–49, 82–85), while also referring to himself in the singular (25–26, 29–32). It is true that the father uses first person plural forms at lines 28, 34, 40 and 42, but it seems clear that in doing so here he is speaking neither of himself as an individual, nor of just himself and his son, but of mankind (or at least Christendom) in general. When he is speaking of just himself and his son, on the other hand, he uses dual forms, as at lines 47 and 49. In this last respect, i.e. in using the dual to refer to just themselves, father and son are not entirely consistent, either, in Konungs skuggsjá as a whole, as Helgi Gu›mundsson (1972, 46) has also noted, though Helgi’s examples give the impression that the father is more consistent in this respect than the son. In the brief speech within the father’s speech with which the extract opens, where the father is indicating to the son how the king should be addressed (lines 10–12), the father naturally follows his own rules in presenting the son as addressing the king in the plural and as referring to himself in the singular. There is however one exception to the father’s rule that a superior should be addressed in the plural, as the son diffidently points out to him (lines 15–24), i.e. that it is customary to address God in the second person singular. At lines 18–19 and 20–21 the son gives examples of what his experience has led him to regard as, respectively, the correct and incorrect uses of the personal pronoun in addressing the Almighty. XXIV: Konungs skuggsjá 335

The father’s reply, which is also somewhat diffident, since he claims that this is a matter more for theologians than for him (25–29), confirms by implication the accuracy of the son’s observation in acknowledging that the question here raised deserves an answer (29–31). The father then explains this particular usage in terms of the singularity of the Christian God as opposed to other gods (32–39), an explanation which accords interestingly with one recently offered, in the context of the history of English but expressed in relatively general terms, by Smith (1991, 135). It may however be noted that Strang (1970, 139–40), also writing in the context of English while expressing herself in general terms, explains this usage by reference not to so much to the singularity of God as to His specialness. Once the use of the plural pronoun for polite address to a single person has been introduced into a language, she argues, it is likely to snowball, since in cases of doubt one would rather be polite than risk giving offence. The use of the plural to a single human superior would thus acquire the status of what Strang calls a central function, from which the use of the singular in addressing God, who is regarded as a special case, would become an exception. In response to the question, asked by the son at lines 14–15 and again at lines 54–57, of why influential people should be addressed in the plural, the father justifies this on the grounds, firstly, that it is an old-established practice (57–61), and secondly that the plural form of address appropriately reflects the plurality of the responsibilities of those addressed. Chieftains, for example, are responsible for many more people than just themselves and their housheholds (61–75), and the king does not function alone, but is surrounded by a retinue of counsellors (77–81). This explanation of the use of the plural in addressing a superior also accords interestingly with explanations by modern writers on language as to how this practice may have arisen. Pointing out that the polite use of the plural to refer to a single addressee ‘seems to be very general in unrelated languages’ (including Hungarian, Quechua, Tamil and many African languages), Brown and Levinson (1987, 198–99, cf. 202) suggest two possible motives for it: first, it provides the addressee with a ‘let-out’ in allowing him, theoretically at least, to interpret the address as not necessarily directed specifically at him; and second, it enhances his sense of status in treating him as the representative of a group rather than as a relatively powerless individual. Comparable to this second motive would be the motivation 336 XXIV: Konungs skuggsjá for the use of the high-status or ‘royal’ first person plural ‘we’, against the use of which, in the extract (lines 4–6, 82–86), the father advises the son, the implication being that it is appropriately used only by people of very high or responsible status. Brown and Gilman (1960, 255–61) described the semantic evolution, as they saw it, of second person singular and plural pronoun forms, calling them respectively T and V (from Latin tu and vos ) in French, English, Italian, Spanish and German, and maintaining that in these languages a set of norms crystallised in T and V usage at different stages between the twelfth and fourteenth centuries. This set of norms, which they called the power semantic, involved the downward and upward use of T and V, respectively, between people of unequal social status, and the use of V and T respectively between equals of the upper and lower classes. (A later development, they argued, was the solidarity semantic, whereby an intimate T came to be used between people not necessarily of equal status but sharing the same views and/or behaviour dispositions; they left unexplained, however, the use of T for addressing God.) Helgi Gu›mundsson (1972, 60–61) noted examples in Old Norse-Icelandic of a distinction beween ordinary (i.e. non-honorific) and honorific uses of the first and second person pronouns from as early as the tenth century (in skaldic poetry), attributing it to influence from Central and Southern Europe, while at the same time recognising it as a widely attested feature; he also showed (1972, 94–99) that, in Icelandic, an increased honorific use of the second person plural pronoun in the seventeenth century led to the need for an unequivocally defined ‘ordinary’ plural. As a result, the second person dual pronouns gradually acquired plural meaning, as did also, mainly by analogy, the first person dual pronouns. Thus the Icelandic dual pronouns lost their dual meanings and came to be used as ordinary plurals, whereas the old plural forms vér, flér etc. were reserved exclusively for honorific use. The resulting situation is reflected in present-day Icelandic by the use of vi› (< vit) ‘we’ and fli› (< flit) ‘you’ in plural meanings, and by the genitive forms okkar, ykkar in the meanings ‘our’ and ‘your’ (pl.) respectively; honorific vér and flér, however, are now found for the most part only in the written language. Icelandic is unusual in using old dual forms in plural meanings, but a parallel development has taken place in Faroese (Helgi Gu›mundsson 1972, 122–24). XXIV: Konungs skuggsjá 337

Bibliography

Brown, Penelope and Stephen C. Levinson (1987), Politeness: some universals in language usage. Brown, Roger and Albert Gilman (1960), ‘The pronouns of power and solidarity’, in Style in language, ed. by Thomas A. Sebeok, 253–76. Finnur Jónsson, ed. (1920), Konungs skuggsjá = Speculum regale udgivet efter håndskrifterne af Det kongelige nordiske oldskriftselskab. Finnur Jónsson, tr. (1926), Kongespejlet: Konungs skuggsjá i dansk oversættelse. Flom, George T., ed. (1915), The Arnamagnean manuscript 243 B a, folio at Det kongelige biblioteket, Copenhagen: the main manuscript of Konungs skuggsjá in phototypic reproduction with diplomatic text. Graves, Robert (1958), The Greek myths. Hagen, Friedrich Heinrich von der (1836), ‘Die deutschen Wochentagegötter’, Germania 1, 18–38, 344–77. Helgi Gu›mundsson (1972), The pronominal dual in Icelandic. Holm-Olsen, Ludvig (1952), Håndskrifterne av Konungs skuggsjá. En undersøkelse av deres tekstkritiske verdi. Holm-Olsen, Ludvig, ed. (1983), Konungs skuggsiá utgitt for Kjeldeskrift- fondet. Second edition. Holm-Olsen, Ludvig, ed. (1987), The king’s mirror: AM 243a fol. Larson, Laurence Marcellus, tr. (1917), The king’s mirror (Speculum regale – Konungs skuggsjá). Meissner, Rudolf, tr. (1944), Der Königspiegel: Konungsskuggsjá aus dem Altnorwegischen übersetzt. Smith, Jeremy J. (1999), Essentials of Early English. Strang, Barbara M. H. (1970). A history of English. Strutynski, Udo (1975), ‘Germanic divinities in weekday names’, Journal of Indo-European studies 3, 368–84. Svanhildur Óskarsdóttir (2005), ‘Prose of Christian instruction’, in A companion to Old Norse-Icelandic literature and culture, ed. by Rory McTurk, 338–53. 338 XXIV: Konungs skuggsjá

XXIV: KONUNGS SKUGGSJÁ

Fa›ir: . . . Nú kann svá til at b∂ra at konungr mælir til flín nƒkkur or›,1 flá skalt flú flat varaz vandliga í andsvƒrum flínum at ∂igi margfaldir 3 flú ∂ngi flau atkvæ›i er til flín horfa, fló at flú margfaldir svá s∂m til byrjar ƒll flau atkvæ›i er til konungs horfir.2 En ∂nn h∂ldr skaltu flat varaz, s∂m fól kann stundum at h∂nda, at ∂igi margfaldir flú flau atkvæ›i 6 er til flín horfa, en flú ∂infaldir flau er til konungsins horfa. En ∂f svá kann til at v∂r›a at konungr mælir til flín nƒkkur or›, flau er flú n∂mir ∂igi ok flarftu annat sinni ∂ptir at frétta, flá skalt flú hvárki 9 s∂gja ‘há’ né ‘hvat’, h∂ldr skalt flú ∂kki meira um hafa en kv∂›a svá at or›i: ‘H∂rra’. En ∂f flú vilt h∂ldr spyrja m∂› fleirum or›um: ‘H∂rra minn, láti› y›r ∂igi firi flykkja at ek spyrja hvat flér mæltur til mín, flví 12 at ‹ek› nam ∂i gƒrla.’ Ok lát flek fló s∂m fæstum sinnum flat h∂nda at konungr flurfi optar en um sinn or› at h∂rma firi flér á›r en flú n∂mir.

Sunr: Hv∂r skyns∂m› er til fl∂ss at flá er b∂tr at ƒll atkvæ›i sé marg- 15 faldat, flau er mæla skal til ríkismanna, h∂ldr en ∂infaldat? En ∂f ma›r bi›r bœnar sinnar til Gu›s, er allum er fr∂mri ok hæri, flá eru ∂infaldat í hv∂rri bœn ƒll flau atkvæ›i er til hans horfa, ok kv∂›r svá at or›i 18 hv∂rr er sína bœn flytr vi› Gu›: ‘fiú, Dróttinn minn, allsvaldandi Gu›, høyr›u bœn mína ok miskunna mek betr en ek sé v∂‹r››r’. En ∂ngan mann høyri ek svá taka til or›s: ‘fiér, Dróttinn minn, høyri› bœn mína 21 ok gøri› b∂tr vi› mik firi sakar miskunnar y›arrar en ek sé v∂r›r’. Nú v∂it ‹ek› ∂i at allfró›lig sé spurning mín. En fló, m∂› flví at flér hafi› lofat mér at spyrja slíks sem mek forvitnar, flá vænti ek fló gó›rar 24 órlausnar s∂m fyrr, fló at ek spyri b∂rnskliga.

Fa›ir: Víst vil ek flat gjarna allt firi flér sk‡ra er ek em til fœrr, en ∂igi v∂it ek hví flú forvitnar fl∂tta mál svá gjƒrsamlega vi› mek at firi flat 27 skal skyns∂m› v∂ita hv∂rsu atkvæ›um er skipat í h∂lgum bœnum, flví at lærif∂›r várir mundu flar kunna b∂tr svara um flá luti er til gu›dómsins er en ek. En m∂› flví at hv∂r spurning lítr jamnan til svara, flá vil ek 30 sk‡ra fl∂tta mál firi flér m∂› skjótri rœ›u, svá s∂m mér s‡niz vænligast, ok vil ek flví fyst svara er mér flykki ágætast v∂ra. Nú ætla ek firi flví svá skipat atkvæ›um í h∂lgum bœnum at h∂ldr sé 33 ∂infaldat en margfaldat ákall gu›legs nafs, at allir fleir er á Gu› trúa skili flat til fulls at vér trúum á ∂inn Gu› sannan, en ∂igi á marga falsgu›a, s∂m hei›nir m∂nn trú›u for›um á sjau gu›a. Kalla›u svá at XXIV: Konungs skuggsjá 339

∂inn gu› st‡r›i himnaríki, en annarr himintunglum, hinn flri›i fl∂ssum 36 heimi ok áv∂xtum jar›ar, hinn fjór›i hƒfum ok vƒtnum, en hinn fimti vindum ok lopti, hinn sétti mannviti ok málsp∂ki, en hinn sjaundi h∂lvíti ok dau›a.3 39 Nú skulum vér firi flví gƒfga ∂inn Gu›, flann er allar skepnur fljóna, ok bi›ja til hans m∂› ∂infƒldu atkvæ›i, at ∂i fl‡›iz flær›samir gu›ar til várra ákalla firi flat at vér margfaldim atkvæ›i at fleiri væri gu› en 42 ∂inn í ákalli gu›legs nafns.4 fi∂ssir lutir ganga ok til at skamms‡nir m∂nn mætti flat hyggja at fleiri væ‹r›i gu› en ∂inn ∂f m∂› margfalda›u atkvæ›i væri á hans nafn kallat, ok er flat réttliga tilskipat ok vitrlega at 45 ∂infƒld trú ok heilƒg hafi ∂kki rúm e›a villustíg at ganga af réttri fljó›gatu. Nú ∂f flér skilz ∂igi til fulls fl∂ssi rœ›a, flá m∂gum vit ∂nn fl∂ira til finna. En ∂f fl∂ssi rœ›a má flek lei›a til fullrar skilningar, flá m∂gum 48 vit v∂l víkja okkarri rœ›u til andsvara um flá luti a›ra er flú spur›ir.

Sunr: fi∂ssir lutir skiljaz mér v∂l ok flykki mér v∂ra bæ›i sannligir ok fló nau›synlegir at firi flví skal5 h∂ldr ∂infaldaz en margfaldaz ƒll 51 atkvæ›i til Gu›s at hvárki m∂gi rétt trú spillaz firi margfalt atkvæ›i ok ∂igi m∂gi slœgir úvinir undir fl‡›az flat ákall er ∂infƒld trú ok rétt vísar fleim ífrá. En ek vil nú at flér sk‡ri› flat firi mér er ek spur›a um 54 v∂raldar ríkism∂nn, hví ƒll atkvæ›i flœtti b∂tr til fleirra margfaldat en ∂infaldat?

Fa›ir: fiar er fló œrnu firi svarat, at firi flá sƒk flykki b∂tr v∂ra mælt til 57 ríkismanna m∂› margfaldu atkvæ›i h∂ldr en ∂infaldu, at hœv∂skir m∂nn hafa flat funnit firi andv∂r›u, ok h∂fir flat sí›an snúiz til si›v∂nju m∂›r allum vitrum mƒnnum ok hœv∂skum fleim til sœm›ar s∂m vi› er mælt, 60 ok til fl∂ss er kominn at fliggja sœm›aratkvæ›i. En fl∂tta ∂fni funnu fleir til, er frá andv∂r›u skipa›u fl∂ssum atkvæ›um, at ríkism∂nn eru ∂igi s∂m ∂innhv∂rr annarra, sá er firi sér ∂inum b∂rr áhyggju ok sínu 63 h‡ski ok á firi fá m∂nn svƒr at v∂ita. En hƒf›ingjar b∂ra áhyggju firi ƒllum fleim er undir fleim eru at fljónustu e›a at v∂ldi, ok hafa fleir ∂igi ∂ins manns svƒr í munni, h∂ldr ∂igu fleir firi marga svƒr at v∂ita, ok ∂f 66 gó›r hƒf›ingi f∂llr ífrá, flá er ∂igi s∂m ∂ins manns missi, h∂ldr er flat mikil missa allum fleim er af honum tóku upphald e›a sœm›ir, ok er s∂m allir v∂r›i minni firi sér, sí›an er fleir missa hƒf›ingja síns, en 69 fleir váru m∂›an hann lif›i, nema flví at ∂ins at sá komi annarr í sta› er fleim sé jamv∂l vilja›r s∂m hinn er frá fell. 340 XXIV: Konungs skuggsjá

72 Nú m∂› flví at hƒf›ingjar halda upp m∂› mƒrgum hvártv∂ggja sœm›um ok andsvƒrum ok margfaldri áhyggju, flá er flat v∂l til l∂ggjandi fleim til sœm›ar at kenna flá m∂› margfƒldu atkvæ›i í allri 75 rœ›u frá flví er til fleirra flarf at rœ›a er smæri eru ok minni firi sér.6 En fl∂ssir lutir eru fleir enn er flá váru til funnir e›a hugleiddir, er fl∂tta var fyrsta sinni til si›ar t∂kit, at konungar e›a a›rir ríkism∂nn flá eru 78 ∂igi ∂inir saman í rá›ager› sinni, h∂ldr hafa fleir m∂› sér marga a›ra vitra m∂nn ok gƒfga; ok man flá svá s‡naz, ∂f til hƒf›ingja v∂r›r mælt m∂›r margfaldu atkvæ›i, at flá sé ∂igi til konungs ∂ins mælt, h∂ldr til 81 allra fleirra er í rá›ager› eru m∂› hánum ok hans eru rá›gjafar. Ek gat fl∂ss ok nƒkkut í hinu fyrra or›i at flú skalt vi›r flví sjá at flú margfaldir annur flau atkvæ›i er til flín horfa, at ∂igi vir›ir flú flek jamnan hinum 84 er flú rœ›ir vi›r ok meiri er en flú. En fló at flú rœ›ir vi›r jammaka flinn e›a minna mann en flú sér, flá b∂rr flér ∂kki sjálfum at vir›a flik m∂› margfalda›u atkvæ›i. XXIV: Konungs skuggsjá 341

Notes

1 Nú followed by verb and subject in inverted word order, even when the verb is not subjunctive, makes the opening clause conditional (‘Now if it should come about that . . .’), and the main clause usually then opens with a correlative ﬂá or ok. There are three examples of this in the extract from Grágás, XXVII:12, 16, 45 below. 2 Lack of concord between subject and verb is not all that uncommon in Old Norse prose, but it is normally found only when the subject and verb are widely separated in the sentence and the verb precedes the subject (as in lines 16–17, where the lack of concord is between subject and participle, and 51–52), and especially when the subject consists of a sequence of conjoined subjects (see NION I, 3.9.8.2). There are examples in other texts in this book in I:26–27 (see commentary), XIX:23, XXI:18, 32 and 161. But it is remarkable that in this extract there are several examples of lack of concord where the verb does not precede the subject, as here and in lines 14–15 (where the lack of concord is again between subject and participle) and 28–29. Even though another of the principal manuscripts of this text, AM 243 a 4to, has regular concord in all these cases except the one corresponding to that of lines 28–29, where it has horfir instead of er, it seems unlikely that they are all the result of scribal error. Nor does it seem a possible solution to take the verbs in lines 4, 14–15 and 29 as impersonal, especially since horfa is clearly not impersonal in lines 3 and 17, and nor is eru ∂infaldat in line 16. What is further remarkable in this text is that the first three examples all concern the word atkvæ›i ‘verbal expression’ ‘mode of address’. Since it is an abstract noun, the plural may not have been perceived to have any difference in meaning from the singular, and the grammatical plural may well have been taken by the scribe on occasion as a ‘logical singular’. 3 According to Finnur Jónsson (‘Indledning’, 1920, 60), it is the gods of classical (as opposed to Old Norse) mythology that are meant here; he tentatively suggests that the seven gods in question are, respectively, Jupiter, Sol, Liber (or Saturn), Neptune, Mercury, Apollo and Pluto. He also offers the alternative suggestion that the deities in question may be those associated with the days of the week, without, however, making it clear whether he is thinking of classical or Germanic deities in 342 XXIV: Konungs skuggsjá this context. On the former, see Graves (1958, 15–17, 27–30, 258–60); on the latter, see Hagen (1836) and Strutynski (1975).

4 The syntax of this rather tortuous sentence is not entirely clear. While firi ﬂví . . . at in lines 40–41 can be taken to mean ‘for this reason . . . that’, i.e. ‘so that’, ‘in order that’ and firi ﬂat at in line 42 to mean ‘because’, ‘as a result of the fact that’, the second at in line 42 perhaps means ‘as if’, ‘on the assumption that’.

5 Cf. note 2.

6 It is difficult to see how the last clause links to the rest ot the sentence, and if the er is relative, what the antecedent is. The meaning may be ‘. . . in every speech about what needs to be spoken to them (by those who) are lower in rank and of less importance’ or ‘. . . in every speech about what needs to be spoken to them when they (the speakers) are lower in rank and of less importance’. On the other hand, Finnur Jónsson (1926, 84) and Meissner (1944, 121; though not Larsson 1917, 190) understand frá to mean ‘as distinct from’ and take ﬂeirra as the antecedent of the particle er that occurs later in the line, giving a meaning something like ‘. . . in all speech, as distinct from (differently from?) the speech needed for addressing those who are lower in rank and of less importance’. XXV: HAM‹ISMÁL

Ham›ismál is the last poem in the Codex Regius of the Poetic Edda, and its content forms the last episode in the legend cycle of Sigur›r and the Burgundian royal family, of whom Gu›rún, Ham›ir and Sƒrli are the last survivors. It is probably one of the earliest surviving eddic poems, although in an anonymous traditional poem it is always possible that different stanzas may be of various dates and authorship. However, it has been convincingly argued by Magnus Olsen (1936, 123–30) and Ursula Dronke (1969, 214–17) that this poem is deliberately echoed several times in some skaldic verses attributed to Torf-Einarr, Jarl of Orkney, which probably date from around 890 (Skj B I 27–28). In celebrating his own revenge for the killing of his father by Hálfdanr, son of King Haraldr hárfagri of Norway, Einarr refers to himself as a fjƒr›ungr ‘quarter’ of the force represented by himself and his brothers (Torf- Einarr st. 2/4), just as Ham›ismál refers to the brothers decreasing their force at ﬂri›jungi ‘by a third’ (line 55). This image of brothers forming equal fractions of an overall unit is not found elsewhere in ON verse. Immediately after this, Einarr tells his men to throw stones on the body of his dead enemy (st. 2/5–8) and then declares how glad he is that geirar . . . bitu ‘spears bit’ the ruler’s son (st. 3/1–4). This looks like a deliberately ironic echo of Jƒrmunrekkr’s recognition that geirar ne bíta ‘spears do not bite’ the brothers and they must be stoned (line 92); again, the combination of geirar with the verb bíta is not found anywhere else in ON verse. Finally, looking forward to further conflict, Einarr says that his enemies do not know hverr ilﬂorna arnar / undir hl‡tr at standa ‘who will have to stand under the heel-thorns (i.e. claws) of the eagle’ (st. 4/7–8); this is probably indebted to lines 106–07 of Ham›ismál, as we can see from the verb standa, which seems surprising in Einarr’s verse but makes perfect sense in Ham›ismál’s image of the heroes standing on the dead like eagles perching on the slain. More tentatively, Dronke suggests (1969, 213–14) that some lines of Ham›ismál may already have been familiar to the earliest known skaldic poet, Bragi Boddason (flourished c.850). Bragi’s Ragnarsdrápa is a poem of thanks to his patron for the gift of a ceremonial shield painted with mythological and legendary scenes, one of which was the brothers’ attack on Jƒrmunrekkr’s hall (Ragnarsdrápa 3–6, Skj B I 1–2). One phrase in Ragnarsdrápa (3/5) resembles Ham›ismál 83 (rósta var› í 344 XXV: Ham›ismál ranni ‘there was tumult in the hall’), and the image of the ƒlskálir ‘ale-cups’ (Ragnarsdrápa 4/5–6, Ham›ismál 83–84) rolling among the blood and severed limbs is similar in the two poems. However, both of these may have been commonplace elements that could be expected in any poetic description of this scene, and in other respects Bragi’s account seems significantly different from the version in Ham›ismál. For example, he seems to say that Jƒrmunrekkr was asleep when the brothers arrived in his hall. It seems most likely that Ragnarsdrápa and Ham›ismál are independent of each other, and therefore that Ham›ismál (or at least major elements of it) should be dated to c.890 or a little earlier. Like some other early eddic poems (e.g. Atlakvi›a), Ham›ismál, from the standpoint of the ‘classical’ Icelandic poetry of the late tenth century onwards, is rather irregular in metre, with stanzas and lines of varying lengths. Most of it is in the traditional fornyr›islag metre, ‘the metre of ancient words (or deeds?)’, with two stressed syllables in each half-line, usually with only one of those in the first half-line bearing alliteration. One stanza is in the radically different ljó›aháttr ‘metre of (magic) songs’, in which each pair of half-lines is followed by a single heavy half-line that alliterates only within itself (lines 102–05; see note 35). Some individual half-lines, while not technically irregular, show heavy concentrations of unstressed syllables including unstressed finite verbs (e.g. lines 21a, 62a). Line 66 has no alliteration at all, but this may be due to a nom. pl. noun or adjective having dropped out of the first half-line. Elsewhere, the alliteration does not always conform to the conventions of later Icelandic verse, and hr- is made to alliterate with r- in line 90, hv- with v- in line 100 (but with h- in lines 12 and 73) and sv- with s- in lines 9 and 32. The normal rule is that it is the first stressed syllable in the second half-line (i.e. the third in the whole line) that carries the alliteration, but in lines 77, 78 and 88 the alliteration is carried by the final stressed syllable of the line. This may be because the word order of these lines has been subject to scribal alteration. Line 32 has double transverse alliteration (Hitt – hyggju, Sƒrli – svinna), but this is probably a deliberate ornament rather than an irregularity. The poem is in a bad state of preservation, and many of these ‘irregularities’ may be the result of scribal corruption; others may be due to the early date of composition, when the rules may not have developed the strictness that became customary XXV: Ham›ismál 345 in later Icelandic poetry. Since the poem shows great brilliance in other respects, it is unlikely that they reflect the incompetence or carelessness of the poet. The legend of the death of Jƒrmunrekkr grew out of the fall of the historical Ostrogothic king Ermanaric in 375 AD. According to his contemporary, the historian Ammianus Marcellinus (1935–39, Book XXXI, ch. 3; Hamilton 1986, 415), Ermanaric was

a warlike king whose many heroic exploits had made him a terror to his neighbours. Ermanaric was hard hit by the violence of this unexpected storm (i.e. an invasion by the Huns). For some time he endeavoured to stand his ground, but exaggerated reports circulated of the dreadful fate which awaited him, and he found release from his fears by taking his own life.

Ammianus clearly does not tell the whole story of the historical events, and perhaps did not know the details, but the king’s terrified suicide seems surprising, for his successors did not immediately collapse before the Hunnish onslaught, but organised an orderly retreat to the line of the River Dniester. This suggests that the historical Ermanaric may have been decrepit with age or physically disabled, though we have no contemporary evidence for or against this. The next source on Ermanaric is the Ostrogothic historian Jordanes, who wrote his Getica c.550, basing his work on that of Cassiodorus (who was also of Gothic origin and wrote c.520, i.e. about 150 years after the events). Jordanes’s account runs as follows (1882, 91–92, §§ 315–19; my translation):

Hermanaricus King of the Goths had, as we related above, become the conqueror of many peoples, but while he was thinking what to do about the arrival of the Huns, the perfidious nation of the Rosomoni, whom he had then enslaved along with others, took this opportunity of betraying him. And so the King, stirred up with rage, ordered that a certain woman of that nation who is remembered by the name Sunilda should be tied to wild horses because of her husband’s treacherous desertion of him, and that she should be torn to pieces by having them driven in different directions. In vengeance for their sister, her brothers Sarus and Ammius attacked Hermanaricus in the side with iron; wounded in this way, he dragged out his wretched life with a disabled body. Hearing of his miserable state, Balamber King of the Huns moved his forces into the territory of the Ostrogoths; certain Visigoths had also planned among themselves to separate themselves from alliance with the Ostrogoths. 346 XXV: Ham›ismál

Meanwhile Hermanaricus, unable to bear either the pain of his wound or the incursions of the Huns, died at a great age and full of days in the one hundred and tenth year of his life. His death gave the Huns the opportunity to gain victory over those Goths who, as we have said, occupied the eastern region and were known as Ostrogoths.

This account introduces the prototypes of Svanhildr, Ham›ir and Sƒrli and the sibling relationship between them, although it makes Svanhildr the wife of a rebellious tribal leader rather than of the Jƒrmunrekkr figure himself. It also gives her a manner of death similar to that in the poem, though not identical with it. Dronke (1969, 193–96) argues persuasively that there is no essential contradiction between the accounts of Ammianus and Jordanes, and that the latter could be substantially historical, but we have no real evidence either for or against this view. Despite his ferocious treatment of Sunilda, Jordanes seems, unlike the poet of Ham›ismál, to admire Hermanaricus and to sympathise with him against both the Huns and the treacherous Rosomoni. This may explain why he says nothing of the suicide, which might have seemed dishonourable, and instead stresses the king’s achievements and his great age. There is no reason to doubt that Sunilda may have been a historical woman, and the name Sarus was also known among the Goths (it was also the name of a commander of the Ostrogothic military forces in Ravenna c.500, see Randers-Pehrson 1983, 108), but it is a little suspicious that both Ammius and Sarus can be interpreted as functionally meaningful names. Ammius corresponds to OE hama ‘skin’ and ON ham›ir may mean ‘the one provided with a hamr (skin or form of another creature)’ or ‘the mail-coated one’, and Sarus seems to be related to OE searu ‘craftiness’, ‘skill’, ‘armour’ and OHG saro ‘mailcoat’. In Ham›ismál the brothers seem to be immune to weapons, and in Skáldskaparmál, Vƒlsunga saga and Saxo Grammaticus, Gu›rún provides them with armour or an enchantment that makes them invulnerable to weapons. If the names of the brothers mean ‘the one with a skin’ and ‘the armoured one’, they may have been invented to describe their role, in which case the names of the actual historical revengers, if they existed, have been forgotten, as the tribal name Rosomoni was soon to be. It is clear that Svanhildr’s affair with Randvér and the treacherous role of Bikki were not part of the story known to Jordanes, and there is no evidence either for the tragic killing of Erpr in his time. But Randvér, XXV: Ham›ismál 347

Erpr and Jónakr are all mentioned in Ragnarsdrápa, and by the time of the poet of Atlakvi›a (possibly c.900), Bikki must have become a byword for treachery, since Atli’s treacherous warriors (in another story altogether) can simply be called Bikka greppar ‘Bikki’s men’ (Atlakvi›a 14/3). At some time between c.550 and c.850, therefore: 1) Svanhildr became the wife of Jƒrmunrekkr himself; 2) Randvér (possibly ‘shield-warrior’) was invented to supply the young wife with sexual temptation along the lines of the Phaedra story; 3) Bikki (who as Becca King of the Baningas receives what looks like a blameless mention between Eormanric (Jƒrmunrekkr) and Gifica (Gjúki) in the OE Widsi› 19) became the traitor who caused the lovers’ deaths; 4) Erpr (‘swarthy’) was invented as the bastard brother who offers to help as hand helps hand or foot helps foot, but is murdered for his pains. It is worth noticing that the poet of Ham›ismál feels no necessity to tell the whole of this story. His focus is on the compulsion to heroic revenge and the mistakes of his two protagonists, and for this purpose Bikki could be completely ignored and the affair between Svanhildr and Randvér reduced to the mere fact of their violent deaths. So far as either he or Bragi tells the tale, they might have been falsely accused (as they are in Saxo’s version of the story). Later versions of the Scandinavian strand of the legend can be found in SnE, Skáldskaparmál ch. 42 (1998, 49–51), Vƒlsunga saga chs 40–42 (1943, 87–91; 1990, 106–09) and (in a more complicated form) in Saxo Grammaticus VIII, ch. x, 7–14 (1931–35, I 233–35; 1979– 80, I 256–58). For the very different traditions of Ermanaric in Old English and Middle High German, see Brady (1943).

Bibliography Sophus Bugge, ed., Sæmundar Edda hins fró›a (1867). Ursula Dronke, ed., The Poetic Edda I: Heroic Poems (1969). Barent Sijmons and Hugo Gering, eds, Die Lieder der Edda I–III (1888–1931). Ammianus Marcellinus, Rerum gestarum libri qui supersunt, ed. and trans. J. C. Rolfe, 3 vols. (1935–39); trans. Walter Hamilton as The Later Roman Empire, A.D. 354–378 (1986). Jordanes, Getica, ed. Theodor Mommsen (1882). In Monumenta Germaniae historica. Auctores antiquissimi 5, 1. 348 XXV: Ham›ismál

Vƒlsunga saga, ed. Gu›ni Jónsson in Fornaldarsögur Nor›urlanda I (1943); trans. Jesse Byock as The Saga of the Volsungs (1990). Morkinskinna, ed. Finnur Jónsson (1932); tr. T. M. Andersson and Kari Ellen Gade (2000). Islandica 51. Saxo Grammaticus = Saxonis Gesta Danorum, ed. J. Olrik and H. Ræder, 2 vols (1931–35); Books I–IX trans. Peter Fisher and Hilda Ellis Davidson as Saxo Grammaticus, The History of the Danes, 2 vols (1979–80). Beowulf, ed. F. Klaeber (1941). Beowulf, tr. Seamus Heaney (1999). Richard Hamer, A Choice of Anglo-Saxon Verse (1970). Lex Burgundionum, in Monumenta Germaniae historica, Legum Sectio I, Vol. II.i (1892). Theodore M. Andersson, ‘Cassiodorus and the Gothic Legend of Ermanaric’, Euphorion 57 (1963), 28–43. Caroline Brady, The Legends of Ermanaric (1943). Caroline Brady, ‘The Date and Metre of the Ham›ismál’, Journal of English and Germanic Philology 38 (1939), 201–16. Caroline Brady, ‘Ó›inn and the Norse Jörmunrekkr Legend’, PMLA (1940), 910–30. George T. Gillespie, A Catalogue of Persons Named in German Heroic Literature (700–1600) (1973). S. Gutenbrunner, ‘Über den Schluss des Hamdirliedes’, Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum (1951–52), 6–12. Joseph Harris, ‘Eddic Poetry’. In Old Norse-Icelandic Literature: A Critical Guide, ed. Carol J. Clover and J. Lindow (1985), 68–156. Islandica 45. Ursula Hennig, ‘Gab es ein “Jüngeres” Hamdirlied?’, Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutsche Sprache und Literatur [Tübingen] 82 (1960), 44–69. L. M. Hollander, ‘The Legendary Form of Ham›ismál’, Arkiv för nordisk Filologi 77 (1962), 56–62. John McKinnell, Meeting the Other in Norse Myth and Legend (2005). Magnús Olsen, ‘Torv-Einar og Ham›ismál’, Bidrag til Nordisk Filologi tillägnade Emil Olson (1936), 123–30. Justine D. Randers-Pehrson, Barbarians and Romans. The Birth Struggle of Europe, A.D. 400–700 (1983). Franz R. Schröder, ‘Die Eingangsszene von Gu›rúnarhvƒt und Ham›ismál’, Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutsche Sprache und Literatur [Tübingen] 98 (1976), 430–36. Klaus von See, ‘Gu›rúnarhvöt und Ham›ismál’, Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutsche Sprache und Literatur [Tübingen] 99 (1977), 241–49. Tom A. Shippey, ‘Speech and the Unspoken in Ham›ismál’. In Prosody and Poetics in the Early Middle Ages. Essays in Honour of C. B. Hieatt (1995), 180–96. E. O. Gabriel Turville-Petre, Myth and Religion of the North (1964). XXV: Ham›ismál 349

XXV: HAM‹ISMÁL

Spruttu á tái1 tregnar í›ir grœti álfa2 in gl‡stƒmu. Ár um morgin3 manna bƒlva 3 sútir hverjar sorg um kveykva.

Vara flat nú né í gær, flat hefir langt li›it sí›an; 6 er fátt fornara, fremr var flat hálfu, er hvatti Gu›rún, Gjúka borin,4 sonu sína unga at hefna Svanhildar.5 9

‘Systir var ykkur Svanhildr um heitin, sú er Jƒrmunrekkr jóm um traddi hvítum ok svƒrtum á hervegi,6 12 grám, gangtƒmum Gotna hrossum.

Eptir er ykr flrungit fljó›konunga, lifi› einir ér flátta ættar minnar. 15

Einstœ› em ek or›in sem ƒsp í holti, fallin at frændum sem fura at kvisti, va›in at vilja sem vi›r at laufi, 18 flá er in kvistskœ›a kømr um dag varman.’7 8 * * * Hitt kva› flá Ham›ir inn hugumstóri: ‘Lítt myndir flú flá, Gu›rún, leyfa dá› Hƒgna, 21 er fleir Sigur› svefni ór vƒk›u. Saztu á be›, en banar hlógu.

Bœkr9 váru flínar inar bláhvítu 24 ofnar vƒlundum10 — flutu í vers dreyra. Svalt flá Sigur›r, saztu yfir dau›um, gl‡ja flú ne gá›ir; Gunnarr flér svá vildi.11 27

20 written ‘hugom stri’, i.e. hugumstœrri? 350 XXV: Ham›ismál

Atla flóttiz flú strí›a at Erps mor›i ok at Eitils aldrlagi — flat var flér enn verra. 30 Svá skyldi hverr ƒ›rum verja til aldrlaga sver›i sárbeitu at sér ne stríddit.’12

Hitt kva› flá Sƒrli — svinna haf›i hann hyggju — 33 ‘Vilkat ek vi› mó›ur málum skipta. Or›z flikkir enn vant ykru hváru. Hvers bi›r flú nú, Gu›rún, er flú at gráti ne færat?

36 Brœ›r grát ﬂú ﬂína ok buri svása,13 ni›ja náborna leidda nær rógi. Okr skaltu ok, Gu›rún, gráta bá›a, 39 er hér sitjum feigir á mƒrum; fjarri munum deyja.’

Gengu ór gar›i gƒrvir at eiskra. Li›u ﬂá yfir, ungir, úrig fjƒll, 42 mƒrum húnlenzkum mor›z at hefna.

Fundu á stræti stórbrƒg›óttan. ‘Hvé mun jarpskammr okr fultingja?’

45 Svara›i inn sundrmœ›ri; svá kvaz veita mundu fulting frændum sem fótr ƒ›rum. ‘Hvat megi fótr fœti veita, 48 né holdgróin hƒnd annarri?’

ﬁá kva› ﬂat Erpr einu sinni — mærr um lék á mars baki: 51 ‘Illt er blau›um hal brautir kenna.’ Kó›u har›an mjƒk hornung vera.14

Drógu fleir ór skí›i skí›ijárn, 54 mækis eggjar at mun flag›i.15 fiver›u fleir flrótt sinn at flri›jungi — létu mƒg ungan til moldar hníga.

36 lei›a. 49–52 between 42 and 43. XXV: Ham›ismál 351

Skóku lo›a, skálmir festu, 57 ok go›bornir smugu í gu›vefi.

Fram lágu brautir; fundu vástígu ok systur son16 sáran á mei›i, 60 vargtré vindkƒld vestan bœjar. Tr‡tti æ trƒnu hvƒt,17 títt varat bí›a.18

Glaumr var í hƒllu, halir ƒlreifir, 63 ok til gota19 ekki ger›ut heyra á›r halr hugfullr í horn um ﬂaut.

Segja fóru Jƒrmunrekki 66 at sénir váru seggir und hjálmum: ‘Rœ›i› ér um rá›, ríkir eru komnir! Fyr mátkum hafi› ér mƒnnum mey um tradda.’ 69

Hló ﬂá Jƒrmunrekkr, hendi drap á kampa, beiddiz at brƒngu, bƒ›va›iz at víni;20 skók hann skƒr jarpa, sá á skjƒld hvítan, 72 lét hann sér í hendi hvarfa ker gullit.

‘Sæll ek flá flœttumk ef ek sjá knætta Ham›i ok Sƒrla í hƒllu minni. 75 Buri mynda ek flá binda me› boga strengjum, go›bƒrn21 Gjúka festa á gálga.’

Hitt kva› ﬂá hró›rglƒ›,22 stó› of hle›um,23 78 mæfingr mælti vi› mƒg ﬂenna:24

* * * ‘. . . ﬂví at ﬂat heita at hl‡›igi myni.25 Mega tveir menn einir tíu hundru› Gotna 81 binda e›a berja26 í borg inni há?’

Styrr var› í ranni, stukku ƒlskálir, í bló›i bragnar lágu, komit ór brjósti Gotna. 84

62 bi›ja. 81 hundru›um. 352 XXV: Ham›ismál

Hitt kva› flá Ham›ir inn hugumstóri: ‘Æstir, Jƒrmunrekkr, okkarrar kvámu, 87 brœ›ra sammœ›ra,27 innan borgar flinnar. Fœtr sér flú flína, hƒndum sér flú flínum,28 Jƒrmunrekkr, orpit í eld heitan.’

90 ﬁá hraut vi› inn reginkunngi,29 baldr í brynju, sem bjƒrn hryti: ‘Gr‡ti› ér á gumna, allz geirar ne bíta, 93 eggjar né járn Jónakrs sonu.’

‘Bƒl vanntu, bró›ir, er flú flann belg leystir: opt ór fleim belg30 bƒll rá› koma. 96 Hug hef›ir flú, Ham›ir, ef flú hef›ir hyggjandi; mikils er á mann hvern vant er manvits er.

Af væri nú haufu› ef Erpr lif›i,31 99 bró›ir okkarr inn bƒ›frœkni er vit á braut vágum, verr inn vígfrœkni32 — hvƒttumk at dísir —, gumi inn gunnhelgi — gƒr›umz at vígi.’33

102 ‘Ekki hygg ek okr vera úlfa dœmi, at vit mynim sjálfir um sakask sem grey norna,34 ﬂau er grá›ug eru 105 í au›n um alin.35

Vel hƒfum vit vegit, stƒndum á val Gotna ofan, eggmó›um, sem ernir á kvisti. 108 Gó›s hƒfum tírar fengit, ﬂótt skylim nú e›a í gær36 deyja. Kveld lifir ma›r ekki eptir kvi› norna.’

ﬁar fell Sƒrli at salar gafli, 111 en Ham›ir hné at húsbaki.37

ﬁetta eru kƒllu› Ham›ismál in fornu.

94 before this speech Hitt kva› ﬂá Ham›ir inn hugumstóri: (but the speaker here must be Sƒrli, since the ﬂú in line 94 is certainly Ham›ir). 100 varr inn vi›frœkni. 102 ykr. XXV: Ham›ismál 353

Notes 1 The tá was a strip of beaten earth outside the main door and along the front of Norse houses. It was a traditional place for private conversations and could be used figuratively to refer to them, cf. Morkinskinna (1932, 89; 2000, 151): ok heimtask nú á tá inir vitrustu menn, ok hafa tal milli sín ‘Some of the wisest men were assembled and took counsel’. Here it probably refers to the secrecy of the discussion between Gu›rún and her sons.

2 Sijmons and Gering (1883–1931, III.ii 428) take grœti álfa as a kenning for morning (because dwarves, who may be identical with ‘dark elves’, are turned to stone if the daylight touches them, as at the end of Alvíssmál), but no comparable kennings have been found. It is more probably a reference to the female family spirits (dísir or fylgjur, perhaps originally the spirits of dead ancestors; see Turville-Petre 1964, 221–31, and McKinnell 2005, 198–200) who were believed to preside over the fortunes of a household. Here they may be said to weep because of the coming extinction of the family. This statement contrasts with the more negative view taken by Ham›ir and Sƒrli, who blame the dísir for having provoked their own killing of Erpr (see line 100). See also note 15 below.

3 Early morning is a traditional time for brooding grief in Germanic literature; cf. Beowulf lines 2450–62 (1941, 92; 1999, 77–78); The Wife’s Lament lines 35–36; The Wanderer lines 8–9 (Hamer 1970, 74–75; 174–75).

4 According to the Lex Burgundionum (1892, 43) ‘Law of the Burgun- dians’ (c.500), Gibica (= ON Gjúki) was the founder of the Burgundian royal dynasty. In legend, Gjúki is the father of Gunnarr, Hƒgni and Gu›rún, but only the first of these is clearly based on a historical person (King Gundaharius, killed by the Huns in 437; for sources, see Dronke 1969, 34–36). The figure of Gu›rún may be indirectly derived from Ildico (= Hild), who according to Jordanes (1882, 123; §§ 617–19) was the wife whom Attila the Hun had just married on the night he died in bed of a nosebleed in 453. As Dronke demonstrates, a rumour soon grew up that Attila had been murdered by his new wife, and if her motive was assumed to be a Burgundian desire for revenge on the Hunnish king, it would be natural to give her name a 354 XXV: Ham›ismál first element that began with G, like other Burgundian royal names. This explains why the heroine in German versions of the story is called Kriemhilt. But in ON sources, Grímhildr (literally ‘mask-battle’) becomes the name of the heroine’s mother, and the almost synonymous Gu›rún (literally ‘war-secret’, or perhaps ‘god-secret’) has been invented for the heroine herself, possibly because the extra character of the mother was needed to explain the magic potion that causes Sigur›r to fall in love with Gu›rún and forget his previous love for Brynhildr.

5 According to the cycle of legend related in the Poetic Edda and in Vƒlsunga saga, Gu›rún was married three times, first to the hero and dragon-slayer Sigur›r, whom she loved and by whom she had Svanhildr; next to Atli (= Attila the Hun), whom she murdered, along with their two sons Erpr and Eitill; and finally to King Jónakr, the father of her sons Ham›ir and Sƒrli. On the death of Svanhildr, see Introduction above.

6 There were no paved military roads in Scandinavia. The important motif of roads and paths may have survived from earlier German or Old English versions of the story because of the idea that the stones finally ‘take vengeance’ for the blood of Erpr having been shed on them; see lines 43, 59 and 92.

7 It was a traditional summer task of women on Norwegian farms to strip small branches from the trees during warm weather; twigs and pine needles were then dried and used for kindling and bedding, while deciduous leaves were fed to the farm animals (see Dronke 1969, 227).

8 A stanza must be missing here, since line 21 implies that Gu›rún has just compared her sons’ courage unfavourably with that of her dead brothers Gunnarr and Hƒgni (for whose heroic death see Atla- kvi›a). This lost stanza may have been used by the poet of st. 3 of the later poem Gu›rúnarhvƒt (Dronke 1969, 146) which immediately precedes Ham›ismál in the Codex Regius: ‘Ur›ua it glíkir ﬂeim Gunnari, ‘You have not become like Gunnarr and his brother, né in heldr hug›ir sem var Hƒgni. nor equipped with courage as Hƒgni was. Hennar mundu› it hefna leita, You would have tried to avenge her ef it mó› ætti› minna brœ›ra, if you had the heart of my brothers, e›a har›an hug Húnkonunga.’ or the firm mind of the Hunnish kings.’ XXV: Ham›ismál 355

Most of this may in fact come verbatim from Ham›ismál, as the following stanza of Gu›rúnarhvƒt certainly does (cf. lines 20–24 of this edition of Ham›ismál), but this cannot be regarded as certain. The only element in it which is probably not indebted to the lost stanza of Ham›ismál is its reference to ‘Hunnish kings’ (probably an allusion to Sigur›r, who is of Hunnish origin only in later German and Norse tradition). But the lost stanza may have included the same implication that because they are not sons of her beloved Sigur›r, Gu›rún places a lower value on the lives of Ham›ir and Sƒrli than on that of Svanhildr. This would help to motivate their sense of rage at the way she taunts them into undertaking their suicidal venture, and the adjective hugum- stóri ‘mighty in courage’ which is applied to Ham›ir immediately afterwards suggests her unfairness in accusing them of cowardice (though it may also be a fixed epithet that was commonly attached to him; cf. line 85).

9 Before the arrival of Latin literacy in the Germanic world there were no ‘books’ in the modern sense of the word. This is one of a number of instances in Old Norse where bók seems to refer to pieces of embroidered cloth (in this case bed-covers); cf. also Sigur›arkvi›a in skamma 49/7–8, where the dying Brynhildr offers bók ok blæju, bjartir vá›ir ‘an embroidered cloth and coverlet, bright clothes’ to any one of her maids who is prepared to die with her, and cf. the verb gullbóka ‘to embroider in gold’ in Gu›rúnarkvi›a II 14/6. For the argument that the modern use of the word may be derived from a comparison of manuscript illumination with embroidery, see Dronke (1969, 228).

10 Vƒlundr is familiar as the legendary master-craftsman of the Germanic world and the protagonist of Vƒlundarkvi›a, but the word occasionally appears, as here, as a common noun meaning ‘craftsman’ (cf. also Merlínusspá II, 7/2 and Snorri Sturluson, lausavísa 4/8; Skj B II 25, 89). It is not clear whether or not these instances are derived from the proper name, whose etymology is obscure (largely because it is difficult to derive ON Vƒlundr, OF Galans from the same root as OE Welund/Weland, MHG Wielant). It is possible that they may indeed have different origins, with the common noun vƒlundr being related to ON val, vƒl, OHG wala ‘choice’ (cf. ON velja ‘to choose’), hence ‘one who makes choice things’, while forms of the name with a long 356 XXV: Ham›ismál front vowel could have come about by association with the noun vél ‘device, trick’. In that case, the proper name Vƒlundr may be derived from the common noun rather than vice versa.

11 In lines 21–27 Ham›ir reminds Gu›rún that the brothers she has praised were also the murderers of Sigur›r. As the compiler of the prose links in the Codex Regius points out at the end of Brot af Sigur›arkvi›u (PE 201), there were various versions of how Sigur›r died. In Brot itself and in Gu›rúnarkvi›a I the brothers kill him out of doors and report his death to Gu›rún, but the poet of Ham›ismál prefers the tradition shared by Sigur›arkvi›a in skamma, in which they kill him when he is asleep in bed with her. In Sigur›arkvi›a in skamma and Vƒlsunga saga the murder is actually carried out by Gothormr, the younger brother of Gunnarr and Hƒgni, who has not sworn an oath of foster-brotherhood with Sigur›r as they have. This may be an elaboration from a time later than that of Ham›ismál, or this poet may simply have omitted it for the sake of brevity; whether they did the killing themselves or not, Gunnarr and Hƒgni were responsible for Sigur›r’s death.

12 In lines 28–31 Ham›ir points out that Gu›rún ought to realise that some revenges are too costly to the revenger to be worthwhile, as when she herself slaughtered Erpr and Eitill, her sons by Atli, as part of her annulment of their marriage following his murder of Gunnarr and Hƒgni. Ironically, Ham›ir and Sƒrli will soon murder another Erpr, Jónakr’s son by another woman, and one instance of the name may have been borrowed from the other. However, since its meaning (‘swarthy’, cf. OE eorp ‘dark’, ON jarpr ‘brown’) is appropriate to both of them (with Erpr in Ham›ismál even being called jarpskammr ‘the short brown man’), it is not possible to tell which if either is the original. The fact that the name lacks the vowel-breaking that was normal in this word suggests either that it fossilised at an early stage or that it has been borrowed from Old High German or Old Saxon, where this change did not take place (cf. OE eor›e, ON jƒr›, but OHG, OS erda ‘earth’).

13 This phrase is curiously echoed in Atlakvi›a st. 39, which claims that Gu›rún never wept for either her brothers or her sons. The tradition that Gu›rún could not weep later became fixed (see Brot, closing XXV: Ham›ismál 357 prose, and most of Gu›rúnarkvi›a I), but it is not possible to say whether or not it already existed when Ham›ismál was composed.

14 In the Codex Regius, lines 48–51 are placed at the beginning of the encounter between Erpr and his brothers (before line 43 in this text), but this seems an obvious mistake. Line 43 clearly introduces the scene, which Ham›ir and Sƒrli begin by decrying Erpr’s offer of help (presumably because they regard him as an outsider and beneath them). His reply that he would help them as one foot or hand helps the other recalls versions of the story in which they later stumble on the way to carry out their revenge and realise the truth of his words (see SnE Skáldskaparmál ch. 42, Vƒlsunga saga ch. 44 and cf. Dronke 1969, 199–202). The poet may have omitted the latter half of this motif for the sake of brevity, and/or because it was so well known that it could be assumed from Erpr’s words here. However, their killing of him is well motivated by his suggestion that they are cowardly (using what is probably a proverb). They have had to endure this damaging insult from their mother, but will not tolerate it from their bastard brother.

15 The flag› ‘ogress, giantess, hag’ here may be either Hel, the female figure who presides over the world of the dead, or a malicious dís who wants to see the destruction of the family. If the first interpretation is right, the idea may be akin to that in Ynglingatal 7 (Skj B I 8), where Hel is said to enjoy (sexual) pleasure from the body of King Dyggvi. The second would suggest that the poet agrees with the view expressed by one of the brothers that the dísir provoked them to kill Erpr (line 100; but see line 2 above for a very different view, also in the mouth of the narrator).

16 Strictly, Jƒrmunrekkr’s son Randvér (see Bragi, Ragnarsdrápa 3, c.850; Skj B I 1) is their half-sister’s stepson, but the emotional shock is reinforced by citing the sister’s son relationship, which was particularly sacred in Germanic society. According to Skáldskaparmál ch. 42 and Vƒlsunga saga ch. 42, Svanhildr and Randvér were tempted into planning to marry each other by Jƒrmunrekkr’s evil counsellor Bikki, who then informed on them, with the result that both were executed. In Ham›ismál Randvér has evidently been wounded as well as hanged, which may suggest an Odinic sacrifice; cf. Hávamál st. 138, Gautreks saga ch. 7 and Turville-Petre (1964), 47. 358 XXV: Ham›ismál

17 Hanged and slain men are often indicated by reference to the carrion birds that feasted on them, but this is a strange example, because the crane is not a carrion bird. It should probably be understood as an abbreviation of some such kenning as bló›trani ‘blood-crane’ (i.e. raven), cf. Óttarr svarti, Knútsdrápa 8/3 (Skj B I 274).

18 The Codex Regius reading bi›ja ‘to ask (for something)’ makes no sense here, and is probably a scribal error for bí›a ‘to wait, linger’.

19 gota is a poetic word, but may refer either to (Gothic) horses (a sense also found in a runic verse on the Rök stone, c.900) or to warriors (originally ‘Goths’); in this latter sense it is used of the Burgundians in Grípisspá 35/6, Brot 9/4, Atlakvi›a 20/3, and Gu›rún’s mother Grímhildr is called gotnesk kona ‘Gothic woman’ in Gu›rúnarkvi›a II 17/2. But in Ham›ismál it seems unlikely that it refers to Ham›ir and Sƒrli, since this would introduce an unnecessary confusion with Jƒrmunrekkr and his men, who actually are Goths and are referred to as such (though always with the alternative gen. pl. form Gotna) in lines 81, 84 and 105. The reference is probably to the sound made by the brothers’ approaching horses.

20 The vocabulary of this line is unusual and probably deliberately exotic, as part of the portrait of an arrogant foreign ruler. In ON bei›a usually means ‘to demand’, but the context of beiddisk here seems rather to demand the sense ‘stirred himself up’, which is common in the corresponding words in OHG, OS and OE; the word here could either be a survival from an older version of the story in one of these languages or a deliberate exoticism introduced by this poet. The word brƒngu is found nowhere else in ON verse, but may be related to MLG prank ‘battle, quarrel’, and could be another foreign borrowing. The verb bƒ›va is also found nowhere else, though it is obviously derived from the feminine noun bƒ› ‘battle’, of which there are about fifteen examples in skaldic verse.

21 The MS reading here could be interpreted either as gó› bƒrn Gjúka ‘good children of Gjúki’ (Sijmons and Gering, Kuhn in PE, among others) or as go›bƒrn Gjúka ‘divinely descended children of Gjúki’. As Dronke points out (1969, 234) the latter is metrically more satisfactory, and is formally paralleled in ﬁór›r Særeksson’s description XXV: Ham›ismál 359 of Ska›i as go›brú›r (lausavísa 3/6, Skj B I 304). Most Germanic royal families claimed divine ancestry, though in this context Jƒrmun- rekkr may be mocking this claim.

22 The word hró›rglƒ› ‘(woman) pleased by glorious behaviour’ is not found elsewhere, but for such similar compounds as hró›rau›igr ‘rich in glory’, hró›rfinginn ‘devoted to glory’, hró›rfúss ‘eager for glory’, see LP 286–67, and for flugglƒ› ‘rejoicing in flight’ (a name for an arrow), see LP 143. -glƒ› is also found as the second element in some female personal names (e.g. Menglƒ›, the half-giantess who befriends the hero in Orms ﬂáttr Stórólfssonar; and there is another Menglƒ› in the late eddic poems Grógaldr and Fjƒlsvinnsmál), but there is no evidence that hró›rglƒ› is a proper name here, though some editors have regarded her as the mother or mistress of Jƒrmunrekkr. Nor is it likely that it refers to Gu›rún, as argued by Sijmons and Gering (1888–1931, III.ii 440), since this scene is taking place at Jƒrmunrekkr’s court, far from the home of Gu›rún (see line 39). The speaker seems to be simply an anonymous woman (or possibly one of the dísir of line 100) whose function is to admire the two young heroes.

23 A hle›i was a wooden shutter or sliding door to a lokrekkja ‘closing bed, sleeping cubicle’ in the hall; it was sometimes used by women as a way of peeping into the hall without being seen themselves (e.g. Kormaks saga ch. 3), and in this case it may explain how a woman in Jƒrmunrekkr’s court can express a viewpoint that she would hardly dare to state openly.

24 Several different emendations have been suggested here, to vi› mƒgu sína ‘to her sons’ (assuming that the speaker is Gu›rún, see above), vi› mƒg svinnan ‘to the wise young man’ or vi› mƒgﬂegna ‘to the young knights’), but the MS reading makes sense (‘to that young man’), and should not be emended merely because it is surprising to find a singular here. It probably refers to Ham›ir, the leader of the brothers.

25 This line seems disjointed, with no explanation of its opening flví at ‘because’; a line has probably been lost before it. Both halves of the line are metrically deficient. Some re-writings have been suggested: flví er flar hætta ‘one ought to desist from that (which) . . .’; flví átt at heita ‘you ought to promise that (which) . . .’, flví áttat heita 360 XXV: Ham›ismál

‘you ought not to promise that (which) . . .’ — all excellent suggestions, and improvements metrically, but for the fact that they are not what the MS appears to say. hl‡›igi: -gi is an originally emphatic particle used after a negative that came to be used as a negative particle when the ne was lost (e.g. manngi ‘no one’). Apart from emendations, the only possibility for hl‡›i is that it is an otherwise unknown feminine noun meaning ‘silence’ (cf. hljó›r adj. ‘silent’). The line might then be translated ‘. . . because they are vowing what would be no silence (i.e. not kept quiet) — sc. a famous deed’, except that in this sense heita requires an object in the dative, not accusative case, and the line is probably cor- rupted beyond help other than emendation.

26 The brothers are not literally trying to bind the Goths, but to kill them; binda ok berja seems to have been a generalised phrase meaning ‘to gain complete victory over (someone)’.

27 This word is tragically ironic in the middle of Ham›ir’s ill-advised speech of exultation over his enemy, since it contrasts with sundrmœ›ri (line 45) and thus reminds us of the crucial absence of Erpr from the revenge.

28 For the motif of hands and feet, see lines 46–48 and note 14 above. Erpr’s absence and Ham›ir’s vaunting delay the decapitation of Jƒrmunrekkr long enough to give him time to tell the Goths how to kill the brothers. They are invulnerable to weapons (see Introduction), so they can only be killed by stoning.

29 reginkunngi is usually taken to refer to Jƒrmunrekkr’s divine ancestry (cf. reginkunnum, referring to runes in Hávamál 80/3; áskungar, referring to the norns in Fáfnismál 13/4), and this must be part of the sense, but Dronke convincingly suggests that reginkunnigr here also has the sense ‘knowledgeable about divine powers’ and refers to the common belief that dying men could acquire supernatural perception (and the ability to curse their enemies effectively; cf. also Fáfnismál).

30 flann belg leystir may refer to Ham›ir opening his own mouth in lines 86–89, which offered the delay that enabled Jƒrmunrekkr to XXV: Ham›ismál 361 give the orders that led to the death of the brothers. But belg is only otherwise used in this sense in a proverbial metaphor for an old man as a bag from which words pour out, cf. Hávamál st. 134, and in line 95 the reference is certainly to Jƒrmunrekkr speaking in lines 92–93. Some editors have emended the first half of line 95 (Sijmons–Gering to opt ór belg or›gum ‘often from a talkative bag’; Dronke to opt ór rau›om belg ‘often from a red (i.e. bleeding) bag’), but neither seems necessary, even though Dronke cites a prose parallel in Njáls saga ch. 91. What Sƒrli means is that this particular ‘bag’ (i.e. Jƒrmunrekkr) often speaks words that have evil consequences. If belg in line 94 also means Jƒrmunrekkr, er flú flann belg leystir would have to mean ‘when you left that bag free to speak’.

31 It is not clear which brother is speaking here. Lines 94–97 are clearly spoken by Sƒrli; it makes sense for Ham›ir to have the last word (i.e. lines 106–09); and lines 102–05 look like a rejoinder to the previous lines. One might see lines 98–101 as a continuation of the speech in which Sƒrli blames Ham›ir and 102–05 as Ham›ir’s rather self- excusing reply (as I have done here). Alternatively, lines 98–101 may be Ham›ir’s belated realisation of his mistakes (as Dronke assumes), in which case lines 102–05 look like a conciliatory reply by Sƒrli. Unfortunately, one’s view of the end of the poem seems likely to depend on which interpretation is adopted, and I can see no reliable way of choosing between them.

32 Codex Regius varr inn vi› frœkni makes no sense; vígfrœkni ‘bold in killing’ (Neckel–Kuhn and Dronke) would be parallel in form and meaning to bƒ›frœkni in the preceding line, and thus seems preferable to ví›frægi ‘widely famous’ (Bugge and Sijmons–Gering).

33 Sijmons–Gering and Dronke emend to gƒr›umk ‘they made me’, to produce a grammatical parallel to hvƒttumk in the previous line, but ‘we forced ourselves to the killing’ is quite possible for gƒr›umz. ‘We prepared ourselves for a killing’ also makes reasonable sense (more or less the equivalent of ‘we did do the killing’), and would acknowledge that even if the brothers were provoked by the dísir, they know that they must ultimately take the responsibility for Erpr’s death themselves. 362 XXV: Ham›ismál

34 ‘Norns’ bitches’ are obviously she-wolves, though no exact parallel has been found. Dronke points out that the poet avoids suggesting that wolves are the Norns’ ‘steeds’ because that would associate the Norns with giantesses and troll-women (such as Hyndla, who rides a wolf in Hyndluljó› st. 5).

35 Unlike the rest of the poem, lines 102–05 are in ljó›aháttr ‘the metre of (magic) songs’ (see Introduction) which is also used in didactic or proverbial poems such as Hávamál. The different metre here has led to speculation that these lines may have been added by another poet, but the change of metre could be due merely to the content, which resembles proverbial advice (cf. Fáfnismál). On other metrical irregularities in the poem, see Introduction.

36 í gær usually means ‘yesterday’, but Dronke suggests on the basis of one case in Gothic that it may here have an archaic sense ‘tomorrow’, or more generally ‘some other day’.

37 Dronke (1969, 190–92) sees a dichotomy between the attack in the hall and the fact that the brothers ultimately die outside the building, and concludes that lines 110–11 may be the work of another poet. But their deaths outside the hall can be explained in several other ways (e.g. they tried to fight their way out; they were rushed outside because it was easier to stone them there; they had to get outside so that the stones could complete their ‘revenge’; see note 6 above), and her supposition seems unnecessary. XXVI: Njáls saga 363

XXVI: NJÁLS SAGA

Njáls saga (referred to in the manuscripts as Brennu-Njáls saga ‘Saga of Njáll of the Burning’) was probably written 1275–90. It is the longest and in many ways the greatest of the Sagas of Icelanders, combining several originally separate narratives and involving a large number of characters from all over Iceland, although the main events are located in the south-west of the country. The two extracts reproduced here represent the climaxes of the first two parts of the saga: the extraordinary fight to the death of the great warrior Gunnarr, and the burning in his house of Gunnarr’s friend Njáll and his sons. The feuds leading up to these events are largely disparate, but the two parts (which some have thought derive from two separate sagas) are linked both by the friendship and common desire for peace of the contrasting heroes, and thematically. This is clear from the overt comparison made, in the preamble to the burning at Bergflórshváll, between the burners and the more honourable attackers who had scorned to resort to the use of fire against Gunnarr (B, lines 60–66). The two parts of the saga are separated by the so- called Kristni fláttr, recounting the conversion of Iceland to Christianity, in which Njáll is given a leading (but no doubt fictitious) role; this section forms a pivot between the perspectives of the two parts, contrasting the noble pagan Gunnarr with his Christian, indeed almost saintly friend — whose killers are also Christian. The last part of the saga relates the lengthy quest of Njáll’s son-in-law Kári, who survives the burning, to track down and kill the burners one by one, before he is finally reconciled with their leader Flosi. This reconciliation is symptomatic of the fact that violence in the saga is more often a response to the demands of honour, in particular the duty of revenge, than the result of personal animosity. The leaders of both attacks are represented as upstanding men forced by these imperatives to take an action they regret. Flosi is a sincere Christian; Gizurr inn hvíti Teitsson, who leads the attack on Gunnarr, figures later in the saga as one of the first to bring Christianity to Iceland (a historical reality confirmed by Íslendingabók; his son Ísleifr was to be Iceland’s first bishop). Gizurr is drawn into the feud by the need to avenge those reluctantly killed by Gunnarr. This theme is introduced to the saga by the sequence of incidents in which Gunnarr and Njáll struggle to maintain their friendship in the face of the attempts of 364 XXVI: Njáls saga their wives to draw them into a feud. Although they share a militant determination to protect their husbands’ honour literally to the death, these women are contrasted by their attitudes to their marital situation: Bergflóra famously declares her determination not to be separated in death from the man she was married to when young (B, lines 163– 64), whereas Hallger›r proudly sacrifices each of her three husbands after a slight on her honour. Mƒr›r Valgar›sson too, described more than once as slœgr ok illgjarn ‘cunning and ill-disposed’ (ÍF XII 70, 119), plays an unequivocally villainous role in both the first and the second parts of the saga, fomenting quarrels and acting as a ringleader in the attack on Gunnarr. He is said to be envious of Gunnarr, to whom he is related (their mothers were first cousins according to the saga’s genealogy). Once again Christianity forms the fault-line between the morally upright and the disreputable, since Mƒr›r and his father, Valgar›r inn grái, are prominent among the opponents to the Conversion (ch. 102). Christianity changes the saga’s perspective, but does not simplify it. The Christian burners are seen as more unscrupulous than their pagan predecessors who had attacked Gunnarr; and Njáll himself, though his death is infused with hagiographical overtones, remains bound by the ethic of revenge, choosing to die because he is too old to avenge his sons and will not live with shame. The overwhelming desire for harmony, shared by Gunnarr and Njáll even before the coming of the new faith, is set against the demands of the traditional code of honour, but this simple equation is complicated by conflicts of family loyalty, sexual desire and the ambiguous role of the law. Njáls saga survives in nineteen medieval manuscripts (dating from between 1300 and 1550) as well as numerous later copies, demonstrating its popularity throughout its history (Einar Ól. Sveinsson 1953). None of these early manuscripts is complete and some are no more than fragments. The text used in these extracts is that of Reykjabók (R), the earliest extant manuscript, written around 1300. This and the manuscripts related to it cite more skaldic verse than the other manuscript groups, both in the body of the text and written later in the margins. The saga is also included in the fourteenth-century Mö›ruvallabók (M) (see pp. 36, 192 and 239 above), which has supplied some readings in the text. The chapter headings are those of R, written in a different but contemporary hand to that of the text, but the chapter numbers are those conventional in editions and translations. XXVI: Njáls saga 365

Bibliography Njála, udgivet efter gamle Håndskrifter. Ed. Konrá› Gíslason et al. (1879–96). Brennu-Njálssaga (Njála) Ed. Finnur Jónsson (1908). Altnordische Saga- Bibliothek. Brennu-Njáls saga, ed. Einar Ól. Sveinsson (1954). ÍF XII. [Based on Mƒ›ruvallabók.] Njáls saga: The Arnamagnæan Manuscript 468, 4to (1962). Manuscripta Islandica. [Facsimile of Reykjabók.] Brennu-Njálssaga. Texti Reykjabókar. Ed. Sveinn Yngvi Egilsson (2004). Njal’s saga, tr. Robert Cook. In CSI III 1–220. Also published by Penguin, 2001. Scriptores historiae Augustae, trans. D. Magie et al. (1922–23, reprinted 1991). Loeb Classical Library. Jesse Byock, Viking Age Iceland (2001). Ursula Dronke, The Role of Sexual Themes in Njáls saga (1981). Dorothea Coke Memorial Lecture. Einar Ól. Sveinsson, Studies in the Manuscript Tradition of Njáls saga (1953). Studia Islandica 13. Hjalmar Falk, Altnordische Waffenkunde (1914). Lars Lönnroth, Njáls saga: A Critical Introduction (1976). Ian Maxwell, ‘Pattern in Njáls saga’. Saga-Book 15 (1957–61), 17–47. Gu›rún Nordal, ‘Attraction of Opposites: Skaldic Verse in Njáls saga’. In Literacy in Medieval and Early Modern Scandinavian Culture, ed. Pernille Hermann (2005). Evert Salberger, ‘Elfaraskáld – ett tilnamn i Njáls saga’. Scripta Islandica 24 (1973), 15–24. 366 XXVI: Njáls saga

XXVI A: THE DEATH OF GUNNARR

Chapter 76: Atrei› til Hlí›arenda Um haustit sendi Mƒr›r Valgar›sson or› at Gunnarr mundi vera einn 3 heima, en li› allt mundi vera ni›ri í Eyjum at lúka heyverkum. Ri›u fleir Gizurr hvíti ok Geirr go›i austr yfir ár flegar fleir spur›u flat, ok austr yfir sanda til Hofs. fiá sendu fleir or› Starka›i undir firíhyrningi, 6 ok fundusk fleir flar allir er at Gunnari skyldu fara, ok ré›u hversu at skyldi fara. Mƒr›r sag›i at fleir mundu eigi koma á óvart Gunnari nema fleir tœki bónda af næsta bœ, er fiorkell hét, ok léti hann fara 9 nau›gan me› sér at taka hundinn Sám ok fœri hann heim einn á bœinn.1 Fóru fleir sí›an austr til Hlí›arenda, en sendu eptir fiorkatli. fieir tóku hann hƒndum ok ger›u honum tvá kosti, at fleir mundu drepa 12 hann, ella skyldi hann taka hundinn, en hann køri heldr at leysa líf sitt ok fór me› fleim. Tra›ir váru fyrir nor›an gar›ana at Hlí›arenda, ok námu fleir flar sta›ar me› flokkinn. Bóndi fiorkell gekk heim á bœinn, 15 ok lá rakkinn á húsum uppi, ok teygir hann rakkan á braut me› sér í geilar nƒkkurar. Í flví sér hundrinn at flar eru menn fyrir, ok leypr á hann fiorkel upp ok greip nárann. ¯nundr ór Trƒllaskógi hjó me› øxi 18 í hƒfu› hundinum svá at allt kom í heilann. Hundrinn kva› vi› hátt svá at flat flótti fleim me› ódœmum miklum vera, ‹ok fell hann dau›r ni›r›.

21 Chapter 77: Víg Gunnars frá Hlí›arenda Gunnarr vakna›i í skálanum ok mælti, ‘Sárt ertu leikinn, Sámr fóstri, ok bút svá sé til ætlat at skammt skyli okkar í me›al.’ 24 Skáli Gunnars var gerr af vi›i einum ok sú›flaktr útan ok gluggar hjá brúnásunum ok snúin flar fyrir speld.2 Gunnarr svaf í lopti einu í skálanum ok Hallger›r ok mó›ir hans. fiá er fleir kómu at, vissu fleir 27 eigi hvárt Gunnarr mundi heima vera, ok bá›u at einnhverr mundi fara heim fyrir ok vita hvers víss yr›i. En fleir settusk ni›r á vƒllinn. fiorgrímr Austma›r gekk upp á skálann. Gunnarr sér at rau›an kyrtil 30 bar vi› glugginn, ok leggr út me› atgeir á hann mi›jan.3 fiorgrími skruppu fœtrnir ok var› lauss skjƒldrinn, ok hrata›i hann ofan af flekjunni. Gengr hann sí›an at fleim Gizuri er fleir sátu á vellinu‹m›. 33 Gizurr leit vi› honum ok mælti:

11 ger›u M, ger›i R. 18 at M, er R. 19–20 words supplied from M. XXVI: Njáls saga 367

‘Hvárt er Gunnarr heima?’ fiorgrímr segir, ‘Viti› flér flat, en hitt vissa ek, at atgeirr hans er heima.’ Sí›an fell hann ni›r dau›r. 36 fieir sóttu flá at húsunum. Gunnarr skaut út ƒrum at fleim ok var›isk vel, ok gátu fleir ekki at gert.4 fiá hljópu sumir á húsin ok ætlu›u fla›an at at sœkja. Gunnarr kom flangat at fleim ƒrunum, ok gátu fleir ekki at 39 gert, ok fór svá fram um hrí›. fieir tóku hvíld ok sóttu at í annat sinn. Gunnarr skaut enn út, ok gátu fleir ekki at gert ok hrukku frá í annat sinn. fiá mælti Gizurr hvíti, ‘Sœkjum at betr, ekki ver›r af oss.’ 42 Ger›u flá hrí› ina flri›ju ok váru vi› lengi. Eptir flat hrukku fleir frá. Gunnarr mælti, ‘¯r liggr flar úti á vegginum, ok er sú af fleira ƒrum, ok skal ek fleiri skjóta til fleira, ok er fleim flat skƒmm ef fleir fá g‹e›ig 45 af vápnum sínum.’ Mó›ir hans mælti, ‘Ger flú eigi flat, at flú vekir flá, er fleir hafa á›r frá horfit.’ 48 Gunnarr flreif ƒrina ok skaut til fleira, ok kom á Eilíf ¯nundarson, ok fekk hann af sár mikit. Hann haf›i sta›it einn saman, ok vissu fleir eigi at hann var sær›r. 51 ‘Hƒnd kom flar út,’ segir Gizurr, ‘ok var á gullhringr, ok tók ƒr er lá á flekjunni, ok mundi eigi út leita› vi›fanga ef gnógt væri inni, ok skulu vér nú sœkja at.’5 54 Mƒr›r mælti, ‘Brennu vér hann inni.’ ‘fiat skal ver›a aldri,’ segir Gizurr, ‘flótt ek vita at líf mitt liggi vi›. Er flér sjálfrátt at leggja til rá› flau er dugi, svá slœgr ma›r sem flú ert kalla›r.’ 57 Strengir lágu á vellinum ok váru haf›ir til at festa me› hús jafnan. Mƒr›r mælti, ‘Tƒku vér strengina ok berum um ássendana, en festum a›ra endana um steina, ok snúum í vindása ok vindum af ræfrit 60 af skálanum.’ fieir tóku strengina ok veittu flessa umbú› alla, ok fann Gunnarr eigi fyrr en fleir hƒf›u undit allt flakit af skálanum. Gunnarr sk‡tr flá 63 af boganum svá at fleir komask aldri at honum. fiá mælti Mƒr›r í annat sinn at fleir mundi brenna ‹Gunnar inni›. Gizurr mælti, ‘Eigi veit ek hví flú vill flat mæla er engi vill annarr, 66 ok skal flat aldri ver›a.’

38 í R. 41 flrukku R? 45 skumm R. 53 út M, vítt R. 54 skulu vér M, skalt flú incompletely corrected to skulu flér ?R. 65 Gunnar inni Gráskinna, Bæjarbók, Oddabók. 368 XXVI: Njáls saga

Í flessu bili hleypr upp á flekjuna fiorbrandr fiorleiksson ok høgg‹r› 69 í sundr bogastrenginn Gunnars. Gunnarr flrífr atgeirinn bá›um hƒndum ok sn‡sk at honum skjótt ok rekr í gegnum hann ok kastar honum á vƒllinn. fiá ljóp upp Ásbrandr, bró›ir hans. Gunnarr leggr til hans 72 atgeirinum ok kom hann skildi fyrir sik. Atgeirr renndi í gegnum skjƒldinn ‹ok í me›al handleggjana. Snara›i Gunnarr flá atgeirinn svá at klofna›i skjƒldrinn›, en brotnu›u bá›ir handleggirnir, ok fell 75 hann út af vegginum. Á›r haf›i Gunnarr sært átta menn, en vegit flá tvá. fiá fekk Gunnarr sár tvau, ok sƒg‹››u flat allir menn at hann bryg›i sér hvárki vi› sár né vi› bana. 78 Hann mælti til Hallger›ar, ‘Fá mér leppa tvá ór hári flínu, ok snúi› flit mó›ir mín saman til bogastrengs mér.’6 ‘Liggr flér nƒkkut vi›?’ segir hon. 81 ‘Líf mitt liggr vi›,’ segir hann, ‘flví at fleir munu mik aldri fá sótt me›an ek kem boganum vi›.’ ‘fiá skal ek nú,’ segir hon, ‘muna flér kinnhestinn,7 ok hir›i ek aldri 84 hvárt flú verr flik lengr e›a skemr.’8 ‘Hefir hverr til síns ágætis nƒkkut,’ segir Gunnarr, ‘ok skal flik flessa eigi lengi bi›ja.’ 87 Rannveig mælti, ‘Illa ferr flér, ok mun flín skƒmm lengi uppi.’ Gunnarr var›i sik vel ok frœknliga ok særir nú a›ra átta menn svá stórum sárum at mƒrgum lá vi› bana. Gunnarr verr sik flar til er hann 90 fell af mœ›i. fieir sær›u hann mƒrgum stórum sárum, en fló komsk hann ór hƒndum fleim ok var›i sik flá lengi, en fló kom flar at fleir drápu hann. Um vƒrn hans orti fiorkell Elfaraskáld í vísu flessi:9

93 Spur›u vér hvé var›isk vígmó›r kjalar sló›a Gla›st‡randi geiri, 96 Gunnarr, fyrir Kjƒl sunnan. Sóknr‡rir vann sára sextán vi›ar mána 99 hrí›ar her›imei›a hau›rmens, en tvá dau›a. Gizurr mælti, ‘Mikinn ƒldung hƒfum vér nú at velli lagit, ok hefir oss 102 erfitt veitt, ok mun hans vƒrn uppi me›an landit er byggt.’

68 ﬁorleiksson M, ﬁorkelsson R. 73–74 words supplied from M. 95 gla›st‡randa M; gn‡stœrandi (written -adni) R. 98 vi›ur R. XXVI: Njáls saga 369

Sí›an gekk hann til fundar vi› Rannveigu ok mælti, ‘Villtu veita mƒnnum várum tveimr jƒr›, er dau›ir eru, ok sé hér heyg›ir?’ ‘At heldr tveimr, at ek munda veita y›r ƒllum,’ segir hon. 105 ‘Várkunn er flat,’ segir hann, ‘er flú mælir flat, flví at flú hefir mikils misst,’ ok kva› á at flar skyldi øngu ræna ok øngu spilla. Fóru á braut sí›an. 108 fiá mælti fiórgeirr Starka›arson, ‘Eigi megum vera heima í búum várum fyrir Sigfússonum, nema flú, Gizurr, e›a Geirr sér su›r hér nƒkkura hrí›.’ 111 ‘fietta mun svá vera,’ segir Gizurr, ok hlutu›u fleir, ok hlaut Geirr eptir at vera. Sí›an fór hann í Odda ok settisk flar. Hann átti sér son er Hróaldr hét. Hann var laungetinn, ok hét Bjartey mó›ir hans ok var 114 systir fiorvalds hins veila, er veginn var vi› Hestlœk í Grímsnesi. Hann hrósa›i flví at hann hef›i veitt Gunnari banasár. Hróaldr var me› fƒ›ur sínum. fiorgeirr Starka›arson hrósa›i ƒ›ru sári at hann 117 hef›i Gunnari veitt. Gizurr sat heima at Mosfelli. Víg Gunnars spur›isk ok mæltisk illa fyrir um allar sveitir, ok var hann mƒrgum mƒnnum harmdau›i. 120

107 ræna M; rá›a R. 370 XXVI: Njáls saga

Notes 1 The dog Sámr (the name means ‘dark-coloured’) was a gift to Gunnarr from Óláfr pái (a major figure in Laxdœla saga), who claimed to have been given it on his journey to Ireland (ch. 70). It has been pointed out that, if this story were true, the dog would have been more than thirty years old when Gunnarr received it (Finnur Jónsson 1908, 156). Óláfr credits the dog with great intelligence in discerning between friend and enemy and a readiness to lay down its life for its master, effectively anticipating its role in warning Gunnarr of the attack. 2 For the construction of the typical Icelandic farmhouse at this period, see Byock 2001, 358–68 (though the buildings discussed there are constructed of turf, as was usual, rather than the overlapping boards of Hlí›arendi). The brúnásar (referred to by Byock as ‘rafter-bracing roof beams’) were two beams running along the tops of the rows of interior pillars; these beams supported the rafters at the point where the pitch of the roof changed from steep to shallow, supporting the weight of the roof (especially heavy if made of turf) and allowing the use of shorter timbers for rafters. The gluggar were probably unglazed skylights in each side of the sloping roof just below the brúnásar. 3 The atgeirr is an unusual weapon, apparently a large and heavy spear with a cutting edge on its head, like a halberd, used mostly for thrusting and hewing, but occasionally also thrown; Gunnarr’s ability to do this demonstrates his unusual strength and skill as a warrior (Falk 1914, 62–83). Gunnarr wins the weapon in a battle against a Viking on his travels in the Baltic, and is said to carry it ever afterwards; it has special powers, making a resounding noise as an omen of its impending use in a killing (ch. 30). 4 The saga’s hyperbolic account of Gunnarr’s fighting prowess includes special mention of his skill in archery: ‘Hann skaut manna bezt af boga ok hœf›i allt ﬂat, er hann skaut til’ (ch. 19); it is also referred to in ch. 17 of Hœnsa-ﬁóris saga (ÍF XII, 53 note 1). 5 Eyrbyggja saga (ch. 47) refers to this incident, attributing this observation to Geirr go›i. The mismatch between Gunnarr’s intention to shame his opponents by injuring them with their own weapon, and his attackers’ assumption that he has simply run out of ammunition, recognises his heroic status. XXVI: Njáls saga 371

6 Stories of bowstrings made of women’s hair (and the use of these stories as illustrations of loyalty) can be found in classical sources, such as Historia Augusta from c.400 AD:

Nor can we fail to mention the extraordinary loyalty displayed by the Aquileans in defending the Senate against Maximinus. For, lacking bowstrings with which to shoot their arrows, they made cords of the women’s hair. It was said that this once happened at Rome as well, whence it was that the Senate, in honour of the matrons, dedicated the temple of Venus Calva (i.e. the Bald). (Scriptores Historiae Augustae III 377–78) 7 See note 4 to the extract from Laxdœla saga, p. 199 above. Each of Hallger›r’s three husbands slaps her face, and in each case the humiliation leads to his death.

8 Here a verse is added in the margin of R, introduced with ‘Gunnarr kva› ﬂá vísu’. This verse is included in an appendix in ÍF XII 477. For the marginal verses in R, thought to have been added to the manuscript by its earliest readers, see Nordal 2005.

9 ﬁorkell Elfaraskáld is not known from elsewhere, and this is the only verse attributed to him. It has been suggested (Salberger 1973) that his nickname means ‘poet of the traveller (fari) to the Elfr (the River Elbe, known as Göta älv in modern Sweden)’, alluding to Gunnarr’s exploits in Sweden as related in chs 29–30, where he acquires the atgeirr. 372 XXVI: Njáls saga

XXVI B: THE BURNING OF NJÁLL

‹Chapter 127› Nú er flar til máls at taka at Bergflórshváli, at fleir Grímr ok Helgi 3 fóru til Hóla — flar váru fleim fóstru› bƒrn — ok sƒg›u mó›ur sinni at fleir mundu ekki heim um kveldit. fieir váru í Hólum allan daginn. fiar kómu fátœkar konur ok kvá›usk komnar at langt. fieir brœ›r 6 spur›u flær tí›inda. fiær kvá›usk engi tí›indi segja. ‘En segja kunnu vér n‡lundu nƒkkura.’ fieir spur›u hver sú væri ok bá›u flær eigi leyna. fiær sƒg›u svá 9 vera skyldu. ‘Vér kómum at ofan ór Fljótshlí›, ok sá vér Sigfússonu alla rí›a me› alvæpni. fieir stefndu upp á firíhyrningshálsa, ok váru fimmtán í 12 flokki. Vér sá‹m› ok Grana Gunnarsson ok Gunnar Lambason, ok váru fleir fimm saman. fieir stefndu ina sƒmu lei›, ok kalla má at nú sé allt á fƒr ok flaugun um hera›it.’ 15 Helgi Njálsson mælti, ‘fiá mun Flosi kominn austan, ok munu fleir allir koma til móts vi› hann, ok skulu vit Grímr vera flar Skarp- he›inn er.’ 18 Grímr kva› svá vera skyldu, ok fóru fleir heim. fienna aptan inn sama mælti Bergflóra til hjóna sinna, ‘Nú skulu flér kjósa y›r mat í kveld, at hverr hafi flat er mest f‡sir til, flví at 21 flenna aptan mun ek bera sí›ast mat fyrir hjón mín.’ ‘fiat skyldi eigi vera,’ segja flau. ‘fiat mun fló vera,’ segir hon, ‘ok má ek miklu fleira af segja ef ek 24 vil, ok mun flat til merkja at fleir Grímr ok Helgi munu heim koma á›r menn eru mettir í kveld. Ok ef fletta gengr eptir, flá mun svá fara fleira sem ek segi.’ 27 Sí›an bar hon mat á bor›. Njáll mælti: ‘Undarliga s‡nisk mér nú. Ek flikjumsk sjá um alla stofuna, ok fliki mér sem undan sé gaflveggrinn, en bló› eitt allt bor›it ok matrinn.’ 30 fiá fannsk ƒllum mikit um fletta nema Skarphe›ni. Hann ba› menn ekki syrgja né láta ƒ›rum herfiligum látum svá at menn mætti or› á flví gera. 33 ‘Ok mun oss vandara gert en ƒ›rum at vér berim oss vel, ok er flat at vánum.’

1 No chapter division in R. The preceding chapter heading is Frá Flosa ok brennumƒnnum. XXVI: Njáls saga 373

fieir Grímr ok Helgi kómu heim á›r bor›in váru ofan tekin, ok brá mƒnnum mjƒk vi› flat. Njáll spur›i hví fleir fœri svá hverft, en fleir 36 sƒg›u slíkt sem fleir hƒf›u frétt. Njáll ba› øngvan mann til svefns fara ok vera vara um sik.

Chapter 128: Vi›rtal Njáls ok Skarphe›ins 39 Nú talar Flosi vi› sína menn: ‘Nú munu vér rí›a til Bergflórshváls ok koma flar fyrir matmál.’ fieir gera nú svá. Dalr var í hválnum,10 ok ri›u fleir flangat ok bundu 42 flar hesta sína ok dvƒl›usk flar til fless er mjƒk lei› á kveldit. Flosi mælti, ‘Nú skulu vér ganga heim at bœnum ok ganga flrƒngt ok fara seint ok sjá hvat fleir taki til rá›s.’ 45 Njáll stó› úti ok synir hans ok Kári ok allir heimamenn ok skipu›usk fyrir á hla›inu, ok váru fleir nær flremr tigum. Flosi nam sta› ok mælti: ‘Nú skulu vér at hyggja hvat fleir taka rá›s, flví at mér lízk svá, ef 48 fleir standa úti fyrir, sem vér munim flá aldri sótta geta.’ ‘fiá er vár fƒr ill,’ segir Grani Gunnarsson, ‘ef skulum eigi flora at at sœkja.’ 51 ‘fiat skal ok eigi vera,’ segir Flosi, ‘ok munu vér at sœkja flótt fleir standi úti. En flat afro› munu vér gjalda, at margir munu eigi kunna frá at segja hvárir sigrask.’ 54 Njáll mælti til sinna manna, ‘Hvat sjái flér til, hversu mikit li› fleir hafa?’ ‘fieir hafa bæ›i mikit li› ok har›snúit,’ segir Skarphe›inn, ‘en flví 57 nema fleir fló nú sta› at fleir ætla at fleim muni illa sœkjask at vinna oss.’ ‘fiat mun ekki vera,’ segir Njáll, ‘ok vil ek at menn gangi inn, flví at illa sóttisk fleim Gunnarr at Hlí›arenda, ok var hann einn fyrir. En 60 hér eru hús rammlig, sem flar váru, ok munu fleir eigi skjótt sœkja.’ ‘fietta er ekki flann veg at skilja,’ segir Skarphe›inn, ‘flví at Gunnar sóttu heim fleir hƒf›ingjar er svá váru vel at sér at heldr vildu frá 63 hverfa en brenna hann inni. En flessir munu flegar sœkja oss me› eldi ef fleir megu eigi annan veg, flví at fleir munu allt til vinna at yfir taki vi› oss. Munu fleir flat ætla, sem eigi er ólíkligt, at flat sé fleira bani ef 66 oss dregr undan. Ek em ok fless ófúss at láta svæla mik inni sem mel- rakka í greni.’

57 bæ›i] be›it R. 374 XXVI: Njáls saga

69 Njáll mælti, ‘Nú mun sem optar, at flér munu‹›› bera mik rá›um, synir mínir, ok vir›a mik engis. En flá er flér váru› yngri flá gjƒr›u› flér flat eigi, ok fór y›art rá› flá betr fram.’ 72 Helgi mælti, ‘Gerum vér sem fa›ir várr vill. fiat mun oss bezt gegna.’ ‘Eigi veit ek flat víst,’ segir Skarphe›inn, ‘flví at hann er nú feigr. En vel má ek gera flat til skaps fƒ›ur míns at brenna inni me› honum, 75 flví at ek hræ›umsk ekki dau›a minn.’ Hann mælti flá vi› Kára, ‘Fylgjumsk vel, mágr, svá at engi skilisk vi› annan.’ 78 ‘fiat hefi ek ætlat,’ segir Kári, ‘en ef annars ver›r au›it flá mun flat ver›a fram at koma, ok mun ek ekki mega vi› flví gera.’ ‘Hefndu vár en vér flín,’ segir Skarphe›inn, ‘ef vér lifum eptir.’ 81 Kári kva› svá vera skyldu. Gengu fleir flá inn allir ok skipu›usk í dyrrin. Flosi mælti, ‘Nú eru fleir feigir, er fleir hafa inn gengit, ok skulu vér 84 heim ganga sem skjótast ok skipask sem flykkvast fyrir dyrrin ok geyma fless at engi komisk í braut, hvárki Kári né Njálssynir, flví at flat er várr bani.’ 87 fieir Flosi kómu nú heim ok skipu›usk umhverfis húsin, ef nƒkkurar væri laundyrr á. Flosi gekk framan at húsunum ok hans menn. Hróaldr ¯zurarson hljóp flar at sem Skarphe›inn var fyrir, ok lag›i til hans. 90 Skarphe›inn hjó spjótit af skapti fyrir honum ok hjó til hans, ok kom øxin ofan í skjƒldinn, ok bar at Hróaldi flegar allan skjƒldinn, en hyrnan sú in fremri tók andlitit, ok fell hann á bak aptr ok flegar dau›r. Kári 93 mælti: ‘Lítt dró enn undan vi› flik, Skarphe›inn, ok ertu vár frœknastr.’ ‘Eigi veit ek flat víst,’ segir Skarphe›inn, ok brá vi› grƒnum ok 96 glotti at.11 Kári ok Grímr ok Helgi lƒg›u út mƒrgum spjótum ok sær›u marga menn. En Flosi ok hans menn fengu ekki at gert. Flosi mælti, ‘Vér hƒfum fengi‹t› mikinn mannska›a á mƒnnum 99 várum. Eru margir sárir, en sá veginn er vér mundum sízt til kjósa. Er nú flat sét at vér getum flá eigi me› vápnum sótta. Er sá nú margr er eigi gengr jafnskƒruliga at sem létu. En fló munu vér nú ver›a at gera 102 annat rá› fyrir oss. Eru nú tve‹i›r kostir til, ok er hvárgi gó›r: sá annarr at hverfa frá, ok er flat várr bani; hinn annarr at bera at eld ok brenna flá inni, ok er flat stórr ábyrg›arlutr fyrir Gu›i, er vér erum 105 menn kristnir sjálfir.12 En fló munu vér flat brag›s taka.’

99 it added after sárir R. XXVI: Njáls saga 375

Chapter 129: Bœjarbruni at Bergflórshváli fieir tóku nú eld ok ger›u bál mikit fyrir dyrunum. fiá mælti Skarp- he›inn: 108 ‘Eld kveykvi› flér nú, sveinar, e›a hvárt skal nú búa til sey›is?’ Grani Gunnarsson svarar, ‘Svá skal flat vera, ok skaltu eigi flurfa heitara at baka.’ 111 Skarphe›inn mælti, ‘fiví launar flú mér, sem flú ert ma›r til, er ek hefnda fƒ›ur flíns, ok vir›ir flat meira er flér er óskyldara.’13 fiá báru konur s‡ru í eldinn ok sløkktu ni›r fyrir fleim. Kolr fiorsteins- 114 son mælti til Flosa: ‘Rá› kemr mér í hug. Ek hefi sét lopt í skálanum á flvertrjám, ok skulu vér flar inn bera eldinn ok kveykva vi› arfasátu flá er hér stendr 117 fyrir ofan húsin.’14 Sí›an tóku fleir arfasátuna ok báru í eld. Fundu fleir eigi fyrr, er inni váru, en loga›i ofan allr skálinn. Ger›u fleir Flosi flá stór bál 120 fyrir ƒllum dyrum. Tók flá kvennafólkit illa at flola, flat sem inni var. Njáll mælti til fleira: ‘Ver›i› vel vi› ok mæli› eigi æ›ru, flví at él eitt mun vera, ok skyldi 123 langt til annars slíks. Trúi› flér ok flví, at Gu› er svá miskunnsamr at hann mun oss eigi bæ›i brenna láta flessa heims ok annars.’ Slíkar fortƒlur haf›i hann fyrir fleim ok a›rar hraustligri. Nú taka 126 ƒll húsin at loga. fiá gekk Njáll til dyra ok mælti: ‘Hvárt er Flosi svá nær at hann megi heyra mál mitt?’ Flosi kvazk heyra mega. Njáll mælti: 129 ‘Villt flú nƒkkut taka sættum vi› sonu mína e›a lofa nƒkkurum mƒnnum útgƒngu?’ Flosi svarar, ‘Eigi vil ek vi› sonu flína sættum taka, ok skal nú yfir 132 lúka me› oss ok eigi fyrr frá ganga en fleir eru allir dau›ir, en lofa vil ek útgƒngu konum ok bƒrnum ok húskƒrlum.’ Njáll gekk flá inn ok mælti vi› fólkit, ‘Nú er fleim út at ganga ƒllum 135 er leyft er. Ok gakk flú út, fiórhalla Ásgrímsdóttir, ok allr l‡›r me› flér, sá er lofat er.’ fiórhalla mælti, ‘Annarr ver›r nú skilna›r okkarr Helga en ek ætla›a 138 um hrí›, en fló skal ek eggja fƒ›ur minn ok brœ›r at fleir hefni flessa mannska›a er hér er gerr.’15

117 ﬂar written ﬂr with superscript abbreviation for ar R. 133 fyrr written f with superscript i (= firr or firir) R. 137 lofat er written twice R. 376 XXVI: Njáls saga

141 Njáll mælti, ‘Vel mun flér fara, flví at flú ert gó› kona.’ Sí›an gekk hon út ok mart li› me› henni. Ástrí›r af Djúpárbakka mælti vi› Helga Njálsson, ‘Gakktu út me› 144 mér, ok mun ek kasta yfir flik kvenskikkju ok falda flik me› hƒfu›dúki.’ Hann tal›isk undan fyrst, en fló ger›i hann fletta fyrir bœn fleira. Ástrí›r vaf›i hƒfu›dúk at hƒf›i Helga, en fiórhildr kona Skarphe›ins 147 lag›i yfir hann skikkjuna, ok gekk hann út á me›al fleira, ok flá gekk út fiorger›r Njálsdóttir ok Helga, systir hennar, ok mart annat fólk. En er Helgi kom út, mælti Flosi, ‘Sú er há kona ok mikil um her›ar 150 er flar fór. Taki› ‹hana› ok haldi› henni.’ En er Helgi heyr›i fletta, kasta›i hann skikkjunni. Hann haf›i haft sver› undir hendi sér ok hjó til manns, ok kom í skjƒldinn ok af spor›inn 153 ok fótinn af manninum. fiá kom Flosi at ok hjó á hálsinn Helga svá at flegar tók af hƒfu›it. Flosi gekk flá at dyrum ok kalla›i á Njál ok kvazk vildu tala vi› 156 hann ok Bergflóru. Njáll gerir nú svá. Flosi mælti: ‘Útgƒngu vil ek bjó›a flér, Njáll bóndi, flví at flú brennr ómakligr inni.’ 159 Njáll mælti, ‘Eigi vil ek út ganga, flví at ek em ma›r gamall ok lítt til búinn at hefna sona minna, en ek vil eigi lifa vi› skƒmm.’ Flosi mælti flá til Bergflóru, ‘Gakktu út, húsfreyja, flví at ek vil flik 162 fyrir øngan mun inni brenna.’ Bergflóra mælti, ‘Ek var ung gefin Njáli. Hefi ek flví heitit honum at eitt skyldi ganga yfir okkr bæ›i.’ 165 Sí›an gengu flau inn bæ›i. Bergflóra mælti: ‘Hvat skulu vit nú til rá›a taka?’ ‘Ganga munu vit til hvílu okkarrar,’ segir Njáll, ‘ok leggjask ni›r; 168 hefi ek lengi værugjarn verit.’ Hon mælti flá vi› sveininn fiór› Kárason, ‘fiik skal út bera, ok skaltu eigi inni brenna.’ 171 ‘Hinu hefir flú mér heitit, amma,’ segir sveinninn, ‘at vit skyldim aldri skilja me›an ek vilda hjá flér vera, en mér flikkir miklu betra at deyja me› ykkr Njáli en lifa eptir.’16 174 Hon bar flá sveininn til hvílunnar. Njáll mælti vi› brytja sinn: ‘Nú skaltu sjá hvar vit leggjumsk ni›r ok hversu ek b‡ um okkr, flví at ek ætla he›an hvergi at hrœrask, hvárt sem mér angrar reykr e›a 177 bruni. Máttu nú nær geta hvar beina okkarra er at leita.’

150 hana M. XXVI: Njáls saga 377

Hann sag›i svá vera skyldu. fiar haf›i slátrat verit uxa einum, ok lá flar hú›in. Njáll mælti vi› brytjann at hann skyldi brei›a yfir flau hú›ina, ok hann hét flví. fiau 180 leggjask nú ni›r bæ›i í rúmit ok leggja sveininn í millum sín. fiá signdu flau sik ok sveininn ok fálu Gu›i ƒnd sína á hendi ok mæltu flat sí›ast svá menn heyr›i. fiá tók brytinn hú›ina ok breiddi yfir flau 183 ok gekk út sí›an.17 Ketill ór Mƒrk tók í móti honum ok kippti honum út.18 Hann spur›i vandliga at Njáli, mági sínum, en brytinn sag›i allt it sanna. Ketill mælti, 186 ‘Mikill harmr er at oss kve›inn, er vér skulum svá mikla ógæfu saman eiga.’ Skarphe›inn sá er fa›ir hans lag›isk ni›r ok hversu hann bjó um 189 sik. Hann mælti flá: ‘Snemma ferr fa›ir várr at rekkju, ok er flat sem ván er: hann er ma›r gamall.’ 192 fiá tóku fleir Skarphe›inn ok Kári ok Grímr brandana jafnskjótt sem ofan duttu, ok skutu út á flá, ok gekk flví um hrí›. fiá skutu fleir spjótum inn at fleim, en fleir tóku ƒll á lopti ok sendu út aptr. Flosi ba› flá 195 hætta at skjóta, ‘flví at oss munu ƒll vápnaskipti flungt ganga vi› flá. Megu flér nú vel bí›a fless er eldrinn vinnr flá.’ fieir gera nú svá. fiá fellu ofan stórvi›inir ór ræfrinu. 198 Skarphe›inn mælti flá, ‘Nú mun fa›ir minn dau›r vera, ok hefir hvárki heyrt til hans styn né hósta.’ fieir gengu flá í skálaendann. fiar var fallit ofan flvertré ok brunnit 201 mjƒk í mi›ju. Kári mælti til Skarphe›ins: ‘Hlau‹p›tu hér út, ok mun ek beina at me› flér, en ek mun hlaupa flegar eptir, ok munu vit flá bá›ir í brott komask ef vit breytum svá, 204 flví at hingat leggr allan reykinn.’ Skarphe›inn mælti, ‘fiú skalt hlaupa fyrri, en ek mun flegar á hæla flér.’ 207 ‘Ekki er flat rá›,’ segir Kári, ‘flví at ek komisk vel annars sta›ar út flótt hér gangi eigi.’ ‘Eigi vil ek flat,’ segir Skarphe›inn. ‘Hlauptu út fyrri, en ek mun 210 flegar eptir.’ ‘fiat er hverjum manni bo›it at leita sér lífs me›an kostr er,’ segir Kári, ‘ok skal ek ok svá gera. En fló mun nú sá skilna›r me› okkr 213

182 ƒnd M, hƒnd R. 213 nú M, ﬂó R. 378 XXVI: Njáls saga

ver›a at vit munum aldri sjásk sí›an, flví at ef ek hleyp ór eldinum, flá mun ‹ek› eigi hafa skap til at hlaupa inn aptr í eldinn til flín, ok mun 216 flá sína lei› fara hvárr okkar.’ ‘fiat hlœgir mik,’ segir Skarphe›inn, ‘ef flú kemsk á brott, mágr, attu mun hefna mín.’ 219 fiá tók Kári einn setstokk loganda í hƒnd sér ok hleypr út eptir flver- trénu. Kastar hann flá stokkinum út af flekjunni, ok fell hann at fleim er úti váru fyrir. fieir hlupu flá undan. fiá logu›u klæ›in ƒll á Kára ok 222 svá hárit. Hann steypir sér flá út af flekjunni ok stiklar svá me› reykinum. fiá mælti einn ma›r er flar var næstr, ‘Hvárt hljóp flar ma›r út af 225 flekjunni?’ ‘Fjarri fór flat,’ segir annarr, ‘heldr kasta›i flar Skarphe›inn eldi- stokki at oss.’ 228 Sí›an grunu›u fleir flat ekki. Kári hljóp til fless er hann kom at lœk einum. Hann kasta›i sér flar í ofan ok sløkkti á sér eldinn. Sí›an hljóp hann me› reykinum í gróf nƒkkura ok hvíldi sik, ok er flat sí›an kƒllu› 231 Káragróf.

214 sjásk M, ‘saaz’ R. XXVI: Njáls saga 379

Notes 10 The dalr is a depression in the hill (hváll) on which the farmhouse stood. It can still be seen, but is too small to have concealed the 100 men said (in ch. 124) to have taken part in the burning, together with the two horses of each (ÍF XII 325, note 3).

11 Skarphe›inn is described as having an ugly mouth and protruding teeth (ch. 25), and his grin emphasises his threatening appearance at many points in the saga.

12 The Christianity of the burners is emphasised by their having stopped at the church at Kirkjubœr to pray on their way to Bergﬂórs- hváll (ch. 126).

13 Grani is the son of Gunnarr of Hlí›arendi, but is said to resemble his mother Hallger›r in temperament (ch. 75).

14 The use of the chickweed to kindle the fire that will burn Njáll and Bergﬂóra was predicted by an old servant-woman, Sæunn, but Skarp- he›inn refused to remove it, since fate cannot be avoided (ch. 124).

15 ﬁórhalla’s father, Ásgrímr Elli›a-Grímsson, and her brother ﬁór- hallr (fostered by Njáll, who taught him law) later conduct the lawsuit against the burners.

16 ﬁór›r, son of Kári and of Helga Njálsdóttir, has been fostered by Njáll (ch. 109).

17 The ox-hide covering Njáll and Bergﬂóra provides a rational explanation for the undamaged state of their bodies when they are found, but this state is also used to imply an almost saint-like quality in Njáll (ch. 132).

18 Ketill of Mƒrk is one of the Sigfússynir, and therefore among Njáll’s attackers; but he is also the husband of Njáll’s daughter ﬁorger›r, who has left the house along with the other women of the household (line 148). 380 XXVI: Njáls saga XXVII: Grágás 381

XXVII: GRÁGÁS

The name Grágás (literally ‘grey goose’) is a convenient if somewhat arbitrary label of obscure origin used collectively for the laws of the medieval Icelandic Commonwealth as preserved in a number of manuscripts. The two most important manuscripts are GkS 1157 fol. (also called Codex Regius or, as here, Konungsbók; = K) and AM 334 fol. (also known as Sta›arhólsbók; = S). K is normally dated to c.1260, Sta›arhólsbók to c.1280. Other manuscripts or fragments which preserve parts of Grágás include AM 315 d fol. (two leaves), written perhaps as early as c.1150–75 and one of the oldest Icelandic manuscripts in existence. Compared with other laws of medieval Scandinavia, Grágás is a work of enormous size and detail. In Vilhjálmur Finsen’s edition of 1852, the Konungsbók text of Grágás takes up some 460 pages; printed in the same series (also in 1852) with identical format and type, the next longest of the early Scandinavian laws, Erik’s law of Zealand (cf. MS 384), covers only about 130 pages. The contents of K may be roughly divided into fifteen sections, as follows (the symbol § is used for the chapters into which the texts of Grágás are divided in Finsen’s editions): (1) Kristinna laga fláttr (‘Christian laws section’, §§ 1–19); (2) fiingskapafláttr (‘Assembly procedures section’, §§ 20–85); (3) Vígsló›i (‘Treatment of homicide’, §§ 86–112); (4) Baugatal (‘The wergild ring list’, § 113) (together with Gri›amál, ‘Truce speech’, § 114, and Trygg›amál, ‘Peace guarantee speech’, § 115); (5) Lƒgsƒgumannsfláttr (‘The lawspeaker’s section’, § 116); (6) Lƒgréttufláttr (‘The Law Council section’, § 117); (7) Arfa- fláttr (‘Inheritance section’, §§ 118–27); (8) Ómagabálkr (‘Dependents section’, §§ 128–43); (9) Festafláttr (‘Betrothals section’, §§ 144–71); (10) Landbrig›afláttr (‘Land-claims section’, §§ 172–20); (11) Um fjárleigur (‘On hire of property’, §§ 221–26); (12) Rannsóknafláttr (‘Searches section’, §§ 227–33); (13) Um hreppaskil (‘On commune obligations’, §§ 234–36); (14) A section containing miscellaneous articles relating to such diverse matters as verbal injury by poetry or harm from tame bears, §§ 234–54; (15) Um tíundargjald (‘On tithe payment’, together with further miscellaneous provisions, §§ 255–68). The texts of K and S differ substantially. Sta›arhólsbók does not have sections corresponding to (2), (4), (5), (6), (12), (13), (14) and (15) and the sections it does have appear in the order (1), (7), (8), (9), (11), 382 XXVII: Grágás

(3), (10). But sometimes matter in K in the sections absent in S is paralleled by matter in other sections present in S. Where the matter of the two texts is essentially the same, S is very often more detailed, better organised and has more ‘modern’ content than K. And both S and other manuscripts contain much matter not found in K at all. A long tradition lies behind the preserved texts of Grágás, stretching back to oral recitations of what must have been essentially heathen law by the first lawspeakers at the Alflingi in the fourth decade of the tenth century (cf. Text VIII (c) and notes 19 and 21 to that text). The acceptance of Christianity in 999 must inevitably have led to profound changes in the law (cf. VIII:123–43). Further, in 1096 or 1097 a law of tithe was introduced (cf. VIII:150–68; HOIC 147–53). And in the period 1122–33, Kristinna laga fláttr was compiled and recorded in written form (cf. HOIC 160–69). Meanwhile, in the winter of 1117–18, at the home of Hafli›i Másson at Brei›abólsta›r (in present-day Vestur-Húnavatnss‡sla), some, at least, of the oral secular laws had also been committed to writing under the supervision of Bergflórr Hrafnsson, lawspeaker at the time, and other legal experts (cf. VIII:168–80; HOIC 89–93; Laws I 9–13). The result of these men’s work was doubtless the book referred to in K § 117 (cf. Laws I 190–91) as skrá sú er Hafli›i lét gera (‘the screed which Hafli›i had made’), called Hafli›askrá by modern scholars, and it is generally supposed that the preserved manuscripts of Grágás (apart from Kristinna laga fláttr) go back in part ultimately to Hafli›askrá. Law-making did not cease with the appearance of Hafli›askrá and Kristinna laga fláttr, and texts of Grágás would have proliferated, developed and been expanded in various ways over the period after 1130, not least as a result of new legislation by the Law Council (lƒgrétta). After Iceland’s submission to the Norwegian king in 1262–64, the main part of Grágás was superseded by Járnsí›a in 1271 (itself replaced by Jónsbók in the early 1280s). Kristinna laga fláttr, however, remained in force in the diocese of Skálholt until 1275 and in the diocese of Hólar until 1354, and other sections of Grágás continued to be invoked in cases for which the much briefer Jónsbók provided insufficient guidance. It is uncertain how Grágás acquired the distinctly literary quality it has in contrast to that of the continental Scandinavian laws of the Middle Ages which are far more oral and primitive in their style. It could well have done so in connection with the first writing down of XXVII: Grágás 383 the laws in the second decade of the twelfth century (cf. Ólafur Lárusson 1958, 87–89; Laws I 14–15). Grágás gives us a picture of numerous aspects of life, both everyday and ceremonial, in the medieval Icelandic Commonwealth. In many respects it presents a different and truer picture than many of our other sources (such as the Sagas of Icelanders). The passage selected here as a sample is the ‘Lawspeaker’s section’ (Lƒgsƒgumannsfláttr), only preserved in K (pp. 83a17–84a14), where it is the shortest section (consisting of a single chapter, § 116). The lawspeaker would have been a central figure in public life in Iceland during the Common- wealth period and particularly prominent at the meetings of the General Assembly (Alflingi) held every summer at fiingvellir and attended by people from all over the country. He was elected for a term of three summers but could be re-elected. At the annual meetings of the Alflingi he had the important function of presiding at the Law Council, the foremost legislative body in the country. He also had the duty of reciting fiingskapafláttr at Lƒgberg (‘the Law Rock’) every summer and the rest of the laws over the three-year period of his office. For a fuller account of the lawspeaker’s position within the framework of the constitution of the Icelandic commonwealth, the student is referred to the chapter ‘Form of government’ in HOIC 35–93, supplemented by a reading of fiingskapafláttr and Lƒgréttufláttr as well, of course, as the passage edited here (see Laws I 53–38, 189–93, 187–88). There were some 43 lawspeakers from the time of the institution of the Alflingi until 1271 and it is possible to draw up a complete list of them (see p. 389 below and Jón Sigur›sson 1886, 1–4) based on medieval sources such as Íslendingabók and lists in the manuscripts DG 11, which also contains a version of Snorra Edda (see pp. 15–21 above), and AM 106 fol., which also contains a version of Landnámabók (see pp. 255–60 above). The list extends from the shadowy Úlfljótr (cf. VIII:39–41) to fiorleifr hreimr Ketilsson (cf. III:44 above). It includes such notables as fiorgeirr fiorkelsson Ljósvetningago›i who, according to Ari fiorgilsson (VIII:116–43), played an important role in the conversion of Iceland to Christianity; Skapti fióroddsson, who held the position longest of all (1004–30) and who must have had some hand in changes to the law resulting from the Conversion and also in the institution of the Fifth Court ( fimmtardómr; cf. HOIC 70–74; Laws I 83–88, 244–45); the eleventh-century poet Markús Skeggjason 384 XXVII: Grágás

(died 1107; cf. VIII:152 and note 51); and in the thirteenth century three prominent political and literary figures, all members of the Sturlung family, Snorri Sturluson and his nephews Sturla fiór›arson and Óláfr fiór›arson. Apart from his official function as an authority on legal matters, the lawspeaker would have been a repository for much other information, not only current politics and gossip, but also history, lore and tradition. Indeed, the annual meetings of the Alflingi attended by people from all over the country and with the lawspeaker at the centre of its proceedings must have been a strong force for the preservation of a language that was hardly marked by regional differences and of a vigorous and dynamic oral tradition during the days of the Icelandic Commonwealth. This oral tradition would would have concerned the past as well as the present and would have become a rich source for thirteenth-century Icelanders writing about bygone times.

Bibliography Facsimile edition: Páll Eggert Ólason (ed.), The Codex Regius of Grágás, CCIMA III (1932). Critical editions: Vilhjálmur Finsen (ed.), Grágás. Islændernes Lovbog i Fristatens Tid udgivet efter det kongelige Bibliotheks Haandskrift (1852; reprints 1945, 1974). [Text of K and various fragments, including AM 315 d fol.] Vilhjálmur Finsen (ed.), Grágás efter det Arnamagnæanske Haandskrift Nr. 334 fol., Sta›arhólsbók (1879; reprint 1974). [Text of S] Vilhjálmur Finsen (ed.), Grágás. Stykker, som findes i det Arnamagnæanske Haandskrift Nr. 351 fol. Skálholtsbók og en Række andre Haandskrifter (1883; reprint 1974) [Texts of various minor manuscript sources; apparatus includes a detailed ‘Ordregister’ (in Danish) of technical vocabulary on pp. 579–714] Popular edition: Gunnar Karlsson, Kristján Sveinsson, Mör›ur Árnason (eds), Grágás. Lagasafn íslenska ﬂjó›veldisins (1992). [In modern Icelandic spelling; includes the whole of the Sta›arhólsbók text (pp. 1–369) and parts of the text of K without parallel in S (pp. 371–480)] English translation: Laws of early Iceland. Grágás. The Codex Regius of Grágás with material from other manuscripts I–II, tr. Andrew Dennis, Peter Foote, Richard Perkins (1980–2000). [= Laws. A complete translation of K, with ‘Additions’ from other sources (mainly S) which either amplify the contents of K or supply matter not found in it. Apparatus includes ‘A guide to technical vocabulary’.] XXVII: Grágás 385

Background reading: Björn fiorsteinsson, Thingvellir. Iceland’s national shrine, tr. Peter Foote (1987). H.-P. Naumann, ‘Grágás’. In Reallexikon der germanischen Altertumskunde von Johannes Hoops, zweite . . . Auflage, ed. Heinrich Beck et al. (1973– ), XII 569–73. Jón Sigur›sson, ‘Lögsögumannatal og lögmanna á Íslandi’. In Safn til sögu Íslands og íslenzkra bókmenta II (1886), 1–250. HOIC 35–93. MS under Alflingi; Go›i; Grágás; Iceland; Laws 2. Iceland. Ólafur Lárusson, ‘On Grágás – the oldest Icelandic code of law’. In firi›ji Víkingafundur. Third Viking Congress, Reykjavík 1956 (Árbók Hins íslenzka Fornleifafélags. Fylgirit, 1958), ed. Kristján Eldjárn (1958), 77–89. Beck, Heinrich, Wortschatz der altisländischen Grágás (Konungsbók) (1993). [A concordance of the Konungsbók text] For maps of fiingvƒllr (with for instance the site of Lƒgberg marked), see HOIC 42, Laws I 281, Björn fiorsteinsson (1987), 9–11. 386 XXVII: Grágás

XXVII: GRÁGÁS

Lƒgsƒgumannsfláttr Svá er enn mælt at sá ma›r skal vera nokkurr ávalt á landi óru er 3 skyldr sé til fless at segja lƒg mƒnnum, ok heitir sá lƒgsƒguma›r. En ef lƒgsƒgumanns missir vi›, flá skal ór fleim fjór›ungi taka mann til at segja flingskƒp1 upp it næsta sumar er hann haf›i sí›arst heimili í. 6 Menn2 skulu flá taka sér lƒgsƒgumann ok s‡sla flat fƒstudag hverr vera skal á›r sakir sé l‡star.3 fiat er ok vel ef allir menn ver›a sáttir á einn mann. En ef lƒgréttuma›r nokkurr stendr vi› flví er flestir vilja, ok4 9 skal flá hluta í hvern fjór›ung lƒgsaga skal hverfa. En fleir fjór›ungsmenn er flá hefr hlutr í hag borit skulu taka lƒgsƒgumann flann sem fleir ver›a sáttir á, hvárt sem sá er ór fleirra fjór›ungi e›a ór ƒ›rum 12 fjór›ungi nokkurum, fleirra manna er fleir megu flat geta at. Nú ver›a fjór›ungsmenn eigi á sáttir, ok skal flá afl rá›a me› fleim. En ef fleir eru jafnmargir er lƒgréttusetu eigu er sinn lƒgsƒgumann vilja hvárir, 15 flá skulu fleir rá›a er biskup sá fellr í fullting me› er í fleim fjór›ungi er.5 Nú eru lƒgréttumenn nokkurir fleir er níta flví er a›rir vilja, fái engan mann sjálfir til lƒgsƒgu, ok eigu enskis fleirra or› at metask. 18 Lƒgsƒgumann á í lƒgréttu at taka, flá er menn hafa rá›it hverr vera skal, ok skal einn ma›r skilja fyrir en a›rir gjalda samkvæ›i á, ok skal flrjú sumur samfast inn sami hafa, nema menn vili eigi breytt 21 hafa.6 Ór fleirri lƒgréttu er lƒgsƒguma›r er tekinn skulu menn ganga til Lƒgbergs ok skal hann ganga til Lƒgbergs ok setjask í rúm sitt ok skipa Lƒgberg fleim mƒnnum sem hann vill. En menn skulu flá mæla 24 málum sínum. fiat er ok mælt at lƒgsƒguma›r er skyldr til fless at segja upp lƒgfláttu alla á flremr sumrum hverjum en flingskƒp hvert sumar.7 Lƒgsƒguma›r 27 á upp at segja syknuleyfi ƒll at Lƒgbergi svá at meiri hlutr manna sé flar, ef flví um náir, ok misseristal, ok svá flat ef menn skulu koma fyrr til Alflingis en tíu vikur eru af sumri,8 ok tína imbrudagahald9 ok 30 fƒstuíganga, ok skal hann fletta allt mæla at flinglausnum. fiat er ok10 at lƒgsƒguma›r skal svá gerla fláttu alla upp segja at engi viti einna miklugi gørr. En ef honum vinnsk eigi fró›leikr til fless, flá 33 skal hann eiga stefnu vi› fimm lƒgmenn in næstu dœgr á›r e›a fleiri,

9 En] The scribe first wrote Ef then altered it to En. 15 fellr] The scribe first wrote er then altered it to fellr. 20 hafa] hafi K. XXVII: Grágás 387

flá er hann má helzt geta af, á›r hann segi hvern flátt upp; ok ver›r hverr ma›r útlagr flremr mƒrkum er ólofat gengr á mál fleirra, ok á lƒgsƒguma›r sƒk flá. 36 Lƒgsƒguma›r skal hafa hvert sumar tvau hundru› álna va›mála af lƒgréttufjám fyrir starf sitt.11 Hann á ok útleg›ir allar hálfar, flær er á Alflingi eru dœm›ar hér,12 ok skal dœma eindaga á fleim ƒllum annat 39 sumar hér í búandakirkjugar›i,13 mi›vikudag í mitt fling. Útlagr er hverr ma›r flremr mƒrkum er fé lætr dœma, ef hann segir eigi lƒgsƒgu- manni til ok svá hverir dómsuppsƒguváttar hafa verit. 42 fiat er ok, flá er lƒgsƒguma›r hefr haft flrjú sumur lƒgsƒgu, ok skal hann flá segja upp flingskƒp it fjór›a sumar fƒstudag inn fyrra í flingi. fiá er hann ok lauss frá lƒgsƒgu ef hann vill. Nú vill hann hafa lƒgsƒgu 45 lengr, ef a›rir unna honum, flá skal inn meiri hlutr lƒgréttumanna rá›a. fiat er ok at lƒgsƒguma›r er útlagr flremr mƒrkum ef hann kemr 48 eigi til Alflingis fƒstudag inn fyrra, á›r menn gangi til Lƒgbergs, at nau›synjalausu, enda eigu menn flá at taka annan lƒgsƒgumann ef vilja. 51

Notes

1 I.e. some of the material from fiingskapafláttr (Assembly Procedures Section, Laws I 53–138), and probably some of Lƒgsƒgumannsfláttr (The Lawspeaker’s Section, Laws I 187–88) and Lƒgréttufláttr (The Law Council Section, Laws I 189–93) too.

2 I.e. lƒgréttumenn (members of the Law Council).

3 I.e. the first Friday of the Assembly, which would have been the one between 19th and 25th June. Cf. Laws I 53–54.

4 Opening a main clause that stands after a subordinate clause (especially one beginning with ef or nú = ef) with ok instead of ﬂá is especially common in legal texts, but also occurs quite widely elsewhere (see lines 13, 17, 43 below and Texts II:21, XXI:38, and cf. Glossary under ok, nú, ef, ﬂá1 and Gr 3.9.9).

38 fyrir] written twice in K at line-division. 388 XXVII: Grágás

5 The Skálaholt bishop had authority over the East, South and West Quarters, the Hólar bishop over the Northern Quarter. Cf. Extract VIII, notes 54–55; Laws I 35–36.

6 I.e. after the three years, a new lawspeaker will be appointed unless men do not wish to have him changed.

7 Cf. Laws I 193.

8 The misseristal would have been the calendar for the coming year. Cf. Misseristal (Calendar), Laws I 51 and Laws I 111–12.

9 Ember Days (imbrudagar) are four groups each of three days at various times of the year observed in the Middle Ages as days of fasting and abstinence.

10 Sc. mælt ‘prescribed (that)’ (cf. lines 25 above and 43 and 48 below; Laws I 12–13).

11 The only source of Law Council funds (lƒgréttufé) that is mentioned in Grágás is payments for leave to marry within the remoter degrees of kinship (Laws II 55, 60–61, 81), but it may be that all licences had to be paid for. The lawspeaker was the only paid officer under the laws of the Icelandic Commonwealth.

12 See Laws I 80 for an exception to this. It is also stated that he shares in fines imposed at the spring assembly he participates in, and that if he himself is fined for failure to discharge all the duties required of him, half is due to the man who prosecutes him and half to the judges of the case (Laws I 193). Cf. lines 48–51 below.

13 We hear of two churches at ﬁingvellir during the commonwealth period, one in public ownership which collapsed in a storm in 1118, the other, known as búandakirkja, belonged to the local farmer and would have been a burial church (cf. Laws I 29, footnote 17). It is the churchyard of this latter which must be referred to here and which is often mentioned as the legally prescribed place for payments (e.g., besides here, Laws I 172, 205; cf. Björn ﬁorsteinsson 1987, 49–54). A NEW INTRODUCTION TO OLD NORSE

PART III: GLOSSARY AND INDEX OF NAMES

A NEW INTRODUCTION TO OLD NORSE

PART III GLOSSARY AND INDEX OF NAMES

COMPILED BY ANTHONY FAULKES FOURTH EDITION

SUPPLEMENT I: GLOSSARY AND INDEX OF NAMES TO EAST NORSE TEXTS

SUPPLEMENT II: GLOSSARY AND INDEX OF NAMES TO RUNIC TEXTS

COMPILED BY MICHAEL BARNES

ISBN: 978-0-903521-70-3

First published 2001 Second edition with corrections and additions 2002 Third edition with corrections and additions 2005 Fourth edition with corrections and additions and two supplements 2007 Reprinted 2008

Printed by Short Run Press Limited, Exeter GLOSSARY AND INDEX OF NAMES

References to the Grammar are to paragraphs (e.g. Gr 3.5.2.1; ex. = exercise) and those to texts are to the number of the text followed by the line number (e.g. II:62). A second occurrence of the same word in a line is indicated by (2). Syntactical explanations and common pronouns and conjunctions are referred to the appropriate paragraphs in the Grammar for full information. Cross-references are given for verbal and nominal forms where the vowel in the first syllable differs from the head-word form, except for some forms involving the alternation of a and ƒ. Principal parts of verbs are identified by pres., past, past pl., subj., pp. For pres. and past, the 3rd person sg. is given, for past pl. the 3rd person pl., for pp. the nom. m. sg., except for those verbs that are more often found in the n. form (supine), where the nom./acc. n. sg. is given. See Gr 3.9.7.1. In the alphabetical order the acute accent is disregarded; d and › are treated as one letter, ﬂ comes after y and is followed by æ, œ, ƒ and ø, and ∂ is not distinguished from e. Words from Text XXII with lengthened or diphthongised vowels before -ng are not listed separately from words without these changes.

Abbreviations acc. accusative pl. plural act. active pos. positive adj. adjective poss. possessive adv. adverb(ial) pp. past participle art. article prep. preposition aux. auxiliary pres. (part.) present (participle) comp. comparative pret.-pres. preterite present conj. conjunction pron. pronoun dat. dative refl. reflexive def. definite rel. relative f. feminine sf. strong feminine gen. genitive sg. singular imp. imperative sm. strong masculine impers. impersonal sn. strong neuter indic. indicative subj. subjunctive inf. infinitive sup. superlative interrog. interrogative sv. strong verb m. masculine vb. verb n. neuter wf. weak feminine neg. negative wk. weak nom. nominative wm. weak masculine num. numeral wn. weak neuter pass. passive wv. weak verb

For abbreviated bibliographical references see NION II, p. x. 6 A New Introduction to Old Norse

á1 prep. (Gr 3.7.4); with acc. on I:18, 77, II:27, VI:251, XXII:5/3, XXVII:7; onto II:30, III:86, VI:272, X:47, XIX:80, XXI:120, XXV:77, XXVI A: 28, 38, XXVI B:11, 27; over VIII:120; in, to XXV:97; to II:46, VI:6, VIII:18, X:110, XXI:14, XXII:33/1, XXIII:84, XXVI A:9, 16 (to or at); at I:119, XXII:49/1, XXV:72, 92, XXVI A:30, B:194; in III:9, XXII:24/1, XXIII:70; into I:2, II:74, VI:10, VII B:76, XXI:181, XXII:44/3 (postposition); for X:29, XXI:52; with dat. in I:121, 129, II:23, VI:19, VIII:5, 7, IX:37, XVI:122, XIX:4, XXI:38, 94, XXII:52/3, XXIII:33, 60, XXVI B:98, XXVII:2, 26 (i.e. over); on I:27, 76, II:66, V:171, VI:36, 312, IX:19, X:6, XI:48, XIX:44, XXI:15, XXII:45/4, XXIII:6, XXV:1, 12, 99, XXVI A:15, B:116, 229; upon XXI:129; from in/on VIII:78, 116; at III:84, V:3, VII B:25, IX:53, XV:33 (in a place-name, cf. Gr 3.1.8 ex.), XXII:35/1, XXVII:38; í smáflarma á fiorvaldi at fiorvaldr’s guts XXI:175–80, textual note; in relation to, against VII B:30; about I:72; for XXII:26/1, XXVII:39; as adv. (Gr 3.7.7) I:55 (see leita), 130 (see halda), III:54 (see horfa), VI:111 (see sjá), VIII:19 (see leggja), X:49 (see láta), X:64 (see leggja), XXII:34/3 (see leggja); on it XXI:27, i.e. on her breast XXI:142 (1), 159, XXVI A:52, were on it XXI:46; in them XXVI B:88; in it VII B:61, about this VI A:32; á upp on it at the top XXI:45; er hon stó› á which it stood on XIII:6, 38; var á ve›r gott it was fine weather (on that day) XV:48; á braut see braut; á mi›li, á milli see milli; á mót(i) see mót2; á at sjá see sjá; á2 see eiga á3 f. river, stream (Gr 3.1.7.5 (2), 3.1.8.(16), 3.1.9 ex. 8) XXI:87, 169; yfir ár across the rivers XXVI A:4; with suffixed def. art. XXI:89, vi› ána ni›ri down by the river VII B:59, eptir ánni, me› ánni along the river VII B:75, 80, XXI:130 -a neg. suffix with verbs not V:54, IX:100, X:77, 95, 97, 108, 124, 168, XXV:5 ábóti m. abbot XIV:180, 181 ábyrg›ar(h)lutr m. matter involving responsibility XXVI B:104 A›alból n. ‘chief dwelling, manor’ Gr 3.1.8 ex. á›r adv. before, earlier, previously I:25, 54, 69, III:45, IV:76, VIII:45, 94, 99, 140, 160, 165, XI:39, 40, XV:32, XVI:37, XIX:39; already XXVI A:75; just now XXVI A:47; just before III:58; first X:149, XIV:68, XXI:175–80, textual note; at first XV:123; næstr á›r preceding XXVII:33; kvámu á›r had already come VIII:108; as Glossary and Index 7

conj. (Gr 3.8.2.4) before II:38, III:104, 114, IV:83, V:6, VIII:42, 60, XIV:70, 100 (. . . flá), XVI:7, 123, 157, XIX:108, XXI:44, XXVI B:35, XXVII:7, 34, 49, until XXV:65; á›r en as conj. before, until VI:73, 310, XI:72, XIV:5, XVI:189, XXIV:13 a›ra, a›rar, a›rir see annarr áeggjun f. instigation, urging VI:5 (dat. with af, parallel to atkalli) af prep. with dat. (Gr 3.7.3); from, of I:31, II:25, VI:19, 212, X:9, 31, 148, XI:38, 43, XV:12, 71, XVI:15, XIX:3, 7, XXI:15, 33, 83, XXIV:68, XXVI A:8, 44, 61, 90, 153, 220, XXVII:37; by VIII:150, 178, XXII:7/4; from among II:63, VI:213, VII A:33, 78 (2); from on VI:221, 259; off I:124, V:145, 147, VI:256, X:79, XV:84, XIX:34, XXI:56, XXII:48/2, XXIV:46, XXVI A:31, B:90; away from V:162; beyond XXII:13/4; out of III:81; tíu vikur váru/eru af sumri ten weeks of summer were/have passed VIII:92, XXVII:29; by, because of III:13, 53, 114, VIII:182; by means of, with XIV:2, XXII:58/2; as a result of VI:5, 254, 315, 366, VII A:66, VIII:151, XXI:179, XXII:54/4, 55/4, 58/4; for XXII:3/4; caused by XXIII:107; as a consequence of VI:324, VII B:86; consisting of II:55; made of XIII:31; about, concerning VI:107, XXII:24/3; with II:29, V:131, VI:152, XXII:31/2, 40/2; af flessu for this reason II:116; af flví from this VIII: 23; af flví at, af flví . . . at (Gr 3.8.2.2) because VI:289, 314 (see flví), VII A:35–36, VIII:22, XXI:160; as adv. (Gr 3.7.7) II:6 see flar; off II:59, X:49, 50, 114, 158, XXV:98, XXVI A:60; away VIII:40; of them II:64, 74, of it (them) VIII:154, 157; from it II:99, XXI:76; (some) of it XXI:75; with it XVI:29; by it, as a result of it VIII:127; from among them VII A:78 (1); about it XXVI B:23; flá er . . . af those from whom XXVII:34; bera af see bera afarkostr m. harsh treatment Gr 3.3.5 ex. 9 áfenginn adj. pp. strong (of drink) II:12 afhuga adj. indeclinable with dat. ver›a afhuga having one’s mind turned from, have out of one’s mind XIV:52 afi m. grandfather XIV:129 afl n. strength II:29, VII B:9; the majority XXVII:13; me› ƒllu afli with all his strength XIV:78 afla (past afla›i, pp. aflat) wv. with gen. and dat. bring (about), cause something for some one XXII:53/4 aflangr adj. very long XXIII:11, 46 afro› n. cost, price, penalty XXVI B:53 8 A New Introduction to Old Norse

ágjarn adj. covetous, ambitious, impetuous; acc. sg. n. as noun an ambitious (etc.) person XXIII:91 ágæti n. glory, renown; til síns ágætis nƒkkut something in which they take pride, something which brings them fame (by which they are remembered?) XXVI A:85 ágætliga adv. splendidly, excellently XVI:178 ágætr adj. excellent, famous VII A:49; sup. n. ágætast most excellent (i.e. because it relates to divinity or theology) XXIV:31 áhyggja f. concern, responsibility XXIV:63, 64; anxiety XXIV:73 aka (pres. ek, past ók, pp. ekinn) sv. drive (Gr 3.6.9.3 ex. 1) IX:47, 52, 84 ákafliga adv. extremely VII A:97, XVI:89, XXIII:31, 106; furiously Gr 3.5.3 (3) ákafr adj. furious, violent, vehement, impetuous XXIII:2; n. as adv. ákaft violently I:100; sup. n. as adv. sem ákafast as hard as he could II:154 ákall n. invocation XXIV:33, 42 Áki m. King Sveinn’s steward XVI:45, 47, 56, 66, 67 akkeri n. anchor XXI:47 ákve›inn adj. pp. agreed, appointed Gr 3.3.9 ex. 27, II:38, IV:70, 102 (understand var); n. ákve›it IV:110 ál f. strap, saddle-strap; vi› álar sér to his saddle-straps V:157 ala (pres. elr, past ól, past pl. ólu, pp. alinn) sv. nourish (thoughts or feelings) IV:59; breed, rear, bring up XXV:105 albúinn adj. (pp., cf. búa) completely ready XVI:136 albygg›r adj. (pp.) fully settled, fully colonised, occupied VIII:56 aldinn adj. ancient; acc. sg. f. wk. ƒldnu IX:127 aldr (gen. aldrs) m. age; generation XIV:166; at aldri in age XIV:34, 89; á fulltí›a aldri in adulthood XIV:167; vi› aldr advanced in years III:65, XXI:11 aldrbót f. ‘life-betterment’, advancement, fame, glory VI:204 (object of fekk) aldri adv. never II:34, III:36, IV:14, 74, V:3, XII:27, XIX:42, XXVI A 56, 64, 81, XXVI B:49, 172, 214; not at all, not in the least XXVI A:83 Aldrian m. young son of King Attila XI:44, 45 aldrigi adv. never VI:119, 184, XIV:67, 74, XVI:74 aldrlag n. death XXV:29 Glossary and Index 9

áleng›ar adv. for the future, indefinitely XVI:116 alin f. (pl. álnar) ell (a measure of length; in early Icelandic = 49 cm., later 54–57 cm.; ells of homespun were used as a standard of currency) XXVII:37 (gen. pl., cf. Gr 3.4.2 (5)) álit n. face, looks XXIII:61 álfr m. elf IX:23, X:57, 67, 147, XXV:2 alldjarfliga adv. very boldly I:138 alld‡rr adj. very fine, very worthy VI:264 allfró›ligr adj. very wise, very sensible XXIV:22 allfrægr adj. much spoken of, very famous II:60 allfúss adj. very eager (til for it, to do it) I:125 allkátr adj. very merry, very cheerful XI:62 alllítill adj. very small; ekki alllítill fyrir sér of no small importance or ability I:55 allr adj. all Gr 3.3.9 ex. 12, 18, I:83, II:80, 127, VI:43, 151, 274, 366, IX:53, 54, 96, 118, XII:14, XIII:14, XIV:165, XV:31, XIX:8, XXI:108 (2), XXII:2/4, XXIII:19, XXIV:4, 40, XXVI A:119, B:46; the whole IX:49; acc. sg. m. allan II:153, VI:286, X:27 (sc. vetr), all over I:24, every XXIII:35, the whole XXVI B:4, 91, his whole XXIII:103; dat. sg. m. ƒllum XXII:61/4; f. ƒll the whole VII B:22, entirely XIII:5, XIV:10; acc. sg. f. alla IV:30 (with hƒll), IX:126 (with ætt), XI:47, XVI:11, XXVI A:62, all over XIV:10; alla stofuna the whole room XXVI B:28; dat. sg. f. allri all XIII:36, every VI:318, XXIV:74; n. allt all I:113, III:86, VI:148, 294, XVI:90, XXII:34/3, the whole VI:275, VII A:128, 169, XVI:76, XXVI A:63, B:29, the whole of VIII:42, his whole XXVI A:3; everything II:152, V:106 (subject of koma?), VIII:93, XIII:16, XV:57, XXVI B:14, 65 (anything); everywhere III:107; allt flat er, allt flat es, flat allt er everything that VI:22, VII A:130, VIII:84, XII:64, XIV:107, XXIV:25; fletta allt all this XXVII:30; allt saman altogether XIV:145, the whole business XVI:57; allt eitt all the same XIV:117; gen. sg. n. alls of everything XV:9, XXI:161, alls fless (gen. with flurfa) all that (care) XI:71 (or alls adv. entirely?); dat. sg. n. ƒllu II:29, it all, everything; flví ƒllu er everything that XV:147; ƒllu saman everything together III:60; me› ƒllu altogether, entirely I:93, XIV:76, XVI:142; pl. allir they all, everyone I:86, VI:100, 111, 298, VIII:137, XII:74, XIII:7, XXIV:69; allir menn everyone XXVI A:76, XXVII:7; allir er all those who V:144; fleir allir, allir fleir they all 10 A New Introduction to Old Norse

V:69, 143, VI:131, XXVI B:16; fleir allir er, allir fleir er all those who XXIV:33, XXVI A:6; vér allir, allir vér we all V:64, VI:91; acc. pl. m. alla all X:38, XXVI B:10, XXVII:26, every X:149, flá alla them all XIX:69, 84, alla flá er all those who XII:58; f. pl. allar IV:82, XXVII:38, they all XI:50; n. pl. ƒll II:11, III:88, VI:86, 223, 305, VII A:35, XI:50, XIX:97, XXVI B:221, XXVII:27, complete II:61, the whole I:50, them all XXII:4/2, XXVI B:195, ƒll váru flau they were all XV:40, ƒll ein all the same XXI:192; gen. pl. allra IV:70, VI:193, VII A:123, VIII:44, X:133, XXII:65/4, of all XIX:104, til allra fleirra to all those who XXIV:81, with sup. of all Gr 3.5.3 (12), with num. all told, in all X:48; dat. pl. ƒllum I:17, 84, VIII:179 (everyone), XXII:9/2, XXVI A:105, B:121, XXVII:39, they/them all XXI:76, XXII:13/4, XXVI B:30, allum XXIV:60, dat. of comparison than/to all XXIV:16, allum fleim er for all those who XXIV:68; n. as adv. allt all the way, right VII A:3, 153; allt í heilann right to the brain XXVI A:18; allt saman altogether, the whole of XXIII:54; allt um all over, over the whole of VII B:24; allt flar sem everywhere where XXI:91; gen. sg. n. as adv. alls in all V:82, VI:49, VIII:193, XV:133, at all VI:211, alls fyrst first of all IX:5, alls engi no . . . at all XXI:108; alls/allz as conj. since VI:329, XXV:92 allsannr (n. allsatt) adj. very true XI:184 allsárliga adv. very bitterly XI:8 allsherjarfé n. public property VIII:53 (not recorded elsewhere) allsherjargo›i m. supreme priest/chieftain XIX:113 (his chief duty was to open or hallow the proceedings of the Alflingi every year) allskƒruligr adj. very splendid, magnificent XV:79 allstórr adj. very large VI:127 allsvaldandi adj. (pres. part.) ‘all-ruling’, almighty XXIV:18 allumveginn = ƒllumveginn adv. on all sides VI:276 (cf. megin) allvaldr m. all-powerful one, ruler (King Óláfr; subject of vá) VI:159 allflarfliga adv. most earnestly II:34 allflurr adj. very dry X:54 (f. with fura) almáttigr adj. almighty; almáttkum Gu›i to almighty God XIV:65 almenning f. (land) where common rights exist (Laws II 29 note 19, 414) VIII:54 álna(r) see alin Álptafjƒr›r enn sy›ri m. fjord in south-east Iceland XIX:28 álptahamr m. swan-shape, swan form X:7 alroskinn adj. (pp.) quite grown up VII B:6 Glossary and Index 11 alsnotr adj. very clever, absolutely clever IX:102 alsvartr adj. completely black, pure black IX:90 Alvini m. (spelled Alfvini in K and some other manuscripts; variants: Alvini, Alfini) fictional Englishman VII A:76, 80, 97, 99, 102, 104, 106 alvitr adj. all-wise, absolutely wise; as a byname X:9; Alvitr f. as a personal name X:11, 18, 30, 59 alvæpni n. full armour; me› alvæpni fully armed VIII:110, XXVI B:11 Alflingi n. general assembly (legislative and judicative assembly for the whole of Iceland held annually in late summer at fiingvƒllr) VIII:42, 44, 53, 54, 95, 97, 99, 182, XV:4, 137, XIX:108, XXVII:29, 49; á Alflingi hér here at the Alflingi XXVII:39 alfl‡›a f. general public; at alfl‡›u tali according to the common reckoning VIII:149 ambátt/ ambótt f. handmaid IX:79, 102; female slave XIX:100 amen interjection (ecclesiastical Latin, ultimately from Hebrew) ‘so be it’ XIII:49 áminna (past áminnti, pp. áminnt) wv. remind, admonish; pres. part. áminnandi insistent XIV:137 amma f. grandmother; in address XXVI B:171 ámunr adj. with dat. reminiscent of, similar to X:83 án prep. with dat. (Gr 3.7.6) without, lacking; án rá›i with gen. without consultation with VI:16; flóttisk varla án felt he hardly lacked V:114 ána see á3 ánau› f. hardship, torment (of Hell?) XXII:49/4 anda›r adj. (pp.) dead VII A:75 andask (past anda›isk, past pl. ƒndu›usk) wv. refl. die III:131, VII A:92, XIV:168, 171 anddyri n. entrance, porch III:12 (with suffixed def. art.), III:21 (with suffixed def. art.), III:48 (with suffixed def. art.) andi m. spirit; heilagr andi the Holy Spirit XIII:48, XIV:101 andligr adj. spiritual XIV:147 andlit n. face VII A:85, XII:11, 50, XXIII:54; with suffixed def. art. his face XXVI B:92 andskoti m. enemy, adversary IV:40 (pl. subject of sitja ok hvetja), VIII:106 andsvar n. reply, answer; pl. VII A:40, 44, 51, XXIV:2, 49, responsibility XXIV:73 andvaka adj. sleepless Gr 3.3.8.5 (6) andver›a see ƒndver›a 12 A New Introduction to Old Norse angra (past angra›i, pp. angrat) wv. with dat. distress XXVI B:176 ann see unna annar(r) (f. ƒnnur, n. annat) pron. adj. (Gr 3.4.1) other, another, a second II:20, 81, 148, VI:67, 274, VII A:62, 103, VIII:16, 40, 62, XIX:2, 89, XXII:18/1, XXIV:8, 36, XXVI A:40, B:102, 226; the second X:4, XV:98; next XV:81, XIX:9, XXVI B:125; another (man) III:57, 85; other XXVI B:148; any other II:6, VII B:14; different XXVI B:138; engi annarr no one else XXVI A:66; sá annarr er some other person who XXIV:70; sá annarr (kostr) . . . hinn annarr the first (choice) . . . the second/other XXVI B:103; f. ƒnnur another XV:133, annr VI:31; n. annat other XII:68, next XV:82, (i.e. li›) other troops, more men VI:222; annat sumar for the following summer XXVII:39; eigi annat nothing else I:102; margt annat much else VIII:178; annat . . . en something other than V:137, anything other than XII:11, 60, XVI:35; annat li› hans the rest of his troops VII B:60, annat li› fleira the rest of their party XXI:86, annat li›it the other troop XXI:147; gen. annars another XXVI B:124, something else XXVI B:78; eigi annars ván no other expectation VIII:90; eigi annars en no differently than if VI:257; einskis annars en nothing else than XXI:129; ens annars hundra›s of the second hundred (Gr 3.4.2 (9)) VIII:148, XXI:18; annars dags tomorrow X:106; annars sta›ar elsewhere XIV:179, XXI:47, XXVI B:208; acc. m. sg. annan I:146 (another), II:31 (the other), VIII:111 (the next), X:110 (the other), XI:47 (the other), XXVI B:77 (another), XXVII:50 (another); annan veg in any other way XXVI B:65; dat. sg. m. ƒ›rum II:70, XXVII:11, a second II:153, the other XXV:46; gen. sg. f. annarrar VII A:47; dat. sg. f. annarri (help) the other XXV:48; dat. sg. n. ƒ›ru V:1, 147, XXVI A:117; øngu ƒ›ru en nothing else than XVI:36; m. pl. a›rir others VII A:81, XIV:181, XVI:34, 187, XXIII:32, XXVII:16, 46, other VII A:36, 161, VIII:81, IX:58, XIV:105, the other VI:270, XXIII:83, the others XXVII:19; acc. pl. m. a›ra VII A:68, VII B:10, other XXIV:78, the other XXVI A:60, another XXVI A:88, the others VIII:114, other people XXIII:81; flá luti a›ra the other things XXIV:49; f. pl. a›rar others XXVI B:126, other, different IV:13; n. pl. ƒnnr VI:303; annr flau the other VI:74, annur flau those other XXIV:83; sem ƒnnur like the others VIII:143; skip hans ƒll ƒnnr all his other ships VI:223; gen. pl. annarra VII A:155, of others (other people) XXIII:73, 85; Glossary and Index 13

einnhverr annarra anyone else XXIV:63; hverr ma›r annarra any other man VIII:150; enginn annarra no one else I:126; dat. pl. ƒ›rum other XXVI B:31, others, other people VII A:51, XXV:30, XXVI B:33; one (of two): ƒ›ru(m) megin on one side III:6, XII:52, on the other side XXI:205; annarr/annat/ƒnnur . . . annarr/annat/ ƒnnur one . . . the other III:31–32, XIX:62–63, XXI:203, ƒ›rum . . . ƒ›rum IV:8–9, XII:52–58; annarr/annat flessara/fleira . . . annarr/ annat one of them . . . the other XII:19–20, XXI:49–50 (cf. Gr 3.2.1 (1), 3.9.6.1); á a›ra hli› (with dat.) . . . en á a›ra on one side of someone . . . and on the other XI:74; annarr at ƒ›rum, hvern at ƒ›rum one after another VIII:113, XI:10; hverjum at ƒ›rum each (group, rank) after the other XI:58; hverr vi› annan with each other VI:150; hverr annan each other II:44; hverr ƒ›rum (poss. dat.) II:130; hvárr ƒ›rum each to the other III:17 annask (past anna›isk, past pl. ƒnnu›usk) wv. -sk form take care of; ƒnnu›usk um were occupied with XIV:134 ánni see á3 annmarki m. fault, wickedness XIV:105, 106 annr = ƒnnur, see annarr annt n. adj. with dat. desirous; er annt til (someone) wants (something) XXI:64 aptann m. evening XV:67, XVI:98; flenna aptan this evening XXVI B:21, flenna aptan inn sama that same evening XXVI B:19 aptr adv. back I:32, 42, 116, III:123, 124, V:78, 95, VI:14, 272, VII A:42, 106, IX:29, X:12, 59, XVI:12, 39, 87, XIX:30, 74, 88, XXI:43, 165, 180, 193, XXVI B:195; backwards II:159, VI:215, XXVI B:92, 215, leaning backwards? XXIII:102; aft VI:268, 285, to the rear of the ship VI:279; fallinn aptr closed XV:104 ár1 f. oar VI:125 ár2 n. year XIX:48, 50 ár3 adv. early XXV:3 Arabíagull n. Arabian gold XII:31 árabur›r m. protection XV:126 árbakki m. bank of the river VII B:83 (with suffixed def. art.) ar›r (gen. ar›rs) m. plough; with suffixed def. art. XIX:64 arfasáta f. heap of chickweed; arfasátu flá er the heap of chickweed which XXVI B:117 arfr m. inheritance II:79 14 A New Introduction to Old Norse argr adj. effeminate, perverted IX:66; dastardly, wicked XXII:30/4 (‘some wicked Búfinnar’) Ari Ingimundarson n. 1226–1258; one of the incendiaries at Flugu- m‡rr III:71, 107 árma›r m. steward XVI:44, 55 (with suffixed def. art.) armgrjót n. ‘arm-rock’, stones of the arm, gold rings or jewels, wealth VI:307 (gen. with ógrœ›ir) armleggr m. arm V:21, XXIII:82 armr1 adj. miserable, wretched IX:114 armr2 m. arm Gr 3.1.7.1 ex. 3, 3.1.7.2 arn- see ƒrn Arnardóttir f. daughter of ¯rn Bjƒrnólfsson XIX:11, 39 arnarhamr m. eagle shape, eagle form II:41, 53 (with suffixed def. art.), 154, 155 Arnarhváll m. a hillock in Reykjarvík XIX:92 Árni Ármó›sson m. XXII:18/1, 40/1; Árna synir = Finnr and fiorbergr XXII:40/1 Árni beiskr m. III:52, 64, 67 Arnljótr gellini m. a robber XXII:27/2, 39/1 arnsúgr m. ‘eagle-sucking’ or ‘eagle-noise’, the wind (or its sound) caused by an eagle’s wings II:53 áróss m. river-mouth, mouth of a river XXI:88, 169 árr m. messenger, servant, user; árr oddflag›s is a kenning for an unnamed warrior VI:333 (subject of var samr) ásamt adv. together XV:32 Ásbrandr fiorleiksson m. XXVI A:71 Ásgar›r m. the home of the Æsir II:3, 45, 62, IX:70; the fortification round the home of the Æsir II:36, 39, 55, 157 Ásgrindr f. pl. the gates of the (home of the) Æsir II:60 Ásgrímr m. died in the fire at Flugum‡rr III:75 ásjáandi m. (pres. part.) onlooker (cf. sjá); enginn ásjáandi ma›r no person looking at it XII:11 ásjána f. look, face; ásjánu flína the sight of your face IV:79 (object of meina mér) asni m. ass, donkey; dat. pl. ƒsnum XXIII:60 Áss m. a god, one of the Æsir, q.v.; = fiórr IX: 8 (i.e. the speaker), 65 ássendi m. end of roof-beam (projecting at the gable; cf. brúnáss) XXVI A:59 Glossary and Index 15

ást f. love (vi› of or for someone) XII:36, 39, XIV:93, 97; pl. affections IX:117, love XIV:90, note ástarflokki m. feeling(s) of love XII:83 Ástrí›r f. daughter of Búrizleifr VI:23, 44, 46, 47 Ástrí›r af Djúpárbakka f. wife of Grímr Njálsson XXVI B:143, 146 ástsamligr adj. loving, affectionate XII:83 ástsæld f. popularity VIII:151 ástsæll adj. beloved, popular (vi› with) XIV:113; comp. ástsælli af more popular with VIII:150 ástvinr m. close friend VI:321, XIV:155 Ásum see Æsir Ásynja f. a goddess, female Áss; pl. Ásynjur II:10, IX:54 at1 prep. with dat. (Gr 3.7.3) at II:91, X:45, XVI:109, 111, XIX:10, XXI:45, XXV:110, XXVI A:13, B:2, XXVII:27 (2), 30; in VI:24, 246, 308, VIII:147, XIX:65, XXII:61/4; of VIII:30; to I:23, 28, II:7, III:29, 39, VI:244, 285, VII B:70, IX:131, XI:30, XVI:130, XIX:23, XXI:87, XXII:28/1, 37/4, XXV:35, 54, 101, XXVI A:101, B:155; into I:128, IX:82, X:136; towards, up to I:17, 39, 116, 138, VI:135, XIX:60, 83 (2), XXI:35 (2), XXVI A:32; in, over XIX:48; after VIII:113; against IV:45 (i.e. of), VI:289, XXVI A:6; beside IX:89; with respect to, by II:64, XVI:2, XXV:55; in XXIII:96, XXIV:65; with, in XXV:28; with regard to VI:226, 357 (with or›i), XII:10, as regards XII:21, (of) XXV:17, 18; according to VI:330, VIII:8, 61, 149; (swear) by X:150; in, to be gained from I:66; about, concerning I:58; from V:85, VI:18; for IX:90; for, in search of IV:32, X:34, 35; with, (while engaged) at XXV:71; engaged in, busy with XIX:83 (1); as IV:91, IX:30, 43, 87; in accordance with VIII:42, 44, 173; at flví sem in accordance with how VIII:38; at flví er/es about how VIII:144, according to what VIII:14, 73; in ‘dat. absolute’ construction (Gr 3.9.7.3) VIII:195, at óbygg›u landi while the land was uninhabited XIX:104; of time at, in II:37, 38, 138, IX:93 (to?), towards I:73, at the beginning of XV:14; with gen. at the house of VIII:172, X:79 (Gr 3.1.5 (13)); with acc. at flat after that X:26; as adv. about it I:3, in it II:77, XV:21, XXIV:5, of them XIV:41, er . . . at in which XIV:126; busy, employed XIV:133, XVI:131; hér at to this I:54; at flar er to where VI:271 at2 conj. that (Gr 3.1.2.1, 2) I:6, 27, 29, 46, 51, 54, 74, 83, 94, 113, 115, 116, 119, 125, 134, 136, 143, 144, 145, II:16 (after flar), 19, 22 (after mál, saying that), 63, 145, VI:75, 147, 151, 203, 335, 346 16 A New Introduction to Old Norse

(with fless 342), VIII:2, 15, 23, X:42, 109, 152, XV:20, 23, XVI:31, XIX:10 (2), XXI:50, XXII:47/2, XXIII:1, XXIV:1 (2), 11, XXV:67, 103, XXVI A:2, 35, B:33, XXVII:2, 25; as rel. (Gr 3.8.2.1, p. 212) which XXVI A:117, such that XII:27, XIV:96 (2)?, XVI:125 (1), in which, by which I:124; so that III:111, V:109 (2), VIII:90, XIII:46, XIV:72, XXIV:26? 42 (2)? 45? 51? 83, XXVI B:20; in such a way that, so that XIV:33, 96 (2), XXII:60/2; when, if I:79; attu = at flú that you XXVI B:218; til at in order that XXVI B:65; fleir at such that VI:82; flat at that which, what XXV:80; after svá I:17, 26, 36, 43, 97, 109, II:5, 73; fló . . . at though, even if IX:15 at3 particle with inf. to I:33, 34, 52, 53, 63, 84, 86, 89, 93, II:11, 35, 69, IV:5, 20, 56, VI:20, 160, 331, VII A:32, VIII:3, 6, IX:3, 44, X:12, 13, 19, XIX:12, 24, XXI:2, XXII:1/2, XXIII:36, XXIV:1 (1), 8, XXV:9, XXVI A:9, XXVII:17, 18; in order to IX:120, XXII:33/2, XXV:42; intending to II:62 (see taka), 94; engaged in: at hir›a looking after XIV:135, at lúka finishing XXVI A:3 at4 adv. with comparative because of this; at lengrum the longer V:18; fless at meir all the more VII A:43; at heldr the rather, all the more XXVI A:105; eigi at sí›r none the less VI:212 -at neg. suffix with verbs V:149, VI:138, 177, 246, 348, X:152, 170, XXV:33, 35, 62 át1 n. eating VIII:141 át2 see eta atbur›r m. event, what had happened II:106, VIII:144; acc. pl. atbur›i IV:77 atfer› f. attack VII B:87 atflutning f. supplies, provisions; til atflutninga fetching supplies XIV:136 atganga f. attack V:137, VII B:73 (with suffixed def. art.), VII B:74 atgeirr m. halberd, thrusting spear XXVI A:30, 35, 69 atgørvi f. ability VII B:9 athugaleysi n. heedlessness, carelessness XXIII:44 athugasamr adj. attentive, careful, thoughtful, reflective XXIII:12 athugi m. attentiveness XIV:22; me› athuga with devotion XIV:62, 161 athœfi n. conduct, way of behaving XII:74 átján num. eighteen Gr 3.4.1 átjándi num. adj. eighteenth Gr 3.4.1 atkall n. demand VI:5 atkvæ›i n. expression XXIV:3; mode or form of address XXIV:41, 52, 62 Glossary and Index 17

Atli Bu›lason m. Attila the Hun, former husband of Gu›rún XXV:28 (cf. Attila) Atli enn mjóvi m. XIX:6, 15, 24. Cf. Landnámabók, ÍF I 370–76, and Flóamannasaga, ÍF XIII 231–45 atmælasamr adj. given to finding fault, abusive XXI:12 atrei› f. ride XXVI A:1 atseta f. residence I:2 atsókn f. attack VI:315; with suffixed def. art. his attack V:141 átt1 see eiga átt2 f. family line; seggja átt the race of men; gen. with sætt (i.e. among) VI:56 átta1 num. eight (Gr 3.4.1) VII B:33, IX:28, 95, 104, XIX:50, XXVI A:75 átta2 see eiga áttartala f. genealogy (perhaps collective) VIII:4 átti1 ordinal num. eighth X:27 átti2, áttir see eiga Attila m. (indeclinable) king of the Huns (died AD 453) XI:14, 38, 44, 51, 52, 53, 55, 57; cf. Atli Bu›lason áttrœ›r adj. 80 years old VIII:29 attu = at2 flú áttu, áttum, áttusk see eiga átu see eta au›igr adj. wealthy Gr 3.3.8.5 (1), 3.3.9 (10), (20), XV:3 au›it pp. with gen. fated XXVI B:78 au›kenndr adj. pp. easily recognised VI:290 au›n f. wilderness, uncivilised wasteland XXV:105 au›na (pres. au›nar, past au›na›i, pp. au›nat) wv. impers. with gen. something is granted by fate; ef fless vildi au›na if it were granted by fate III:92 (unless au›na is here a f. noun and the subject, meaning fate); eptir flví sem au›nar as fate determines I:85 au›r1 adj. empty VI:269, X:32 (with sali); acc. with sá Tranu ok bá›a Na›ra fljóta VI:306 au›r2 m. wealth VI:351 (gen. with kenni) Au›r f. wife of fiór›r Ingunnarson XV:49, 64, 69, 70, 71, 83, 84, 86, 91, 98, 103, 106, 109, 115, 119, 120 au›ræ›i n. pl. property, wealth, XIV:9 au›sóttr a. (pp., cf. sœkja) easily won, soon granted (with dat., to someone; vi› by) XV:78 au›sær adj. easy to see V:46 18 A New Introduction to Old Norse

Au›unn m. a young Icelander, apparently a member of farmer fiorsteinn’s household XVI:1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 13, 18, 36, 41, 47, 60, 75, 78, 97, 99, 105, 107 (honum Au›uni Gr 3.9.6.1), 115, 117, 121, 130, 132, 136, 146, 162, 165, 169, 172, 176, 181, 188, 189, 191 au›veldliga adv. easily XIII:24, 45 au›veldr adj. easy; compliant, tractable XXIII:70; comp. n. as adv. flví au›veldara mun okkr it will be the easier for us V:67 au›œfi n. pl. wealth, income VIII:161, 162 auga n. eye Gr 3.1.8.(30); pl. II:74, IX:108, X:83, XIV:26, note, XXI:68, XXIII:21, 24, 29; pl. with suffixed def. art. augun XXIII:33; í augum in his looks XII:57; mínum augum with my own eyes XIV:172 augs‡n f. sight; mér í augs‡n into my sight XVI:75 auka (pres. eykr, past jók, past pl. jóku, pp. aukinn) sv. increase, add to V:161; auka vi›, auka flar vi›r add to it VIII:3, 40; jók nú miklu á it was now become much worse XVI:99; past with suffixed 1st person pron. jókk with dat. object VIII:4; pp. gengr barni aukin is great with child X:166 aumr adj. poor, needy XXII:31/4 aungr = øngr, see engi aura, aurar, aurum see eyrir austan adv. from the east, westwards VI:60, 64, XXVI B:15; i.e. to Iceland VIII:91; fyr austan east of VIII:18 Austfir›ingafjór›ungr m. the Eastern Fjords Quarter (of Iceland) VIII:165 Austfir›ir m. pl. the Eastern Fjords (of Iceland) VIII:50 Austma›r m. easterner, Norwegian Gr 3.1.9 ex.12, XXVI A:29 austr n. the east; ór austri from the east XXI:169; as adv. eastwards VI:21, 352, VII A:162, X:34, XVI:42, XXVI A:4, 10, Gr 3.5.3 (8); i.e. to Norway VIII:84; in the east VIII:41 (of Iceland), 69 (of Greenland); i.e. in Norway VIII:87 Austrvegr m. ‘the eastern route’, the countries east of the Baltic XVI:129 austrœnn adj. from the east, i.e. Norwegian VIII:35 auvir›isma›r m. worthless wretch, contemptible person XXI:133 Ávaldamon m. a native king in North America XXI:203 ávalt adv. constantly X:98, 143, always XIV:31, XXVII:2 ávant adj. n. with gen. someone (is) lacking IX:92 áverki m. wound III:86, XV:107, 111, 113; gen. pl. til áverka vi› hann for the wounding or butchering of him III:106 ávƒxtr m. increase, interest XIV:123; dat. pl. áv∂xtum fruit XXIV:37 Glossary and Index 19 ba›, ba›at see bi›ja, -at bá›ir (n. bæ›i, gen. beggja) pron. adj. both (Gr 3.4.1) II:139, III:26, XII:54, XV:108, XVI:57, XXVI A:69, 74; we both I:64 (with vit Hƒttr), I:65 (with vit), XXVI B:204; ok bá›ir fleir as were they both VII B:69; n. (Gr 3.9.6.1) okkr bæ›i us both XXVI B:164; flau bæ›i XXVI B:165; acc. m. bá›a II:28, VI:309, okr bá›a both of us XXV:38, flá bá›a both of them III:94, VII A:137; gen. beggja vinir friends of both of them VII B:57; ykkur beggja of you both X:167; dat. bá›um XXII:48/2, fleim bá›um them both III:63 (see note) bá›u see bi›ja bagall m. crozier VIII:23 bak n. back XXV:50; at baki with dat. behind someone III:18; á bak on horseback III:120, XV:98, 110; á bak fleim behind them V:86; fell á bak aptr fell over backwards XXVI B:92; af baki off one’s horse XV:101; with suffixed def. art. á bakinu on its back I:76 baka (past baka›i, pp. bakat) wv. bake XXVI B:111 bakbor›i m. port side of ship; á bakbor›i fleim on their port side XXI:168 bakki m. bank XXI:170 Bakki m. farm in northern Iceland III:2 bál n. fire XXVI B:107, 120 (pl.) baldr adj. bold (or m. lord) XXV:91 Baldr m. a god, one of the Æsir, son of Ó›inn; dat. Baldri II:66 ballr adj. dangerous, destructive, fatal; n. pl. bƒll XXV:95 bana (pres. banar, past bana›i, pp. banat) wv. with dat. kill I:15, 21 banamenn m. pl. slayers VII B:82 banasár n. mortal wound III:56, XXVI A:116 banasótt f. mortal sickness, last (final) illness XIX:111 bani m. death I:44, 88, 131, II:47, V:102, 103, 129, VI:132, XXVI A:77; vi› bana close to death XXVI A:89; ; cause of death, slayer IV:42, V:156, XXV:23; ver›a at bana with dat. cause the death of someone X:153, XIX:77 (understand of him); flat sé fleira bani it would be (lead to) their death XXVI B:66; flat er várr bani that will lead to our deaths XXVI B:86 bann n. ban, prohibition XXII:5/3 banna (pres. bannar, past banna›i, pp. bannat) wv. with dat. of person(s) forbid I:83, VIII:26, XIV:76, 79, XXI:114; banna at gera forbid its being done, forbid the practice XIV:85 banvænn adj. likely to die, appearing mortally wounded, deadly sick VII A:54 20 A New Introduction to Old Norse bar see bera bardagi m. battle (Gr 3.1.7.1, 3.1.8 (9)) VI:85, VII A:53, VII B:88; fight VII A:100 bar›a, bar›i1 see berja bar›i2 m. a ship with a projection at the front for ramming; Bar›i as name of a ship (= Járnbar›inn) VI:234 (object of lag›i), VI:251 (object of fœr›u›); with suffixed def. art. Bar›inn VI:273 bar›isk, bar›r, bar›usk, barizk see berja barma (past barma›i, pp. barmat) wv. complain, lament XXI:66, textual note barn n. child VIII:140, X:166; pl. bƒrn XXVI B:3; bƒrn tvau two were children XXI:199; dat. pl. bƒrnum children XXVI B:134 barndómr m. childhood XIV:167 barsmí›ir f. pl. fighting VIII:127 báru see bera bast n. bast (rope), rope made of the inner bark of a tree X:47, with suffixed def. art. X:79 bátr m. (rowing) boat XIX:70, 81, XXI:22, 33 batt see binda bau› see bjó›a Baugi m. a giant II:130, 131, 134, 135, 138, 139, 141, 142, 144, 145, 146, 147, 149 bauglestir m. ‘ring-damager’, one who breaks or uses up, i.e. gives away (gold) rings, a kenning for generous man (= Kormakr) IV:94 (nom. phrase used in address) baugr m. ring; arm-ring X:47, 56, 82, 97, 122; collective sg. X:111; descriptive gen. with serkjar, shirt made of rings, mail-coat VI:261; or baugr He›ins serkjar, the circle of He›ins shirt (gen. with verkendr) = shield? baukr m. (= bu›kr) small box (for herbs) XII:17; the form baukr is generally only found in 17th-century texts; the form bau›k in line 18 appears to be a compromise between the two. bazt adv. sup. best VI:224 be›it see bi›ja be›r m. bed XV:109, XXV:23 beggja see bá›ir bei› see bí›a bei›a (pres. bei›ir, past beiddi, pp. beiddr) wv. 1. with acc. and gen. Glossary and Index 21

ask (someone for something) XV:20. 2. -sk form bei›ask (with acc. and gen.) ask (someone for something) for oneself, request, demand II:138, III:19; beiddiz at stirred himself up for, spurred himself to XXV:71 (see note) bei›ir m. demander, ruler; in kenning for shield-user, man, warrior (= Bjƒrn), bei›ir mei›s mor›vandar V:154 bein n. 1. leg III:113. 2. bone I:35, 52, XXVI B:177 beina (past beindi, pp. beindr) wv. assist; beina at (me› flér) lend (you) a hand V:68, XXVI B:203 beinahrúga f. pile of bones I:6, 32; with suffixed def. art. I:7, 13 beini m. hospitality XIV:138 beiskr adj. bitter; as nickname III:52, 64, 67 beit see bíta beita (past beitti, pp. beitt) wv. cause to bite; beita á ve›r with dat. sail (fleim their ships; unless fleim goes with hólmanum) close to the wind VI:124, XXI:31 bekkr m. bench, seating platform I:29; acc. pl. bekki IX:86. Cf. pallr belgr m. animal skin, pelt XXI:115; bellows X:157 (acc. pl.); skin bag (i.e. the limbless body of Jƒrmunrekkr) XXV:94, 95 (see note) bella (pres. bellir, past belldi, pp. bellt) wv. deal in, utter IX:39 belti n. belt II:125 ben f. wound Gr 3.1.7.3–5 ex. 4 benda (past bendi, pp. bendr) wv. (Gr 3.6.9.3 ex. 4) indicate, give a foreboding (mér to me) V:17 bera1 (pres. berr, past bar, past pl. báru, past subj. bæri (Gr 3.6.5.2), pp. borinn) sv. (Gr 3.6.6) 1. carry I:22, 89, 99, II:5, 55, III:49, VI:114, XI:45, XII:6, 67, XIX:110, XXI:56, 206, XXVI B:174; berr flá carries them, moves them XXIII:104; bear XXIV:63; put XXVI B:27; take XXVI B:117; wear X:79, 96, XII:28; hold VII A:160; berr sik holds itself XXIII:76; bear (witness) VI:324; overcome, overpower X:130; bera rá›um overrule XXVI B:69; bera ofrli›i overpower (or outnumber?) XXI:145; bera sigr win victory VI:185; imp. pl. berum let us carry (it) XXI:101; beri› bring IX:120; subj. beri were/is carrying XXIII:102; 1st person past bárum we (i.e. I?) bore (vb. after flá er) VI:208; pp. hefr borit has been drawn XXVII:10; haf›u borit had borne them (Gr 3.9.5.1) VI:304; (vera) borinn be carried VII A:54, (be) taken X:94, 95, (be) born (with dat., to someone) X:73, XXV:8 (i.e. she was his daughter); pres. part. berandi (able) 22 A New Introduction to Old Norse

to be carried (with dat., by someone) I:132; bera af surpass XXII:13/4; bera ni›r af stick out underneath further (or force them away down?) XXIII:21; bera at bring up III:2, put on III:127; bera at eld make use of fire, set fire to it (the house) XXVI B:103; pp. borit fram served out (with var line 93) IX:94; bera fyrir serve to XXVI B:21; bera flar í put into them III:3; bera í pour on XXVI B:114; bera eld í set it on fire, set fire to it XXVI B:119; bera milli take from one to the other, mediate, negotiate VII B:57; bera saman ok compare with II:41; borinn til born for XXII:1/4; bera um take them round XXVI A:59; bera upp announce, set forth, make known VIII:111; bera sik vel comport oneself well XXVI B:33, bear up well III:130. 2. impers. with acc. bar hann he appeared IV:15; berr flá they are carried (by wind and currents) XXI:167; bar at . . . skjƒldinn the shield was driven against XXVI B:91; flat bæri frá it was outstanding, extraordinary VIII:112; bera fyrir appear (to someone in a dream) V:16; bera til come about, happen XIII:12, XXI:119, XXIV:1; flik skal út bera you shall be carried out XXVI B:169; bar vi› was carried, i.e. passed, against or in front of XXVI A:30; with dat. berr flér it behoves you, you ought XXIV:85; -sk form at berask happen, turn out XVI:182 bera2 f. she-bear X:53 (dat. of respect, Gr 3.9.6.2) berar see berr1 ber›isk see berja berfjall n. bear-skin X:56 berfœttr adj. barefooted III:22, 62 berg n. cliff XIX:85 Bergljót f. daughter of Jarl Hákon VII B:5, 77 (see note), 80 bergrisi m. mountain giant VII A:160 bergsalr m. rock-hall, cave VII A:142 Bergflóra Skarphe›insdóttir f. Njáll’s wife XXVI B:19, 156, 161, 163, 165 Bergflórr Hrafnssonr m. lawspeaker 1117–22, died 1123 VIII:170, 171, 173, 181 Bergflórshváll m. Njáll’s home in the south of Iceland XXVI B:2, 40, 106 berhƒgg n. pl. open blows, in the phrase ganga í berhƒgg vi› come out openly against (um with) XV:141 berja (pres. berr, past bar›i, pp. bar›r/bari›r) sv. 1. (Gr 3.6.9.2 (3), (6), 3.6.10) beat, strike I:52 (pelt), VII A:23, 105, XII:58, 61; Glossary and Index 23

overcome, defeat XXV:82; berja í móti attack XXII:45/2; bar›a (pp. acc. pl. m.) chastised XIV:103. 2. -sk form berjask (Gr 3.6.10) fight VI:90, 94, 97, VII A:6, VIII:110, XXI:135; past bar›isk was fighting VIII:146, bƒr›usk fought XXI:125; past subj. ber›isk were fighting VI:257; pp. hƒf›u barizk had been fighting XIX:16; at berjask vi› to fight against VI:166; past pl. bar›usk vi› VI:185 berliga adv. plainly, fully, absolutely XII:8 Bern f. Verona XI:43, 46, 56 bernskliga adv. childishly, like a child XXIV:24 berr1 adj. bare, exposed XV:62; naked XXI:47 berr2 see bera1 berserkr m. berserk Gr 3.1.9 ex. 8 Bersi Véleifsson, Hólmgƒngu-Bersi m. first husband of Steinger›r XVIII:122rb31 bestibyrsíma X:65 see note betr adv. comp. better (Gr 3.5.2) I:88, II:126, V:138, 160, VI:121, X:131, XVI:111, XXI:135, XXIV:14, 28, XXVI A:42, B:71; betr . . . en better than XXIV:21; betr en more than XXIV:19; er betr it will be better VI:80 betri adj. comp. better (Gr 3.3.8.3) VIII:175, X:128, XI:68, XV:123, XIX:29; finer XV:11; n. (as adv.?) XXVI B:172; betra er oss will be better for us VI:83 beztr adj. sup. (Gr 3.3.8.3) best I:3, VI:214, VII A:80, 123, X:175; finest XII:8, 31; er bezt megu vera the best that can be XI:60; inn bezti a very fine XIV:175; einn inn bezta klerk one of the best scholars XIV:27 bezt adv. sup. (Gr 3.5.2) best, most advantageously XVI:173, XXVI B:72, most finely XIX:110, 112; manna bezt very well, as well as any V:31; njót manna bezt use it best of anyone I:137 (see njóta) bí›a (past bei›, past pl. bi›u, pp. bi›inn) sv. wait V:89, VI:104, 109, XIV:100; linger XXV:62; bí›um let us wait VI:65; with gen. wait for V:110 (inf. with skyldi), X:39, XV:67, be waiting for VII B:41; bi›a ﬂess er wait until VI:98, XXVI B:197; with suffixed neg. and pron. and acc. object bí›ka ﬂess bót I shall not see (experience) redress for this X:97 bi›ja (past ba›, past pl. bá›u, pp. be›inn, n. be›it) sv. (Gr 3.6.9.1 (5), (10)) 1. with acc. and gen. ask, beg (someone for something; and with dat., for someone) II:34, 40, 113 (sér for themselves), III:40, 24 A New Introduction to Old Norse

67, VI:18, VIII:183, IX:115, XVI:43, 45, XXV:35, XXVI A:27; bi›ja sér matar beg for one’s food XVI:91; impers. skal flik flessa eigi lengi bi›ja you shall not be asked for this for long (i.e. repeatedly) XXVI A:86; pray (for something) XIII:8; imp. bi› flú ask, tell X:176; pp. demanded IX:128, pressed for it VIII:186; with gen. of person ask for someone’s hand in marriage IV:101, XV:3, 7, 77, pp. VII A:77, 93. 2. pray XXIV:41; bi›r ek I pray XXII:65/3; bi›ja fyrir sér pray for oneself, i.e. say one’s prayers III:9; bi›ja bœnar sinnar say one’s prayer, make one’s request XXIV:16. 3. with acc. and inf. order/tell/ask (someone to do something) I:22, 41, 91, 114, 117, II:128 (sér to them), 147; III:91, IV:48, 99, VI:15, VII A:34, 111, VIII:116, XV:101, XVI:86, 183, XXI:37, 39, 43, XXVI B:8, 30; ba› øngvan mann said no one was to XXVI B:37; ba›at hyggja told (them) not to think VI:177; ba›/bá›u flá/hann told them/him VI:102, XXI:70, 71, XXVI B:195; ba› flá fiorkel nefju told fiorkell nefja and his companions VI:120; bi›ja (vera) vel kominn bid welcome XI:9, XVI:107; command VII A:106; pray XXII:50/3 bifask (past bif›isk) wv. refl. shake IX:49 bikkja f. bitch; with def. art. or demonstrative pron. as an insulting or contemptuous form of address cur I:92 bil n. moment (of time); í flví/flessu bili at that moment IV:64, V:129, VII B:79, XXVI A:68 bilt adj. n. as adv. startled, afraid; var› fleim bilt they hesitated, their hearts failed them IV:15 binda (past batt, past pl. bundu, pp. bundinn) sv. (Gr 3.6.9.1 (3, 6, 10), 3.6.9.2 (2)) bind, tie, fasten V:157 (vi› to; see Gr 3.9.5.1); tie up VII A:104, 105, X:65, XXV:76, 82, tether XXVI B:42; with dat. with, in something: imp. bittu IX:46; bindu vér let us tie IX:59 (Gr 3.6.9.1 (13)); bindi menn let men tie XXII:15/3 (vi› to); batt sér brought on himself XXII:52/2; binda um tie (a cord or a strip of cloth) round II:69 (with the cord in the dat., ƒ›rum enda II:70), XXI:116, wrap up, bandage XV:114; -sk form for pass. bindask láta let oneself be tied IX:67 birg›ir f. pl. sustenance, provisions XXI:82 Birgir m. king of Denmark’s reeve VII A:137, 142 birni see bjƒrn Birni see Bjƒrn Arngeirsson birta (past birti, pp. birt) wv. brighten, illuminate; reveal XXIII:38, Glossary and Index 25

87; birti revealed it (fyrir to) XII:76; -sk form birtisk was revealed, was made manifest XIII:40 birti f. brightness XXIII:27, 33 biskup m. bishop III:32 (as title), XXVII:15 (er biskup sá . . . me› er with whom the bishop . . . who) bíta (past beit, past pl. bitu, pp. bitinn) sv. bite (Gr 3.6.6) IX:99, 100; cut II:126, 144, V:117, 145, 150, 155; ok bíta vel and that it cut well XXI:151; bíta (á) bite into, pierce, penetrate I:77, XXV:92; ekki beit á it did not make an impression on XXII:44/3 bitrligr adj. sharp, keen V:113 bittu see binda bjálfi m. fur, (animal) skin with fur on it XXII:30/1 (dat. with an animal skin); with suffixed def. art. hans bjálfan á on/into that skin coat of his XXII:44/3 bjalla f. bell VIII:23, XII:46 bjarg (pl. bjƒrg) n. rock IX:83; with suffixed def. art. II:144, 145, 147; cliff XXI:80 bjarga (past barg, past pl. burgu, pp. borginn) sv. with dat. save XXII:65/3 bjarnar see bjƒrn Bjarnar see Bjƒrn Arngeirsson bjarnd‡r/bjarnd‡ri n. an animal in the form of a bear, a (wild) bear XVI:11, 17, 63, 134, XXI:28 Bjarney f. ‘Bear Island’ XXI:28 Bjarneyjar f. pl. ‘Bear Islands’ XXI:20, 21 Bjarni Bergﬂórsson m. XIV:183 Bjarni Grímólfsson m. XXI:5, 66, 86, 162 Bjartey f. XXVI A:114 bjartliga adv. brightly, clearly XXIII:24 bjartr adj. bright, shining XXII:50/1, 62/3; n. pl. bjƒrt II:5 bjó see búa bjó›a (pres. b‡›r, past bau›, past pl. bu›u, pp. bo›inn) sv. 1. offer XV:115, XIX:24, XXII:21/3; with dat. and acc. offer someone something I:60, II:62, 113, III:15, XXII:65/2, XXVI B:157; pres. part. bjó›andi offering it XII:50. 2. with dat. invite II:102, 103, V:24, XVI:115, 169; challenge VII A:98; bjó›a út summon, muster, levy VI:20, VII A:126. 3. with dat. ask, command I:86, 119, VII A:146, B:22 (inf. with vill), XIV:62, 68, XV:97; charge XII:65, 26 A New Introduction to Old Norse

XIV:59, 60; pp. (impers. pass., Gr 3.9.3) bo›it bidden (by nature or instinct) XXVI B:212 bjoggu, bjuggu see búa bjórr m. beer; instrumental dat. with beer X:130 bjúgleikr m. curvature, crookedness XXIII:21 bjúgr adj. curved, bent, crooked XXIII:18, 90, 103; pl. as substantive bjugir cripples XXII:57/4 bjúgleitr adj. crooked-looking XXIII:55 bjƒllu, bjƒllur see bjalla bjƒrg1 f. means of subsistence, keep, maintenance XVI:7, 123 bjƒrg2 see bjarg bjƒrn (gen. bjarnar, dat. birni Gr 3.1.7.2 (2), 3.1.7.3–5 ex. 1) m. bear XIX:67 (with suffixed def. art.), XXV:91; as word-play on the name of Bjƒrn Arngeirsson Hítdœlakappi V:63 Bjƒrn Arngeirsson Hítdœlakappi m. V:16, 27, 30, 33, 45, 47, 56, 65, 67, 77, 84, 85, 88, 91, 95, 97, 98, 103, 109, 111, 115, 119, 124, 126, 130, 134, 136, 142, 146, 159, 169; gen. sg. Bjarnar V:title, 98, 100, 129, 145, 157, 161; dat. sg. Birni V:1, 3, 93, 94, 114, 147, 169 (poss. dat. with skƒr) Bjƒrn Gilsson m. bishop at Hólar 1146–62 XIV:178, 183 Bjƒrn Óláfsson m. died in the fire at Flugum‡rr III:75 Bjƒrn stallari (digri) m. XXII:17/3, 45/1 Bjƒrnólfr Hrómundarson m. Icelandic settler XIX:2, 4 bjƒrtum see bjartr bláhvítr adj. blue and white (striped) XXV:24 blaka (past blaka›i, pp. blakat) wv. flap; pres. part. XII:33 blanda (pres. blendr, past blett, past pl. blendu, pp. blandinn) sv. with dat. mix II:98, XXI:157 blandask (past blanda›isk, pp. blandazk) wv. -sk form mix oneself, become mixed; blandask vi› be involved in, have dealings with, have to do with XXI:13 blár adj. (Gr 3.3.9 ex. 3) dark, blue-black; acc. m. sg. blán XXI:127 blása (pres. blæss, past blés, past pl. blésu, pp. blásinn) sv. blow II:145, 148; with dat. spit, belch forth VII A:152 Bláskógahei›r f. heath near fiingvƒllr XV:47 Bláskógar m. pl. woods near fiingvƒllr VIII:48 blau›r adj. cowardly XXV:51 blauthær›r adj. (pp.) soft-haired XXIII:3 blautr adj. soft XXIII:88, 98 Glossary and Index 27 bleikr adj. pale XXIII:32; grey (of a wolf) XXII:41/2; me› bleikum with pale or grey patches XXIII:106 (a word may be missing, or perhaps the word is here a noun, = bleikja f. white colouring) blendu see blanda blés(u) see blása bley›i f. cowardice; er engum manni blœy›i at it is not cowardice for any man to VI:167 blezan f. blessing XIV:148 blí›i f. friendliness; me› blí›i graciously XVI:188 blí›r adj. happy; cheerful, friendly XII:50; kindly XIV:49 (with dat. towards), XXII:1/3 (vi› towards); sup. XXII:62/4; n. as adv. fleim man vera blí›ara it will be pleasanter for them, they will find it is pleasanter VI:188 blik n. gleam, flash; in kenning for sword randa blik (that which flashes against shields; gen. with rjó›andi, forming a kenning for warrior) VII B:46 blíkja (past pl. bliku) sv. shine, flash, gleam X:44 blindr adj. blind; dat. sg. with brœ›r, i.e. even if he were blind IV:93; pl. blindir blind people XXII:57/3 bló› n. blood I:101, II:96, 117, XXII:58/4, XXIII:37, XXV:84; instrumental dat. bló›i with blood X:157; with suffixed def. art. II:98, III:86; bló› eitt nothing but blood XXVI B:29 bló›gagl n. ‘goose of blood’, kenning for raven (or other carrion bird); pl. V:170 bló›rás f. loss of blood XV:112 bló›slitr m. the colour of blood XXIII:33 bló›ugr adj. bloody VI:196 blóm n. flower XXII:62/3 blómi m. flowering; sta›it me› slíkum blóma . . . sem stó› flourish as well as it did XIV:74–75; glory, blessedness, salvation XXII:25/2 blót n. (heathen) sacrificial feast XIX:41 blóta (pres. blœtr Gr 3.6.5.2, past blét, past pl. blétu, pp. blótinn) wv. worship, sacrifice (to heathen gods) (Gr 3.6.9.3) VIII:141, XIX:42, 78 blótbolli m. sacrificial bowl, cup used in heathen sacrifices VI:189 blótskapr m. heathen worship, pagan sacrifice XIV:77 (pl.) bl‡ n. lead XIV:10 blæss see blása blœy›i = bley›i 28 A New Introduction to Old Norse bóandaherr m. peasant army VII B:89 (with suffixed def. art.) bóandi = bóndi; gen. pl. with suffixed def. art. VII B:74 bo› n. feast, banquet (which might last several days) Gr 3.1.9 ex. 3, XIX:13 (with suffixed def. art.) bo›a (past bo›a›i, pp. bo›at) wv. proclaim, preach XXI:38 bo›i m. submerged rock, shoal II:104; breaker over a shoal XV:149 Bo›n f. name of a vat II:98, 118, 153 bo›or› n. commandment XIV:44 (dat. pl. object of hl‡›a) bogastrengr m. bowstring XXVI A:69, 79 bogi m. bow XXV:76; with suffixed def. art. his/my bow XXVI A:64, 82 bógr m. shoulder; acc. pl. with def. art. II:28; dat. sg. bœgi I:97, X:151 (withers) bók (pl. bœkr) f. book (Gr 3.1.7.2 and (6), 3.1.8 (19)) VIII:23, 172, XIV:32, 90, 91, 178; embroidered coverlet XXV:24 bokki m. buck; in an ingratiating form of address I:9, 11, 21, 39 bóklistir f. pl. literary skills, book-learning XIV:186 bókmál n. the Latin language; at bókmáli in Latin XVIII:97 bolr m. trunk (of the body): ganga á milli bols ok hƒfu›s i.e. sever the head from the body (the understood subject is probably the blow or the weapon, rather than fiór›r) V:147 bóndali› n. band of peasants, farmers VII B:79 (with suffixed def. art.) bóndi (nom. pl. bœndr) m. farmer, peasant (Gr 3.1.7.2, twice) VII A:111, 115, 117, 120, B:24, 27, 29, 70, 87, XXII:12/2, XXVI A:8; as title XXVI A:14, in address XXVI B:157 bora1 (past bora›i, pp. borat) wv. bore (a hole in) II:144, 147; pp. n. II:145 bora2 f. hole XII:16 bor› n. board III:53, 54 (with suffixed def. art.), 64 (with suffixed def. art.); table XXVI B:27; with suffixed def. art. XVI:59, XXVI B:29, 35 (pl.: they would have been trestle tables); til bor›s to table, to eat XI:44; flar innan bor›s on board that ship VI:82; side (of a ship) X:150, nom. pl.with suffixed def. art. bor›en VI:267; dat. pl. with suffixed def. art. VI:256; bor›i hæstr highest in the side, highest sided VI:224; fyrir bor› overboard VI:294, 299, XIX:52 bor›hús n. a cupboard or closet (in which the movable tables, trestles and related items were kept when not in use for meals) III:78 bor›i m. tapestry, embroidery IV:57 (gen. pl.) bor›mikill adj. high-sided (of a ship) VI:234 borg f. fortification, fortress, castle XXV:82, 87; with suffixed def. art. (Gr 3.1.9 ex. 7) I:116, II:56; city XI:3, 10, 61, 62, 76 Glossary and Index 29 borgarveggr m. wall of fortification II:57 (with suffixed def. art.); city wall XI:49 borgfirzkr adj. from Borgarfjƒr›r VIII:63 borin, borinn, borit see bera bót (pl. bœtr) f. compensation Gr 3.1.7.2 (3); redress (with gen., for something) X:97; cure XXII:57/3 bóta see bœtr botn m. head, upper end (of a fjord) XIX:60 (with suffixed def. art.) brá see breg›a brá› f. meat, food XXII:41/1 brá›r adj. quick XVIII:122rb12; n. brátt as adv. soon, quickly II:43, III:5, 130, V:60, VII A:55, XVI:16, XXI:64 brag› n. 1. moment; á skƒmmu brag›i in a brief period of time XIV:73. 2. movement; lítit brag› mun flá at it must be a very slight thing, there can’t be much sign of it XV:52. 3. device; especially in pl. brƒg› stratagems (til fless er in order to bring about what) XIV:90, note; flat brag›s taka adopt this as our strategy XXVI B:105 brag›a (past brag›a›i, pp. brag›at) wv. impers. brag›ar there is movement I:95 brágeisli m. ‘eyelash-ray (of light)’, kenning for eye; dat. pl. object of rennda ek IV:34 Bragi m. god of poetry (one of the Æsir) II:9, 13, 14, 77, 88, 123 bragnar m. pl. men XXII:1/3, 8/1, 57/2, XXV:84 bragníng(r) m. ruler, king XXII:12/1, 52/1, 65/4 bráhvítr adj. with white eyelashes X:176 brandr1 m. firebrand, piece of burning wood XXVI B:193 (with suffixed def. art.) brandr2 m. sword(-blade) XXII:5/4, 16/4, 50/1; collective sg. dat. as instrumental with their swords XXII:20/4 branga f. battle XXV:71 brann see brenna2 brásk see breg›a; brast see bresta brátt see brá›r brattr (f. brƒtt) adj. steep Gr 3.3.9 ex.14 braut1 f. path, way XXV:51; road XXV:59; á braut on the road XXV:99; á braut, í braut adv. away II:42, IV:27, VI:10, VII A:155, VIII:22, 83, XVI:74, 126, 137, XXI:179, XXVI A:15, 107, B:85; á braut af away from, i.e. out from, up from XXII:60/3; cf. brott braut2 see brjóta 30 A New Introduction to Old Norse brautgangr m. separation; brautgangs descriptive gen. such that it would be grounds for divorce XV:27 brautgangssƒk f. grounds for divorce, accusation warranting divorce XV:62 breg›a (past brá, past pl. brug›u, pp. brug›it) sv. with dat. move I:96 (pp. with fær); put VI:295; change II:51; bring to an end VI:364; break off, fail to fulfil IV:111; prevent (the fulfilment of something), cause to fail IV:86; breg›a á move against, strike II:129; subj. ok breg›i á tending (if it tends) towards XXIII:109; breg›a sver›i/ saxi draw a sword I:95, V:57, 115, VII B:68, XV:107; imp. pl. breg›i› sver›um draw your swords VI:170; breg›a upp lift up, raise XXI:112; brá grƒnum vi› drew back his lips (i.e. grimaced or grinned) at it XXVI B:95; subj. hann bryg›i sér vi› he was taken aback by, was affected by, flinched at or in the face of XXVI A:76; impers. with dat. brá mƒnnum mjƒk vi› people were very taken aback by XXVI B:35; refl. breg›ask change oneself, turn II:148, 154; pres. bregzk vi› jerks away in response to II:30; with dat. breg›ask fail someone XXI:79; pp. n. brug›it drawn IV:9 brei›a (past breiddi, pp. breiddr) wv. spread VIII:120, XIII:3, XXVI B:180; inf. be spread out IX:63? see brei›r Brei›afjƒr›r m. fjord in western Iceland VII A:156, 167 Brei›dalr m. valley in south-eastern Iceland Gr 3.1.8 Brei›fir›ingafjór›ungr m. the Brei›afjƒr›r Quarter (of Iceland) VIII:166 brei›firzkr adj. from Brei›afjƒr›r VIII:65 brei›r (n. breitt Gr 3.3.8.2–5 ex. 4) adj. broad IX:63 (see also brei›a), XXI:104; with gen. of the amount of breadth XXI:118; wide XV:92; comp. brei›ara broader XXI:117; comp. n. as adv. brei›ara with larger bites IX:100 brekvísi f. importunate demand, insistent begging for things (vi› from someone) XV:24 brenna1 f. (house-)burning III:80 (with suffixed def. art.) brenna2 (past brann, past pl. brunnu, pp. brunnit) sv. intransitive burn, be consumed by fire (Gr 3.6.5.2) III:88, IX:83, 109, X:54, XIII:5, 17, 20; brann upp ƒll was completely burned down XIV:10; ok brunnit and it was burned XXVI B:201; brenna inni be burned in the house XXVI B:74, 157, 170 brenna3 (past brenndi, pp. brenndr) wv. transitive burn Gr 3.6.10, Glossary and Index 31

XIII:10, 14, 16, XXVI B:125; brenna inni burn (someone) in their house VIII:50, XXVI A:65, B:64, 104, 162; brennu vér hann inni let us burn him in his house XXVI A:55; brennt gull refined gold XII:19 brennumenn m. pl. burners XXVI B:1, textual note bresta (past brast, past pl. brustu, pp. brostinn) sv. intransitive burst Gr 3.6.6; brast it (i.e. the king’s sword, see note) shattered XXII:44/4 brestr m. break, crack X:126 Bretland n. Wales VII A:7 breyta (past breytti, pp. breyttr) wv. change; breytt hafa to have it changed XXVII:20; intransitive with adv. behave (in a certain way) IV:37, act XXVI B:204 breytiliga adv. strangely, unexpectedly IV:104 brezkr adj. British (i.e. Welsh? The word usually refers to Celtic peoples, but occasionally appears to refer to the English) VII A:23 brig›a adv. extremely XXII:16/3 brim n. surf VII A:163 bringusár n. wound in the chest XV:122 Brísingar m. pl. a family or people IX:50 (see note), 60, 73 brjóst n. breast, chest IX:63, 76, 123, XIV:100, XXIII:77, XXV:84 (collective sg.); á brjósti honum on his breast XII:43; with suffixed def. art. its chest XII:17, her breast XXI:141, the chest XXIII:80 brjóstkringla f. round brooch for the breast X:121, 165 brjóstvit n. mother-wit XIV:36 brjóta (pres. br‡tr, past braut, past pl. brutu, pp. brotinn) sv. break (transitive) Gr 3.6.5.2; go against, force (stifle), crush XIV:116; br‡tr flú should you wreck XVI:139; pres. subj. flótt flú brjótir though you should wreck XVI:142; past subj. bryti were to break, violate VII B:29; impers. with acc. be wrecked VII A:135, XVI:177 (past subj.); skipit braut í spán the ship was broken to pieces XV:152; pp. er brotit haf›i which she had broken X:123; brjóta upp break into IV:35 Brodd-Helgi (fiorgilsson) m. 10th-century Icelander who lived at Hof in Vápnafjƒr›r VII A:116 bró›ir (dat. sg. brœ›r, pl. brœ›r) m. brother (Gr 3.1.7.2 (7)) II:109, 131, 139, III:75, IV:4, 16, 65, 67, VI:13, VIII:50, 183, X:3, 111, XI:6, 17, XIV:105, XV:119, 140, XXV:94 (in address), 99, XXVI A:71; as title for a monk XIV:26, note, 166; gen. sg. bró›ur V:98, VI:17; dat. sg. brœ›r IV:93 (Fró›i’s (half-)brother = Kormakr; with mik festa), XI:30; nom. pl. fleir brœ›r the brothers XXVI B:5, 32 A New Introduction to Old Norse

ﬂeir Hólmsteinn brœ›r Hólmsteinn and his brothers XIX:16; acc. pl. brœ›r XXV:36, XXVI B:139; gen. pl. brœ›ra XI:2, XXV:87; dat. pl. brœ›rum I:149 bró›urson m. nephew II:112 (probably an error for son, which is what appears in other manuscripts; cf. II:114) bróka, brókum see brœkr Bróka-Au›r f. ‘breeches-Au›r’, nickname XV:53 brókabeltispungr m. purse on the belt of one’s breeches III:30 brosa (past brosti, pp. brosat) wv. smile (at at this) XV:26 brotit see brjóta brotna (past brotna›i, pp. brotnat) wv. intransitive break, be broken IV:11, V:117, IX:83, XXI:151, XXVI A:74 brott, á brott, á brottu, í brott, á brutt adv. away III:38, 94, 117, IV:17, 70, V:110, 141, 163, VI:354, VII A:106, 117, 152, 158, XI:42, XV:110, XVI:84, XIX:70, XXI:105, 142, XXVI B:204, 217; off XIX:100; fara í brott leave IV:52 brú (pl. br‡r) f. bridge Gr 3.1.7.2 ex. 4, 3.1.8 ex. brú›fé (gen. brú›fjár) n. ‘bride-fee’, bridal gift IX:115, 128 brú›kaup n. (= brullaup) wedding XV:14 brú›r f. bride IX:46, 99, 100, wife X:96, 153; acc. sg. brú›i (Gr 3.1.8 (17)) IX:120 brug›it, brug›izk, brug›u see breg›a brullaup n. wedding IV:110 (with suffixed def. art.), VI:7, XV:78 brullaupsstefna f. date for a wedding IV:102 brún (pl. br‡nn) f. eyebrow XXIII:18, gen. pl. XXIII:22, with suffixed def. art. XXIII:21 brúnáss m. roof beam (longitudinal beam along the middle of the sloping roof lying on the tops of one of the two lines of pillars) XXVI A:25 bruni m. burning, fire XIII:42 brunnit, brunnu see brenna2 brúnn adj. brown (dat. with beru) X:53; n. as substantive nƒkkut brúnu brownish colour XXIII:109 brúnvƒlr adj. frowning V:4 Brúsi Sigur›sson m. XXII:16/3 brutt see brott brutu see brjóta bryg›i see breg›a Glossary and Index 33 bryggja f. quay, jetty XVI:128 br‡na (past br‡ndi, pp. br‡ndr) wv. sharpen, hone II:124 (subj.), 125 brynflag› n. giantess or trollwife of the mail-coat, kenning for battle- axe VI:235 Bryngvet f. Ísƒnd’s maidservant or lady-in-waiting XII:48, 84 brynja f. coat of mail (chain-mail) II:61, III:28, 95 (with suffixed def. art.), X:43, XI:4, 16, 19, 27, XXII:56/2; í brynju in his coat of mail XXV:91 Brynjubítr m. ‘mail-coat biter’, name of a sword III:29, 98 Brynjudalsá f. river flowing into the head of Hvalfjƒr›r XIX:97 brynjurokkr m. mail-gown, coat of mail XXII:20/3 (collective) br‡nn see brún br‡r see brú bryti1 m. steward, bailiff, reeve VII A:137, XXVI B:174, with suffixed def. art. XXVI B:180; as surname III:76 bryti2 see brjóta brytja (past brytja›i, pp. brytjat) wv. chop XXII:41/1 br‡tr see brjóta brœ›r, brœ›ra, brœ›rum see bró›ir brœkr f. pl. breeches XV:49, 98 brƒgnum see bragnar brƒngu see branga brƒtt see brattr bú n. farmstead, dwelling (Gr 3.1.8 ex.) II:42, XXVI A:109; establishment XV:12, XVI:9 búa (pres. b‡r, past bjó, past pl. bjoggu/bjuggu, pp. búinn, búit/bút) sv. (Gr 3.6.9.1 (9), 3.6.9.3 and ex. 6) 1. live, dwell XV:2, 35, XIX:95, 101; past II:1, IV:1; er fyrir bjuggu who dwelt there already XXI:154; inhabit, live in IX:70; live together, keep house X:11; b‡r is included XIV:90. 2. prepare XVI:131, XIX:79, XXI:3; fit out VII A:34, XIV:9, XIX:26; array, station, position VI:163; búa til prepare for XXVI B:109, get things ready for V:28, fit out for (going to) XIX:43; búa sik til get ready for I:119; búa um prepare for burial, lay out VII B:84; búa um okkr/sik arrange us/myself, dispose us/ myself XXVI B:175, 189; búum um let us arrange it I:109; pp. búinn constructed I:19, fitted out VII A:80, 81 (pl. búnir), ready IV:7, XXII:8/2; svá búin thus equipped (i.e. without figureheads) VI:83; lítt til búinn ill-equipped, quite unable XXVI B:160; pl. 34 A New Introduction to Old Norse

búnir, búnar ready, prepared XI:15, 74, XIX:45; finished XII:3; clothed, attired XVI:95, fitted out XXI:44; pp. n. vel búit well equipped (Gr 3.9.2) VI:68; var til búit had been prepared XII:7, was ready XIX:57; er búit vi› there will be a danger, you may expect XVI:53; bút svá sé it looks as if it is, maybe it is, probably it is XXVI A:23; svá búit as adv. phrase in these circumstances, without more ado I:64. 3. -sk form prepare oneself, get ready VI:115, XIX:14; get ready to leave XVI:126; b‡zk gets ready XXI:140; um búask protect oneself all round I:15; past pl. bjoggusk/bjuggusk í/á brott got ready to go, started to leave III:117, XXI:154; bjoggusk flar fyrir set themselves up there XIX:71; bjoggusk flar um settled themselves in there, camped there XXI:56 búandakirkjugar›r m. the farmer’s churchyard, the householder’s churchyard XXVII:40 búandi (pl. búendr) m. farmer, freeholder VIII:165, XVI:3 bú› f. booth, a shelter for use during the summer assembly VIII:119, XV:58; shelter, temporary dwelling (on an expedition) XXI:106, 145 bu›kr m. small box (for herbs); see baukr bu›lúngr m. king XXII:50/2, 64/1 bu›u see bjó›a búfé n. livestock XV:77; farm animals XXI:134 Búfinnar m. pl. ‘farm Finns’, settled (not nomadic) Finns, i.e. Lapps XXII:30/4 búinn see búa bukkskinn n. (billy-)goatskin XII:56 búna, búnar, búnir see búa búna›r m. adornment, attire XII:49 bundinn, bundu see binda búr n. store-house; with suffixed def. art. III:81, 96, 97, 108 bur›r m. birth VIII:13, 149 Búrizleifr m. king of Vindland (Boleslav I Chrobri, r. 992–1025) VI:3, 7, 18, 24, 46, 47 burr m. son VI:336 (gen. with ævi), IX:4; acc. pl. buri XXV:36; buri flá those boys XXV:76 burt, í burt adv. away I:33, 65, 87, 89 (cf. brott); í burtu (gone) away XII:77 búsmali m. cattle, especially milch-cows VII A:111 bústa›r m. dwelling-place Gr 3.1.8 ex.; a site for a home XIX:94 Glossary and Index 35 bút, b‡ see búa b‡›r see bjó›a bygg› f. dwelling, abode; settlement XV:42; bygg› hennar her staying, her to stay IV:68; sér til bygg›ar as its dwelling XIV:101 byggva/byggja (past bygg›i, pp. bygg›r) wv. settle (on or in) VII A:169, VIII:17, XIX:47, 53, 98, 101; live in VIII:72; live XII:74; pp. n. byggt settled VIII:35, inhabited VIII:71 (supine), 158, XXVI A:102; -sk form byggjask be settled VIII:7, 64 byggvendr m. pl. inhabitants VII A:24 b‡r1 see búa b‡r2 (gen. b‡jar) m. = bœr; town VII B:32, 33; with suffixed def. art. VII B:49, 52 byr›r f. load II:55, Gr 3.1.7.3–5 ex.1 byrja (past byrja›i, pp. byrjat) wv. 1. begin, set out on XXII:12/1 2. impers. with dat. be fitting, be proper (til for this, in these circumstances) XXIV:4 byrr m. (fair, favourable, following) wind; adv. acc. lítinn byr with a slight wind VI:26, 122 byskup m. bishop VIII:1, 159, 187, 191, XIV:24; as title VIII:9, 150, 158, 182, 196, XIV:1, 169 byskupligr adj. episcopal XIV:116, 148 byskupsdómr m. bishopric, diocese VIII:163, XIV:170 byskupsstóll m. bishop’s see, bishopric VIII:163 bystr adj. (pp.) bristled; fierce, violent, hostile XXII:45/1; Hárekr . . . bystr the fierce Hárekr XXII:8/1 b‡zk see búa bæ›i1 conj. both I:133, III:13, 22, V:112 (understand váru), VII A:50, 155, VIII:2, 11, 69, XII:67, XIII:41, XIV:13, XVI:44, XXI:68, XXII:21/3, XXIV:50, XXVI B:57, 125; var bæ›i at it was the case both that XIV:17 bæ›i2 see bá›ir bægja (past bæg›i, pp. bægt) wv. 1. cause to give way. 2. -sk form ger›isk bægja vi› = bæg›isk vi› did strive against, contend with VII A:12 bæri see bera1 bœgi see bógr bœjarbruni m. farm-burning, burning of a farm XXVI B:106 bœkr see bók 36 A New Introduction to Old Norse bœn f. prayer XIV:62, 121, XXIV:16, 17, 27; fyrir bœn fleira at their entreaty XXVI B:145 bœnahald n. (saying of) prayers, praying XIV:162 bœndr see bóndi bœr (gen. bœjar) m. farmstead VII A:129, XV:134, XXVI A:8, with suffixed def. art. XXVI A:9, B:44; (in Norway) town VII B:34, with suffixed def. art. VII B:78; settlement, city XXV:61; cf. b‡r2 bœta (past bœtti, pp. bœtt) wv. repair; pres. ek bœti I shall mend X:126 bœtr f. pl. atonement, compensation I:60, IV:70 (gen. pl.) bƒ› f. battle VI:260, 311 bƒ›frœkn adj. bold in battle XXV:99 Bƒ›varr bjarki (Bjarnarson) m. I:1, 2, 5, 7, 10, 12, 13, 20, 22, 25, 32, 35, 36, 38, 41, 42, 57, 59, 61, 63, 68, 71, 73, 79, 87, 88, 89, 91, 94, 95, 99, 100, 102, 104, 108, 123, 139, 143, 149 bƒ›vaz (past bƒ›va›iz) wv. -sk form become eager for battle, become belligerent XXV:71 Bƒ›vildr (dat. and acc. Bƒ›vildi) f. daughter of Ní›u›r X:3, 78, 82, 96, 121, 122, 137, 165, 166, 176, 178 bƒl n. misfortune, affliction XXV:3; evil, harm XXV:94 bƒll see ballr bƒllóttr adj. ball-shaped, round like a ball XXIII:9 bƒlva (past bƒlva›i, pp. bƒlvat) wv. curse 3.6.9.2 (6) bƒlvan f. curse, cursing III:37 Bƒlverkr m. ‘mischief-causer’, assumed name of Ó›inn II:133, 136, 137, 140, 141, 145, 148, 150 bƒnd n. pl. bonds, a term for the heathen gods; bergsalar bƒnd is a kenning for giants, but here seems to refer to landvættir VII A:143 bƒr›usk see berja bƒrn see barn bƒrr m. conifer, tree, in kenning for warrior (King Óláfr), dá›ƒflgan bƒr dolga fangs (acc. in acc. and inf. construction after menn kvá›u; Gr 3.9.4) VI:176 Credo in Deum (Latin) ‘I believe in God’, the Creed XIV:65, 69, 70 dá› f. deed; ability to fight XXII:48/4 (pl.); manliness, courage, valour XXII:9/4 (pl.), 41/3, XXV:21 dá›ƒflugr adj. mighty in deeds (with bƒr) VI:176 dagan f. dawn III:120 (í dagan just dawning) Glossary and Index 37 dagleygr m. day’s flame or fire, i.e. the sun V:22 (gen. with hilmis) dagr (dat. sg. degi) m. day Gr 3.1.7.2, XIV:80, XXI:49, XXV:19; acc. of time einn dag, einnhvern dag one day II:50, IV:6, VII B:51, XV:47, XVI:128; hvern dag every day XI:71, XIV:61; flann dag that day V:126; allan daginn all day XIV:66, the whole day XXVI B:4; flann dag allan all that day VI:286, VIII:121; flenna dag on this day, today VI:90; annan dag eptir the next day VIII:111; annars dags tomorrow X:106; nƒkkura daga a few days VII B:49; dat. sg. degi (Gr 3.1.7.2) VIII:197; á hverjum degi every day XIV:70; um daginn during the whole day IV:47; í dag today V:10, 122, 134, XIV:12, XV:87; in pl. time VIII:7; á várum dƒgum in our time XIV:168 Dagr Hringsson m. XXII:54/1 dáligr adj. miserable XXII:6/3 Dálkr of Húsafell m. enemy of Bjƒrn Hítdœlakappi V:87, 113, 117, 159; dat. with part of the body V:116 dalr m. valley (Gr 3.1.7.1) II:18, IV:49, V:2; hollow XXVI B:42; dat. sg. with suffixed def. art. IV:52, VII A:151 Dalsfjƒr›r m. fjord in western Norway XIX:4 Danaherr m. army of Danes VI:119 Danakonungr m. king of the Danes VI:1, 21, 30, 34, 39, 107, 183, VII A:125, 126, 132, 134, 170, VIII:146 Danir m. pl. Danes, the Danes VI:94, 209, VII A:136; dat. pl. Danum VI:96, 222 Danmƒrk f. Denmark VI:45, VII A:136, VIII:128, 189, XVI:92; gen. Danmarkar VI:12, 25, Danmerkr VII A:169, XVI:13, 30, 42, 157 danskr adj. Danish VI:245; á danska tungu in the area where the Danish language (i.e. Old Norse) is spoken, in Scandinavia VI:317 dapr adj. sad XXII:56/3 dapreyg›r adj. dim-sighted V:31 darr (pl. dƒrr) n. spear XXII 41/4, 54/2, 56/4 datt see detta dátt adj. n. in phrase gera sér dátt vi› become friends with, make friends with IV:4, XV:18 dau›adagr m. the day of one’s death; til dau›adags until their dying day VI:304, until his dying day VI:324 dau›i m. death III:31, VI:364, XXII:6/3, 39/4, 53/2, XXIV:39, XXVI B:75 dau›r adj. dead III:77, V:96, VI:327 (acc. with hungrdœyfi, parallel 38 A New Introduction to Old Norse

to e›a fló kvikvan), VIII:61, XIX:74, XXI:139, XXII:48/3, XXVI A:19, 104, B:92,133; saztu yfir dau›um you sat over him dead XXV:26; sízt mína sonu dau›a since my sons died X:144; (vann) tvá dau›a caused two (men) to be dead, i.e. killed them XXVI A:100; n. dautt I:98, 100, 139 daufr adj. deaf; pl. daufir deaf people XXI:57/3 degi see dagr deila (past deildi, pp. deilt) wv. dispute, quarrel XIV:160 detta (past datt, past pl. duttu, pp. dottinn) sv. (Gr 3.6.5.2) drop, fall I:98, XXVI B:194 dey›a (past deyddi, pp. deyddr) wv. kill; dey›a sik mortify oneself XIV:122 deyja (past dó, past pl. dó, pp. dáinn) sv. die (Gr 3.6.9.1 (8), 3.6.9.3) II:79, IV:66, VII A:20, XVI:52 (fyrir flér on you), XXI:179, XXII:54/4, XXV:39, 108, XXVI B:173 digr adj. stout VIII:31 dirf› f. boldness (til for, to) VII B:26 dís f. lady; goddess, valkyrie or norn (perhaps a guardian spirit?) V:20 (subject of bendir, though pl.; cf. I:27, note; Gr 3.9.8.2), XXV:100 djákni m. deacon III:118 djarfr adj. bold I:30, XXIII:27, 75; acc. sg. m. djarfan a bold person XXIII:91 Djúpárbakki m. farm in southern Iceland, east of Sí›a XXVI B:143 Djúpdœlir m. pl. people of Djúpidalr in northern Iceland VIII:37 djúpr adj. deep; á djúpum sæ on the open sea VI:316 djƒfull m. devil Gr 3.1.7.3–5 ex. 1; cf. 3.1.7.4 (1) dó see deyja dolgstœrandi m. (pres. part.) ‘hostility increaser’, warrior (here King Haraldr; dat. with hugnar) VII B:17 dólg/dolg n. hostility; battle (gen. pl.) VI:175; gen. sg. with runna VI:242 dólgr/dolgr m. enemy; Frísa dolgr = Earl Eiríkr VI:201 dómandi m. judge (Gr 3.1.7.2 (7)); pl. dómendr II:8 dómr m. judgment; sentence XXII:36/4; decision; me› leyndum Gu›s dómi, at leyndum dómi Gu›s by the inscrutable decree of God XIII:13, XIV:11; relic(s) (of a saint) XXII:62/1 dómsuppsƒguváttr m. witness of the announcement of judgment XXVII:42 dóttir (pl. dœtr) f. daughter (Gr 3.1.7.2 (7), 3.1.8 (22)) II:61, 116, VI:23, 38, 47, VII B:6, VIII:11, IX:88, X:2, 8, 58, 74, 78, XV:4 Glossary and Index 39 dóttursonr m. grandson (daughter’s son) VIII:49 Drafdittr m. Irish slave XIX:37 (Drafdrittr in other manuscripts; perhaps from draf n. refuse, drittr m. dirt) draga (pres. dregr, past dró, past pl. drógu, pp. dreginn) sv. (Gr 3.6.9.1 (4), 3.6.9.3) 1. draw XVI:146, XXI:176, XXV:53, pull XIX:64, i.e. row VI:120; draga fram bring out II:143, bring forward, propose VII B:14; draga (sver›) draw or wield? XXII:40/2; 1st person pl. pres. dragum upp let us hoist VI:166; draga á tálar entrap, betray VI:145; impers. make, cause (by pulling) II:53; ef oss dregr undan if we escape, get away XXVI B:67; lítt dró enn undan vi› flik there was no escaping you XXVI B:94; pp. acc. pl. m. dregna threaded, drawn X:47. 2. wear X:23 drakk see drekka drap, drápu see drepa dráp n. slaying, killing VI:42, VIII:60, 149 draumr m. dream V:13, 23; acc. pl. with suffixed def. art. V:7 dregna see draga dreifask (past dreif›isk) wv. -sk form scatter; spread out XIX:68 dreingr see drengr drekahafu› n. dragon’s head (as figurehead) VI:99; pl. ok á drekahafu› and on it dragon’s heads VI:110 dreki m. dragon VII A:151; dragon-ship, large warship usually with a dragon’s head on the prow and/or stern VI:78 drekka1 (past drakk, past pl. drukku, pp. drukkinn) sv. drink I:101, 103, II:99, 151, 152, IX:97, 101, XI:59, XII:71; imp. drekk XVI:159; inf. with skyldi II:4; pp. (impers. pass., var understood) II:13 (‘there was much drinking’; Gr 3.9.3) drekka2 f. drink II:117 drengiliga adv. manfully III:130, VI:303, Gr 3.5.1–3 ex. 6 (b) drengiligr adj. valiant VI:254, 315 drengr/dreingr m. (valiant) man, manly man I:133, XI:4; (i.e. the poet, Bjƒrn) V:18; (i.e. fiorfinnr fivarason) V:59; gó›r drengr a fine fellow XIX:77; fleir drengir . . . at such valiant men that VI:81; in pl. warriors, nom. pl. dre(i)ngir VI:239 (subject of slitu), XXII:56/3, acc. pl. dre(i)ngi VI:175, 280 (acc. with hét á), XXII:54/1; gen. pl. drengja V:55, VI:157, 266 (gen. with vanr) drengskapr m. nobility XI:51 drepa (past drap, past pl. drápu, pp. drepinn/drepit) sv. (Gr 3.6.5.2) 1. strike IX:125, 127; drepa á touch, stroke XXV:70; with dat. drepa 40 A New Introduction to Old Norse

fótum í stumble against III:64. 2. kill I:46, 47, 51, 142, II:59, 96, VII A:57, VIII:12, 86, XVI:73, XIX:21, 34, 65, 84, 86, XXI:158, XXVI A:11, 92; slaughter XXI:134; hef›i drepit had killed it XIX:66; imp. with suffixed pron. dreptu I:125. 3. -sk form pp. in reciprocal sense (Gr 3.6.5.3) hƒf›u drepizk had killed each other II:132 dreyma (past dreym›i, pp. dreym›r) wv. dream V:8; impers. with acc. of dreamer and of what is dreamed hvat dreym›i flik? what did you dream? V:12; pp. V:25 dreyri m. blood XXII:16/4, XXV:25; clotted blood XXI:157 drífa (past dreif, past pl. drifu, pp. drifinn) sv. drift I:28, be driven, surge, throng VII B:42, XIX:23 (Gr 3.9.8.2), XXI:73; hurry X:100; rush XXII:33/1 drjúgari adj. comp. more lasting, i.e. more successful; ver›a drjúgari en do better than, get the better of XXI:78 dró, drógu see draga dropi m. drop II:140; pl. flecks? XXIII:30 drós f. lady X:20 drótt f. troop, following of a king or earl VI:362 (gen. with stjóri); men VI:155, 247 (subject of vann) dróttinn m. lord VI:363 (acc. in acc. and inf. construction; verb to be understood), IX:19, 41, X:41, 66, 142; the Lord, = God, dat. dróttni, Dróttni XXII:2/2, 63/1; Dróttinn the Lord (Jesus) XIII:3, XIV:52, XIX:49; Dróttinn várr XIII:30; Dróttinn minn God XXIV:18 dróttinssvikari m. traitor, one who betrays his lord XXII:6/4 dróttinvandr adj. loyal to their lord (refers to herr) VII B:18 dróttning f. queen (Gr 3.2.7.4 (3)) VII A:73, XII:24; the queen X:80; as title XI:1, 2, XII:22 drukkinn adj. (pp.) drunk XVI:100 drukkna (past drukkna›i, pp. drukknat) wv. drown (intransitive) XV:151 dr‡gja (past dr‡g›i, pp. dr‡gt) wv. carry out, engage in; suffer? X:18, 30 drykkja f. drink, drinking, feasting, banquet II:6, 14, XVI:96 drykkjuma›r m. drinker XXIII:28 drykkr m. drink, draught I:37, II:134, 152, 162, 163, VI:9, XII:51, XIV:68 drœyri = dreyri m. blood VI:231 Dufflakr m. Irish slave XIX:36, 65 (Irish Dubthach) Dufflaksskor f. overgrown sloping ledge in a cliff on Vestmannaeyjar XIX:85 Glossary and Index 41 duga (past dug›i, pp. dugat) wv. be of use, be valiant I:117; be helpful XXVI A:57; duga ekki be useless V:127; with dat. dugir illa does not benefit, does no good for VII B:13 dugr m. valour, effectiveness I:124 dúkr m. cloth XIII:31, 37 dun›i see dynja dura, durum, durunum see dyrr duttu see detta dvelja (past dval›i, past pl. dvƒl›u, pp. dvalinn) wv. 1. delay (imp.) VII A:114. 2. -sk form refl. stay I:64 (understand munu vit), VII A:67, 107, B:49, XXI:104; wait XXVI B:43; pp. dvalizk XVI:88 dvergr m. dwarf II:95, 102, XII:42; pl. with suffixed def. art. II:99 Dyflinn f. Dublin VII A:74 dyg› f. virtue XIII:22; valour; faithfulness, fidelity XXII:41/3 dyggr adj. trustworthy, faithful XXIII:30 d‡ja (past dú›i) wv. (transitive) shake (up and down) IX:3 dynja (past dun›i) wv. roar, boom, whirr IX:16 dynr m. noise; in kenning for battle, dynr hjalma VI:206 dynsæ›ingr m. ‘noise-seagull’; in the kenning Heita d‡rbliks dyn- sæ›ingar ‘seagulls of the noise of the gleam of Heiti’s beast’; seagulls of battle means carrion birds, eagles or ravens VI:327 (gen. pl. with hungrdœyfi; a six-element kenning!) d‡pri adj. comp. deeper (cf. djúpr) Gr 3.3.8.2 d‡r n. (wild) animal, beast I:74, 80, 81, XVI:13; pl. game X:4, XXI:27, 94, 159; dat. of comparison d‡rum than wild animals XXI:40; with suffixed def. art. I:84, 90, 91, 94, 97, 98, 100, 101, 109, 112, 116, 119, 121, 125, 131, 138, 139, 142, XVI:14, 161; d‡rit eitthvert a beast of a kind XVI:21; d‡rin wild animals; in kenning for ship, ægis d‡r V:39, Heita d‡r- VI:328 d‡ramergr m. animal marrow XXI:157 d‡rblik n. ‘beast-gleam’; Heita d‡r, beast of the sea-king, is a kenning for ship; the gleam of the ship is a shield, since shining shields were fastened along the sides of viking ships VI:328 (gen. with dyn- sæ›inga; the noise, dynr, of the shield is battle) d‡r› f. glory XIV:190; flat er flá væri meiri Gu›s d‡r› en á›r such that then (i.e. with it) would be to the greater glory of God than before (without it) XIV:14 dyr›ill m. ‘short tail’; as a nickname perhaps means ‘dandy’ VI:165 d‡r›ligr a. glorious XIV:44 42 A New Introduction to Old Norse d‡rka (past d‡rka›i, pp. d‡rkat) wv. glorify; ok d‡rki fleir and (that) they may glorify XIV:56 d‡rligr adj. splendid XI:4; sup. most splendid XI:59 dyrr f. or n. pl. door(way) (Gr 3.1.7.2) IV:13; with suffixed def. art. II:109, III:15, 53, VII B:70, XXVI B:82, 84; gen. pl. dyra IV:9, XXII B:127, with suffixed def. art. dyranna (= of the doorway) XII:58; dat. pl. durum XV:103, dyrum XXVI B:121, 155, -dyrum IV:10, XIV:25, with suffixed def. art. durunum III:40, 51, dyrunum XXVI B:107 d‡rr adj. precious II:114 (Gr 3.3.5), X:20, splendid VII A:21 (gen. pl.), B:17, XXII:19/2, textual note; high XXII:2/1; worthy, noble, glorious XXII:53/2, 60/4; expensive XV:17; dear (?) VI:362 (with stjóri); n. pl. as substantive precious objects, treasures X:100; sup. d‡rastr most precious or expensive XII:15, 26 d‡rshjarta n. with suffixed def. art. the animal’s heart I:103 dœgr n. day (12 hours); pl. i.e. lucky and unlucky days? XIV:80; in næstu dœgr á›r during the preceding 24 hours XXVII:33; tvau dœgr for 24 hours, but in this text it is likely that dœgr has become just an alternative to dagr, so that tvau dœgr would mean two days (of 24 hours) XXI:21, 26, 30, flrjú dœgr three days XXI:44, 66, á hinu fjór›a dœgri on the fourth day XXI:66 dœma (past dœm›i, pp. dœm›r) wv. converse X:146; judge, adjudge, impose by judgment XXVII:39 (1); skal dœma (impers.) shall be fixed, enjoined by judgment XXVII:39 (2); er fé lætr dœma who has money awarded him by judgment XXVII:41; dœmi n. example XIV:121, XXV:102; eptir hans dœmum following his example XIX:106; vita dœmi til know examples of it or prece- dents for it XIX:110 dœtr see dóttir dƒglíng(r) m.king XXII:2/1 dƒgum see dagr dƒrr see darr døkkjarpr adj. dark chestnut, dark brown XXIII:7 døkkna (past døkkna›i, pp. døkknat) wv. be darkened XIII:18 døkkr adj. dark Gr 3.3.8.5 (5) Eadmundr m. St Edmund (841–69), martyr, king of the East Angles VIII:12, 60, 149 e›a, e›r conj. or (Gr 3.8.1) I:124, II:1, 47, 83, 131, III:110, VI:40, Glossary and Index 43

320, 328, 354, VII A:46, B:8, 33, VIII:3, XII:28, XIII:37, XIV:58, XV:10, 65, XVI:129, 167, XXI:118, XXIII:85, XXIV:46, 76, XXVI A:84, 110, XXVII:11, 33; and VIII:33, X:155; e›a . . . ella or otherwise, or else XIX:11; linking a question to a statement (Gr 3.8.1) II:75, V:11, XXVI B:109; linking two parts of a question (Gr 3.8.1) I:10, VII A:90, XII:78, XVI:33, XXVI B:130 e›la f. adder VII A:152 e›li n. nature XIV:118, XXIII:1 ef conj. if (Gr 3.8.2.4) I:34, 137, II:48, 107, 108, III:33, IV:22, 51, V:45, VI:14, 82 (or whether?), 86, 147, VII B:82, VIII:124, 142, IX:52, 67, 117, XIV:170, XV:17, 52, XVI:25, XIX:67, 78, XXI:40, 134, XXIII:7, 18, 57, XXV:74, XXVI A:45, 53, B:23, 48, XXVII:4, 7, 13, 28, 32; ef . . . ok . . . flá XXVII:8 (see ok and note 4); if (as a result) IX:12; whether VII A:120, XV:113; to see if II:142, X:40, in case XXVI B:87 efna (past efna›i, pp. efnat) wv. perform, fulfil XVI:156 efni n. state VIII:124; material(s) XII:7; reason XXIV:61; koma til efnis come to pass, come about XIII:33; mjƒk í annat efni onto a very different course, into a very different direction XIV:48 efri adj. comp. upper XII:29, hin efri the upper one XXIII:57; topmost XII:31 efst adv. highest XXI:93 egg1 f. edge X:151, XXII:48/2, XXV:54; pl. eggjar i.e. weapons, swords V:150, (neither) sharp weapons XXV:93 egg2 n. egg XXI:55 (with suffixed def. art.) eggja (past eggja›i, pp. eggjat) wv. (Gr 3.6.9.2 (6)) incite, urge I:95, IV:5, VI:273, VII B:71, 79, XXII:36/1, XXVI B:139 eggmó›r adj. wearied by edges (swords), i.e. slain by swords XXV:107 (with val) eggver n. sea-birds’ breeding ground, sea-birds’ eggs XXI:84 Egill m. brother of Vƒlundr X:4, 10, 12, 21, 32, 34 ei adv. not XI:11, XXII:15/1, 40/3, XXIV:12, 41 Ei› n. isthmus, neck of land in Vestmannaeyjar XIX:82 ei›r m. oath X:149 Ei›r (of Hur›arbak) m. father of fiór›r and fiorvaldr V:87, 93 eiga1 (pres. á, pres. pl. eigu, past átti, pp. átt) pret.-pres. vb. have, own (Gr 3.6.7) II:49, 135, III:32, IV:2, 107, V:30, 58, 59, VI:30, 41, 67, 80, 90, VII A:112, 123, 135, VIII:48, IX:91, X:2, 48, 71, 155, XVI:9, 21, 151, XIX:26, 64, XXVII:14, 35; possess XI:24, XV:9 44 A New Introduction to Old Norse

(after skyldi), 132; XVI:52, 65; ok á and owned it (Gr 3.9.5.1) XVI:17; en . . . áttu and it belonged to XXI:119; saman eiga share XXVI B:188; hann á he receives, there are due to him XXVII:38; áttu do you have XVI:20; hold (a meeting) II:44, VII B:51, VIII:42, XXVII:33; hold, engage in VII A:5, 45; marry VI:8, VII A:78, 88, XIX:10; be married to VI:24, 31, 38, 48 (pp. acc. f. sg. átta), VII B:5, 6, X:154, XV:34, er hann haf›i á›r átta to whom he had previously been married XIV:128; 3rd pl. hverir eigu to whom belong VI:190; pres. subj. eigi lengra til are further off from V:82, at hon eigi that she may have XV:55, fló at nau›syn eigi til though they have urgent business requiring it XVI:34, eigim XV:23; past átti had owned X:80, was married to XIX:107; átti sér son had a son XXVI A:113; slíkt sem hon átti what she had to (do) XV:118; átti skammt til was a short distance away from V:86; eigu skammt hingat are not far off, will not be long in coming V:65; reciprocal past pl. áttusk fleir vi› had with each other, exchanged, shared (Gr 3.6.5.3, 3.9.8.3; cf. I:15, note) II:13, wrestled with each other, fought I:104; past subj. ætta, ætti had VIII:67, XVI:183, owned VII A:118, XV:11, should have (possess) XV:16; past subj. impers. ætti ought IV:97; supine átt been concerned in, been involved in II:15; eiga (at) with inf. have to, need to V:42, 115, VI:36, have the duty to (of) VIII:168, XIII:7, XXII:1/2; á at has to XXIV:64, XXVII:27, should (be) XV:61, is to be XXVII:18; eigu at are to, shall (be) XXVII:17, must, may XXVII:50; átt/átti at ought to VI:19, XV:89 eiga2 f. possession VII A:107, VIII:19; alla eigu sína everything he possessed XVI:11, cf. XVI:25 eigandi (pl. eigendr) m. pres. part. (3.1.7.2 ex. 4, 3.1.8 (10)) (its) owner V:95 eigi1 neg. adv. not I:15, 36, 37, 66, 85, 93, 102, 107, 147, II:23, 24, 37, 58, 68, 91, III:10, 68, 88, IV:16, V:14, 62, VI:5, 129, 184, 325, 357, VII A:44 (at hann væri eigi of his being), VIII:22, 28, 57, 90, 110, 167, X:12, 69, XI:26, XII:39, XIII:17, XV:4, XVI:23, 33, XIX:37, 78, XXI:64, 74, XXIII:26, 36, XXIV:2, 47, XXVI A:7, 27, B:8, 50, XXVII:13, 32, 41; not then XXVII:20; no XVI:28; eigi meira no more VII A:37; eigi minna no fewer VI:222; eigi at sí›r none the less VI:212; nema eigi except not, but not VI:224 eigi2 see eiga eiginkona f. wife VI:16 (sér to himself) Glossary and Index 45 eign f. property XIV:127, 134; possession XIX:25; gen. pl. VI:1, 2; alla eign all he possessed XVI:71 eigna (past eigna›i, pp. eignat) wv. assign; inf. e›a eigna or assigning XIV:80; -sk form eignask gain possession of, get VI:22, 148, 302 eik f. oak II:22 (with suffixed def. art.) eilífr adj. eternal XIII:8, 45 Eilífr ¯nundarson m. enemy of Gunnarr XXVI A:49 Eina(r) Gilsson m. fourteenth-century Icelandic poet XXII:heading Einarr flambarskelfir (Eindri›ason) m. 11th-century Norwegian chieftain VI:301 (see note), VII B:1, 2 (see note), 3, 4, 9, 10, 23, 24, 25, 29, 30, 32, 35, 38 (acc. with sék ganga), 47, 49, 50, 53, 55, 61, 64, 77, 78, 84, 86 Einarr fiorgrímsson m. one of the incendiaries at Flugum‡rr, later killed on his own farm by Óláfr gestr III:55, 59, 119 einart adv. incessantly, without stopping or immediately, boldly? XXII:40/2 eindagi m. settlement day; dœma eindaga á fleim fix as settlement day for them (to be paid) XXVII:39 Eindri›i m. son of Einarr flambarskelfir and Bergljót VII B:6, 7, 50, 62, 64, 68, 82, 84 einfalda (past einfalda›i, pp. einfaldat) wv. use in the singular, use a singular form in XXIV:6 (subj.), 56; -sk form skal einfaldaz should be used in the singular XXIV:51 einfaldr adj. single, simple XXIV:46, 53; singular XXIV:41, 58 einfœtingaland n. the land of the unipeds XXI:191 einfœtingr m. uniped (a mythical kind of man with only one very large foot) XXI:174, 175, 179, 185 (object of eltu) einfœttr adj. (pp.) one-legged, on one leg XII:54 eingadóttir f. only daughter X:167 eingi = engi einhverju, einhverjum see einnhverr einmæli n. private discussion II:96 einn (n. eitt) num. pron. adj. one (Gr 3.4.1) I:47 (one of), II:50, 64, 81, 97, 134, VI:49, VIII:82, 164, X:2, 50 (sc. ring), 57 (sc. ring), 182, XIV:172, XV:20, XVI:128, XXI:166, 172, 182, XXIV:34, 36, XXVI B:224, XXVII:19; a single, any I:79, V:38, VII A:98; the same IV:41, VII A:118, VIII:125, 134, XV:9, XXI:192, XXVII:7; a certain I:74, II:1, 90, III:77, IV:13, 49, 55, VI:10, 11, 28, 58, 61, 46 A New Introduction to Old Norse

165, VII A:70, 73, 75, 111, B:52, X:86, XIV:155, XVI:11, 130, XXI:53, 67, 159, 181, XXVI B:229; as indefinite art. a XI:2, XII:10, 16, 17, 27, 41, 79, XIII:1, 15, 19, XXVI A:25, B:179, 219; a single (‘this one ox’) II:18, XIX:64; one person III:92, IX:95?; einn inn bezta klerk one of the best scholars XIV:27; only XV:86; alone, only VI:119, IX:92 (gen. sg. f. einnar), X:89, XV:8 (1), XXIV:80, sjá einn that alone XVI:125; alone, on one’s own I:142, II:51, VI:158, IX:24, 95 (or acc. one with oxa), X:36, XV:8 (2), 74, XXVI A:2, 9; to oneself II:136; with gen. pl. the only one (left) V:27; einn hei›inna manna alone of (among) heathen men XIX:109; eitt one of them (of the ships) VI:98, 110; flat eitt that alone XV:80; flat eina only that, that alone XXI:146 (‘that must have been the only troop’); hálft eitt only half XVI:65; ein(n) fleira one of them X:21, XXI:149; sú var ein (sƒk) that was one (cause of resentment) VI:30; af vi›i einum entirely of wood XXVI A:24; mér einum me (when I am) on my own IV:44; flér einum to you alone X:124; firi sér einum . . . ok for himself alone and for, just for himself and XXIV:63; ne einn = neinn no, not any XIV:93; einn fyrir (only) one to face, only one against them XXVI B:60; einn/einir saman on his own XXVI A:50, on their own XXIV:78; eitt saman alone, only XXIII:80; einir tveir just the two of you X:106; only VII A:129; alone, only, nothing but I:31, III:22, 29, 102, V:124, VII A:141; eitt rá› the only thing to do III:122, V:75 (okkr for us); él eitt only a passing storm XXVI B:123; gull eitt nothing but gold, pure gold VI:111; vax eitt nothing but wax (i.e. a pliable person, weakling) VII A: 141; n. eitt as substantive one thing, the same thing (i.e. the same fate) III:26, XXVI B:164; allt eitt all the same V:106, XIV:117; dat. sg. n. einu one XXV:49; ok einu and one with sjau tigum VI:50; flví at einu only then XIV:141; nom. pl. einir ér only you XXV:15; tveir einir only two, just two XXV:81; einar only, nothing but XXI:168; gen. pl. einna manna of anyone, of all the men V:104; allra nema einna all except only? all except a few? X:133; einna mestir greatest of all I:78; gen. sg. n. as adv. eigi at eins . . . heldr ok not only . . . but also XIV:190, nema flví at eins at except only if XXIV:70; dat. sg. n. as adv. einu only VII B:87; gen. pl. as intensive adv. einna (= by far) miklugi gørr very much more extensively XXVII:32 einnhverr (n. eitthvert) pron. (Gr 3.2.3) a certain, one IV:6; someone XXVI A:27; einnhverr y›var any of you XXI:135; einnhverr Glossary and Index 47

annarra anyone else, other people XXIV:63; einnhverr hagastr one of the most skilful XIV:16; d‡rit eitthvert a beast of a kind XVI:21; dat. sg. m. einhverjum some I:5, a certain, one I:69; einhverju sinni one time, sometime (the phrase belongs in the following at-clause) XVI:115 einsetukona f. anchoress XIV:129 einsetuma›r m. hermit VII A:48 (with suffixed def. art.), VII A:58, 64 einskipa adj. with one ship Gr 3.3.8.5 (6) einskis see ekki2 einstœ›r adj. standing alone, lonely XXV:16 Eir f. name of a goddess or a valkyrie; dat. with at (for, in search of) ﬂeiri Eir hárgeirs, kenning for woman (= Steinger›r; cf. SnE, Skáld- skaparmál ch. 31) IV:32; in kenning for valkyrie vápn-Eir V:49 Eiríkr Hákonarson (Hákonarsunr) m. earl in Norway (died c.1024) VI:40, 65, 71, 79, 88, 94, 102, 117, 127, 146, 163, 192, 215, 217, 221, 227, 269, 275, 285, 302 Eiríkr (enn) rau›i (ﬁorvaldsson) m. Eiríkr the Red VIII:64 (complement), 74, XXI:7, 8, 10, 14, 41, 174, 208 Eiríkr (Bjarnarson) m. king of the Swedes, father of Óláfr enn sœnski VIII:147 Eiríksfjƒr›r m. a fjord in south-west Greenland (Tunulliarfik) VIII:66 eirvƒndr m. copper wand or rod XII:29 eiskra (past eiskra›i, pp. eiskrat) wv. howl or roar with rage XXV:41 Eitill m. son of Atli and Gu›rún XXV:29 eitr n. poison VII A:152 eitt see einn eitthvert see einnhverr ek1 pron. first person I (Gr 3.2.1) I:9, 11, 15, 16, 19, 53, 54, 56, 59, 63, 66, 79, 83, 85, 105, 107, 121, 127, 128, 131, 144, 147, VI:344, 357, 360, VIII:1, 101, IX:6, 14, 27, 40, 52, 67, 79, 91, 100, X:70, 126, XI:7, XVI:23, XXI:78, 134, XXII:15/1, XXIV:11, 81, XXV:16, 74, XXVI A:35, B:23; referring to writer XIV:171, 172 or poet XXII:4/2, 27/2, 44/2, 55/2, 65/2, 3; duplicating suffixed -k IX:12, X:93, 183, 184, XVI:69; duplicating suffixed -k and with suffixed neg. -a or -at VI:138, 246, IX:100, X:95, 97, 124; see -k ek2 see aka ekkert neg. pron. adj. n. no I:18 ekki1 neg. adv. not I:18, 22, 33, 55, 63, 66, 68, 77, 78, 79, 105, 107, 48 A New Introduction to Old Norse

128, 132, 141, II:6, 20, 21, 159, III:67, IV:68, 75, 110, V:13, 77, 89, VI:170, 188, 288 (2), VII A:41, 114, 164, XI:16, 68, XIII:17, XV:7, 12, 42, XVI:137, 167, XXI:70, 121, XXII:44/3, 55/3 (or ekki2?), XXIV:46 (? or ekki2), 85, XXV:102, XXVI B:4, 31, 59, 62, 75, 228; sumir ekki others (that there was) not III:111 ekki2 neg. pron. n. nothing (Gr 3.2.4) III:124, VI:288 (1),VII A:163, B:73, 39, XI:39, XII:66, XIV:14, XV:78, XVI:47, XXI:60, 95, XXIV:9, XXV:64, XXVI A:38, 42, B:79, 97; no, not a, not any I:81, VI:112, VIII:121, XI:36, XV:21, XXII:55/3 (or ekki1), XXIV:46 (? see ekki1), XXV:109; flat ekki hús no single building XIV:157; ekki meira skip no greater ship VI:118; none (no men) VI:222; ekki d‡rsins none of the bear, no bear at all XVI:54; ekki nema nothing but XIV:162; gen. einskis nothing XXI:58; einskis annars nothing else XXI:129; enskis over no part (af of) II:135; enskis metask be valued at nothing, be deemed worthless XXVII:17; with partitive gen. (Gr 3.4.2.(5)) ekki fleira nothing else II:64, VII A:42. Cf. engi ekkja f. widow XIV:111 él n. storm; él eitt only a passing storm (only one storm?) XXVI B:123; él stála VI:337 and darra él XXII:41/4 are kennings for battle eldask (past eldisk) wv. grow old; 1st person pres. eldumk VI:203 eldhús n. kitchen III:88; the main living-room of a medieval house XIX:96; a large public room with fires in it XV:103 elding f. lightning XIII:4, 13 eldistokkr m. blazing brand (piece of wood) XXVI B:226 eldr m. fire III:47 (with suffixed def. art.), IX:109, XI:15, 18, XIII:8, 15 (with suffixed def. art.), 25, XXV:89, XXVI B:64, 107; bera eld at bring fire to it III:2; bera (flar) eld í, leggja flar eld í, slá eldi í set fire to (it) II:57, III:3, 4, XXVI B:119 eldsbrunalitr m. colour of burning, scorch mark XIII:37 eldsbruni m. burning of fire XIII:44 eldshiti m. fiery heat XIII:9 eldsligr adj. fiery XXIII:107 ella adv. else, otherwise XIX:11, alternatively XXVI A:12 elli f. old age Gr 3.1.8 ex., XIV:171 ellifu num. eleven (Gr 3.4.1) VI:44 elligar adv. otherwise I:65 ellri adj. comp. elder (Gr 3.3.8.3) IV:2; older XIV:158, 162 elska (past elska›i, pp. elska›r) wv. love XIV:105; pp. elska›r loved Gr 3.3.9 (11), (16) Glossary and Index 49 elta (past elti, pp. eltr) wv. chase V:77, XXI:183 elztr adj. sup. oldest Gr 3.3.8.3 em see vera embætti n. office XIV:116 en1 conj. 1. but, and (Gr 3.8.1); I:16, 18, 26, 27, 32, 53, 59, 66, 68, 77, 84, 102, 121, 141, 145, II:3, 17, III:1, IV:2, 43, V:38, 169, VI:3, VII A:142, VIII:2, 16, IX:63, 76, 107, 130, X:11, 24, XI:15, 68 (1), XIII:5, XIV:120, XV:5, 24, XVI:36, XIX:2, 9, 12, XXI:14, XXIII:2, 19, XXIV:4, XXV:23, 111, XXVI A:3, 35, 100, B:29, 64, XXVII:3, 8,19; while VI:86, XIV:189; whereas VIII:159. 2. with comp. than (Gr 3.8.2.4) I:64, 70, 136, III:14, IV:15, V:41, 83, 133, 161, VI:8, 27, 65, 74, 97, 118, 189, 340, VII A:36, 160, B:14, VIII:5, 150, 162, 164, 175, 192, 196, XI:68 (2), XIII:37, XIV:115, XV:32, 123, XVI:155, XIX:29, XXI:117, 135, 164, XXII:28/2, XXIII:53, 57, 77, XXIV:9, 13, 29, 69, 84, XXVI A:63, B:33, 173, XXVII:29; than that he VII A:37; after annarr/annat/annars XII:11, 60, XIV:48, XVI:37, XXI:129, than that, but that VIII:91, than if VI:257, (different) from what XXVI B:138 en2 see enn2, inn2 enda1 (past enda›i, pp. endat) wv. impers. with acc. end I:149 enda2 conj. (and) moreover VIII:131, XXVII:50; and also that XIV:18 endask (past endisk) wv. refl. with dat. serve, help, be of use to V:80 endi m. end II:31, 70 (dat. with batt), XII:29 (with suffixed def. art.), XIII:48, XXVI A:60 (with suffixed def. art.) endlangr/ennlangr adj. the whole length of IX:107, X:46, 75, 140; me› endlƒngu landi along the whole length of the coast VII A:162 endr adv. again IX:131 engi, enginn, eingi, øngr, aungr neg. pron. no one (Gr 3.2.4) II:93, 100, III:70, V:133, IX:7, XII:9, 63, 79, XIV:111, XXII:23/2, XXVI A:66, B:85, XXVII:31, none XXVI B:76; acc. sg. m. øngvan I:3; dat. sg. m. engum V:15; gen. sg. n. engis at nothing XXVI B:70; dat. sg. n. engu/øngu nothing VII B:63, XXI:69, XXVI A:107, for nothing XXI:152; øngu ƒ›ru to nothing else XVI:36; cf. ekki2; dat. pl. of comparison øngum flessum than none of these (with lægri) XIV:185; sá kom náliga engi there was almost no one came XIV:96; engi sá er none such that VII A:93; enginn annarra no one else I:125; enginn . . . fleir er no one who XII:59; as adj. e(i)ngi/enginn no XXII:2/3, 64/3, no, not any I:114 (n. pl. with líkindi), 124, VI:75, XII: 11, XIII:22, XV:11, 15; not a XV:3; engi/enginn ma›r no one 50 A New Introduction to Old Norse

I:111, VI:167, 316, IX:29, X:88, XII:73, XIV:106 (pl.), XV:150; alls engi snjár no snow at all XXI:108; engi var› (til) there was no (. . . available) VII B:74, 88; acc. sg. m. engan/øngan/øngvan no, not any 1:54, VI:212, VII B:71, XII:5, XXI:136, XXVI B:162; øngvan/engan mann no one XXIV:19, XXVI B:37, XXVII:17; acc. sg. f. øngva I:121, XIX:11, aungva XXII:24/3; gen. sg. n. engis no XIII:36; dat. sg. m. øngum after neg. any X:109; m. pl. øngvir none of them XXI:80; acc. pl. m. enga VII A:169; f. pl. engar no, not any XXI:46, n. pl. engi no XXI:204, XXVI B:6, (after neg.) any of XXIV:3 engill m. angel XIII:12 engisax n. ‘meadow-sword’, ‘meadow-chopper’, i.e. scythe; subject of hneit vi› IV:21 Englakonungr m. king of the English VIII:12 England n. England VII A:2, 9, 10, 70, 71, 75, 97, 107 Englar m. pl. the English VII A:11 enn1 adv. in addition, further, again II:86, 147, V:47 (i.e. a second), VI:93, 186, 190, 341, 350, 351, 359, XIV:130, XVI:164, XIX:22, XXIV:76; still V:77 (2), VI:71, VIII:90, XI:71, XIV:179, XVI:143, 171, XIX:96, XXIV:4, 47, XXVI A:41, B:94, XXV:29; for ever XXV:34; also V:71, XXVII:2; yet I:18, V:77 (1), VI:67, 72; any further VIII:85; a little longer VI:65; enn fleiri still more V:70, 74; Hvat er enn fleira? What else was there? XVI:168; enn meira still more XV:55; enn flá still at that time VIII:119 enn2 (f. en, n. pl. en) def. art. (Gr 3.3.5) the, see inn2 enni n. forehead XII:27, XXIII:51; enni flat er a forehead which XXIII:13 ennlangr = endlangr enskis see ekki2 enu see inn2 Epistolarum gen. pl. of Latin epistola f. letter; as title of Ovid’s work Heroides (Liber Epistolarum Heroidum) XIV:90 epli n. apple; acc. pl. II:36, 39 eptir prep. (Gr 3.7.4) with acc. after (of time) I:28, 98, 104, 110, III:11, 130, IV:35, V:161, VI:298, 323, VII B:57, 86, VIII:13, 60, 169, XIV:170, XXV:109; eptir flat after this XV:57, 137, XIX:23, 31, XXVI A:43; eptir flat er as conj. after VI:302; with dat. after I:26, 148, II:48, 149, III:49, VI:167, XXI:137, 180; to fetch V:89, VI:6, Glossary and Index 51

XV:116, XVI:18; behind III:64, XVI:16; along VII B:75, 80, XXVI B:219; along, through III:35, V:78, VII A:153; in accordance with XII:48, XIV:120, XVI:135, XIX:106, XXIII:1; nƒkkvot eptir sem somewhat in accordance with what XVI:55; eptir flví sem as I:85, 86, IV:110, as much as, to the extent that I:117; (in the likeness) of XII:47, 61; as adv. back II:70; to the rear XXV:14; after, behind VII A:111 (see koma), XXVI B:204, 211; about XXIV:8; afterwards (after him?) VI:43; after, following VIII:121, 173, 179, 187, 190; annan dag eptir the next day VIII:111; et næsta sumar eptir, annat sumar eptir, um sumarit eptir the following summer VIII:176, XV:82, XVI:9; eptir um várit, um várit eptir the following spring XV:124, XIX:14; of vetrinn eptir (for) the following winter XVI:8; vera eptir be left, remain VI:218, stay behind VIII:98, 107, XXI:166, XXVI A:113; vera flar eptir stay behind there XXI:162; halda eptir keep VII A:76; ganga eptir be fulfilled VII A:32; lifa eptir survive, be still alive VI:299 er1 I:26, 36, 53, 81, 90, 94, 125, 133, II:1 (1), 2, 60, VI:105 (1), 340, VIII:5, 6, 30, IX:23, X:94, XV:73, 88, XVI:32, XXIII:13 (2), 35 (2, 3), XXV:7, XXVII:16 (1), 45: see vera er2 conj. (Gr 3.8.2.1) when, where, that, who, which, etc. I:6, 30, 55, 95, 130, II:1 (2), 3, 4, 8, 15, 18, 19, 20, 23 (flví er), 40, 47, 49, 52, 54 (twice), 68, 110, III:3, 23, 27, 45, 77, 109 (while; see note), IV:6, 8, 111, V:3, 29, 32, 42, 86 (while), VI:1, 19, 24, 26, 33, 35, 42, 60 (while), 75 (1), 93, 105 (2), 120, 136 (as), 153 (when), 173 (which), 182, 190, 193, 219 (as), 255 (1; when), 270 (when), 293 (who), 315 (whereby), 316 (which), 317 (1; that), 317 (2; who), 334 (who), 342 (when), VII A:43, 63 (by which), B:87 (so that), VIII:4 (which), 6 (which), 9 (whom), 10 (who), IX:1 (when), 7 (which), 103 (who), 124 (when), X:5 (which), 48, 50 (which), 72 (when), 77 (who), 79 (which), 87 (which), 103 (when), 104 (which), 116 (which), 123 (which), 160 (which), 168 (which), 178 (what), 180 (what), XI:35 (which), XII:69 (that), XIV:26, note (who), 107 (which), 180 (who), 183 (who), 185 (who), XV:38 (who), 47, 71, 106, 111 (when), XVI:4 (who), 14 (when), 34 (where), 39 (when), 59 (whom), 100 (1) (since), XIX:8, 13 (when), 26 (which), 36 (who), 44 (when), 64 (while), 77 (that), 85 (where), 98 (so that), XXI:5, 16 (which, that), 31 (where), 42 (when), 44 (which), 49 (when), 79 (which), 80, 93 (when), 132, 133 (that), 138 (when), 146 (which), 152 (when, if), 197 (when), 52 A New Introduction to Old Norse

XXII:title, 24/2 (which), 32/4 (who), XXIII:4, 35 (1) (which), XXIV:3 (which), 16 (1) (who), 49 (which), 75 (2) (those who? when they? see note), 76 (2) (when), XXV:8, 22 (when), 35 (which), 39 (who), 94 (when, in that), 97 (2) (when), 99 (whom), XXVI A:6, 8 (who), 32 (where), 47 (when), 52 (which), 104 (who), 106 (2) (when, that), 113 (who), B 99 (1) (whom), 104 (2) (when), 112 (that), 113 (1) (which), 149 (1) (when), 150 (who), 187 (2) (that or when?), 189 (where or how), 224 (who), XXVII:2 (2) (who), 21 (1) (at which), 35 (who); nú . . . er now that XXVI B:83; flar er where I:146; fless er var such as there was XVI:6; fleim . . . er to those who V:132; flat er which III:100, 102, XII:64, a . . . which XXIII:13; flat . . . er what XXVI A:66; fleir er they who IV:57, VI:255; flær er which IX:96; sá . . . er one . . . in respect of whom III:68; er . . . flau those which, such as VIII:175 (see flau); er . . . í in which XXVII:5, er . . . í hag in whose favour XXVII:10 ér pron. pl. 2nd person Gr 3.2.1, XVI:112, XXV:15 (note that this is not a dual form; perhaps Erpr is included), 92; in address to the king XXV:68, 69; with imp. vb. X:84 era, erat see vera erendi see erindi erfi›i n. toil, trouble, labour IX:36, 40 erfi›r adj. difficult; awkward, demanding, hard to please XV:15; n. as substantive or adv. var honum erfitt he was exhausted III:13; hefir oss erfitt veitt it has proved difficult for us XXVI A:102 erfingi m. heir Gr 3.1.7.5 (4) erindi, erendi, ørindi n. pl. 1. errand, message, mission (Gr 3.1.7.3–5 ex. 4, 3.1.8 (28)) VIII:112; flannug var flá mikit erendi margra manna many people had important reasons for going there at those times XIV:42. 2. result of an errand, news IX:36, 40 Erlingr Skjálgssunr (of Sóli, south-west Norway, modern Sole) m. son of fiórólfr skjálgr (‘squinting’) VI:80 ermr f. sleeve XXI:46 erni(r) see ƒrn Erpr1 m. son of Atli and Gu›rún XXV:28 Erpr2 m. son of Jónakr, half-brother of Ham›ir and Sƒrli XXV:49, 98 ert, ertu, eru, erum, erumk, erut see vera es1 = er1 VIII:5 (2), 14 (2) es2 = er2 VIII:5 (1), 11 (1), 11 (2; when), 14 (1), 19 (where), 30, 33, 65, 93 Glossary and Index 53 et = it, see inn2 eta (past át, past pl. átu, pp. etinn) sv. eat (Gr 3.6.9.3) I:103, IX:95, 104, XII:71, XXI:75 ey f. island (Gr 3.1.7.5 (4), 3.1.8 (15)) II:1, XV:153, XXI:27, 53; acc. sg. with suffixed def. art. eyna XXI:54, 61; dat. sg. eyju X:137; dat. sg. with suffixed def. art. eyjunni VII A:31, eynni XII:4; pl. eyjar VII A:9, 129, XIX:71, 80; dat. pl. with suffixed def. art. í eyjunum i.e. on Vestmannaeyjar XIX:83 ey›a (past eyddi, pp. eyddr) wv. (Gr 3.6.9.1 (7)) lay waste I:80, VII A:128; with dat. destroy VII A:15; -sk form eyddisk would be laid waste VIII:127 ey›imƒrk f. wilderness; pl. ey›imerkr desolate (forest) land II:17, XXI:168 Eyfir›ingafjór›ungr m. the Quarter of the people of Eyjafjƒr›r (northern Iceland) VIII:167 eyg›r adj. (pp.) having eyes of a certain kind; eyg›r mjƒk with large eyes XXI:104 Eyjafjƒr›r m. fjord in the north of Iceland VII A:153, 166, VIII:38 Eyjar f. pl. = Landeyjar, the district where Njáll’s farm Bergflórshváll was located, adjoining Fljótshlí› where Gunnarr’s farm Hlí›arendi was XXVI A:3 Eyjólfr Valger›arson m. 10th-century Icelander who lived at Mƒ›ruvellir in Eyjafjƒr›r VII A:166 Eyjólfr fiorsteinsson (ofsi) m. (c.1224–1255) the leader of the incendiaries at Flugum‡rr III:1, 82, 121 eyra n. ear XIV:21, XXIII:44 eyrir (pl. aurar) m. (Gr 3.1.7.2) ounce (of silver; one eighth of a mƒrk2) VIII:27; í lausum aurum in movable property VIII:161; in pl. money, treasures, gold X:68 eyrr f. sand- or gravel-bank XXI:88 eyverskr adj. of the islands (probably the Hebrides) VII A:20 fá1 (pres. fær, past fekk, past pl. fengu/feingu, pp. fenginn) sv. (Gr 3.6.9.1 (8), 3.6.9.3) get, obtain I:61, II:49, III:70, 96, VI:11, 22, XIII:47 (pres. part. fáandi), XV:82; fekk hann af he got from it XXVI A:50; find XXI:177; with suffixed neg. flú ne færat you will not get XXV:35; receive VI:298, 299, VII A:40, 53, XII:86, XV:111, XIX:21, XXII:57/3, XXVI A:76; win (1st person past fekk) VI:202, XIX:35; suffer XXII:6/3, 56/3, 60/2, XXVI A:45, B:98; take (a 54 A New Introduction to Old Norse

sickness), begin to suffer from VI:323, XIX:55; fá bana be killed I:44, 131, V:102, 129; find, use, manage III:92; be able III:93; past subj. fengi might get II:137; at eigi fengi that he did not get XIV:112; with dat. of person provide someone with something VI:44, XVI:51, hand over to, give to someone VIII:42, XXII:31/3; imp. fá mér give me XXVI A:78; with gen. gain, win XXV:108; with f. gen. obtain (a promise of) marriage with someone IV:99, marry VI:31 (supine fengit; understand haf›i), VII A:69, 107, X:10, XIX:39; fekk at got provisions for XIX:41; fá í hƒnd with dat. of person, hand to someone III:30; fá í vald with gen. put in someone’s hands, hand over to someone XII:65; fá til provide as, hand over for XXI:41, subj. fái til but put forward for XXVII:16; fá til with inf. get, provide (someone to do something) XIV:153; with pp. get (something done) I:20, manage to (do something) I:96, XIV:72, 87, 96, XVI:34, 143, XXVI B:97; fá mik sótt overcome me XXVI A:81; impers. hvergi fær there is nowhere to be found XXII:3/3; ei fær tƒlu á komit they cannot be numbered XI:11, ekki fær nú at gert at (with inf. ) nothing can now be done about XI:39; -sk form subj. fekksk was granted, was brought about VIII:185; fengisk would be got, would be gained VI:148; pp. fengizk been found XIV:110 fá2 see fár fa›ir m. father (Gr 3.1.7.2 (3, 7), 3.1.8.8) II:77 (subject), III:32, 79, VI:3, 33, VIII:37, 46, 191, XIV:110, XIX:4, 114, XXIV:1, XXVI B:72; acc. fƒ›ur X:177, XIV:56, XXVI B:139; ok fƒ›ur and (said their) father (was called) XXI:202; gen. fƒ›ur II:62, IV:64, 99, X:138, XXVI B:74, 113, fa›r VI:42, 95; dat. fƒ›ur IV:109, VII B:9, XXVI A:117, fe›r X:127, XIII:48 fa›mr m. outspread arms, embrace X:22; í fa›mi sér in his arms XI:45; as a measure, fathom (approximately 6 foot) XIX:62 (cf. Gr 3.4.2 (7)) Fáfnir m. name of a dragon; = dragon-ship (dreki; here = Ormr inn langi) VI:237 fagna (past fagna›i, pp. fagnat) wv. with dat. welcome; rejoice in XXII:57/4, XXIII:73, 85; impers. pass. (Gr 3.9.3) II:3 fagna›r m. joy XIV:148 fagr (f. fƒgr, n. fagrt) adj. beautiful (Gr 3.3.8.4 (1)) II:65, IX:9 (with túna), 44 (with Freyju), X:22, XIV:162; fagrt var at it was beautiful to XXI:58; fair, fine VI:26, XI:5, dat. sg. n. fƒgru XVI:130; n. pl. fƒgr XXII:18/3; dat. pl. fƒgrum II:12 Glossary and Index 55 fagrfer›ugr adj. virtuous XXIII:24 fagrliga adv. beautifully, finely, splendidly XIV:43, 176; sup. ok fletta hús væri sem fagrligast gƒrt ok búit and that this building might be as beautifully built and fitted out as could be XIV:15 fagrvari›r adj. (pp.) fair-robed, beautifully dressed, with beautiful adornments X:177 fái see fá1 fáir see fár fáklæddr pp. lightly clad, having few clothes on III:61 fal see fala fala (past fala›i, past pl. fƒlu›u, pp. falat) wv. offer to buy, ask (or demand) to buy II:126 fála f. giantess, whose horse is a wolf (SnE, Gylfaginning 46/26) XXII:41/2 falda (pres. feld, past felt, past pl. feldum, pp. faldinn) sv. put a woman’s head-covering on someone, cover someone’s head XXVI B:144 fall n. fall (in battle), death IV:Chapter 5, heading, VI:323, 366, VII B:50, 77, 86, XVIII:121vb28 falla (pres. fellr, past fell, past pl. fellu, pp. fallinn, fallit) sv. (Gr 3.6.5.2, 3.6.6) 1. fall I:139, II:110, V:101, IX:62 (hang down), XXII:49/4, XXVI A:19, 74; fall down III:57, 65, V:96, 130, 146, VII A:104, B:92, 198; collapse III:73, XXVI A:90; fall dead IV:66; (fall in battle) VI:212, 221, 223, 267, 317, VIII:145, XIX:18, XXI:144, XXV:110; fellu Danir mest the Danes had the most losses VI:209; of water, flow V:43, XXI:87, 169; er út fell when it (the tide) went out XXI:93; fell flar á there came to be about it XV:19; falla aptr close (intransitive) XV:104; falla at fall towards or close to XXVI B:220; falla (í)frá die XXIV:67, 71; falla í fullting me› join in supporting XXVII:15; falla til fall at XVI:105; supine fallit VI:294, 319; pp. fallinn at deprived of, bereft of XXV:17. 2. -sk form with dat. fallask fail someone, escape someone’s memory IX:38; fallask hendr one’s hands fail one, one is at a loss VII B:70; refl. láta fallask let oneself drop II:56, 71 falsgu› m. false god XXIV:35 fálu see fela fám see fár fámálugr adj. of few words, reserved XXI:12 fámennr adj. having few men; with few companions XV:116; comp. fámennari having fewer troops, be outnumbered VI:293 56 A New Introduction to Old Norse fang1 n. embrace; í fang sér in his arms XII:82; pl. fƒng provisions XI:60, XXI:83 (= matfƒng); means, opportunity (á for it) XIV:142 fang2 n. tunic; in kenning for coat of mail dólga fang VI:175 fánga (past fánga›i, pp. fángat) wv. = fá1, receive XXII:39/4 fann, fannsk, fannt see finna far1 n. range, subject, ground; of et sama far on the same subject, covering the same ground, or possibly in the same way VIII:3 far2 see fara fár (n. fátt) adj. 1. few Gr 3.3.9 ex. 13; pl. fáir VI:117, few people I:23, 144; n. pl. fá VI:71 (with stór skip); dat. pl. fám VIII:17, 143, XIV:72; firi fá menn for few people XXIV:64; vi› fá menn accompanied by a few men VII B:60; n. as substantive fátt few I:3, little II:66, few things XXV:7; fátt er til there is little choice VII B:20; finnask fátt um see finna. 2. cold, hostile; var/var› fátt um me› there was/came to be coolness (little warmth) between VII B:3, XIX:12 fara (pres. ferr Gr 3.6.5.2, past fór, past pl. fóru, past subj. fœri, pp. farinn/farit) sv. go (Gr 3.6.6, 3.6.9.3 ex. 2, 3.6.10) I:1, 32, 33, 87, 93, 98, 110, II:16, 17, 36, 109, 123, III:94, IV:50, V:2, VI:11, 14, 50, VIII:50, X:43, XI:5, XV:30, 34, XIX:6, 71, XXI:32, XXII:26/3, XXVI A:10, B:38; travel XVI:2, 42, 88; pass IV:103; sail VI:122, 136, VIII:65, XXI:7, 86, 122; come I:39, VI:72 (supine farit), 100, X:77, XVI:39; be coming VI:69; turn out VI:292, VII A:57; happen XXVI B:25; fare, suffer VII A:104; with acc. of route, travel along V:42; pres. ferr will go I:84; fari› you are going V:167; fƒrum (we) shall go I:65, let us go V:78, let us go along (with acc. of route) V:75; farum let us go VI:63, 78; ok fara and (they are) coming (inf. after sé?) V:74; imp. far, far flú, farflú go I:125, V:89, XVI:153; past flat fór this went on, took place XXII:58/2; fóru they went XXVI A:107, men went XXV:66; fóru vér we have travelled XIX:98; pres. subj. farir XVI:38; past subj. fœri was going III:65, VIII:28, 32, was moving I:116, travelled VIII:15, went (on) VIII:106; ok fœri hann and he was to go XXVI A:9; at flú fœrir that you went V:10, that you should go XVI:126; fœri were behaving, were carrying on, acting XXVI B:36; pp. farit travelled (supine) V:43, gone on XXI:168; hafi eigi farit had not gone on XXI:163; hvert hon hef›i farit where she had been XV:120, flar farit passed that way VIII:70; finished, done for, come to nothing IV:48, gone, been Glossary and Index 57

used up XVI:53; with gen. fara lei›ar sinnar go (on) one’s way XXI:51; with dat. fara málum bring a lawsuit XV:81; fara af leave VI:25, VII A:27, XVI:123, XIX:3, subj. fœra af left XVI:123; take off XI:15; flá var af farit then was past XV:149; fara aptr return VII A:42; fara at approach V:87, go to it, start to do it III:106 (inf. after skyldi), go against XIX:20, XXVI A:6; hversu at skyldi fara how they were to go about it XXVI A:7; fara at with inf. go to, start to V:91, XV:96, XIX:82; fara eptir go after or behind, follow, pursue V:70; fara frá leave III:91; fara fram come about VIII:177; fór betr fram went on better XXVI B:71; fara me› (me›r) with dat. use, deal in VI:344, travel by VII A:109; go about something XIV:95; hversu farit haf›i me› what had passed between XVI:65; fara me›(r) with acc. behave with, act with VI:211, XIV:164, go about with XXI:206; fara leynt me› keep it secret XII:73; fara ór landi brott leave the country VII A:106; fara til approach X:88; fƒrum til let us go up (to it) I:108; til hafa farit have come there XV:116; fara um go across, go by VI:73, fóru vel went well XIX:8; impers. fór it went III:116, fór svá fram this went on XXVI A:40, fór svá this happened VII B:30, so it went on XXI:116, fjarri fór flat (it was) far from it XXVI B:226, fœri (past subj.) it went III:33, ferr it moved, the motion was XXI:98; ferr vel/illa with dat. someone behaves well/badly XXVI A:87, vel mun flér fara you will act well XXVI B:141; -sk form perish Gr 3.6.10; farizk vel at gone well in it VIII:93; impers. fersk fleim vel they get on well, they have a good voyage XVI:8 farar see fƒr farmr m. cargo XVI:172, XXI:56 farskostr m. means of transport, conveyance II:118 fasta (past fasta›i, pp. fastat) wv. fast, abstain from food XIV:121 fastna (past fastna›i, pp. fastnat) wv. betroth; pp. f. fƒstnu› IV:102, XV:7 fastr adj. (stuck) fast I:94; f. fƒst (vi› to) II:31; n. as adv. fast hard I:95, V:104, 134; tightly, fast VII A:104, XI:20; svá fast so hard I:97, XV:99, 109; thus hard, hard like this V:133 fátt see fár fátœkr adj. poor XIV:109, 110; fátœkar konur beggar-women XXVI B:5 fávitugr adj. foolish, not clever or sensible XXIII:80 faxi m. ‘maned one’, horse VII A:141 58 A New Introduction to Old Norse fé (gen. fjár) n. property, valuables VI:18, 22, VII A:136, VIII:153, 156, XV:31, 76 (with suffixed def. art.), XIX:36; possessions XXII:49/3; wealth XII:68; livestock I:80, 84, 113; cattle, domestic animals XXI:57, 62, 95; money VIII:43, XIV:150, XV:7, 8, XVI:6, 53, 144, XIX:31, XXII:21/3; payment of money or equivalent XXVII:41; with suffixed def. art. féit the money XVI:90, fjárins of his money XVI:43; fénu the goods, cargo XVI:139; fénu ƒllu all the money XVI:183 fe›gar m. pl. father and son XIX:25 fe›r see fa›ir feginn adj. with dat. pleased with someone (i.e. to see them, because they were there) III:25 fegr› f. beauty VII B:8, XII:21, 48 fegri adj. comp. fairer, more beautiful X:127, XII:13 feigr adj. doomed, near death, under the influence of death XXV:39, XXVI B:73, 83 feingu see fá feitir m. fattener, feeder VII B:19 (folkstara feitir is a kenning for a warrior, here King Haraldr, who kills his enemies and provides food for carrion birds; dat. with l‡tr) feitr adj. fat XXIII:48, 86, 99; n. feitt XXI:177, XXIII:54 fekk see fá fela (past fal, past pl. fálu, pp. fólginn/folginn) sv. (Gr 3.6.9.3) 1. hide, conceal II:82 (understand it, gold, as object (Gr 3.9.5.1)); pp. II:85, IX:26, 27. 2. entrust, commit XIX:111, XXVI B:182; fela í hendi with dat. commit to someone’s charge XIV:124, 174 félagi m. comrade, friend I:108, 124; companion XII:5, 72 félagsfé n. shared possessions, joint goods XIX:44 (understand haf›i) félauss adj. without money XVI:142, 177 feldr m. cloak VIII:120 félítill adj. poor XVI:2 fell see falla fella (pres. fellir, past felldi, pp. felldr) wv. fell, cause to fall, kill I:131, V:106 (past subj.), VI:147 (past subj.), VII B:69; fella saman fit together XII:6; búit saman at fella finished being fitted together XII:3 fellr, fellu, fellusk see falla felmsfullr adj. fearful, panic-stricken XIX:84 Glossary and Index 59 fen n. fen, muddy ground; pool of water in a forge for tempering steel X:115, 159 féna›r m. livestock XXI:108 fengi, fenginn, fengisk, fengit, fengizk, fengu see fá fengr m. booty II:162 fer› f. journey, expedition II:2, 38, XV:129, XVI:86, XXI:4, 17, XXII:12/1; fara fer›ar sinnar go on one’s way XVI:87; til fer›a on journeys, as messengers XIV:136; going, departure VII A:114; gera fer› sína make one’s way, set out VI:20 ferhyrndr adj. (pp.) square XXIII:16, 67 ferja f. ferry, large rowing-boat, transport boat XV:130 ferr see fara ferri = fjarri fersk see fara fertøgr adj. forty years old VIII:188 féskipti n. division of property XV:31, 75 festa (past festi, pp. festr) wv. 1. stick, fix XI:36; fasten, make fast; gird on XXV:57; inf. festa (I would) fasten XXV:77; festum let us fasten XXVI A:60; til at festa me› for securing XXVI A:58. 2. betroth IV:94 (sik oneself), VII A:96 (sér to oneself). 3. impers. with acc. festa á stick fast to, make an impression on (ekki festi á i.e. everything glanced off it) VI:288. 4. -sk form festisk established himself, became more powerful VII B:12 festarmál n. pl. betrothal, engagement VI:37 fi›r see finna fi›ri n. feathers (collective) II:58 fimm num. five (Gr 3.4.1) VII A:129, B:33, VIII 27, XXI:155, 198, XXII:4/1, XXVII:33; fimm saman five in all, in a group of five XXVI B:13 fimmtán num. fifteen (Gr 3.4.1) V:32, VIII:72, XV:4, XXVI B:11 fimmtándi num. fifteenth (Gr 3.4.1); me›r fimmtánda mann i.e. with fourteen others, in a party of fifteen VI:270 (Gr 3.4.2 (8)) fim(m)ti num. adj. fifth Gr 3.4.1, XXIV:37 fingr (gen. fingrar, pl. fingr) m. finger XXI:117, XXIII:83, 87 fingrgull n. gold (finger-)ring III:30, 31 (with suffixed def. art.), XII:37 fingrgullssteinn m. ring-stone XII:31 finna (pres. finnr/fi›r, past fann, past pl. fundu/funnu, pp. fundit/ funnit/funnir) wv. 1. find, discover (Gr 3.6.9.2 (2), 3.6.9.3) II:39, 60 A New Introduction to Old Norse

VIII:69, IX:103, X:6, 32; XII:13, XVI:185, XIX:27, 32, 73, 82, 91, XXI:22 (2), 51, XXII:46/2, XXV:59; visit, see IV:20, 33 (inf. with fúsir at), 68, 76, VII A:62; meet VII A:43, XVI:103, 139, 144, 149, XXI:143, XXV:43; meet with XXI:198; sight, come across XXI:22 (1); discover XII:74, XXI:193, find out, know XXII:22/4; realise II:146, XV:144; feel XIV:117; notice VI:203; ef flú finnr eigi if you don’t notice it XV:52; fann eigi fyrr en did not notice until, the first thing [he] knew was that XXVI A:62, similarly XXVI B:119; hafa flat funnit thought it up XXIV:59; pres. finn ek opt I have often seen, noticed VII B:42; flar fi›r flú there you will find X:157; finnr eigi cannot see IV:26; past subj. fyndi met XV:85; it fyndi› you have been to see X:109; finna á with dat. notice in someone, from someone’s behaviour or demeanour III:34; finna til notice XV:51; adduce, call to mind, find to say XXIV:48; find for it, adduce XXIV:61, 76; finna til saka bring forward as the offence, give as reason XV:69. 2. -sk form for pass. finnsk is found XXIII:60, fannsk was found III:48, was discovered VIII:64, fundusk were found VIII:52, subj. fyndisk were found III:105; in reciprocal sense finnask meet each other VII A:100, XIX:15, XXVI A:6; impers. finnsk mikit um with dat. of person one is greatly affected by III:34, XXVI B:30, finnsk fátt um with dat. of person one loses interest in something, one becomes unconcerned about something IV:105; fannsk mƒnnum fátt um people made no comment about, people took no notice of XIX:11 Finnakonungr m. king of the Lapps X:3 Finnason m. son of Finni XIV:28 Finnr Árnason m. XXII:17/1 firar m. pl. men; gen. pl. among men, human X:22 Fir›afylki n. Fir›ir (a district in western Norway; Fjordane) XIX:23 fir›i see fjƒr›r fir›r see firra firi, firir see fyrir firra (past fir›, pp. fir›r) wv. with dat. remove from, free from XXII:59/2 first adv. with dat. furthest from V:87 fiskr m. fish XXI:92; pl. helgir fiskar halibut XXI:93 fit f. webbed foot X:134 (see note) fja›ra see fjƒ›r fja›rhamr m. feather-form, bird-shape IX:11, 16 Fjalarr m. a dwarf II:95, 107 Glossary and Index 61

Fjalir f. pl. district in western Norway (south-west Fiordane) XIX:4 fjall n. (Gr 3.1.7.1, 2) mountain (collective) VIII:20, XII:2 (with suffixed def. art.), XIII:1; pl. fjƒll II:17, VII A:130, 148, XXI:58, 192, XXV:41; with suffixed def. art. VII A:154, 160, XV:84; dat. pl. fjarri fjƒllum far from the mountains X:70 fjándma›r m. enemy V:11 fjándskapr m. hostility, animosity XV:17, 142 fjár see fé fjara f. (Gr 3.1.7.1) foreshore VIII:20 fjar›m‡ill m. ‘fjord-lump’ is a kenning for rock (in the sea) or skerry; gen. with trƒ› VI:250 fjárfar n. money matters IV:104 fjar›skorinn adj. (cf. skera) indented with fjords XXI:52 fjárhald n. economic affairs II:131 fjárhlutr m. property, valuables XIX:79 fjárrán n. robbery, theft XV:127 fjarri, ferri adv. far off XXV:39; by no means, out of the question I:51; eigi fjarri tekit by no means rejected XV:5; fjarri skyldu fara should by no means be done XV:117; fjarri fór flat (it was) far from it XXVI B:226; with dat. far from X:70, 94; what is far from VI:340 (with geta) fjárskipti n. division of property Gr 3.1.8 ex. fjarst adv. sup. furthest away; sem fjarst the furthest away possible VI:214 fjór›i num. (ordinal) adj. fourth (Gr 3.4.1) VI:127, VIII:194, XXI:66, XXIV:37, XXVII:44 fjór›ungr m. Quarter (of Iceland) VIII:163, XXVII:9, 11; ór fleim fjór›ungi . . . er hann haf›i sí›arst heimili í from the Quarter in which he last had his home XXVII:4 fjór›ungsma›r m. man who lived in a certain Quarter of Iceland; fleir fjór›ungsmenn er . . . í hag the men of the Quarter in whose favour XXVII:9 fjórhyrndr = ferhyrndr adj. square XXIII:32 fjórir num. four (Gr 3.4.1) III:110 (flrír e›a fjórir), V:83, VI:198, VII A:27, VIII:190, XII:60, XXI:18, 144, 164; n. fjƒgur VI:110, 123, XIV:145, XIX:50 fjórtán num. fourteen (Gr 3.4.1) VIII:72 fjúka (pres. f‡kr, past fauk, past pl. fuku, pp. fokinn) sv. fly, be blown II:148 fjƒ›r f. feather XII:32; gen. pl. fja›ranna in the feathers (see litr) XII:33 62 A New Introduction to Old Norse fjƒgur see fjórir fjƒl f. board, flat piece of wood VII B:61 fjƒl› f. multitude, abundance IX:91, 130, X:104 fjƒl›i m. a large number VII A:111, 155, 158, XI:61, XIII:12; multitude XXI:94, 110, 122, 159 fjƒlkunnigr adj. skilled in magic II:2, IV:1, XV:40 fjƒlkynngi f. witchcraft, sorcery XV:127, 136 fjƒll, fjƒllum see fjall fjƒlmenni n. a large following, a large number of men VII B:31; fjƒlmenni mikit a very large number of people XIV:42; hvat fjƒlmenni flat var what the huge crowd had been XXI:145 fjƒlmennr adj. having a large following, well attended VII B:40 (acc. with Einar flambarskelfi); full of people XIV:144 fjƒr n. life IV:46 (object of sœki), XXII:49/3 fjƒrbaugsgar›r m. lesser outlawry VIII:142 fjƒrbaugsma›r m. a man subject to the lesser outlawry VIII:99 fjƒr›1 adv. in the former (year), last year VI:230 fjƒr›r (acc. fjƒr›2, dat. fir›i) m. fjord (Gr 3.1.7.1) VII A:150 (with suffixed def. art.), 153, B:76; XIX:60, XXI:53; fjord (and the valley leading into it; with suffixed def. art. flar í fir›inum ‘in that fjord’, ‘in that district’) IV:69; flar inn á fjƒr› into that fjord VII A:157; inn me› fir›inum in along the fjord XXI:55; vestr flar í fjƒr›um (from) the Western Fjords (of Iceland) XVI:2; as first part of compound fjƒr›jƒr› ‘land of fjords’, i.e. Norway, separated by tmesis VI:248 fjƒrlausn f. deliverance (from death), ransom II:119 fjƒru see fjara fjƒturr m. fetter X:63; part of the forge? X:115, 159 flá (past fló, past pl. flógu, pp. fleginn) sv. flay Gr 3.6.9.3 flabellum n. (Latin word) fan XIII:19 flag› n. giantess XXV:54 (see note) flaug see fljúga flaugun f. flight, flying; á fƒr ok flaugun a-coming and a-going, in bustle, commotion XXVI B:14 fleiri adj. comp. (Gr 3.3.8.3) more (in number) II:37, V:49, 74, VII B:31, XIV:140, XV:65, XXII:28/1, XXIV:10, 42; any more, any others XIX:37; in addition XVI:168; more numerous VIII:81; more people V:67; váru inir fleiri those ones were more numerous Glossary and Index 63

XIV:146; fleiri fleir others of them III:71, XIX:85; e›a fleiri or more (i.e. lƒgmenn) XXVII:33; ekki fleira no more, no other III:55, nothing else II:64, VII A:42; fleiri en more than, other than, other besides VI:65; enn fleira yet more XXIV:47, with yet more XVI:171; flví fleira with more than that XVI:175; n. as substantive fleira more, other things I:135, XXVI B:23, 26 flekklauss adj. unspotted, immaculate XIII:42 flekkr m. spot, small patch (of ground) XXI:172 flestr adj. sup. most (Gr 3.3.8.3) VII B:13; nom. pl. flestir most of them VI:299, XXI:18 (subject of váru), most men, the majority XXVII:8; n. pl. flau váru flest they were most(ly), most of them were VIII:38 flík f. piece of cloth; pl. flíkr flags (probably) XXI:206 fljóta (pres. fl‡tr, past flaut, past pl. flutu, pp. flotinn) sv. float; drift, lie in the water without sail VI:109, 307 (with sá Trana ok bá›a Na›ra); fljóta í swim (of bedclothes) in, be soaked in XXV:25 fljótliga adv. quickly XXIII:102 Fljótsdalshei›r f. a high moor in eastern Iceland Gr 3.1.8 ex. Fljótshlí› f. area in southern Iceland XXVI B:10 fljótvirkr adj. fast-working, fast-acting XXIII:101 fljúga (pres. fl‡gr Gr 3.6.5.2, past flaug/fló Gr 3.6.9.1 (2), past pl. flugu, pp. floginn) sv. fly I:76, II:30, 32, 42, 54, 154, 155, V:163, IX:16, X:11, 17; fló upp á land it flew up inland XXI:127 fló see fljúga fló› n. high tide, flood tide XXI:93 flokkr m. 1. herd II:18; flock V:166; band of men, gang VII A:52; troop, army XXII:20/1, 27/4; party XXVI B:12; with suffixed def. art. company, army, force VI:221, their men, their followers XXVI A:14. 2. a poem comprising a series of stanzas without refrains VI:200 Flosi fiór›arson m. leader of the burners XXVI B:1, textual note, 40, 44, 47, 52, 83, 87, 88, 97, 98, 115, 120, 128, 129, 132, 149, 153, 155, 156, 161, 195 floti m. assembly of ships, fleet VI:29, 35, 83; with suffixed def. art. VI:60, 191 flótti m. flight, running away VI:170, 180; koma á flótta take to flight VI:155 flugr m. flight, flying II:53 (with suffixed def. art.), II:59 (with suffixed def. art.), II:155 64 A New Introduction to Old Norse flugstyggr m. who shuns flight, who is reluctant to flee VI:367 flugu see fljúga flúr n. flower-shaped ornament XII:29 flutu see fljóta flutti, fluttar, fluttr see flytja fl‡gr see fljúga fl‡ja (past fl‡›i, pp. fl‡i›r) wv. flee VI:305, VII A:130, XIX:19 flytja (past flutti, pp. fluttr Gr 3.3.8.5 (2), 3.6.9.1 (7)) wv. carry, transport II:112, 115, V:117 (pp. with var› forming passsive), XV:131; bring II:119; move (one’s home) IV:70; flytja upp carry ashore XVI:155; flytja fram propose, argue for, present a case VII B:26, deliver XIV:45, perform, repeat XIV:61, 161, present XIV:115; flytja vi› present to, perform to, offer to XXIV:18 flæma (past flæm›i, pp. flæmt) wv. cause to flee, drive away, cast out (supine with haf›u) VI:42 flær›samr adj. false XXIV:41 flœ›arsker n. skerry, rock covered at high tide II:113 fnasa (past fnasa›i) wv. snort IX:48 fól n. fool XXIV:5 (pl.) fólginn, fólgit see fela fólk n. people II:89, VII A:130, XIV:75, 113, XXVI B:135, 148: flat fólk these people XXI:113; fyrir fólkinu before the people XIV:32 folkhar›r adj. strong in battle (with the implied subject of fœr›u›, you, Eiríkr jarl) VI:251 Fólkher m. kinsman of (Gunnarr and) Hƒgni XI:21, 76 folkstari m. ‘battle-starling’, kenning for carrion bird, eagle or raven, gen. with feiti VII B:19 fór, fóru see fara for›a (past for›a›i, pp. for›at) wv. with dat. save V:76 for›um adv. in the past, once upon a time XXIV:35 forgƒnguma›r m. leader VII B:71, 88 forkirkja f. porch of a church III:85 (with suffixed def. art.) forku›r f. strong desire Gr 3.1.7.4 (5) forkunnar adv. exceptionally Gr 3.5.3 (9), II:65 forlƒg n. pl. future, destiny XIX:41 formáli m. prayer(s) III:10 formera (past formera›i, pp. formera›r) wv. form, fashion, shape XIII:30 (Latin formare) Glossary and Index 65 formæli n. prayer; exhortation XIV:31, 125, 141 forn adj. ancient VIII:141, 175, X:14, XXIII:1; old (from early times) XXV:112; fornir menn men of olden times XIV:79; comp. fornari older, earlier, longer ago XXV:7 forneskja f. heathen practices, witchcraft XIV:77 forrá› n. pl. management; hafa til forrá›a have administration of VII A:128; til forrá›a fyrir for the administration of XIV:126 Forseti m. a god (one of the Æsir) II:9 forsjá f. prudence; af forsjá out of prudence XIV:33 forsjáll adj. prudent, foresighted XXIII:12, 39 forstjóri m. leader (fyrir over) VII B:24 fortƒlur f. pl. arguments, representations, persuasive speeches VII A:66, XXVI B:126 fóru see fara forvitna (past forvitna›i, pp. forvitnat) wv. enquire into, want to know about XXIV:26; impers. with acc. slíks sem mik forvitnar whatever I want (am curious) to know XIV:23;-sk form refl. desire to know VII A:65; enquire, find out I:114 forvitni f. curiosity (á about something) VII A:32 forvitnisbót f. cure for curiosity I:123 fóstbró›ir (pl. -brœ›r) m. foster-brother or sworn brother (in pl. can also refer to two men brought up in the same household) VIII:41, XIX:6, 9, 38 fóstra (past fóstra›i, pp. fóstra›r) wv. foster, bring up; flar váru fleim fóstru› bƒrn there their children were being fostered, brought up XXVI B:3 fóstrfa›ir m. foster-father, tutor? guardian? VI:10 fóstri m. fosterer, foster-father VIII:9; foster-son, foster-brother; fosterling XXVI A:22 (in address to dog) fóstrland n. native country XII:5 Fótar-¯rn, ¯rn m. III:121 (see note), 125 fótkistill m. box-pedestal XII:41 fótleggr m. leg XXIII:96 fótr m. (Gr 3.1.7.2 and (2), (4), 3.1.8 (7)) foot, leg III:57 (with suffixed def. art.), V:116 (with dat. of owner), XXV:47, XXVI B:153 (leg); sem fótr ƒ›rum as, like one foot (helps) the other XXV:46; acc. sg. um fót sér round his leg V:56, with suffixed def. art. fótinn the leg XXIII:97; gen. sg. Fótar- used as a nickname III:121; dat. sg. fœti 66 A New Introduction to Old Norse

XXV:47, fœti ni›r koma put down one’s foot XXI:55; pl. fœtr II:32 (i.e. Loki’s), II:64, III:23 (with dat. of person (poss. dat.)), X:115, 159, XXIII:99 (probably feet rather than legs), 100, XXV:88 (probably legs rather than feet; obj. of sér); undir fœtr sér under her feet XII:44; with suffixed def. art. and dat. of person XXVI A:31; gen. pl. fóta IV:18, XXI:46 (legs), til fóta konungi at the king’s feet XVI:105; dat. pl. fótum II:64, III:64, X:63, XII:41, 60; á fótum on one’s feet, up V:1; fœtr linna Loddu lƒg›is is a kenning for sword-blades (legs of swords) IV:81(object of hafa at vinna) fótstallr m. pedestal XIII:38 frá1 prep. with dat. (Gr 3.7.3) from I:89, 107, 147, III:58, VIII:28, 80, XIII:8, 25, XVI:186, 191, XIX:48; away from III:60, V:10, VIII:115, XXII:9/3 (after noun); of direction, of V:168; denoting origin or residence, of XXVI A:21; about I:149, II:14, 78, III:90, V:1, VI:353, VIII:128, XIV:184; concerning VII A:124, B:1, 11, 23, X:1, 16, XI:1, XXVI B:1, textual note; about XIV:19; absent, excluded III:20; frá sér from him, down; í frá away from VI:153; flar út í frá out there beyond VI:191; frá flví er from where V:43, about that which XXIV:75 (see note 6); koma frá see koma; as adv. away XXVI A:41, 48, free VI:217; flar frá from this III:39; í frá away VI:210, 227; upp frá above XXI:106; flar út í frá out there beyond VI:186; bæri frá see bera; falla frá see falla; næmi frá see nema2; cf. ífrá frá2 see fregna fram adv. forward VI:242, XVI:103, XXII:21/1, XXVI B:71; (to go) forward, (to) advance VI:258; ahead XXV:59; on(wards) XXI:167; forward on a ship, towards the prow VI:268, 275; (down) to the front XXIII:51; out IX:94 (see bera), (from one’s clothing) II:143, (towards the entrance of a building) III:24, (into view, from behind the headland) VI:93; fram at (with flraut) on to XXII:33/4; of time on, by IV:111, back VIII:10, into the future IX:58; fyrir fram with acc. along, past II:104; um fram beyond, in greater measure than VII B:10, XXIII:35; um fram hátt beyond moderation XXIII:62; fram fara, fara fram see fara; koma fram see koma framan adv. from the front, i.e. towards the rear, aft VI:271; framan í on the front of XII:27; framan á as prep. with dat. or acc. on the front of III:85, 113; framan at up to from the front XXVI B:88; rétt framan í hann straight in his face I:43 framar adv. comp. more, further XXII:32/2 Glossary and Index 67 framarliga adv. greatly, fully XIII:36 frami m. boldness, courage; at eigi haf›i frama til at that he did not have the courage to XVI:101 framvíss adj. prescient, having knowledge of the future V:20 fránn adj. sharp X:94; gleaming (with leggbita) VI:243, glittering X:83 franzeis m. Frank, Frankish person XIV:155 frásaga f. story VI:320 frásƒgn f. story, narrative, account II:16; description V:85 fregn f. intelligence, news I:45; knowledge XXII:24/3 fregna (past frá, past pl. frágu, pp. freginn) sv. (Gr 3.6.9.3 and ex. 8) hear (of), learn (of) XXII:27/2, 44/2, 55/2, 4; pp. in agreement with direct object (ógn) V:19 freista (past freista›i, pp. freistat) wv. with gen. try II:141; find out II:137, VII A:147 freknóttr adj. freckled V:31 frelsa (past frelsa›i, pp. frelsat) wv. free, deliver XIII:25, 45 frelsi n. freedom XIX:100 fremja (past fram›i, pp. framit) wv. promote, perform, do XXIII:36; fremja gunni wage war VI:156 fremr adv. comp. further off, further back (in time), earlier; hálfu fremr twice as far off, twice as early XXV:7 fremri adj. comp. superior (to) XXIV:16; foremost XXVI B:92 frétt f. intelligence, reply, oracle XIX:42 frétta (past frétti, pp. frétt) wv. 1. hear, get intelligence (til about) VI:331, XXII:11/2; pp. frétt heard, learned XXVI B:37. 2. frétta (eptir) ask (about) XXIV:8 Freydís f. daughter of Eiríkr rau›i XXI:132, 136, 162 Freyja f. a goddess (of fertility, i.e. a sex-goddess) VIII:102, IX:9, 11, 13, 30, 43, 44, 46, 48, 87, 92, 104, 108, 112; one of the Vanir, though here described as an Ásynja II:10, 48 Freyr m. a god, one of the Vanir, though here described as one of the Æsir II:8 fri›arma›r m. man of peace V:69 fri›ill m. lover X:138 frí›leikr m. handsomeness VII B:8 fri›artákn n. sign of peace, token of peace XXI:100 fri›r m. peace VI:239 (object of slitu), 366, VIII:129, 131 136 (with suffixed def. art.), XVI:72, 187, XXII:51/3; quarter, truce II:34; 68 A New Introduction to Old Norse

fara me› fri›i travel peacefully VII A:71; í gó›um fri›i very peacefully XI:62 frí›r (n. frítt) adj. handsome VII A:95, XXII:19/2; beautiful XII:12; magnificent XXII:1/1; comp. VII A:36; sup. VII A:34 fri›stefna f. peace-conference II:89 Frigg f. a goddess, one of the Ásynjur, wife of Ó›inn II:10 Frísir m. pl. Frisians VI:201 frjáls adj. free Gr 3.3.8.4 (1); n. frjálst freely, without restraint XII:68; comp. frjálsari more free XIV:124 frjósa (past frøri, past pl. frøru, pp. frørit) sv. freeze Gr 3.6.9.3 and ex. 11 Fró›adóttir f. daughter of Fró›i Vémundarson XIX:107 Fró›i m. son of ¯gmundr and half-brother of Kormakr; gen. with brœ›r IV:96 fró›leikr m. knowledge, learning, information II:101, XXVII:32 (honum in him, i.e. his knowledge) fró›r adj. well informed, learned II:101 frón n. land, earth XXII:59/1 (instrumental, ‘with earth’) frú f. lady; vár frú Our Lady, the Virgin Mary XIII:10, 26; in address XI:28, 33 fr‡ja (past fr‡›i) wv. taunt; with dat. and gen. taunt someone for lack of something, challenge someone’s something V:152 fræg› f. fame, renown; pl. famous deeds XXII:2/4 frægiligastr adj. sup. most likely to bring renown I:145 frægr adj. renowned (af for) VII A:35, XI:50; famous, bringing fame, glorious (with si›r) VI:160; comp. frægri af more renowned for XXII:3/3; sup. frægastr most famous, most renowned VI:317, XIX:104; f. frægust the most famous VI:314 frækn (frœkn) adj. valiant, brave XXII:17/1 frændi (pl. frændr) m. relative, kinsman III:36, 41, 91, IV:111, V:161, VI:105, VII B:81, XI:55, XII:76, XIV:131, 182, XIX:17, XXV:17, 46 frœ›a (past frœddi, pp. frœddr) wv. instruct XIV:187 frœ›ama›r/frœ›ima›r m. man of learning, scholar II:99; writer XXIII:1 frœ›i n. knowledge, learning II:94; in pl. history, learned work VIII:5; spells XV:143 frœ›inám/frœ›inæmi n. acquisition of knowledge, learning, study, education XIV:174, 185 frœknastr adj. sup. boldest XXVI B:94 Glossary and Index 69 frœknliga adv. bravely XXVI A:88 fugl m. bird VII A:154, 155, XII:32, XXIII:69; fowl, sea birds (collective sg.) XXI:54 fuku see fjúka Fulla f. a goddess, one of the Ásynjur II:11 fullafli adj. having complete power (refers to Einarr flambarskelfir, the implied subject of bí›r) VII B:41 fullgƒrr adj. (pp., cf. gera) completed XII:9; fullgƒrt at complete with XII:33 (with fugl, cf. note 3) fullhugi m. dauntless, courageous man V:131 fullkomliga adv. perfectly XIII:44 fullleiksa adj. indeclinable hafa fullleiksa have enough to do, have one’s hands full V:144 fullr adj. full Gr 3.3.9 ex. 23, XI:61; fullr af full of VII A:149, XI:10, XII:17, XVI:141, XXI:92, complete VI:226, XXIV:48; n. fullt rounded, bulging XXIII:97; til fulls thoroughly (done), adequate XIV:141, fully, absolutely XXIV:34, 47 fulltí›a adj. full-grown Gr 3.3.8.5 (6); á fulltí›a aldri in adulthood XIV:167 ful(l)ting n. help XIV:73, XXV:46; support XXVII:15 fulltingsmenn m. pl. supporters VIII:105 fulltrúi m. patron; with suffixed def. art. my patron XXI:79 fultingja (past fulting›i, pp. fullting›r) wv. help XXV:44 fundit see finna fundr m. find II:162; meeting, encounter V:92, VI:197; rendezvous (with gen. with; gen. object of haf›i kraf›a) VI:57; á hans fund to meet him, to see him VII A:45, XIV:96, 112; á fund, til fundar with gen. to meet, to see someone, to the home of someone VI:7, 15, XVI:14, 44, XIX:24, to engage (battle) with someone XXII:33/1, sœkja á fund go to visit someone XIV:139; til konungs fundar until your meeting with the king XVI:51; til fundar vi› to see, to speak to someone XXVI A:103; ætla›i til fundar vi› planned to go to meet XVI:94 fundu, funnit, funnu see finna fura f. pine-wood X:54; fir (tree) XXV:17 fur›u adv. wonderfully, amazingly VII A:119; fur›u mikit skip an amazingly large ship VI:112 Fur›ustrandir f. pl. ‘amazing strands or coastline’ XXI:34, 42 70 A New Introduction to Old Norse fúss adj. eager; nom. pl. complement of erum referring to the implied pl. subject (Kormakr, ‘authorial’ we) IV:33 fylgd/fylg› f. support, help, service, attendance XXII:21/3; company, assistance: til fylg›ar vi› to accompany or assist someone XXI:41 fylg›arma›r m. follower III:52 fylgismær (dat. -mey) f. female attendant, maidservant XII:48 fylgja (past fylg›i, pp. fylgt) wv. with dat. follow, accompany III:91, V:36, 88, VI:242 (inf. in acc. and inf. construction after kvá›u), VII A:151, 158, VIII:74, XII:4, XV:46, XXII:17/2; keep up with XV:99, XXI:136; come with XXI:6; serve VI:201; take, convey VI:6, 13; go with VI:45, XI:44, XIV:36; be attached I:42; belong to XXIII:34, apply to VIII:117; flar fylgir there goes with it, in addition XI:25; impers. pass. er fleim fylgt they are conducted XI:14; -sk form fylgjask stick together XXVI B:76 fylkir m. leader of troops, war-leader, ruler XXII:11/1, 28/1, 64/3 fylla (past fylldi, pp. fyllt) wv. fill; fulfil, carry out XIV:50; impers. fylldi af was filled with it XII:14 fyllr f. fill (of food or drink) II:25, 117; with gen. fyllr hilmis stóls the filling of the throne (gen. object of bí›r; i.e. he is waiting to fill the throne himself) VII B:41 fyndi, fyndi›, fyndisk see finna fyr prep. with acc. or dat. (= fyrir) before, in front of IX:94, X:55, XVI:58, XXII:21/1, 38/2; for XVI:6, 44, in return for XXII:36/4; instead of IX:129, 130; as a result of XXII:58/3; in the face of, in despite of (= dat. of disadvantage) XXV:69; in complex prepositions with acc. (Gr 3.7.1) fyr austan east of VIII:18; fyr innan inside IX:18; fyr . . . ne›an beneath IX:28; fyr útan outside IX:17, except for VIII:3, X:50; fyr vestan west of VIII:19; as adv. for it XVI:71; fyr flikkja í be displeased about it XVI:84; flar fyr with its help, by means of it XXII:37/3; see also sjá, flykkja fyr›ar m. pl. poetical word for men; gen. pl. V:19, XXV:28/2 fyrir/firir/firi prep. (Gr 3.7.4) 1. with dat. in front of III:111, IV:5 (see sitja), VII B:89, XXI:88, XXVI B:121; before XIV:55, 188, XXI:26, XXVI B:104; fyrir sér in front of her XXI:138; before, in the face of I:33, V:38; at the head of XXII:8/1; for XXIV:63, 64 (2); firi flér for you XXIV:13, 25, firi mér for me XXIV:54; fyrir fleim before them, for them XI:15; over VI:181; off (the coast of) VI:28, X:87, on the coast of XVI:138; because of III:11, XXVI A:110; Glossary and Index 71 presaging V:8; fyrir honum to him, in addressing him II:133, for him (equivalent to dat. of disadvantage) XXVI B:90, similarly fyrir fleim XXVI B:114, fyrir hánum on his side, from his troop VI:226, fyrir flér on your hands, on you XVI:52; fyrir litlu a short while before XV:38; minni firi sér of less consequence XXIV:75 (cf. mikill); ver›a minni firi sér be diminished, lose their power and importance XXIV:69; alllítill fyrir sér of very little importance or power I:55; fyrir flví at as conj. (Gr 3.8.2.2) because II:100, 118, VI:27, 123, 224, 289, XI:70; firi flví . . . at for this reason . . . that, in order that XXIV:32–33, 40–41, 51–52; fyrir flví at heldr flótt any the more because of this that, even though VII B:55. 2. with acc. for II:134, IV:100, 105, V:155, VI:34, 136, VII A:79, XIX:3, XXIV:21; on behalf of XXII:32/3, XXIV:64 (1); fyrir oss for ourselves XXVI B:102; before I:45, 50, 57; to the entrance of VII A:150, 153, in front of VII B:70, XXVI:84; over VI:294, 299, XIX:52; fyrir land along the coast XIX:55; past XXI:42; in return for I:60, XXI:78, XXVII:38, in exchange for XXI:115; fyrir sik in front of himself XXVI A:72; fyrir flá (from) in front of them V:87, for them, on behalf of them VII B:25; because of, as a result of XXIV:52; fyrir hvat why XV:52; at firi flat so that for that, so that in relation to it, so that as a result? XXIV:26; firi flat at because, as a result of the fact that XXIV:42; of time, before XV:97, XXVI B:41; in complex prepositions with acc. (Gr 3.5.1, 3.5.3 (7), 3.7.1) fyrir nor›an to the north of VII A:148, XXVI A:13; fyrir sunnan south of V:151, XXVI A:96; sunnan fyrir from the south round XXI:111; fyrir vestan west of XV:36, XIX:91, west of it XXI:167; fyrir innan inside II:60, XV:132 (see innan); fyrir ne›an below III:57, XIX:92 (see hei›r); fyrir ofan above XXI:172, XXVI B:118, fyrir . . . ofan down over XXI:80; fyrir útan beyond, outside IV:49, beyond, west of XIX:97, without VI:21; sunnr fyrir in the south off VI:207; su›r firir southwards along XXI:86, south past XXI:105; vestr fyrir west along (the coast) VII A:153, west past XV:146; fyrir fram along II:104; fyrir sakar fless er for this reason, that VI:316. 3. as adv. there, in front III:110, 112, XXVI B:47, in front VII A:145 (with var› line 140), there present IX:102; there already XXI:154, to be found XI:17, in residence XVI:15; in the way, in its path V:128; eigi lokan fyrir the bolt was not across XV:105; in advance VII A:64; ahead VI:26, XXVI A:28; past VI:59, 61, past it, along its/the coast 72 A New Introduction to Old Norse

XXI:22, 155; for it, as a punishment VIII:87; in return XVI:48; for it XXI:118; einn fyrir only one to face XXVI B:60; sem . . . var fyrir where . . . was positioned XXVI B:89; út fyrir out in the sea off it XXI:53; fyrir útan round the outside, round the edge (of the shore) VII A:163, round the seaward side of the island(s), on the open sea VI:87; úti fyrir out in front of the house XXVI B:49; fleim er úti váru fyrir those who were out there (on that side) XXVI B:221; flar fyrir in front of them XVI:A:25, in front (of the doorway) there, in front of it III:82, 83, ahead there XXVI A:16; vera flar fyrir be (already) present there VII B:32, XI:11; flar . . . firi about that XXIV:57; gaf flar firir gave for it XVI:11; flar fyrir . . . at for this reason . . . that XII:35 fyrirrúm n. ‘forward place’, the position on a warship in front of the raised stern section; with suffixed def. art. VI:268, 285 fyrr adv. comp. previously, earlier, before III:16, VI:8, VII B:52, VIII:186, XIV:103, XV:45, 141, 150, XVI:99, XXIV:24, the last time XVI:155; above (in a book) VII B:5, XV:35, XIV:154, XV:35; fyrr sƒg› aforesaid, aforementioned XIII:34: var fyrr had previously been XXII:9/1; viku fyrr a week earlier VIII:96; fyrr en as conj. before V:41 (lines 38–39 belong in the clause fyrr en introduces), VI:92, 115, VIII:73, 106, XIV:171, XXVII:29; until XV:100; eigi fyrr en not before, not until XXVI A:63, B:119, 133 fyrri1 adj. comp. former, first (of two) Gr 3.3.5 ex. 6, XXVII:44, earlier XXIV:82 fyrri2 adv. first, in front XXVI B:206, 210; before XXII:64/4 fyrst/fyst adv. first III:73, V:93, VIII:1, 7, 15, 18, 35, IX:5 (adj. n.?), XIV:64, XXIV:31; at first I:35; firstly VI:254, XIV:43; to begin with VI:267, XI:58, 145 fyrstr adj. sup. (Gr 3.4.1) first II:152, VIII:171, 181, IX:125, XXII:14/2, XXIV:77; the first XIV:180; the first one VIII:192; bygg›i fyrstr landit was the first to settle in the country XIX:105 (Gr 3.9.8.1); inn fyrsti the first XI:73, hit fyrsta XXI:196; wk. n. acc. as adv. it fyrsta, hit fyrsta first of all, to begin with II:28, 63 f‡sa (past f‡sti, pp. f‡st) wv. with acc. and gen. give encouragement to someone for, encourage someone into something VIII:67; impers. with acc. f‡sti hann he was eager VII A:43; braut f‡sir mik I want to leave XVI:79; flá f‡sti einskis annars en they desired nothing else but XXI:129; flat er mest f‡sir til what he most longs for XXVI Glossary and Index 73

B:20; pres. part. f‡sandi desirous, importunate VI:39; -sk form f‡sask with gen. be eager for, desire something XXI:13; f‡sask á become eager for X:29; f‡sask í brott be eager to leave, want to leave XVI:84 f‡si f. desire XIV:116 fyst see fyrst f‡st f. desires, eagerness XXIII:2 fæ›a see fœ›a fælask (past fældisk) wv. -sk form be frightened (vi› by it, by this) XXI:120, 142, fær, færat see fá færa see fœra færi, færri adj. comp. fewer Gr 3.3.8.2–5 ex. 4, V:83 fæstr adj. sup. very few I:136; sem fæstum sinnum as infrequently as possible XXIV:12 fœ›a/fæ›a (past fœddi, pp. fœddr) wv. feed, give food to, Gr 3.6.9.3 ex. 5; fœddu sik sjálfir provided for their own maintenance XIV:151; -sk form fæddisk there has been born XXII:64/3; fœ›ask af feed on, rejoice in, exult in? XIV:106 fœra1/færa (past fœr›i/fær›i, pp. fœr›r/fœrt/fært) wv. bring II:46, IX:30 (subj.), XI:23, 25, XIV:47; present XVI:50, 63, 167; take (with dat. to someone) V:159; imp. pl. fœri› IX:87; past fœr›u› you brought VI:250; fær›i presented, delivered XXII:63/1; fœra fram perform, discharge XIV:43, 125; færa upp raise up XXI:126; -sk form fœr›usk ﬂar á upp got up onto it XV:142 fœra2 see fara fœri, fœrir see fara and fœra fœrr adj. passable, safe (with dat., for) VII A:165; til fœrr capable of, able to do XXIV:25 fœti, fœtr see fótr fœzla f. food XIV:147 fƒ›ur see fa›ir fƒ›urbró›ir m. (paternal) uncle III:32, VIII:10 fƒ›urgjƒld n. pl. compensation for one’s father’s death II:114 fƒ›urlauss adj. fatherless, orphan XIV:111 fƒ›ursystir f. (paternal) aunt XIX:107 (see note 6) fƒgr, fƒgru, fƒgrum see fagr fƒgnu›r m. joy Gr 3.1.7.1, 3.1.8 (6) fƒlr (fƒlv-) adj. pale Gr 3.3.8.1, 3.3.8.2–5 ex. 4, 3.3.9 (6), (20) 74 A New Introduction to Old Norse fƒlu›u see fala fƒng, fƒngum see fang1 fƒr (gen. sg. farar) f. journey; fate III:69; movement I:121; coming XI:2; going, departure X:138; migration VIII:25, 67; expedition XXVI B:50; á fƒr a-travelling XXVI B:14; dat. pl. fƒrum1 travels, movements V:13, XV:121, XIX:21; í fƒr me› travelling with, in company with XV:45 fƒrull (fƒrl- ) adj. rambling 3.3.8.2–5 ex. 4 fƒrum2 see fara fƒrunautr m. companion; ok hans fƒrunauta(r) and those who were with him XV:144, 154 fƒruneyti n. following VII A:67, XXI:5; company; allt fƒruneyti hans everyone with him XV:152 fƒstnu› see fastna fƒstudagr m. Friday; acc. of time on the Friday XXVII:6; fƒstudag inn fyrra í ﬂingi on the first Friday of the Assembly XXVII:44 fƒstuígangr m. the beginning of Lent; gen. pl. fƒstuíganga(hald) the (dates) of the observance of the beginnings of fasting, i.e. the date of the beginning of Lent XXVII:30 -g = -k gá (past gá›i, pp. gát) wv. with gen. give heed or thought to XXI:58, care about XXV:27 gaf see gefa gafl m. gable, gable-wall X:45, XXV:110 gaflveggr m. gable wall XXVI B:29 (with suffixed def. art.) gaft, gaftu, gáfu see gefa gagn n. advantage, help, use; koma at gagni do (him) any good XXII:40/4 gagnvart prep. with dat. opposite Gr 3.7.3, XXI:205 gakk see ganga Galarr m. a dwarf II:95, 109 galdr m. magic; pl. galdrar incantations, sorcery XIV:77, XV:143 gáleysi n. heedlessness, wantonness, irresponsibility XIV:164 gálgi m. gallows XXV:77 gall see gjalla galt, galzk see gjalda gamall (f. gƒmul, pl. gamlir) adj. (3.3.8.1, 3, 5 (1), 3.3.9 (8), (14), 3.3.9 ex. 7, 16) old II:44, III:22, 46, V:32, VIII:16 (Gr 3.4.2 (7)), Glossary and Index 75

XXVI B:159; enn gamli as nickname XIX:17, 107; with the number of years in the gen. XV:4; tólf vetra gamall at the age of twelve XIV:174 gaman (dat. sg. gamni Gr 3.1.7.3–5 ex. 4) n. delight, pleasure; jƒtni at gamni for the giant’s pleasure IX:90 ganga1 (pres. gengr, past gekk, past pl. gengu/gingu/geingu, pp. gengit/gingit) sv. (Gr 3.6.9.1 (3, 4, 12), 3.6.9.3) walk, go I:3, 7, 25, 57, 68, 84, 89, 93, 121, II:45, 55, III:12, 41, V:34, 147, VII A:151, IX:89, X:33, 137, XI:8, 74, XVI:128, XIX:33, XXI:102, XXII:27/3, XXIII:102, XXIV:46, XXV:40, XXVI A:14, 32, B:44, XXVII:21; come I:96, X:177; lead XV:83; flow (of water) XXI:93; with gen. of destination go to, approach IX:9; with acc. walk through Gr 3.1.9 ex. 14 (cf. fara), X:46, 75; pres. gengr is going X:166; gƒngum let us go X:111; imp. gakk come XI:28, gakk ﬂú go X:156, you go XXVI B:136, gakktu XXVI B:143, you come XXVI B:161; past subj. gengi II:110, IV:8, XV:102, XVI:94; haf›i ﬂangat á gengit (men, li›it; Gr 3.9.5) had boarded it VI:225; ganga á intrude on XXVII:35; ganga á hƒnd with dat. submit to someone, join someone’s band XXII:10/1; ganga at come up/over, approach XXI:77, go against, attack I:138, XXVI B:101, enter upon, begin II:7, intervene VII B:57, ganga framan at approach from the front XXVI B:88; ganga eptir follow XXI:137, be fulfilled VII A:32, be proved true XXVI B:25; ganga frá leave, be finished with III:60; impers. skal eigi frá ganga there will be no going away, no finishing with it XXVI B:133; ganga fram come forward XVI:101, 105, advance, attack XXII:43/2; subj. gangi sá nú fram let that one now come forward XVI:103; at gánga fram at to come on to XXII:33/4; ganga í wear XXI:205; ganga í mót advance, oppose, go against the enemy, meet the enemy VI:256; gánga oss í móti are/will be fighting against us XXII:32/4; ganga ór go from, leave VI:271; ganga saman close, engage XXI:125; ganga sleitum see sleita; ganga í sundr break in two V:100; ganga sundr be broken VI:56; ganga til at result in, lead to XXIV:43; impers. with dat. hvernug honum mundi ganga til how successful he would be in obtaining VII A:46; ganga undan get away, escape V:107; láta undan ganga let off VII B:54; ganga undir undergo, accept XIV:99; ganga upp go ashore VII A:159, VII B:34, 40 (inf. with sé ek Einar), XVI:15, go aboard VI:269, 273; be used up XVI:89; ganga upp á board, go aboard VI:189, 76 A New Introduction to Old Norse

220; nú er fleim út at ganga ƒllum er now it is for all those to go out to whom, now all those are to go out to whom XXVI B:135; gengr vel with dat. someone gets on well, things go well for someone XIV:107; ganga yfir befall III:26, VIII:85, XXVI B:164; impers. gekk flví this went on XXVI B:194, subj. gangi eigi it be impossible XXVI B:209; as aux. with inf. go to, begin to X:53; -sk form gangask í gegn confront each other, enter into conflict VIII:133; pp. var of genginn had gone IV:21, fram genginn departed (from life) VI:361, sem inn var gengit where one went in, i.e. at the entrance XII:53 ganga2 f. going; visit IV:60 gangr m. movement, activity; snarpra sver›a gangr is a kenning for battle (subject of ger›isk) VI:241 Gangr m. a giant II:81 gangtamr adj. trained in its paces (of horses) XXV:13 gapa (past gap›i, pp. gapat) wv. with dat. open wide XXI:67 Gar›afylja f. ‘Filly of Gar›ar’; Gar›ar is a common farm-name in Iceland, and the nickname may refer to Hallfrí›r’s place of birth or abode III:128 Gar›aríki n. Russia VII A:37 gar›r m. courtyard XI:74, XXV:40; with suffixed def. art. II:156, VII B:60, 61; in Iceland, farmyard or hayfield enclosure IV:49; pl. with suffixed def. art. buildings or enclosures XXVI A:13; farmyard, farm enclosure, farmyard wall; hér at gar›i beside this enclosure IX:89; ór gar›i off the premises III:121; (in Norway and other continental countries) premises, house (in a town) VII B:35, XI:49; pl. courts, dwelling, abode IX:17; gen. of place mi›ra gar›a in the middle of the courts IX:34 garpr m. brave man, soldier XXII:13/2,19/4, 22/1, 28/1, 32/3 Garpsdalr m. valley in Gilsfjƒr›r XV:2, 14 Garpsdalsgo›i m. go›i of Garpsdalr XV:2 gat see geta gata (pl. gƒtur Gr 3.1.7.1 ex. 3) f. path; acc. flá gƒtu along that path V:42 gátu, gátum see geta Gauka-fiórir m. robber XXII:23/3 Gaular f. pl. district in Norway south-east of Trondheim XIX:7 gaumr m. heed, attention I:24, 54, XXI:136 Gautland n. Götaland (southern Sweden) XIV:28 gaztu see geta Glossary and Index 77 gefa (pres. gefr, past gaf, past pl. gáfu, past subj. gæfi, pp. gefinn, pp. n. gefit) sv. give II:25, 127 (vi› in exchange), III:17, IV:100, VI:3, VII A:112, VIII:43, 66, IX:14, X:78, 107, XVI:14, XIX:100, XXI:24, 38; give away XVI:150; pay I:23, 54; imp. gef I:130 (til for this purpose), XVI:152, XXII:32/3; gaftu you have given XV:23; subj. gæfir were giving XVI:76; annat mun flér betr gefit you are better disposed to other things, you are more talented at other things V:138; gefa af sér give out, proclaim XXIII:50; gefa (flar) firir/ fyrir give for it XVI:11, XXI:118; firir at gefa to give in return XVI:48; gáfu fé me› sér gave money with themselves (i.e. for their maintenance), brought money with them (on entry to the foundation) XIV:150; pp. f. gefin given in marriage XXVI B:163; impers. gefa be found, be obtainable XXI:61; gaf fleim it was given them, they were enabled XXI:81 Gefjun f. a goddess, one of the Ásynjur II:10 gegn1 adj. advantageous; worthy, reliable VII B:15 gegn2 adv. (cf. Gr 3.7.3) against VIII:133 (see ganga); í gegn against it VIII:180 (or prep. with flví); in opposition VIII:81; as prep. with dat. against XXII:34/1 gegna (gegndi) wv. with dat. mean, signify, be caused by II:22; meet, pay, discharge VIII:168; amount to (= sæta) XXII:55/2; be suitable for XXVI B:72 gegnum, í gegnum prep. with acc. through (Gr 3.7.1) VI:21, XXVI A:70, 72 gegnvart prep. opposite Gr 3.7.3 geigr m. hurt, injury XXVI A:45 geil f. lane, sunken path between fields or enclosures XXVI A:16 Geila f. daughter of Búrizleifr VI:47 geimi/geimr m. sea XXII:64/2 geirr m. spear VI:308, VII A:25, XXV:92; dat. (instrumental) geiri with a spear XXVI A:95 Geirr go›i Ásgeirsson m. XXVI A:4, 110, 112 Geirrø›r m. Irish slave XIX:36 geirvarta f. nipple XII:16, XV:62, 108; honum í geirvƒrtur as far as his nipples III:103 geisli m. shaft of light XXII:60/3 geit f. (she-)goat II:69, XXIII:69 (gen. pl. with rƒdd) Geitdalr m. valley in eastern Iceland Gr 3.1.8 ex. 78 A New Introduction to Old Norse geitskƒr f. (or geitskor f. or geitskór m.?) nickname (= ‘goat-hair’?) VIII:41 gekk see ganga gella (past gelldi) wv. roar, bellow VII A:158 Gellini m. = Arnljótr gellini gellir m. ‘bellower’, a nickname VII A:167 Gellisson m. son of Gellir fiorkelsson (1017–73) VIII:10, 34, 74 geingu see ganga1 gengi1 f. support, following, troop VI:157 (gen. object of misstu) gengi2, genginn, gengit, gengr, gengu see ganga1 genja f. large frightening creature; a kind of axe; as nickname III:47 (perhaps with reference to the first meaning, or to an axe that the man owned) gera/gjƒra/gøra/gørva (pres. gerir/gørir, past ger›i/gør›i/gjƒr›i, pp. gerr/gjƒrr/gƒrr/gert/gjƒrt/gƒrt/gjƒrvir) wv. (Gr 3.6.7) 1. do I:10, 53, 77, 86, 88, 110, 115, 118, 142, II:68, 69, 73, 111, 144, IV:12, VI:122, VII A:101, VIII:185, X:86, XII:84, XIV:85, XV:89, 90, 97, XVI:74, 127, 160, 47/1, XIX:105, XXVI B:74, 145, 213; gera nú svá now do so XXI:72; imp. gør I:15, ger flú eigi do not do XXVI A:47, ger›u honum make (for) him XV:27; gerum vér let us do XXVI B:72; subj. geri should do VII A:101, ok gera ek flat where I might (or so that I may) do it XV:65; perform, hold VI:7; make I:11, 16, 29, 145, II:74 (af of them), VI:146, VIII:1, 31, 129, 174, XII:16, XV:13 (see ógetit), 18 (see dátt), 30, XVI:116, XIX:65, XXI:45, 92, XXVI B:107, provide, hold (with dat., for someone) XIX:9; gerum let us make XI:38; gør›i was doing XII:78, was making XII:77; gjƒr›i svá did so XXI:72, svá gjƒr›u fleir they did so XXI:102; gjƒr›u› flér you did XXVI B:70; ger›u they carried out XXVI A:43; get ready XVI:113; devise X:99; set, calculate, pay VIII:154, 157; enact VIII:172; perform XIII:20; build VI:113, X:5, 156, XIV:11, 152, XV:142, XIX:62, 102, XXI:106; bring about VII A:17, XXII:26/1; put up, i.e. fight XXII:39/2; cause VI:39, XV:126; gera fer› sína make one’s way, set out II:2, VI:20; gera kost with dat. give someone a choice XXVI A:11; gera or› send word VIII:104, 122; gera or› á make remarks/comments about XXVI B:32; gera annat rá› make another plan, try another course of action XXVI B:101; af gera do with it XVI:29; gjƒra af banish, exile, outlaw from XXI:157; gera at do something about XI:40, attend to Glossary and Index 79

XV:24, make into VI:16; fengu/gátu ekki at gert achieved nothing XXVI A:38, B:97; margir hlutir a›rir at gjƒrvir sí›an many other repairs or improvements (have been) done on it since XIV:13; slíkt hafa at gƒrt had acted in such a way in this matter XV:118; gera eptir make in the likeness of XII:61; gera rá› fyrir look after XXI:71; gøra mót with dat. act against, oppose someone XIX:21; honum í móti gjƒra do anything (or go) against him XIV:113; gera til earn I:61, direct at XV:145; gera mikit um make much of it V:72; gera sér mikit um be much concerned about, care much about VI:318; gøri› betr vi› mik act better towards me, treat me better XXIV:21; ekki vi› ﬂví gera to do nothing to prevent it XXVI B:79; pp. gerr built XXVI A:24, done, committed XXVI B:140; gƒrr prepared, brewed (with dat., for) XII:51; f. ger, gjƒr made, fashioned XIII:2, 14, built XIV:6; gjƒr as adj. fulfilled, complete II:72; acc. f. gƒr›a made, constructed I:20; n. gert/gƒrt/gjƒrt made XII:59; XIII:19, XXI:45, XXII:30/4; vel gƒrt well made XII:12; gjƒrt/gƒrt done XIV:138, XVI:178; m. pl. gervir (are) made (i.e. lit) XI:15, gƒrvir at ready to, on the point of XXV:40; f. pl. gƒrvar made, i.e. told VI:321; as aux. with inf. as meaningless periphrasis X:40, imp. geri› XXII:22/2, with suffixed neg. -t, ger›ut did not VI:261; impers. gjƒrir hann he becomes XVI:89. 2. -sk form gørask become XVI:169; ger›isk, gjƒr›isk/ger›usk/gør›usk became I:73, II:43, XIV:22, 48, XXI:35, it became XXI:60; sem ger›isk however it might turn out (or if it happened?) IV:95; ger›isk/gjƒr›isk took place VI:238, there came XXI:59; there came to be (with dat., in someone, i.e. someone came to have) VII A:32; gør›isk would take placeVIII:127, turned out, worked VIII:130; gør›isk af ﬂví came about as a result of this VIII:113; haf›i gƒrzk, haf›i í gƒrzk had taken place XV:121, 140; gjƒr›isk til set about, took the trouble to XVI:70; gƒr›umz we forced ourselves (we were forced?) XXV:101 (see note and Gr 3.6.4, 3.6.5.3); used as auxiliary with inf. ger›isk bægja vi› = bæg›isk vi› did contend with VII A:11; with suffixed neg. ger›ut did not XXV:64 ger›/gjƒr› f. doing, deed; í ƒllum sínum ger›um/gjƒr›um in everything he does XXIII:19, 42; activity XXIII:40 Ger›r f. a goddess, one of the Ásynjur II:10 gerla adv. (= gƒrla) extensively, completely, fully, comprehensively XXVII:31 80 A New Introduction to Old Norse

Gernoz m. brother of Gunnarr and Grímhildr XI:54 gerr1 adv. comp. more clearly, more completely VIII:5 gerr2 see gera gersemi/gersimi/gjƒrsimi/gørsimi f. treasure, jewel, precious gift VIII:131, X:88, 105; valuable thing XV:15, XVI:11, 34, 140, 145, 167, XXI:151 gerv- see gera gerzkr adj. from Gar›aríki, Russian VII A:38 gestahús n. visitors’ quarters III:78 gestr m. guest XIV:138; a rank of retainer at the Norwegian court (Gr 3.1.9 ex. 6) III:119 (see MS 284) Gestr Oddleifsson m. XV:43, 45, 58 (see note 6) geta (past gat, past pl. gátu, pp. getinn) sv. 1. get; with suffixed 2nd person pron. gaztu did you get X:67 (Gr 3.6.9.1 (10)); geta af gain (knowledge) from, learn from XXVII:34; geta at with dat. obtain from VIII:97; flat geta at get to do it XXVII:12; as aux. with pp. manage (to do something; Gr 3.9.7.1) III:62, VI:10, XV:99, XXVI A:38; get ek ei I cannot XXII:15/1, flá aldri sótta geta never manage to defeat them XXVI B:49, getum flá eigi me› vápnum sótta will never be able to defeat them with weapons XXVI B:100; as aux. with at and inf. geta at get to do something, happen to do something XXI:110. 2. with gen. mention, speak of VI:173, XIV:130, XXIV:81; getum eigi let us not speak of them XI:38; fless er vi› getit it is further said/told XVI:10; tell VI:339, 348 (inf. in nom. and inf. construction with flykkjat; Gr 3.9.4); er getit with gen. someone is mentioned (vi› in connection with) VI:199. 3. guess, gauge, predict XXVI B:177. 4. -sk form impers. getask vel at with dat. (one) thinks well of someone, likes someone: haf›i honum vel getizk at manninum he had thought well of the man VII B:53 geyja (past gó) sv. bark at; abuse, blaspheme VIII:101 geyma (past geym›i/geymdi, pp. geymdr) wv. take care of XXII:58/1; with gen. geyma fless at make sure that XXVI B:85 geysaz (past geysti) wv. -sk form rush XXII:39/1, surge XXII:34/1 geysigrimmligr adj. very, exceedingly terrible XXII:30/3 geysistrí›r adj. extremely severe; n. as adv. geysistrítt very harshly (or as substantive, very harsh treatment?) XXII:36/3 geystr adj. (pp.) rushing furiously XXII:38/1 geyst adv. (or adj. (pp.) n.) furious(ly), at great speed I:116 Glossary and Index 81

-gi intensive suffix; miklugi gørr more extensively by far, by very much XXVII:32. Cf. XXV, note 25. gildi n. feast, banquet II:7 gildr adj. fine, worthy XXI:133, XXII:11/3; with gen. great, mighty, doughty in XXII:42/1 gilja (past gilja›i, pp. gilja›r) wv. beguile, seduce XIV:90, note Gillingr m. a giant II:102, 103, 105, 112 Gilsfjƒr›r m. fjord in north-west Iceland XV:3 gimfastr adj. X:37, see note Gimsar f. (?) pl. estate near Trondheim, Norway (modern Gimsan) VI:67 gimsteinn m. precious stone, jewel XII:26 gin n. mouth (of animal), maw XXIII:63 gingu, gingit see ganga gipt f. good fortune, grace XIV:36 gipta1 (past gipti, pp. gipt) wv. give in marriage Gr 3.9.1, VII A:75, 91; -sk form for passive be married (to) or refl. marry oneself (to) VII A:93 gipta2 f. luck (= gæfa) XVI:33 giptuma›r m. person of good luck (= gæfuma›r) XVI:125 girnd f. desire, lust XIII:43 Gíslher m. brother of Gunnarr and Grímhildr XI:30, 33, 54 Gísli Finnason m. XIV: 28, 154 gista (past gisti, pp. gist) wv. lodge, stay (overnight) XV:44 Gizurr gla›i (the Cheerful) m. III:15, 19 Gizurr hvíti Teitsson m. VIII:80, 88, 111, XXVI A:4, 32, 33, 42, 52, 56, 66, 101, 110, 112, 118 Gizurr Ísleifsson m. bishop 1082–1118 VIII:150, 158, 181, 185, 188, 193, 195, 196 Gizurr ﬁorvaldsson m. 1208–68 III:6, 8, 9, 11, 12, 17, 20, 27, 29, 34, 35, 90, 91, 94, 96, 99, 101, 109, 111, 114, 122, 125, 126, 130 gjá f. ravine Gr 3.1.7.3–5 ex. 4, VIII:52 gjafar see gjƒf gjald n. tax (Gr 3.1.7.1 ex.5) VIII:30 gjalda (pres. geldr, past galt, past pl. guldu, pp. goldinn) wv. pay (Gr 3.6.9.1 (3)) VII A:169, VIII:27, 32, XIV:123, XXVI B:53; hand over XIX:25; give XXVII:19; repay with XV:16; -sk form past galzk was paid VIII:30 gjalla (pres. gellr, past gall, past pl. gullu) sv. resound, clang VI:240, 82 A New Introduction to Old Norse

XXII:18/4; bellow; ok gall hátt vi› and it bellowed loudly at the same time XXI:119 gjarn adj. eager (with gen., for something) VII A:22 gjarna/gjarnan adv. (Gr 3.5.2) willingly, gladly I:31, V:78, VII A:121, XXIV:25; eagerly, is keen to XXIII:81 gjó›r m. osprey; gjó›r geira hrí›ar, osprey of battle VII A:26, is a kenning for a carrion bird, eagle or raven (dat. of respect, ‘in or for the raven’; cf. note to I:12); when his hunger is diminished a battle has taken place Gjúki m. father of Gu›rún, Gunnarr and Hƒgni XXV:8, 77 (see note 4) gjƒf f. gift II:163, IV:100 (pl. gjafar), XVI:188; with suffixed def. art. XVI:135, 188 gjƒld see gjald gjƒr, gjƒra, gjƒr›i, gjƒr›isk, gjƒr›u›, gjƒrr see gera gjƒr› see ger› gjƒrningr m. sorcery XIV:77 gjƒrsamliga adv. particularly XXIV:36 gjƒrsimi = gersemi gjƒrst adv. sup. most accurately, most intimately XIV:51 gjƒrt, gjƒrvir see gera gla›r (f. glƒ› Gr 3.3.8.1 ex.3) adj. glad, cheerful VI:309 (with hann, subject of rau›); happy XXII:23/4 (acc. sg. m. ‘the happy Gauka- fiórir’); wk. form as nickname III:15, 19 Gla›st‡randi m. (pres. part.) horse-steersman or -captain (in apposition to Gunnarr) XXVI A:95. Gla›r is the name of a mythical horse (see SnE, Skáldskaparmál 90/2 and 463), Gla›r kjalar sló›a ‘horse of the keel’s path, i.e. of the sea’ is a kenning for ship, whose steersman is a seafarer, meaning Gunnarr glam n. din, clash XXII:38/3 (randa glam probably a kenning for battle) glaumr m. merriment, revelry XXV:63 gle›i f. joy Gr 3.1.7.4 (4), XII 86; happiness, entertainment? XXII:3/4 gle›imark n. sign of cheerfulness, indication of cheerfulness XXIII:50 gle›ja (past gladdi, pp. gladdr) wv. gladden Gr 3.6.9.1 (7) glepja (past glap›a, pp. glap›r) wv. 1. confuse, confound. 2. -sk form pres. for pass. glepsk will be disturbed, destroyed VI:366 gleyma (past gleym›i, pp. gleym›r) wv. with dat. forget XII:39 (imp.) gleypa (past gleypti, pp. gleypt) wv. swallow I:91 glíkligr (= líkligr) adj. likely, probable; n. as substantive glíkligs (gen. object of geta) what is likely VI:349 Glossary and Index 83 glita (past glita›i, pp. glita›r) wv. glitter XXI:173 glófi m. glove VI:37 glotta (past glotti) sv. grin (at at it) XXVI B:96 gluggr m. window (opening) III:4 (acc. pl. with suffixed def. art.); ok gluggar and (there were) windows XXVI A:24 Glúmr Geirason m. poet, father of fiór›r Ingunnarson XV:34 gl‡ n. joy XXV:27 gl‡stamr adj. ‘joy-hindered’, joyless XXV:2 glæsiligr adj. splendid; n. ok mjƒg glæsiligt and (it was) a very splendid one (see Gr 3.9.2) VI:62 glœpr m. misdeed, crime XIV:99 glƒ› see gla›r gløggr adj. clear-sighted, perceptive XXIII:19 Gná f. name of a goddess; in kennings for woman (= Steinger›r; cf. SnE, Skáldskaparmál ch. 31): Gná steina (object of meina) IV:55; Gná bor›a (object of var›a) IV:57 gnau› f. noise, din XXII:56/1; hjƒrva gnau› ‘din of swords’ may be a kenning for battle gnaustan f. clashing; malma gnaustan is a kenning for battle VI:352 gnísta (past gnísti, pp. gníst) wv. with dat. gnash XII:57 gnógr adj. enough; n. as substantive gnógt enough XXVI A:53 gnóttir f. abundance, plenty (alls of everything; cf. Gr 3.9.8.2 and XXI:18, 32 and note 3) XXI:161 gn‡stœrandi pres. part. increaser of the clash (of battle), warrior XXVI A:95, textual note go› n. (heathen) god, see gu› go›barn n. divinely descended child or offspring XXV:77 go›borinn adj. (pp.) as substantive one born of gods, descended from a god XXV:58 go›gá f. ‘barking at gods’, blasphemy VIII:99 go›i m. one of 36–39 priest-chieftains in pre-Christian Iceland VII A:167, VIII:11; as title XV:35, 41, XXVI A:4 gó›mannliga adv. like a good man, conscientiously XIV:19 Go›mundr fiorgeirssonr m. lawspeaker 1123–1134 VIII:171 gó›r (n. gott Gr 3.3.8.4 (3b)) adj. good (Gr 3.3.8.3, 3.3.9 ex. 21, 24) V:59, VI:89, 365 (with grams), VIII:68, XI:46, XV:24, XIX:98, XXI:51, XXII:37/1, XXIV:67, XXV:108, XXVI B:102; n. gott kostum with good qualities XXI:177; acc. sg. m. gó›an XIX:77; wk. dat. sg. m. gó›a XXII:16/2; acc. sg. f. gó›a XIV:38 (cf. Gr 3.9.2); gen. sg. f. 84 A New Introduction to Old Norse

gó›rar satisfactory XXIV:23; acc. m. pl. gó›a XIV:15; fine V:56, XVI:3, 188; happy XV:80; noble-minded I:133; kind (complement of yr›i mér) IV:96; wk. form gó›i XI:69; n. gott as substantive svá (mikit) gott such (great) goodness, such a (great) favour or kindness XVI:151, 184 gó›si›ugr adj. well-conducted, well-bred XXIII:8 Golaflingslƒg n. pl. the early law of the assembly at Gola (Gula), western Norway VIII:39 gólf n. the unboarded floor down the middle of a medieval hall, the ground X:76; with suffixed def. art. um flvert gólfit i.e. across the room I:35, vi› gólfit close to the floor III:7 Gotar m. pl. Goths; gen. pl. Gotna XXV:84, 106, partitive gen. (Gr 3.2.6 (20)) XXV:81, = Gothic XXV:13; gen. pl. gota Goths, men, horses (uncertain which) XXV:64 (see note) gotnar m. pl. poetical word for men VI:348 (subject of flykkjat mér, Gr 3.9.4), VII B:21 (dat. with vill bjó›a) gott see gó›r grá›r m. greed, hunger VII A:25 (a battle sates the hunger of carrion birds) grá›ugr adj. greedy XXIII:13, 62, 88, 90, XXV:104 grafa (pres. grefr, past gróf, past pl. grófu, pp. grafinn) sv. dig Gr 3.6.5.2 grafir see grƒf Grágás f. ‘grey (wild) goose’, the name given to the Icelandic Law- Book under the Commonwealth XXVIII:title grammatica f. (Latin word) grammar, i.e. the Latin language XIV:21, 154, 186 gramr m. hostile, fierce one; ruler; = Óláfr Tryggvason VI:282, 330, 343, 364, acc. after hygg ek with inf. misstu (Gr 3.9.4) VI:156; lof›a gramr is a kenning for king (here King Óláfr) VI:335; = Óláfr helgi XXII:1/3, 13/4, 22/1, 27/4, 34/2; himna gramr = God XXII:51/4 grand n. injury; dat. object of hœtir IV:23; injury XXII:59/2 granda (past granda›i, pp. grandat) wv. with dat. injure, damage XIII:21, 26, XXII:52/4 Grani Gunnarsson m. son of Gunnarr of Hlí›arendi XXVI B:12, 50, 110 Grani m. a horse X:69, see note granni m. neighbour Gr 3.1.7.1 grannr adj. thin Gr 3.3.8.1 Glossary and Index 85 grár adj. grey Gr 3.3.8.5 (3, 4), 3.3.9 (5, 15, 20), XXV:13 gras n. herb XII:17; pl. grƒs plants, herbage, pasture XXI:59 Grásteinn inn mikli (‘Greystone the Great’) m. a rock in Hítardalr V:79, 97 gráta (pres. grætr (Gr 3.6.5.2), past grét, pp. grátinn) sv. weep (Gr 3.6.6) II:107, XI:31; bewail, weep for XI:8, 71, XXV:38; hvat grætr flú what are you weeping for XI:33; imp. grát flú XXV:36; pres. part. grátandi X:137, XII:45 grátligr adj. tearful XXIII:71 grátr m. weeping; at gráti so as to cause you to weep, to your sorrow XXV:35 greddir m. feeder; úlfa greddir feeder of wolves, warrior (who provides corpses for the wolves to eat), i.e. Óláfr Tryggvason VII A:15 Gregóríus septimus m. Gregory VII (pope 1073–85) VIII:189 grei›a (past greiddi, pp. greiddr) wv. prepare, put in order; grei›a fyrir um keep in repair XIV:135 grei›r adj. smooth, clear of obstacles; n. as adv. gekk flat greitt it went smoothly XV:76 grein f. branch; type; me› ƒllum greinum in every way XIII:42; disagreement IV:103 greina (past greindi, pp. greindr) wv. describe, give details V:105; specify XXII:22/3 greip see grípa greni n. lair, hole (of a fox) XXVI B:68 greru see gróa grét see gráta grey n. (female) dog IX:20 (dat. pl. for his dogs); bitch, cur VIII:102; pl. grey norna bitches of the Norns, she-wolves XXV:104 gri› n. pl. truce, quarter II:90, III:16, 17, 67, 70, 82, 96, VI:298; with suffixed def. art. VI:299; ganga til gri›a be given quarter III:118 gri›amark n. symbol of truce II:92 gri›ungr m. bull VII A:157, XXI:119 Gríma f. Hebridean woman, wife of Kotkell XV:37, 38, 135 Grímhildr f. wife of Atli, sister of Gunnarr and half-sister of Hƒgni XI:2, 5, 13, 17, 19, 22, 23, 28, 30, 42, 52, 71 grimm›arnáttúra f. fierce nature, fierceness XIII:36 grimmr adj. fierce XII:57, XXIII:5, 23 Grímr m. fiór›r Kolbeinsson’s farmhand V:128 86 A New Introduction to Old Norse

Grímr geitskƒr m. 10th-century Icelander VIII:41 Grímr Njálsson m. XXVI B:2, 16, 18, 24, 35, 96, 193 Grímsnes n. area in southern Iceland XXVI A:115 grind f. fence; pl. pen, fold I:114 grípa (past greip, past pl. gripu, pp. gripinn) sv. grasp II:29, V:126; seize in the jaws, bite XXVI A:17 gripakaup n. the purchase of an ornament XV:20; pl. the buying of ornaments XVI:15 gripr m. precious object, precious possession II:40 (í in them), III:33, VI:113; (domestic) animal Gr 3.1.8 ex.; pl. fine ornaments XV:10 grjót n. rock, stones (collective) XXII:35/4, 44/4; with suffixed def. art. II:32, XXI:152 gróa (pres. grœr, past greri, pp. gróit) sv. grow; heal XV:122 Gróa Álfsdóttir f. (acc., gen., dat. Gró; Gr 3.1.7.5 (2)) died in the fire at Flugum‡rr III:7, 12, 21 (gen.), 25, 29, 30 (dat., henni Gró), 34 (dat.), 39, 40, 42, 47 (acc.) gróf f. pit XXVI B:230 gruna (past gruna›i, pp. grunat) wv. impers. with acc. of person and acc. of thing suspect, guess; be suspicious about XXVI B:228; mik grunar I suspect, I feel sure XVI:103; gruna›i flá they guessed VI:124 grund f. ground XXII:60/3 Grund f. see Hrund grunsem›arfullr adj. suspicious XXIII:71 gr‡ta (past gr‡tti, pp. gr‡tt) wv. throw stones (á at); imp. pl. gr‡ti› ér á stone XXV:92 grænn see grœnn grætr see gráta grœ›a (past grœddi, pp. grœddr) wv. heal XI:40 Grœnland n. Greenland VIII:64, 67, 74; XVI:10, 63, XXI:14, 38, 208 Grœnlenzkr adj. Greenlandic, of Greenland; Grœnlenzkir menn Greenlanders, people of Greenland XI:18 Grœnlendingar m. pl. Greenlanders, Norse settlers in Greenland VIII:71 grœnn/grænn adj. green XI:5, XXII:38/4 grœti n. pl. weeping XXV:2 grƒf (pl. grafir) f. pit, trench XXI:92, 93 grƒftr m. burial XIX:79 Glossary and Index 87 grƒn f. moustache; lip XXVI B:95; as nickname III:15, 49 gu›, go› n. and m. (heathen) god XIV:81; m. sg. XXIV:36, cf. fleiri gu› en einn XXIV:44; m. pl. gu›ar XXIV:41, gu›a XXIV:35; n. pl. IV:95 (subject of yr›i gó› mér), XXIV:42, with suffixed def. art. II:88, 91 Gu› m. God III:10, VII A:64, 66, XIII:7, 8, 12, 13, 14, 20, 23, 25, 35, 39, 43, XIV:2, 3, 11, 14, 65, 73, 117, 118, 123, 125, 177, 190, XVI:118, XIX:111, XXI:63, 81, XXII:26/4, 50/4, XXIV:16, 18, 33, 34, 40, 52, XXVI B:104, 124; Gu›i á hendi into God’s hand XXVI B:182 gu›dómr m. divinity, theology; er til gu›dómsins er which relate to theology XXIV:28 (cf. note 2 and Gr 3.9.8.2) Gu›laugr piltr (boy, lad) m. died in the fire at Flugum‡rr III:76 gu›ligr/gu›legr adj. godly, divine XIV:97, XXIV:33, 43 Gu›mundr Fálkason m. III:118 Gu›mundr (ofsi) m. a relative and follower of Gizurr fiorvaldsson III:35; hann Gu›mundr the aforementioned Gu›mundr III:91 Gu›mundr m. son of fiorveig IV:2, 66 Gu›rí›r fiorbjarnardóttir f. XXI, note 22 Gu›rún Gjúkadóttir f. XXV:8, 21, 35, 38 Gu›rún Ósvífrsdóttir f. XV:3, 6, 7, 8, 13, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 25, 29, 30, 31, 46, 48, 52, 55, 58, 59, 60, 67, 77, 78, 80, 93 gu›vefr m. costly fabric; pl. clothing made of this XXV:58 guldu see gjalda gull n. gold II:82 (with suffixed def. art.), IX:14, X:37, 69, XII:19, 30; an object made of gold X:126, XVI:148; dat. sg. with suffixed def. art. II:79; gull eitt nothing but gold, pure gold VI:111; pl. pieces of gold (jewellery or rings) III:24 gullau›igr adj. rich in gold II:78 gullband n. golden band or collar IX:20 gullhringr m. gold (arm-)ring VII A:122, X:78, XXVI A:52 gullhyrndr adj. (pp.) golden-horned, with gilded horns IX:89 Gullinhjalti m. ‘Goldenhilted’, name of a sword I:130, 148 gullinn adj. golden VI:240; n. gullit XXV:73 gulllauf n. gold leaf XII:31 (pl., with suffixed def. art.) gullmalinn pp. (of mala) ground in a golden mill? XII:17 gullsmi›r m. goldsmith XII:2 gullu see gjalla gulr adj. yellow XXIII:6, 26 88 A New Introduction to Old Norse gumi m. man XXV:101 gumnar m. pl. men XXII:23/3; acc. pl. gumna the men XXV:92 Gunnarr m. 10th-century Icelander VIII:50 Gunnarr m. brother of Grímhildr XI:28, 31, 45, 53, 74; son of Gjúki XXV:27 Gunarr Hámundarson m. at Hlí›arendi XXVI A:2, 6, 21, 22, 24, 25, 27, 29, 34, 37, 39, 41, 44, 49, 62, 63, 65, 69, 71, 73, 75, 76, 85, 88, 89, 96, 116, 118, B:60, 62 Gunnarr Lambason m. XXVI B:12 Gunnarr Úlfljótsson m. 10th-century Icelander VIII:37 Gunnarr enn spaki (fiorgrímsson) m. lawspeaker 1063–65 and 1075 VIII:169 gunnheilagr (-helgi) adj. inviolable in battle, i.e. he against whom one should not fight (because he is one’s brother) or inviolate, invincible XXV:101 Gunnhildr f. daughter of Búrizleifr VI:2, 5 Gunnhildr f. daughter of Sigur›r s‡r, King Haraldr’s father VII B:7 Gunnlaugr Leifsson m. monk at fiingeyrar XIV:26, note, 167 Gunnlƒ› f. a giantess II:116, 150 gunnr f. battle; acc. gunni VI:156, dat. gunni VI:308 Gunnr f. a name for a valkyrie; in kennings for woman (= Steinger›r; cf. SnE, Skáldskaparmál ch. 31): Gunnr herkis sunds IV:28; fleiri Gunni sƒlva that woman (dat. object of unna) IV:61 Gy›a f. queen of Óláfr Tryggvason VII A:69, 73, 79, 84, 88, 94, 96, 107 Gy›a f. mother of fiorsteinn XVI:191 gylltr adj. pp. gilded XII:8; acc. sg. m. gylltan VI:287; n. gyllt VI:99 gæfa1 f. luck, good fortune; dat. sg. with suffixed def. art. V:62; success I:146. Cf. gipta2 gæfa2, gæfir see gefa gæfuma›r m. person of good luck, a successful person XVI:40, 190 gær, í gær adv. yesterday XXV:5; some other day XXV:108 gæra f. (sheep)skin (with the fleece on it) III:3, 59, 60 (dat. sg. with suffixed def. art.) gæta (past gætti, pp. gætt) wv. with gen. look after, take care of, pay attention to II:159; watch XV:84, look after XV:101; gæta sín take care of him XXII:50/4; gæta sín vi› guard oneself from XIV:92; gættu eigi annars regarded it no differently, took no more care VI:257 gæzla f. keeping, guardianship; til gæzlu sjálfum sér as protection for himself XIV:63; flar til gæzlu in charge of it II:116 Glossary and Index 89 gœ›i n. well-being, good fortune VI:364 (dat. object of brá) gƒfga (past gƒfga›i, pp. gƒfga›r) wv. worship XXIV:40 gƒfugligr adj. magnificent, splendid II:11; comp. nobler in appearance VII A:36 gƒfugr adj. noble XIV:127, 132, XVI:151, XXIV:79; sup. gƒfgastr Gr 3.3.9 ex. 28 gƒgnum adv. and prep. with acc. through II:145, 147; í gƒgnum postposition (Gr 3.7) X:17 gƒmul see gamall gƒngum see ganga1 gƒngur see ganga2 gƒr, gƒr›a, gƒr›umz see gera gƒrla adv. clearly V:81, XXIV:12. Cf. gerla gƒrr, gƒrt, gƒrva, gƒrvar, gƒrvir, gƒrzk pp. see gera gør, gøra, gørask, gør›a, gør›i(r), gør›isk, gør›u, gør›usk, gøri›, gørir, gørva see gera gørr (= gerr1) adv. comp. more extensively, more fully; einna miklugi gørr XXVII 32 see einna; cf. gerla gørsimi see gersemi há1 interrog. interjection = hvat XXIV:9 há2 see hár1 haf1 n. sea VI:167, XVI:154, XXIV:37; open sea XIX:44, 71, 80; with suffixed def. art. á hafet, í hafit out to sea VI:121, VII A:10; ocean VII A:164 haf2 see hafa hafa (pres. hefr/hefir, past haf›i, past pl. hƒf›u/haf›u, past subj. hef›i, pp. haft) wv. have (Gr 3.6.7) I:30 (2), 69, 118, II:79, 88, 136 (it, i.e. the mead, understood as object), III:17, 54, VI:19, 20, 49, 118, VII A:61, IX:40, 41, X:58 (it, i.e. the missing ring, understood as object; Gr 3.9.5.1), XI:35, XIV:178, XV:31, XVI:13, XXI:10, 103, XXII:3/1, XXIII:80, XXV:32, XXVI A:85, B:56, XXVII:5; put, place III:111; take VII A:52, X:10, XIX:43; receive XXVII:37; get II:67; meet (a certain kind of weather) XXI:198; bring V:116; carry, bear XXIII:45; wear, have on V:28, 56, 159 (á sér on himself), XXI:44; use II:6, VII A:37, XV:82, 83, 130, XXI:16; keep VI:2, VII B:3, 31, VIII:3, XXVII:45; accept VIII:6; hold II:51, VIII:46, 59, 62, 170, XXVII:43; maintain I:34; carry on VIII:128 (pp. haft); keep to XIV:60; behave, act I:22; pres. hefr it has I:76 (1; Gr 3.9.5); hefir flú do you have IX:36; hƒfum vér we have II:81; hƒfum allir 90 A New Introduction to Old Norse

let us all have VIII:134; hafi flit you have (Gr 3.6.9.1 (14)) I:52, 54; past pl. haf›u VI:58, 146, 304; imp. haf sƒ›lat hesta tvá have two horses saddled XV:95; pres. subj. at ek hafa that I should have III:68; hafir may have XVI:53; hafi had I:74, may have I:135, has VI:85, may gain, win VIII:134; hafi hann let him have IX:60; hafi ekki should not have (or should have no, see ekki1, ekki2) XXIV:46; hafi á sér have in them XXIII:33; past subj. ef ek hef›a if I had XXI:134, hef›ir flú you would have XXV:96, flú hef›ir you had XXV:96, fló at hann hef›i even if he got VI:4; hafa af inherit from VII B:8, 9; hafa menn at have people employed XIV:133; hafa fyrir receive in return for, exchange for XXI:78, 115; haf›i fyrir fleim put before them, presented to them XXVI B:126; hafa í include in XIV:140; hafa me› sér take away with one XIX:87, XXI:201, bring with her II:40; haf›i haft me› sér had brought with him III:2; hƒf›u me› sér had brought with them XXI:57, kept with them XXI:95; hafa flar me› sér take along with one III:25; hafa til have available, have for it I:118, use as a pretext, bring as a charge for VIII:100, use for XXII:37/2 (cf. Gr 3.9.5.1), with at and inf. XXVI A:58; hafa um use, say about it XXIV:9; hafa kyrrt um sik keep quiet I:110; hafa út bring out VIII:35, haf›i út had brought out XI:17; hafa fla›an take away from there, get to go along VII A:68; impers. haf›i nær it came close VIII:110; pp. forming pass. var haf›r was brought, was presented VII B:52; as aux. with supine forming present or past perfect (Gr 3.9.7.1) I:4, 15, 16, 17, 18, 25, 29, 30 (1), 31, 46 (pres. subj.), 48 (past subj.), 53, 55, 65, 76 (2), 111, 113 (pres. subj.), 115 (past subj.), 129, 140, 141, 142, 145, II:15, 39, 75, 86, 100, III:10, 104, 114, 119, IV:8, 48, V:15 (hafi pres. subj.), 57, 77, 96, 116, 125, 132, 159, VI:3, 33, 42 (past pl. haf›u), 72, 281, 304 (haf›u), VIII:29, IX:128, X:132, XI:23, XV:24, 26, note, 114 (past subj.), XVI:4, XIX:16, 27, 39, XXI:5, 9, 177, XXII:4/1, 13/1, 30/3, XXIV:59, XXV:6, 106, XXVI A:47, 50, 63, XXVII:10, 18, flér hafi› you have XXIV:23, hafi flar eptir verit remained behind there XXI:162, ok hafi eigi farit lengra and that they did not travel further XXI:163 (similarly XXI:164, 165), hefir flat that has (never) V:15, hefr haft has had (held) XXVII:43, haf›i haft had held VII B:4, had been holding XXVI B:151, hƒf›u haft had used VII B:78, hef›i veitt had given XXVI A:116; with pp. in agreement with the direct object (Gr 3.9.7.1) IV:97, V:19, 63, VI:48, 55, IX:26, 27, XXII:29/1, XXV:69; as aux. with inf. hafa at vinna will have to overcome IV:80 Glossary and Index 91 hafin, hafizk see hefja Hafli›i Másson m. died 1130 VIII:172 hafna1 (past hafna›i, pp. hafnat) wv. with dat. forsake, renounce IV:83 hafna2 see hƒfn háflœ›r f. high tide XXI:89 hafr (pl. hafrar) m. (billy) goat IX:81 Hafra-Fasti m. robber XXII:23/4 haft see hafa hafu› see hƒfu› hafviti m. beacon of the sea, kenning for gold VI:281 hagi m. pasture VIII:55 hagleikr m. skill XII:8, 25, 47, 63 hagliga adv. neatly, nicely IX:64; skilfully XII:23, 59 hagligr adj. skilful, skilfully made (at in respect of) XII:10; sup. XII:30 hagr1 m. state, situation VIII:124; í hag with dat. in someone’s favour XXVII:10; pl. condition, nature I:135 hagr2 adj. skilful; sup. hagastr most skilful XIV:16; hagastr ma›r the most skilful of men X:14; n. as adv. sem ek hagast kunna as skilfully as I knew how X:92 haka f. chin XXIII:64; acc. hƒku XXIII:65 Haki m. a Scot, Scotsman XXI:39 Hákon Ívarsson m. 11th-century Norwegian (great-grandson of Hákon Hla›ajarl) VII B:81, 82 Hákon Sigur›arson Hla›ajarl m. the Great (inn ríki), ruler in Norway c.970–95 VI:42, VII A:125, 127, 169, B:5, 8 Hákonarson/-sunr m. son of Hákon Hla›ajarl VI:41, 192, VIII:148 halda (pres. heldr, past helt, past pl. heldu, pp. haldinn, n. haldit) sv. (Gr 3.6.9.1 (3, 10) 1. last VIII:131 (intransitive); with dat. hold I:32, VII B:88 (i.e. fight; eigi goes with this verb too), XII:37, 49, XV:12 (i.e. not lose), XXVI B:150 (imp. pl.); keep hold of, hold on to XVI:143, 149, 177 (subj.); maintain, keep up VI:225; hold a course: heldu skipunum steered the ships, sailed XXI:35; with acc. hold, uphold XXII:2/1; keep, preserve VIII:176; maintain XIII:22; halda tal af depend on the words of, value what is said by (or hold conversations with?) XXI:15; halda á hold on to I:130, III:12, V:99; helt á was holding XIX:33; halda á brottu paddle away XXI:142; (subj.) haldi sér fló aptr and yet (if he) holds himself (leaning) backwards (i.e. with legs sloping backwards, body sloping forwards?) XXIII:102; halda at make one’s way towards I:116 (could also be heldr1); halda 92 A New Introduction to Old Norse

eptir make one’s way in pursuit of V:60, with dat. keep VII A:75 (eptir is adv. here); halda inn me› sail in along XXI:55; helt ﬂar saman there held it together there XXI:46; halda til make one’s way to, lay one’s course for VII A:2, 3, XV:131; helt til was the reason XV:80; halda undan get away XXI:130, retreat XXI:132; past subj. heldi undan made off VI:310; halda upp with dat. maintain, discharge XXIV:72, halda upp svƒrum be spokesman VII B:25. 2. -sk form haldizk remained in force, remained valid, continued to be observed XIV:57; haldask vi› (vi›r) stand firm VI:210, hold out VI:268 háleitliga adv. loftily; fervently III:9 (á marga vega i.e. showing many kinds of devotion or eloquence) háleyskr adj. of Hálogaland (in northern Norway) XXII:10/3 hálfa f. region, part; af Gu›s hálfu on behalf of God XIV:3 Hálfdan enn svarti (Go›rø›arson) m. 9th-century Norwegian king Gr 3.1.8 ex., VIII:8 hálfljóst adv. half-light, twilight (in the morning) III:131 hálfr adj. half III:79, VIII:32; XVI:52, XXI:94; hálft eitt only half XVI:65; hálfar allar half of all XXVII:38; dat. sg. n. with comp. hálfu ríkari twice as powerful XI:39; hálfu fremr twice as far off (in time) XXV:7 hálfsextøgr adj. 55 years old; vetri mi›r en hálfsextøgr 54 years old VIII:192 hali m. tail; hala sínum with his tail XII:61 háll adj. slippery Gr 3.3.8.4 (1) hallandi m. (pres. part.) one who causes something to sink, waster; in kenning for (generous) man (Eiríkr jarl), gen. sg. hallands hafvita distributor of gold VI:282 (gen. with skei›um; anomalous strong declension) hallar see hƒll Hallbjƒrn slíkisteinsauga m. son of Kotkell XV:39, 138 Halldórr m. Irish slave XIX:37 Halldórr Gu›mundarson m. III:81, see note Halldórr He›insson Garpsdalsgo›i m. XV:2 Halldórr ókristni, úkristni (‘unchristian’) m. Icelandic poet, early eleventh century VI:49, 229, 276 Hallfre›arsta›ir m. pl. farm in eastern Iceland Gr 3.1.8 ex. Hallfre›r/Hallfrø›r vandræ›askáld (‘troublesome poet’) m. Ice- landic poet (died c.1007) VI:153, 172, 258, 304, 322, 324, VII A:10 Glossary and Index 93

Hallfre›r m. father of Hrafnkell Gr 3.1.8 ex. Hallfrí›r Gar›afylja f. III:128 Hallger›r Hƒskuldsdóttir f. wife of Gunnarr at Hlí›arendi XXVI A:26, 78 hallir see hƒll Hallr Gizurarson m. the bridegroom, who died from wounds the morning after the fire III:51, 53, 55, 59, 60, 61, 64, 131 Hallr Órœkjusonr m. VIII:51 Hallr (fiórarinsson) m. of Haukadalr (995–1089) VIII:184 Hallr fiorsteinsson m. of Sí›a (Sí›u-Hallr), c.950–1020 VIII:78, 116 Hallsteinn go›i m. XV:35, 41, 127, 129 Hallsteinsnes n. farm in north-western Iceland XV:35 Hallveig Fró›adóttir f. XIX:107 hallvitjandi m. hall-visitor; dat. pl. hallvitjƒndum poss. dat. in generic sense referring to Kormakr (i.e. it was his shield) IV:19 hálmflúst n. flail (hálmr m. straw); sem í hálmflústum like with flails, like the sound of flails XXI:97 halr m. man XXII:62/2, XXV:51, 63, 65 háls m. 1. neck II:130, III:85 (with suffixed def. art.), X:25, XXIII:74; á hálsinn Helga on Helgi’s neck XXVI B:153; ok hendr um háls and (laid) his arms round her neck XII:82. 2. ridge XV:86 Hamall fiormó›arson m. XIX:114 hamarr m. hammer IX:2, 12, 26, 41, 56, 71, 120, 124, 130; dat. sg. hamri (see Gr 3.1.7.5 (1)) IX:8, 131, instrumental X:98; crag: gen. pl. hamra XXI:130; hammer? back of an axe? crag, precipice? XXIII:12 hamarsgnípa f. peak of a crag XXI:67 Ham›ir m. son of Gu›rún and King Jónakr XXV:20, 75, 85, 94, textual note, 96, 111 Ham›ismál n. pl. ‘speeches of Ham›ir’ XXV:112 hamfarir f. pl. travelling in a changed shape VII A:146 (í by means of) hamingja f. good fortune VII A:47 hamla f. oar-thong, thole-strap, a loop to hold the oar in position against the rowlock when rowing; síga á hƒmlur pull against the oar-thongs, i.e. draw backwards, row astern VI:214 hamr m. shape, form VII A:141 Hámundr Bjarnarson m. XIV:129, 130 hana pron. acc. her, it (Gr 3.2.1) I:16, II:69, XV:21 hand- see hƒnd 94 A New Introduction to Old Norse handleggr m. arm V:99, 100 hand-Vi›rir m. Vi›rir is a name for Ó›inn; ‘Vi›rir of the hand’, ‘hand- god’ means T‡r, the god whose hand was bitten off by the wolf Fenrir (SnE, Gylfaginning ch. 34); his grand, ‘injury’, is the loss of a hand, which is what Kormakr thinks he is being threatened with IV:23 hanga (past hekk, past pl. hengu, pp. hanginn) sv. hang (Gr 3.6.9.3) V:157, XXIII:59 hann, hans pron. (Gr 3.2.1, 3.3.9 ex. 15) he, him, it, his, its etc. I:4, 5, 13, 22, 24, 87, 88, 90, 91, 92, 98, 102, 104, 149, II:1, 3, III:91 (see Gu›mundr (ofsi)), IV:10 (= it, the scythe-blade), VI:5, VII A:30 (2; in apposition to Óláfr), VIII:14 (i.e. Edmund’s), IX:1, 5, 29 (it, i.e. the hammer), 34, 42, 107, XI:25, 38 (in apposition to Attila konung), XV:2, 26, 36, 38, XIX:10, XXI:7, 66 (in apposition to fiorhall), XXII:5/1, XXV:32, XXVI A:8, 17 (in apposition to fiorkel), 19, 35, B:46, 156, XXVII:5, 22; hann Au›unn this Au›unn XVI:6; = Ormr enn langi VI:265; = King Óláfr VI:331; the aforementioned VIII:120; hans of his XXII:30/2, 44/3; til hans to him XXIV:17, 41; var . . . hans it was . . . of him XXII:29/3 hannyr›ir f. pl. handwork, needlework, embroidery XIV:189 hánum = honum happ n. good luck XXI:143 hár1 (f. há, n. hátt, pl. hávir Gr 3.3.9 ex. 29) adj. high Gr 3.3.8.5 (3), X:54 (with vi›r), XXV:82; tall X:170, XXVI B:149; long XXII:61/4; acc. sg. f. háva I:17; n. as adv. hátt high II:32, VI:114, XXIII:101, high up VI:290, XXIII:44, 52, loud(ly) I:14, II:71, 107, XXI:120, 206, XXVI A:18, noisily I:22, in a loud voice VI:169; hátt upp out loud XXI:124 hár2 n. hair XII:20 (with suffixed def. art.), XXI:103, XXII:61/3, XXIII:4, 22 (pl.), 78, 80 (with suffixed def. art.), XXVI A:78; hárit his hair XXVI B:222 Haraldr Gormsson m. king of Denmark (died c.986) VI:2, 33, VII A:124, 125, 126, 139, 146 Haraldr (Sigur›arson) har›rá›i (‘harsh-ruler’) m. king of Norway 1046–66 VII B:3, 7, 11, 12, 34, 36, 86, XVI:16, 32, 71, 156, 157, 160, 166, XXII:14/3, 15/2 Haraldr hárfagri Hálfdanarson m. Norwegian king c.885–935 Gr 3.1.8 ex., VIII:7, 16, 26, 29, 60, 75, XIX:47 Glossary and Index 95

Haraldsson m. son of Haraldr bluetooth Gormsson (died c.986) VIII:146 har›huga›r adj. (pp.) tough-minded IX:124 har›la adv. very, extremely VI:209, XXII:14/1, XXIII:89, absolutely XXII:7/2 har›r (f. hƒr›) adj. (Gr 3.3.8.1, 3.3.9 (2)) hard XXII:35/4 (dat. sg. n. hƒr›u); fierce (of battles) VI:195, 212, 254, 285, XXI:125; firm (ones) XXIII:94; violent I:43; strong XXI:131; harsh XIV:99, XXII:36/4; tough XXII:42/4, XXV:52; resistant XXII:30/1, 56/2; í har›a (i.e. raun?) into a hard (time), into a harsh trial VI:230; comp. har›ari Gr 3.3.9 (18); sup. har›astr V:137 (Gr 3.3.9 (12, 17)); n. as adv. hart hard V:117, i.e. fast V:66, 166, XXI:189, violently VI:271, XXII:39/1; sup. sem har›ast as hard as we can VI:78 har›snúinn adj. (pp.) ‘hard-twisted’, powerful, virulent XV:143; well- knit, staunch XXVI B:57 Hárekr ór fijóttu Eyvindarson m. XXII:8/1, 36/1 hárfagri adj. finehaired, nickname VIII:7, 16, 61, 75, XIX:48 hárfer› f. the hairstyle XXIII:6 hárgeirr m. ‘hair-spear’, kenning for comb IV:32 harka (past harka›i, pp. harkat) wv. impers. it goes badly (um with something), something goes badly V:7 harma (past harma›i, pp. harmat) wv. grieve for, sorrow over XIV:107; impers. with acc. of person and acc. of thing cause (someone) to sorrow, grieve (someone) XI:7, 34 harmdau›i m. sorrowful death; mƒrgum mƒnnum harmdau›i lamented by many XXVI A:120 harmr m. grief III:131, VI:324, XII:36, XXVI B:187; sorrow XII:39, 84, 88; injury, wrong(s) X:132 harmflrunginn adj. (pp.) weighed down by grief XIV:111 hárr adj. hoary, grey II:43 hart see har›r háski m. danger I:84 háss adj. hoarse III:129 Hásteinn m. son of Atli enn mjóvi XIX:7, 24. Cf. Landnámabók, ÍF I 371–76 and Flóamanna saga, ÍF XIII 232–37, where he is called Hallsteinn hásæti n. high seat, throne XI:53; pl. II:7, XI:57 hátí› f. festival XIV:139 hátt see hár1 96 A New Introduction to Old Norse hatta see hƒttr hátta (past hátta›i, pp. háttat) wv. arrange, fashion; at mér muni svá háttat that I am of that nature I:134 Hattar see Hƒttr Hattargri›i m. Hƒttr’s protector I:59 hattr m. hood XXI:45 háttr m. manner, way (of doing something) XIII:30, XXIII:70; dat. sg. me› sama hætti in the same way XII:21, me› hverjum hætti in what way, by what means, how XIV:90, note; custom XIV:158; nature XXIII:35; measure, moderation; um fram hátt beyond measure XXIII:62; pl. behaviour, way of life XIV:48, 60 hau›rmen n. necklace of the land, kenning for sea (hau›r is a poetical word for land, see SnE, Skáldskaparmál 303) haufu› see hƒfu› haugr m. (grave-)mound IX:19, XV:154 Haugsnes n. headland on Skálmarnes XV:155 Haukadalr m. in south-west Iceland VIII:184 (north of Geysir) haust n. autumn I:76 (acc. of time), V:52, VII A:70 (with suffixed def. art.), XXI:196, XXVI A:2 (with suffixed def. art.) háva, hávir see hár háva›ama›r m. noisy, rowdy, assertive person IV:3 he›an adv. from here XXVI B:176; from this country (Iceland) VIII:65, 88, XVI:8, (from Denmark) XVI:126 He›inn m. legendary king, whose shirt is a coat of mail VI:262 hefi, hefir, hef›a, hef›i see hafa hefja (pres. hefr, past hóf, past pl. hófu, pp. hafinn/hafit) sv. (Gr 3.6.9.1 (5)) 1. begin (cf. Gr 3.9.3 (a)) II:16; hefja upp begin VIII:123, XIV:1. 2. lift, raise XXII:7/4, hefja upp XXIII:70; hefja í sundr open III:11. 3. -sk form (refl.) originate II:86 (pp. hafizk); hófsk lifted himself X:136, 173 hefna (past hefndi, pp. hefndr) wv. with gen. avenge II:62, V:98, 115, VI:36 (á on), 94, VII A:132, B:72, X:132, XXV:9, 42, XXVI B:113, 139, 160; hefna mín avenge me XXVI B:218; imp. hefndu vár en vér flín you avenge us and we (shall avenge) you XXVI B:80; with acc. punish XXII:4/4, 23/1, hefndi punished it XXII:5/4; with dat. and acc. punish someone for something XXII:14/4 hefr see hafa and hefja hei›inn (hei›n-) adj. heathen (Gr 3.3.8.5 (1), 3.3.9 (20)) VI:8, VIII:22, 109, 114, 119, XIV:80, XIX:109, XXIV:35 Glossary and Index 97 hei›ni f. heathen practice(s) VIII:143, XXII:5/3 hei›r1 f. (Gr 3.1.7.4 (2), 3.1.8 (17)) heath, moor V:151, VIII:54; fyrir ne›an hei›i below the the heath (i.e west of Mosfellshei›i and Hellishei›i in south-west Iceland); ofan um hei›i down over Hellishei›i XIX:94 hei›r2 m. honour XXII:9/4, 45/3; glory XXII:64/1; haldr hei›r with dat. hold someone in honour XXII:2/1 heilagr (helg-) adj. (Gr 3.3.8.4 (3c), 3.3.8.2–5 ex. 4, 3.3.9 ex. 24) holy, blessed XIII:22, 48, XIV:5, 30; saintly XXII:61/3; sacred XIV:35; acc. sg. m. helgan XXII:62/1, f. heilug XIV:73, heilƒg XXIV:46, acc. sg. f. helga XXII:25/1; dat. sg. m. helgum divine VII A:48, XXIV:27; pl. helgir menn saints: heilagra manna sƒgur lives of saints XIV:189; helgir dagar holy days XIV:58; helgir fiskar halibut XXI:93; strong form as title blessed XIV:120; wk. form inn helgi Jón St John XIV:17; acc. sg. m. inn helga (the) Saint V:57, enn helga VIII:12, gen. sg. hins helga XIII:11; sup. helgasta hans his most holy XIV:100 heili m. brain; with suffixed def. art. its brain XXVI A:18 heill1 adj. whole, healed, recovered VII A:55; healthy, thriving X:148; safe, unharmed I:114, XIII:5, 35; at least, good, complete VIII:166; united, undivided X:72; ver›a heill recover VII A:55; far heill farewell XVI:153; as greeting sittu heill ‘sit in health’, hail as you sit XI:23; eigi heil pregnant, with child XXI:137 heill2 f. (good) fortune Gr 3.1.8 ex.; pl. omens, auspices XIX:41 heilsa f. (restoration to) health XXII:57/4 heim1 adv. home II:38, 52, 115, IV:67, XI:72, XII:3, 79, XV:12, 30, 110, XXVI B:18; in (to the dwelling) IX:81, to the buildings XIV:150; to the house XXVI A:28, B:84; back I:78, 93, 110, VII A:105, X:10, XII:70 (i.e. to the shieling XV:910, XXI:71 (i.e. to the camp); back home XXVI B:4, 24; koma heim get back home XIX:8, visit, pay a call I:115, i.e. to Valhƒll or Hel, to death V:23; heim á bœinn (at bœnum) up to the farm (i.e. to Gunnarr’s farm) XXVI A:9, 14, (i.e. to Njáll’s farm) B:44; sœkja heim attack (someone) in their home XXVI B:63 heim2 see heimr heima adv. at home II:51, IV:50, X:72, XV:135, XXVI A:27, 34, 109, 118; in the house V:27, in his house XXVI A:3; when at home VII B:31; in the precinct XIV:25 heimakona f. female household servant III:128 98 A New Introduction to Old Norse heimama›r m. member of a household, servant, workman XXVI B:46 heimamannligr adj. human (domestic servant’s, member of household’s?) XXIII:37 heiman adv. from home, out (into the world) II:16, 123, from the house IV:63; fara heiman set out (from home) V:112; haf›i heiman haft had brought with him from home V:116; heim ok heiman to and from his home XII:79 heimbo› n. invitation to stay; at heimbo›i as a guest II:95 Heimdallr m. a god (one of the Æsir) II:9, IX:57 heimili n. home XXVII:5 heimkynni n. home, household XIV:148 heimr m. world II:94, XII:12, XIII:40, XIX:49, XXII:3/2, XXIV:37; pl. i.e. where someone dwells IX:18, 32; nor›r í heima into northern lands XXII:64/4; flessa heims ok annars in this world and the next XXVI B:125 heimska f. foolishness XXIII:41, 45, 69 heimskligr adj. foolish XXII:7/3 heimskr adj. foolish XXIII:9, 92 heimta (past heimti, pp. heimt) wv. get back, recover IX:29, 71 (flér for yourself); heimta at claim from, recover from VI:18; draw, pull (i.e. row) VI:122 hein f. whetstone II:125; with suffixed def. art. II:126, 128 heipt f. fury (in battle), hostility (gen. with n‡ta) VI:277 heit n. vow promise XIX:10 heita1 (pres. heitr, past hét, past pl. hétu, pp. heitit) sv. (Gr 3.6.9.3) with dat. of person and dat. of thing 1. threaten; impers. pass. (Gr 3.9.3) II:46. 2. promise VII A:122, VIII:89, XV:90, XVI:41 (with two datives), 156, XXII:36/2 (with two datives), XXVI B:171 (with two datives), 180; heita gó›u make fair promises I:86; with acc. (!) vow XXV:80; pp. flví heitit honum promised him this XXVI B:163. 3. heita á call upon (to do something), command VI:115, 277; pray to XXI:63 heita2 (pres. heitir, past hét, past pl. hétu, pp. heitit) sv. (Gr 3.6.9.3) be called I:9, 59, 147 (subj.), 147 (inf.), II:77, 89, 92, 97, 102, 115, 130, III:83, 128, IV:1, 107, V:128, VI:29, VII A:10, 94, 123, 129, 137, VIII:51, X:2, 87; XIII:1, XIV:16, 185, XV:2, 53, XVI:2, 45, XIX:36, XXI:39, 203, XXII:27/2, 37/1, XXVI A:114; be named I:148, VIII:15, 36, 65; hét was called XXVI A:8; . . . hét ma›r, Glossary and Index 99

ma›r hét . . . there was a man called . . . XV:38, XIX:2, XXI:7; hét kona hans his wife was called XV:38; ok hét ma›r and one was a man called III:78; hétu were the names of XIX:72; heitir has been called, is known as XV:33, 152, 155; flar heitir the place is called XIX:84, the place has been called XIX:86; flar sem heitir/heita in a place called II:115, XIX:82; flar er nú heitir in the place now called XIX:54; pp. var um heitin was called XXV:10 heiti n. name II:122; pl. your names XXII:22/2 Heiti m. a sea-king, legendary viking VI:325 heitr adj. hot XXV:89; comp. acc. sg. m. (or n. as adv?) heitara hotter XXVI B:111 (‘you will not need it hotter for baking’) heitstrenging f. vowing XIX:11 Hekja f. Scottish woman XXI:39 helda, heldi see halda heldr1 adv. (comp.) (Gr 3.5.2) rather, somewhat Gr 3.5.1–3 ex. 6 (d), I:8, 71, 116 (could also be heldr2; cf. ÍF XIII 350), III:19, 27, V:7, VI:230, VII B:2. XV:13, XVI:80, 91, XXI:11, 137, XXII:58/2; rather XIV:45, XXVI A:12; but rather XXIII:52, XXIV:78; most X:99; instead, rather I:81, 142, VIII:6, XXII:25/1, XXIV:9, 10; enn heldr still more XXIV:4; eigi heldr not either I:93; heldr mega einn it would be easier for one (rather than two) III:92; heldr vildu they would rather XXVI B:63; heldr . . . flar it was rather that XXVI B:226; heldr en rather than I:64 (emphasising the comp. nær), III:13, with betr V:161, XVI:111, XXIV:15, 58; any more than VI:8; heldr . . . en rather than, instead of VIII:163, XXIV:32, 51, any more . . . than XIII:37; fyrir flví at heldr flótt any the more because of this that, even though VII B:55; eigi at eins . . . heldr ok not only . . . but also XIV:191 heldr2 pres. of halda heldu, heldusk see halda Helga Arnardóttir (daughter of ¯rn) f. sister of Ingólfr XIX:4, 11, 39 Helga Njálsdóttir f. wife of Kári XXVI B:148 helga, helgan, helgastr, helgi, helgir, helgum see heilagr heljask (past helja›isk) wv. -sk form work oneself to death (á at) XV:94 Helgi Njálsson m. XXVI B:2, 15, 24, 35, 72, 96, 138, 143, 146, 149, 151, 153 hella f. flat stone, slab of rock XXI:23 hellir m. cave Gr 3.1.9 ex. 14, XXI:204 100 A New Introduction to Old Norse

Hellisdalr m. valley to the north-west of Hítardalr V:75 Helluland n. ‘land of flat rocks’ XXI:25 hellusteinn m. flat stone XXI:139 helmingr m. half XV:31; helmingr alls half of everything, half their total assets XV:9 helt see halda helvíti n. Hell XIII:25 helzt adv. sup. (Gr 3.5.2) most; best XXVII:34; exceedingly I:105; most of all XXI:113; allra helzt especially XIV:142 henda (past hendi1) wv. 1. catch in the hand II:129. 2. befall, happen to (at in it, in this) XXIV:5; lát flek flat henda let that happen to you XXIV:12 hendi2, hendr see hƒnd hennar, henni pron. her, it, etc. (Gr 3.2.1), XI:17, XIV:188, XV:47, XXI:138, 143, XXVI B:142, 150; henni to her XI:9, poss. dat. XIII:3 hepta (past hepti, pp. hept) wv. obstruct XVI:70 hér adv. here I:10, 80, 144, V:59, VI:69, VII B:37, 82, XI:29, XV:64, XVI:76, XXV:39, XXVI A:104, 110, B:61, 117; (i.e. at the Alflingi) XXVII:39, 40; in this country VIII:21, 22, 83, 85, XVI:122; to this country (Iceland) XIX:104; in this book, as follows X:15; á landi hér, hér á landi in this country VIII:43, 151; in this I:52; . . . er hér it is (I am) . . . III:67; hér at to this I:54, beside this IX:89; hér til up to now V:77, for this XV:27; hér um about this I:50, 86; hér . . . flar er Hƒttr er here where Hƒttr is, i.e. out of Hƒttr I:146 hera› n. district XIV:142 (sc. Skagafjƒr›r?), XIX:98, XXVI B:14 (with suffixed def. art.); í hera›i in one’s own district or area XV:65 hera›flótta adj. (Gr 3.3.8.5 (6)) fleeing the district, exiled from the district IV:73 hera›sma›r m. person from the district, local inhabitant (here of Skagafjƒr›r) III:1 herbergi n. lodgings, quarters VII A:105, B:77 (sg.), XVI:16; building, house XII:52, XIII:34; chamber XIV:63 her›a (past her›i, pp. hert) wv. harden, temper; with suffixed pron. X:93; give power to, carry out forcefully (or multiply, promote) XXII:12/4 her›ar f. pl. shoulders, XXIII:81; sér mi›il her›a between his shoulders XI:35; mikil um her›ar broad across the shoulders XXVI B:149 Glossary and Index 101 her›imei›r m. ‘promoting tree’; her›imei›ar hrí›ar mána vi›ar hau›rmens trees that promote battle, kenning for warriors (Gunnarr’s attackers) XXVI A:99 (object of vann sára) herfang n. booty XIX:44 herfer› f. military expedition, raid VII A:109 herfiligr adj., wretched, horrible, shameful XXVI B:31 herja (past herja›i, pp. herjat) wv. raid, make raids (on) VII A:2, 3, 126, 128, XIX:32, XXII:10/2 herkir m. poetical term for fire; sunds herkir is a kenning for gold (see SnE, Skáldskaparmál ch. 33) IV:29 herklæ›ask (past herklæddisk) wv. refl. arm oneself, put on armour; 3rd person subj. as imp. (‘let men arm themselves’) VI:170 herli› n. troops XXII:36/1 herma (past hermdi, pp. hermdr) wv. repeat XXIV:13 herna›r m. warfare, raiding VII A:1, 27; raiding expedition(s), viking raid(s) XIX:6, 14 herr m. host VI:58, 86, 194, 349; men V:35 (gen. with víti), VII B:15; army VI:211, VII A:20, 127; with suffixed def. art. XXII:33/1 herra m. lord XIV:171; used in address to a king or earl (vocative) I:140, VI:79, 88, 166, XVI:23, 28, 36, my lord XXIV:10 hersir m. lord, a man of high rank in early Norway Gr 3.1.7.3–5 ex. 4; cf. 3.1.7.5 (1) herskip n. warship VI:152 Hersteinn m. son of Atli enn mjóvi XIX:7, 18, 20, 22 hertrygg› f. warlike confidence VI:177 (gen. with hnekkir) hervápn n. pl. weapons of war, armour II:61 hervegr m. military road, high road XXV:12 Hervƒr f. a valkyrie X:9, 73 Hestlœkr m. stream in southern Iceland XXVI A:115 hestr m. horse (Gr 3.1.8 (1)) I:2, XI:10, XV:44, 95, XXIII:60, XXVI B:43; with suffixed def. art. XV:101; af hesti from horseback X:170; steed XXII:41/2 (to prepare food for a giantess’s steed (wolf) is to kill men in battle) hét, hétu see heita1, heita2 hetja f. hero XV:3 hey n. hay II:124 heygja (past heyg›i, pp. heyg›r) wv. bury (in a haugr); ok sé hér heyg›ir and that they be buried here XXVI A:104 102 A New Introduction to Old Norse heyja (past há›i, pp. hát/háit) wv. perform, conduct Gr 3.6.9.3; hold, fight (a battle) XXII:33/2, 54/2 heyra/høyra/hœyra (past heyr›i/høyr›i/hœyr›i, pp. heyrt) wv. hear (Gr 3.6.6) I:4, II: 22, III:9, 10, 37, 104, VII A:43, B:68, XIII:23, XIV:45, XXVI B:128; hear of (it) XIII:7, XVI:33; høyri ek do I hear XXIV:20; imp. with suffixed pron. heyr›u/ høyr›u hear IX:6, XXIV:19, listen XXI:190; imp. pl. høyri› XXIV:20; past pl. hœyr›u VI:117; at heyra to be heard XIV:162; vildi eigi hœyra at hann myndi hafa would not hear of his having VI:319; heyra til listen XIV:20, hear (anything) from/of XXV:64; impers. hefir heyrt til hans there has been heard from him XXVI B:200 heyverk n. pl. haymaking XXVI A:3 higat = hingat Hildibrandr m. son of Reginbaldr and foster-father of fii›rekr af Bern XI:56, 65, 75 hildíngr m. king XXII:62/1 Hildr f. a nun XIV:129 hilmir m. lord, ruler VII B:43, XXII:3/3, 9/3, 33/1, 51/3; dagleygjar hilmir = God (or Ó›inn; see note) V:22 (gen. with Ilmr) himinn (pl. himnar Gr 3.1.7.3–5 ex. 4) m. the sky II:74; heaven XXII:63/4; pl. heaven XIV:56; gen. pl. himna skies XXII:2/2, 25/2, 51/4 himintungl n. pl. heavenly bodies XIV:36 himnaríki n. the kingdom of heaven, the heavens XXIV:36 hindrvitni f. superstition XIV:79 hingat, higat adv. here, to this place I:76, IV:97, V:65, XI:28; this way XXVI B:205; to this country (Iceland) VIII:25, 28, 36; higat/ hingat til lands into this country VII A:91 (England), VIII:190 (Iceland); hingat í Nóreg here to Norway XVI:172 hinn1 pron. (Gr 3.2.2) the other man I:69; dat. sg. f. hinni the other V:101; m. pl. hinir those (others) XIV:146, the others XXI:102; n. pl. ok hin with the others II:41; hinn er, hin er that one who V:151, IX:115, the one who VI:334 (with árr), XXIV:71; hinn annarr the other, the second (choice) XXVI B:103; n. hitt that IV:22, VI:325; this other thing, this on the contrary XVI:119, this on the other hand XXVI A:35; but this XV:55, XXV:20, 78; the others (sc. fólk, the man and the two women) XXI:200; dat. sg. n. hinu but it was this that XXVI B:171 Glossary and Index 103 hinn2 def. art. = inn2 (Gr 3.3.5) the I:136, IV:2 (with comp.), XIII:11, XIV:156 (with sup.), XXI:77, 170, 175, XXVI A:115; with ordinal numerals XXI:194, XXIV:36–38; hins verra (for) what was worse XXI:13; hinum er to him that XXIV:83; f. hin XXIII:57; n. hit II:63, XIV:143 (with sup.), XXI:165, 196; hit ‡tra on the outer (seaward) side VI:59; dat. sg. n. hinu XXI:66, XXIV:82; acc. pl. hin VI:217, 220 (hin skipin, Gr 3.3.5); dat. pl. hinum I:2, XIV:44, 104 hir› f. following of a king or earl; with suffixed def. art. XVI:95, 102, 109 hir›a (past hir›i, pp. hirt) wv. keep, put for safe keeping II:115; look after; at hir›a looking after XIV:135; mind, care about XXVI A:83 hir›ir m. shepherd Gr 3.1.7.5 (1) hir›ma›r m. king’s man, courtier I:47, with suffixed def. art. I:48; fyrir hir›mann minn for my follower I:60; pl. hir›menn I:34, 59, 105, 117, with suffixed def. art. I:44, XVI:100 hirta (past hirti, pp. hirtr) wv. chastise XIV:2, discipline XIV:163 hirting f. chastisement XIV:41 hirtingasamr adj. severe, strict in discipline XIV:49 Hísargafl m. (part of an) island off the coast of Norway XIX:15 hit see hinn2 Hítará f. river in Hítardalr (western Iceland) V:43 Hítdœlakappi m. champion of the men of Hítardalr (western Iceland) V:title hiti m. heat III:13, 53, XIII:19, 22 hitt1 pron. n., see hinn1 hitta (past hitti, pp. hitt2) wv. 1. meet Gr 3.6.9.1 (7), 3.6.9.3 ex. 4, XV:87, XVI:99, 102; see, visit IX:44; come upon, find IX:12; reach, arrive at XXI:198; meet in battle VI:82, 130. 2. -sk form reciprocal meet each other VII B:58; supine hizt á had an encounter, come into collision VI:293 hizt see hitta hjá prep. with dat. (Gr 3.7.3) by, with II:151, XII:5, 71, XXVI B:172; next to I:2, 26, III:7, VII B:85; by, near X:7, XIII:2, XXI:140, XXVI A:25; (í) hjá by the side of VI:290, XI:31, XII:45, situated close to VIII:103; as adv. flar hjá nearby III:99 hjaldrvitju›r m. battle-frequenter, warrior (here King Haraldr; gen. with herr) VII B:16 hjaldrflorinn adj. bold in battle VI:310 (with fiorketill) hjalli m. ledge (on a hillside) V:89 (with suffixed def. art., i.e. 104 A New Introduction to Old Norse

Hvítingshjalli); second element of compound separated V:171, see Hvítingshjalli; dat. pl. with suffixed def. art. hjƒllunum V:45 hjalmfaldinn adj. (pp.) helmeted (of a valkyrie, Ilmr) V:24 hjálmr/hjalmr m. helmet II:61, V:171, VI:206, 236, 287, XI:20, 26; und hjálmum wearing helmets XXV:67 hjálp f. help; healing XXII:57/2 hjálpa, earlier hjalpa (past halp/hjalp, past pl. hulpu, pp. hólpinn/ holpinn) sv. with dat. help I:28; at hjálpa helping XIV:98; benefit, bring salvation to VII A:50 hjálpræ›i n. helping advice; leggja til hjálpræ›i me› sér plan with her a way to save her VI:15 hjalt n. hilt (usually pl., hjƒlt) III:99 (with suffixed def. art.), V:40 Hjalti1 m. ‘Hilted’, name given to Hƒttr I:147; as nickname VIII:62 Hjalti2 m. priest at Hólar XIV:131 Hjalti Skeggjasonr m. Icelander, 10th–11th century VIII:79, 88, 98, 107, 111 hjar›hundr m. shepherd’s dog, herdsman’s dog VII A:115 hjarta n. heart Gr 3.1.7.1, XIII:21; with suffixed def. art. its heart I:98, the heart XII:16 hjó, hjoggu see hƒggva hjón n. pl. household XXVI B:19, 21 hjónskapliga adv. in conjugal fashion XII:74 hjú n. pl. married couple, household, family X:72 hjƒllum see hjalli hjƒlt see hjalt hjƒr› f. herd Gr 3.1.7.3; animals generally XXII:53/1 hjƒrr m. sword XXII:56/1 Hjƒrleifr m. = Leifr Hró›marsson XIX:35, 38, 42, 43, 54, 59, 62, 63, 65, 67, 74, 75, 76, 79 Hjƒrleifshƒf›i m. headland on south coast of Iceland XIX:60, 73, 76, 88 hla› n. pavement (in front of the homestead) XXVI B:47 (with suffixed def. art.) hla›a (pres. hle›r, past hló›, past pl. hló›u, pp. hla›inn) sv. 1. load. 2. with dat. lay down; lower (sails); pres. pl. la›a VI:104, past pl. ló›u VI:125, 135 Hla›gu›r f. a valkyrie X:8, 73 hlaupa/laupa (pres. hleypr/leypr, past hljóp/ljóp, past pl. hljópu/ ljópu/hlupu, pp. hlaupinn, n. hlaupit) sv. (Gr 3.6.5.2, 3.6.6) 1. run, Glossary and Index 105

jump, leap III:49, 54, IV:62, V:127, VI:294 (past ljóp), 298 (past pl. ljópu), VII A:116, B:67, 68, XV:110, XIX:70, 84, XXI:43, 49, 119, 120, 142, 179, 180, XXVI A:16, 38, 68, B:89, 203, 206, 221; flee XIX:81; imp. hlauptu út you jump out XXVI B:203, 210; hlaupa fram charge XXII:38/1; hlaupa fyrir jump over XIX:85; hlaupa út rush out, (try to) escape III:27; jump out III:45, 64. 2. pp. -sk form lœypizk run off, escape VI:10 hlaut see hljóta hle›i m. shutter XXV:78 Hlei›argar›r m. palace of the Danish kings; modern Lejre in Denmark I:1 Hlér m. alternative name for Ægir II:1 Hlésey f. ‘Hlér’s island’, = Læsø in the Kattegat off Denmark II:2 hleypa (past hleypti, pp. hleypt) wv. transitive with dat. cause to run; hleypa ofan í thrust down into III:98 hleypr see hlaupa hli› f. side XI:55, XXI:45; with suffixed def. art. á hli›ina onto his side XV:106; á hli› at his side V:29 hlí› f. slope, hillside Gr 3.1.8 (13) Hlí›arendi m. ‘end of the slope’, Gunnarr’s home in southern Iceland XXVI A:1, 10, 13, 21, XXVI B:60 hlíf f. shield XXII:18/4, 40/4 hlífa (past hlíf›i, pp. hlíft) wv. with dat. protect I:17, XIII:23 Hlín f. name of a goddess; Hlín línu is a kenning for a woman (= Steinger›r; cf. SnE, Skáldskaparmál ch. 31) IV:89 (the nom. phrase is used to address her) hljó› n. silence; sound; koma á hljó› become aware, hear it rumoured, find out XIV:88; af hljó›i in silence, on the quiet (secretly) XXII:58/2 hljó›lyndr adj. taciturn, uncommunicative XXI:12 hljó›r adj. quiet, silent I:83 hljóp, hljópu see hlaupa hljóta (past hlaut, past pl. hlutu, pp. hlotinn) sv. (3.6.6 ex. 4) get, suffer V:154, IX:129; hljóta at with inf. get as one’s lot XXVI A:112, have to, be forced to XXII:54/3 hló, hlógu see hlæja Hlórri›i m. a name for fiórr IX:26, 27, 56, 123 hlupu see hlaupa hluta (past hluta›i, pp. hlutat) wv. cast lots XXVI A:112; impers. skal flá hluta lots are then to be drawn (as to, to decide) XXVII:9 106 A New Introduction to Old Norse hluti m. part, share XVI:6 hlutr/lutr m. 1. thing II:4 (váru ‘were’ is understood in this sentence), II:93, VII A:98, XIII:47, XIV:13, 59, 82, 115, XVI:167; í mƒrgum gó›um hlutum in many good ways XIV:4; sjá einn var svá hlutrinn at that alone was the thing (i.e. reason) such that XVI:126; nom. pl. hlutir XXIV:43; acc. pl. hluti XXIV:28, events (object of sag›i fyrir) VII A:31, 60, 64, flá luti a›ra the other things XXIV:49. 2. part; sá hlutr that part (of something) XXIII:96; (enn) meiri hlutr manna the majority of people VIII:177, XXVII:27, similarly XXVII:46; mestr lutr manna the greatest portion of men, the majority of people VI:319; share II:160; eiga hlut í be involved in something IV:101. 3. lot; the lot XXVII:10 hl‡›a (past hl‡ddi) wv. listen; er til hl‡ddu who were listening to him XIV:34, 37; with dat. listen to, hear XIV:43, 151; impers. hl‡›ir it will do; flar mundi hl‡›a it would work VIII:91 hl‡›inn adj. with dat. obedient to, compliant to VIII:155 hl‡›ni f. obedience XIV:119 hl‡ri m. brother XXII:14/1 hlæja (pres. hlær, past hló, past pl. hlógu, pp. hleginn) sv. (Gr 3.6.9.3) laugh II:72, XVI:109, 111; past hló IX:123, XXV:70, ló vi› laughed (at it) VI:76; past pl. hlógu XXV:23; pres. part. hlæjandi laughing X:136, 173 hlœgja (past hlœg›i) wv. cause to laugh, make laugh II:69; flat hlœgir mik that gladdens me XXVI B:217 Hlƒ›vér m. legendary king (= Louis, Ludwig) X:8, 58, 73 (dat.) hnakki m. nape of the neck XII:20 (with suffixed def. art.) hné see hníga hneigjask (past hneig›isk) wv. -sk form bend XXIII:21 hneit see hníta Hneitir m. ‘cutter’, St Óláfr’s sword XXII:37/1, 48/1 hnekkir m. one who halts or checks, puts an end to; hertrygg›ar hnekkir i.e. successful battle-leader (who destroys the enemy’s confidence; subject of ba›at hyggja) VI:178 hníga (past hné, past pl. hnigu, pp. hniginn) sv. (Gr 3.6.9.3 ex. 1) sink down, i.e. fall (in battle) V:171, VI:362, XXII:37/4, 45/3, XXV:56, 111 hníta (past hneit, past pl. hnitu, pp. hnitinn) sv. strike (vi› against) IV:18; hníta saman strike against each other (i.e. in battle) VI:231 Glossary and Index 107

Hnitbjƒrg n. pl. a mountain II:116, 120 hnot (pl. hnøtr/hnetr) f. nut (Gr 3.1.7.2) II:51, 54 (with suffixed def. art.) hnykkja (pres. hnykkir, past hnykkti, pp. hnykkt) wv. with dat. pull, snatch I:13 hoddlestir m. ‘hoard-harmer’ i.e. ‘hoard diminisher’ means ‘generous man’, here ﬁorsteinn Kuggason (gen. with sveit seggja) V:53 hof n. (heathen) temple VIII:43 Hof n. farm in southern Iceland XXVI A:5 hóf1 see hefja hóf2 n. moderation; what is reasonable II:127 (object of gefa); reason, restraint (at in it) XV:21; ætla hóf fyrir sér know what is sensible for oneself, keep within one’s capabilities VI:168; at sama hófi to the same degree, just as good X:12; á sitt hóf in respect of herself or to the same extent, equally or proportionately? XV:61 hófsk see hefja hógliga adv. gently; sup. sem hógligast as gently as he could III:111 hola f. hollow, hole XXI:204 Hólabyskup m. bishop of Hólar in Hjaltadalr XIV:177 Hólakirkja f. the church at Hólar in Hjaltadalr XIV:176 Hólar1 m. pl. bishop’s see in Hjaltadalr, inland from Skagafjƒr›r, northern Iceland VIII:192, XIV:5, 12, 143, 166, 184 Hólar2 m. pl. = Álfhólar, farm on Eyjar (Landeyjar) XXVI B:3, 4 hold n. flesh X:53, XII:20 (with suffixed def. art.) holdgan f. incarnation XIX:49 holdgróinn adj. (pp.) rooted in the (same) flesh XXV:48 hóll m. hill VII A:149 Hóll m. farm in Saurbœr, western Iceland XV:44 hólmganga f. duel, a fight to settle a dispute VII A:98, 99 hólmgƒnguma›r m. fighter of duels VII A:77 hólmi m. islet, small island VI:28, 29; with suffixed def. art. VI:60, 123, 124, 125, 133, 135, 136 hólmr m. = hólmi X:86, 179, 181; acc. sg. with suffixed def. art. hólmenn VI:121 Hólmr m. Bjƒrn Hítdœlakappi’s farm in Hítardalr, western Iceland V:74, 87, 158 Hólmsteinn m. son of Atli enn mjóvi XIX:7, 10, 13, 16, 18 hólmsƒk f. a cause for duelling, a reason for holding a duel V:115 holr adj. hollow, cupped I:41 108 A New Introduction to Old Norse

Hólsmenn m. pl. the people of Hóll XV:82 holt n. wood X:77; ?stony hill XXV:16; low hill or ridge XXI:91 hon/hún f. pron. she, it (Gr 3.2.1) I:17, 18, 19, IX:105, 129, X:3, 59, 75, XI:8, 31, XIII:5, 24, XV:26, XXI:13 (it, i.e. Christianity), 136, XXVI A:80, 105, B:23; hún it XIV:12 honum/hánum pron. dat. sg. (Gr 3.2.1) (to) him I:27, 32, 37, 66, 68, 74, 92, 94, 113, VIII:26, XI:31, XV:25, XIX:34, XXI:15, XXIV:68, XXVI A:11, 33, B:74, XXVII:32; hánum VI:97, 187, 243 (dat. with fylgja, = Eiríkr jarl), IX:43, 61, X:40, 183, 184, XXIV:81, it VI:115; honum Au›uni him, Au›unn XVI:107; firir honum fióri for this fiórir XVI:5; poss. dat. í andlit honum into his face VII A:86, í smáflarma honum into his guts XXI:175, ór hƒndum honum from his hands VII A:103, tenn hánum his teeth X:81 Hóp n. ‘lagoon’; place-name formed with prep. (Gr 3.1.8 ex.) XXI:90, 164, 193 horfa (past horf›i, pp. horft) wv. 1. face (in a certain direction) XII:21, XV:105, XIX:60; gaze XXI:67; horfa á look at I:119, look at something, look ahead III:54; horfa til tend towards XIV:90, note, refer to XXIV:3, 4, 83; horfa upp be turned upwards XV:151. 2. -sk form with reciprocal sense horf›usk fleir at they faced each other III:8 (Gr 3.9.8.3) horfit, horfinn see hverfa horn n. corner I:5 (with suffixed def. art.); horn (musical instrument) XXV:65 hornungr m. bastard XXV:52 hósti m. cough XXVI B:200 hosur f. pl. hose, drawers, trousers V:56 hót1 n. pl. threats (with dat., against someone) XXII:7/3 hót2 n. a little, somewhat; dat. as adv. with comp. XXII:32/2 hrafn m. raven (Gr 3.1.7.4) V:164, 165 Hrafn m. father of Bergflórr VIII:170 Hrafn Hœngsson m. lawspeaker 930–49 VIII:58, 62 Hrafna-Flóki m. Flóki Vilger›arson XIX:27. He was one of the first viking explorers of Iceland (see ÍF I 36–39), and used ravens to help him find it. Hrafnkell (dat. Hrafnkatli) Hallfre›arson m. Gr 3.1.8 ex. hráki m. spittle II:91 Hrani (Ko›ránsson) m. III:107, see note Glossary and Index 109 hrapalliga adv. hurriedly, headlong, in a hurry III:66 hrata (past hrata›i, pp. hratat) wv. fall; hrata ofan tumble down XXVI A:31 hrau› see hrjó›a hraustge›r adj. bold-minded; enn hraustge›i the bold-minded one (fiorsteinn Kuggason) V:52 hraustleikr m. valour, vigour, courage, manliness XV:146 hraustligr adj. valiant, brave-sounding, encouraging; comp. XXVI B:126 hraustr adj. tough, bold, valiant I:117, 123, 133, V:114. XXII:11/3; pl. as substantive raustir valiant ones VI:293 hraut see hrjóta hre›jar f. pl. scrotum, testicles II:70 hreimr m. cry, noise, shriek; as nickname III:44 hreinfer›ugr adj. pure, chaste XIV:185 hreinliga adv. purely, absolutely XXIII:29; svá hreinliga sem as pure a life as XIX:112 hreinn1 m. reindeer; acc. pl. (with haf›i kraf›a) in kenning for ships, húnlagar hreina VI:54 hreinn2 adj. pure Gr 3.3.9 (3), XIII:28, 41; comp. hreinni Gr 3.3.8.4 (1), 3.3.9 (20); sup. hreinstr Gr 3.3.9 (20) Hreinn Styrmisson m. abbot at fiingeyrar from 1166 (died 1171) XIV:151 hremma (past hrem(m)di, pp. hrem(m)dr) wv. clutch, hold firmly XXII:35/3 hressask (past hresstisk) wv. refl. recover III:130 hreysti f. toughness, courage, boldness I:128; valour XI:50 hrí›/rí› f. 1. (period of) time, while: um hrí› for a while IV:103, V:44, XVI:77, XIX:17, 71, XXVI A:40, B:194, for a time, once XXVI B:139; acc. in adv. phrase nƒkk(u)ra hrí›, skamma hrí›, litla hrí› for a short time I:4, III:104, XV:54, for a while XXVI A:111, for a certain period XIV:166. 2. storm XV:144; hjalms hrí› (object of vann), geira hrí›, odda hrí› are kennings for battle VI:237, VII A:25, XXII:55/1; also hrí› mána vi›ar hau›rmens storm of shields XXVI A:99 (gen. with her›imei›a). 3. attack, onset, assault XXVI A:43; gen. (object of væntir mek) fleirar rí›ar at such a battle that VI:91 hrinda (past hratt, past pl. hrundu, pp. hrundit) sv. push; past subj. hryndi III:47 110 A New Introduction to Old Norse hringja (past hring›i, pp. hringt) wv. (cause to) ring (with dat.) XII:46 (pres. part.); hringja til tí›a ring (a bell) for divine services XIV:160 hringr m. ring, circle V:109, XXIII:32 (i.e. iris?); (gold) ring IX:116, 130, XVI:146, 182; with suffixed def. art. XVI:150, 183 hrís n. brushwood X:54 (instrumental dat.) hrista (past hristi, pp. hrist) wv. (transitive) shake IX:3 hrjó›a (pres. hr‡›r, past hrau›, past pl. hru›u, pp. hro›inn/ro›inn, n. hro›it/ro›it) sv. strip, clear (of men, by killing them); pp. ro›inn, n. ro›it VI:217, 227, 275; váru ro›in had been cleared VI:305; impers. hrau› af splinters or sparks flew off? XXII:48/2; -sk form for pass. ru›usk were stripped VI:219, 223 hrjóta1 (pres. hr‡tr, past hraut, past pl. hrutu, pp. hrotinn) sv. fly, be flung II:146, splash III:86 hrjóta2 (pres. hr‡tr, past hraut, past pl. hrutu, pp. hrotinn) sv. roar, growl (vi› in response) XXV:90; past subj. sem bjƒrn hryti as a bear would have roared (growled) XXV:91 Hróaldr Geirsson m. XXVI A:114, 116 Hróaldr Hrómundarson m. Icelandic settler XIX:2, 5 Hróaldr ¯zurarson m. of Brei›á XXVI B:88, 91 Hró›marr Hróaldsson m. XIX:5 hró›rgla›r adj. glad of fame XXV:78 (see note 22) Hrólfr kraki m. legendary Danish king I:28, 45, 50, 106, 132 Hrómundr Gripsson m. XIX:2. He is the subject of a fornaldarsaga hrópa (past hrópa›i, pp. hrópat) wv. slander, defame falsely XII:42, 62, 89 hrósa (past hrósa›i, pp. hrósat) wv. with dat. praise, glory in X:122; boast of XXVI A:116, 117 hross n. horse V:6, VIII:55, XXV:13; acc. pl. with suffixed def. art. V:45, 46, 67, 91; gen. pl. with suffixed def. art. hrossanna V:28; dat. pl. with suffixed def. art. V:89 hrossakjƒt n. horseflesh VIII:141 (h)rossæta f. horse-eater, one who eats horseflesh; acc. pl.with suffixed def. art. VI:188 hrotti m. sword; dat. as instrumental hrotta with my sword XXII:15/1 hrukku see hrøkkva Hrund f. name of a valkyrie IV:88; written Grund XVIII:122rb11 Hrungnir m. a giant IV:18 hryg› f. sorrow XII:36 Glossary and Index 111 hryggiliga adv. sadly, unhappily XIII:33 hryggr adj. sad XII:87; mournful XXIII:20, 71 hrynja (past hrundi, pp. hrunit) wv. jangle IX:61 hryndi see hrinda hræ n. corpse; in pl. (with suffixed def. art.) the remains of the body VIII:52 hræ›ask (past hræddisk) wv. be afraid of, fear I:105 (subj.), 107, XXVI B:75; ræddusk were afraid VI:321; ræddisk vi› was in fear of VI:131 hræddr adj. pp. frightened, afraid I:26, 36, 90, II:47; fearful XXIII:93; ræddr VI:77 hræ›iligr adj. dreadful, fearful XXII:56/1 hræd‡r n. carrion animal XXIII:35 (gen. pl. with hátt) hræra see hrœra hræzla f. fear XIV:115 hrœra (hræra) (past hrœr›i, pp. hrœrt) wv. move (transitive), wield XXII:12/3; -sk form move (intransitive) XXI:173, XXIII:34, XXVI B:176 hrœriligr adj. movable, changeable XXIII:42 hrøkkva/røkkva (past hrƒkk, past pl. hrukku, pp. hrokkinn) sv. fall back; hrøkkva frá withdraw, draw back XXVI A:41; røkkva undan draw back, give way, retreat VI:272; swing, be wielded V:41; curl (of hair) XXIII:5 hú› f. hide (of an animal) XXVI B:179 (with suffixed def. art.) hú›keipr m. skin boat (i.e. canoe), boat made of animal hide XXI:96, 110 hug›a, hug›i, hug›u see hyggja hugframr adj. valiant at heart VI:311 (with fiórketill) hugfullr adj. full of courage, brave XXIII:80, 106, valiant XXV:65 hugga (past hugga›i, pp. huggat) wv. comfort, console XIV:111 huggan f. comfort, consolation XII:86, 87, XIV:112 huggó›r adj. kind-hearted XIV:198 huglei›a (past hugleiddi, pp. hugleiddr) wv. consider, bear in mind XXIV:76 hugléttr adj. light of heart; comp. n. as adv. henni mundi hugléttara she would be happier, comforted II:107 hugna (past hugna›i, pp. hugnat) wv. with dat. please VII B:15 hugpr‡›i f. courage, valour V:131, 152 hugr m. thought, mind IX:123, XIII:41, XIV:93, XXIII:2, 5, 15, 26 (with suffixed def. art.), 30, 59, 61 (pl., thoughts?); attitude XXIII:22; 112 A New Introduction to Old Norse

heart, courage I:118, XXV:96; í hug (honum) in his mind III:13, 27; kom honum flat í hug at it occurred to him that XIX:81, kemr mér í hug has come into my mind XXVI B:116; erum hugr á my mind is on IV:28; eigi er honum hugr at he has no mind to, no desire to XII:72 hugreifr adj. glad of mind VI:278 (with flengill) hugsa (past hugsa›i, pp. hugsat) wv. think, consider XXIII:36; think about, ponder XXII:32/1; plan XXIII:74 hugsunarmikill adj. thoughtful XXIII:2 hugumstórr adj. great of heart, courageous XXV:20, 85 hugvit n. intelligence, understanding, good sense XXIII:4, 89, 109 hugvitr adj. clever, intelligent XXIII:30 hul›i, huldr/hulit/hult see hylja hún = hon Húnaland n. the land of the Huns XI:38, 70 hunang n. honey II:98 hundr m. dog VII A:115 (with suffixed def. art.), 116 (with suffixed def. art.), 119, 123, XXVI A:9 (with suffixed def. art.); poss. dat. XXVI A:18 (with suffixed def. art.); as nickname XXII:8/3, 42/1 Hundr m. = fiórir hundr XXII:30/1, 45/2 hundra› n. (Gr 3.4.1, 2 (5, 6)) hundred VIII:13, 148 (see tegr), XIV:139; hundra› heilt a good hundred, or perhaps a full hundred, i.e. 120? VIII:166; fjorir tigir annars hundra›s 140 (Gr 3.4.2 (9)) XXI:19; pl. hundru› VII A:116, VII B:33, X:48, XI:11, XIV:140, XIX:50; = 120 XXV:81, XXVII:37 hungrdœyfir m. ‘hunger-allayer’; he who allays the hunger of carrion birds is a successful warrior who provides dead bodies for them to eat (here = King Óláfr) VI:326 (object of skal ek lœyfa) húnlenzkr adj. Hunnish, from Hunland XXV:42 húnlƒgr m. mast-top liquid, kenning for the sea; gen. with hreina VI:54 (húnn1 m. was a four-sided structure fixed to the top of a mast, crow’s-nest) húnn2 m. cub; young boy X:114, 148, 158; one of the pieces used in a board-game IV:33 hur› f. door XV:103, with suffixed def. art. XV:104 hurfu see hverfa hús n. building XI:61, XII:14, XIV:15, 26, 157, XXVI A:58 (pl.); with suffixed def. art. room IV:35, 36; house X:5, XIV:152 (pl.), XV:102, XX1:204, home V:10; acc. of what is travelled over (with Glossary and Index 113

rennda ek) IV:34; pl. with suffixed def. art. III:5, 35, 88; pl. buildings, farmstead XXVI A:15, B:61, with suffixed def. art. XXVI A:37, 38, B:87, 88, 118 húsbak n. back of the building XXV:111 húsfreyja f. mistress of the house, housekeeper XIV:127; in address lady XXVI B:161 húsganga f. (people going on a) visit V:3 húskarl m. farmhand V:2, 26, 128; servant, workman XXVI B:134; in Norway, member of a king’s or jarl’s bodyguard or following VII B:44 hva›an, hva›an af adv. (Gr 3.8.2.3) where from, from what origin I:128, II:86, VII A:63; hva›an af sem as conj. from wherever VII A:61 hválf n. vault XII:10; vaulted room XII:64 Hvalfjƒr›r m. ‘whale-fjord’, fjord in western Iceland XIX:97 hválfhús n. vaulted building or chamber XII:7, 67, 80 hváll m. hillock, knoll; with suffixed def. art. (i.e. Bergﬂórshváll) XXVI B:42 hvalr m. whale XXI:73, 74 (see hvat); dat. pl. hvƒlum XXI:75 hvalslíki n. the form of a whale VII A:147 Hvammsdalr m. valley in western Iceland above Saurbœr XV:82 hvar1 adv. conj. where (Gr 3.8.2.1, 3) II:54, 156, III:97, VI:120, 126, IX:99, X:67, XXVI B:175; as to where XII:78, as to what VIII:40; hvar sem wherever XXII:19/4 hvar2 adv. in each place, everywhere; sex eru hvar saman they are all in groups of six V:81 hvarf1 n. disappearance II:43 hvarf2 see hverfa hvarfa (past hvarfa›i, pp. hvarfat) wv. intransitive turn round, wave about XXV:73 hvárgi pron. neither Gr 3.2.4, XXVI B:102; n. lag›i hvártki til supported neither side (in the dispute), contributed nothing on either side V:162; n. as adv. hvárki/hvórki . . . né neither . . . nor XII:76, XIV:75, XXII:3/4, 53/3, XXIII:51, XXIV:8–9, XXVI A:77, B:85; hvárki . . . ok eigi XXIV:52; svá . . . at . . . hvárki without either VI:9 hvárr pron. each (of two) (Gr 3.2.5, 3.8.2.3) III:16, XI:46; hvárr okkar each of us XXVI B:216; sitt skip hvárr each his own ship XIX:43; pl. hvárir which (side) XXVI B:54, each (side) VII A:100, VIII:114, XXVII:14; hvárr sem whichever III:17; at hváru according to both, in either case VI:330; ykru hváru to each of you XXV:34 114 A New Introduction to Old Norse hvárt interrog. adv. (Gr 3.8.2.3) whether I:48, 112, 114, VI:325, XXVI A:27, 84; introducing a direct question (Gr 3.9.1) XI:23, XV:64, XXVI B:109, 224, hvárt launa›i hann did he reward XVI:179, hvárt er (ﬂat) can it be XV:49, XVI:32, is . . .? XXVI A:34, B:128; hvárt sem, hvárt er as conj. whether VIII:154, XIV:45, XV:9, XXVI B:176, XXVII:11 hvártki = hvárki, n. of hvárgi hvártveggja pron. each of the two; n. hvárttveggja II:71, III:116, both (i.e. that he is dead and alive) VI:332 (object of sannliga segja), XVI:186; acc. sg. í hvárntveggja flokkenn on each side, in each force VI:220; gen. sg. til hvárstveggja for each of these two things XIV:29; dat. sg. n. hvárutveggja XXI:83; nom. pl. hvárirtveggju each side, both sides II:90, VIII:134, 137; dat. pl. af hvárumtveggja from each of the two sides, from both sides VI:212; n. as adv. hvártveggja both XXIV:72, hvárttveggja on both sides VI:293, in each case XV:63 hvass (f. hvƒss) adj. sharp Gr 3.3.9 (4); keen, bold (of the heart or mind) XXII:19/3; comp. hvassari Gr 3.3.9 (20); comp. n. as adv. hvassara more keenly IX:99; sup. hvassastr Gr 3.3.8.5 (2), 3.3.9 (20), 3.3.9 ex. 26 hvat pron. what (Gr 3.2.5, 3.8.2.3); I:10, 111, 112, 135, 140, II:44, IV:29, V:11, 16, VII A:45, IX:6, 23, X:148, XII:78, XV:59, XVI:80, 168, XXI:99, XXIV:11, XXVI B:45; what for XI:33; to what extent, how VIII:155, XXV:47; with gen. hvat rá›s what plan XXVI B:48, hvat manna what (kind of) people XV:88, hvat hvala what kind of whale XXI:74; hvat sem whatever XXI:136; hvat er whatever is XXIII:35; as interjection what? XXIV:9 hvatr adj. quick; n. as adv. hvatt vigorously, swiftly X:99 hvatki pron. whatever Gr 3.2.5; hvatki es as conj. VIII:5 hvatti see hvetja hvé adv. how (Gr 3.8.2.3) V:80, VIII:112, IX:56, XVI:72, XXV:44. XXVI A:93 hveiti n. wheat XXI:50 hveitiakr (gen. -akrs) m. wheat-field XXI:90 hvelfa (past hvelf›i) wv. impers. with dat. overturn, capsize II:104 hvelpr m. whelp, puppy; as nickname XV:81 hvenær adv. when Gr 3.8.2.3 hverfa (past hvarf, past pl. hurfu, pp. horfinn/horfit) sv. turn III:38, 39 (i.e. in the narrative), V:78, XXI:181; fall XXVII:9; hverfa at Glossary and Index 115

attend VIII:47; hverfa braut/á brott/á brutt go away IV:27, go off, disappear XIX:100, XXI:65; hverfa frá turn away, leave off, give up XXVI A:48, B:64, 103; hverfa saman gather together VIII:109; pp. horfinn disappeared, gone XIX:82; with dat. surrounded by, blessed with XXI:14; horfinn frá turned away from, turned against XXII:9/3 hverft adv. changeably, unpredictably, suddenly XXVI B:36 hvergi adv. nowhere, not at all V:10, 110, VIII:160, XIII:6, XXII:3/3, XXVI B:176; in no way XV:123, after a neg. anywhere at all IX:7 hvernig, hvernug adv. (Gr 3.8.2.3) how II:122, III:107; as to how VII A:46 hverr (n. hvert) pron. 1. who, which, what (Gr 3.2.5) I:7, 56, 121, III:65, VI:106, 181, XV:114, XVI:59, 106, XXIV:14, XXVII:6, 18; hverr ma›r what kind of person, who VII A:86; f. hver what XXVI B:8; acc. sg. m. hvern which IV:88 (with skapfrƒmu›), VII A:78; as rel. which XIV:26, note, whom XIV:169, í hvern into which XXVII:9, hvern er whoever, anyone who XIV:187, hvern veg how V:84; dat. sg. m. hverjum (to) whom V:135, what XIV:90, note; n. hvert what V:105; hvert nafn . . . var what the name . . . was VII A:90; gen. sg. n. hvers of what II:76, XXVI A:28, for what XXV:35; dat. sg. n. hverju what I:74, V:8, with gegna II:22, with what, how XV:26, XVI:161; m. pl. hverir who VI:186, 190, X:64, XXVII:42; f. pl. hverjar what (kind of) I:60; hverr er whoever II:99, 160, XXIV:18. 2. each V:23, VI:162, VIII:27, 31, 43, XIV:63, XIX:84, XXVI B:20, XXVII:34; every XI:48, 49, XII:76, XVI:43, XXI:91, 112, XXIV:17, 29, XXVII:26; every, any II:140, V:4; all (the) XXV:4; each one/ person XXV:30; everyone XXVI A:85; hverr ma›r annarra any other man VIII:150; hverr ma›r . . . er anyone who XXVII:35, 41; hverjum to each, to everyone XIX:78; hverjum manni to every person XXVI B:212; n. hvert each VII A:134, XXVII:37, each one (ship) VI:217, every XI:61, XII:86, hvert ﬂat every single XIII:34; acc. sg. m. mann hvern er everyone who XXV:97; duga hvern each one to be valiant I:117 (after ba›, parallel to hir›menn vera hrausta), hvern dag every day XIV:61; hverr . . . annan (ƒ›rum) each other II:44, 129, VII B:71; hverr vi› annan with each other VI:149; hverr at ƒ›rum one after the other (did so) XXI:150; hvern at ƒ›rum one after another XI:9; hverjum at ƒ›rum (with) each ones (group, rank) after the other(s) XI:58; hverjum sem einum each and every 116 A New Introduction to Old Norse

XIII:42; á ﬂremr sumrum hverjum over every three summers; hverr . . . sína (sitt) each his own, i.e. in turn II:80, III:106; sér hvern each one separately VII A:84 hversdagligr adj. daily, everyday XIV:60, usually XXI:12 hversu adv. how Gr 3.8.2.3, XI:7, 18, 66, XV:76, 85, XVI:39, 65, 132, XXIV:27, XXVI A:6, B:55, 175; hversu . . . sem however XV:17 hvert1 adv. (Gr 3.8.2.3) whither, to what place V:165, XV:119 hvert2 see hverr hvessa (past hves(s)ti, pp. hves(s)t) wv. sharpen X:92; stir up, excite: hvessa darra él (i.e. battle) is to fight energetically XXII:41/4 hvetja (pres. hvetr, past hvatti, pp. hvattr) wv. whet, sharpen IV:39; urge, incite, goad XXV:8; with suffixed pron. hvƒttumk at incited me to it XXV:100 hví adv. conj. (Gr 3.2.5, 3.8.2.3) why V:143, IX:24, 108, XVI:38, XXIV:26, 55, XXVI A:66, B:36 hvíla1 f. bed III:24 (with suffixed def. art.), XXVI B:167, 174 (with suffixed def. art.) hvíla2 (past hvíldi) wv. rest, lie quiet VIII:120; hvíla sik = hvílask rest oneself XXVI B:230; -sk form hvílask have a rest X:19, 141 hvíld f. rest XXVI A:40 hvílugólf n. bed closet, bed space XV:93 Hvítingshjalli m. a ledge on a hillside in Hítardalr, western Iceland V:5, 42, 45; hjalli Hvítings V:172 hvítr adj. white VI:104, X:25, XII:34, XXI:101, 205, XXIII:88, 106, 108, XXV:12; shining V:37, XI:4, 19, XXII:20/4, XXV:72; sup. IX:57; wk. form as nickname (‘white-haired’) VIII:80, XXVI A:4, 42 Hvítramannaland n. the land of the white men XXI:206 hvórki see hvárgi hvƒlum see hvalr hvƒss see hvass hvƒt f. incitement, bait XXV:62 hvƒttumk see hvetja hyggja1 (past hug›i, past pl. hug›u, pp. hug›r, n. hugat) wv. think (Gr 3.6.9.2 (3)) I:54, II:19, 33, 68, III:122, V:63, VI:154, 183, 297, X:58, XII:59, 74, XIV:7, XXIV:44; hygg (hug›a) ek with acc. and pp. (adj.) (verb to be understood) I think (thought) VI:360, X:70, XXV:102; 1st sg. pres. with suffixed pron. -k and suffixed neg. -at, hykkat I do not think (with acc. and inf.) VI:246; subj. hyggi may Glossary and Index 117

think (that) I:109; hyggja á think of VI:171; ba›at hyggja á told (them) not to think of VI:177; hyggja at pay attention, watch III:61, observe XXVI B:48, consider XVI:72 (imp.) hyggja2 f. thought XXII:19/3; mind, wit XXV:32 hyggjandi f. intellect, forethought XXV:96 hykkat see hyggja hylja (past hul›i, pp. huldr/hulit/hult) wv. transitive hide III:100; pp. huldr hidden, covered XXII:59/1, hult covered XXIII:78, 79 hylli f. favour IX:118 hyrna f. point, horn, corner of an axe-blade; with suffixed def. art. hyrnan sú in fremri the foremost (i.e. upper) point of the axe-blade XXVI B:91 h‡rr adj. gentle, friendly X:77 h‡ski n. household, family XXIV:64 hæ›iligr adj. disgraceful XIV:84 hægri see hœgri hæll m. heel; á hæla with dat. on someone’s heels VII B:43, XXVI B:206 hæra adv. (n. adj.) comp. (Gr 3.3.8.5 (3)) higher VII A:160 hæri adj. comp. higher XXIV:16 hæstr adj. sup. highest VI:224, XXIII:89, noblest? XXII:51/3 hætta1 f. danger V:63 hætta2 (past hætti, pp. hættr1) wv. with dat. leave off, stop V:141, XXVI B:196 hætta3 (past hætti, pp. hættr2) wv. with dat. risk, endanger XXI:192 hætti see háttr hættr3 adj. dangerous XVI:138 (with dat. for); n. as adv. with dat. and vi› one (is) in danger of something; vi› engu mun mér ﬂá hætt I shall then be in no danger VII B:63; hætt er it is problematical, doubtful, unreliable, uncertain VI:331 hœfa (past hœf›i, pp. hœft) wv. with dat. 1. befall, happen (to someone) I:94. 2. suit, be suitable for XXIII:61; befit (be proper to?) XXIII:63 hœfiligr adj. proper, fit XXIII:53, 87 hœgr adj. gentle (with dat. to) XIV:49, mild, easy? XXIII:8 hœgri/hægri adj. comp. right (as opposed to left) III:57, 86, XII:28, XV:108, XXII:63/3; á hœgra veg sér on his right hand side XI:53; sup. n. as adv. hœgst most suitable X:93 118 A New Introduction to Old Norse

Hœngr m. = Ketill hœngr, Icelandic settler VIII:58 Hœnir m. a god (one of the Æsir) II:9, 17 hœta (past hœtti, pp. hœtt) wv. with dat. of person and thing threaten someone with something IV:22 (the subject is understood: Narfi or fiorkell) hœve(r)skr adj. courtly, well-bred, polite XXIV:58 hœyra = heyra hƒf›askip n. ship with figurehead(s) at prow and/or stern; dragon- ship VI:68 hƒf›i1 m. headland; with suffixed def. art. XIX:61, 80 hƒf›i2 see hƒfu› hƒf›ingi (acc. sg., gen. sg., acc. pl., gen. pl. hƒf›ingja) m. chief, leader VI:181 (fyrir over), VII B:72 (gen. sg.); ruler, prince VI:35, 162 (gen. pl.), 317, XXIV:67; nom. pl. hƒf›ingjar rulers, leaders VI:29, 58, 91, 198, XXIV:64; chieftains, leading men VIII:46, 81, 183, XXVI B:63; with suffixed def. art. VI:59; fleir hƒf›ingjarnir the chieftains VI:126 (Gr 3.3.5) hƒf›u see hafa; hƒf›um see hƒfu› hƒfn f. 1. harbour (Gr 3.1.7.1, 2) VI:58, VII A:70, XVI:138. 2. grazing, feed VIII:55 hƒfu› (dat. sg. hƒf›i) n. head II:110 (henni poss. dat.), V:147, 148, 157, IX:64, XII:46, XVIII:9, haufu› his (Jƒrmunrekkr’s) head XXV:98; acc. pl. hƒfu› X:114, 158, hafu› figureheads VI:76; with suffixed def. art. his head III:7, VII A:160, XXVI B:154; á hƒf›i on his head III:28, V:29, on their heads XXI:104, with gen. on the head of XXIII:6; á hƒfu›/hƒf›i sér on his/her head XI:20, XII:25; at hƒf›i Helga on (round/over) Helgi’s head XXVI B:146; í hƒfu› in my head X:145; í hƒfu› honum at his head III:56, V:102, in his head XXI:139; í hƒfu› hundinum on/into the dog’s head XXVI A:18; um hƒfu› sér round their heads XXI:116; yfir hafu› sér above his head VI:295; yfir hƒfu› fleim over their heads XIII:3; til hƒfu›s flér to kill you IV:38; dat. pl. hƒf›um figureheads VI:77, with suffixed def. art. hƒf›unum with their heads (i.e. they were lying head to head) III:8 hƒfu›dúkr m. head-cloth (-scarf) or hood XXVI B:144 hƒfu›smátt f. opening for the head, neck (of a garment) XV:28, 62 hƒfugr adj. heavy; f. pl. hƒfgar X:62; n. œrit hƒfugt hard enough XIV:92 Glossary and Index 119 hƒfum1 see hafa hƒfum2 see haf hƒgg n. blow I:17, 18, 33, III:106, V:98, IX:130, XXII:42/3; annat hƒgg with a second blow VII A:103; dat. sg. (Gr 3.1.7.3–5 ex. 4) í ƒ›ru hƒggvi with the second blow V:147; gen. pl. hƒggva V:146; with suffixed def. art. II:30, V:100 hƒggfœri n. striking distance, range (of a sword) I:139 hƒggormr m. poisonous snake, viper XXIII:66 hƒggva1 (pres. høggr, past hjó, past pl. hjoggu, pp. hƒggvit/hƒggit) sv. (Gr 3.6.5.2, 3.6.9.3) strike III:56, 57, 72, 106, V:116, 122, 124, 125, 129, 147, VII A:24, XXVI A:17; strike with the edge of a weapon VII B:67, XXII:15/1, cut XXVI A:68; with dat. of the weapon VII A:102; cut, cut down V:27; hƒggva á strike (a blow) on XXVI B:153; hƒggva af cut off XXVI B:90; hƒggva frá, hƒggva í frá cut free, cut away (cf. line 169) VI:217, 227; hjó í hacked at XXI:151; høggr me› with it strikes XXI:150; hƒggva til strike at I:138, III:85, V:98, 145, XXII:44/1; hƒggva til manns struck at a man XXVI B:152 hƒggva2, hƒggvi see hƒgg Hƒgni m. son of Gjúki, (half-)brother of Gunnarr XI:19, 23, 25, 37, 46, 50, 55, 66, 69, 75, XXV:21 hƒku see haka hƒll (gen. hallar) f. hall I:3, IV:30 (object of merkir), XI:48; himna hƒll heaven XXII:2/2; with suffixed def. art. (Gr 3.1.9) I:79; acc. sg. with suffixed def. art. hƒllina II:5, XI:17, XVI:96, gen. sg. with suffixed def. art. hallarinnar I:46, dat. sg. hƒllu XXV:63; dat. sg. with suffixed def. art. hƒllinni I:23, 70, 89, XI:47, hƒllunni (Gr 3.1.7.4 (3)) I:28, pl. with suffixed def. art. hallirnar XI:14; innan hallar within your hall, i.e. in your household X:155 hƒnd (gen. sg. handar, dat. sg. hendi, nom. pl. hendr, gen. pl. handa) f. hand (Gr 3.1.7.2 (3)) I:6 (with suffixed def. art.), XII:28, 54, XIV:191 (with suffixed def. art.), XXII:35/3, XXIII:87, XXV:48, XXVI A:69; hand or arm XXII:15/3, XXV:88; arm XV:108 (with suffixed def. art.), XXII:50/2, XXVI A:52; leggja hƒnd sína yfir lay one’s arm over (someone’s shoulders) XI:47; sú hƒndin the one arm XV:123; hendi with his hand XXV:70, hinni hendinni in the other hand (cf. Gr 3.3.5) V:101; Várar hendi by the hand of Vár IX:122; flinnar handar on your part XVI:73; hægri hƒnd right hand (side) XXII:63/3; pl. hendr II:31 (understand váru fastar), 120 A New Introduction to Old Norse

II:33 (= arms; subject of munu slitna), VII B:71 (see fallask); dat. pl. hƒndum arms (object of orpit) XXV:88, in her arms IV:65; taka hƒndum seize, take hold of XXVI A:11, capture X:15; á hendi on my arm XVI:182; á hendi with dat. into someone’s hands or care XIV:174; á hendi fleim Gu›i into the hands of that God XIX:111; ganga á hƒnd with dat. submit to someone, join someone’s band XXII:10/1; á hendr against XV:81; sér á hƒndum on his hands (arms) X:62; af hendi sér from his arm XVI:146; flér af hƒndum from your hands IX:116; af hendi with gen. on someone’s part II:72; henni í hƒnd into her hand III:31; tók í hƒnd honum took him by the hand XVI:106; í hƒnd flegar on the spot XIV:118; í hƒnd sér in his hand XXVI B:219; sér í hendi in his/her hand XII:49, XXV:73; í hendr against or from XXI:195; í hendi (he had) in his/her hand III:29, 54, 95, V:29, VII A:160, XXI:50; ór hendi from, i.e. while held in, my hand V:40; ór hƒndum honum from his hands VII A:103; komsk ór hƒndum fleim escaped them XXVI A:91; til handa henni for her XV:10; Gu›i til handa into God’s hands XXII:26/4; undir hendi sér under his arm XXVI B:152; undir hennar hendi in her hands, under her care XIV:188 hƒr›, hƒr›u, hƒr›um see har›r Hƒr›a-Kárason m. son of Hƒr›a-Kári VIII:39 Hƒr›a-Kári m. ninth-century Norwegian XIX:17 Hƒrn f. a name for the goddess Freyja; Hƒrn húns is a kenning for woman (= Steinger›r; playing board-games being conceived as one of the activities proper to a woman, cf. SnE, Skáldskaparmál ch. 31); object of erum fúsir at finna IV:33 hƒttr m. hat, hood (Gr 3.1.7.1 ex. 5, 3.1.7.2 (2)) V:29 Hƒttr (gen. Hattar) m. a farmer’s son visiting Hlei›argar›r I:9, 11, 13, 21, 26, 29, 35, 36, 38, 73, 81, 87, 90, 99, 100, 107, 108, 123, 127, 129, 130, 134, 141, 146, 147; vit Hƒttr Hƒttr and I I:64; fleir Hƒttr he and Hƒttr I:70 høggr see hƒggva høyra see heyra í prep. (Gr 3.7.4) with dat. in, on I:7, 53, 69, 70, 94, 96, 98, 114, 125, II:1, III:74 (with skálanum), VI:290, 311, VIII:5, 14, IX:123, X:2, XI:2, XIX:3, 18, XXI:16, 104, XXII:3/2, 18/4, XXIII:2, XXIV:17, XXV:16, XXVI A:3, 22, B:68, XXVII:40; í flví in this, as a result of this VI:220, at that moment XXVI A:16; dressed in III:28; of, from Glossary and Index 121

(a place) IV:107, VIII:184, XI:11; with acc. into I:32, 45, 84, 92, 139, II:5, 18, 39, 42 (understand fl‡gr), VI:256, IX:24, 84, X:5, XI:17, XV:9, XXI:169 (2), XXII:26/3 (with skírnarbrunn), 27/4, 49/4, 51/1, XXV:58, 89, XXVI A:15, B:230, XXVII:9, 15 (1), 18; to I:3, IV:3, V:158, VIII:92, IX:47, XI:3, 14, XV:50 (2), XVI:129, XXI:83, 88, 169; in, on II:7, 22, IX:121, X:85, XXII:62/2, XXVII:22; on I:29, V:89, XIX:6; onto XIX:71 (1), XXI:61; of time, at, on II:20, III:120, VIII:8, 16, 20, XII:38, XV:35; as adv. into it II:91, in it III:99, IV:11 (Gr 3.7.7), in them XV:50 (1), inside X:103, in the affair IV:101, in this matter V:135; ok í and in them XXI:156; flar í into it XIX:33; er . . . í in which II:40, IV:35, XIII:16, XXVII:5; í brott see brott; í burt see burt; í frá see frá, ífrá; í gegn see gegn2; í gƒgnum see gƒgnum; í hjá see hjá; í mót, í móti see mót2; í me›al see me›al; í nánd see nánd; í sundr see sundr í› f. deed XXV:1 I›i m. a giant II:81 i›inn adj. diligent (at flví in this) XIV:95 i›ja1 (past i›ja›i, pp. i›jat) wv. do, be busy with I:111 i›ja2 f. activity, business XIV:135 i›jufullr adj. active, hard-working XXIII:2 i›na (past i›na›i, pp. i›nat) wv. work, do; eigi væri nƒkkut i›nat í some work was not done in, was not used for some work XIV:157 i›uliga adv. constantly XIII:46 I›unn f. a goddess, one of the Ásynjur, wife of Bragi II:10, 50; acc. I›unni II:38, 42; gen. I›unnar II:43, 45, 52; dat. I›unni II:35, 48 ifa (past ifa›i, pp. ifat) wv. doubt, have doubts (um about) VII A:51 (subj.) ifi m. doubt (at hann væri eigi as to whether he was not, i.e. of his being) VII A:44 ífrá, í frá adv. = frá; segja ífrá tell, narrate XIV:88; vísa ífrá with dat. refuse XXIV:54; falla (í)frá die XXIV:67, 71 íhuga (past íhuga›i, pp. íhugat) wv. consider, wonder XVI:59; think about XII:87, XXI:145 íhugi m. concern; var fleim inn mesti íhugi á honum they were greatly worried by him I:72 il f. sole of the foot XXI:23 illa1 adv. (Gr 3.5.2) badly Gr 3.5.3 (1), III:68 (see líka), VII A:97 (see líka), VII B:13 (see duga), XV:70 (see líka), XVI:147 (see ver›a); 122 A New Introduction to Old Norse

badly, badly affected (vi› by) II:43, 107; illa at flola be badly affected XXVI B:121; láta illa yfir express disapproval of something IV:77, be dismayed by XIX:75; mælask illa fyrir be spoken ill of, be condemned XXVI A:119; wickedly XXVI A:87; with difficulty XXVI B:58, 60 illa2 see illr (Gr 3.3.5 ex. 5) illger›ir/illgjƒr›ir f. pl. evil doings, deeds XXIII:27, 45, 73, 85 illgirni f. ill-nature, malice XXIII:49 illgjarn adj. malicious, ill-natured XXIII:73, 85, 104; m. acc. sg. an ill-natured person XXIII:91, 100 illiliga adv. horribly, hideously XXI:128 illiligr adj. evil-looking XXI:103 illmæli n. slander I:124 (flat at in which) illr (n. illt) adj. (Gr 3.3.5 ex. 5, 3.3.8.3) bad I:52; evil XIV:82, XXIII:26 (acc. pl. m.); flá er vár fƒr ill then our journey will have turned out poorly (will have been wasted) XXVI B:50; enn illi the evil/wicked XXII:8/4; flykkja illar be displeased with (something) V:3 (f. acc. pl.); n. illt I:30 (dismal, dismayed), II:131 (poor), V:59, nasty, ugly (with hár) XXI:103; n. as substantive illt evil, harm I:31, IV:12, XXIII:74; til ills for poor reward, to poor advantage XIX:98; n. as adv. illt er it is bad IX:25, XXV:51; vera illt til with gen. something is difficult to obtain II:17, difficult to find XVI:138; gjƒr›isk illt til matarins food became difficult to find XXI:60; var› ƒllum illt af it made them all ill XXI:76 illú› f. evil intent X:103, 113 ilmr m. smell, scent XII:13, 19 Ilmr f. name of a goddess used in kennings for females; in kenning for valkyrie, hjalmfaldin armleggjar orma Ilmr helmeted lady of arm- rings V:22; acc. Ilmi as a half-kenning (i.e. there is lacking the usual genitive of an attribute of a human being) for Steinger›r IV:20 imbrudagahald n. the observance of Ember Days XXVII:29 ímóti see mót2 (Gr 3.7, 3.7.3) ímun/ímƒn f. battle XXII:33/2 in1 adv. with comp. the (more) IX:100, 101, XV:55 in2 see inn2 ina see inn2 Ingibjƒrg Sturludóttir f. III:21, 39, 40 (dat., for Ingibjƒrg), 49 Ingólfr m. Icelandic settler VIII:15, 45, XIX:4, 18, 31, 38, 39, 42, 44, 47, 52, 54, 72, 74, 75, 79, 80, 83, 84, 87, 88, 94, 96, 100, 102, 104, 107 Glossary and Index 123

Ingólfsfell n. mountain in the south-west of Iceland VIII:19, XIX:91 Ingólfshƒf›i m. headland in the south-east of Iceland VIII:17, XIX:54 Ingunn f. XIV:185 Ingunn fiórólfsdóttir f. mother of fiór›r XV:33, 124, 130, 133 Ingunnarsta›ir f. pl. farm in Króksfjƒr›r, western Iceland; á Inngunnar- stƒ›um (cf. Gr 3.1.8 ex.) XV:33 inir see inn2 inn1 adv. in I:3, II:5, 56, 148, IV:20, VII A:150, B:64, IX:114, 120, X:33, 75, XI:17, XII:58, XXI:89, XXVI B:59, 81, 135; i.e. into the hall XVI:100, 102, 109; i.e. towards the shore VI:135, 136, VIII:97, XXI:52, 169, i.e. away from the open sea XXI:55, 83; inland XIX:60; inside XXVI B:165; inn í inside into XXVI B:215; flar inn into it (the lopt) XXVI B:117; sem inn var gengit where one went in, i.e. at the entrance XII:52 inn2, enn def. art. = hinn (Gr 3.3.5) the with following adj. V:37, 52, 57, VI:270, VII B:37, 48, X:44, 55, XXII:20/4, 50/2, XXV:20, 45, 90, 99, XXVI B:19, XXVII:20; with comp. inn fyrra the first XXVII:44, inn meiri the greater XXVII:46; with sup. I:72, VII B:10, XI:58, 73; with ordinal num. VI:161, X:27, 28; enn illi the Wicked XXII:8/4, inn mikli the Great V:79, enn langi the Long VI:64, 66; enn helgi the Saint(ly) VIII:12, XIV:11, enn digri the Stout VIII:31, enn hárfargi the Fine-haired VIII:61; flokk enn svarta your black flock V:166; kóngsins skáld it frí›a the handsome poet of the king XXII:19/2; gen. sg. m. ens VIII:7, 8, ens mjóva XIX:7, ens gamla XIX:107; dat. sg. m. inum II:152, III:86, enum VIII 74; f. in IX:102, 114, X:24, XXV:19, en X:9, XXVI B:92; acc. sg. f. ina IX:127, XXVI A:43, B:13; dat. sg. f. inni XXV:82; n. it, et I:81, II:28 (with sup.), IV:31, 63, VI:127, VIII:3, IX:60, XI:20, XXII:42/2, 62/3, XXIII:89 (with sup.), XXVII:5, 44; dat. sg. n. inu IX:73; m. pl. enir VIII:109; inir mestu very great XV:40; acc. pl. m. ena XXI:42, enu XXI:42, textual note (cf. C–V under hinn); f. pl. inar XXV:24; n. pl. en VI:190, in XI:7, XXV:2, 112, XXVII:33; dat. pl. III:51; fletta it this XI:5, fletta et mikla skip the large ship (Gr 3.3.5) VI:104, 125, flat it mikla men IX:50; flræll minn inn bezti my best servant (Gr 3.3.5) X:175; ormi fleim inum frána to (those of) the glittering serpent X:83; mæki flann enn snarpa this sharp sword here XXII:15/4; used in addressing an insult to someone in vánda kerling you evil old woman IV:75 inna (past innti, pp. innt) wv. tell XXII:22/2; speak XXII:46/4; flér 124 A New Introduction to Old Norse

inni› you mean (or imp. speak: ‘go a little further in your speech’?) XXII:32/2 innan adv. inside XIV:9; from inside, i.e. out (from behind the island) VI:136; as prep. with gen. (Gr 3.7.2) within X:155, XIV:142; inside XXV:87, flar innan bor›s on board that ship VI:82; of time within VII A:55; innan at with dat. on the inner shore of, on the side (of the island) facing the mainland VI:58; fyr/fyrir innan with acc. inside II:60, IX:18, fyrir innan fjƒr›u round by the heads of the fjords XV:133, see fyr innan, fyrir innan innar adv. comp. further in (away from the door) I:70, III:35 inni adv. inside, indoors III:14, IV:41, XXVI A:53, B:120; in his house VIII:50, XXVI A:55, B:64; in the house XXVI B:74; in their house XXVI B:104; flar inni inside it XII:14 innri adv. comp. inner; et innra hús the inside of the house IV:31 inu, inum see inn2 Írar m. pl. the Irish VII A:22 (along with eyverskan her, the object of lét deyja) Írland n. Ireland VII A:6, 74, 91, 108, 109, XII:52, XIX:32, 35 írskr adj. Irish VIII:23, 24 Ísland n. Iceland VII A:132, 134, 146, VIII:7, 16, 20, 33, 35, 42, 56, 64, 73, 76, 144, 157, 158, 159, 168, XIV:8, XVI:119, 122, 123, 177, 190, XIX:27, 42, 47, 51, 52, 114 Íslandsfer› f. journey to Iceland XVI:189, XIX:31, 43 Ísleifr Gizurarson1 m. son of Gizurr fiorvaldsson; died in the fire at Flugum‡rr III:74 Ísleifr Gizurarson2 m. son of Gizurr hvíti, bishop 1056–80 VIII:9 Ísleifr Grímsson m. XIV:182 Ísleifr Hallsson m. XIV:169 Íslendingabók f. Book of the Icelanders VIII:1 Íslendingar m. pl. Icelanders VII A:133 íslenzkr adj. Icelandic (Gr 3.3.9 ex. 2) VII A:135, XVI:17, 62 Ísodd f. wife of Tristram XII:71, 75, ístra f. paunch; acc. with suffixed def. art. ístruna my paunch XXI:177 Ísƒnd f. wife of King Markis, beloved of Tristram XII:22, 36, 38, 50, 51, 81, 86 it1 see inn2 it2 pron. dual 2nd person Gr 3.2.1, X:109, XVI:51 (i.e. Au›unn and the bear), 53; it Vƒlundr you and Vƒlundr X:179 Glossary and Index 125

Ívarr m. son of Ragnarr Lo›brók VIII:12 ívi›gjarn adj. malicious (with harma?) X:133 íﬂrótt f. craft, art, skill II:86, XIV:20 íﬂróttama›r m. skilled person XIV:22 já adv. yes I:127 jafn/jamn adj. equal, the same Gr 3.1.7.3, 3.3.8.4 (1); acc. sg. m. jamnan with dat. equal to XXIV:83; n. jafnt vi›r sik justly proportioned? XXIII:52; n. as adv. jafnt sem just as IV:76 jafna (past jafna›i, pp. jafnat) wv. trim, cut to an even length IX:21 jafnan/jamnan adv. always XI:35, XII:80, XV:49, XXI:13, XXIV:29; constantly XXI:154; continually, repeatedly Gr 3.5.3 (2), I:53, XV:58; all the time XV:60, 85, XXII:4/3; generally I:76, XXVI A:58 jafnberr adj. so exposed (i.e. as now) I:33 jafnfjá›r adj. of equal means, of the same means XV:11 jafnfrí›r adj. as beautiful, as fine; n. jafnfrítt VI:112 jafngó›r adj. as good; acc. sg. m. one (an emerald) as good XII:28 jafningi m. equal I:145 jafnlangt adv. as far XXIII:83 jafnmargr adj. equally many, the same number II:80, VII A:117; pl. jafnmargir of equal number, equal in number XXVII:14; acc. pl. m. jafnmarga sér the same number as themselves XIX:69 jafnmenni n. equal (in rank or status) XV:6 jafnmikit adj. n. as subst. as much, the same amount XXI:118 jafnsítt adv. with dat. as low as, at the same level as XII:16 jafnskjótt adv. immediately, at once VII B:67; jafnskjótt sem as soon as XXVI B:193 jafnskƒruliga adv. as outstandingly, prominently, splendidly, boldly (sem as) XXVI B:101 jalda f. mare VII A:144 (gen. with líki) jammaki (jafnmaki) m. equal XXIV:84 jamnan see jafnan and jafn jamvel (jafnvel) adv. as well (sem as) XXIV:71 jar›a (past jar›a›i, pp. jar›a›r) wv. bury VII B:85 jar›ar see jƒr› jar›hús n. underground chamber XIX:32 jarknasteinn m. precious stone X:118, 162 jarl m. (in England) earl VII A:75, 92; (in Norway) ruler next in rank to a king VI:198, VII B:44 (poss. dat. with á hæla), VIII:147; = 126 A New Introduction to Old Norse

Eiríkr jarl VI:55 (subject of haf›i um kraf›a; see note), 236, 248; ok jarl enn ﬂri›ja (with vá vi›, parallel to jƒfra tvá) and a jarl (who was) the third VI:161; viceroy, subject ruler VI:34; as title VI:24, 33, 40, 65, 103, 163, 217, 269, 275, 302, VII A:125, 169, B:5, 8, XIX:6, 15; with suffixed def. art. jarlenn VI:73, 96, 100, 271, 272, 273, jarlsins XIX:10, jarlenum VI:298 járn n. iron; pl. weapons XXV:93 Járnbar›inn m. name of a ship (with an iron strengthening or projection on the prow for ramming) VI:192, 228 járnstafr m. iron pole, iron staff VII A:160, XII:54 jarpr adj. brown, dark-brown, reddish brown XXV:72 jarpskammr adj. (as subst.) short (reddish) brown(-haired) one XXV:44 jartegn f. or n. sign, token VIII:155; miracle XIII:7 (pl.), 20 játa/játta (past játti/játa›i) wv. with dat. or acc. agree (to something) II:27, 125, III:20, VII A:66, B:20, VIII:137, XVI:36 Jóan (Jón) ¯gmundarsonr m. bishop at Hólar 1106–1121 VIII:191 jó› n. child X:155 Johannes m. Latin form of Jón XIV:120 jók see auka jól n. pl. 1. feast; the wolf’s feast is the carrion resulting from a battle; ‘at the wolf’s feast’ means therefore ‘in battle’ V:51. 2. Yule, midwinter feast later identified with Christmas I:73 jólaaptann m. Yule-Eve, Christmas Eve I:82 Jóm n. a district in present-day Poland VI:24 Jón af Bakka m. one of the incendiaries at Flugum‡rr, subsequently (late January 1254) killed on his own farm III:2 Jón prestr Halldórsson m. III:93, 95 Jón svarti m. XIV:183 Jón ¯gmundarson m. bishop at Hólar 1106–21 XIV:1, 5, 11, 13, 24, 47, 57, 140, 153, 169, 174; cf. Johannes XIV:120 Jónakr m. father of Ham›ir and Sƒrli XXV:93 jór m. horse XV:12 jungfrú f. young lady, maiden XIV:185 júngr (= ungr) adj. young XXII:14/1 Júnii (Latin) gen. of June VIII:197 junkherra m. young lord, prince XI:54 jurtakyn n. pl. varieties of aromatic herbs XII:14 jƒfurr m. prince, ruler; acc. sg. (object of vann) VI:247, XXII:34/4; Glossary and Index 127

dat. sg. jƒfri XXII:17/2; nom. pl. jƒfrar X:64; acc. pl. jƒfra kings VI:158 Jƒkulsdalr m. valley in eastern Iceland Gr 3.1.8 ex. jƒldu see jalda jƒr› f. earth, ground III:99, 100 (with suffixed def. art.), IX:28, 83, XXI:200; the earth XXIV:37; land VII A:23, XXII:53/3, dat. sg. jƒr›u XXII:37/4; a piece of ground XXVI A:104; adv. gen. sg. jar›ar on earth IX:7; til jar›ar to the ground I:98, V:96; as second part of compound fjƒr›jƒr› ‘land of fjords’, i.e. Norway, separated by tmesis VI:248 Jƒr› f. a goddess, personification of the earth, mother of fiórr IX:4 Jƒrmunrekkr m. (Ermanaric, Ostro-Gothic king, d. AD 375) XXV:11, 66, 70, 86, 89 Jƒtunheimar m. pl. giantland, the world of giants II:48, 49, IX:24, 47, 52, 80, 84, 105, 113 jƒtunn m. giant; with suffixed def. art. XII:6, 53; as title II:41, 50, 59, 61; gen. sg. IX:103, 126; dat. sg. jƒtni II:102, dat. of respect for the giant IX:90; nom. pl. jƒtnar VII A:161, IX:70, 86; acc. pl. IX:94 gen. pl. jƒtna II:82, 84, IX:18, 114 -k/-g suffixed 1st person pron. with verbs V:153, VIII:2, 4, XVI:63, 64; duplicating ek IX:12, X:93, 159, 183, 184, XVI:69; duplicating ek and with suffixed neg. VI:138, 246, IX:100, X:95, 97, 124, vilkat ek I do not want XXV:33 kaf n. plunge, dive; with suffixed def. art. í kafit under water VI:296 kafna (past kafna›i, past pl. kƒfnu›u, pp. kafnat) wv. become choked, suffocate II:100, III:78 kala (pres. kell, past kól, past pl. kólu, pp. kalinn) sv. impers. with acc. one gets very cold (frozen, frostbitten) III:62, X:145 kaldr adj. cold XXII:51/2; f. kƒld X:145; n. kalt var it was cold III:103; svá var honum kalt or›it he had become so cold III:126 kalendas f. pl. (Latin word) kalends, the first day of a month VIII:197 kálfr m. calf; as nickname VII B:7 Kálfr Árnason m. XXII:8/4, 9/1, 29/1, 52/1 (see note 2; but at 52/1 it may be Kálfr Arnfinnsson that is referred to, see ÍF XXVII 385, note 2) Kálfr Brandsson m. III:129 Kálfr illviti (the Ill-willed) m. enemy of Bjƒrn Hítdœlakappi V:60, 85, 93, 105, 129, 158, 162 128 A New Introduction to Old Norse kalla (past kalla›i, past pl. kƒllu›u/kalla›u, pp. kalla›r/kallat Gr 3.3.8.4 (2)) wv. (Gr 3.6.6) 1. call I:59, II:82, 86, 95, VI:126, VII A:37, VIII:21, IX:66, XXI:28 (2), 45, call him XXII:18/2 (Gr 3.9.5.1); call out II:33, X:66, XI:43; shout XI:132; declare XIV:91; kalla›u svá at they claimed that XXIV:35; sem er at kalla such as to call it (a day) XIV:81; kalla á call out to X:110, XXVI B:155, call on, invoke XXIV:45; declare (something or someone to be) I:88, II:131, VII A:136, XIX:56; pres. 1st pl. kƒllum II:83, 116, 160; past 3rd pl. ok kƒllu›u and they called it/them (Gr 3.9.5.1) XXI:24, 28 (1), 34, kƒllu›u flar called that place XXI:33; imp. pl. kalli› summon I:55; pp. er/es/var/ váru kalla›r/kƒllu›/kallat is/was known as II:2, III:128, IV:107, VIII:18, 30, 37, 49, 52, XV:153, is called XIV:90; svá verit kalla›a been called that XV:54; fletta er kƒllu› this is called XXV:112 (verb in agreement with complement; see Gr 3.9.8.2); ok flá var kallat and (which) then (thereafter) was called XIX:27; er sí›an kƒllu› has since been called XXVI B:230; sí›an var hann kalla›r after that he was known as XIX:35; fiórhallr var kalla›r a certain fiórhallr was known as XXI:9; kalla›ar, kalla›r said to be XXIII:94, XXVI A:57; impers. kalla má one may say XXVI B:13. 2. -sk form kallask is called XXIII:96; kalla›isk claimed that she, declared that she VI:19 kann see kunna kanna (past kanna›i) wv. investigate, explore VIII:42, XXI:22 kappi m. man of valour, fighting man VII A:76; warrior, champion I:29, 45, 77, 146 kappmæli n. pl. dispute; flreyta kappmæli enter into a dispute, start to argue VII B:28 kappsamligr adj. provocative, rash V:160 kapulánn m. chaplain XIV:155 Káragróf f. ‘Kári’s pit or hollow’ XXVI B:231 Kári Sƒlmundarson m. Njáll’s son-in-law XXVI B:46, 76, 78, 81, 85, 92, 96, 193, 202, 208, 213, 219, 221, 228 karl m. (old) fellow, churl IV:41; man, male XIV:145, XV:60 Karli m. slave XIX:72, 92, 98, 103 karlkona f. masculine woman XV:70 karlma›r m. man V:114; male XIV:84, XV:61, XI:39, XXIII:1 karlmannligr adj. manly; karlmannligt mark a sign of manliness XXIII:52 Karlsefni n. = fiorfinnr (m.) karlsefni fiór›arson XXI:2, 3, 17, 41, 50, Glossary and Index 129

66, 74, 86, 98, 114, 119, 126, 129, 143, 163, 166, 172, 190, 197, 199; af Karlsefni of Karlsefni’s troop XXI:144. The name, originally a nickname, means ‘the makings of a man’, a promising lad Karlshafu› n. (Eiríksson), one of Óláfr Tryggvason’s followers VI:300 kasta (past kasta›i, past pl. kƒstu›u, pp. kastat) wv. with dat. throw (Gr 3.6.9.1 (7)) I:35, 43, 92, II:74 (understand them, the eyes as object (Gr 3.9.5.1)), II:128, XIX:58, XXI:80, 152, XXII:35/4 (impers. pass.), XXVI A:70, B:144, 220; cast (anchor) XXI:47; throw overboard XV:147; put aside, reject, apostatise from VII A:125; cast off (imp.) XXII:25/3; throw off XXVI B:151; lay aside XVI:97; kasta sér throw oneself XXVI B:229 kastali m. castle, fortress I:46 (with suffixed def. art.), XII:70 katlar see ketill Katli see Ketill kátr adj. cheerful, merry, full of good cheer XI:60, 69 kaup n. bargain, agreement II:140; payment, reward (til for it) I:121; wages, salary XIV:18 (with suffixed def. art.), 29; sér til kaups as his payment II:134 kaupa (past keypti, pp. keypt) wv. (Gr 3.6.9.3) buy II:127, XV:10, XVI:11, XXI:113; keyptak I bought XVI:64; sem flú keyptir as you bought it for XVI:22; kaupa at make a bargain with VIII:118 kaupma›r (pl. kaupmenn) m. merchant Gr 3.1.9 ex.14 kaupstefna f. market, trading XXI:113 kaus see kjósa keiplabrot n. pl. pieces of (small) boats VIII:69 keipr m. small boat, canoe; = hú›keipr XXI:120 (with suffixed def. art.) kell see kala kem, kemr, kemsk see koma kenna (past ken(n)di, pp. ken(n)dr) wv. 1. with acc. and dat. teach II:94, XIV:20, 26, 154, 186, XXI:201, XXV:51; preach VIII:78; kennir (he or it) teaches, shows XIV:90, note. 2. perceive, feel III:112; impers. with gen. flar sem holta kenndi where ridges could be seen XXI:91. 3. recognise I:136, V:85, VI:79, 289, VII A:113 (understand them as object, Gr 3.9.5.1), 119, XVI:105, XXI:75; know XVI:59, XXI:74; -sk form kendiz ei there was not found XXII:40/3. 4. with acc. and dat. impute to, accuse of, blame on XII:89. 5. denote, refer to (flá them; me› by) XXIV:74; kenndr called, known as XXII:43/3; kenna vi› name after VIII:52, XIX:86, 101, XXII:19/1 130 A New Introduction to Old Norse kennima›r m. teacher XIV:175; pl. kennimenn clerics, clergymen VIII:179, XIV:165, 182 kenning f. teaching, preaching; pl. XIV:31, 35, 36, 39, 151 kennir m. one who knows, experiences, deals in (with gen.), in kenning for man (here = the poet, Hallfrø›r) kennir au›ar VI:351 (dat. with segir) keppa (past keppti, pp. keppt) wv. contend, compete; -sk form in reciprocal sense contend with each other VII A:98 ker n. vat II:90, 97, 157, III:99; with suffixed def. art. III:101, 109; flar í kerit into that cask III:102; pl. with suffixed def. art. kerin II:97, 158; cup, goblet XII:49, 50 (with suffixed def. art.), XXV:73 kerling f. old woman (Gr 3.1.8 (14)) IV:75 Ketilbjƒrn (Gizurarson) m. son of Gizurr fiorvaldsson; died in the fire at Flugum‡rr III:74 Ketilbjƒrn (Ketilsson) m. Icelandic settler VIII:80 ketill (pl. katlar) m. pot (Gr 3.1.7.2 ex. 4, 3.1.8 (3)) II:97 Ketill kálfr m. of Hringunes (modern Ringnes) in Norway VII B:7 Ketill ór Mƒrk m. son-in-law of Njáll and one of the burners; son of Sigfúss Sighvatsson, brother of firáinn Sigfússon XXVI B:184, 186 Ketill sútari (cobbler) m. died in the fire at Flugum‡rr III:76 Ketill (dat. Katli) fiorsteinsson m. 1074/75–1145, bishop at Hólar 1122–45; married to Gróa, daughter of Bishop Gizurr Ísleifsson VIII:1, XIV:177 keyptak, keypti see kaupa keyra (past keyr›i, pp. keyrt) wv. drive; impers. keyrir skipit the ship was driven XV:145 Kíarr m. legendary king (perhaps = Caesar) X:9, 74 kinnhestr m. blow or slap on the cheek XV:21, XXVI A:83 (with suffixed def. art.) kinn (pl. kinnr) f. cheek XXI:104 (with suffixed def. art.), XXIII:22, 48 kippa (past kippti, pp. kippt) wv. with dat. snatch, pull quickly I:69, III:60, XXVI B:184 kirkja f. church XIII:1, XIV:6, 61; til kirkju to the church III:46, 50, 122, to church XVI:94; with suffixed def. art. III:83, 84, 86 (i.e. the wall of the church), XIII:4; gen. sg. with suffixed def. art. III:61 kirkjudyrr m. pl. church-entrance XIV:25 kirkjugar›r m. churchyard XIV:152 kirkjugjƒr› f. building of a church XIV:14 kirkjuskot n. recess in the side of a church XVI:93 Glossary and Index 131 kista f. chest, box X:102, 112 kjafal m. a kind of tunic (cf. Old Irish cabhail ‘body of a shirt’) or hooded cloak (Old Irish cochall) XXI:45 (see note) Kjalarey f. island in Brei›afjƒr›r XV:153 Kjalarnes1 n. promontory north of Reykjavík in the south-west of Iceland VIII:45, XIX:108 Kjalarnes2 n. promontory in North America XXI:33, 167 kjósa (pres. k‡ss, past kaus/køri, past pl. køru, pp. kørit/kosit) sv. (Gr 3.6.9.3 and ex. 11) choose (sér for oneself) II:63, 64 (at by), II:66, III:19, VII A:80, 88, XXVI A:12; kjósa y›r mat choose food for yourselves XXVI B:20; inf. with myndir flú IV:91 (flér for yourself; at as); kaustu you have chosen IV:97; mundum sízt til kjósa would least have chosen (to be killed) XXVI B:99; past subj. køri might choose III:42; pp. undarliga kosit a strange thing to choose, a strange choice XVI:120 kjƒlr m. keel XXI:33, XXVI A:94; with suffixed def. art. XV:151, 152 Kjƒlr m. area in central Iceland XXVI A:96 kjƒt n. flesh; dat. sg. with flesh XXIII:79 kjƒtmikill adj. fleshy; f. pl. kjƒtmiklar fleshy ones (cheeks) XIII:93 kjƒtsfullr adj. full of meat, meaty, fleshy XXIII:54, 94 kjør n. choice (af from what was available) VII A:78 klakklaust adv. without harm, unscathed XVI:35 klámhƒgg n. obscene blow, shaming blow, a blow in the rear; dat. sg. (instrumental) klámhƒggvi V:126 (see note) klefi m. small room, closet (often apparently a partitioned-off alcove of a larger room, used for sleeping or storage; here presumably the same as the lopt) III:76 (with suffixed def. art.) klerkr m. cleric, scholar XIV:27, 175 Klifsandr m. an area of sand in Hítardalr west of Hítará V:78, 163, 168 Klifsdalr m. valley between Hellisdalr and Hítardalr V:75 Klifsjƒrvi m. a sandbank in Hítardalr west of Hítará V:78 kló f. claw; dat. pl. klóm II:51 klofna (past klofna›i, pp. klofna›r) wv. intransitive split XXVI A:74 klókr adj. clever, skilful XXII:40/3 klóra (past klóra›i, pp. klóra›r) wv. with dat. scratch XXI:68 klyfja›r adj. (pp.) pack-saddled Gr 3.3.9 ex. 19 kl‡pa (past kl‡pti, pp. kl‡pt), wv. pinch XXI:68 klæ›a (past klæddi, pp. klæddr) wv. dress; pp. klæddr clothed, clad XII:24, 30; -sk form klæddiz clothed himself XXII:30/1 132 A New Introduction to Old Norse klæ›i n. cloth XXI:113; article of clothing XXI:44; in pl. clothes III:127, VII A:81, XVI:113, XXI:205; klæ›in ƒll á Kára all the clothes Kári had on XXVI B:221 klækiligr adj. lewd, indecent XIV:84 klækishƒgg n. shameful blow, base blow V:123 Klœngr fiorsteinsson m. bishop at Skálaholt 1152–76 XIV:88, 173 kná (past knátti) wv. can; past subj. knætta could XXV:74 knappr m. button XXI:46 knarrasmi›r m. ‘ship-builder’, nickname (see knƒrr) XXII:43/3 kné n. knee (Gr 3.1.7.5 (2), (3), 3.1.8 (29)) II:71, III:57, IX:62, XXII:21/1; acc., object of sní›a XXII:49/1; dat. sg. with suffixed def. art. knénu XXIII:97; pl. lap IX:121; gen. pl. knjá XIX:83; dat. pl. í knjám henni on her lap XIII:3; hann stó› á knjám he was down on his knees V:130, svá at hann stó› á knjám while still down on his knees V:142 kneppa (past kneppti, pp. kneppt) wv. fasten, button; pp. ok kneppt and it was buttoned XXI:46 knésfótr m. the back of the knee X:86 kno›a (past kno›a›i, pp. kno›at) wv. knead XIX:56 knú›i see kn‡ja knúta f. knuckle-bone I:39; with suffixed def. art. I:42 Knútr m. brother of Au›r XV:81 kn‡ja (past knú›i, pp. knúinn) sv. drive forward, force onward XV:99 knætta see kná knƒrr m. (merchant) ship XVI:172 knƒttr m. ball XXI:127 kó›u see kve›a kol n. coal, charcoal; cinders, ashes XXI:111 kól see kala Kolbeinn grƒn (moustache) Dufgusson m. died January, 1254 III:15, 16, 20, 40, 42, 49, 70, 71, 107 Kolbjƒrn m. Óláfr Tryggvason’s marshal VI:291, 295 Kolbjƒrn (veljungr) m. died in the fire at Flugum‡rr III:75 Kolbrún f. = fiorbjƒrg kolbrún Glúmsdóttir XXII:19/1. She lived in the Western Fjords of Iceland. Her nickname kolbrún (‘coal-brow’) is from her black hair and eyebrows Kolli inn prú›i (the Splendid, the Elegant) m. supposed to be son of Bjƒrn Hítdœlakappi’s enemy fiór›r Kolbeinsson V:86, 93, 103, 133, 134, 139, 141 Glossary and Index 133 kollóttr adj. bald XVI:91 Kolr m. a slave in 10th-century Iceland VIII:51 Kolr fiorsteinsson m. one of the burners XXVI B:114 Kolsgjá f. ‘Kol’s Rift’, a ravine or small gorge, possibly at fiingvƒllr VIII:52 (see Björn fiorsteinsson, Thingvellir. Iceland’s National Shrine, tr. Peter Foote (1987), 37) koma (pres. kemr/kømr, past kom, past pl. kómu/kvámu, pp. kominn, n. komit, m. pl. komnir Gr 3.3.9 (7)) sv. 1. come (Gr 3.6.9.3 and ex. 12) I:1, 6, 74, 78, 115, 139, II:18, 38, 41, 52, III:21, IV:6, V:119, VI:5, 14 (pp. f. komin), 230, VIII:18, 88, 95 (kvámu they used to come), 103, IX:17, 18, X:40, XI:17, 43, XIII:4, XV:9, 25, XVI:14, XIX:57, XXI:14, XXII:27/1, 43/4, XXV:19, 95, XXVI A:52, B:5, 24, XXVII:28; of time, arrive I:82; imp. kom come XVI:39; imp. pl. komi› come X:106; pres. subj. komir come XI:72; past kom it went XXVI A:18; 2nd sg. past komst I:144; past subj. kœmi/kvæmi came III:114, VI:45, VIII:73, XVI:87, XIX:54, should come XIV:142, should go V:158; pp. em kominn have come XVI:62, var komit was come, had arrived XVI:17, sé kominn is come I:46, mun kominn must be come XXVI B:15; pp. m. pl. komnir come, reached V:163, arrived XXV:68; koma á hit, strike V:96, 99, land on I:18 (supine), get on to VI:272; kom á it struck XXVI A:49, it struck/hit him on III:85, XV:108; ei fær tƒlu á komit one cannot put a number on them, they cannot be numbered XI:12; koma á, koma á lei› with dat. bring about, arrange IV:72, VII B:58 (impers. pass., Gr 3.9.3), XII:69; koma á flótta take to flight VI:155; koma á óvart with dat. take someone by surprise XXVI A:7; kvámu á›r had already come VIII:108; koma af abolish XIV:87; flví haf›i eigi or›it af komit me› ƒllu that had not been entirely abolished XIV:78; koma aptr come back XXI:43, kvámu eigi aptr did not return X:12; koma at reach, get hold of II:122, IX:131, arrive, come up III:2, IV:11, come to IV:52, approach, come up to XIX:17, get up to, reach XXI:141; get to IV:10, V:93, VI:274 (var komnir: vb. sg. in agreement with first part of a subject placed after the vb., see Gr 3.9.8.2), XIX:83, get into I:128 (pp. f. komin); vér kómum at we came here XXVI B:10; er fleir kómu/kvámu at when they got there (to Gunnarr’s home) XXVI A:26, where they came ashore XXI:31; flá kom Flosi at then Flosi came up XXVI B:153; komnar at come there XXVI B:5; kæmi (past subj.) 134 A New Introduction to Old Norse

hlíf at gagni that his shield was of use, was any help (to him) XXII:40/4; kom at fleim ƒrunum got at them with arrows XXVI A:39; koma eptir follow VII A:111; komnir frá descended from VIII:38; var kominn frá was descended from XVI:191; koma fram come about, happen XXVI B:79; ok vera eigi fram komna and that they have not (yet) taken place, not yet happened, not yet brought into effect XXIII:26; koma flví fram at bring it about that VIII:156; koma fyrir/firir come before, reach I:45; come into the presence of XVI:18; koma skildi fyrir sik bring one’s shield in front of one XXVI A:72; koma heim approach the house XXVI B:87, get back home XIX:8; koma í arrive at VII A:9, 28, X:5, get into III:61, hit XXVI B:152; koma í sta› take his place XXIV:70; koma me› with acc. bring V:53, XXII:54/1; koma ni›r with dat. put down XXI:55; flar er ni›r kom where it came down XXI:128; koma nær with dat. approach XIII:17; koma ofan land III:45; kom ofan í came down onto (i.e. the top of his shield) XXVI B:91; koma ór escape from VI:338, 348 (inf. with myndi), vera kominn ór to have escaped from VI:338, e›a [frá hánum] brott of komnum (pp. dat. sg. m.) ór or about him having escaped from, or that he had escaped from VI:354, komit ór (which had) flowed from XXV:84; koma saman vi›r meet near (or meet with?) XXIII:18; komnir saman assembled VI:28; koma til arrive, come up V:113, be born XXI:196, reach VI:11, XIX:73, attend VII A:72, be required by, concern XIV:116; kvámu til came for it, prescribed (i.e. in accordance with his instructions) VIII:185; ok til fless er kominn at and (who) has reached a position where he deserves to, and (who) deserves to XXIV:61; vel kominn welcome XI:9, 70, XVI:107; ek kem boganum vi› I can make use of my bow against them XXVI A:82; sér vi› koma employ himself for, involve himself in XIV:31; koma flar arrive there XXVI B:41. 2. impers. flar kom at, kom flar at it came to this that, the outcome was that IV:101, XXVI A:91, it reached the point where VI:213; honum fyrir allt eitt koma it would all come to the same thing for him V:106; kom svá it came about, it turned out, came to the point (that) VII B:13, 28, 58; var komit it was come (or [people] had arrived) IX:93; of kvæmi vi› with dat. were brought concerning it, it was prosecuted using (witnesses) VIII:142. 3. with dat. bring II:35, VII A:128, introduce VIII:76, lead VII A:50, get (someone somewhere) III:63; pp. (impers. pass.) komit would be brought VIII:124; honum var svá Glossary and Index 135

nær komit it was such a close thing for him, it so nearly happened for him II:158; koma sér get oneself VI:296. 4. -sk form manage to come, get I:34, III:24 (fram out, i.e. towards the door), V:79, 110 (pres. subj.), XVI:34, 148, XXVI B:85 (pres. subj.), 204; komisk vel út may easily get out XXVI B:208; er komask mátti that it was possible to take VII A:130; komsk eigi could not get V:97; komask at with dat. get up to, get at XXVI A:64, gain possession of, win VI:248; komask fyrir reach, be revealed to, become known to I:50; komask í manage to get into III:87, 101; komask inn í get into XXI:89; komsk ór hƒndum ﬂeim escaped them XXVI A:90; komask til (manage to) reach III:46, manage to get to IV:65; kvæmisk (past subj.) til lei›ar should be able to come about, should be brought about XVI:49; komsk undan got away XXI:200; komask vi› be touched or moved XIV:37; pp. komizk got V:97; fá eigi komizk do not manage to get XVI:34 kompása (past kompása›i, pp. kompása›r) wv. accomplish, complete XII:3 kómu see koma kona (gen. pl. kvenna) f. woman III:127, IV:1, VII A:90, 95, VIII:33, IX:96, X:6, XIV:90, note, 145, XV:6, 11, 23, 59, 61, 133, XIX:11, XXIII:2, 61, XXVI B:141; wife II:103, 106, III:7, V:5, VI:2, VII B:77, X:119, XII:71, XV:38, 49; lady XI:49; female XIV:84, XXI:39; with suffixed def. art. VI:4; pl. konur women, wives XIX:70, 87, XXVI B:5, 114, 134; ok tvær konur and two were women XXI:199 konar m. gen. sg. in phrase nakkvars konar some kind of (i.e. some term for) II:118; ﬂess konar of that kind, of the same kind VIII:70, that kind of XIV:22; alls konar all kinds of XI:60, XII:25, 32, XXI:57 kóngr m. = konungr XXII:1/1 konungaævi n. pl. lives of kings VIII:4 konungr m. king, the king I:1, 2, 47, 57, 60, 62, 66, 77, 82, 86, 112, 114, 116, 117, 119, 128, 135, 141, 144, VI:51, 105, 198, 264, VII A:35, 137, B:22 (subject of vill bjó›a), 27, 51, 54, VIII:29, 32, X:2, XI:48, XVI:15, XIX:48, XXI:38, 202, XXIV:1; as title I:45, 50, 106, 132, V:57, VI:3, 6, 7, 15, 38, 142, 215, VII A:1, 146, B:3, 4, 7, 11, 12, 35, 85, 86, X:8, 14, 78, XI:14, XVI:14, XXI:37; in address, as vocative I:134; with suffixed def. art. I:80, VI:9, 45, 136 (gen. pl.), 289, 291, 292, 297, 323, VII B:66,VIII:26, 84, XXIV:6; dat. sg. konungi to the king XVI:50, for the king X:87 konungsdóttir f. king’s daughter, princess VII A:91 136 A New Introduction to Old Norse konungsgar›r m. king’s premises, residence, palace VII B:59, 78 konungsmenn m. pl. the king’s men VII B:70 koparr m. copper XII:41, 59 Kormakr (¯gmundarson) m. IV:5, 6, 8, 10, 11, 14, 16, 26, 35, 38, 47, 49, 52, 62, 67, 68, 75, 76, 77, 87, 97, 99, 100, 101, 110 Kormakr bryti (steward, bailiff) m. died in the fire at Flugum‡rr III:76 kóróna f. crown XII:25 kórr m. choir, chancel; í kórinn from in the chancel XIV:162 kosit see kjósa kosta (past kosta›i, pp. kostat) wv. put forth effort; kosta rásar run at great speed XXI:180 kostgæfi f. care, concern XIV:97 kostr m. opportunity, chance VI:90, XIV:45, XVI:185, XXVI B:212; choice, alternative XXVI B:102; gera kost with dat. give someone a choice XXVI A:11; charge, expense XIV:147; pl. qualities: gott land kostum a land with fine qualities XXI:177; terms (of marriage agreement) XV:5 Kotkell m. a Hebridean XV:37, 38, 126, 134, 139, 142; dat. Kotkatli XV:135 kraf›a see krefja kraptlauss adj. lacking strength XXIII:29 kraptr m. strength, power XXIII:75, 107 krás f. delicacy, dainty IX:96 krefja (past kraf›i, past pl. krƒf›u, pp. kraf›r) wv. (Gr 3.6.6) with gen. and acc. demand (something from someone/something) X:102,112; order, summon (ships to a rendezvous), pp. um kraf›a in agreement with direct obj. (hreina, acc. pl.) VI:55 (Gr 3.9.7.1) krellr m. strength, spirit, valour I:124 kringlóttr adj. round, circular XXIII:14, 46 kristinn adj. Christian VII A:64, 71, XIV:60; n. kristit VII A:71; m. pl. kristnir VIII:21, 139; XIX:112, XXVI B:105; wk. pl. kristnu VIII:114, 116 kristna (past kristna›i, pp. kristnat) wv. convert (to Christianity) XXII:4/1 kristni f. Christianity VII A:126, VIII:73, 76, 78, 85, 144, XIV:2, 30, 74, 125, XIX:113, XXI:38; with suffixed def. art. VIII:90, 117, XIV:79, 176 Kristr m. Christ VIII:14, 149, XXI:78, XXII:62/3 Glossary and Index 137

Króksfjƒr›r m. fjord in north-western Iceland XV:33 kroppinskeggi m. a nickname, ‘crop-beard’? ‘crooked beard’? VIII:48, 49 kroppr m. body II:30 (with suffixed def. art.), II:31 kross m. cross, crucifix XIV:61 krƒf›u see krefja kul›i m. cold(ness) III:62, 114, 130 kumrskr adj. Cumbrian VII A:26 kunna (pres. kann, past kunni) pret.-pres. vb. know (Gr 3.6.7) II:93, X:154, XIV:68, XV:21 (at in it), 27, XXI:74; know to be VIII:9; know how to II:161, VII B:38, X:92, with suffixed pron. X:183; be able, can XI:34, XXIV:28, XXVI B:7, 53; respond: kunna illa be distressed II:106; feel XVI:75; kunni could XII:9; hann betr kunni he was wilier (than she) X:130; kann vera at, vera kann at maybe V:72, XXI:100; kann flat vera at it may be that XVI:40; Nú kann svá til at bera at If it should happen that XXIV:1; ef svá kann til at ver›a at if it should come about that XXIV:7; subj. kunnim eigi are not able V:104; kynni knew how to, was able II:101, might be able to VII A:147; kann ek eigi margt at I take little notice of (do not greatly understand? am not greatly bothered by?) VI:357; kunna vel til have good knowledge of, good understanding of VII B:26; kunna at with inf. be able to, can XII:11, 63, kunnu sér at vera knew how to be, were sensible enough to be XIV:163 kunnasta f. ability; acc. kunnustu (Gr 3.1.7.1) XVI:135 kunnigr adj. cunning X:119, 139, 163; knowledgeable, skilled in magic; dat. sg. m. kunngum VII A:146; familiar: honum var ví›a kunnigt he had knowledge of many places, he was widely experienced XXI:16 kunningi m. acquaintance; acc. pl. kunningja I:31 kunnr adj. (well) known, renowned X:74; comp. better known VIII:4 kurteiss adj. courtly XI:49 kva› see kve›a kvaddi see kve›ja kvá›u see kve›a kváma f. coming, visit IV:3, XXV:86; leggja kvámur sínar direct one’s visits IV:98 kvámu see koma kván f. wife IX:43, 87, X:40, 139, 152, 154, 163 kvánfang n. marriage XVIII:122rb31 138 A New Introduction to Old Norse kvánga›r adj. (pp.) married XXI:196 kvánlauss adj. without a wife, unmarried XXI:195 kváran Irish surname; cúarán (m.) in Old Irish means a shoe or sock VII A:74 Kvasir m. a wise being created by the gods II:92, 100, 117 kvaz, kvazk see kve›a kve›a (pres. kve›r, past kva›, past pl. kvá›u/kó›u, pp. kve›inn) sv. 1. cry out I:14. 2. say, declare, speak, utter, express (especially in verse) I:91, IV:17, 26, 77, 87, V:16, 148, VI:137, 258, 341, 350, VII B:36, VIII:100, 121, 132, IX:5, 13, X:80, 90, 125, 134, XII:38, XIV:86, XXV:20; compose and deliver (a poem) XXII:heading; speak aloud, recite XXI:182; chant XV:143; with acc. and inf. (Gr 3.9.4) III:42, 92, 123, IV:5 (inf. understood), 11, 14, V:6, 9, 105, VI:337, VIII:67, 93, XV:21, 85, XXI:69, kvá›u flar engi hús said there were no houses there XXI:204, (menn) kvá›u, kó›u they said VI:176, 242, XXV:52, kva› mik (inf. understood) said I would be XVI:176, kva› svá vera skyldu said so it should be XXVI B:18, 81; kve›a á give orders XXVI A:107; var kve›it á it was determined (to be), stipulated as, agreed to for XVI:7; kve›a af summon from IV:12; kve›a svá at or›i utter this, express oneself thus XXIV:9; er at oss kve›inn has been allotted to us XXVI B:187; kve›a um relate X:15; kva› vi› cried out (at it), howled at it XXVI A:18. 3. refl. pres. kvezk says that he II:136, IV:68, XVI:21, 47, 116, XXI:70, past kvazk, kvaz said that he/she II:23, 47, 135, III:33, V:7, 8, 158, VII A:38, XV:6, 51, 115, XXV:45, said he was XV:113, XXVI B:129, 155; eigi kvazk hann hafa he said he had never III:10; kvá›usk said that they II:127, said they were XXVI B:5; reciprocal kve›ask at exchange verses, recite verses to each other XIV:83 kve›ja1 (pres. kve›r, past kvaddi, past pl. kvƒddu, pp. kvatt) wv. 1. greet, salute I:57, XVI:18, 157, XXII:21/2. 2. with gen. summon, convoke VII A:79 (impers. pass., Gr 3.9.3) kve›ja2 f. greeting, salutation XVI:19, 158 kveld n. evening XI:59, XV:25; with suffixed def. art. (Gr 3.1.9) II: 4, IV:52, XXVI B:43; í kveld this evening VI:115, XXVI B:20, 25; um kveldit in the evening XV:90, XVI:94, that evening XXVI B:4; acc. of time hvert kveld every night XIV:70, ekki kveld through no evening, not for one evening XXV:109 kvelda (past kvelda›i, pp. kveldat) wv. impers. kveldar it becomes evening I:28 Glossary and Index 139 kveldsƒngr m. evensong XVI:98 kvelja (past kval›i, pp. kvalit) wv. kill? torment; with neg. suffix at flú kveljat (imp. for subj.) that you will not torment X:152 kvenna see kona kvennafólk n. womenfolk XXVI B:121 (with suffixed def. art.) kvennama›r m. women’s man, womaniser XXIII:28 kvennligr adj. womanly, feminine XXIII:61 kvenskikkja f. woman’s cloak XXVI B:144 kvensligr (i.e. kvenskligr) adj. feminine XXIII:98 kvennvá›ir f. pl. women’s clothes IX:62 kvernsteinn m. millstone II:110 kveykja/kveykva (past kveykti, pp. kveykt) wv. kindle; kveykvi› flér you are lighting or are you lighting? XXVI B:109; arouse, awaken XXV:4; kveykja upp til fless inflame, arouse to it XIV:93; kveykva vi› kindle (the fire) with or set fire to it with XXVI B:117 kvezk see kve›a kvi›lingr m. little poem VIII:100, XXI:182 kvi›r1 m. belly XXII:51/1, XXIII:77 (with suffixed def. art.); fyrir kvi›i sér in front of his belly III:111 kvi›r2 m. verdict, sentence, decree XXV:109 kvikligr adj. lifelike XII:23 kvikr adj. alive I:109, XII:12, 33; acc. sg. m. kvikvan with hungrdœyfi, parallel to dau›an VI:328 kvistr m. twig, branch XXV:17, 107 kvistskœ›r adj. damaging to branches; f. as subst. in kvistskœ›a the branch-damaging girl XXV:19 kvæ›i n. poem Gr 3.1.7.5 (1), XIV:86, 94 kvæmi, kvæmisk see koma kvæn f. wife IX:30 kvƒddu see kve›ja1 kvƒl f. torment Gr 3.1.7.1 Kymraland n. Cumberland VII A:7 kyn n. family, origin II:76, XVI:2; kind: alls kyns all kinds of X:88, margra kynja of many kinds VIII:161; engis kyns no kind of XIII:36 kynligr adj. strange; wondrous XXI:187; flótti henni kynligt hvar was mystified about where XII:78 kynna (past kynnti, pp. kynnt) wv. make known (pres. part.) XIV:190 kynni see kunna k‡r f. cow Gr 3.1.7.2 and (3, 5), 3.1.8 (21); pl. VII A:112, IX:89 140 A New Introduction to Old Norse kyrr adj. quiet I:83; at rest XXIII:25; hafa kyrrt um sik keep quiet I:110; n. pl. látum vera kyrr let (something) be quiet, i.e. let us not speak of XI:37; n. as adv. kyrrt uneventful IV:103, XV:124; er/var fló kyrrt yet there was no trouble XV:14, 70 kyrtill m. tunic V:56, XI:18, XXVI A:29; with suffixed def. art. kyrtillinn his tunic XII:56 k‡s see kjósa kyssa (past kyssti, pp. kysstr) wv. kiss IX:106, XI:9, 30, XII:81, 86; subj. after nema VII B:47 (to kiss the mouth of the axe = be executed) kæmi see koma kærleikr m. intimacy XV:19 (pl.) kærr adj. dear; kærr me› friendly towards XII:72, highly valued by, close to, intimate with XXII:9/2 kœmi see koma kœnliga adv. skilfully, ably; svá fór hann kœnliga me› flví he went about this so skilfully XIV:96 kƒld see kaldr kƒllu›, kƒllu›u, kƒllum see kalla kƒngurváfa f. spider XXIII:94 kƒnnu›u see kanna kƒstu›u see kasta kƒttr m. cat Gr 3.1.7.2 (3) kømr see koma køri see kjósa lá see liggja la›a = hla›a lag n. thrust (gen. pl. with mildr) XXII:42/3; í ƒ›ru lagi on the other hand V:1; í mesta lagi to the greatest degree, hardest of all V:104 Lagarfljót n. lake in eastern Iceland Gr 3.1.8 ex. lag›ar, lag›i, lag›isk, lagit see leggja lágr (n. lágt) adj. low Gr 3.3.8.2; low down XXIII:52 lagsma›r m. companion, fellow; gen. pl. lagsmanna II:37 lagt see leggja lágu see liggja lamb n. lamb Gr 3.1.7.1 ex. 5 Lambadalr m. valley on the west side of Sælingsdalr XV:82, textual note, 83 lam›i see lemja Glossary and Index 141 land (pl. lƒnd Gr 3.1.7.1) n. land VII A:126, 169, VIII:48, 52, XIX:54 (2), XXI:22, 59, 177, XXII:5/2, 64/2, XXVI A:102; his land XXII:34/4; estate XIV:134, XV:33; country VI:42, 86, VII A:7, 35, B:46, VIII:64, X:70, XI:50, XVI:33, 138, XIX:27, XXII:4/1, XXVII:2; with suffixed def. art. the country VII A:2, 72, 148, 156, B:12, VIII:66, 67, XVI:15, XIX:28, 29 (2), 105, the land XIX:29 (1), XXI:24, 92; coast II:104, XXI:167; shore II:106; á land ashore VII A:111, 150, VIII:18, XV:154, XVI:148, XIX:54, 59, XXI:43, 103; upp á land in from the sea XXI:128; á landi ashore, on dry land VI:257, XV:147, 148; er á var landinu which was in the country VII A:135; á landi hér in this country (Iceland) VIII:43, 125, 140, 164; flar . . . á landi in that country (Greenland) VIII:69; á landinu on the landward side? XXI:146; af landi from off the land XXI:169; af landi ofan from inland to the shore XXI:49; af hvárutveggja landinu from the land on both sides XXI:84; kominn frá landi put out from the shore XV:139; fyrir landi off the coast X:87; fyrir land (fram) along the coast II:104, XIX:55, XXI:86; í landi in the country (with allar fljó›ár) IV:84, i.e. from in the country VII A:143; me› landi along the coast VII A:168, XVI:42; me› endilƒngu landi along the whole length of the coast VII A:162; millim landanna between the (two) countries VII A:164; ór landi abroad VI:20, out of the country, so as to make him leave the country VI:142; til lands to the shore XXI:33; til síns lands to their own country XXI:155; higat til lands into this country VII A:92; pl. lƒnd estates VIII:154 landau›n f. depopulation VIII:26 landaurar m. pl. ‘land-ounces’, land dues VIII:30 landhallt adv. keeping close to the shore VI:122 landher›r f. ‘land-shoulder’, mountain; gen. with l‡›a VI:345 landi m. countryman VIII:87 landnámama›r/landnámsma›r m. settler VIII:45, 58, XIX:104, 105 landnor›r adv. north-east; landnor›r frá to the north-east of V:168 landskostir m. pl. qualities of the land, resources XXI:43; landskostir gó›ir good land XXI:51, 153 landsmenn m. pl. people (inhabitants) of the country (Iceland) VIII:44, 53, 150; the people of those countries (Norway and Denmark) VIII:129 landsnytjar f. pl. produce of the land XXI:57 landsréttr m. the law of the land VII B:29 142 A New Introduction to Old Norse landsu›r n. south-east; í landsu›r to the south-east XXI:27 landtaka f. reaching land, making the shore XV:148 landvéttr/landvættr f. guardian spirit of a country VII A:149 (see note), 158 langorf n. a long (scythe-)handle; í langorfi on a long handle IV:9 langskip n. long ship, viking ship VI:112, VII A:165, VII B:33 langr (f. sg. and n. pl. lƒng) adj. long (Gr 3.3.8.1, 2) VIII:129, IX:37, X:52, XXI:32, XXIII:14, 22, 64; wk. form in name enn langi VI:64, 66; f. lƒng VI:212; mjƒk langir very long ones XXIII:99; n. langt a long time VI:98, XIV:184, XXV:6, XXVI B:124, a long way (in time) VIII:10, over a long distance, from far away XXVI B:5; stíga langt take long strides XXIII:101; langt var at it took a long time to XXI:34; lángt af (by) far, by a long way XXII:13/4; dat. pl. as adv. lƒngum for long periods XIV:122, XV:19, 58 las see lesa láskat see liggja lasta (past lasta›i, pp. lastat) wv. blame, criticise, find fault with XXII:23/2 láta (pres. lætr, past lét, past pl. létu, pp. látinn) sv. (Gr 3.6.9.1 (10), 3.6.9.3 ex. 7) 1. lose III:72, XXII:49/3; loose, let go (of); imp. láttu flér af hƒndum hand over IX:116; put, let go XXI:42; put aside XI:16; put, keep XXI:31; láta einn leave on one’s own XV:74; láta á put (them, i.e. the rings) on X:49; láta af leave off, keep back X:50; láta eptir leave behind VIII:23, (intransitive) give way, allow oneself to be drawn back II:70; láta í haf put out to sea XVI:154 (1). 2. with inf. let, allow II:91, V:13, 26, VI:88 (imp. lát), 109, VII B:54, VIII:132, XI:37, XIV:86, XVI:71; imp. pl. láti› y›r let yourself XXIV:11; 2nd person sg. past lézt XVI:186; láta ver›a be allowed to happen VIII:126; imp. lát flek flat henda let that happen to you XXIV:12; cause (something to be done), have (something done) I:47, II:5, 96, VI:6, 13, 104, 113, 214, 217, 227, VII A:169, B:55, 60, 84, VIII:86, 158, 165, 194, IX:74, X:107, XII:1, 64, XIV:6, 188, XV:131, 141, XVI:154 (2), XIX:62, 79 (lét búa . . . ok sjá fyrir), 102, 108; látum let us make IX:61; ok léti hann and made him XXVI A:8; lét sik bera had himself carried XIX:110; láta drepa have (someone) killed VIII:12; oss brenna láta have us burned XXVI B:125; fé lætr dœma has money awarded him by judgment XXVII:41; lét gjƒra honum laug had a bath prepared for him XVI:113; lét taka Glossary and Index 143

hann hƒndum had him captured X:15; cause, make (someone or something do something) I:87, 102, 103, VII A:19, 64, XIX:64, XXII:6/3, 18/3, 37/3, 39/3, XXV:56, 73; lætr byrja fer› has an expedition mounted XXII:12/1; láta hanga let something hang (Gr 3.9.5.1) V:157; láta falla drop II:110; láta sjá sik let oneself be seen XVI:94; láta svæla mik let myself be suffocated XXVI B:67; láta vera have accepted, have followed, have done VII B:14; with inf. understood let there be: láta hƒggva á milli leave (space) between blows, pause between blows V:146; with -sk inf. let oneself do something II:27, 56, 71; læt bindask let myself be tied IX:67; lét skírask had himself baptised VIII:79; láta vígjask let oneself be ordained VIII:184. 3. behave; utter; láta herfiligum látum behave in a shameful way, utter shameful sounds XXVI B:31; láta sem act as if I:36; impers. sound lét í sem it sounded like XXI:97; láta vi› answer, respond to, grant (a prayer) XXI:64; lét illiliga vi› it made a horrible noise XXI:128; láta vel yfir express satisfaction about it XV:121; láta illa yfir express disapproval of something IV:77, be dismayed by XIX:75; láta at give as one’s opinion that VI:320; láta sem declare that, give as one’s opinion that, speak as if I:124; sem létu as they said they would XXVI B:101. 4. with acc. and inf. (Gr 3.9.4) say, declare II:142, VI:121; lét vera declared there was VI:96; -sk form látask say that one V:159, lézk said that he XVI:47; with impers. vb. lætr sér hafa vel sofnat said he had fallen asleep easily XI:66; with inf. understood declare it to be VIII:85, declare there to be VIII:90. 5. -sk form (cf. 4 above) lose, be defeated VI:293; be lost, die, perish, past lézk III:77, 79, XIX:85, past pl. létusk III:76, past subj. létisk VI:226 (fyrir hánum on his side) latínubók f. book written in Latin XIV:188 latínusaga f. saga written in Latin XIV:26, note (with suffixed def. art.) latti see letja látum1 see læti látum2 see láta lauf n. leaf XII:32, XXV:18; thin plate of metal XII:27 Laufey f. a goddess (perhaps), mother of Loki IX:68, 78 laug f. bath Gr 3.1.8 (11), XVI:113 Laugamenn m. pl. the people of Laugar XV:83 Laugar f. pl. ‘hot springs’, Ósvífr’s farm in western Iceland XV:30, 46, 77, 79, 85, 87, 101, 120 144 A New Introduction to Old Norse

Laugardalr m. valley about 20 km east of fiingvƒllr (and outside the Assembly boundaries) VIII:98 lauk see lúka laun1 f. secrecy; á laun in secret VIII:141 laun2 n. pl. reward XVI:5 launa (past launa›i, pp. launat) wv. with dat. of the person and of the payment repay, reward IV:73, XVI:163; flví launar flú mér . . . er that is how you reward me . . . for XXVI B:112; with acc. repay, give reward for: ok launa bjarnd‡rit in reward for the wild bear XVI:134; with dat. of the person and acc. of what the repayment is for XVI:40, 151, 185; with acc. of what is being paid for and dat. of payment XV:26; with dat. of person and of the payment and acc. of what the payment is for XVI:161; launa í hƒnd flegar repay out of hand, on the spot XIV:118 laundyrr f. pl. secret doorway XXVI B:88 laungetinn adj. (pp.) ‘secretly begotten’, illegitimate XXVI A:114 lausaaurar m. pl. movable property, chattels VIII:154 lausafé n. movable property, chattels XV:132, XIX:70 lausama›r m. unattached person, a man without legal domicile III:77 lauss adj. free II:35, 36; quit, free of obligation XVI:179; lauss frá quit of, free from XXVII:45; with gen. without, deprived of, lacking X:61, 143; lausir aurar movable property VIII:161; ver›a lauss with dat. ‘become loose for someone’: fiorgrími var› lauss skjƒldrinn fiorgrímr dropped his shield XXVI A:31 laust see ljósta lausung f. looseness (of living), lying, unreliability XXIII:11 laut see lúta lax m. salmon IX:95 Laxárdalr m. valley in eastern Iceland Gr 3.1.8 ex. le›rhosa f. leather bag or purse XVI:141, 176 lé›u see ljá leggbiti m. ‘leg-biter’, name for a sword (gen. with sennu) VI:243 leggja (past lag›i, past pl. lƒg›u, pp. lagi›r/lag›r/lagit/lagt) wv. (Gr 3.6.9.3) 1. put III:4, 7, X:115; with suffixed pron. X:159; place VI:216; lay IX:121, XI:46, XII:82, XXII:5/3, 62/2, XXVI B:147; thrust, stab I:97, III:109, V:103 (past subj. leg›i stabbed), VII B:67, XXII:51/1; metaphorically lay (see li›r): 1st person pl. referring to the speaker IV:24 (‘I shall not lay’); appoint, make, arrange (an Glossary and Index 145

appointment) II:89, VII A:99; land, come ashore VI:12; put (a ship; in dat. if expressed), sail VI:133, 162, 210, XXI:52, 169, with acc. position VI:235; direct: pp. f. pl. lag›ar (in agreement with direct object) IV:98; lay down (á ﬂat about this) VIII:158; á lƒg› laid down about it VIII:157; leggja á place on, impose X:64; put into it XXII:34/3; leggja á at hjálpa devote to helping XIV:98; leggja á hendr with dat. impose on someone XIV:98; leggja eigu sína á take possession of VIII:19; leggja at (with dat.) thrust, stab at XV:107, attack VI:218, 255; leggjum at let us attack VI:78; lagit at velli laid to the ground, felled XXVI A:101; leggja fyr put in trust for XVI:6; leggja fyrir urge (someone to do something), lay down (something as someone’s duty) V:136; leggja ofan pull down XIV:6; imp. (or 3rd person pl. subj.?) leggi saman (let them) position side by side VI:169; leggja til contribute, give (or support) an opinion V:162, contribute to, endow (with) VIII:160, XIV:9, set apart for, devote to VIII:53, put forward, offer VI:15, XXVI A:57, lay or place upon XVI:117, 118, 170, lay down, provide XVI:123, sail to, put out to XIX:44, advance (ships) to, engage in (sea battle) VI:81 (pres. subj. leggim; see note), 84, 198, XIX:15, approach, make for, attack (in ships) VI:103, thrust, lay on XV:109, leggja til hans (with dat.) thrust at him (with a weapon) XXVI A:71, B:89; pres. part. vel til leggjandi properly to be offered XXIV:74; leggja undir sik subjugate, conquer VI:33; leggja upp put away, swallow II:28; leggja út thrust out XXVI A:30, with weapon in dat. XXVI B:96; leggja ríkt vi› see ríkr. 2. impers. is being blown XXVI B:205. 3. -sk form leggjask make one’s way, set off VII A:152; position itself, be positioned VI:228; leggjask ni›r lie down III:6, VIII:120; lítit lag›isk fyrir gó›an dreng it didn’t take much to finish a fine fellow off (i.e. he came to a shameful end) XIX:77 leggr m. bone (of arm or leg; collective) I:27; with suffixed def. art. I:42; stem XII:30 lei›1 f. way XVI:38, XXVI B:13; á lei› til away towards III:60; á ﬂá lei› sem in the same way as V:8; alla lei› all the way XI:47; dat. sg. lei›u path X:69; lei› sína on one’s way I:1, VII B:76; sína lei› fara go his own way XXVI B:216; fara lei›ar sinnar go on one’s way XXI:52; koma á lei› with dat. bring something about XII:69 (cf. koma 3); komask til lei›ar manage to come about XVI:49 lei›2 see lí›a 146 A New Introduction to Old Norse lei›a (past leiddi, pp. leiddr, n. leitt) wv. lead, bring I:2, 25, XXIV:48; lei›a eptir sér pull behind oneself, take with one XVI:15; lei›ir hann eptir sér inn takes him in with him XVI:108; í lƒg leitt made law VIII:153; conduct, escort VII A:105; pp. leiddr brought XXV:37; var leiddr was being helped III:122 lei›ask (past leiddisk) wv. -sk form impers. with dat. and acc. one gets tired of something II:111 lei›i n. tomb VII B:85; grave XXII:60/4 lei›rétta (past lei›rétti, pp. lei›réttr) wv. correct; pp. acc. sg. m. lei›réttan XIV:97 (Gr 3.9.7.1) leifa (past leif›i, pp. leift) wv. leave behind XI:26 Leifr Eiríksson m. XXI:37, 39, 41 Leifr Hró›marsson m. Icelandic settler XIX:5, 6, 12, 16, 17, 20, 21, 25, 31 34. See Hjƒrleifr leiga1 f. hire, wages II:138 leiga2 (past leig›i, pp. leigt) wv. rent XVI:16 leika (past lék, past pl. léku, pp. leikinn) sv. play Gr 3.6.5.2, 3.6.6; swing to and fro, rock back and forth XXV:50; transitive treat XXVI A:22 leikma›r m. layman XIV:131 leikr m. game XIV:83; bout, attempt; á n‡ja leik for a fresh attempt, ‘for a new go’ VIII:90; málma leikr kenning for battle XXII:55/4 leit see líta leita (past leita›i, pp. leitat) wv. search III:108, 116; investigate, find out, discover XXI:43; with gen. look for, try to find III:43, IV:112 (sér for themselves), V:167, X:13, XIX:26, 67, 73, 82, XXI:2, 65, 166; seek XIX:41; leita sér seek out for oneself XXI:57; leita sér lífs try to preserve one’s life XXVI B:212; impers. with gen. hvar beina okkarra er at leita where our bones are to be sought (for burial) XXVI B:177; leita á attack, assault I:55; seek to go: leita innar make one’s way further in III:35; leita til make one’s way to III:96; leita undan try to get away XI:180; leita út try to get out III:13, 37; impers. with gen. mundi eigi út leitat would not be sought outside XXVI A:53 leitt see lei›a lék see leika lemja (past lam›i, pp. lami›r) wv. batter IX:126 lendr ma›r m. ‘landed man’, one who held land in fief from the king, and acted as his local lieutenant, military leader and counsellor; next Glossary and Index 147

in rank to a jarl in Norway; pl. lendir menn landowners VII B:2 (see note), 87 lengi adv. for a long time (Gr 3.5.2) I:18, 102, 104, IV:62, VI:239, 123, XIV:175, XV:56, 122, XIX:102, XXI:9, XXVI A:43, 91, B:168; i.e. for ever VI:266 (with vanr man, line 263), XXVI A:86, 87; a long way XXI:87, 168; mjƒk lengi for a very long time V:142, VII A:67; svá lengi for such a long time X:60 lengr adv. comp. (any) longer, further (Gr 3.5.2) I:20, 147, III:14, 126, XXI:164, XXVII:46; lengr e›a skemr for a longer or shorter time XXVI A:84; eigi lengr not any longer XXI:192 lengri adj. comp. (Gr 3.3.8.2, 3.3.9 ex. 6; cf. langr) longer, lasting for a longer time XV:10; eiga lengra til have further to go to, be further off from V:82; greater in length XXIII:77, 84; n. as adv. lengra (Gr 3.5.3 (10)) further V:90, XXI:163, XXIII:85; dat. pl. as adv. at lengrum the longer (because of this) V:18 lengst adv. longest (Gr 3.5.2) VI:268; for a very long time XXI:70 (svá lengst for such a very long time?) lengstr adj. sup. longest XXIII:83 (weak nom. pl. m., see Gr 3.3.2) león n. lion XII:59 leppr m. lock (of hair) XXVI A:78 lesa (pres. les(s), past las, past pl. lásu, pp. lesinn) sv. gather; read Gr 3.6.9.1 (11), XIV:90, note, 91; las was reading XIV:90; hon lét lesa fyrir sér she had them read to her XIV:188 lét, léti, létisk see láta leti f. laziness, sloth XXIII:47 letja (past latti, pp. lattr) wv. 1. (try to) dissuade (someone from doing something), urge someone not to do something V:26; hinder, stop XVI:137. 2. refl. be dissuaded; láta ekki letjask not let oneself be dissuaded V:26 létta (past létti, pp. létt) wv. with dat. lighten XIV:102 léttbærr adj. easy to bear (with dat. for someone) XIV:39 léttleiki m. irresponsibility, lack of seriousness, lack of earnestness XXIII:51 léttr adj. light; friendly or cheerful XXIII:70; sup. léttasti Gr 3.3.8.1 létu, létusk see láta leyfa/lœyfa (past leyf›i, pp. leyf›r) wv. 1. praise VI:326, XXV:21. 2. with dat. permit; impers. pass. fleim ƒllum er leyft er all those to whom it is permitted XXVI B:136 148 A New Introduction to Old Norse leyna (past leyndi, pp. leynt) wv. 1. conceal XXVI B:8; leyndi hid it (fyrir from) XII:75; pp. leyndr hidden (i.e. from men) XIII:13, XIV:11; n. as adv. leynt secretly; fór hann leynt me› he kept it secret XII:73. 2. -sk form hide oneself; leynask í burt steal away I:87 leyniliga adv. secretly; lœyniliga VI:14 leynistígr m. secret path XII:79 leypr see hlaupa leysa (past leysti, pp. leystr) wv. (Gr 3.6.9.1 (7)) 1. make free, unfasten V:111; open XXV:94; solve XXII:26/2; free, release, redeem, deliver XIII:8, XXVI A:12; discharge, carry out XIV:18. 2. -sk form leysask flví undan get oneself out of it in this way VIII:117 leysingr m. freedman VIII:48 lézk see láta li› n. help, support IV:51, 65 (me› of, for), VII B:27; following, companionship V:34, VII B:33, 34; people, (members of a) household, (work)men XXVI A:3, B:142; troop, band V:55, VI:265, 274, 275, VII B:44 (subject of drífr), XXI:128, 129, 146, XXVI B:55; troops, army, force VI:20, 40, 44, 152, 153, 163, 164, 166, 167, 182, 184, 195, 214, VII A:53, 57, 128 (with suffixed def. art.), 132, 168, B:35, 56, XXII:28/4; fleet, sea-force VI:136; men VI:115, 221 (with suffixed def. art.), 223, 225 (with suffixed def. art.), 294, VII B:61, 63 (with suffixed def. art.), 75; li›i sínu members of their expedition XXI:192; mikit li› a large number of men VI:213; annat li› hans/ fleira the rest of his troops VII B:60, the other members of their party XXI:86; li›it the (remainder of the) expedition XXI:166 lí› n. strong drink; the strong drink of giants is poetry (see II:88–163) VI:344 (dat. with ek fer me›r) lí›a (pres. lí›r, past lei›, past pl. li›u, pp. li›inn) sv. 1. pass (of time) II:21, IV:110, XVI:78, 135, XXI:30, 44, 122; impers. lí›r á with acc. something draws to a close XVI:128; til fless er mjƒk lei› á kveldit until it was nearly dark XXVI B:43; lei› at it came close to, approached I:73; pp. li›it/li›nir passed XXI:49, XXV:6; var li›it had passed (Gr 3.9.8.2) XIX:48. 2. travel XXV:41; pres. part. lí›andi gliding, travelling on skis X:52 li›r m. limb; joint I:27 (collective); metaphorical phrase leggja fyr li› put aside, abandon IV:24 li›veizla f. help, support VI:23 líf n. life III:31, 72, XIV:120, XVI:186, XXII:48/4, XXVI A:12, 56, 81, B:212; gen. sg. as adv. alive III:118 Glossary and Index 149 lifa (past lif›i, pp. lifat) wv. live I:31, V:124, VIII:131, XIII:48, XIV:120, XIX:112, XXI:70, XXV:109, XXVI B:160, be alive VI:335, VII B:4, XXIV:70, XXV:15, i.e. are not forgotten VI:179; lif›i (subj.) were alive XXV:98; lifa eptir survive, be still alive VI:299, XXVI B:80, 173; pres. part. lifandi alive XII:23, 34, 60, 82; at sér lifanda with himself living, while he was still living VIII:195 (Gr 3.9.7.3) lifna›r m. (conduct of) life, way of life XIII:28 lífsgri› n. pl. quarter, sparing of one’s life II:113 liggja (pres. liggr, past lá, past pl. lágu, pp. legit) sv. (Gr 3.6.9.3) 1. lie I:6, 92, 99, 100, II:151, III:8, 59, 68, V:169, XII:44, XXII:48/3, XXIII:47, XXV:59, 84; lie at anchor or beached VI:58, 86, VII A:30, 70; lie, i.e. be positioned VI:182, 186, 191; be situated XIX:80; fleir lágu they (i.e. their ships) lay, were lying XXI:47, 174; be placed XXIII:32; lie in bed XV:122; sleep XXI:204; liggr is lying XXVI A:44, lá was lying XXI:140, XXVI A:15, 52, B:179, lágu were lying XXVI A:58; liggja á lie upon them, oppress them, trouble them XXI:154; lét hann liggja fyrir sér he placed in front of himself XIV:32; er fiór›r lá í which fiór›r was lying in XV:104; liggja til lead to V:42, be appropriate XVI:69; liggja vi›r/vi› lie (be positioned) close by VI:215, lie (at anchor) on XXI:170; liggja vi› be at stake, depend on it XXVI A:81; liggr flér nƒkkut vi› does anything depend on it for you, is it important to you XXVI A:80; subj. liggi vi› were at stake, depended on it XXVI A:56; impers. mƒrgum lá vi› bana many were at the point of death XXVI A:89; pres. part. as noun liggjandi one who is lying down IX:39. 2. -sk form past with suffixed neg. -at: láskat . . . at (line 153) it did not fail (to happen) that V:149 lík n. corpse VII B:84 (pl.), XV:153, 154, XXII:58/1 líka1 (past líka›i, pp. líkat) wv. with dat. please I:68, VIII:179, XII:68; impers. with dat. líkar it pleases someone, someone is pleased VIII:2, XII:1; líkar illa with dat. someone is displeased or annoyed VII A:97, XV:70; mér líkar eigi illa I am not displeased III:68 líka2 see líkr líkami, líkamr m. body XII:11, XIII:22, 41, XXII:59/3, 61/1; his body XXII:63/2, XXIII:38, 75, 83; with suffixed def. art. his body XXIII:103 líkamligr adj. bodily Gr 3.3.9 ex. 25, XIV:147; fleshly, physical XIV:92, 115 150 A New Introduction to Old Norse líkamslosti m. carnal relations XII:72 líki n. likeness, appearance, form II:51, 149, VII A:145 (dat. with í) líkindi n. pl. likelihood, signs (til of this) I:115 líking f. likeness, form XII:41, 53 líkligr (= glíkligr) adj. likely, to be expected VI:292, XV:86, XXI:134 líkna (past líkna›i, pp. líknat) wv. with dat. show mercy or compassion to XIV:104 líkneski n., líkneskja f. image, statue XII:10, 77, 84, XIII:2, 5, 10, 14; with suffixed def. art. XII:87, XIII:8, 15 (poss. dat.), 20; ein líkneskja eptir a statue of XII:47 líkns‡nir f. pl. merciful appearance, compassionate glances IV:90 líkr adj. like (with dat.) XII:22; f. lík XXIII:69; acc. pl. m. líka (to be) like XXIII:66; nom. pl. f. líkar (with dat.: ‘like those of a spider’?) XXIII:95; n. as adv. flví líkt sem looking as if XII:44; sup. n. líkast most likely IV:72; lét flví líkast í sem it sounded just like XXI:97; sup. n. as adv. flví líkast sem looking just as if XII:43 limr m. limb XII:12 lín n. linen, linen garment; brú›ar lín bridal head-dress (made of linen) IX:46 (dat. = with, in); flax, linen thread X:7, 20 lína1 f. (a woman’s) headdress IV:89, IX:106 lína2 f. line, rope XXI:205, textual note lindbaugr m. serpentine arm-ring X:38 lindi m. belt V:29, X:91; af linda sér from his belt V:112 línklæ›i n. pl. linen underclothes, shirt and breeches III:28, 45 (with suffixed def. art.), 102 linnr1 m. poetical word for snake IV:81; linnr Loddu lƒg›is is a kenning for sword (snake of blood or snake of the shield; cf. SnE, Háttatal st. 6) linnr2 m. poetical word for fire; linnr ƒlstafns is a kenning for a (golden) ornament on an ale-cup IV:85 linr adj. gentle, mild XIV:39 list f. art, artifice XII:15 líta (pres. lítr, past leit, past pl. litu, pp. litinn) sv. 1. look I:5; see XXI:110; litu they saw XXII:53/3; líta á flat/fletta consider this XVI:52, 55; líta í look inside X:113; líta sem look like XXII:20/2; líta til look in that direction II:23, look for XXIV:29; líta vi› look at XXVI A:33. 2. -sk form mér lízk svá sem it seems to me that XXVI B:48; hversu lízk (impers.) flér á how do you like XVI:132; past subj. litisk seemed VIII:175 Glossary and Index 151 litarapt n. complexion, colour XV:24 litask (past lita›isk) wv. refl. litask um look around IV:16 (see I:15, note; Gr 3.9.8.3), XXI:96; fagrt var flar um at litask it was beautiful to look around one there, i.e. there were beautiful views there XXI:58 lítill (n. lítit) adj. small (Gr 3.3.8.3, 3.3.8.4 (3a)) III:113, V:54, XV:52, little V:121, XII:45, XXIII:10, 14, 45; acc. sg. m. lítinn gentle, not strong VI:26, 122; acc. sg. f. litla short (of time) XV:54; dat. sg. m. litlum XXIII:58; pl. litlir XXIII:91, 92; ok eigi lítill and no small one (litotes) II:24; n. lítit small, little V:34, VI:11, 152, a small one III:99; n. as substantive little VI:19, VII B:61 (?—see op), a mean thing XIX:77, of lítit too little XV:121, lítit til not much to be had in the way of XXI:62; dat. sg. n. as substantive fyrir litlu a short while before XV:38; litlu, lítlu as adv. of degree with comp. a little III:51, IV:68, V:172, XXI:73, 179, XXIII:85; gen. sg. as adv. (with meira) little IV:25 lítillátliga adv. humbly XIV:100 lítillátr adj. humble XXIII:84 lítillæti n. humility XIV:33; insignificance, lack of power? XXIII:75 litlastofa f. (both parts of this compound inflect, the first part as a weak adjective (Gr 3.3.4)) the small room (which might be used as a living room or for audience or reception) III:36, 77, 88 litr1 m. colour V:46; at lit in colour XXI:127; ƒllum litum with all colours (in them) XII:26; me› alls konar litum fja›ranna with all kinds of colours in the feathers, with feathers of all colours XII:32 litr2 adj. coloured; lítt litr having little colour XXIII:91, textual note lítt adv. little, not much (Gr 3.5.2) III:54, VI:199, i.e. not at all V:35, VI:252, XV:14, XVI:139, 144, XXI:13, 14, XXIII:91, textual note, XXV:21, XXVI B:94, 159 líttat adv. just a little XXIII:89 litu see líta lízk see líta ljá (past lé›i, pp. lé›r, n. lét) wv. (Gr 3.6.9.3) with dat. of person and gen. of thing lend II:48, IX:11, XV:44 ljár m. scythe II:125 (probably acc. pl.); with suffixed def. art. II:129; scythe-blade IV:9, 10 (with suffixed def. art.) ljó›i m. prince X:57 ljóp, ljópu = hljóp, hljópu, see hlaupa ljóri m. skylight, hole in the roof for smoke to escape VII B:61 (with suffixed def. art.) 152 A New Introduction to Old Norse ljós n. light, lamp II:6, III:108, XIV:55; metaphorically joy, hope, encouragement IV:91 (object of lúka mér) ljóss adj. light, bright, X:22; fair X:39, XXIII:7; n. as adv. ljóst clearly V:167 ljósta (pres. l‡str, past laust, past pl. lustu, pp. lostinn) sv. (Gr 3.6.9.1 (10)) hit I:38; strike VII A:102, XV:150; impers. (with dat.) laust á came down XV:144; laust eldinum í (something) caught fire II:58; (with acc.) something was struck XIII:4, 33; supine lostit VI:37 ljótr adj. ugly II:66; evil XIV:95 ljúfr adj. beloved, dear (with dat., to someone) XI:38; n. as adv. fleim var ljúft at it was pleasant for them to, they were happy to XXII:10/2 ljúga (pres. l‡gr, past laug, past pl. lugu, pp. logit) wv. lie, tell a lie; logit vera be untrue, be false VI:321 ló = hló, see hlæja lo›a (past loddi, pp. lo›at) wv. stick, lodge XIV:21 lo›brók f. nickname, ‘shaggy breeches’ VIII:12 Lodda f. a river-name (the Lud) or the name of an island IV:80; Lodda lƒg›is is then a kenning either for blood (liquid of the sword) or for shield (island of the sword, that on which the sword rests) lo›i m. fur (or coarse wollen) cloak XXV:57 lo›inn adj. shaggy, hairy XII:56 (cf. Gr 3.9.2) lo›kápa f. shaggy cape VII A:82 ló›u see hla›a lofa1 (past lofa›i, pp. lofat) wv. with dat. allow II:151, XII:3; with acc. and dat. permit something to someone XXVI B:130; sá er lofat er to whom it is permitted XXVI B:137 lofa2 (past lofa›i, pp. lofat) wv. praise XIII:7, XXI:143 lof›ar m. pl. poetical word for men, warriors VI:335 lof›úngr m. ruler, king XXII:13/3 lófi m. palm (of the hand); with suffixed def. art. acc. sg. lófann his palm I:41, acc. pl. lófana his palms III:111, dat. pl. lófunum III:112 loga (past loga›i, pp. logat) wv. flame, be in flames III:45, XXVI B:120, 127, 221; blaze III:50, 88; pres. part loganda burning, flaming XXVI B:219 lóga (past lóga›i, pp. lógat) wv. with dat. part with XVI:184 logi m. flame; dat. sg. loga with fire IX:83 logit see ljúga lok1 n. end; und lok i.e. to death VI:363 Glossary and Index 153 lok2 n. lid XII:49 loka f. bolt XV:105 (with suffixed def. art.) lokarspánn m. wood-shaving (from a plane) II:55; acc. pl. -spánu II:57 lokit see lúka Loki m. a god (one of the Æsir) II:9, 16, 29, 34, 36, 38, 46, 51, 53, 69, 71, IX:6, 16, 31, 68, 78 lokkr m. lock (of hair) XIII:6 lokrekkja f. bed-closet, enclosed bed, private bedroom XV:104, with suffixed def. art. XV:105 Lón n. area on the south-east coast of Iceland VIII:41 lopt n. 1. sky XXIV:38; at lopti, í lopt into the air II:128, X:136, 173; í lopt upp upwards (to the sky) XV:105, XXI:67; á lopti (while still) in the air V:95, IX:37, XXVI B:195. 2. loft, upper room (a small room standing on the cross-beams of the building) III:73 (with suffixed def. art.) XXVI A:25, B:116 Loptr enn gamli m. son of Ormr Fró›ason XIX:107 loptsvalir f. pl. balcony VII B:35 lostasemi f. lustfulness XIII:22 (gen. sg.) lostinn, lostit see ljósta lúka (pres. l‡kr Gr 3.6.5.2, past lauk, past pl. luku, pp. lokinn) sv. 1. shut IV:13; lokit um with dat. closed something round, surrounded with VI:284 (supine with hƒf›u). 2. with dat. bring to an end VIII:137, finish XII:70, XIV:72; at lúka finishing XXVI A:3. 3. impers with dat. something ends IV:65; orrostunni var lokit the battle was over VI:302; er lokit is finished, used up XVI:123; lokit mun will be over XXII:47/4; flví lauk svá the outcome of it was XXI:3; skal nú yfir lúka me› oss things must now come to an end between us, our dealings are going to come to a final issue XXVI B:133. 4. with acc. and dat. impart something to someone IV:90; subj. (optative) lúki let (men) repay XXII:36/3. 5. -sk form lúkask upp open, lúkask aptr close XXIII:40 luk›i see lykja lukla see lykill lukt see lykja lund f. manner; á flá lund in this way, as follows II:90, VI:172; á nƒkkura lund in some way XIV:97; mind, temper, feelings XXII:33/3 lunda›r adj. (pp.) disposed, inclined XII:75 154 A New Introduction to Old Norse lúta (pres. l‡tr, past laut, past pl. lutu, pp. lotinn) sv. (Gr 3.6.9.2 (1)) bend down IX:106; with dat. bow down to VII B:19, XXII:61/2; lúta ni›r lean forward XXIII:102 lutr = hlutr lutskipti (= hlutskipti) n. share of booty VI:148 l‡›r m. people XXVI B:136; dat. sg. l‡› to/for people XXII:53/4; pl. men VI:265, XXII:61/1, folk XXII:31/4, troops XXII:13/3 (acc. pl.), 24/4; l‡›ir landher›ar is a kenning for (mountain) giants VI:344 lygi f. lie IX:39 (acc. sg., object of bellir) lyginn adj. lying, mendacious XXIII:73 lyk›/lykt f. end, conclusion XXII:26/1; at lyk›um eventually, in the end VII B:28; til lyk›a finally; vega at honum til lyk›a deal him the final blow V:111 lykill m. key Gr 3.1.7.2 (1), 4 (1); acc. pl. lukla IX:61, (with suffixed def. art.) lyklana (at to) XII:67; gen. pl. lukla X:102, 112 lykja (past luk›i/lukti, pp. luk›r/luktr) wv. close XXIII:42, join the ends of X:38 l‡kr see lúka lyng/l‡ng m. heather; ground 48/3 lypta (past lypti, pp. lypt) wv. with dat. lift XI:18; raise XXII:47/3 lypting f. poop, the raised after-deck of a viking ship VI:290; with suffixed def. art. VI:275, 286, 289 l‡sa (past l‡sti, pp. l‡str) wv. with dat. proclaim, announce V:158 (past subj.), declare publicly VI:322, XIII:7; publish XXVII:7; subj. l‡si ljós y›art let your light shine XIV:55; impers. l‡sti it shone II:6, XIX:33 l‡sigrund f. ‘shining ground’ IV:84; l‡sigrund (vocative) linns ƒlstafns is a kenning for woman (the one who carries the ornamented ale- cup, cf. SnE, Skáldskaparmál ch. 31, = Steinger›r) lysta (past lysti) wv. impers. with acc. (understood) one desires IX:106 lystiliga adv. pleasantly, gracefully I:57 lystr adj. (pp.) desirous, inclined XXII:8/3, 52/3 l‡talauss adj. without fault or blemish XXIII:15 l‡tr see lúta læg› f. hollow, low ground XXI:91 lægri adj. comp. lower Gr 3.3.8.2, 3.3.9 ex. 15, XXII:47/3; with dat. of comparison engum flessum var hon lægri to none of these was she inferior XIV:186 Glossary and Index 155 lægstr adj. sup. lowest VI:267 lær n. thigh, ham II:28; á lærum sér on her thighs III:127 læra (past lær›i. pp. lær›r) wv. teach; pp. lær›r taught XIV:180; cf. lær›r Læradalr m. Lærdal, an inland valley in western Norway VII A:130 lærdómsma›r m. man of learning XIV:156 lærifa›ir (pl. -fe›r) m. (religious) teacher, theologian XXIV:28 lær›r adj. (pp., cf. læra) learned; lær›ir menn clerics VII A:68 læring f. instruction XIV:153 lærisveinn m. disciple XIV:53; pupil, student XIV:168, 172, 178 læstyggr adj. shunning injury or deceit VI:336 (with burar) læt, lætr see láta læti (dat. látum) n. pl. behaviour; noise XXVI B:31 lœkr m. stream XXI:91, XXVI B:228 lœyfa = leyfa lœyniliga = leyniliga lœypizk see hlaupa lƒg n. pl. law, laws VIII:94, 116, 141; the law XXVII:3; gen. laga VII B:26; hafa í lƒgum make law, adopt into the laws VII A:133; constitution VIII:36, 124, 134, 135; úr lƒgum vi› ‘out of the laws with’, not under the same laws as VIII:114 Lƒgberg/Lƒgbergi n. Law Rock VIII:100, 111, 115, 122, XV:68, XXVII:22, 23, 27, 49 lƒg›ir m. sword-name, ‘thruster, stabber’ IV:80 lƒg›, lƒg›u see leggja lƒgma›r m. man learned in the law, legal expert XXVII:33 lƒgmál n. pl. legal prescriptions, laws XXII:6/1 lƒgr m. liquid II:118, 120; sea, water XXII:53/3 lƒgrétta f. legislature, legislative assembly; Law Council (see HOIC 63–66; Laws II 384 and references there; cf. also Text XXVII) VIII:176, XXVII:18; session of the Law Council XXVII:21 lƒgréttufé n. pl. Law Council funds XXVII:38 (see note) lƒgréttuma›r m. member of the Law Council XXVII:8, 46 lƒgréttuseta f. seat on the Law Council XXVII:14 lƒgsaga f. lawspeaking, the office of lawspeaker in the medieval Ice- landic commonwealth VIII:58, 62, 169; lawspeakership XXVII:9, 43 lƒgsƒguma›r m. lawspeaker, the president of the Alflingi VIII:46, 118, 152, XIX:109, XXVII:3, 43 156 A New Introduction to Old Norse lƒgsƒgumannsfláttr m. the Lawspeaker’s section (of the law) XXVII:1 lƒgfláttr m. section of the law; acc. pl. lƒgfláttu alla all sections of the law XXVII:25 lƒmb see lamb lƒnd see land lƒng, lƒngum see langr lƒstr m. vice XIV:95 má see mega ma›r (pl. menn) m. (Gr 3.1.7.1; cf. 3.1.7.4 (5)) man, person I:27, 29, 46, 55, 111, 137, II:1, 13, III:79, V:30, 144, VI:165, VIII:15, 32, 35, 43, IX:29, X:14, 88, 170, XII:11, XV:2, 36, XVI:2, XIX:2, 102, XXI:7, XXII:27/1, XXVII:19, 35; a man XIX:33, XXV:109; sá ma›r nokkurr er some man who XXVII:2; sem flú ert ma›r til as a man like you would XXVI B:112; as indefinite subject ma›r someone XV:106, one XIV:68, XXIV:15, i.e. (blind) people XXII:58/3; with suffixed def. art. ma›rinn the man VII B:52, XXIII:82, a man, a person XIV:64; follower I:62, 63; acc. mann man XVI:70, XIX:34, XXI:138, husband II:63, VI:8, VII A:80, person II:92, XV:97, someone III:19, 42, XXVII:4, with suffixed def. art. the man I:47, 51, VII B:54, 56; øngvan mann no one XXVI B:37; gen. manns I:123, II:64, VII A:33, VIII:9, XXII:61/3; partitive gen. (Gr 3.2.6 (20)) XXII:29/1; dat. manni VI:167, VII A:42, with suffixed def. art. VII B:53, XXVI B:153; fleim manni for, by that person I:132; pl. menn people, men I:28, 52, 73, 83, 109, 114, 124, 136, III:74, IV:53, 54 (subject of sitja ok meina), 78, 101, VI:6, 42, 117, 244, 318, 339, VIII:21, 22, 33, 67 (object of f‡sa), X:14, XI:64, XIII:45, XIV:90, note, XV:12, 39, XIX:24, XXI:2, XXII:15/3, 53/1, XXIII:3, XXV:81, XXVI A:16, 75, B:25, XXVII:6, 18, persons XXI:23, 38, 40, followers I:85, XXVI B:88; menn kvá›u they said VI:174; segja menn it is said VII B:36; allir menn everyone VI:289; with suffixed def. art. mennirnir, menninir VI:219, 267, 268; gen. pl. manna I:3, II:134, VI:357 (with veifanar or›i), XI:11 (Gr 3.4.2 (5)), XXII:57/1, XXV:3, XXVI B:55, partitive gen. (Gr 3.2.6 (20)) XXVII:12, 27, with a numeral (Gr 3.4.2 (5)) XXI:18, emphasising a sup. I:137 (see njóta), manna bezt vígr a very good fighter V:31; dat. pl. mƒnnum people I:70, 71, II:94, 161, VII A:32, XI:10, XIX:12, XXVI A:119, B:131, XXVII:3, men XXV:69, followers I:84, VII A:33, XXII:7/4; mannum VI:194, in his men VI:97 Glossary and Index 157 magn n. strength, power X:84 (dat. of respect, see sní›a); af magni with strength, powerfully XXII:40/2 Magnús biskup (Gizurarson) m. bishop of Skál(a)holt 1216–37 III:32 Magnús (Óláfsson) m. the Good, king of Norway 1035–46 VII B:4, 85 magr (acc. sg. m. magran) adj. thin XVI:89 mágr m. relative by marriage; son-in-law XXI:7; brother-in-law XI:14, 54, XIX:43, in address XXVI B:76, 217; father-in-law XXVI B:185; fleir mágar the brothers-in-law (fiorkell hvelpr, Knútr, fiór›r Ingunnarson) XV:44 maki m. match, equal XIV:110 makligr adj. fitting, deserving XVI:73 mál n. 1. speech II:22, 83, VIII:137, XXI:201 (i.e. to speak), XXVII:24; words VI:173, IX:103, X:168, XXII:32/1, XXV:33; mál mitt what I say XXVI B:128; discussion IX:54; talk XXVII:35; information, account VI:339 (dat. with ferri), XIV:72, 130; narrative XXVI B:2. 2. business, affair, matter IV:66, VII A:95, 99, XV:128; subject, question XXIV:26; proposal, argument VII B:14; suit XV:4, 78; case VIII:134; affairs: snúa sínu máli til Gu›s miskunnar submit one’s fate to God’s mercy, put oneself in God’s hands XXI:81; pl. lawsuit: fara málum á hendr bring a lawsuit against XV:81; mi›la mál make a compromise VIII:133; máli skipta make a difference, be of importance VII B:55 máldagi m. terms of (marriage) settlement XV:8 málgan see málugr malmr/málmr m. metal; in pl. = weapons, in kennings for battle, malma gnaustan VI:352, málma leikr XXII:55/4 malmfling n. ‘metal-assembly’, parliament of weapons, kenning for battle VI:206 máló›i adj. (Gr 3.3.8.5 (6)) furious in speech, using violent language IV:12 málspeki f. wisdom in speech, eloquence XXIV:38 málstofa f. council-chamber VII B:59, 66 málugr adj. talkative XXIII:88 man1, mankat see munu man2 see muna mána›r/mánu›r m. month; hálfan mánu› for a fortnight XXI:94; acc. pl. mánu›r tólf XXII:59/4, tvá mánu›u XXI:165; á tólf mánu›um in twelve months, i.e. every year XIV:143 158 A New Introduction to Old Norse

Manar see Mƒn máni m. moon X:44; as nickname VIII:46; máni vi›ar hau›rmens ‘moon of the ship’, kenning for shield XXVI A:98 mann, manna, manni, mannum see ma›r mannamál n. people’s talk, people talking III:37, 104 mannfátt adj. n. as adv. short of men; er oss eigi mannfátt we are not short of men V:108 mannfjƒl›i m. multitude of men XIII:27 manngi pron. no one (Gr 3.2.4) VIII:180 mannliga adv. like a man XVI:124 mannraun f. trial (of manhood) III:131 manns see ma›r mannshƒnd f. person’s hand I:6 mannska›i m. manslaughter, losses XXVI B:98, 140 mannskœ›r adj. dangerous to men, causing many casualties, bloody VI:209 mannsmót n. sign of manliness (at in) VII A:85 mannspjall n. loss of men, destruction of men VI:220 mannsverk n. the labour performed by a single man; níu mannsverk the work of nine men II:138 manntal n. number of men; at manntali in number of men VI:226 mannvit n. (human) intelligence II:100, XXIV:38; common sense (gen. with vant) XXV:97 manskæri n. pl. mane-shears, shears for cutting horses’ manes V:28, 112 mansƒngr m. love-song XIV:86; mansƒngr mikill a good deal of love-poetry XIV:90 mant, mantu see munu mánu›r, mánu›u see mána›r Már m. father of Hafli›i VIII:173 Már Hamalsson m. XIX:114 margd‡rr adj. very splendid VI:347 (with st‡rir) margfalda (past margfalda›i, pp. margfalda›r) wv. multiply; use a plural in XXIV:2 (subj.), 42 (subj.); use in the plural XXIV:55; pp. margfalda›u plural XXIV:86; -sk form en margfaldaz rather than be used in the plural XXIV:51 margfaldr adj. manifold XXIV:73; plural XXIV:52, 58, 74 margr (f. mƒrg, n. mart/margt) adj. many (Gr 3.3.8.3, 3.3.8.4 (3b)) Glossary and Index 159

II:4, III:9, IV:101, VI:28, 90, 155 (with drótt), 320, VII A:161, VIII:81, 125, XIV:145, 168, XVI:148, XXI:10, 23, XXIV:34; plentiful, numerous XXI:24, 54; much XV:19; many a XI:3, 4, XXII:24/2, 37/3 (with flegn); margr ma›r many a man XXII:54/3; margr ma›r flar many a man who was there VI:131; er sá nú margr er there is now many a one who XXVI B:100; margs manns fleira er of many a man who VI:303; mƒrgum manni to many a man XVI:166; n. mart, margt much, a great deal of IV:12, VI:196, XV:77, a great many XXVI B:142, 148; as substantive IV:86, VIII:178, many things VII A:62; with partitive gen. seggja mart many warriors XXII:39/3; as adv. much (at with regard to) VI:357, a lot XXI:3; pl. margir many people XIV:187, XXVI B:53, many of them XXVI B:99, fleir margir many of them III:123, hans margir many of his XXII:30/2; acc. pl. m. marga many people XXIV:66; n. pl. mƒrg many III:113, V:132, VI:72 (understand skip), XI:11, numerous XXIII:23; dat. pl. mƒrgum II:14, VII A:32, XII:83, XXVI A:89, 119, B:96, (to) many people XIV:186, XXII:36/2, me› mƒrgum along with (among) or for many (other) people XXIV:72 margreifi m. marquis XI:56 margspakr (f. margspƒk) adj. wise about many things VIII:11 María f. St Mary the Virgin XIII:2, 5, 43; Medieval Latin gen. Marie (= Classical Latin Mariae) XIII:14, 30 mark n. mark, token, sign VII A:52, XIV:66, XXIII:11, 45, 53, 60; symbol, image, figure XIV:63; pl. til merkja as proof XXVI B:24 marka (past marka›i, pp. marka›r) wv. mark; pp. n. pl. mƒrku› VII A:118 markir see mƒrk Markis m. king in England XII:52, 62 Markland n. ‘forest land’ (cf. mƒrk1) XXI:29, 198 Markús (Skeggjason) m. lawspeaker from 1084 to 1107 (when he died) VIII:152, 169 Marnar see Mƒrn marr m. horse IX:21 (poss. dat.), X:151, XXV:39, 42, 50 mart see margr mat1 see meta mat2 see matr matask (past mata›isk) wv. refl. take food, eat a meal V:2 (breakfast), XVI:97 160 A New Introduction to Old Norse matfƒng n. pl. supply of food; lítit til matfanga not much food to be found XXI:62; nƒkkut til matfanga something to eat XXI:63 mátkum see máttugr matmál n. mealtime XXVI B:41 matr m. food XXVI B:20, 27, 29 (with suffixed def. art.); acc. sg. mat I:37, 66, VI:9, XIV:67, at mat eating XIX:83; gen. sg. matar II:17, V:167 (object of leita), XVI:43, 91, with suffixed def. art. XXI:60 matsveinn m. cook XXI:75 máttak, mátti, máttu see mega máttr (dat. sg. mætti) m. might, strength Gr 3.1.7.2 ex. 4, XXII:24/1 (‘our strength’), XXIII:15 máttugr adj. mighty; dat. pl. mátkum XXV:69 máttuligr adj. 1. mighty. 2. possible XXIII:36? 3. = mátuligr XXIII:36? mátuliga adv. properly, fittingly, appropriately XXIII:8, 67 mátuligr adj. proper, appropriate, suitable XXIII:16 me›, me›r prep. (Gr 3.7.4) 1. with dat. with I:43, 87, II:4, 12, 45, III:35, 85, IV:50, V:94, VI:9, 34, 37, VIII:107, IX:25, 52, 79, XI:26, XIV:26, note, 93 (me›r), XIX:6, XXI:7, 72, XXII:9/1, XXIII:16, 17, 108, 109, XXV:76, XXVI A:9, 17, B:74; together with VI:274 (me›r), 278, VIII:152, XIII:22, XXII:49/3, along with XIV:127, XXIII:78, me› mƒrgum along with many others XXIV:72; vera me› stay with, live with IV:109, XVI:116, XXVI A:117, be in someone’s employment VII B:53; var me› was staying with XXI:37; among XI:70, XXIV:59; amid, along XXVI B:222; between XIX:7, XXVI B:213, XXVII:13; (made) out of XIII:14, 19; hvat er me› what’s up with IX:23; me› sér with him XVI:13, XXVI A:15, along with himself III:19, to go with herself III:42, between themselves II:89, VII A:99, with them X:10, XIV:146, as well XXIV:78, hafa me› sér take with one XIX:87, have with one XXI:156; along VII A:162, 168, XXI:55, 130, along the shore of VI:136; me› landi/ landinu along the coast XVI:42, XXI:31; me› sjó along the coast XIX:72, 90; alongside III:6; among II:82, XI:70; me› fleim Haraldi (Áka) between him and Haraldr (Áki) VII B:3, XVI:66; as a result of XIII:13; by XIII:24, 25; by means of, using II:122, XXII:5/4, XXIV:10; me› henni by (or in?) her XIII:23 (see tendra); me› vápnum carrying arms, armed V:70; me› valdi by force VII B:56; me› ƒllu altogether, entirely I:93, XIV:76; me› flví at according as VIII:2, since, it being the case that XXIV:22, 29, 72. 2. with acc. Glossary and Index 161

carrying II:36, 54, VI:265 (me›r), taking V:34, 166 (i.e. in, consisting of?), VI:163, 270 (me›r), 285 (me›r), VII A:130, B:34, XVI:33, XIX:70, XXI:5; bringing V:55, VII B:60, XXII:54/1, having with us VI:86; together with VIII:98; as well as XXVI A:14; wearing VI:291 (me›r). 3. as adv. (Gr 3.7.7) with (her) II:42, with it XXI:140, 150, XXII:31/4, along them XXI:35; til at festa me› for securing . . . with XXVI A:58; flar me› along with it I:42, and in addition XIV:44, er . . . me› with whom XXVII:15 me›al/mi›il, á me›al, í me›al prep. with gen. among, between Gr 3.7.2, XI:35, XXVI A:73; okkar í me›al between us (i.e. between our deaths) XXVI A:23; á me›al fleirra between them XXVI B:147; as adv. flar me›al between them (the eyebrows) XXIII:20 me›allag n. average; til me›allags so so, not too well XI:68; dat. sg. as adv. me›allagi moderately, not very XV:36 me›alskinnslitr m. middling, average skin-colour XXIII:108 me›an adv. meanwhile III:19; as conj. (Gr 3.8.2.1) while II:6, III:18, V:111, XIV:75, XVI:97, XXIV:70; as long as V:124, VI:225, VII B:4, VIII:131, 158, XXVI A:82, 102, B:172, 212 me›r = me› mega (pres. má, past mátti, past subj. mætti, pp. mátt) pret.-pres. vb. be able, can (Gr 3.6.7, 3.6.10) I:91, II:57, 68, 142 (pres. subj. megi), III:11, 92, 101, IV:86, 106, V:80 (2), 92, 143, XI:60, XIII:24, 45, XXII:28/2, XXV:81, XXVI B:23, 79, XXVII:12, 34; have the power to X:184 (with suffixed pron.); inf. might XVI:182, could XXVI B:129; ekki vera mega could not be true III:123; má can XXIII:36, is able XXIV:48; flat er hann má as much as he can XII:1; má ek may I XXVI B:74; vel má ek I am content to XXVI B:74; eigi má ek flat vita I cannot see, I am not sure V:80; with suffixed 2nd person pron. máttu you can I:125, VII A:52, you may/ must XV:87, XVI:52, you will be able XXVI B:177; vér megum we shall be able VI:82; megum vér/vit we can XXI:177, XXIV:47; eigi megum vera we cannot stay XXVI A:109; megu flér (Gr 3.6.9.1 (14)) you will be able VI:130; megu flér vel you may well XXVI B:197, megum vit vel we might as well XXIV:48; megu eigi cannot XXVI B:65; mátti/máttu could XII:73, XIII:23, XIV:30, XXI:23, has been able XIV:167; varla mátti hann sjá he could scarcely bear to look at XIV:108; pres. subj. megi can XXVI B:128, could XXV:47, may XXIV:52, (impers.) one may XXII:22/4; past subj. 162 A New Introduction to Old Norse

mætta/mætti might XIV:124, XVI:49, XXIV:44, could XXVI B:31, was able VII A:113, would be able XV:11, mættim could V:79, eigi mætti should not be able XIII:21, flér mætti› you could XXI:134, with suffixed pron. mættak I might IX:13; impers. (Gr 3.9.3 (c)) má can one I:135, one can VIII:70, it may XVI:143, kalla má one might say XXVI B:13, vera má it could be, maybe I:143, flat er nú má sjá that which now can be seen VI:118, mátti one could VIII:23, XII:8, 13, XXI:55, mátti ekki one could not XXII:55/3, mátti eigi it was not possible XXI:88, er komask mátti which could be taken VII A:131 megin adv.; ƒ›ru(m) megin on one side III:6, XII:52, on the other side XXI:205, on one side . . . on the other side IV:9; with gen. on the other side of XII:47, 58; inum hœgra megin on the right hand side III:86; ƒllum megin on all sides V:81 meginland n. mainland VIII:97, with suffixed def. art. XXI:84, (as opposed to the sandbanks, line 88) XXI:107 megn n. ‘main’, strength XXII:24/1; might XXII:34/3 mei›a (past meiddi) wv. maim VIII:86 mei›mar f. pl. treasures IX:91 mei›r m. tree; gallows XXV:60; ƒrva mei›r kenning for warrior, person XXII:2/3; mei›r mor›vandar is also a kenning for man or warrior V:154, but since here the phrase is dependent on bei›i, it must be a kenning for shield, wood of the slaying-wand; in kenning for seafarer, King Óláfr mætr mei›r unnviggs VI:53 mein n. harm, injury VI:40; vera til meins with dat. cause harm to someone XIV:109 meina (past meina›i, pp. meinat) wv. prohibit; with dat. and acc. deny someone access to someone IV:54, deny someone the sight of someone IV:78 meinlæti n. punishment, self-chastisement, self-denial XIV:102 meiri adj. comp. more (Gr 3.3.8.3) IV:25, IX:101, X:71, XV:32; greater XIV:14, XXII:55/3, XXIV:84, XXVII:27, 46, stronger VI:27; larger VI:74, VII A:36, VIII:176, XXIII:57; ekki meira skip no greater ship VI:118; n. meira as substantive VII A:37, VIII:31, XVI:155, more XXI:118, XXIV:9; n. as adv. faster Gr 3.5.1–3 ex. 6 (e); more highly, as more important XXVI B:113; flví meira . . . er meira the more . . . the more IV:58–59; in meira the more XV:55 meir(r) adv. comp. more (Gr 3.5.2) VIII:57 (i.e. more settlement), Glossary and Index 163

196, X:168, XIV:114; more so V:133; meir skammir en shorter than XXIII:87; ﬂess at meir all the more VII A:43; in place of substantive or adj. VIII:162 meistari (dat. pl. meistƒrum) m. master XIV:164, of a classical authority XXIII:66, as title XIV:90, note, lord XI:56, 75; scholar XIV:154 (acc. pl.); teacher XIV:168 (gen. pl.) mek = mik mektugr adj. mighty, splendid, important XIV:182 melrakki m. (arctic) fox XXI:24, XXVI B:67 men (gen. pl. menja) n. (ornamental) neck-ring (of precious metal), torque V:159, IX:50, 60, 73; in pl. treasures, jewellery IX:91, X:104 menmyr›ir m. ‘neck-ring murderer’, ‘neck-ring destroyer’, giver of neck-rings, generous man; here = the speaker, Bjƒrn Hítdœlakappi V:36 menn, menninir, mennirnir see ma›r menntr adj. (pp.) educated, accomplished XIV:187 ment f. skill, accomplishment XXII:3/1 mér pron. 1st person dat. me, to me (Gr 3.2.1) I:15, 17, 21, 60, 130, 134, IV:96 (with gó›), VI:332, 348, VIII:4, IX:11, 30, 92, 109, X:93, 149, XI:23, XV:23, XVI:27, XXI:79, 134, XXII:22/2, 65/3, XXIV:23, 30, XXVI A:78, B:28; (for) myself I:11, to me, for me I:53, IX:87, X:145, XXVI A:79; from me (with fjarri) X:94; poss. dat. (Gr 3.9.6.2) XVI:75, 119 merki n. 1. significance, something remarkable (at in it) II:77 (pl.). 2. miracle; pl. with suffixed def. art. fyr merkin slík as a result of miracles like these XXII:58/3. 3. standard, banner VII B:74, 88, XXII:38/2 (with suffixed def. art.). 4. remains, traces XIV:26 merkiligr adj. noteworthy, important XIV:179 merkja1 (past merkti, pp. merktr) wv. mark; sign XIV:66; mark out, distinguish, make remarkable IV:29; show, signify XXIII:46; pp. (in agreement with object, Gr 3.9.7.1) marked out for, assigned to i.e. filled with? XXII:29/2; signify, symbolise XII:35; (they) mean, indicate (that) XXIII:18, 26, 27, 42; merkir (it) denotes, indicates XXIII:22, 23, 97 merkja2 see mark merkr adj. noteworthy, significant XXII:16/1; outstanding XXII:17/4; mest1 adv. sup. most, mostly (Gr 3.5.2) VI:23, VIII:133, XI:34, XIV:33; mainly VI:254, very much XXII:31/2, most of all VI:316, XIII:47, XXVI B:20; to the greatest extent, principal VII B:24; ﬂat var mest til 164 A New Introduction to Old Norse

at this was the main reason why VI:46; mest um vera it was at its greatest, most significant V:9; fellu Danir mest the Danes had the most losses VI:209; sem mest as hard as possible, as fast as possible II:52 mestr (n. mest2) adj. sup. greatest (Gr 3.3.8.3, 3.3.9 ex. 11, 17) I:72, 81, V:25, 104, VI:41, 319, XXII:3/2; the greatest, very great XXII:57/2; largest VI:193, VII A:34; mest (sc. li›) the largest number VI:213; mestr hluti the major part XVI:6; inn mesti a most V:131, a very great XIV:22, 156, 176, XVI:190; einna mestir greatest of all I:78; inir mestu very great XV:40; miklu mest by far the greatest VI:98, 110; haf›i mest gƒr verit was the biggest to have been built XIV:8 meta (past mat, past pl. mátu, pp. metinn) sv. value, put a price on something II:126; pp. metnar priced XV:17; adjudge, adjudicate XVI:57; -sk form metask be valued, be deemed XXVII:17 mettr pp. fed, finished one’s meal XXVI B:25 mey, meyjar, meyjum see mær Michael m. Latin form (gen. Michaelis) of a Hebrew name, St Michael the Archangel XIII:11 Michial m. = Michael XIII:29; cf. Mikjáll Mi›fjƒr›r m. a fjord (and the valley leading into it) in Húnavatnss‡sla, north-western Iceland IV:2 mi›i see mjƒ›r mi›il see me›al mi›ja f. middle XXVI B:202 mi›la (past mi›la›i) wv. mediate; mi›lum let us mediate VIII:133 mi›li see milli mi›r1 (n. mitt, dat. mi›jum) adj. mid, middle (of) (Gr 3.3.8.2–5 ex. 4) IX:34, XII:10; á hann mi›jan at his middle XXVI A:30; flat kom á fiorvald mi›jan it struck fiorvaldr in the middle V:96; í mitt fling in the middle of the Assembly, halfway through the Assembly XXVII:40; um mitt skipit amidships VI:267 mi›r2 adv. comp. less XXIII:64; vetri mi›r en one year short of VIII:192 mi›skipa adv. amidships VI:269 mi›vikudagr m. Wednesday; acc. of time on the Wednesday XXVII:40 mik/mek pron. 1st person sg. acc. (Gr 3.2.1) me I:18, 59, VI:91, 114, IX:51, X:65, 168, XI:7, XV:24, XVI:103, XXIV:19, XXVI A:81, B:67, 70; myself IV:94; vi› mik/mek to(wards) me XXIV:21, with me XXIV:26 Glossary and Index 165 mikilhuga›r adj. high-spirited, of great courage XXIII:16, 23, 57; ambitious, aiming high XXIII:101 mikill (n. mikit) adj. big, large, great (Gr 3.3.8.3, 3.3.8.4 (3a), 3.3.8.2–5 ex. 4, 3.3.9 (9), ex. 3, 24) I:6, 75, 146, III:86, V:28, 86, 113, VI:1, 20, 30, 35, 36, 131, 274, VII A:151, 154, 157, B:33, VIII:25, 155, XI:61, XV:15, 108, XVI:17, XIX:22, 26, 32, XXIII:9, 17, 44, 63, XXIV:68, XXVI A:50, B:98; much, a great deal of III:5, V:131, VI:22, XIV:36, XV:127, XVI:53, 85, 151, XIX:34, 36; extensive XXI:27, 59; very (great) IV:3, XIV:42; broad XXVI B:149; strong XXI:53; hard XXI:60; great (in abstract sense) XXVI A:101; inn mikli the Great V:79; with dat. mikill vexti of great size III:22, V:30, XXI:11; mikill fyrir sér mighty, of great importance or power, a great person II:75; acc. sg. m. mikinn I:77, VII A:115, XI:25, XXI:122; dat. sg. m. myklum (Gr 3.3.8.4 (3 a)) I:44, miklum VI:356; acc. sg. f. mikla II:29, VII A:102, XVI:11, 34, XXII:54/3, XXVI B:187; dat. pl. miklum XXVI A:19; nom. sg. n. wk. mikla VI:104, IX:50; n. mikit V:98, 100 (heavy, powerful), 130, VI:61, 68, 85, 112, 220, VII A:163, 164, XXVI B:55, mikit li› a large number of men VI:213; mikit as substantive or adv. a great deal I:129, 141, much III:34, IV:86, V:72, VI:322, XVI:109, XXVI B:30, great pains, great importance VI:318; gen. sg. n. as substantive mikils much, a great deal XXV:97 (with vant), XXVI A:106; dat. sg. n. miklu XIX:41, a great deal of XXIII:78, 79; dat. sg. n. as substantive miklu XV:23; dat. sg. n. as adv. with comp. myklu (Gr 3.3.8.4 (3 a)) much II:126, miklu VI:74, VII B:31, X:128, XXVI B:23, 172, miklugi very much XXVII:32 (see -gi), with sup. by far VI:98, 110 mikillátr adj. proud Gr 3.3.5 ex. 7 mikilleikr m. size XII:22, XXIII:16 mikilú›ligr adj. imposing in appearance, of great demeanour I:46 Mikjáll m. St Michael the Archangel XIII:1 (see Michael) mildi f. kindness, generosity XXIII:79 mildíng(r) m. generous man, king XXII:3/1, 53/2 mildr adj. gracious Gr 3.3.9 ex. 30; kind or generous XIV:109, XXII:11/1, 16/1; with gen. liberal with, profuse with XXII:42/3; good, pure, free from sin? XXI:59/3 milli/mi›li, á milli/mi›li, í milli, millim, í millum prep. with gen. (Gr 3.7.2) between IV:103, V:97, 147 (2), VI:216, VII A:163, B:30, 57, VIII:20, 32, 127 (among), 129 (2), XIV:159, XV:86, 93, XIX:96, 166 A New Introduction to Old Norse

XXI:46, 55; á milli/mi›li sín, sín á milli/millum between themselves II:21, VI:147, VII A:96, between each other VIII:129, with each other XXI:113; í millum sín between them XXVI B:181; í milli . . . landa flessa between these (two) countries XVI:33; láta hƒggva á milli leave a pause between blows V:147; milli ok between him and XI:31, between it (Brynjudalsá) and XIX:97; á mi›li as adv. between VIII:110; sendask á mi›li send each other, exchange VIII:131 mín1 pron. 1st person gen.(3.2.1) my, me XXVI B:218; til mín to me I:56, XXIV:11, to see me XVI:39 mín2, mína, mínar, mínir, minn, minna, minnar, minni, míns, mínu, mínum poss. adj. my (Gr 3.3.9 (21)) I:16, 60, 62, 84, 85, VIII:9, 10, IX:12, 117, X:96, 132, 144, 148, 153, 175, XI:6, XXI:78, XXII:15/3, XXIV:11, 18, 19, 22, XXV:15, XXVI A:79, B:21, 70, 74; n. mitt, mítt V:37 (with sver›), XVI:186, XXVI A:56, 81 minda, mindi, mindu see munu minna1 (past minnti, pp. minnt) wv. remind; -sk form minnask, minnask á call to mind, remember XI:7, XII:85, 88; with gen. remember to say XIV:69 minna2 see mín2 minni1 adj. comp. less, smaller Gr 3.3.8.3, XXIII:53, XXIV:69 (en than); eigi minni ván not less expectation, more than likely V:62, VI:96; fewer, smaller VII B:42 (with húskarla li›); eigi minna no fewer (li›, men) VI:222; lesser, lower in rank XXIV:85; minni firi sér of less consequence XXIV:75; n. as substantive VIII:31 minni2 see mín2 minning f. memory, remembrance XII:39 minnka (past minnka›i, pp. minnkat) wv. lessen; er minnka tók when (the cloth) began to run short XXI:116 minnr, minnst adv. comp., sup. less, least Gr 3.5.2; sup. very little, hardly at all X:144 minnstr adj. sup. smallest Gr 3.3.8.3 míns, mínu, mínum see mín2 minflak n. gruel XIX:57, with suffixed def. art. XIX:58 (Old Irish menadach ‘gruel made with meal and water, or occasionally butter’) Minflakseyrr f. a small tongue of land on the south coast of Iceland (now unidentifiable) VIII:18, XIX:59 misbjó›a (cf. bjó›a) sv. with dat. offend; impers. pass. (Gr 3.9.3) sér mun flykkja misbo›it will feel themselves offended, will feel resentment XV:66 Glossary and Index 167 miskunn f. mercy, grace XIII:25, XXI:81; with gen. for XXII:62/4 miskunna (past miskunna›i, pp. miskunnat) wv. have mercy on (imp.) XXIV:19 miskunnsamliga (mys-) adv. mercifully XIV:104; sympathetically XIV:137 miskunnsamr adj. merciful, sympathetic XXIII:3, XXVI B:124 mislíka (past mislíka›i, pp. mislíkat) wv. displease XVI:125 mismælt pp. (cf. mæla); ver›r mismælt with dat. someone makes a slip of the tongue V:125 missa1 (past missti, pp. misst) wv. with gen. miss, fail to catch II:58; fail to hit II:150; lack, be short of VI:1, feel the lack of VII B:81; lose XXIV:69, with acc. I:85; pp. mikils misst lost much, suffered a great loss XXVI A:107; past inf. (Gr 3.9.4) misstu felt the lack of (flar til for that (battle)) VI:154; impers. with gen. eins manns missi one man is missed, lost XXIV:67, missir vi› (someone) dies (while in office) XXVII:4 missa2 f. loss XXIV:68 missagt pp. (cf. segja) wrongly told VIII:5 misseri n. season, a period of six months; pl. flau misseri that year XIX:91 misseristal n. calendar (object of upp at segja) XXVII:28 mitt1 see mi›r1 mitt2, mítt see mín2 mjór (n. mjótt) adj. narrow XXIII:13; thin, slender; weak form as nickname enn mjóvi XIX:7; n. as adv. nƒkkut mjótt me›al rather a thin space between XXIII:20 mjƒ›m f. hip XXIII:84 (with suffixed def. art.) mjƒ›r (gen. mja›ar) m. mead II:12, 98, 119, IX:97, 101; dat. sg. mi›i II:122, 135 (Gr 3.1.8 (4)); with suffixed def. art. II:114, 115, dat. sg. mi›inum II:135, 141 mjƒk adv. very (Gr 3.5.2) I:7, II:2, 78, III:52, 129, IV:1, V:8, 142, VI:61, 96, VII A:67, B:4, VIII:25, 86, XII:78, XV:40, XVI:85, XXIII:9, 13, 21, 41, XXV:52; much VI:340 (with verr), VII B:86; very much, a great deal II:13, III:50, VI:3, 39, 154, VII B:28, XIV:37, XXI:195, XXIII:5, XXVI B:36, 202; to a great extent VI:194, XXIII:79; nearly, almost III:82, 100, XV:50, XXIII:42, 83; very far XXVI B:43; hard, vehemently VII B:79; strongly VIII:186; very frequently, generally VII A:32; continually (or very with réttan) XXIII:76; eyg›r mjƒk with very large eyes XXI:104; hon rétti mjƒk latínubœkr she spent a lot of time correcting Latin books XIV:188 168 A New Introduction to Old Norse mjƒl n. meal, flour XIX:56 Mjƒllnir m. the name of fiórr’s hammer (‘masher, grinder’) IX:121 mó see mór mó›ir (acc. mó›ur) f. mother (Gr 3.1.7.2 (7)) V:136, VI:37, XIII:23, XV:124, 132, XVI:6, 122, XXI:202, XXV:33, XXVI A:26, 47, 79, 114; gen. sg. mó›ur XIII:14; dat. sg. mœ›r X:128, mó›ur XIV:174; XXVI B:3 mó›r adj. weary (af from, as a result of) III:53 mó›urfrændr m. pl. kinsmen on the mother’s side, mother’s family VII B:8 mold f. soil, earth XXV:56 mon, monum = mun, munum, see munu mór m. poetical word for horse, once a proper name (see SnE, Skáldskaparmál 88, 89) VII A:138; mór Marnar is a kenning for ship mor› n. killing, slaughter VI:358 (with er sannfregit), VII A:14, XXV:28, 42; murder VIII:47; at mor›i i.e. in battle VI:52 mor›kunnr adj. famed for slaying VII A:139 mor›vƒndr m. ‘slaying wand’, kenning for sword V:153 morginn/morgunn m. morning V:2; of/um morgin in the morning X:6, XXV:3; einn morgin one morning XXI:96, 172; with suffixed def. art. um morguninn in the morning, next day I:112, of morguninn eptir the next morning VIII:121 morgna (past morgna›i, pp. morgnat) wv. become morning, dawn XI:64 Mosfell n. in Grímsnes, south-west Iceland VIII:81, XXVI A:118 mosi m. moss I:92 (with suffixed def. art.) mót1 n. manner; degree; me› mestu móti most forcefully V:25; me› ƒllu móti of every shape and kind XXI:94 mót2: móti, á mót, í mot, í móti, ímóti, á móti prep. with dat., til móts vi› with acc. towards (Gr 3.7.3, 4) V:44, 47, 163, VI:136, VII A:154, 157, 159; against VI:194,VII B:13, XV:29, XXII:7/1, 12/2; to oppose, to attack VI:70; to meet I:94, 122, VIII:104, 108, XI:8; honum í móti against him XIV:113; oss í móti against us XXII:32/4; taka í móti meet, take hold of XXVI B:184; at móti as adv. against him, in opposition to him XV:129; í mót as adv. towards them, to meet them XXI:101, 102, 124; í móti as adv. in return XVI:188, flar í móti in return for that XVI:50; mæla ekki í móti make no objection XV:78; til móts vi› to meet XXVI B:16, to oppose VI:205, to go against, to attack XIX:15 Glossary and Index 169 mót3 n. meeting V:121, VII B:51; gathering XXII:57/1; with suffixed def. art. VII B:51, 52, 56 mu›r/munnr (acc. munn) m. mouth (Gr 3.1.7.4 (5)) III:11, XXIII:61, with suffixed def. art. XII:13, 21; øxar mu›r the biting edge of the axe VII B:48; dat. sg. munni XXI:68, XXIII:58, 59 (with suffixed def. art.), XXIV:66 múgr/múgi m. crowd, mob XXII:12/2; múgi manns a crowd of men XXII:29/1; with suffixed def. art. múginn XXII:34/1 mun see munu muna (pres. man, past mun›i/mundi, past subj. myn›i/myndi, pp. munat) pret.-pres. vb. remember (Gr 3.6.7) III:70, VIII:10, XIV:167, XV:150; muna flér hold against you, remember against you, i.e. take vengeance on you for XXVI A:83 muna›semi f. lustfulness XIV:90, note munda see munu mundjƒkull m. ‘ice of the hand’, kenning for silver (or gold), the shining metal of rings worn on the hand; or ‘icicle of the hand’, kenning for sword VI:346 (gen. with st‡rir) mundri›i m. hand-grip V:99 (dat. sg. with suffixed def. art.) mundu see munu munhug› f. lustfulness XXIII:55 munklífi n. monastery XIII:1; with suffixed def. art. XIII:2, 29 munkr m. monk III:58, XIII:6, 12; with suffixed def. art. III:62 munn, munni see mu›r munnfyllr f. mouthful II:80 munnnám n. taking in the mouth, use of the mouth; me› or›um munnnáms verbally, orally XIV:191 munnr see mu›r munntal n. ‘mouth-count’, ‘mouth-tale’ II:82 munr1 m. desire, delight; at mun with dat. to the delight of XXV:54 munr2 m. difference, importance; fyrir øngan mun by no means, under no circumstances XXVI B:162 munu (pres. man/mun/mon, past mundi/mindi) pret.-pres. vb. (Gr 3.6.7) will (expressing belief or probability) II:19, 22, 25, 33, 40, 77, V:8, 46, 90, 136, VI:72, 114, VII B:45, IX:66, 70, XVI:52, XXVI A:81, B:15, 24 (2); will be I:39, II:66, VII B:63; (expressing intention) 1st person sg. mun ek, ek mun I shall I:107, 127, III:67, IV:50, V:78, 89, IX:79, XVI:51, XXVI B:21, 206, I shall do so XXVI B:210, 170 A New Introduction to Old Norse

ek man, man ek VI:88, 129; with suffixed pron. and neg. mankat I shall not VI:138; 2nd person sg. munt will (in a prophecy) VII A:49, 52, 2nd person sg. with suffixed pron. mantu/muntu you will I:20, IV:75, V:124, VII A:50, XI:71, will you IX:11; attu mun that you will XXVI B:218; 3rd person sg. man/mun it must be VI:69, will VI:86, 118, XIV:130, XXII:23/2, XXV:44, XXVI B:23, 72, it will XXIV:79, must XXI:146, XXVI B:199, will be VI:263, XXVI A:87, 102, B:24, it will be XXVI B:33, 69, must be VI:330; XXVI B:15; mun flat that will be XVI:24; mun flá at there must be in it XV:52; man/mun vera must be VI:93, can be VI:112, it will be XXVI B:123, fleim man vera it will be for them, they will find it is VI:188; eigi man hafa will not have VI:89; mon/mun (nú) ver›a will turn out to be VIII:135, will now take place XXVI B:213; eigi man fletta vera that will not be VI:71; hvat mun what can XXI:99; hví mun eigi flat til why should that not be possible XVI:38; svá mun enn it will be so still V:77; mun ætlat will be intended I:39; pres. pl. munum we shall XXV:39, vér monum we will VIII:135; vit munum we shall XXVI B:214; munu vit (Gr 3.6.9.1 (13)) we shall I:63, munu vér we will XXVI B:101, we shall XXVI B:40, 52; flér munu› you will XXVI B:69; eigi munu they (the eyes) will not XXIII:36; past munda/mundi would I:91, VIII:85, XXI:135, XXVI A:27 (1), 105, should XXVI A:27 (2), was likely XXVI A:2, might III:19, XIX:81 (must?), might have II:158, flar mundi there would be there XXI:153; mundum would have XXVI B:99; mundu would XXIV:28, XXVI A:7, 11, would be XXVI B:4, must have been XXI:157; past pl. with suffixed neg. mundut ver›a skƒp it could not have been fated VI:342; impers. past mundi it would VIII:91, it would be II:107 (henni for her), XIV:92, flar mundi there would there XXI:61; pres. subj. myni would be XXV:80, muni will I:37, must be I:55; flú munir you will XVI:33; muni vera (that) it must be I:109, can be, will be I:125; sá muni vera ma›rinn that must be the man or there must be such a man XVI:103; impers. (that) it will I:89, (that) it will be I:134; fleim muni illa sœkjask it will be hard work for them XXVI B:58; mynim should XXV:103, vér munim we shall XXVI B:49; past subj. mynda, mindi, myndi, mundi, myndir would IV:88, V:5, VI:13, VII B:54, IX:14, XV:5, XVI:125, XXV:76; it would VI:97; might, could XVI:59; must VI:319, 321, VII A:60, 119, should VI:346, VIII:110; myndir flú flá must you Glossary and Index 171

then have XXV:21; minda hafa would have XVI:163; launa mindi hann he will have rewarded you XVI:171; with suffixed 1st person pron. at myndak that I should V:153 (followed by ver›a); past subj. pl. mundi, myndi would I:144, III:2, must VI:124, should XXVI A:65, myndu hafa must have VI:134; past inf. mindu, myndu, mundu (Gr 3.9.4) after kva›, kvá›u, kvaz, kvazk, kvezk, lézk would II:47, 136, III:42 (eigi mundu should not be), VIII:67, XV:116, 122 (would have), XVI:47, 116, XXV:45 munú› f. lust XIV:92 mús (pl. m‡ss) f. mouse Gr 3.1.7.2, 4 (1) musteri n. minster, monastic church XIII:2 (with suffixed def. art.) mygla (past mygla›i, pp. myglat) wv. go mouldy XIX:58 mykiskán f. sheet of dung XXI:160 mykl- see mikill mynda, myndi1, myndir, myndu see munu myndi2 see muna myni/mynim see munu mynni n. mouth (of a river), estuary VI:207 M‡rar f. pl. district between Hítardalr and Borgarfjƒr›r V:39 myr›a (past myr›i, pp. myr›r) wv. (Gr 3.6.9.3 ex. 4) murder VIII:51, XIX:69, 88 myr›ir m. slaughterer VI:283, VII A:140; the ‘slaughterers of the Wends’ are Óláfr Tryggvason and Haraldr Gormsson myrkr1 adj. dark, obscure; acc. m. sg. myrkvan X:29; n. as predicative adj. or adv. myrkt II:121 (‘so as to be obscure’), dark XIX:33; myrkt er it is dark VII B:66 myrkr2 n. darkness XXII:53/1 myrkvi›r m. dark forest X:17; cf. X:29 myskunnsamliga see miskunnsamliga m‡ss see mús mæfingr adj. slender-fingered (one) XXV:79 mækir m. sword X:94, 151, XXII:15/4, XXV:54 mæla (past mælti, pp. mælt) wv. 1. speak, say I:14, 20, 21, 38, 60, 62, 79, 82, 100, 104, 123, 128, 130, 132, 135, 139, 144, II:21, 24, 65, 75, 85, 121, III:70, IV:37, V:10, 58, 105, VI:63, 76, IX:6, XI:5, 69, XIV:52, XV:21, 64, XVI:22, XIX:76, XXI:77, 98, 176, XXIV:1, 11 (Norwegian form ﬂér mæltur you spoke), XXVI A:22, 33, 66, 78, B:47; utter, give vent to (imp. pl.) XXVI B:123; announce XXVII:30; 172 A New Introduction to Old Norse

with suffixed neg. mæltira flú you could not have spoken X:168; pp. mælt expressed II:12; mæla málum sínum make their speeches XXVII:23; mæla firir/fyrir argue to, propose to XVI:56, make a pronouncement, announce XIX:53; mæla (í) gegn oppose VIII:82, 177, 179; mæla (ekki/eigi) í móti speak against, oppose VII B:13, raise (no) objection XV:29, 78; mæla svá mean as follows XIV:55; mæla til stipulate, demand as II:134, mæltu til samfara me› sér arranged between themselves to go out together XIX:8; mæla mikit um make a big thing of something IV:86 (imp. mæl); mæla vi› say to VII B:62, XI:28, XII:85, XVI:78, XXV:79, XXVI B:76, speak to, address V:88, VI:127, 128, 165; inf. in acc. and inf. construction after kvá›u (Gr 3.9.4), mæla vi› spoke to VI:173; impers. pass. vera mælt til to address XXIV:57, sem vi› er mælt who are being addressed XXIV:60, ef til hƒf›ingja ver›r mælt if rulers are addressed XXIV:79; vel er mælt, vel var flat mælt that is (was) well spoken XVI:124, 171; vas flat mælt í lƒgum it had been declared in the laws VIII:94, it was declared (made) law VIII:139; er mælt (it) is prescribed: XXVII:2, 25; mæla skal are to be spoken (addressed) XXIV:15. 2. -sk form mælask illa fyrir be ill spoken of, be condemned XXVI A:119; with reciprocal sense flat vi› mælzk at made this compact together that III:16 mæling f. measuring (at of) II:79 mær f. maiden, girl X:22; virgin XIII:41; acc. mey IX:101, young woman (i.e. Svanhildr) XXV:69, with suffixed def. art. meyna X:176; gen. meyjar IX:121; nom. pl. meyjar X:17, 29; dat. pl. meyjum to maids, female servants X:108 mærr adj. eminent, splendid one XXV:50 mæta see mœta mæti n. pl. treasure, valuables X:71 mætr adj. glorious, worthy VI:52 (with mei›r); excellent XXII:50/2, 58/4 mætta, mætti1, mætti›, mættim see mega mætti2 see máttr mœ›a (past mœddi, pp. mœddr) wv. weary, exhaust (transitive) XIV:171, XV:112 mœ›i f. exhaustion, weariness XXVI A:90 mœ›r see mó›ir Mœrr f. district in Norway (Nor›mœrr–Raumsdalr–Sunnmœrr; modern Møre and Romsdal) XVI:9 Glossary and Index 173 mœta/mæta (past mœtti/mætti, pp. mœtt) wv. with dat. meet VII A:52, 56, IX:34; strike against IV:10 (hann = ljáinn), XXII:44/4; -sk form mœtask meet (each other) XII:20; flar sem landit mœttisk ok fló›it gekk efst where the land and the tide (when it) flowed highest met XXI:92 mœtir m. meeter, one who encounters or attends; in kenning for warrior (Óláfr Tryggvason) mœtir malmflings VI:205 Mƒ›ruvellir m. pl. farm in Hƒrgárdalr, northern Iceland III:84 mƒgr m. boy, young man X:104, XXV:56, 79; son XXII:18/1 mƒn f. (Gr 3.1.8.12) mane (collective) V:6, IX:21 (with poss. dat. pl., i.e. for) Mƒn f. (Isle of) Man VII A:5, 18 mƒnnum see ma›r Mƒr›r Valgar›sson m. enemy of Gunarr XXVI A:2, 7, 55, 59, 64 mƒrg, mƒrgum, see margr mƒrk1 f. forest; pl. markir VII A:130 mƒrk2 f. mark, 8 ounces of silver VIII:32, XXVII:35 Mƒrk f. farm in southern Iceland XXVI B:184 mƒrku› see marka Mƒrn f. name of a river (Marne?); in a kenning for ship VII A:138 mƒrum see marr ná (pres. náir, past ná›i, pp. nát) wv. with dat. get hold of II:142, 158; ná›u eigi could not (go) XVI:187; ná til get within range of V:95; with inf. manage, be able I:33, XXII:46/2, past subj. næ›i I:34; impers. ef flví um náir if that can be done XXVII:28; -sk form as meaningless aux. ná›uz at líta sem did look like XXII:20/1 náborinn adj. (pp.) closely related XXV:37 ná› f. grace, salvation (often in pl.) XXII:1/4, 51/4 naddfár n. ‘spike-damage, spear-hatred’, fighting with spears VI:260 (gen. with bƒ›) naddskúr f. ‘point-shower’, shower of pointed missiles (spears, arrows), i.e. battle VII A:13 na›r (gen. na›rs) m. adder, serpent; = Ormr enn langi VI:259; bá›ir Na›rar = Ormr enn langi and Ormr enn skammi VI:309 (object of sá fljóta au›a, parallel to Tranu); unda na›r is a kenning for sword XXII:40/1 (sg. for pl.) nafarr m. auger, tool for boring II:143, 144 (with suffixed def. art.), II:145; dat. (of instrument) nafrinum (with suffixed def. art.) II:150 174 A New Introduction to Old Norse nafli m. navel XII:57 nafn n. name (Gr 3.1.7.1 ex. 3) VIII:66, 68, XV:55, XXI:24, XXIV:43, 45; gen. sg. nafs XXIV:33; dat. sg. nafni1 I:58, VII A:37 nafni2 m. namesake III:18 nagl (pl. negl) m. (finger-)nail XXII:61/3, XXIII:88, 90 nakinn adj. naked XII:57 nakkvarr/nokkurr/nokkverr/nokkvorr/nƒkkurr/nƒkkverr, nƒkkurn, nokkverra/nƒkkura, nƒkkuru, nokkurir/nƒkkurar/nƒkkurir, nƒkkurum; n. nakkvat/nokkut/nƒkkut/nƒkkvot pron. adj. (Gr 3.2.3) some, (a) certain I:5, 23, II:18, 39, 70, VII A:31, XIV:166, XV:113, XVI:151, 184, XXI:130, XXIV:1, XXVI A:16, B:230; a little I:4; any I:84, XXVII:8, 16, XXVI B:87, 130 (2); (a) rather XXVI B:7; a kind of XXI:172; sá ma›r nokkurr er some man who XXVII:2; nƒkkura hrí› for a while XXVI A:111; ƒ›rum . . . nokkurum some other XXVII:12; n. nƒkkut something XIV:157, XXI:69, XXVI A:85, anything XXVI A:80; nƒkkut af a bit of I:103, XXI:61; nƒkkut til something for XXI:63; nakkvat something, some part VIII:134; nokkut some kind of III:92; pl. some V:164, VI:124, 134, VII A:5, XVI:45, 78, a few V:106, VII B:49, XIV:172, several VI:73, VII B:30; any VII A:84; eru nokkurir if there are any XXVII:16; nƒkkurir . . . nƒkkurir some of them . . . some others XXIII:31–32; n. as adv. nƒkkut somewhat, rather V:4, XIV:102, XXIII:5, 11, 20, 71, 105; a little, in passing XXIV:82; at all, in any way I:113, XXVI B:130; nƒkkut svá a little bit XXIII:59, somewhat, rather XXIII:67; á nƒkkut brúnu to a brownish colour XXIII:109; nƒkkvot eptir sem somewhat in accordance with what XVI:55; dat. sg. n. as adv. nƒkkuru a little XV:97, with comp. somewhat XIV:140, by a small amount XXIII:57 nálgask (past nálga›isk) wv. -sk form gain IV:90, note náliga adv. nearly, almost XI:10, 61 (with hvert); náliga engi, engi náliga almost no one XIV:96, 113; ekki náliga hardly any XIV:157 nám n. learning XIV:23; study: flá er náms var› í milli between periods of study, in the intervals of study XIV:159; til náms at study, being educated XIV:166 nam, námu see nema2 nánd f. neighbourhood; í nánd nearby I:23; as prep. with dat. round about VI:152 Nanna f. a goddess, one of the Ásynjur, wife of Baldr II:11 Glossary and Index 175

Narfi m. a member of ﬁorkell of Tunga’s household IV:9, 50, 62 nári m. groin; with suffixed def. art. his groin XXVI A:17 nasir see nƒs nátt see nótt (Gr 3.1.7.2 (6)) náttserkr m. nightshirt III:21, 29 náttsta›r m. night’s lodging II:130 náttúra f. nature, constitution XXIII:107 náttúrligr adj. natural, innate XXIII:1 nau›/nau›r f. need, necessity, distress X:28, XXII:56/3, 59/2; pl. difficulties, harm I:40; constraints, bonds X:62; trouble, affliction XXII:53/4 nau›igr adj. against one’s will, unwillingly, under compulsion I:88, XXVI A:9; dat. sg. f. nau›gri VI:6 nau›syn f. necessity, need; ﬂó at nau›syn eigi til though they have need for it, though they are on urgent business XVI:35 nau›synjalauss adj. unnecessary, lacking good reason; n. as substantive at nau›synjalausu without legitimate excuse XXVII:50 nau›synlegr adj. necessary XXIV:51 nautaflokkr m. herd of cattle VII A:115 (acc. pl. with suffixed def. art.) naut n. pl. cattle VII A:116, 117 ne neg. adv. not IV:24, XXV:27, 92, followed by suffixed neg. -t on the vb. XXV:31, 35; ne einn = neinn no, (not) any; after neg. any at all XIV:93 né neg. conj. nor (Gr 3.8.1) X:169; and (did) not X:98; or in a rhetorical question XXV:48; after a neg. or I:37, VI:9, IX:8, 101, X:108, 153, 171, XII:63, 74, XXV:5, XXVI B:31; ne . . . né not . . . nor . . . nor XXV:93; after hvárki XII:77, XIV:75, XXII:3/4, 53/3, XXIII:52, XXIV:9, XXVI A:77, B:85 ne›an adv. from below X:171; see also fyr ne›an, fyrir ne›an (Gr 3.7.1) ne›ri adj. comp. lower (one) XXIII:57 nef n. nose, beak VI:140, XXIII:51, with suffixed def. art. XXIII:18, 72; as nickname III:8; fyrir nef hvert for every nose, i.e. one for each person VII A:134 nefja f. upturned nose; as nickname VI:105, 300, 304 nefna (past nefndi, pp. nefndr) wv. name VI:138, VIII:113, XIV:172, XV:68, XXII:4/2; call XIX:56; nefna sik say one’s name is, give one’s name as VII A:86; nefndu mó›ur sína said their mother’s name was XXI:201; pp. II:1, 8, XIX:37; es nefndr is named as, 176 A New Introduction to Old Norse

(his) name is given as VIII:48; er . . . er nefnd whose name was . . . VII A:73, 76; nefnt called me/us XXII:23/3; refl. nefndisk said his name was II:133 negl see nagl negla (past negldi, pp. negldr) wv. rivet; pp. X:43 (i.e. the rings on the chain mail were riveted) neisa f. shame, disgrace VI:85 neita (past neitti, pp. neitt) wv. with dat. refuse I:63, VII A:89, VIII:82 nema1 conj. unless (Gr 3.8.2.4) II:35, III:42, VII B:47, IX:30, 71, XVI:151, 184, XXVII:20; except I:132, III:88, VIII:33, X:88, 124, 133, XII:6, XXI:58, 89, XXVI A:8, 110, B:30; but VI:319, but that I:135; nema eigi except not, but not VI:223; ekki nema nothing but VII A:163, XIV:162; nema ﬂví at eins at except only if XXIV:70; fátt nema little but VII B:20 nema2 (past nam, past pl. námu, pp. numinn) sv. take Gr 3.6.9.1 (6); appropriate, settle VIII:65, XIX:96; learn, receive instruction (in) VII A:68, XIV:187; hear, catch, understand, take in XXIV:8 (subj.); amount to VIII:26; with acc. and dat. deprive someone of something X:135; af nema take away VIII:40, abolish VIII:143; nema sta›/ sta›ar stop XV:100, 109, XXVI A:14, B:47; past subj. næmi frá exempted VIII:33; as aux. nema at begin to IX:3, X:122, XXII:28/3; nam (at) did (meaningless periphrasis) X:21, XXII:6/1, 14/3, 16/3, 43/2 nenninn adj. eager, tireless, undaunted VI:360 (with dróttin) nes n. ness, headland, peninsula XIX:97, XXI:31, 105 (with suffixed def. art.) nestbaggi m. provision-bag Gr 3.1.9 ex. 4 neyzla f. use, benefit VIII:53 nezla f. buttonhole or loop for button XXI:47 Níarar m. pl. unidentified people X:41, 66, 142 ní› n. insult, slander, insulting poem VII A:132, 137, 137 (with suffixed def. art.) ní›a (past níddi, pp. níddr) wv. insult, slander; supine nítt lampooned VIII:84; pp. agreeing with direct object (Gr 3.9.7.1) hƒf›u hann níddan had slandered him with VII A:133 ní›ingligr adj. knavish, dastardly; ní›íngligt var hans it was dastardly of him XXII:29/3 ní›ingr m. villain, scoundrel; á ní›ingi on the scoundrel (i.e. he can be recognised by this feature) VI:141 ni›r1 adv. down I:70, 92, 98, 139, II:32, 56, III:6, 102, V:91, 101 (i.e. Glossary and Index 177

to the ground), VI:257, 259, VIII:120, XII:57, XV:50, XVI:159, XXI:128, 152, 200, XXIII:102, XXVI A:20, 28, B:167; on the ground XXI:55; ni›r af out below, underneath or away downwards? XXIII:21; ni›r frá down from XXIII:51, below XXIII:59; setja ni›r settle (transitive), establish XV:41 ni›r2 m. kinsman, relative XXV:37 (acc. pl. ni›ja) ni›rbjúgr adj. bent downwards VI:140 ni›ri adv. below (i.e. below the town) VII B:59 ni›rlútr adj. leaning down, bowed down (i.e. forwards?) XXIII:15 Ní›u›r/Ní›a›r (gen. Ní›a›ar, dat. Ní›a›i) m. legendary king X:2, 14, 16, 41, 66, 78, 91 (dat. of respect), 99 (for Ní›u›r), 101, 117, 119, 135, 139, 142, 161, 163, 174, 180 ní›vísa f. insulting or slanderous verse VII A:134 Niflungar m. pl. used of the royal family of Burgundians (and their men), especially Gunnarr and his brothers XI:8, 15, 43, 64, 73, 76 Niflungaskattr m. the Niflungs’ treasure XI:24 niflúngr adj. king XXII:20/1, 29/4 níta1 vb. torment, afflict? X:169 níta2 (past níta›i/nítti, pp. nítat/nítt) wv./sv. with dat. refuse, reject XXVII:16 nítján num. nineteen Gr 3.4.1 nítt see ní›a níu num. nine (Gr 3.4.1) II:124, 132, 134, 137, III:78, VII B:33, VIII:170, XXI:96; níu (hundru›) i.e. 1080 VIII:167 níundi ordinal num. ninth (Gr 3.4.1) VIII:13, X:28 Njáll fiorgeirsson m. XXVI B:27, 36, 37, 39, 46, 55, 59, 69, 122, 127, 129, 135, 141, 155, 156, 157, 159, 163, 167, 173, 174, 179, 185 Njálssynir m. pl. the sons of Njáll XXVI B:85 Njar›ar see Njƒr›r njósn f. information (af about) XIX:21 njósna (past njósna›i, pp. njósnat) wv. spy (out), find out by spying XV:95 njóta (past naut, past pl. nutu, pp. notit) sv. 1. with gen. have the use of, benefit from; megum vér varla njóta it is not much benefit to us XXI:178; imp. njót manna bezt use it best of anyone, i.e. better than anyone else (the formula used when giving a gift) I:137; lítt n‡tr flú flá fless you will then have benefitted very little from this XVI:144; enjoy the love of IV:74; past subj. nyti should enjoy III:33. 2. -sk form njótask enjoy each other’s love IV:106 178 A New Introduction to Old Norse

Njƒr›r m. a god, personification of the sea IX:88 (gen.); one of the Vanir, though here described as one of the Æsir II:8, 67 Nóatún n. pl. ‘enclosure or field of ships’, kenning for the sea, Njƒr›r’s ocean home (nór m. is a poetical word for ‘ship’) II:67, IX:88 nokkurr = nakkvarr nokkut = nakkvat see nakkvarr nokkverra, nokkvorr see nakkvarr nor›an adv. from the north; nor›an af from the northern side of III:73; fyrir nor›an with acc. to the north of VII A:148 nor›anve›r n. wind from the north (adv. acc., see sigla) XXI:21, 26 Nor›imbraland n. Northumbria, province of England from the Humber to lowland Scotland VII A:3 Nor›imbrar m. pl. Northumbrians VII A:14 (gen. with mor›i) Nor›lendingafjór›ungr m. the Northern Quarter (of Iceland) XIV:74, 165 Nor›lendingar m. pl. people of the north (of Iceland) VIII:164 Nor›menn m. pl. Norwegians VI:185, 195, VIII:21; gen. pl. Nor›- manna VI:360 (with dróttin); dat. pl. Nor›mannum VI:210 nor›r adv. north, northwards II:49, VII A:3, 4, to the north XXI:180; in the north XXII:64/4; on the northerly side, to the north XIX:29; nor›r fyrir northwards along (the coast) XXI:155, northwards past XXI:167 Nor›rlƒnd n. pl. Northlands, Scandinavia and the Baltic countries; dat. pl. Nor›rlandum VI:314 Nóregr m. Norway VI:15, 32, VII A:127, VIII:76, XVI:12, 63, 130, 154, 155, 173, XIX:30, 38, 48, XXII:1/2 Nóregskonungr m. king of Norway VI:149 norn f. Norn, one of the three Fates of northern mythology (SnE, Gylfaginning ch. 15) XXV:104, 109 Norvegr m. Norway VIII:7, 25, 32, 36, 128, 148 norrœnn/nórœnn adj. Norwegian (Gr 3.3.5 ex. 4) VIII:15 nótt/nátt (gen. sg. and nom. acc. pl. nætr) f. night (Gr 3.1.7.2 and (6)) VII A:55, 59, VIII:196; í nótt tonight I:83, in the night, i.e. last night V:16; nú í nótt last night V:25; flá/flessa nótt that night XI:62, 66; acc. sg. with suffixed def. art. um nóttina during the night I:87, 113, V:7, nóttina eptir the following night VIII:121; pl. (with num., acc. of time) nætr II:151, VI:8; nætr ok daga night and day XIV:121; átta nóttum for eight nights IX:104; nóttum by night X:43 Glossary and Index 179 nú adv. now I:15, 16, 20, 21, 34, 38, 39, 45, 55, 68, 76, 82, 83, 90, 95, 96, 101, 105, 110, 148, II:1, 82, III:70, 88, IV:29, 48, V:9, 25, VI:61, 63, 203, 355, 361, VIII:5, 30, IX:6, X:77, 96, XV:12, 23, XIX:54, XXI:145, 193, XXII:9/3, XXIV:22, 54, XXV:35, XXVI A:54, 83, B:13, 100; next V:145, X:66, XI:3 (2), 33, XVI:7, XXI:161; just now XVI:62 (2), XXI:78; lately XVI:62 (1); today XXV:5, 108; so XXI:107, 208, XXIV:40; nú eigi not this time V:107; nú er now he is XII:62/3, nú . . . er now that XXVI B:83; as conj. followed by inverted vb. + subject and a main clause beginning with flá or ok but if XXIV:1, XXVII:12, 16, 45 numin see nema2 nunna f. nun XIV:129 n‡genginn pp. newly gone, just gone III:58 n‡hvattr pp. (see hvetja) freshly sharpened V:112 n‡lunda f. strange thing XXVI B:7 n‡mæli n. innovation, new pronouncement, new law (see Laws II 388 and references, 445–46) VIII:172, 174 n‡r adj. new, fresh (Gr 3.3.8.5 (5)) VIII:90 (acc. sg. m. wk. n‡ja), XI:3 nyti see njóta n‡ta (past n‡tti, pp. n‡ttr) wv. make use of, eat, consume XXI:80 n‡tr1 adj. helpful, valuable (with gen., in something), acc. pl. with sína drengi VI:277; øngu n‡tr good for nothing, worthless XXI:152 n‡tr2 see njóta nytsamligr adj. useful, beneficial XXIII:66 nytsem› f. usefulness; til nytsem›ar var was of some use XIV:157 næ›i see ná næmi see nema2 næmleikr m. quickness to learn XIV:22 næmr adj. quick at learning, attentive XIV:19 nær1 adv. pos. and comp. close, near by II:59, 158, III:55, VI:139; svá nær at near enough to XXVI B:128; nearly III:57, 131; closely, accurately XXVI B:177; almost V:104, XXII:20/2; haf›i nær it came close VIII:110; as prep. with dat. (Gr 3.7.3) close to V:122, VI:125, XIII:17, XXIII:47, XXV:37, nearly VII B:33, XXVI B:47, present at, involved in VI:42; flví nær . . . næstr almost immediately after? or about that time . . . next after? VIII:58; comp. with dat. nær closer to I:64, XXI:107 nær2 conj. when Gr 3.8.2.3 180 A New Introduction to Old Norse nærri adv. near XII:67; flar nærri nearby XIII:34 nærsta see næsta næst adv. sup. closest; next XIV:170; flví næst next I:90, V:119, VI:109, XI:43, XV:143, XXI:180; as prep. with dat. næst next to XIV:7, after (in time) XIV:130; næst oss closest to us VI:182 næsta/nærsta adv. 1. nearly, almost V:143, XXII:29/3; flví var næsta it was close to that, almost, practically so I:49. 2. fairly, pretty, i.e. very, exceptionally I:123 næstr adj. sup. with dat. next VIII:189; next after VIII:58, 62, following XXVII:5; in næstu dægr á›r on the preceding day, during the preceding 24 hours XXVII:33; wk. dat. næsta the next, nearest XXVI A:8; er flar var næstr who was closest (to it) XXVI B:224; et næsta (sumar) eptir the following summer VIII:91, 176, 187; flá . . . et næsta sumar á›r, á›r . . . et næsta sumar the previous summer VIII:94, 99; closest to someone V:84, 145, VI:210, XI:9, next to someone II:13; er flessu væri næstr who was most involved in it, most responsible for it VI:148; flar næstr next to him XI:54 nætr see nótt nœfr adj. clever; skilled in fighting, valiant (with allvaldr) VI:158 nœrir m. nourisher; sá naddskúrar nœrir ‘that nourisher of battle’ is a kenning for warrior, the king VII A:13 nƒfnum see nafn nƒkkurn, nƒkkurar, nƒkkurir, nƒkkurr, nƒkkut, nƒkkverjar, nƒkkvot see nakkvarr nƒs f. nostril XXI:68, XXIII:50; pl. with suffixed def. art. nasirnar his nostrils III:7 óáheyriligr adj. which ought not to be listened to, unacceptable XIV:85 óbrenndr adj. pp. unburned VII A:129 óbygg› f. wilderness, uninhabited area XXI:16 óbygg›r adj (pp.) unsettled, uninhabited; at óbygg›u landi when the land was uninhabited (Gr 3.9.7.3) XIX:105 óbœttr adj. pp. unatoned for (understand ver›i shall be) IV:73 ó› see va›a Oddbjƒrg Skjƒldólfsdóttir f. wife of Hrafnkell Gr 3.1.8 ex. oddflag› n. ‘point (of spear) giantess or troll-wife’, a kenning for battle- axe VI:334 Oddi m. farm in southern Iceland XXVI A:113 oddr m. point (of a weapon) XXII:55/1 Glossary and Index 181

Oddr m. son of fiorveig IV:2, 3, 5, 66 ó›fúss adj. madly eager (to go) IX:105 Ó›inn m. a god, one of the Æsir II:5, 16, 73, 123, 130, 133, 156, 157, 161, 162, XIV:81 (Ó›ins dagr = Wednesday); Ó›inn’s son = fiórr IX:84, 131 ó›r (n. ótt) adj. (Gr 3.3.8.4 (2)) eager, furious, fast; ó›r vi› furious at XV:140; n. as adv. ekki ótt slowly, deliberately; fara ekki ótt at not to be in a hurry over it III:106; eigi svá ótt (he was) not (to be) in such a hurry (to go) III:84 Ó›rerir, Ó›reyrir m. name of a pot II:97, 118, 152 ódæll adj. hard to deal with XXI:11 ódælt adv. hard to deal with (vi›) I:71 ódœmi n. pl. lack of examples; me› ódœmum miklum vera (to be) completely unparalleled XXVI A:19 of1, uf prep. with acc. (Gr 3.7.1) over II:35, 56, XXI:189; covering VIII:3; concerning VIII:140, 141; because of, for VIII:47, 99; throughout VIII:168; across V:39; above V:170; of time, in III:63, X:6, on VIII:121, during VIII:173, 179, 190, XVI:4, 8, 12, 98, 115; with dat. above, by XXV:78 (MS uf) of2 adv. too V:72, VI:70, XV:121 of3 meaningless adverbial particle often found with verbs in verse (cf. um2); with genginn IV:21, komnum VI:354; be›it IX:128; in prose of sá VIII:110 (see sjá1), of kvæmi VIII:142 (see koma) ófagrligr adj. unpleasant, unattractive, unseemly XIV:83 ofan adv. (Gr 3.5.1–3 ex. 6 (c); cf. 3.7.1) down II:18, III:45, 73, 98, IV:10, XII:56, XXI:174, 186, XXVI B:10, 35; i.e. to the shore VII A:56, 111, 151, XVI:128, XXI:49, 87, 169; i.e. from the hillside V:163; above, on top III:100, XXVI B:120; with preps. ofan á up on XXV:107; ofan af down off XXVI A:31; fyrir ofan down over XXI:81, above XXI:172, XXVI B:118; ofan í down onto XXVI B:91; flar í ofan down into it XXVI B:229; ofan um down over XIX:94; yfir ofan up on the top XXIII:10 ofar adv. comp. higher up (the hillside; i.e. from here) V:172 ofdrykkja f, excessive drinking XXIII:48 ofkaldr adj. excessively cold, over cold XXIII:107 ofnar see vefa óframi m. lack of forwardness, shyness XXIII:41 óframliga adv. not boldly, timidly I:8 182 A New Introduction to Old Norse

óframr adj. not bold, timid; not forward XXIII:15; as noun a timid person XV:67 ofrefli n. something beyond one’s strength; kva› sér flat ekki ofrefli said this was not too much for him to do IV:5; ofrefli li›s an overwhelming force VI:166 ófri›arma›r m. hostile person, enemy VII A:56 ófri›r m. hostility, war VIII:128, XVI:33; fighting XXI:154 ofrli› n. overwhelming force; ur›u fleir ofrli›i bornir they (the vikings) were overpowered or outnumbered XXI:145 ófúss adj. with gen. not eager, reluctant (fless at for this, to) XXVI B:67 ofvægr adj. forceful (literally ‘excessively weighty’, overwhelming) VII A:12 ófƒlr adj. not pale, unfaded (untanned?) or without pale markings XXI:115 ógetit pp. n. (cf. geta) in phrase ger›i sér at flessu ógetit was displeased at this XV:13 ógn f. threat, menace, hostility V:19 ógnblí›r adj. joyful in battle VII A:16 ógnhar›r adj. strong in battle; acc. sg. m. as substantive, one strong in battle (King Óláfr or Eiríkr jarl?), in acc. and inf. construction after hykkat VI:249 ógrœ›ir m. one who does not increase the growth of something but gives it away, in kenning for (generous) man, ógræ›ir armgrjóts VI:306 (fiorkell nefja or Eiríkr jarl?) ógurliga adv. horribly VII A:158 ógurligr adj. terrible, horrible I:75 ógæfa f. misfortune XXVI B:187 ógƒrla adv. unclearly, without certainty, not . . . with certainty V:7 óhar›fœrliga adv. not harshly, gently; tala›i óhar›fœrliga did not make strong demands XV:6 óháttr m. evil practice, wicked behaviour XIV:77 óhreinn adj. impure, dirty XXIII:98 óhræddr adj. (pp.) unafraid I:93, fearless XXIII:4 óhætt adj. n. as adv. without danger; sem honum var óhætt where he was out of danger V:118 óhœfa f. enormity, wickedness; hvat er af óhœfunni whatever originates from wickedness XXIII:35 ok conj. and (Gr 3.8.1) I:3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 14, 16, 22, 83, II:4, 13, VI:50, 309, Glossary and Index 183

VIII:1, IX:2, XI:2 (1), XV:26, XVI:4 (2), XIX:3, XXI:1, XXII:1/4, XXIII:2, XXIV:12, 50, XXV:36, XXVI A:4, XXVII:3, 6, 22; ok svá and also XI:11; ok flat and also XI:2; ok ekki flik nor of you, and (I shall) not (be afraid of) you (either) I:107; with II:41 (2), XV:27; (together) with (Gr 3.9.2) V:88, VIII:91, XXI:86 (1), as well as XXI:8, XXVI A:26; and who, and he I:146 (Gr 3.9.5), and who XXIV:84; and (went) XXI:105 (2), and they flowed XXI:53 (2); when, it being the case that XI:35; ok á and on it XXI:159; slíka ok the same as III:69; introducing a main clause after a subordinate clause (cf. flá1; Gr 3.9.9) II:21, XXI:38 (or = at2), XXVII:8, 13, 17, 43 (2); = at2 XV:145; as adv. also I:103, II:12, 67, III:29, 62 (twice, 1 and 3), 68, 93, 124, VI:35, VII A:6 (2), 71 (2), VIII:56, 132, 136, 158, 181, IX:79, XI:11 (1), XII:75, 85, XIII:20, XIV:76, 79, 95 (1), 180, 181 (2), 185, XV:10, XVI:4 (1), XIX:112, XXI:7, 34, 126 (1), 149 (1), XXIV:43, 82, XXV:38, XXVI B:12 (1), 52 (1), 67, 213 (2), XXVII:25, 38, 45; as well VI:134, too XIV:18 (2); flat er ok it is also prescribed XXVII:31, 43, 48; svá ok likewise XIV:181; svá er ok that is right, too V:136 ók see aka oka (past oka›i, pp. okat) wv. subjugate; oka undir make subservient or obedient to XIV:119 ókátr adj. uneasy, gloomy I:73; unhappy, miserable X:174 okkar, ok(k)r pron. 1st person dual our, us (Gr 3.2.1) I:39 (1), V:67, 70, 76, 80, 82, IX:122, XII:39, XXV:38, 44, XXVI A:23, B:164, 213; okkar of us XXVI B:216; ok(k)r for us I:39 (2), XXV:102 okkarr poss. adj. dual our XXII:24/4, XXIV:49, XXV:99, XXVI B:177; gen. sg. f. okkarrar XXV:86, XXVI B:167; okkarr Helga between me and Helgi XXVI B:138 ókristinn, úkristinn adj. unchristian; wk. form as nickname VI:49, 229, 276 Óláfr gestr m. III:119 (see note) Óláfr Haraldsson m. son of Haraldr hárfagri VIII:75 Óláfr inn helgi m. St Óláfr Haraldsson, king of Norway, died 1030, V:57, XXII:heading, 1/1, 65/3; called Óláfr enn digri VIII:31 Óláfr (Sigtryggsson) kváran m. king of the Scandinavian ‘foreigners’ in Dublin from c.938 to 980, when he was ejected; in Northumbria 941–44 and 949–52; died 980 VII A:74 Óláfr (enn) svænski/sœnski Eiríksson m. king of the Swedes (died c.1022) VI:35, 37, 84, 128, 146, 163, 187, 213, VIII:146 184 A New Introduction to Old Norse

Óláfr Tryggvason (Tryygvasunr) m. king of Norway, died 999/1000 VI:15, 18, 22, 25, 30, 31, 32, 36, 40, 41, 44, 46, 47, 48, 59, 77, 79, 82, 85, 89, 117, 133, 147, 151, 152, 165, 169, 181, 184, 186, 187, 190, 193, 199, 211, 215, 219, 276, 286, 294, 303, 305, 318, VII A:1, 2, 27, 29, 30, 32, 35, 38 (Óli), 43, 46, 56, 58, 59, 62, 65, 66, 69, 70, 81, 85, 86 (Óli), 96, 99, 101, 104, 105, 106, 107, 109, 112, 119, 122, 123, VIII:75, 84, 145, XXI:37; acc. Óláf in acc. and inf. construction VI:338; dat. Óláfi Tryggvasyni for Óláfr Tryggvason VI:107; af Óláfi konungi from King Óláfr’s army, on King Óláfr’s side VI:223; me› Óleifi along with Óláfr VI:278 Óláfskirkja f. St Óláfr’s church in Trondheim (Ni›aróss) VII B:85 ólei›ari adj. comp. less reluctant; vera ólei›ari with dat. someone is less reluctant; at Danum myndi eigi vera ólei›ari there would be no less reluctance in the Danes VI:97 Óleifr see Óláfr Tryggvason Óleifr hjalti m. 10th-century Icelander VIII:62 Óli m. hypocoristic for Óláfr VII A:38, 86 ólíkligr adj. unlikely, improbable XXVI B:66 óljúgfró›r adj. reliably well-informed VIII:11 olli see valda ólœyfi n. in phrase at ólœyfi hans without his permission VI:31 ólƒg n. pl. injustice, breaking of the law VII B:29 ómakligr adj. undeserving; ﬂú brennr ómakligr inni you do not deserve to be burned in your house XXVI B:157 (equivalent of adv., Gr 3.9.8.1) ómerkr adj. insignificant; silly; unreliable XXIII:87 ómildr adj. unkind, uncharitable, ungenerous XXIII:62 óminnigr adj. forgetful XXIII:10 ómjúkr adj. ungentle, harsh XXIII:62, 65 ón‡tr adj. useless, unviable VIII:124 ónæmi n. slowness in learning XXIII:46 ónæmr adj. not quick at learning or insensitive? XXIII:7, 13, 79, 94 óor›inn pp. (cf. ver›a) not yet happened, future VII A:31, 64 op n. opening (á in it) VII B:61 (with suffixed def. art.; or opit could be n. of opinn adj., ‘little of it was open’) óp n. crying, howling II:111 opinn (n. opit) adj. open Gr 3.3.8.4 (3a), 5 (1), XV:103; wide open XXIII:41, 50; ok opit and it (the garment) was open XXI:45; cf. op Glossary and Index 185

n. VII B:61; at X:103 and 113 both the meanings unlocked and manifest, evident may be implied; face upwards XII:44 opt adv. often (Gr 3.5.2) IV:97, V:8, 18, 50, 132, VI:18, 80, 196, VII B:42, IX:38, XIII:4, 32, XV:85, XXII:23/1, XXV:95; comp. optar more often XXIV:13; sem optar as on other occasions XXVI B:69 optliga adv. frequently, repeatedly XIV:59, XXIII:40 ór1 prep. with dat. (= úr) from, out of (Gr 3.7.3) I:6, 3, 23, 97, II:27, 33, 45, III:24, IV:27, V:23, 32, VI:20, 42, 210, 271, 337 (with kominn), 349 (with koma), 354 (with of komnum), 356 (with sannfregit), VII A:103, B:46, IX:88, 109, X:45, 77, 137, XV:130, XVI:74, XXI:119, 141, 169, XXIII:36, XXV:40, 53, 84, 95, XXVI A:78, 91, B:10, 214, XXVII:4, 11; from, who lived at XIX:23, XXVI A:17, B:184; postposition svefni ór out of sleep XXV:22; (made) of IX:14, 15, X:118, 120, 162, 164; off XII:4; ofan ór down from XXVI B:198; út ór out of XI:47; as adv. flar ór out of it (Gr 3.7.7) II:92 ór2 see órr VIII:172 órar = várar, f. pl. of várr poss. adj. our IV:60 (with reference to the speaker, Kormakr: ‘authorial’ we; the archaic form is required for the alliteration) or› n. word (Gr 3.1.8 (25)) VIII:121, XII:37, 83, 85, XIV:38, 54, 72, 177, 190, XXV:34 (gen. or›z); remark VI:172; gera or› á comment on, make remarks about XXVI B:31; report VI:358 (dat. with at); message VIII:104, 122, 182; senda or› send word XXVI A:5; taka til or›s begin to speak, choose to speak XXIV:20; í hinu fyrra or›i in my previous discourse XXIV:82; kve›a svá at or›i see kve›a; fleirra or› their votes XXVII:17; pl. words (subject of lifa) VI:180, XXII:46/4, XXIV:1, 10 (2), 13, messages IV:103, XXVI A:2, instructions VII:185, an answer IX:103; flat or›a this (in the way) of words IX:5; gen. of respect fleira or›a with respect to those words IX:69 or›askipti n. pl. exchange of words, conversation II:14 or›inn, or›it see ver›a or›stírr m. glory, fame VI:212 or›tak n. saying, expression II:82; language II:83 óríkr adj. lacking power, humiliated, subordinated VII A:145 orka f. power, strength XXII:34/3 órlausn f. solution, answer II:93, XXIV:24 ormr m. snake, serpent II:149, VII A:152, X:83; in kenning for gold 186 A New Introduction to Old Norse

rings, armleggjar ormar snakes of the arm V:21; Ormr enn langi ‘the long serpent’, Óláfr Tryggvason’s ship VI:64, 65, 69, 71, 94, 100, 102, 112, 114, 129, 189, 216, 224, 228, 233 (subject of kom í har›a), 241, 253, 302, also referred to simply as Ormr, Ormi (dat. with st‡ri) VI:263; Ormr enn skammi ‘the short serpent’ VI:126, 216, 227; with suffixed def. art. the dragon-ship VI:121 (Ormr enn skammi), VI:255 (Ormr enn langi), VI:269 (Ormr enn langi), VI:287 (Ormr enn langi) orpinn, orpit see verpa órr = várr poss. adj. our VIII:1, 172, XXVII:2 orrosta f. battle VI:81, 149, 185, 195, 199, 209, 212, 254, 314, VII A:5, B:79, VIII:129, XIX:16; with suffixed def. art. VI:199, 302 ort, orta, orti see yrkja óru see órr órœkinn adj. pp. uncaring, i.e. vicious, savage IV:46 (dat.with úlfi) Órœkjusonr m. son of Órœkja VIII:51 ósaka›r adj. pp. unharmed, unhurt I:114 ósárari adj. less painful Gr 3.3.9 ex. 7 ósi›ama›r m. immoral person XIV:49 óskaddr adj. (pp.) unscathed XIII:35 óskír›r adj. (pp.) unbaptised VIII:140 óskyldr adj. unnecessary, not required, uncalled for; n. óskylt V:160; comp. óskyldari less of an obligation, further from one’s duty XXVI B:113 ósparr adj. unsparing; var óspart with dat. someone was generous, not mean XV:76 oss pron. 1st person acc. and dat. pl. (Gr 3.2.1) us, to us, for us II:82, VI:83, 182, 195, XI:70, XIII:8, 44, XV:23, XXII:32/4, XXVI A:42, 101, B:33, 58; fyrir oss for ourselves XXVI B:102; referring to the author VIII:34, 36, 55, 144; referring to the king speaking of himself VII B:47, XVI:22, 81, 159, XXII:25/4 ossir = várir, poss. adj. nom. pl. our VIII:87 ósta›fastr adj. unsteadfast, changeable, inconstant XXIII:25, 43 ósta›festi f. unsteadfastness, changeability, unreliability XXIII:51 óstyrkr adj. weak XXIII:29, 59, 71, 99, 104 óstyrkt f. weakness, infirmity XXIII:107 óstƒ›ugr adj. unsteady, unstable, inconstant XXIII:38, 78 Ósvífr Helgason m. father of Gu›rún XV:3, 5, 7, 78, 94, 112, 113, 115 Glossary and Index 187

Ósvífrssynir m. pl. the sons of Ósvífr Helgason (Óspakr, Helgi, Vandrá›r, Torrá›r, fiórólfr) XV:71 ósyndr adj. unable to swim II:105 ósælligr adj. wretched-looking XVI:92 ósætt f. disagreement, dispute; hafa ósætt vi› be at war with II:88 ósætti n. disturbance of the peace VIII:126 ótal›r adj. (pp.) uncounted VIII:167 (cf. telja) ótrau›r adj. not reluctant, willing XXIII:37?; see útrau›r ótt see ó›r óttafullr adj. fearful XXIII:40 óttagjarn adj. inclined to be fearful óttask (past ótta›isk, pp. óttazk) wv. -sk form fear, be afraid (of or to) VI:184, 188, XIII:17, 35 ótti m. fear I:44, VI:131, XIV:41 (at of it), XXI:128, 154 óvarliga adv. incautiously IV:37 óvarr adj. unwary, careless V:11; koma á óvart with dat. take someone by surprise XXVI A:7 óvenja f. bad habit(s) XXIII:11, 76 Ovidius m. Latin poet, Publius Ovidius Naso (Ovid) 43 BC to AD 18 XIV:90 and note óvígr adj. disabled, unable to fight IV:66, V:117; acc. sg. m. óvígjan invincible VI:86; cf. úvígr óvinr/úvinr m. enemy XI:25, XVI:72; fiend, false god XXIV:53 óvir›ing f. dishonour, something dishonourable I:53, IV:111 óvitr adj. ignorant XVI:32; ignorant (one) XXIII:10 (understand s‡nir mann), 20; acc. pl. m. óvitra ignorant (or foolish) people XXIII:90 óvizka f. foolishness, lack of sense XXIII:45 Óvægir m. North American native XXI:202 óvænligr adj. unpromising (til for, as regards), looking unlikely (til to achieve), showing little hope (til of) I:146 óværr adj. uneasy, distressed; gera óvært with dat. cause someone distress XV:127 óvættr m. evil creature, monster I:118 ox- see uxi óx see vaxa Oxi Hjaltason m. XIV:7, 8 óflingfœrr adj. unable to attend the assembly VIII:182 óflokka›r adj. (pp.) disliked (af as a consequence of) VII B:86 188 A New Introduction to Old Norse

óﬂorstlátr adj. not causing thirst, that does not cause thirst XIX:56 óﬂrifna›r m. slothfulness, idleness XXIII:54, 60 padda f. toad VII A:152 páfi m. pope VIII:189 páfuglafja›rar f. pl. peacock-feathers XIII:19 Páll m., lausama›r; died in the fire at Flugum‡rr III:77 pallr m. a platform, usually across one end of the room, used as a seat for the female members of the household IV:7. Cf. bekkr papar m. pl. a name used for Irish hermits in Iceland VIII:21 páskar m. pl. Easter XIV:144, XVI:92 Pater Noster m. (Latin) ‘Our Father’, the Lord’s prayer XIV:69, 71 penningr m. penny, one tenth of an eyrir VIII:43 (it is not certain whether a ‘penny weighed’ or a ‘penny counted’ is meant; cf. Laws II 389–90), XVI:43 piltr m. boy, lad; as nickname III:76 pín f. suffering XXII:54/3 písl f. torture II:47 Plato m. Greek philosopher XXIII:66 prédika (past prédika›i, pp. prédikat) wv. preach XIV:31; pres. part. XIV:176 prestlingr m. student priest XIV:20, 89 prestr m. priest III:93, 96, VII A:68, VIII:2, 77, 91, 145, XIV:59, 155 prettóttr adj. deceitful, tricky XXIII:68; acc. sg. m. a deceitful one XXIII:100 pr‡›a (past pr‡ddi, pp. pryddr) wv. ornament, adorn, ennoble XXII:24/2 pr‡›i f. courtesy; mest af pr‡›i with the greatest courtesy XXII:31/2 pungr m. pouch, purse III:24 purpurapell n. purple material, a costly material XII:35 purpuri m. a costly material XII:34 pƒddur see padda quinto (Latin) num. fifth; i.e. quinto die, on the fifth day before (the fifth day before the kalends of June was Tuesday 28th May 1118) VIII:197 rá› n. control (with gen., over something), say in the disposal (of something) II:135; at rá›um in authority, in charge XIV:131; advice VII A:41, direction VIII:39, 42, 44; án rá›i with gen. without consultation with someone VI:16; plan, course of action IV:48, 104, Glossary and Index 189

VI:214, XV:27 (hér til for this), XVI:83, XXV:68 (pl.?), XXVI A:57; taka til rá›a take as our plan XXVI B:166; hvat fleir taka rá›s what course of action they adopt XXVI B:48; gera flat rá› at make a plan to, put forward the proposal that XIX:65; tóku flat rá› at took this course, that, decided to XIX:56; gera annat rá› make another plan XXVI B:102; stratagem XXVI B:116; what is advisable XXVI B:208; kva› flat eitt rá› said that was the only thing to do III:123; way of life XIV:52; um sitt rá› in their lives XIV:38; y›art rá› your affairs/lives XXVI B:71; rá› fyrir honum at gjƒra to look after him XXI:71; policy VIII:130; what is advisable VIII:132; sjá flat at rá›i see fit XVI:71; solution IV:112; agreement VI:147; vi› fleiri manna rá› with the approval of more people XV:65; pl. counsels X:145, XXV:95, deliberations XXII:9/2; dat. snótar rá›um using, following a woman’s counsels XXII:51/2; me› rá›um with gen. with someone’s advice, with someone’s help VI:10; bera rá›um overrule, reject someone’s advice XXVI B:69; í rá›um in council, involved in decision-making XIV:132 rá›a (pres. ræ›r, past ré›, past pl. ré›u, pp. rá›inn, n. rá›it) sv. (Gr 3.6.5.2) 1. with dat. be the cause of something, be responsible for something II:23, VII A:13; advise XV:64, XVI:150; determine, direct V:13; control, be the one to determine IV:75; rule XXII:1/2; rá›a ríki rule a realm, have great power VII A:92; decide XV:7, XXVII:18, 47; prevail, have one’s way VIII:132, XXVII:15; rá›a me› fleim decide/prevail between them XXVII:13; rá›a á attack XIX:66; rá›a á at set about doing something XXII:49/1; rá›a af get rid of I:118; af hefir flú mik rá›it you have made me leave off XV:24; rá›a fyrir be responsible for the decision VII A:136, have charge of XV:8; rá›a rá›um make plans, make arrangements IV:104 (impers. pass.); rá›a hversu discuss how XXVI A:6; rá›a um discuss, take counsel about IX:55; rá›a oss ór landi cause us (i.e. me, the king) to leave the land, bring about my exile VII B:45; with inf. decide to VIII:138, proceed to IX:4; as meaningless auxiliary did XXII:22/1, 46/3. 2. -sk form (refl.) rá›ask til move to, go and live at XIV:150; rá›ask til fer›ar join an expedition XXI:4, 17; rá›ask til flessa take this upon myself, undertake this I:127; rá›ask undir move under, put oneself under XV:125 rá›ager› f. (making of) decision(s), deliberation(s) XXIV:78, 81 rá›ahagr m. marriage IV:112 190 A New Introduction to Old Norse raddar see rƒdd rá›gjafi m. counsellor; ok hans eru rá›gjafar and are his counsellors, advisers XXIV:81 Ragabró›ir m. brother of Ragi, son of Óleifr hjalti, 10th-century Icelander VIII:61 Ragnarr m. lo›brók (Sigur›arson), a Viking of the ninth century VIII:12 rak see reka rakki m. dog XII:45, with suffixed def. art. XXVI A:15 ramliga adv. mightily, greatly XXII:52/3 rammligr adj. strong, well-built XXVI B:61 ramr adj. mighty, harsh VI:311 (dat. with bƒ›) rán f. plunder, robbery V:154, XXI:5/1 randa see rƒnd Rangá f. ‘crooked river’, in the east of Iceland Gr 3.1.8 ex. Rangárhverfi n. the district between the Rang rivers in south-western Iceland VIII:59 rangr/rángr adj. wrong, wrongful XIV:93, XXII:4/4 rangsœlis adv. against the course of the sun, widdershins XXI:123 Rangæingafjór›ungr m. the Quarter of the people of the Rangá district of south-western Iceland VIII:166 rann n. house, building XXV:83 Rannveig Sigfússdottir f. Gunnarr’s mother XXVI A:87, 103 rás f. running at speed XXI:188 Rati m. an auger (cf. rata wv. find one’s way) II:143 rau› see rjó›a rau›r (n. rautt) adj. red (of gold rings) IX:116, X:37, 97, XXI:113, 124, XXIII:30, XXVI A:29; wk. form as nickname (‘red-haired’) VI:270, VIII:65, 74, XXI:title, 7, 175, 208 rau›skeggja›r adj. pp. with a red beard V:31; hinn rau›skeggja›i the red-bearded one (i.e. fiórr) XXI:77 rauf f. hole (with gen., made by something) II:145, 149 raufa (past raufa›i, pp. raufat) wv. break open, uncover II:19, 20 raun f. trial, test, experience, proof (á of something); sem hƒf›u raunir á or›it as had been demonstrated V:132. Cf. har›r raunillr adj. truly bad, very bad V:15 rausn f. magnificence; mikil rausn er at it is very splendid to, it is (a sign of) great magnificence to VI:113 Glossary and Index 191 raustir = hraustir rautt see rau›r ré›, ré›u see rá›a refsa (past refsti, pp. refstr) wv. with dat. punish XXII:5/1 reginkunnigr adj. divinely descended, of divine descent (= go›borinn) XXV:90 reginn m. ruler, wielder; or the name of a dwarf or god, in kenning for warrior (Eiríkr jarl), brynflag›s reginn subject of lag›i VI:235 regluligr adj. regular, bound by a (monastic) rule XIII:27 regn n. rain XIX:57; randa regn shields’ storm, kenning for battle XXII:46/1 rei›1 see rí›a rei›2 see rei›r rei›3 f. riding XV:99 (with suffixed def. art.) rei›4 f. (clap of) thunder XIII:4 rei›a (past reiddi, pp. reiddr) wv. swing II:29; carry XII:54; pay XIV:17, 28 rei›arflruma f. peal of thunder XIII:32 rei›ask (past reiddisk) wv. refl. with dat. be angry at VII B:28; imp. rei›zt flú ei do not be angry XXII:65/1 rei›fara adj. indeclinable, in the phrase ver›a vel rei›fara have a good passage XVI:12 rei›i f. anger, wrath Gr 3.1.8 (24), X:138, XXII:52/3, 60/2 rei›r adj. angry II:29, VI:96, VIII:86, IX:1, 48, XII:88, XXII:45/1, XXIII:15 (or rei›r adj. ready?), XXIII:64; sup. rei›asti Gr 3.3.3 ex. 5 reis see rísa reisa (past reisti, pp. reistr) wv. raise, set up VII B:88, XII:10, start XXII:38/3; reisum let us lift I:108 reka (past rak, past pl. ráku, pp. rekinn) sv. (Gr 3.6.6) drive II:29, V:102, 127, VII A:111, 116, 117, XV:77; ok rekr and drives it XXVI A:70; imp. with suffixed pron. rektu af flér clear yourself of I:124; impers. with acc. be driven XIX:55, be washed up (ashore) XV:152, 153, XIX:59, skyldi reka were to be driven XV:132; pp. pl. reknir driven IX:81 reki m. something drifted ashore (such as a dead whale) XXI:62 rekkja f. bed XV:9, XXVI B:191 rekkr m. warrior X:135, XXII:7/1; acc. pl. (with ba›at hyggja) sína rekka VI:178 192 A New Introduction to Old Norse remma (past rem(m)di, pp. rem(m)dr) wv. strengthen, make fierce; pp. f. remd fought fiercely XXII:35/1 renna1/rinna (pres. renn/rennr, past rann, past pl. runnu, pp. runnit) sv. run IX:82, XXII:11/4, XXIII:72; of the eyes, move from side to side, look in different directions XXIII:25; renna at hurry to join XXII:28/1 (see note); renna undan run away from XXI:133; rinna upp flow upwards, uphill IV:85 (the archaic form is required for the rhyme); láta renna pour II:96; pp. hvergi var runnit á it (the fire) did not at all run over or affect (i.e. burn, discolour) XIII:6 renna2 (past renndi, pp. renndr) wv. with dat. (cause to) run (with acc. over something); of the eyes, cast over IV:31 (at for, in search of); intransitive move quickly, pass, run XXVI A:72 reri, reru see róa rétta (past rétti, pp. réttr1) wv. (Gr 3.6.9.1 (7)) right, set upright II:105; correct, amend XIV:188 réttama›r m. person attending a sheep-gathering meeting, a sheep- gatherer V:73 réttlátr adj. righteous, just XXIII:30 réttliga adv. rightly, properly XXIV:45 réttr2 adj. correct, true VII A:68, XXIV:52, 53; right XXIV:46; straight XXIII:52, 76; erect XXIII:82; dat. sg. n. as substantive me› réttu rightly, by rights VI:19; comp. n. réttara fairer XVI:25; n. as adv. rétt correctly VII A:119, VIII:153; directly, straight I:43 réttr3 m. justice XV:128; what is right XXII:47/1 (or rétt adv. rightly); law, claim, rights; á mót ræsi ok rétti sƒnnum against the king and his lawful commands XXII:7/2 rex (Latin) m. king = konungr VIII:75 Reykjanes n. peninsula in south-west Iceland VII A:159 Reykjarvík f. a small bay in south-western Iceland, the site of modern Reykjavík VIII:17, XIX:95 reykjarflefr m. smell of smoke XIII:37 reykr m. smoke III:5, 11, 129, XIII:19, XXVI B:176, 205, 223; pl. plumes of smoke XIX:103 reyna (past reyndi, pp. reynt) wv. 1. test VII A:33. 2. experience I:31 3. -sk form turn out to be, prove to be VIII:6 reyrstafr m. reed-stem, reed-stalk; hollow stick, pipe XII:19 rí› see hrí› rí›a (past rei›, past pl. ri›u, pp. ri›inn) sv. (Gr 3.6.5.2, 3.6.9.1 (10)) ride III:120, 121, V:162, 163, VIII:108, XI:3, XII:70, 79, XV:12, Glossary and Index 193

46, 47, XXVI A:3, B:40; sá rí›a saw riding XXVI B:10; pres. part. rí›andi riding VIII:107 rí›ar = hrí›ar VI:91 riddari m. knight XI:65, XXII:24/2 ríki n. rule, power, kingship (or earldom) VI:43 (with suffixed def. art.), VII A:46, 76 (with suffixed def. art.); area of rule, realm (kingdom or earldom) I:80, VI:21, 32, VII A:76, 92, 93 (with suffixed def. art.), 127, XXII:10/4 (with suffixed def. art.); diocese XIV:1 Ríkini m. a French (or Frankish) priest XIV:155 ríkisma›r m. ruler XXIV:15, 55 ríkja (past ríkti, pp. ríkt) wv. reign XIII:48 ríklunda›r adj. imperious, arbitrary, despotic VII B:12 ríkr adj. powerful VII A:75, mighty IX:55, XXII:11/1, 64/1; wealthy? XI:39, XV:36; pl. ríkir powerful ones XXV:68; n. as substantive leggja ríkt vi› place great emphasis on, impose great sanctions on XIV:57; sup. ríkastr VII B:2 ríma f. stanzaic narrative poem with end-rhyme XXII:heading Rín f. the Rhine (river) X:70 ringabrynja = hringabrynja f. coat of ring-mail VI:287 rinna = renna1 rísa (past reis, past pl. risu, pp. risinn) sv. rise XV:149; arise, grow, derive XIV:82; rísa í móti resist, oppose, fight against XIV:77; imp. upp rístu get up! X:175 risi m. giant XXII:20/2 rísta (past reist, past pl. ristum, pp. ristinn) sv. cleave XXII:38/4 rita (past rita›i, pp. ritat) wv. write VII B:5, XV:35; inscribe XII:37; copy (manuscripts) XIV:159; pres. part. XIV:178 ríta (past reit, pp. ritit) sv. write VIII:14 rjó›a (pres. r‡›r, past rau›, past pl. ru›u, pp. ro›inn) sv. redden (with blood; to redden the sword or spear or shield is to fight valiantly) VI:52, 308, XXII:4/3, 16/4; pp. ro›inn reddened (with blood, in valiant fight) VI:208 (with sárlauk) rjó›andi m. (pres. part.) reddener; with randa bliks forms a kenning for warrior, who reddens swords with blood in battle; here refers to Einarr flambarskelfir VII B:45 rjó›r1 n. clearing (in a forest) XXI:172 rjó›r2 adj. red, ruddy XXIII:89, 106 rjúfa (pres. r‡fr, past rauf, past pl. rufu, pp. rofit) sv. break; supine I:16 ro = eru, see vera 194 A New Introduction to Old Norse róa (pres. rœr, past reri/røri, pp. róinn) sv. row, paddle (Gr 3.6.7) II:50, 103, 106, VI:103, 124, VII B:75, 82, XXI:22, 81, 102 Ro›ingeirr m. marquis in the land of the Huns XI:56 ro›inn1, ro›it = hro›inn, hro›it, see hrjó›a ro›inn2 see rjó›a ro›na (past ro›na›i, pp. ro›nat) wv. redden, go red XIX:12 rofit see rjúfa róg n. strife; nær rógi close to strife (understatement) i.e. to death XXV:37 rólítill adj. restless XXIII:38 róma f. battle XXII:35/1 (with suffixed def. art.), 39/2 Rómaborg f. the city of Rome XVI:88 roskinn adj. pp. full-grown, adult IV:107, V:28 ross- see hross- rót (pl. rœtr) f. root Gr 3.1.7.2 ex. 4, XIV:82 ru›usk see hrjó›a rúm n. space, room XXIV:46; rúm flat er enough space so that III:101; place, seat I:25, 62, 68, XXVII:22; bed XV:93, XXVI B:181 (with suffixed def. art.) Rúmferill m. pilgrim to Rome XVI:86, 97 rún f. secret; pl. secret language, hidden lore II:83, 85 rúnameistari m. rune-master, expert in runic writing (writing in the runic alphabet) XIV:17, note runnit see renna1 runnr m. bush; tree, in kennings for man runnr ægis d‡rs ship-tree V:38; acc. pl. danska dolgs runna Danish hostility-trees, i.e. warriors VI:245, parallel to svænska menn in acc. and inf. construction after kvá›u Rúnólfr fiorláksson m. 11th-century Icelander VIII:183 ry›ja (past ruddi, pp. ruddr) wv. clear, empty Gr 3.6.9.3 ex. 5 ræ›isma›r m. steward XII:61, 90 ræddisk, ræddusk = hræddisk, hræddusk, see hræ›ask; ræddr = hræddr ræfr n. roof; with suffixed def. art. XXVI A:60, B:198 rækr adj. outcast (with dat., by someone) VII A:143 (understand var› from line 140) ræna (past rænti, pp. ræntr) wv. plunder XXVI A:107 ræsir m. ruler, king XXII:7/1, 46/2 rœ›a1 (past rœddi, pp. rœddr) wv. 1. talk X:177; speak XII:83 Glossary and Index 195

(mƒrgum . . . or›um using many . . . words); ﬂarf at ræ›a needs to speak or be spoken XXIV:75; rœ›a um rá› deliberate, take counsel (about what to do) XXV:68; rœ›a vi›r speak to, address XXIV:84; imp. rœ› allt vingjarnliga til speak (refer) in every way friendlily about (or to) XV:88; supine rœtt spoken I:54. 2. -sk form (reciprocal) rœ›ask vi› discuss with each other V:111 (Gr 3.9.8.3) rœ›a2 f. speech, talk XXIV:30, 75; discussion XXIV:49; ﬂessi rœ›a what I have said XXIV:48 rœgja (past rœg›i, pp. rœgt) wv. slander XII:42, 62 rœkta (past rœkti, pp. rœkta›r) wv. take care of, perform diligently XXII:5/2 rœr see róa rœtask (past rœttisk) wv. refl. take root; result, come about; impers. mun rœtast á it will cause, result in VII A:53 rœtr see rót rœyr = reyr n. reed; in kenning for swords rœyr drœyra (subject of hnitu saman) VI:231 rƒdd (gen. raddar) f. voice Gr 3.1.7.1 ex. 5, XXIII:69, 70, 72 (1), with suffixed def. art. XXIII:72 (2); dat. rƒddu X:76 Rƒgnvaldr Brúsason m. XXII:16/1 rƒnd f. edge, border, rim (of a shield or of the boss of a shield) X:150; by synecdoche for the shield itself VII B:46, XXII:38/3, 46/1; collective sg. XXII:4/3, 15/1 rƒst f. a measure of distance, a league (perhaps about 12 km); adv. dat. pl. with fyr . . . ne›an IX:28 røkkva = hrøkkva røri see róa sá1 demonstrative pron. (Gr 3.2.2) that I:29, II:98, 119, III:83, VIII:131, X:48, 94 (with mækir), XIV:83, XXII:18/1; he II:92, XXVII:11, this man XXII:19/3, 43/3, that person XXVII:3, it II:97; i.e. that little boy V:122, 125; i.e. that valley XV:83; sá kom náliga engi . . . at there was almost no one came . . . who, so that XIV:96; sá er/es/ sem who XXIV:63, to whom XXVI B:137, that/the one who II:23, XXII:43/1, he who II:127, VIII:49, XIV:105 (. . . hann), one who VII A:31, VIII:27, 32, 36, 48, XXIII:102, 103, who XIV:88, 142 (with hverr ma›r), which XV:150; sá . . . er/es/sem (Gr 3.8.2.1) he . . . who VIII:51, 73, that one who X:77, XVI:103, that/the . . . which XXIII:61, 76, 96, one . . . in respect of whom III:68; en sá . . . 196 A New Introduction to Old Norse

er and that one is . . . whom XXVI B:99; sá . . . at such . . . that XXVI B:213; sá ﬂeira er the one of them who VI:147; sá ma›r er the man who VI:322; sá ma›r nokkur er some man who XXVII:2; sá annarr the first XXVI B:102; sá annarr er some other person who, someone else who XXIV:70; er sá nú margr er there is now many a one who XXVI B:100; Kálfr . . . sá this Kálfr XXII:9/1 sá2 see sjá1 sá3 (past seri/søri, pp. sát/sáinn) sv. sow (corn) XIX:64; sem kolum væri sáit as if ashes/cinders had been strewn XXI:111 saddr adj. (pp.) full, sated, filled (with dat. with something) XIV:147 safna (past safna›i, pp. safnat) wv. with dat. gather, muster XXII:13/1 safna›r m. gathering, mobilisation XXII:11/2 saga f. story (Gr 3.1.7.1, 3.1.8 (23)) II:123 (til explaining the origin of), X:14; at sƒgu according to the account VIII:145, according to the dictation VIII:173; í sƒgu hans in the saga about him, in his biography (i.e. Edmund’s) VIII:14; pl. sƒgur tales, accounts, speech IX:38; heilagra manna sƒgur lives of saints XIV:190 sag›an, sag›i, sag›r, sag›ra, sag›u, sagt see segja sagnir see sƒgn sáka see sjá sakar, sakir see sƒk sakask (past saka›isk) wv. -sk form blame one another (um1 about it, for it) or injure one another (um2) XXV:103 saklauss adj. innocent, guiltless I:52; without cause I:48 sakna (past sakna›i, pp. saknat) wv. with gen. miss, find (something, someone) gone II:52, IX:2, X:57 sál f. soul XVI:112, XXII:32/3, 51/3 sáld n. a liquid measure, a cask IX:97 salgar›r m. wall of (or round) the building X:141 salr m. room IV:27; hall IX:49, 107; building X:45, 46, 75, 140, XXV:110; pl. (apartments of a) dwelling X:32 salﬂjó›ir f. pl. house-servants, domestics X:108 sám see sjá1 saman adv. together II:41 (ok with), III:60, VI:231, (i.e. in marriage) IX:122, X:179, 181, XII:3, XIX:56, XXIII:5, 18, XXVI A:79; close, next to each other VI:169; allt saman altogether, all included XIV:145, the whole XXIII:54, the whole business XVI:57; einn saman on his own XXVI A:50, einir saman on their own XXIV:78; Glossary and Index 197

fimm saman five in all, in a group of five XXVI B:13; sex eru hvar saman they are all in groups of six V:82; saman eiga share XXVI B:188; saman komnir assembled VI:28; saman setja compile, compose XIV:26, note; af einu saman just from XIV:36 samfagna (past samfagna›i, pp. samfagnat) wv. with dat. rejoice with people in something XIV:107 samfast adv. continuously, running XXVII:20 samfelldr adj. (pp.) joined together XXIII:90 samflot n. sailing together; hafa samflot keep together (at sea) XIX:50 samfƒr f. companionship, going together XIX:8 (pl.); living together, marriage, wedded life XV:9 (pl.), 80 samharma (past samharma›i, pp. samharmat) wv. with dat. have compassion on XIV:101 samhljó›a (past samhljó›a›i, pp. samhljó›at) wv. with dat. sound together with; nefit samhljó›i rƒddinni the voice resounds in the nose XXIII:72 samit see semja samkvæ›i n. assent (á to it) XXVII:19 sammœ›r adj. born of the same mother XXV:87 samr adj. 1. same I:34, 136, VIII:3, 88, 145, X:129, XII:20, XIV:102, XV:25, XXI:165, XXVI B:13; inn sami the same person XXVII:20; acc. f. sg. flá samu this same VI:38; wk. n. as adv. slíkt sama similarly II:10, XIII:38; slíkt it sama likewise XI:20; í samt as adv. together, in succession I:75, XXI:66, 121. 2. seemly, fitting, acting properly VI:333 Sámr m. (‘dark’) Gunnarr’s Irish dog XXVI A:9, 22 samflykkja (past samflykkti, pp. samflykkt) wv. with dat. agree with, be concordant with XXIII:6 samflykkr adj. in agreement, on good terms XIV:159 sanctus adj. (Latin word) saint, holy; nom. sg. f. sancta XIII:43; Medieval Latin gen. sg. f. sancte (= Classical Latin sanctae) XIII:30 sandr m. sand XXII:59/4; in pl. VII A:163, XXI:32; yfir sanda across the sands (sandy areas near rivers) XXVI A:5 sannfregit pp. n. truly learned, truly reported (with mor›; cf. fregna) VI:355 sannindi n. pl. truth I:50 sannliga adv. truly XXII:39/3, correctly VIII:15; segja sannliga assert the truth of, tell as a fact VI:329 (or ‘truly they tell’?) 198 A New Introduction to Old Norse sannligr adj. right, correct, just, fair XVI:72; probable, reasonable XXIV:50; true XIV:34 sannr (n. satt) adj. true, righteous V:155; accurate VI:339 (dat. sg. n. sƒnnu Gr 3.3.8.1 ex. 3), VII A:61; correct XXII:7/2; true, real VII A:61, XIV:41, 110, XXII:45/3; n. satt true VIII:135, X:178, 180, XV:49, XVI:67; as substantive the truth VI:100, XXII:22/4; allt it sanna the whole truth XXVI B:186; me› sƒnnu in truth, truly (with gæta?) XXII:50/3; comp. n. sannara (Gr 3.3.3 ex. 5) more correct VIII:6 sannsƒgull adj. truthful XXIII:39 sár n. wound V:130, VII A:53, 54, 55, XXI:179, XXVI A:50, 117; pl. III:62, 113, V:132, XI:7, 35, 37, 40, XV:114, XXVI A:76, 77; í sárum with his wounds XV:122 sárafar n. nature of wounds, extent of wounds V:105 sárbeitr adj. wound-cutting XXV:31 sárlaukr m. ‘wound-leek’, kenning for sword (collective, unless the first person pl. means I, the speaker) VI:208 (object of bárum) sárliga adv. bitterly XI:32 sárr adj. wounded VI:260 (nom. pl. with verkendr sukku), 299 (understand were or being?), 330, VII A:58, XV:108, XXVI B:99; i.e. dead? XXV:60; bitter, angry (full of rage) XXII:34/2; painful XXII:39/4; vinna [menn] sára cause (men) to be wounded XXVI A:97; frá sárum tyggja i.e. about the ruler that he was wounded VI:353; n. as adv. sárt sorely XXVI A:22 sásk see sjá sat see sitja satt see sannr sáttmál n. words or offers of reconciliation VII B:57 sáttr adj. agreed, in agreement; ver›a sáttir á reach agreement on, agree on XXVII:7, 11; ver›a eigi á sáttir do not reach agreement on it, do not agree on it XXVII:13 sáttu see sjá sátu, sátu› see sitja sauma (past sauma›i, pp. saumat) wv. sew XIV:189 sáu see sjá1 Saurbœr m. settlement in western Iceland XV:43, 44, 75 saurlífi n. unclean behaviour, lechery XIV:90, note sax n. a short, one-edged sword XV:107, 109 (with suffixed def. art.); pl. sƒx shears; dat. pl. with suffixed def. art. = manskæri V:103 Glossary and Index 199

Saxland n. Saxony or Germany XVI:129 saztu see sitja sé1 see sjá1 sé2 see vera se›ja (past saddi, pp. saddr) wv. feed, fill; imp. XXII:31/4 sefr see sofa seggr m. man V:150 (= Bjƒrn), VI:332 (subject of sannliga segja), 353 (subject of segir), X:48 (= Vƒlundr), XXI:183, XXII:6/2, 22/3, XXV:67; warrior X:43; seggr the warrior (i.e. Bjƒrn) XXII:45/4; gen. pl. seggja with sveit V:54, with áttar VI:56, with miskunn XXII:62/4; seggja mart many a warrior XXII:39/3 segja (pres. segir, past sag›i, past pl. sƒg›u, pp. sagt) wv. (Gr 3.6.9.2 (5)) 1. say, tell I:12, 49, 51, 66, 74, 81, 88, 108, 116, 134, 141, 143, II:14, 34, 39, 78, 99, 106, III:25, 110, 121, IV:92, 97, VI:32, 49, 329, 351, VII A:10, VIII:33, 36, X:124, XI:25, 34, XV:5, 25, XVI:24, XIX:66, 67, XXI:50, 136, XXIV:9, XXVI A:35, 76, B:3; report VI:334, VII A:147, XXV:66, XXVII:3; declare (with dat. to someone) XIV:65; show, indicate XXIII:12; proclaim, bespeak XXIII:79, 89, segja mann proclaim a man to be XXXIII:105; segja, sag›i i.e. wrote XXIII:1, 66; segir says, i.e. writes XIV:26, note, 166; ek segi I say XXVI B:26; menn segja, segja menn it is said, they say VI:323, VII B:36; imp. seg (ﬂú) mér tell me V:16, X:147, XVI:39, seg›u tell IX:37, segi›a do not tell X:108; past sag›i he said X:180, had said VI:211; past pl. sƒg›u they told X:178, sag›u said VI:94; pp. n. and supine sagt III:114, V:1, 125, 145, VIII:15, related VIII:5, n. pl. sƒg› II:37; (afore)said, aforementioned: nom. sg. f. fyrr sƒg› XIII:34, acc. sg. m. sag›an XIII:37, dat. sg. m. sƒg›um XIII:32, gen. pl. sag›ra XIV:168, 172, dat. pl. sƒg›um XIV:186; sagt er there is told, there are stories VI:314; svá er sagt so it is said (reported) VIII:28, 112, XIII:27; var sagt with dat. someone was told VII B:53, XVI:16; honum (hánum) var sagt he was told I:113, VI:187; kvá›usk engi tí›endi segja they said they had no tidings to tell XXVI B:6; af segja say about it XXVI B:23; nú er at segja now it must be told III:90; segja frá report, tell the story XXVI B:54; ﬂat er sagt ífrá it is told XIV:88; er nú var frá sagt of whom an account has just been given XIV:46; er langt er frá at segja whom it takes a long time to enumerate XIV:184; segja fyrir foretell VII A:31, 46 (past subj. seg›i), 63; segja skilit vi› declare oneself divorced from XV:28 (imp.), 30, 64; segja til give 200 A New Introduction to Old Norse

information about, tell about VI:160, report to (with dat.) XXVII:41, witness to XXIII:24; segja upp announce, pronounce, proclaim VIII:117, 118, 138, 176, XXVII:27, recite VIII:171, 181, XXVII:5, 25, 31, subj. segi upp XXVII:34; with acc. and inf. XV:117, with inf. understood sag›i mik said I should be XVI:183; ﬂeir sƒg›u land ﬂar they said there was a land there XXI:204. 2. -sk form say that one: sag›isk vera said he was VII A:39; sƒg›usk declared themselves (to be) VIII:114 segl n. sail VI:74, 104, 125, 135, 166 (pl.) sei›a (past seiddi, pp. seiddr) wv. cast a spell (til at so that) IV:105 sei›hjallr m. scaffold for performing magical rites, ritual platform XV:142 sei›ma›r m. sorcerer XV:40 seigr adj. stubborn Gr 3.3.9 ex. 30 seimr m. gold wire (as used in jewellery); gold, riches VII A:17, XXII:3/4 seinn adj. slow VI:70, XXI:137; seinn til (you are) late for V:121; n. as adv. seint slowly (i.e. not at all) III:1, IV:63, XXVI B:45; i.e. coldly: svarar heldr seint was rather slow to answer XVI:80; sup. seinst last Gr 3.5.1–3 ex. 6 (f) sékka see sjá1 sekr adj. convicted; ver›a sekr be found guilty, be outlawed (of for) VIII:47, 99 sel n. shieling (a hut in the summer mountain pasture) XV:83, 88; gen. pl. with suffixed def. art. seljanna XV:86 selfƒr f. keeping of cattle in a shieling; hafa selfƒr use a shed in the mountain pasture for the milch cows (or sheep) XV:82 selja (pres. selr, past seldi, pp. seldr) wv. (Gr 3.6.9.3) give IX:15, X:117, XVI:141, XXII:63/2; sell (sér to them) II:128, XV:33, XVI:47; selja vi› sell for XVI:22 sem conj. (Gr 3.8.2.1, 4) as I:15, 19, 73, 79, 91, 118, III:125, IV:76, 97, V:8, 131, VI:49, 73, 153, 211, 228, 292 (1), VII B:12, 15, VIII:109, X:93, XI:35, XIII:23, 40, XV:35, 43, XVI:38, XXI:181, XXIV:24, 71, XXVI B:26, 61, 69, 72; like, as VI:195, VIII:143, IX:58, XIV:105, XV:70, XXII:20/2, XXIV:63, XXV:16, 46, 91, 104, 107, XXVI B:67, 112; in the way that XXIV:35; as well as, equal to, commensurate with IX:36; as if XII:33, 57, 82, XIII:17, 30, XVI:75, XXI:160, XXII:44/4, XXIV:67, 69, XXVI B:29, as if, that V:15, Glossary and Index 201

XXI:135, XXVI B:49; as though I:37, 124; so that XXIII:102; when I:4, XII:70, 80, XIII:15; as soon as VI:217, as much as XVI:51, as long as XVI:88; which I:23, 25, 61, 68, 69, VI:148, VIII:138, XIII:34, XXIII:37, 40, XXIV:5, XXVI B:66; who I:43, 78, 133, XIII:47 (2), XIV:130, whom XXVII:10, 23; that which, what XIII:47 (1); sú/flat . . . sem a . . . which XXIII:70, 77; sem ger›isk however it might turn out (or if it happened?) IV:95; with sup. as . . . as possible II:52, 154, III:111, 112, V:14, VI:63, 78, 214, VII A:34, XIV:15, XXIV:12, XXVI B:84; sem ek hagast kunna as skilfully as I knew how X:92; flar sem in the place which, where II:115, VI:267, from where V:60, to where VII B:79, whereas III:93, when VI:292; flar . . . sem there . . . where, (in the place) where VIII:18, 52, flar til . . . sem towards the spot where XXIII:18; flangat sem to where I:99, 100, V:118; flá er sem then it will be as if IV:45; sem er such as XIV:81; slíkt . . . sem such as XIV:30; flví líkast sem just as if XXI:97; flat . . . sem the . . . which XIII:18; flær sem which VII B:4, XI:15; flá (acc. pl. m.) sem whom XIV:166; flat sem (to) what VII B:21, which XV:33; at flví sem in accordance with what VIII:38; flví . . . sem the . . . the V:67 (see flví); hvat sem whatever XXI:136, hvar sem wherever XXII:19/4, hvárt sem (cf. Gr 3.8.2.1) whether VIII:154, XXVII:11 sém see vera semja (past sam›i, pp. samit) wv. arrange, agree on, settle VII A:95; arrange, order XIV:72 senda (past sendi, pp. sendr) wv. (Gr 3.6.9.1 (7)) 1. send I:42, V:6, 95, VI:5, VII A:33, VIII:77, 182, X:119, 121, 161, 163, 165, XVI:18 XIX:24, 72, XXVI B:195; subj. XXI:63; expel II:159; senda eptir send for XXVI A:10. 2. -sk form sendusk á mi›li = sendu á mi›li sín were sending each other VIII:130 (cf. Gr 3.9.8.3) sendima›r m. messenger VII A:39, 42 sénir see sjá senn adv. together, at once VI:111; straightway IX:53, 81 senna f. quarrel; in kennings for battle vápna senna VI:174, fráns leggbita senna VI:244 septimus (Latin) num. adj. seventh VIII:189 sér1 refl. pron. dat. (Gr 3.2.1) him, himself, herself, themselves etc. I:26, 28, 55, 87, 88, II:89, III:3, 94, VI:296, VIII:195, XIV:178, XV:13, 18, XVI:13, 116, XIX:9, XXI:68, XXII:50/1, XXIII:102, XXV:31, XXVI A:77, B:222; poss. dat. (Gr 3.9.6.2) II:51 (‘in his 202 A New Introduction to Old Norse

claws’), 70, 125, V:157, VI:295, X:62, XI:20, 35, XVI:146; for himself XVI:91, XIX:42; for himself, his VI:16; her XV:126, for herself II:63, VII A:79; for themselves VIII:90, X:5; en sér but (death) for himself III:31; eiga sér son have a son XXVI A:113; jafnmarga sér the same number as themselves XIX:69; á sér on himself (i.e. on his neck) V:159, on one’s person XVI:148, (that was) on him XXVI B:229, in them XXIII:33; vel at sér XXVI B:63 see vel; firi sér einum ok just for himself and for XXIV:63; minni firi sér of less consequence XXIV:69; sér í hendi, í hƒnd sér in his hand XXV:73, XXVI B:219; undir hendi sér under his arm XXVI B:152; me› sér with himself XIV:126, with them XXI:72, XXVI A:9; sér til li›s for his troop XXII:28/4; sér hvern mann each man separately VII A:84. Cf. sérhverr sér2 see sjá1 sér3, sért see vera sérhverr pron. each one singly (separately) XIX:69 serkr m. shirt; with suffixed def. art. her shirt XXI:141; He›ins baugs serkr a shirt made of rings, mail-coat (as used by He›inn) VI:262 (gen. with verkendr); see under baugr sess m seat X:131 sessi m. table-companion, friend; fless sessa fljó›ar of this friend of the people (i.e. King Óláfr; gen. with flróttar or›) VI:179 sét see sjá1 setgeirabrœkr f. pl. breeches with a gore in the seat XV:70 setgeiri m. gore (i.e. a triangular strip of cloth) in the seat (of a man’s pair of breeches) XV:50 setit see sitja setja (pres. setr, past setti, pp. settr) wv. (Gr 3.6.9.3) 1. set, put, place I:26, 29, II:113, 116, 156, IV:8, 9, X:85 (imp.), XI:53, XII:17; establish II:89, XIV:24, XIX:108; set out, set up VIII:40; lay down XXII:6/1; ok setr and puts (it; Gr 3.9.5.1) XI:20; with suffixed 1st person pron. ek settak flik I had set you up to be XVI:69; pp. sett established, set up VIII:38, 44, XIX:108, in session VII A:73; ok sett(r) me› and it was set (adorned, inlaid) with XII:26, 30; assigned XIV:138, note; with verb to be understood, settr he was put X:86; pp. after aux. hafa in agreement with direct object (Gr 3.9.7.1) mik hafa settan had put me V:63; setja á hurl at, aim at I:43; setja at attack XIX:69; setja ni›r settle (transitive), establish XV:41; setja Glossary and Index 203

saman compose XIV:26, note; setja upp raise VII B:74; setja vi› (adv., Gr 3.7.7) place against, i.e. to meet (it), receive (it) upon I:41. 2. -sk form refl. setjask sit down XXVII:22; sezk sits down I:4, alights II:27; setjask ni›r sit down XXVI A:28; imp. sezk ni›r sit down XVI:159; setisk sets (of the sun) VI:115 (pres. subj.); past settisk, settusk sat (down) I:70, II:7, III:102, V:91, alighted X:19, 141; settisk ﬂar settled himself there XXVI A:113; er ﬂar settisk (subj.) í who might attend there, who should come to stay there XIV:27; settisk upp sat up, got up VIII:122; pp. sezt settled himself, set himself up (as king) VI:32, 43 setning f. ordinance XIV:120 setstokkr m. a wooden plank or beam dividing the raised floor (set) along the sides(s) of the hall from the ground in the middle (gólf) III:6 (with suffixed def. art.), XXVI B:219 sett, settak, settir, settisk, settr see setja sétti num. sixth Gr 3.4.1, XXIV:38; vi› sétta mann i.e. in a group of six, with five others V:93 (Gr 3.4.2 (8)) séu see vera sex num. six (Gr 3.4.1) V:44, 47, 81, 94, 113, XIX:49; six (summers) VIII:170; sex tigu (acc.), sex tegum (dat.) sixty VI:21, VIII:56, 59 sextán num. sixteen (Gr 3.4.1) VIII:16, XXVI A:98 sey›ir m. cooking XXVI B:109; cooking pit, earth oven II:19; with suffixed def. art. II:20, 23, 26 (a fire was lit in a pit and covered with earth or ashes, the meat put on top and the whole covered with earth) sezk, sezt see setja síbyr›r adj. broadside on (vi›r to) VI:228; n. as adv. síbyr›t broadside on (vi›r to the enemy?) VI:215 sí› adv. late Gr 3.5.1–3 ex. 6 (d); sí› ok snemma late and early, evening and morning XIV:61 sí›a f. side XXIII:93; vi› sí›u by or against the side (of) VI:237 (phrase belongs with reginn lag›i) Sí›a f. an area in south-east Iceland VIII:79, 116 si›a›r adj. (pp.) behaved XIV:163; conducted (i.e. in conduct, in morals); bezt si›a›r highest in conduct, whose conduct is finest XIX:110, 113 sí›an adv. later, afterwards III:83, 128, IV:66, 76, VII A:123, 169, VII B:84, VIII:19, 22, 43, 57, 147, XIV:173, 183, XV:30, 33, 75, XIX:66, XXVI A:103, B:230; since VIII:4, 66, XIV:13, 57, 75, XV:152, 155, 204 A New Introduction to Old Norse

XIX:86, XXIV:59, XXV:6; then, next I:1, 3, 22, 25, 70, 120, 138, V:75, VI:228, VII A:2, 56, 95, B:56, VIII:97, X:26, 85, XII:4, XV:7, 109, 135, XVI:19, 141, XXII:45/3; after that XIX:34, XXI:20, 63, 105, XXVI A:10, 32, 36, 108, B:119, 142, 228; aldrigi/aldri sí›an never again XVI:75, XXVI B:214; lengi sí›an for a long time afterwards XIV:175, for a long time to come XV:56; as conj. (Gr 3.8.2.4) sí›an, sí›an er after IV:104, VII A:27, 36, 92, XXIV:69, since XVI:108, XXI:13 sí›ari adj. comp. latter Gr 3.3.5 ex. 6 sí›ar(r) adv. comp. later Gr 3.5.3 (11), III:51, IV:68, VIII:17, 193, 197, XIV:130; litlu sí›ar a little later XXI:73, 179; sí›ar fám vetrum a few years later VIII:142; behind VI:27 sí›arst, sí›ast adv. sup. last II:44, 45; most recently XXVII:5; for the last time XXVI B:21; mæltu ﬂat sí›ast this was the last they spoke XXVI B:183; last, in the rear III:121, VI:127 si›látr adj. virtuous, of good life XIV:3, 150 si›læti n. morality, morals XXIII:78 sí›ir in of sí›ir, um sí›ir in the end III:63, IV:101 si›r m. custom VII A:97; religion VIII:135; sem si›r er til as is the custom for XVI:97; til si›ar tekit established as a custom XXIV:77; pl. conduct, moral life XIV:48, 73; morals XXIII:24, 109; behaviour, practices XIV:94; activity (subject or complement of er at segja) VI:161 sí›r adv. comp. less; eigi at sí›r none the less VI:212; sup. sízt least XXVI B:99; sem sízt as little as possible III:112 si›venja f. custom XXIV:59 Sif (gen. Sifjar) f. a goddess, wife of ﬁórr IX:97; used as if a name for a giantess or troll-wife in a kenning for wolf, Sifjar sóti VI:252 sífella f. continuity; í sífellu continuously, constantly, all the time V:104 síga (past seig, past pl. sigu, pp. sigit) sv. sink down; draw along, glide along; síga á hƒmlur pull against the oar-thongs, i.e. draw backwards, row astern VI:214; refl. lætr sígask lets himself drop II:27 Sigfússsynir m. pl. sons of Sigfúss Sighvatsson, Gunnarr’s maternal uncles (Njáls saga ch. 34, ÍF XII 87–88) XXVI A:110, B:10 sigla (past sigldi, pp. siglt) wv. sail VI:25, 60, 63, 75, 110, 120, VII A:3, 70, XXI:20, 35, 89; sail by VI:88, 130; with acc. of route sail along VI:87; with acc. of wind sigla nor›anve›r sail with a wind from the north XXI:20; siglum let us sail VI:167; with dat. sail with, take VII A:132; sigla fyrir sail past VI:59 (with acc. of route), 61 Glossary and Index 205

Sigmundr m. Bjƒrn Hítdœlakappi’s farmhand V:2 signa (past signa›i, pp. signat) wv. sign with the cross; signa sik make the sign of the cross, cross oneself XIV:64, 68; signdu ﬂau sik ok sveininn they made the sign of the cross over themselves and over the boy XXVI B:182 sigr (gen. sigrs) m. victory VI:185, XXII:1/4, 47/4; with suffixed def. art. af sigrenum er of the victory whereby VI:315 sigrask (past sigra›isk) wv. -sk form be victorious XXVI B:54 Sigrí›r1 f. daughter of Ketill kálfr VII B:6 Sigrí›r2 f. daughter of Skƒglar-Tósti VI:37, 38 Sigur›r sveinn m. Boy Sigur›r (the dragon-slayer), former husband of Grímhildr XI:7, 8, 24, 35, 37, 39, 40, 71, XXV:22, 26 Sigvaldi m. jarl of Jómsborg VI:24, 33, 103, 106, 120, 135, 137, 199 (gen. with getit), 200; ok Sigvalda along with Frísa dolgi dat. object of fylg›a ek VI:204 Sigyn f. a goddess, one of the Ásynjur, wife of Loki II:10 sik refl. pron. acc. oneself etc. (Gr 3.2.1) I:30, 110, 119, VI:249, VIII:120, XI:18, XVI:44, 93, XIX:110, XXI:68, XXVI A:72, B:38, 190, 230 sikling(r) m. ruler (here = King Óláfr) VI:356 (gen. with mor›), XXII:13/1, 28/3 silfr n. silver IX:15; instrumental dat. X:117, 161; money XVI:85, 141, 165, XXII:31/3 silfrbelti n. silver belt III:23 silki n. silk XIII:31 silkidúkr m. silken cloth XIII:3, 6, 15 silkirœma f. silken band, tie, garter V:56 silkitjald n. silken hanging or drapery XIII:18 sin f. sinew X:84, 86 sín1 refl. pron. gen. (Gr 3.2.1) oneself, themselves etc. II:21, VI:147, XXVI B:181; him XXII:50/4, his XXII:54/1; til sín to (see) him XVI:87 sín2, sína, sínar see sinn1 síngjarn adj. covetous, avaricious XXIII:4 (understand eru) sinn1, sinna, sinnar, sinni1, sín, sína, sínar, síns, sínu, sínum refl. poss. one’s, his, her, its, their etc. (Gr 3.3.4, 3.3.9 ex. 7, 12) II:3, 7, 37, 68, VIII:19, 50, 89, 120, 134, IX:2, 20, X:39, 78, XI:2, XIII:24, 36, XIV:170, 174, XV:12, XVI:7, 111, XIX:25, 38, 73, XXI: 81, 192, 205, XXII:13/2, 40/1, XXIII:2, 19, 40, 70, XXIV:16, 18, 63, 206 A New Introduction to Old Norse

XXV:9, 55, XXVI B:55, XXVII:24 (sínum their); n. sitt II:105, VIII:153, XV:33, XVI:13, XIX:44, XXI:4, 51, XXII:34/3, 36/1, 42/2, XXVI:A12, XXVII:22, 38; his own XIX:43; gen. síns his, their XXVI A:85; til síns lands to their own country XXI:155; sjálfs síns his own XXII:7/4; acc. sg. m. sinn veg hverr each his own way, all in different directions XIX:84, sinn . . . hvárir each (side) their own XXVII:14; acc. sg. f. sína his (own, separate) XXVI B:216; acc. pl. m. sína XXVI B:40; nom./acc. pl. n. sín their IV:40 (with sver›), VIII:112, XIX:42, her II:36 (with epli), dat pl. sínum their own XXVI A:46 sinn2 n. time; at sinni on this occasion II:37 (probably referring to the gods’ journey home rather than to the conversation between Ægir and Bragi, i.e. it goes with fer› rather than with sƒg›), for the time being III:94, XI:16, XII:65; eitt sinn on one occasion IV:76, VII B:32, XIII:4, XV:20; um sinn on one occasion, once XIV:143, XXIV:13; einu sinni (just) once XXV:49; einhverju sinni on one occasion (the phrase belongs in the following at-clause) XVI:115; annat sinn (acc. of time, Gr 3.1.5 (10)), í annat sinn a second time, again II:20, 148, VI:274, VII A:62, VIII:17, XXVI A:40; í hvárttveggja sinn each time, both times III:116; hvert sinn . . . er every time that XII:87; sjau sinnum seven times XIV:69; nƒkkurum sinnum several times VII B:30; sem fæstum sinnum as infrequently as possible XXIV:12 sinni3 n. (= sinn2) time; fyrsta sinni for the first time XXIV:77; annat sinni a second time XXIV:8 síns, sínu, sínum see sinn1 sitja (pres. sitr, past sat, past pl. sátu, pp. setit) sv. sit (Gr 3.6.9.1 (5)) I:4, 65, II:13, 23, 24, III:104, IV:4, VII B:16 (inf. with skyli), X:56, 98, XI:31, XXV:39; stay, live XIX:63; lie in wait IV:54, 78, V:11; imp. sittu, sit sit! XI:23, 29; past sat was sitting III:109, IV:7, IX:19, 102, XXI:175, stayed IV:47, X:13, 36; saztu you sat XXV:23; sátu were sitting IV:7, XXVI A:32, stayed X:26, XXVI A:118; sátu› it Vƒlundr did you and Vƒlundr sit X:179; sátu vit Vƒlundr Vƒlundr and I sat X:181 (Gr 3.6.9.1 (13)); past subj. sæti were sitting XIII:3; impers. pass. me›an var setit while they were sitting II:7; sitja at occupy XIV:5; sitja eptir remain sitting X:174; sitja fyrir waylay, ambush IV:5, 49; sitja inni are sitting indoors IV:39; sitja um lie in wait for (to attack), plot against, waylay XXIII:81; pres. part. as noun sitjandi a seated person IX:38 Glossary and Index 207 sitt see sinn1 sittu see sitja sízt1 see sí›r sízt2 prep. with acc. since X:144 sjá1 (pres. sér, past sá, past pl. sá/sáu, pp. sénn, n. sét) sv. (Gr 3.6.9.1 (8), 3.6.9.3, 3.6.10) 1. see (Gr 3.6.10) I:6, 28, 30, 90, 125, II:18, 54, 64 (twice), 155, 156, III:1, IV:16 (twice), V:44, 46, 60; VI:61, 80, X:47, 111, XI:2, 50, XII:8, XV:106, XVI:94, XXI:30, 96, 122, 132, XXV:74, XXVI A:16, 29, B:10, 28; look VII A:85; watch XXVI B:175; realise IV:48, understand XXI:153; notice that XXI:172; at sjá to look at III:23, XXI:160; sé ek, ek sé I see I:66, 121, III:67, V:70, 74, 82, VII B:37; sér flú you see XXV:88; with suffixed pron. and neg. sékka I shall not see X:95; pres. subj. sjái I:36, may see XIV:55, (impers.) one can see XV:62; imp. pl. sjái› I:140; past sg. sá III:97, 99, 121 (had seen), IV:53, V:119, VI:75, 120, 151, 269, 270, 306, VII A:144, XVI:95, XIX:52, 80; fla›an sá hann from there he could see XIX:102; with suffixed pron. sáttu have you seen IX:99; with suffixed pron. and neg. sáka I have not seen IX:100; sá er saw how VII B:35, XXVI B:189; past pl. sám XIV:26, note, XXVI B:12, sá vér we saw XXVI B:10; sá VI:61, 67, 109, 123, caught sight of, came within sight of XIX:51; er fleir sá which they could see XIX:71; past subj. sæi saw XII:60, XIV:35, were to look II:108, could see V:45, impers. one saw, could be seen I:115; pp. sét, sénir seen II:45, VI:196, XXV:67, XXVI B:116, obvious XXVI B:100; impers. (cf. Gr 3.9.3 (c)) enn sér one can still see, there can still be seen XIV:26, sér flá then it can be seen XVI:149, lítt sér flat flá á there will be little to show for it XVI:139, en sjá flykir than seems apparent, evident I:136, eigi of sá á mi›li one could not distinguish between, foresee which way it would go VIII:110; á at sjá to look at VI:111, in appearance, visibly, noticeably XIX:12, sjá á to look upon X:100, look at XXV:72; sá flat at saw this as VI:213, XVI:71; sjá fyrir/fyr see to, attend to IV:67, XIX:79, look after XIV:127, provide for XVI:111; sjá í look inside X:103; Hvat sjái flér til what can you discern, discover by looking XXVI B:55; past pl. sá til were watching, looked on VI:60; sjá vi› beware of, be cautious about V:35; vi›r flví sjá beware not to, take care to avoid XXIV:82. 2. -sk form reciprocal sjásk see each other IV:14, XXVI B:214; refl. um (at) sjásk (to) look around oneself (Gr 3.9.8.3) II:11 (subject of flótti), X:33 208 A New Introduction to Old Norse sjá2 pron. (Gr 3.2.2, 3.8.2.1) this II:123, that XVI:125, XXI:121 sjaldan adv. seldom XIV:52, XXI:79; sup. hit sjaldnasta at the most seldom, at least XIV:143 sjáldr n. pupil (of the eye); pl. with suffixed def. art. XXIII:33, 34 sjálfala adj. indeclinable finding their own food; gekk úti sjálfala remained in the open feeding themselves XXI:108 sjálfr adj. and pron. self; himself III:114, VI:294, 298, VII A:64, B:27, 51, VIII:74, 93, 186, X:79, XII:54, XIV:30, XXII:50/4; herself XII:22, XIV:189; yourself VII A:53; itself XIII:16, 37; sjálfan hann the man himself VII A:103; sjálfum sér for himself XIV:63, á sjálfum sér in himself XIV:50; sjálfri flér to you yourself X:129; flér . . . sjálfum you yourself XXIV:85; sjálfs síns his own XXII:7/4; sjálft itself VIII:157, XIII:18; sjálfir ourselves XXV:103, XXVI B:105, themselves XXVII:17, i.e. in person VII B:58 sjálfrátt adj. n. as adv. er flér sjálfrátt at you are free to, it is up to you to, it is within your power to, you ought to be able to XXVI A:57 sjálfsáinn adj. (pp., cf. sá3) self-sown, wild XXI:50, 90 sjau num. seven (Gr 3.4.1) VI:8, 49, 53, VII A:55, 59, VIII:13, 29, 166, X:11, 26, 48, XIV:69, XIX:49, XXIV:35 sjaundi ordinal num. seventh Gr 3.4.1, XXIV:38 sjaután num. seventeen Gr 3.4.1 sjó›a (pres. s‡›r, past sau›, past pl. su›u, pp. so›it) sv. cook XXI:75; pp. II:19, 20, 21 sjó›r m. purse; flér í sjó›i (dat.) into your purse or to you in a purse? XXII:31/3 sjóli m. king XXII:21/4, 50/3 sjónhverfingar f. pl. optical illusions, magical deceptions, false appearances II:4 sjór (= sær) m. sea VI:151; gen. sg. sjóvar VI:11, XXI:88; acc. with suffixed def. art. sjóinn VI:256; dat. with suffixed def. art. sjónum VI:296, XIII:11, af sjónum from the sea, i.e. from the shore? (or add af eynni after eggver) XXI:84; me› sjó along the coast XIX:72, 90 sjóskrímsl n. sea-monster XXIII:63 sjúkr adj. ill Gr 3.3.9 (1), (13), (20) ska›i m. harm, damage I:77 Ska›i f. daughter of the giant fijazi II:61; dat. of respect or poss. dat. (cf. note to I:12) II:71 skaka (past skók, past pl. skóku, pp. skekinn) sv. shake XII:46 (pres. part.), XXV:57, 72 Glossary and Index 209 skal see skulu skál f. bowl X:116, 160 skáladyrr f. pl. the doorway of the hall or main living-room IV:10 (here probably the doorway from the main room to the stofa) skálaendi m. end of the hall XXVI B:201 Skálafell n. mountain 35 km south-east of Reykjavík XIX:102 Skálaholt (modern Skálholt) n. bishop’s see in south-western Iceland VIII:159, 195, 197, XIV:89, 173 Skálaholtsland n. the Skálaholt estate VIII:160 skálasmí› f. building a hall XV:94 skáld, skald n. poet II:99, VII B:14, XXII:19/2; i.e. the speaker, Bjƒrn Hítdœlakappi V:24, 50 skáldfífl n. rhymester, poetaster II:160 skáldskapr m. poetry II:83, 87, 117, 121, XXI:78; with suffixed def. art. II:162 skalf see skjálfa skáli m. hall (usually without dividing walls), the main living area of a medieval house X:10, XIX:62, 102; with suffixed def. art. III:6, XXVI A:22, 26, 29, 61, B:116, i.e. the roof of the hall III:73, 74 (dat. after í), ofan allr skálinn all the upper part of the hall XXVI B:120; at skáli in the house XIX:65; shed, hut for sleeping in: sumir skálarnir some of the sleeping huts XXI:106 skálm f. short (one-edged) sword XXV:57 Skálmarfjƒr›r m. fjord in north-western Iceland XV:41 Skálmarnes n. farm in north-western Iceland XV:34, 125, 131, 146 skalt, skaltu see skulu skammr adj. (of time) short I:129, III:104, XIV:73; skamma stund for a short time XIV:5; (of physical length) XXIII:9 (Gr 3.9.2; understand s‡nir mann), 75, 86, 87, 100; wk. form in name of ship enn skammi VI:126; n. as adv. skammt a short time XXVI A:23, a short way III:68, V:43, XII:56, XV:139, 149; skammt at bí›a not long to wait XIV:100; skammt eigu fleir hingat they are not far away V:65, átti skammt til fleira was a short distance from them V:86 skamms‡nn adj. short-sighted, foolish XXIV:43 Skánungar m. pl. the people of Skåne, Danes; gen. with fundar, (a rendezvous) with the people of Skåne VI:57 skap n. mind XVI:119; mood XI:68; til skaps with gen. to please someone XXVI B:74; temperament, disposition XXI:11; hafa skap til at be disposed to, feel inclined to XXVI B:215 210 A New Introduction to Old Norse skapa (past skapa›i, past pl. skƒpu›u, pp. skapa›r) wv. create, shape II:92, XII:48, XIV:112; appoint, impose: slíkt víti á at skapa the same penalty should be imposed XV:61; væri henni skapat víti a punishment would (surely, by fate?) be imposed on her XV:117 skapfrƒmu›r m. ‘mind-promoter’; Hrundar skapfrƒmu›r promoter of what is to the taste of the valkyrie, i.e. promoter of battle, a kenning for warrior, warlike man IV:89 (hvern skapfrƒmu› is object of myndir flú kjósa) skapligr adj. suitable, fitting, due VI:197; fitting XIV:40; right XV:16 skaplyndi n. temper, disposition XXIII:8 skapstórr adj. proud-minded; menn eru skapstórir there are proud- minded people XV:66 skapt n. shaft (of spear) XXVI B:90; pl. skƒpt spears XXII:35/3 skara (past skara›i, pp. skarat) wv. to cause to slide; impers. skara›i ljáinn the scythe-blade slid IV:10 skar› n. cut, notch IV:11 (subject of brotna›i); gap, empty space VI:83 skar›r adj. (pp.) diminished, waning X:44 Skarphe›inn Njálsson m. XXVI B:16, 30, 39, 57, 62, 73, 80, 89, 90, 94, 95, 107, 112, 146, 189, 193, 199, 202, 206, 210, 217, 226 skarsk, skáru see skera skatnar m. pl. men XXII:26/3 skattland n. tributary territory, dependency VI:32 skattr m. tribute, tax VII A:169; treasure XI:24 (Niflunga-) skaut see skjóta skegg n. beard II:69, IX:3 skeggja›r adj. (pp.) bearded (i.e. a full-grown male) XXI:199 Skeggjasonr m. son of Skeggi fiorgeirsson, 10th-century Icelander VIII:79 skei› f. a large longship VI:74, 83, 103, 135; gen. pl. with numeral (Gr 3.4.2 (5)) VI:53; dat. pl. with warships (with hƒf›u lokit) VI:284 skeina (past skeindi, pp. skeindr) wv. scratch, wound; make furrows (in the sea, i.e. sail a ship) VII B:38; -sk form for pass. skeindisk was hurt III:112 skelf›r adj. (pp. of skelfa wv. frighten) afraid, fearful XXIII:65 skelfr see skjálfa skellr m. resounding blow IX:129 skemmri adj. comp. (of skammr) shorter, lasting a shorter time XV:10 skemr adv. comp. for a shorter time XXVI A:84 Glossary and Index 211 skem(m)ta (past skem(m)ti, pp. skem(m)t) wv. with dat. skem(m)ta sér entertain oneself, amuse oneself XI:77, XXI:95 skemtan f. amusement, toy XII:45; enjoyment XII:86 skemtiligr adj. pleasant XIV:40 skepna f. creature XIV:40 sker n. skerry, rock covered at high tide (Gr 3.1.7.5 (4)) II:119 (with suffixed def. art.) skera (past skar, past pl. skáru, pp. skorinn) sv. cut V:5, XXI:117; pierce XXII:20/4; cut up, flense XXI:73; carve XII:23, 32; pp. f. pl. skornar X:86; -sk form skerask í cut out cloth for oneself into, make oneself, dress oneself in XV:89; for pass. past pl. skrusk were cut (i.e. by swords in battle) VI:232 sker›ir m. cutter, damager; sker›ir seims ‘damager, diminisher of riches’, one who gives away gold, generous man (the king) VII A:18 skerjóttr adj. rocky, full of skerries; sup. XV:149 skí›i n. sheath XXV:53 skí›ijárn n. ‘sheath-iron’, sword XXV:53 (pl.) skikkja f. cloak; with suffixed def. art. XXVI B:147 skildi, skildir see skjƒldr skilja (past skil›i, pp. skilit/skil›r) wv. (Gr 3.6.9.3 ex. 8) 1. intransitive part, be separated (vi› from) III:36, XIX:13, XXVI B:172; impers. skil›i me› fleim they got separated XIX:51; transitive skil›i parted, separated (sc. them) X:28, skilja break off XV:29; skilja vi› separate from, deprive of XXII:34/4; pp. skili›r frá exempt from VIII:28; skil›r vi› parted from XIV:104; skilit divorced (vi› from) XV:28, 30, 64; -sk form skiljask part from each other I:64, XVI:189, 1st person pl. skiljumsk VI:92; subj. skilisk vi› be parted from XXVI B:76. 2. understand I:27, XIII:44; subj. skili may understand XXIV:34; deduce VIII:23, 70; at skilja to be understood, to be interpreted XXVI B:62; -sk form with pass. meaning, with dat. ef flér skilz if you understand XXIV:47; flessi lutir skiljaz mér I can understand these things XXIV:50. 3. stipulate: pp. n. skilt XV:8; skilja fyrir announce (it) XXVII:19 skillingr m. shilling, coin; in pl. = money IX:129 skilna›r m. parting II:91, III:34 (with suffixed def. art.), XII:38; with gen. parting between XXVI B:138; skilna›r me› parting between XXVI B:213 212 A New Introduction to Old Norse skilning f. understanding XXIV:48 skilríkr adj. upright, respectable XIX:102 skína (pres. skínn, past skein, past pl. skinu, pp. skininn) sv. shine Gr 3.6.9.1 (11), X:91, XXII:60/3, XXIII:24; pres. part. shining XXIII:27, 89, dat. pl. skínƒndum XXIII:108 skinn n. skin, fur; hvítt skinn ermine XII:35 skinnhjúpr m. body-garment made of skin or fur XXI:156 skinnslitr m. skin-colour, the colour of the skin, complexion XXIII:105 skip n. ship, boat, canoe II:105, VI:11, 44, 49, 59, 61, 65, 185, VII A:52, 110, 135, B:36, 75, X:150, XVI:130, XIX:26, 43, XXI:3, 112; with suffixed def. art. skipit VI:267, XV:146, 151, XVI:131; á skipi by boat XV:43, á skip aboard XVI:7; á skipi me› on the ship with, on someone’s ship XXI:15; allt skipit fram the whole ship forward (of there) VI:275; nom. pl. skip XVI:129; smæri skip the smaller ships VI:219; nom. pl. with suffixed def. art. skipen VI:120; acc. pl. with suffixed def. art. (with létu fljóta) skipen VI:109; hin smæstu skipin, hin stœrri skipin (Gr 3.3.5) the smallest ships, the larger ships VI:217, 220; gen. pl. with suffixed def. art. VI:103; dat. sg. with suffixed def. art. II:104; partitive gen. (3.4.2 (5)) VI:21, 49; dat. pl. with suffixed def. art. skipunum XXI:35, 52, 97 skipa (past skipa›i, pp. skipat) wv. 1. occupy I:62, 69; pp. m. skipa›r, f. skipu› manned I:79, VI:224. 2. with dat. assign, give places to, assemble VI:194; fill with: skipa Lƒgberg assign places on Lƒgberg to XXVII:23; skipa›i was putting him XII:43; skipa›i til um made arrangements, gave orders concerning/for XVI:86; skipu›u mƒnnum til s‡slu assigned men to tasks XIV:138, note; skipa›u ordained, originated XXIV:62; pp. skipa›r at given the task of XIV:138, note; impers. pass. (Gr 3.9.3) er skipat is filled XI:57, en fleim var skipat than they had been assigned I:71, er skipat are arranged XXIV:27; svá skipat atkvæ›um the mode of address is so ordained XXIV:32; -sk form skipask arrange oneself, position oneself, take up one’s position XXVI B:81, 84, 87; skipu›usk fyrir arranged themselves, were lined up XXVI B:46. 3. -sk form pp. skipazk changed I:129, 141, XVI:108 skipan f. 1. manning, complement of men VI:226. 2. change, alteration XIV:37 skipsbrot n. shipwreck XVI:149 skipta (past skipti, pp. skipt) wv. (Gr 3.6.9.3 ex. 4) 1. with dat. share Glossary and Index 213

out, divide up II:79, 80; impers. pass. (Gr 3.9.3) XV:76; skipta málum vi› bandy words with, argue with XXV:33. 2. change: máli skipta make a difference, be of importance VII B:55; skipta miklu be of great importance, be very important XV:23; kva› flat øngu skipta said it did not matter XXI:70; (with acc.) skiptir hana in meira it is the more important for her, it will matter the more to her XV:55; impers. pass. subj. with dat. skipti me› oss our shares of something should be reversed V:62; pp. skipt um vi› exchanged with V:57. 3. -sk form skiptask vi› deal with one another II:129; pp. skipzk changed I:135 skipti n. pl. dealings XIX:8 skíra (past skír›i, pp. skír›r) wv. 1. cleanse; baptise VII A:67, VIII:78, XXI:201. 2. -sk form be baptised VII A:29; láta skírask have oneself baptised VIII:79 skírdagr m. Maundy Thursday XIV:144 skírlífi n. purity of life, chastity XIII:22, 28 skírn f. baptism VII A:50 (gen. with til), 55, 66, VIII:139, XXII:27/3 skírnarbrunnr m. baptismal well, font XXII:26/3 skjaldar see skjƒldr Skjaldarey f. island in Brei›afjƒr›r XV:153 Skjaldbjƒrn m. Irish slave XIX:37 skjaldborg f. shield-wall, wall of shields I:11, 12 (gen. of respect), 16; with suffixed def. art. I:20 skjálfa (pres. skelfr, past skalf, past pl. skulfu, pp. skolfit) sv. tremble, shiver, shake I:26, 100, III:114, 115; pres. part. quivering XXIII:28 skjól n. shelter XXI:33, textual note skjóta (pres. sk‡tr Gr 3.6.5.2, past skaut, past pl. skutu, pp. skotit) sv. 1. with dat. of weapon or missile and acc. of the person shot shoot (Gr 3.6.6, 3.6.10) V:94, X:171 (subj.), XXI:175, XXVI A:37, 63, B:194; fleiri skjóta shoot it (the arrow) XXVI A:45; skaut shot it XXVI A:49. 2. with dat. push, place (understand it) III:59; throw XIX:52; skutu út á flá flung them out at them XXVI B:194; skjóta út expel XII:19; skjóta á fylking draw up in battle array, get (one’s troops) in battle order (understand them, li›) VII B:73; skjóta upp haul up, raise (on the mast) VI:104; impers. pass. (Gr 3.9.3) bor›i var skotit a board had been placed III:53. 3. -sk form sk‡zk bounds, hops XXI:174 skjótleikr m. speed XXI:40 skjótliga adv. quickly XXIII:104 214 A New Introduction to Old Norse skjótr (n. skjótt) adj. quick XXIII:2, 4, 39, swift, speedy XXIV:30; n. as adv. skjótt quickly Gr 3.5.3 (4), I:116, XV:128, XXIII:25, XXVI A:70, B:61; comp. with dat. d‡rum skjótari faster than animals XXI:41; comp. n. as adv. skjótara more quickly IV:15; sup. skjótastr Gr 3.3.9 ex. 18; sup. n. as adv. sem skjótast as quickly as possible XXVI B:84 Skjƒldólfsdóttir f. daughter of Skjƒldólfr Gr 3.1.8 ex. skjƒldr (pl. skildir) m. shield (Gr 3.1.7.3, 3.1.7.3–5 ex. 1, 3.1.8 (4)) V:29, 37, VI:287, 296, X:44, XI:3, 26, XV:153, XXI:101, XXV:72 (his shield); with suffixed def. art. his shield V:100, 101, XXVI A:31, 73, B:91, 152; gen. sg. skjaldar X:150, with suffixed def. art. skjaldarins V:101; dat. sg. skildi (object of skjóta) VI:104, XI:36, XXVI A:72; und skildi carrying a shield V:50; á skildi on a shield VII A:54; dat. sg. with suffixed def. art. skildinum V:99, VI:295 (his shield); acc. pl. skjƒldu XXI:124, XXII: 38/4; dat. pl. skjƒldum II:12, XXI:112 skógarbjƒrn/skógbjƒrn m. forest bear, brown bear XIX:66, XXIII:6 skóggangr m. full outlawry XV:136 skógr m. wood, forest II:39, V:27, VI:10, VIII:54, XIX:68, XXI:27, 29, 94 skók, skóku see skaka skóli m. school XIV:24, 26 (with suffixed def. art.); flar í skóla at school there XIV:182 skólkinni m. name for a wolf (perhaps ‘dark-cheeked’) V:51 skolla (past skolldi) wv. hover X:172 skór (pl. skúar) m. shoe XV:50 skorinn, skorit, skornar see skera skorta (past skorti, pp. skort) wv. impers. with two accusatives lack; skorti hann eigi he was not lacking in VII B:26, skorti flá eigi they did not lack XXI:82; flat einu skorti á er . . . eigi . . . at this alone was lacking for it so that . . . did not . . . that (i.e. this alone prevented . . . that) VII B:87; ekki skorti there was no lack of VI:288; flar skorti eigi there were no fewer there than XIV:144 skot n. shot, shooting XXII:12/4 (pl.?) Skotar m. pl. Scots VII A:16 skothrí› f. battle with missiles, storm of missiles, attack with missiles XXI:125 skotit see skjóta Glossary and Index 215

Skotland n. Scotland VII A:4 skotmál n. range (of missiles or arrows) VI:211 skozkr adj. Scottish or Irish (see note); menn skozkir Scots XXI:39, 42 skreppa1 f. scrip, pilgrim’s wallet XVI:98 skreppa2 (past skrapp, past pl. skruppu, pp. skroppinn) wv. slip; with dat. fiorgrími skruppu fœtrnir fiorgrímr’s feet slipped XXVI A:31 skri›a f. landslide Gr 3.1.8 ex. skrí›a (past skrei›, past pl. skri›u, pp. skri›inn) sv. crawl through, glide along II:149, glide through the water VI:265; go skiing X:4, travel on skis X:12, 34 skrifa (past skrifa›i, pp. skrifa›r) wv. write VIII:3, 172, 178 skrín n. shrine XXII:62/2 skript f. 1. picture, image; with suffixed def. art. XIII:16. 2. penance XIV:99, 102 skrjá (past skrjá›i) wv. skulk; skrjá um sneak about IV:62 skrofhárr adj. with curly hair V:31 skrokkr m. container XXI:156 skrú› n. furniture XIV:10 skruppu see skreppa skr‡›a (past skr‡ddi, pp. skr‡ddr) wv. with dat. adorn with XII:49 skrækja (past skrækti) wv. shriek, squeal (vi› at it) II:71 Skrælingaland n. the land of the Skrælings XXI:203 Skrælingar m. pl. Norse name for the indigenous inhabitants of Vínland VIII:71, XXI:118, 120, 122, 124, 126, 127, 138, 141, 149, 156, 198; af Skrælingum of the Skrælings XXI:144 skúa see skór Skúli fiorsteinsson (fiorsteinssunr) m. Icelandic poet, late tenth to eleventh century VI:200 skulu (pres. skal, past skyldi) pret.-pres. vb. aux. (Gr 3.6.7) shall I:80, 130, 147, II:34, 40, IV:14, 50, V:40, VI:91, XXIV:40, XXVI B:19, XXVII:2; must II:109, 144, VI:326, IX:47, XXII:22/3, XXVII:31; should XI:43, XIV:90, note, XXVI B:16, 187; skulu are to XXVII:6, 10, 15; skulu vera are to be, are to consist of VII A:100; hverr vera skal who it is to be XXVII:7, 19; skulu fleir fara they are to go XVI:57; skal shall XXVI A:56, should XV:53, should be XXIV:51, is to XVI:57, XXVII:9 (2), 13, 19, must, has to XXIV:27; flat skal eigi vera that shall not be XXVI B:52; skal ek I shall XXVI A:45, B:139; flú skalt, skalt flú, skaltu you shall I:101, 148, 216 A New Introduction to Old Norse

IV:70, 73, X:149, XV:87, XVI:74, XXVI B:110, 206, you will XXV:38, you must XXIV:2, 4, 8, XXVI B:175, shall you, are you going to I:21; skulum have to XIX:98, skulum eigi we are not going to XXVI B:50, skulu vér we shall XXVI A:54, we must XXVI B:117, skulu vit shall we XXVI B:166; pres. subj. skyli have to VII B:15, shall be XXVI A:23; skylim we should/must XXV:108; impers. pres. skal taka man a man is to be selected XXVII:4, mæla skal one has to address XXIV:15; past skyldi was to III:17, 106, VI:44, 148, 149, VII A:79, XV:8, 10, had to II:80, was supposed to VI:4, must II:127, XXVI A:12, ought XII:75, should I:19, III:26, VI:18, VII A:98, VIII:27, 32, 116, XII:66, XV:26, XXV:30, XXVI B:9, should be I:51 (1), would XIX:10, 53, XXVI B:164; past 2nd person skyldir flú you should V:72; past pl. skyldu must II:68 (1), 141, would II:68 (2), XIV:164, used to XIV:83; were about to, had to II:79, were to VII B:58, VIII:174, XXVI A:6, were to, had to VII A:72, IX:82, should VII B:72, VIII:140, 141, XIV:127, XIX:65, 77, ought VI:1, were supposed to (eat) IX:96; skyldu vera were to be II:8; skyldum should, ought, must VI:84; past subj. skyldi should III:112, IV:106, VIII:94, 105, 117, one should I:51 (2), they should VI:116, XXVI A:7, skyldim should XXVI B:171; impers. past they should VIII:40, 183, XXVI A:107, were to be XV:132, they were about to II:5, it will surely be XXVI B:123, skyldi vera was to be XV:79; flat skyldi eigi vera that should not be, surely not XXVI B:22, æva skyldi it should never have happened X:182; past inf. skyldu should III:94, V:106, XV:117, 128; svá vera skyldu so it should be XXVI B:9, 18, 81 skunda (past skunda›i, pp. skunda›r) wv. with dat. cause to hurry, hasten XII:1 skutilsveinn m. cupbearer (a high office in the royal court, though like others, originally a menial one, waiting at the king’s table; skutill = a small table or tray that food and drink was served from; cf. Heimskringla, Óláfs saga kyrra ch. 3, ÍF XXVIII 205–06 and note 6) XVI:116, 169 skutr m. stern (of a ship) VI:81 (hánum poss. dat. or dat. of respect) skutu see skjóta sk‡ n. cloud X:172 skygn adj. sharp-sighted; sup. Gr 3.3.8.1 skyld- see skulu Glossary and Index 217 skyldr (n. skylt) adj. related Gr 3.3.9 ex. 2; required (til fless at to do something) XXVII:3, 25; n. as adv. necessary, important, urgent VI:108, right VIII:6 skyldu see skulu skylduliga adv. dutifully XIV:70 skyli see skulu skyn f. knowledge, information; kunna skyn á have knowledge of XXI:74 skynda (past skyndi, pp. skyndr) wv. cause to hurry, hasten IX:82; intransitive hasten, make haste XXII:26/4 skyndiliga adv. quickly IV:12, 17 skynsem› f. reason (til for) XXIV:14, (hversu how) 27 skynsem›argrein f. discernment, ability to distinguish, understanding XXIII:14 skyr n. a kind of milk product III:98 (with suffixed def. art.), see note 22 sk‡ra (past sk‡r›i, pp. sk‡r›r) wv. explain XXIV:25, 54; expound; engi sk‡rir no one can expound XXII:2/3 skyrbúr n. dairy, the room in a farm where skyr and other dairy products were made or stored III:89, 90 skyrker n. vat or cask for storing skyr III:97, 100 (with suffixed def. art.) sk‡rr adj. clear, manifest, definite VIII:31 skyrta f. shirt, tunic XV:27 skyti m. shooter, hunter X:31, 51 sk‡tr, sk‡zk see skjóta skæri n. pl. shears; with suffixed def. art., i.e. the mane-shears V:126, 127, 131, 142 skƒfnungr m. shin III:113 (with suffixed def. art., his shins) Skƒglar-Tósti m. father of Sigrí›r, queen of King Sveinn of Denmark VI:38 skƒkull m. (in pl.) harness, tackle, traces (of a draught animal) IX:82 skƒmm1 f. shame VII B:72, XXVI A:87; disgrace I:53, VI:85; humiliation (fleim for them) XXVI A:45; vi› skƒmm in shame XXVI B:160 skƒmm2, skƒmmu see skammr skƒp n. pl. fate IV:96 (subject of yr›i gó› mér, parallel to go›); destiny, what was fated (with gen. fless . . . at for this that, that this should be that) VI:345 218 A New Introduction to Old Norse skƒpt see skapt skƒpu›, skƒpu›u see skapa skƒpun f. shape XII:21 skƒr f. hair (of a man’s head) IX:3, X:116, 160, XXV:72; standa of skƒr with dat. i.e. preside over someone’s death V:170 skƒrugliga adv. outstandingly well, splendidly XIV:115 skƒruligr adj. imposing III:23 skrusk see skera slá (pres. slær, past sló, past pl. slógu, pp. sleginn) sv. (Gr 3.6.9.3 and ex. 7) 1. strike XIII:13; with instrumental dat. strike, smite X:98; throw; slá eldi í set fire to II:57; with two accusatives strike (someone a blow) XV:21. 2. mow II:124. 3. hammer, forge X:37, 121, 165; make, form V:109. 4. impers. with dat. slær/sló yfir there comes upon someone, someone is afflicted by I:44, XXI:128, (something) was cast over XXII:53/1 Slagfi›r m. brother of Vƒlundr X:4, 10, 13, 32, 35 slátra (past slátra›i, pp. slátrat) wv. with dat. slaughter; impers. pass. (Gr 3.9.3) haf›i slátrat verit uxa einum an ox had been slaughtered XXVI B:179 sleikja (past sleikti, pp. sleikt) wv. lick (out) VI:189 sleita f. quarrel; ganga mjƒk sleitum quarrel a great deal XXI:195 slétta (past slétti, pp. sléttr) wv. slap (á on it) XXI:141 sléttr adj. flat XXIII:10; smooth? XXIII:89 slí›rar/slí›rir f. pl. sheath, scabbard I:97 (with suffixed def. art.) slíkisteinsauga n. nickname, ‘polished-stone eye’? XV:39 slíkr adj. such III:10 (any . . . like it), VI:266, XXI:133, XXVI B:126, such a V:121, 143, VI:113, 349; this III:130, pl. these VII A:44; fyr merkin slík as a result of miracles like these XXII:58/3; engi . . . slíkr no . . . like him XXII:64/3; til annars slíks until another like it XXVI B:124; slíkr . . . sem such . . . as XIV:30, 74, the same as XV:61, XVI:22, the same as if XVI:75; slíka ok the same as III:69; tvau ver› slík double that price XVI:24; n. as substantive slíkt such a thing I:53, gen. slíks VI:160, dat. slíku i.e. this XII:69; slíkt sem that which, what XV:117, XXVI B:37; slíkt er, slíks sem whatever XIV:32, XXIV:23; n. as adv. slíkt sama, slíkt it sama likewise II:10, XI:20, XIII:38; slíkt sem as much as, as loud as I:91 slíta (past sleit, past pl. slitu, pp. slitit) sv. tear (transitive) VIII:135; slitu fri› i.e. they fought VI:239; with dat. break, break off VI:37 slitna (past slitna›i, pp. slitnat) wv. tear (intransitive), be torn II:33 Glossary and Index 219 sló, slógu see slá sló› f. path, track; kjalar sló›ir is a kenning for the sea XXVI A:94 slær see slá slœg› f. cunning XXIII:56 slœgr adj. cunning, sly XXIII:59, 105, XXIV:53; clever XXVI A:57 sløkkva (past sløkkti, pp. sløkkt) wv. extinguish, put out XXVI B:229; sløkkva ni›r damp down XXVI B:114 smádropar m. pl. small flecks XXIII:31 smalama›r m. XV:85, 87, 90, 91 (with suffixed def. art.) smalasveinn m. shepherd boy XV:97, 101 (with suffixed def. art.) smali m. collective sheep, cattle XV:84 (with suffixed def. art.), 132 smár adj. small VI:61, VII A:155, XXI:103; n. smátt VII A:149; dat. pl. smám I:35, VI:297 smaragdus m. (Latin word) emerald XII:27 smásveinn m. young boy, small boy XIV:163 smáflarmar m. pl. small intestines XXI:175 smí› f. making, construction XII:1 (with suffixed def. art.); í smí›inni at work XV:20; work, object of art, piece of craftsmanship XII:8 (with suffixed def. art.); workmanship XII:30 smí›a (past smí›a›i, pp. smí›at) wv. forge, make (with dat. for someone) X:87; build XIV:25; pres. smí›a are working XII:2 smi›ja f. smithy, workshop X:95, 156 smi›r m. builder; worker in metal or wood; craftsman (pl. with suffixed def. art.) XII:3; as nickname III:75, 83 smjúga (past smaug/smó, past pl. smugu, pp. smoginn) wv. creep; smugu í crept through, put on XXV:58 smjƒr n. butter XIX:56 smæri adj. comp. smaller VI:26, 27, 219; lesser, of less importance, lower XXIV:75 smæstr adj. sup. smallest VI:217 snara (past snara›i, pp. snarat) wv. turn (something) quickly, twist sharply XXVI A:73; -sk form turn (oneself) quickly; snarask til fer›ar set out immediately XV:129 snarfengr adj. tough to deal with V:55 (gen. with hoddlestis) snarpr adj. (Gr 3.3.8.1) sharp, violent, fierce VI:209 (f. snƒrp); keen XXIII:38, sharp VI:238, XXII:15/4, 42/2 snarr adj. swift XXIII:38, keen, bold V:149 (vocative; at in something), XXII:46/3 snau›r adj. poor, having no possessions; unarmed? III:78 220 A New Introduction to Old Norse snemma = snimma snera, sneri, snerisk see snúa snerra f. battle V:149 snerta (past snart, pp. snortit) sv. touch XIII:37, 41 sní›a (past snei›, past pl. sni›u, pp. sni›inn) sv. cut XXII:49/2; with acc. and dat. of respect (Gr 3.9.6.2) cut from someone something X:84 (imp.); sní›a af cut off X:114, 158, XIV:95 snimhendis adv. early on VIII:79 snimma/snemma adv. early V:1, X:6, 110, XIV:61, XXI:96, 110, XXVI B:191; soon IX:93; too soon V:139 snjallr adj. wise, brave, good, clever VI:159 (with jƒfra tvá), 282, XXII:13/2, 61/2; sup. snjallasti cleverest XIV:29 snjár/snjór m. snow XXI:108 Snorri go›i (fiorgrímsson) m. (died 1031) VIII:11 Snorri Sturluson m. historian, killed 1241 in his own cellar on the orders of Gizurr fiorvaldsson III:70 Snorri m. son of fiorfinnr karlsefni XXI:196 Snorri fiorbrandsson m. XXI:2, 3, 86, 100, 114, 126, 163. Cf. fiorbrandr Snorrason snortit see snerta snót f. woman XXII:51/2 snotr adj. clever, skilled (with gen., at something) VI:312 (with fiorketill) snúa (pres. sn‡r, past sneri/snøri, past pl. sneru, pp. snúinn) sv. (Gr 3.6.7) twist, plait IX:20; turn III:123, IV:17; imp. pl. snúi› flit saman twist them together XXVI A:78; with dat. set off with, take VII A:168; pp. ok snúinn and there were turned (on hinges), hinged XXVI A:25 snúnar twisted XXIII:87; snúum í let us twist/wind in them (i.e. in the ropes) XXVI A:60; snúa inn go inside IV:12; snúa til prepare for, put in to II:19; make one’s way to V:75, with dat. commit something to XXI:81; snúa yfir place across VII B:60; past subj. at fleir sneri aptr of their turning back III:124; -sk form snerisk turned over XV:106; sn‡sk at turns towards XXVI A:70; sn‡sk til points to, indicates or tends to XXIII:108; snúiz til turned into, become XXIV:59 snœrivitnir m. ‘wolf of ropes’, kenning for ship VI:312; the phrase perhaps goes with snotr or with hugframr rather than with heldi undan Glossary and Index 221 snƒr see snarr snƒrp see snarpr snøri see snúa so›it see sjó›a so›na (so›na›i) wv. impers. cook (intransitive), become cooked II:23, 25 sofa (pres. søfr/sefr, past svaf, past pl. sváfu, pp. sofinn) sv. (Gr 3.6.5.2, 3.6.9.3 and ex. 12) sleep IX:112, X:98, XI:62, XII:71, XV:96, 104; svaf slept, was asleep XXVI A:25; pres. part. sofandi (Gr 3.3.9 (19)), sofanda (Norwegian form of acc. pl.) asleep XXI:156; -sk form fleim hafi sofizk they have slept XI:66 sofna (past sofna›i, pp. sofnat) wv. fall asleep X:60, 131, get to sleep X:144, go to sleep XIV:70; impers. with dat. sér hafa vel sofnat he had got to sleep easily XI:67 Sogn m. district in western Norway VII A:129 Sokki Ormsson m. died in the fire at Flugum‡rr III:76 sókn f. attack VI:254 sóknr‡rir m. ‘diminisher of attacks’, successful defender, i.e. Gunnarr XXVI A:97 sól f. the sun (Gr 3.1.7.4 (3)) VI:115, XIX:111 (with suffixed def. art.) sólarfall n. sunset XV:97 sólargeisla f. sunbeam, sunshine XIX:111 sólarsinnis adv. sunwise, the same way as the sun; ferr (impers.) sólarsinnis the motion was the same way as the sun XXI:98 sólarupprás f. sunrise XV:119 Sólundir f. pl. Solundøyar, off the west coast of Norway VII A:129 sóma (sóm›i) wv. be fitting; impers. befit XIV:60, be suitable for XII:24; tignum mƒnnum sómir at fliggja it is fitting for noble men to receive XVI:152; betr sóma be more fitting V:160 sómi m. honour XVI:118, 122, 170, XXII:25/4 Són f. name of a vat II:97, 118, 153 son, sonr, sunr m. son (Gr 3.1.7.2) III:131, VII B:6, 8, VIII:12, 45, IX:68, 78, 84, 131, XI:44, XV:2, 135, XIX:4, 5, XXI:8, 174, XXII:16/3, XXIV:14; acc. sg. son, sun IV:107, VI:144, VII B:62, XXV:60, XXVI A:113; gen. sg. sonar V:115, VIII:8, sunar VI:367 (with falli); dat. sg. (-)syni VII A:99, XIII:48; pl. synir II:79, III:20, IV:73, V:87, X:3, 101, XV:39, 134, XIX:2, XXII:40/1, XXVI B:46, 70; synir eins karls i.e. they are brothers IV:41; acc. pl. sonu IV:2, 222 A New Introduction to Old Norse

71, X:2, 144, XV:126, XIX:15, XXV:9, 93, XXVI B:130, sunu VI:43, syni XIV:106; gen. pl. sona XXVI B:160; dat. pl. sonum XIX:6 sopi m. draught, mouthful I:103 sorg f. sorrow, grief, anxiety XXV:4 sóru see sverja sóti m. name of a horse (SnE, Skáldskaparmál 88), used as a common noun in kenning for wolf (giantesses were said to ride on wolves) VI:252 (subject of var lítt svangr) sótt1, sótta, sóttan, sótti, sóttisk, sóttu see sœkja sótt2 f. illness VIII:182, XVI:89 spádómr m. prophecy VII A:33, 48, power of prophecy VII A:61 spakr (f. spƒk) adj. wise (Gr 3.3.8.1 ex. 3) VIII:56, 61, 174; wk. form as nickname (Gr 3.3.9 ex. 9) VIII:39, 169; sup. most wise VIII:9 spala see spƒlr spáma›r m. prophet VII A:31, 44, 46, 61; gen. sg. with suffixed def. art. VII A:39 spánn (pl. spænir) m. bit, chip (left by an auger); with suffixed def. art. II:146, 148; í spán to pieces XV:152 spannarlangr adj. the length of a span (about 23 cm.) XXI:115 spara (past spar›i/spara›i, pp. sparat) wv. withhold; spara vi›/til withhold from, begrudge to (for) I:66, XIV:14; spara at hold back from, grudge to XIV:17; spara sik spare oneself, past inf. spƒr›u sik in acc. and inf. construction after hykkat VI:249 sparn see sporna speki f. wisdom VII A:63 spekingr m. philosopher XXIII:94 speld n. square piece of wood, shutter XXVI A:25 spenna (past spennti, pp. spenntr) wv. clamp, fasten X:63, XI:20 spilla (past spillti, pp. spilltr) wv. spoil XXVI A:107; spilla fyrir with dat. do someone harm V:15; -sk form be spoilt, damaged, injured XXIV:52 spinna (past spann, past pl. spunnu, pp. spunninn) sv. spin; spunnu they were spinning X:7, 20 spjarrar f. pl. leg bands, cross-garters XV:50 spjót n. spear III:110, V:94, XXI:114 (pl.), XXII:12/4, 45/4, XXVI B:96, 194; with suffixed def. art. the spear V:95, his spear-head XXVI B:90; sitt spjót it snarpa that sharp spear of his XXII:42/2 spjƒr n. pl. spears VI:202, 240 (subject of gullu) Glossary and Index 223 spor›r m. tail (of a fish); lower (pointed) end of a (kite-shaped) shield V:101; ok (hjó) af spor›inn and cut off its point XXVI B:152 sporna (past sparn, past pl. spurnu) wv. kick, tread, step, i.e. travel VII A:138 (the image is of riding a horse of the sea, i.e. sailing) spretta (past spratt, past pl. spruttu, pp. sprottinn) sv. spring (up); sprout XXV:1; springa upp jump to one’s feet XV:68, 111 springa (past sprakk, past pl. sprungu, pp. sprunginn) sv. spring, burst Gr 3.6.9.1 (6); split, break apart XXV:56/2 spurall adj. inquisitive Gr 3.3.8.1 spurning f. question XXIV:22, 29 spyrja (pres. spyrr, past spur›i, pp. spurt) wv. 1. ask I:7, 10, 47, 73, 112, II:44, 107, 124, III:65, V:45, VI:105, 181, VII A:63, 119, XI:33, 65, XV:26, 58, 84, 112, XVI:19, 131, 160, XXI:69, XXII:22/1, XXIV:10, 11, 49, 54, XXVI B:8, 36, 185; pres. subj. first person spyri XXIV:24; spyrja at ask about I:3, 57, pp. f. spur› at asked about XV:13; spyrja eptir enquire VII A:45; with acc. and gen. ask someone something II:93, 101, XXIV:23, XXVI B:6. 2. hear, learn II:111, VI:134, VII A:30, 125, VIII:105, X:41, XV:71, 92, XVI:138, XXVI A:93; learn of VII B:77, XXVI A:4. 3. -sk form spyrjask be heard of, be reported VI:86, XXVI A:118 spyrnask (past spyrndisk) wv. -sk form (reciprocal) push against each other; spyrnask í iljar push against each other’s soles (when lying on the stones on their backs) XXI:23 sp‡ta (past sp‡tti) wv. with dat. spit II:90 (í into it, Gr 3.7.7), 157 spænir see spánn spƒlr (pl. spelir, gen. pl. spala) m. bar Gr 3.1.9 ex. 9 spƒr›u see spara staddr pp. (of ste›ja) positioned, present III:55; located, in residence XVI:93; placed, situated XV:145; engaged VII A:109 sta›festask (past sta›festisk) wv. -sk form settle XIX:3 sta›festi f. steadfastness XXIII:53 sta›it, sta›nir see standa sta›r m. place (Gr 3.1.8 (2)) I:5, 69, VIII:103, XIII:16; establishment, ecclesiastical foundation VIII:162, XIII:12, 32, XIV:25, 126, 127, 134, 143, 150; ﬂegar í sta› on the spot VII A:122; í sinn sta› into their respective position(s), to their station(s) VI:162; í marga sta›i in many instances, in many respects? in many cases? XIV:117; adv. acc. (or dat.?) ﬂri›ja sta› in a third position, station VI:163; koma 224 A New Introduction to Old Norse

í sta› come instead (of him), take his place XXIV:70; with suffixed def. art. í sta›enn in their place, to replace them VI:222 (1), í sta›enn ﬂess li›s to replace those men VI:222; annars sta›ar elsewhere XIV:180, XXI:47, XXVI B:208; nema sta›/sta›ar stop XV:100, 109, XXVI A:14, B:47 stafa›r adj. (pp.) striped VI:74 (dat. sg. n. stafa›u) stafkarl m. beggar XVI:91, 122 stafn m. stem, prow; with suffixed def. art. VI:268 stafnbúi m. ‘forecastle man’, man whose station was at the prow of the ship VI:270; pl. with suffixed def. art. VI:274 stafr m. staff XVI:97 stakk see stinga stakkgar›r m. haystack enclosure V:44 stál n. steel; in pl. = weapons VI:338 (gen. pl. with ór éli); with suffixed def. art. his weapons XXII:18/3 stálhúfa f. steel helmet (broad and with a brim) III:28, 95 (with suffixed def. art.) stallari m. marshal; as title VI:291, 295, XXII:17/3, 45/1 stallr m. 1. platform, pedestal XIII:5; dat. sg. with hneit vi› IV:19; Hrungnis fóta stallr is a kenning for shield (see SnE, Skáldskapar- mál ch. 17, where Hrungnir stands on his shield to fight with the god ﬁórr). 2. stable I:2 standa (pres. stendr, past stó›, past pl. stó›u, pp. sta›inn/sta›it) sv. (Gr 3.6.9.3 and ex. 1) stand III:11, 15, V:122, 170, VI:290, 291, VII B:18 (inf. with skyli, parallel to sitja), X:76, 139, XI:49, XIII:1, 6, 16, XVI:58, XXIII:82; stay VII B:60, 64, XXVI B:53; be positioned XXIII:44, be situated, be placed XXVI B:117; be fixed XII:27, XXI:139; remain in force VIII:141; pres. stendr is standing XI:2, XIV:12, stƒndum we stand XXV:106; past stó› was standing III:97, 100, V:130, VII B:35, XXVI B:46, it stood, it stuck I:98, she stood XXV:78; past pl. stó›u stood VII A:129; past subj. stœ›i were standing VII B:82, XII:54, were flowing, pouring XXI:123; pp. haf›i sta›it had been standing XXVI A:50; standa betr with dat. (of the wind) be better positioned, blow in a better direction for someone VI:121; standa ór stick out of XII:18, extend, stream forth XII:13; standa upp get up XI:42, 64, XV:114; imp. standi› upp get up VI:129, IX:86; eru upp sta›nir have got up XI:76; standa úti fyrir stand (stay) outside in front of the house XXVI B:49; standa vi› with dat. withstand Glossary and Index 225

XXI:152, oppose XXVII:8; standa yfir last, go on XXI:65; pres. part. standandi standing XII:22, XIII:46; impers. it remains IV:102 stangir see stƒng starf n. work XII:6, XXVII:38, labour XII:70 starfa (past starfa›i, pp. starfat) wv. work; starfa firir work for, be servant to XVI:5 Starka›r Barkarson m. XXVI A:5 sté see stíga stefna1 (past stefndi, pp. stefndr) wv. 1. aim for, make for V:165 (Gr 3.6.9.1 (14)), VII A:156; nær stefna lay a course close, steer or aim close (metaphorically, i.e. he will avoid naming but nevertheless indicate who it is) VI:139; fleir stefndu they were making their way XXVI B:11; fleir stefndu ina sƒmu lei› they took the same route XXVI B:13. 2. with dat. summons XV:135 (um for); stefna sƒkum til refer cases to XV:136 stefna2 f. meeting (vi› with) XXVII:33 Stefnir (fiorgilsson) m. Icelandic poet and missionary (died 1001) VI:137 stefnulag n. appointment VII A:100, VII B:58 steikja (past steikti, pp. steikt) wv. roast X:53 steina (past steindi, pp. steint) wv. paint XII:7 Steinger›r f. (Gr 3.1.8 (17)) daughter of fiorkell of Tunga IV:4, 6, 16, 26, 35, 36, 64, 74, 76, 86, 92, 99, 100, 101, 111 steinn m. rock XXI:151; boulder XXVI A:60; (precious) stone; in pl. jewellery IV:55, IX:63 (understand vera; but see under brei›a and brei›r) Steinn smi›r (builder; worker in metal or wood) m. died in the fire at Flugum‡rr III:75 steinsmí›i n. collective stone artefacts VIII:70 Steinssta›ir m. pl. a farm in Mi›fjƒr›r IV:1 stela (past stal, past pl. stálu, pp. stolinn) sv. (Gr 3.6.5.2) steal, rob (with acc. and dat. some one of something) IX:8 (pass.) stendr see standa sterkr adj. strong I:105, XXII:16/3, XXIII:58; sup. sterkastr Gr 3.3.3 ex. 5 stétt f. rank XXII:47/3 steypa (past steypti, pp. steyptr) wv. with dat. fling down III:94, XXVI B:222; steypa af cast (metal) in XII:41, 59 226 A New Introduction to Old Norse stíga (past steig/sté, past pl. stigu, pp. stiginn) sv. (Gr 3.6.9.1 (2, 9)) climb, mount III:120, XV:97; subj. stigi á boarded (ship) XVI:7; stíga af baki dismount from a horse XV:101; stíga ni›r step down VI:256; stíga ór dismount from X:45; step; stíga hátt i.e. raise the feet high when walking XXIII:101 Stígandi m. son of Kotkell XV:39, 138 stígr m. path; way (of life) XVI:91, 122 stikla (past stikla›i, pp. stiklat) wv. run along XXVI B:222 Stiklasta›ir m. pl. site of St Óláfr’s last battle in firándheimr XXII:35/1 stilla (past stillti, pp. stillt) wv. with dat. control, moderate X:76 stillingarlauss adj. uncontrolled, intemperate XXIII:38, 97 stillir m. ruler, king XXII:8/2 stinga (past stakk, past pl. stungu, pp. stunginn) sv. stab (with dat. of the instrument) II:149 stinnr adj. stiff, firm, unbending XXII:18/3 stjarna f. star Gr 3.1.7.1; pl. stjƒrnur II:74 stjóri m. ruler, leader; dróttar stjóri i.e. king (here King Óláfr) VI:362 (subject of hné) stjórn f. rule, control, government XXII:5/2; authority XIV:177; me› mikilli stjórn with firm rule XIV:2; slíks byskups stjórn the guidance or rule of such a bishop XIV:76 stjórna (past stjórna›i, pp. stjórnat) wv. rule over XXI:202 stjórnbor›i m. starboard (the side of the ship where the steering oar was fastened) XXI:32 stó›, stó›u see standa sto›a (past sto›a›i, pp. sto›at) wv. avail, be of use V:90 stofa f. a living room or parlour IV:7; with suffixed def. art. III:78, IV:7, XXVI B:28; chamber; with suffixed def. art., i.e. málstofa, the council-chamber VII B:59, 64, 68, 70 stofna (past stofna›i, pp. stofnat) wv. institute, set in motion IV:48 stofudyrr n. pl. door of the chamber VII B:64 (with suffixed def. art.) stokkna see støkkva stokkr m. block (of wood) III:97; with suffixed def. art. plank or beam, = setstokkinum XXVI B:220 stolinn see stela stóll n. seat; (bishop’s) see VIII:159, 192, 195, XIV:5; flar til stólsins to that see VIII:160; hilmis stóll i.e. throne (gen. with fyllar) VII B:43 stopir f. pl. uneven ground, hillocks XXI:189 Glossary and Index 227 stórau›igr adj. very wealthy, of great wealth VII B:5 stórbrƒg›óttr adj. as subst. very wily person, one who undertakes great deeds XXV:43 stórhátí› f. major festival XIV:41 stórmannligr adj. munificent, grand XVI:174 stórmerki n. pl. great wonders, miracles VII A:65 stórr adj. big, large I:39, VI:122, VII A:155, XII:27, XXI:23, XXVI B:120; n. stórt VII A:149 (understand were), XXII:57/1; great I:53, 103, VI:28, 65, 72, XI:7, 35, XIII:4, XXVI A:89, B:104; flau skip en stóru (Gr 3.3.5) those great ships VI:190; n. as adv. severely, harshly XXII:5/4 stórtákn n. great miracle XIII:40 stórvi›ir m. pl. big beams, main timbers; with suffixed def. art. stórvi›inir XXVI B:198 strá (past strá›i, pp. strá›r) wv. strew (with straw, rushes, coverings etc., to make comfortable for visitors) IX:86 (imp. pl.) strandar, strandir see strƒnd strandhƒgg n. a raid on the shore (for supplies) VII A:110 (gen. pl.) strangr/strángr adj. hard, harsh XXII:33/2; fierce XXII:39/2; serious XXII:43/4 straumr m. current XXI:53; torrent XXI:123 Straumsey f. ‘torrent island’, XXI:54 Straumsfjƒr›r m. XXI:56 (see note 1), 83, 161, 194 strendr see strƒnd strengja (past streng›i, pp. strengt) wv. fasten; strengja heit at make a solemn vow that XIX:10 strengr m. rope XXVI A:58; string, cord; pl. boga strengir bowstrings XXV:76; pl. with suffixed def. art. XXVI A:59 strí› n. strife, warfare, opposition XXII:14/4; battle (or distress, grief?) XXII:55/3 strí›a (past stríddi, pp. strítt) wv. with dat. fight (against) XXII:19/4, 29/4 (or distress, afflict?); attack XXII:8/2; cause pain or harm to XXV:28; with suffixed neg. at sér ne stríddit that he has not harmed himself XXV:31 strí›r adj. harsh, severe XXII:49/4 strjúka (pres. str‡kr, past strauk, past pl. struku, pp. strokinn) sv. stroke IV:17 (i.e. whet?) stræti n. street, paved road XXV:43 228 A New Introduction to Old Norse strƒnd (pl. strendr/strandir) f. coast, shore Gr 3.1.7.1, 2 ex. 4, 3.1.8 (18), X:19; beach XXI:32, 186; dat. pl. with suffixed def. art. strƒndunum XXI:34; in kenning for heart or mind or breast hyggju strendr XXII:19/3 studdisk see sty›ja stukku see støkkva stuldr m. theft XXII:5/1 stund (dat. sg. stundu, cf. Gr 3.1.8 (14)) f. while, period of time I:129, II:21, XVI:78 (pl.), 135; time II:38, IV:70, 111 (with suffixed def. art., though of an indefinite period of time), XXI:122; moment V:4; flessa stund for the time being XXI:48; af stundu in a short while VIII:130; stundu sí›ar after a while XV:67; um stund for a time IV:108, for a while XXI:105, 116; dat. pl. as adv. stundum sometimes XIV:139, from time to time XXI:180, XXIV:5, some of the time VII A:108; stundum . . . stundum sometimes . . . sometimes VIII:30–31, XXIII:25 stunda (past stunda›i, pp. stundat) wv. devote oneself to; stunda til cultivate (someone’s) friendship IV:99 stundanarmikill adj. very painstaking, assiduous XXIII:19 sty›ja (past studdi, pp. studdr) wv. support; -sk form studdisk was leaning (vi› against) XIII:19 stynr m. groan XXVI B:200 st‡ra (past st‡r›i, pp. st‡rt) wv. with dat. control, rule VII A:93, XIV:1, XXIV:36 (this vb. is understood in each of the six following clauses); be in charge of XIV:26; direct: kallar sér st‡rt declares he is being sent I:88 (Gr 3.9.3, 3.9.4, 3.9.5.2); steer VI:135, command (a ship) VI:105, 115, 119, 264 (pres. subj., may steer) st‡ri n. helm, steering-oar XXI:175 st‡rima›r m. steersman, captain of a ship XVI:3, 9 st‡rir m. ruler, controller; controller of silver (or gold) or of the sword is a kenning for (generous or valiant) king (here King Óláfr) VI:347 (subject of myndi koma) styrk n. support (til for something) XV:82 Styrkárr af Gimsum m. Norwegian landowner, one of Óláfr Tryggva- son’s supporters VI:67 styrkja (past styrkti, pp. styrkt) wv. strengthen, support XIV:3; pp. XIV:148 styrkr (= sterkr) adj. strong XXIII:84, 86 Glossary and Index 229 styrkt f. strength XXIII:50 (gen. sg. with -mark) styrr m. turmoil, uproar, battle VI:356, XXV:83 stœ›i see standa stœrri adj. comp. larger (Gr 3.3.8.2) VI:27, 220 stƒ› f. place; landing-place, beach X:85 (see note and cf. Sævar- sta›r), 101 stƒ›va (past stƒ›va›i) wv. stop (transitive); impers. (ƒrninn object) II:58 stƒndum see standa stƒng (pl. stangir) f. pole II:29, XXI:127, 206; with suffixed def. art. II:31 støkkva (past stƒkk, past pl. stukku, pp. stokkinn) wv. leap, spring away VI:279, IX:107; take to flight, run away V:41 (with lines 38–39); snap, spring apart IX:50; go flying XXV:83; fyrir before, in the face of; støkkva undan leap away, escape VI:219; pp. acc. pl. stokkna sprinkled, spattered X:157 sú pron. f. (Gr 3.2.2, 3.8.2.1) she, it; that VI:30, XV:79, XXVI B:8, 149; this VIII:143; er sú af that is one of XXVI A:44; sú es/er/sem which XIV:12, the . . . which VIII:52, XXIII:33, she whom XXV:11; sú (. . .) er a . . . which XXIII:64, 67; sú hƒndin the one arm XV:122; sú in fremri the foremost XXVI B:92 su›r, sunnr adv. south(wards) Gr 3.5.1–3 ex. 6 (a), III:73, VI:245, VII A:5, 156, 159, 168, X:35, XV:100, XVI:13, 14, 88, XXI:105, 164; i.e. on pilgrimage to Rome XVI:82, 85; in the south (actually south-west) VIII:17, in the south, to the south (i.e. in the more southerly Álptafjƒr›r) XIX:29; su›r hér here in the south XXVI A:110; sunnr fyrir in the south off VI:207; su›r fyrir land southwards along the coast XXI:86, 121, south past XXI:105 su›rátt f. southerly direction; í su›rátt southwards XXI:43 su›rdyrr n. pl. southern doorway; gen. pl. su›rdura III:96; acc. as adv. (acc. of route) by the southern doorway III:81 Su›reyjar f. pl. the Hebrides VII A:5 su›reyskr adj. Hebridean, from the Hebrides XV:40 su›rganga f. pilgrimage to Rome XVI:165 Su›rríki n. ‘the southern realm’, southern Europe (the Roman Empire) VI:320 su›rœnn adj. southern, from the south X:20 su›u see sjó›a súla f. pillar XIX:53 (with suffixed def. art.) 230 A New Introduction to Old Norse sú›flaktr adj. (pp.) roofed with ovrlapping boards XXVI A:24 sukku see søkkva sumar n. summer (Gr 3.1.7.1, 5 (1), 3.1.8 (27)) II:137 (with suffixed def. art.), XI:5, XIV:1, XV:79, 82, XXVII:5, 26; acc. of time fletta/ flat sumar that summer IV:108, VIII:88, XV:43, et/hit sama sumar the same summer VIII:145, XXI:165, annat sumar the following summer XIX:9, (which is to be, for) the following summer XXVII:40, it fjór›a sumar in the fourth summer XXVII:44, sumar flat er in the summer that XIX:47; et næsta sumar eptir, of/um sumarit eptir the following summer VIII:91, 179, 190, XVI:9; um sumarit that summer XXI:4; flegar um sumarit that same summer XVI:190; af sumri VIII:93 see af; pl. sumur VIII:59, 170, 171, XXVII:20, 43; dat. pl. sumrum XXVII:26, um sumrum in summer XXI:10 sumr adj. some, some of VI:123; a certain, some or other VI:354 (with seggr); acc. sg. m. suman II:159; pl. some men III:4, V:70, VI:226; gen. pl. sumra III:47, sumra manna of some people XXI:161; sumir some of them XXVI A:38; sumir . . . sumir some . . . others III:110, V:82, VII B:67, XIV:134, 167, XXI:106–07; n. sg. for indefinite number and gender sumt . . . sumt VII A:149 (understand were) sun, sunar see sonr sund1 n. sound, strait IV:28 sund2 n. swimming; af sundi i.e. out of the water, from where they were swimming in the water VI:300; sunds gen. with snotr or adv. gen. (‘by swimming’) VI:313 sundr adv. apart; ganga sundr be broken VI:57; í sundr apart III:11, VIII:135, in two XXVI A:69, to pieces I:16, in pieces XXI:117; gekk í sundr broke in two V:100 sundrmœ›r adj. born of a different mother, half-brother XXV:45 sungu/súngu see syngja sunnan adv. from the south Gr 3.5.3 (6), VI:51, 355, X:17, XXI:111, 122; in verse perhaps = fyrir sunnan, in the south VII A:139; fyrir sunnan to the south of XXVI A:96 sunnanve›r n. a wind from the south, a southerly wind XXI:198 sunnr = su›r sunr, sunu see sonr súpa (pres. s‡pr, past saup, past pl. supu, pp. sopinn) sv. sip Gr 3.6.9.2 (1) sura f. (Latin word) calf (of the leg) XXIII:96; pl. surae XXIII:98 Glossary and Index 231

Susa f. Soest in Westphalia XI:3, 11 sút f. sickness, grief, wound (collective) XXII:54/4; grief, sorrow, pain (with gen. for) XXV:4 sútari m. cobbler (Latin sutor, Old English sutere; in later Icelandic ‘tanner’); as nickname III:76 Suttungr (Suttungi) m. a giant II:111, 113, 115, 131, 136, 139, 140, 155, 158; gen. Suttunga II:119, 122, 135, 160 svá/svó adv. so I:110, 115, 143, II:111, 144, III:66, VI:46, 122, VIII:28, 33, 36, 50, 93, IX:105 (with ó›fús), X:86, XVI:58, 127, XXII:33/3, XXVI B:8, 36; gera/gjƒra svá do so XXI:72, 102, XXVI B:213; var eigi svá was it not the case XXI:77; ﬂetta mun svá vera that will be so, all right XXVI A:112; nƒkkut svá a little bit XXIII:59; so much I:90, XVI:184; thus Gr 3.5.3 (7), I:41, 64, 134 (2), VI:83, IX:131, XII:80, XIV:65 (1), XV:54, XIX:53, XXIII:1, XXIV:9, 20, XXVI B:204; like that VIII:2, XI:47, XIX:78, XXV:27, XXVI A:40; thus, in the same way III:116, like this XXI:116; similarly XII:84, XXVI B:25; as follows II:8, VI:258, VII A:10, 78, B:14, XIX:36; such IV:86, XV:141, XVI:83, XXVI B:187, such . . . (that) XXII:40/3; then X:39, XIV:65 (2), XXVI B:222; so that XXII:48/2; as if XXVI A:23; svá fast, svá hƒr› thus hard (fierce), hard (fierce) like this V:133, VI:254; svá mikit similarly large XXIII:63; (ok) svá (and) also III:112, V:46, VII A:7, 59, XI:11, XIII:5, XVI:186, XXII:2/1, XXVII:42, and . . . as well XXVI B:222 (1), and then, and so VI:10, VII A:156, B:75, and so on XXI:88, and so did (i.e. jump overboard) VI:295; ok svá ﬂat ef and also (this), if XXVII:28; svá ok also, likewise XIV:181; ok svá er and so it is, and that is right VI:197; svá er ok that is right too V:136; ok svá var and so it was VI:67, and so it happened VII A:66; en svá than that VI:340; svá at (Gr 3.8.2.2) so that I:32, III:10, V:130, VIII:57, X:131, XI:11, XIII:4, 22, XXI:129, XXII:22/3, XXIII:25, 72, XXVI A:18, 64, 74, B:31, 76; so hard that XV:151, so harsh that XXII:6/1, such that XV:11, in such a way that II:83, VI:117, XXI:3, 117, so well that VIII:130, XIV:163, (on occasions) when VII B:32, it being the case that, at the point where VI:305, at a time when XXVII:27, this, that XXI:157, XXIV:35; svá (. . .) at so . . . that I:17, 26, 36, 97, II:5, 32, III:125, VI:271, 288 (1), VII A:154, B:86, X:60, 170, XII:10–11, XVI:32, XXI:23, XXIV:26, XXVI B:63, 124, XXVII:31, such . . . that I:43, XI:46, 60, XII:13, XVI:125, XXVI A:88, thus (. . .) that II:73, 127, 232 A New Introduction to Old Norse

III:113, VI:288 (2), XV:8, XXIV:1, 32, XXVII:2, in this way . . . that I:134, IV:65, XXI:44, in such a way that XXI:70 (or svá lengst for such a very long time?), in this way . . . by XIV:118, in such a way that I:109, IV:104, VI:256, VIII:133, 137, X:126, XII:79, XXV:30, like this, that XXIV:79–80; svá . . . at eigi without XIV:67; svá . . . at . . . hvárki without either VI:8; svá at hon lét lesa by having them read XIV:188; svá at hann stó› while standing, still standing V:142; svá at menn viti as far as is known X:14; svá sem as VI:221, 276, VII A:58, VIII:164, X:15, XXIV:3, just as if XII:53, XV:90, in the way that XII:7, XXIV:30, like VIII:191, XV:60, XXI:34, XXIII:11, just like XXI:123, as if XII:14, XXIII:34 (when?), (that it) seemed to sort of XXI:173, almost, rather, pretty well XXIII:10; svá sem . . . vel = svá vel sem so well as I:15; flat . . . svá sem what VIII:185; svá . . . sem as . . . as I:18, 79, XI:38, XII:81, XIX:112, XXI:64, as . . . as if XII:23 (1), XXI:111, so . . . as XIV:43, so . . . that XXVI B:48, like XXV:45, as I:118, III:33, XI:40, as if XIII:2, just as (he did) XIII:8, such a . . . as XXVI A:57, in such a way that (it seems that) or so that XXIII:102; svá . . . svá sem as . . . as if XII:22; svá . . . es it being the case that, i.e. when VIII:95; svá . . . er you being such . . . that XXI:133; svá margir sem fleir so many as they were, considering how many they were V:144; svá as conj. so that I:18 (1), 56, 96, as far as XXVI B:183 svaf see sofa svagla (past svagla›i, pp. svaglat)wv. impers. gurgle III:115 svala (past svala›i, pp. svalat) wv. impers. with dat. cool down III:18, 27 svalt see svelta svanfja›rar f. pl. swan-feathers, (swan’s) plumage X:23 svangr adj. hungry VI:253 (if the wolf was not hungry there must have been plenty of fallen warriors for it to feed on and a good battle had been fought) Svanhildr f. daughter of Sigur›r the dragon-slayer XXV:9 (see note 5), 10 svanhvítr adj. swan-white; as a byname X:8; Svanhvít f. as a personal name X:11, 13, 23, 35 svar n. answer, response XXIV:29; halda upp svƒrum be spokesman VII B:25; hafa eins manns svƒr í munni have to answer for one person, be responsible for one person XXIV:66; eiga svƒr at veita firi be answerable, bear responsibility for XXIV:64, 66 Glossary and Index 233 svara1 (past svara›i, pp. svarat) wv. reply, answer I:11, 61, 63, 107, 127, II:77, 88, 123, V:159, VI:65, VII A:48, 77, XI:25, 37, 66, XV:55, 60, 91, XVI:21, 162, XXI:100, XXIV:28, XXV:45, XXVI B:132; past pl. svƒru›u III:123, svara›u VI:183; var honum svarat he got a reply I:8; flar firi svara answer about that XXIV:57; with dat. flví fyst svara er answer that first which XXIV:31 svara2 see svar svardagi m. oath, solemn promise VIII:156; acc. pl. II:35 svar›lauss adj. grassless Gr 3.3.9 ex. 20 svartr (f. sg. and n. pl. svƒrt) adj. dark, swarthy XXI:11, XXIII:105, 108; black I:7, V:166, XXIII:28, XXV:12; black-haired V:86; wk. form as nickname VIII:8, XIV:183 sváss adj. beloved XXV:36 svefn m. sleep XIV:67, XXV:22, XXVI B:37 svefnfarar f. pl. ‘sleep experiences’, dreams; with suffixed def. art. your dreams V:16 sveinn m. (Gr 3.1.7.3–5 ex. 1) boy V:32; with suffixed def. art. III:43, 44, V:44, 45, 65, 69, 80, 85, 88, 91, XI:45, XV:90, XXVI B:169, boy child, young boy XXI:200; as nickname XI:7, 8, 35, 37, 40, 71; as a term of abuse V:121; jocular, in address XXVI B:109 Sveinn Haraldsson forkbeard m. king of Denmark (died 1014) VI:1, 5, 12, 16, 29, 38, 39, 63, 69, 75, 107, 114, 118, 127, 142, 146, 162, 183, VIII:146 Sveinn Úlfsson m. king of Denmark 1047–76 XVI:14, 30, 39, 44, 46, 77, 128, 136, 140, 144, 149, 161, 166 sveipa (past sveip, past pl. svipu, pp. sveipit) sv. wrap Gr 3.6.9.3; sveipa útan enclose, cover (with dat. in something) X:117, 161 sveit f. troop V:54, VII A:82; district XXVI A:119 sveitúngr m. pl. members of a sveit; fellow soldier XXII:30/2 svelta (past svalt, past pl. sultu, pp. soltinn) sv. die XXV:26 sver› n. sword I:132, III:54, 56, 85, IV:9, V:29, 36, 59, VI:52, 238 (gen. pl. with gangr), XI:26, XIX:33, XXI:114 (pl.), XXII:12/3, XXVI B:152; the sword X:81, 91; with suffixed def. art. the sword I:130, 137, 148, III:28, VII A:103, X:79, XIX:34, XXI:142; with suffixed def. art., his sword I:94, 95, 96, III:95, XXI:140; nom. pl. V:156 (subject of bitu), VI:196; acc. pl. II:5, IV:39 (object of hvetja); dat. with suffixed def. art., his sword III:98, V:58, VII B:68; dat. with suffixed def. art. and gen. of owner V:116; me› sver›i with his 234 A New Introduction to Old Norse

sword VII A:17; dat. as instrumental sver›i with a sword VII A:102, XXV:31 sver›leikr m. ‘sword-play’, ‘sword-sport’, battle VII A:18 (object of ger›i) sverja (past sór, past pl. sóru, pp. svarit) sv. swear Gr 3.6.9.1 (5), 3.6.9.3 ex. 2; sóru swore VIII:153 Svíaherr m. army of Swedes VI:163 Svíakonungr adj. king of the Swedes; as title VI:35, 84, 128, 146, 163, 187, VIII:147 Svíar m. pl. Swedes VI:188, 213, 222 svik n. pl. treachery, betrayal VII A:52 svíkja (past sveik, past pl. sviku, pp. svikinn) sv. (Gr 3.6.9.2 (6)) betray, cheat II:147, VI:143 (ór out of, so as to make him leave); pp. cheated VI:4, ambushed, trapped, caught in a trap V:151 svima (past svam, past pl. svámu, pp. sumit) sv. swim Gr 3.6.9.3 svinnr adj. wise, shrewd XXV:32 svipan f. movement, force, speed I:43 svipta (past svipti, pp. sviptr) wv. deprive Gr 3.6.9.1 (7); pp. sviptr with dat. deprived of XXII:48/4; having lost XXII:9/4 svívir›ing f. dishonour, affront, insult, outrage VI:36, 40, XV:25 Svífljó› f. Sweden X:2, XVI:130 svó see svá svæla (past svældi, pp. svældr) wv. choke with smoke III:14; svæla inni suffocate (someone) in their house XXVI B:67 svælumikit adv. very smoky, full of choking smoke III:5 svænskr adj. Swedish (= sœnskr); acc. pl. svænska menn in acc. and inf. construction after kvá›u VI:244; wk. form as title svænski VI:35, 213 Svƒl›r (gen. Svƒl›rar) m. an island in the Baltic VI:29; referred to as a river VI:207; cf. VIII:145, note 47 svƒr see svar svƒrt, svƒrtum see svartr svƒru›u see svara1 svƒrum see svar sy›ri adj. comp. more southerly III:12, XXI:170; í Álptafir›i enum sy›ra in the more southerly Álptafjƒr›r XIX:28; dat. pl. sy›rum III:51 syknuleyfi n. licence for mitigation of penalty XXVII:27 Syllingar f. pl. the Scilly Isles VII A:9, 28, 29, 30, 70 Glossary and Index 235 s‡n f. (restoration of) sight XXII:58/3 s‡na (past s‡ndi, pp. s‡ndr) wv. show; display XV:146; demonstrate, give an example (of) XIV:38, 50; indicate, betray XXIII:5, 9, 39, 40, 47, 57 (cf. Gr 3.9.8.2), 84 (cf. Gr 3.9.8.2), they indicate XXIII:60; reveal XXIII:3; s‡na af sér give out, proclaim XXIII:52; s‡nir (it) indicates, (it) is a sign of XXIII:16, 80, 85; s‡nir manninn shows the person to be XXIII:64; with suffixed 1st person pron s‡ndak I showed (it) VIII:2; s‡na sik í display (one’s readiness for) something, reveal one’s concern for something V:160; s‡na vi›rkvæmiligt vera show that it was fitting XIII:20; pres. part. s‡nandi XIII:24; -sk form s‡nask appear, can be seen XXIII:31; s‡naz appear, be apparent XXIV:79; s‡nisk mér, mér s‡niz seems to me XVI:120, XXIV:30, it seems to me XXVI B:28; s‡nisk honum nƒkkvot eptir sem there seems to him to be something in what, he thought it was probably right what XVI:55; s‡nisk fleim it seems to them XXI:146 ; s‡ndisk appeared, looked X:104, it seemed XIV:51 syngja/syngva (past sƒng, past pl. sungu, pp. sungit) sv. sing Gr 3.6.9.2 (2, 6); chant, intone XIV:64, 70; súngu rang, clashed, resounded XXII:56/4; flar er spjƒr sungu ‘where spears sang’ means in battles VI:202 syni, synir see sonr synja (past synja›i, pp. synjat) wv. with gen. refuse II:140 s‡nu adv. with sup. by far V:87 s‡r f. sow Gr 3.1.7.2 (5) s‡ra f. sour whey III:99 (see note), III:102 (with suffixed def. art.), III:103 (with suffixed def. art.), XXVI B:114 s‡rgja (past s‡rg›i, pp. s‡rg›r) wv. wail, weep aloud XXVI B:31 s‡ruker n. cask for storing s‡ra III:100 (with suffixed def. art.) s‡sla1 f. 1. work XIV:18; task(s) XIV:138, note. 2. diocese XIV:142 s‡sla2 (past s‡sla›i, pp. s‡slat) wv. do, effect; s‡sla flat arrange it, i.e. make the decision XXVII:6 s‡sligast adv. sup. most briskly Gr 3.5.3 (12) systir f. sister VI:31, 47, VII A:74, IX:114, 127, X:24, XI:19, 28, 71, XIX:107, XXV:10, XXVI A:115; gen. systur XIX:39, XXV:60 systurdóttir f. sister’s daughter, niece VII B:7 (refers to Sigrí›r, not Gunnhildr) systursonr m. nephew (sister’s son) III:43 (in apposition to sveinsins) sæi see sjá 236 A New Introduction to Old Norse sæli› n. help at sea, (trying to) save a ship XV:146 Sælingsdalr m. valley in western Iceland XV:46, 84 Sælingsdalshei›r f. moor between Sælingsdalr and Saurbœr in western Iceland XV:100 sæll adj. happy, fortunate, blessed I:9, 11, 21, 39, XIV:75, XXV:74 sæmdarma›r m. man of honour, honourable or distinguished man XXII:28/3 Sæmundr (Sigfússon, enn fró›i) m. Icelandic priest and historian 1056–1133 VIII:2, 145, 152 sær (= sjór) m. sea II:50, 103, 112, VI:316, XV:145; with suffixed def. art. II:108, VII A:157; gen. sg. sævar X:19, 85, 101 særa (past sær›i, pp. sær›r) wv. wound XXVI A:51, 75, B:96 sæta1 (past sætti, pp. sætt) wv. with dat. mean, signify; hverju flat sætti what this meant, what was the cause of this I:74; undrum sæta amount to a miracle or marvel XXII:44/2 sæta2 f. poetical term for woman; = Steinger›r, subj. of hvarf IV:27 sæti see sitja sætt f. settlement II:62, 72, 114; peace VI:56; in pl. compensation, atonement, settlement XIX:24; taka sættum vi› accept reconciliation with XXVI B:130 sættargjƒr› f. terms of settlement II:67 sættask (past sættisk) wv. reach agreement (á on something) VIII:27, XVI:56; sættask at flví at agree on these terms, that XIX:24 sætti see sæta1 sævar see sær Sævarsta›r m. ‘Sea-stead’, an island X:87; cf. sævar stƒ› X: 85, 101 sœkja (pres. sœkir, past sótti, pp. sótt) wv. (Gr 3.6.9.3) 1. seek (eptir for, i.e. go in search of, fetch) II:48; make an attempt on IV:46 (subj.); attack V:103, 132, 134, 144, VI:343, XXVI B:64; go to, attend IV:110, VII B:25; visit XIV:61; skjótt sœkja quickly win them (the buildings) or defeat us XXVI B:61; mik fá sótt attack me successfully, overcome me XXVI A:81; flá sótta geta manage to defeat them XXVI B:49, 100; past subj. sœtti might seek out IX:56; sœkja á fund with gen. go to visit XIV:139; sœkja í hendr make demands on, pester or demand (women) from? XXI:195; sœkja at attack IV:62, V:81, 113, VI:275, XXI:138, 146, XXVI A:37, 39, B:51, force one’s way to VI:285; sœkjum at let us attack XXVI A:42, past subj. at sœtti at that they should attack VI:273; sækja heim attack Glossary and Index 237

(someone) in their home XXVI B:63; sœkja til look for, call (on someone) for something II:130, come (to try to get something) IV:37, attend XIV:58; pp. sótt ver›a to be overcome VI:316; sóttan (to be) overcome (with vann jƒfur) VI:247, sóttan und lok (to have been) finally defeated, i.e. slain VI:303. 2. -sk form illa sóttisk fleim Gunnarr Gunnarr was hard for them to defeat XXVI B:60; impers. with dat. sóttisk fleim, fleim sœkisk they were progressing, gaining success III:1, IV:63; fleim mun illa sœkjask it will be slow progress for them, they will find it tough work XXVI B:58 sœm› f. honour I:66 (at honum sign of his being a source of), XXIV:68, 73; fleim til sœm›ar sem in honour of him who XXIV:60; fleim til sœm›ar as a compliment to them XXIV:74 sœm›aratkvæ›i n. respectful address, honourable forms of address XXIV:61 sœmiliga adv. becomingly XIII:30 sœmiligr adj. honourable, reverend XIV:175; sup. XIV:165 sœmr adj. befitting; comp. Gr 3.3.3 ex. 5 sœnskr adj. Swedish (= svænskr); wk. form as title VIII:146 sœtr adj. sweet; sup. sœtasti most sweet XIII:47; dat. pl. sœtustum sweetest XII:18 sœtti see sœkja sƒ›la (past sƒ›la›i, pp. sƒ›lat) wv. saddle XV:95 sƒ›ull m. saddle V:157, X:45 sƒg› (Gr 3.3.9 ex. 8), sƒg›u, sƒg›um see segja sƒgn (pl. sagnir) f. (Gr 3.1.7.1 ex. 5) report III:47; er flat sumra manna sƒgn some people say XXI:162 sƒgu, sƒgur, sƒgum see saga sƒk f. cause; suit XV:67, XXVII:7; lawsuit XV:137; accusation, charge, cause of resentment, grievance, grudge VI:30, 32, 41; á sƒk flá has (responsibility for) that case, that case lies with XXVII:36; fyrir flá sƒk for this reason IV:105, VII A:79, as a result XIV:144; fyrir flá sƒk at because VI:34, firi flá sƒk . . . at for this reason . . . that XXIV:57–58; fyrir flessa sƒk because of this, on account of this VI:137; fyr sanna sƒk for good cause V:155; sú var sƒk til this was the reason for it VII A:135; fyrir sakar, fyrir (. . .) sakir with gen. for the sake of, because of XII:36, XIV:97, 114, XXIV:21, because of V:46, XIV:99, XIX:3, for someone’s sake, on someone’s account IV:100; fyrir mínar sakir ok fyrir flínar for my sake and for your 238 A New Introduction to Old Norse

own XII:40; fyrir sakir fleira er because of those who XII:89; fyrir sakar fless er for this reason, that VI:317; fyrir flær sakar as a result of this, for all that XV:12; fyrir flessar sakar on these grounds XV:28; til saka as the offence, as the reason XV:69 sƒkótt adj. n. eiga sƒkótt have many quarrels, have much enmity (many enemies) V:3 sƒl n. pl. an edible sea-weed used as food; gen. pl. sƒlva IV:61 sƒmu see samr sƒngr m. song Gr 3.1.7.5 (4); singing, chanting, music XIV:156, 162 sƒnn, sƒnnu, sƒnnum see sannr Sƒrli m. brother of Ham›ir, son of Gu›rún and Jónakr XXV:32, 75, 110 sƒx see sax søkkva (past sƒkk, past pl. sukku, pp. sokkinn) sv. (Gr 3.6.9.2 (2)) sink III:98 (upp um up over, i.e. so as to be covered up over), VI:256, 259, XXI:200 -t neg. suffix with verbs IV:42, VI:261, 342, 348, XXV:31, 64 tá1 (pl. tær) f. toe Gr 3.1.7.2, 3.1.8 (20) tá2 n. pathway, trodden ground round or in front of the house XXV:1 ta›a f. hay (from the well-manured home field) III:4 tak n. hold, grasp; betri honum til taks any better for him to use XV:123 taka (pres. tekr, past tók, past pl. tóku, past subj. tœki, pp. tekinn Gr 3.3.8.4 (3a), 3.3.8.2–5 ex. 4, 3.6.9.1 (4)) sv. 1. take (Gr 3.6.9.1 (4, 12, 13, 14)) II:18, 42, 52, 73, 80, III:3, IV:63, X:79, XVI:186, XIX:34, XXI:51, 115, XXVI A:40, B:107; imp. tak XII:38, imp. pl. taki› XXVI B:150; tƒkum, tƒku vér let us take XXI:100, XXVI A:59; receive I:121, VII A:66, VIII:140, XXII:51/3, 58/3; accept XXII:27/3, XXIV:68, with dat. XXVI B:130, imp. taki flér XXII:25/1; take away VII B:56; take up, pick up V:157, XI:19, 44; take hold of IV:64; take possession of VII A:107, XIX:54; take on, assume VIII:58, 62, 169; adopt XVI:83, XXVI B:105; choose XXVII:4; tók sér chose himself XIX:94; appoint XXVII:10, 18, 50; start XI:112; undergo XIV:37; board VI:103; catch V:67, 91, 95, XIX:57, XXVI B:195; arrest VII B:51, past subj. tœki take prisoner XXVI A:8; catch (an illness) XVI:89; capture II:46, VI:297, 300 (pp. pl. teknir), XIX:36, XXVI A:9; reach X:170; touch, consume? XIII:17; strike XXVI B:92; taka kve›ju respond to a greeting XVI:19, 157; taka mat e›a svefn enjoy food or sleep XIV:67; hvat Glossary and Index 239

fleir taka rá›s what course they adopt XXVI B:48; pp. accepted; eigi fjarri tekit by no means rejected XV:5; supine tekit taken I:25; taka sér get oneself II:155, appoint (for themselves) XXVII:6; taka á touch I:36; taka af derive from XIV:80; tóku af took (them) off X:49; tók flar af took out of it XIV:32; taka fyrir take in exchange for XXI:115; taka hƒndum capture X:15, seize, take hold of XXVI A:11; taka í reach (up) to III:103; taka í móti receive, meet, take hold of XXVI B:184; taka ni›r reach down to (so as to strike against) II:32; taka ofan take down, put away XXVI B:35; tók honum skammt ofan reached a short way down on him XII:56; taka til with acc. undertake I:30, with gen. reach (to) (subj. taki) XXIII:83, take hold of, seize I:104, III:84, XXI:199, take to, begin to use VI:125, take in for, accept for XIV:153, make use of, have recourse to XXI:39; taka til máls take up the story; nú er flar til máls at taka . . . at now the story must be taken up at the point . . . where XXVI B:2; taka til or›s begin to speak (or choose the words?) XXIV:20; taka til rá›s/rá›a adopt as a plan, decide to do XXVI B:45, 166; taka til si›ar establish as a custom XXIV:77; teknir til fless assigned to this, appointed to do this VIII:174; taka upp take up, pick up I:22, 99, lift up XXI:141, raise, disinter XXII:61/1, take on, undertake II:133, adopt I:52, XVI:90, seize VII A:136; taka út reach out to, go out and touch VII A:154; taka vi› receive I:137 (imp. tak), accept XVI:188, embrace VII A:55, VIII:78, 90, take in VI:16, take into one’s care XV:41, catch I:41; at taka vi› receiving XIV:138; taka vel vi› receive warmly VI:46, XI:14, XV:125; impers. tók af with acc. (something) was put a stop to II:59, was removed from VII A:44, it was cut off III:57; tók af hƒfu›it his head was taken off XXVI B:154; at yfir taki vi› oss that we may be finished off or that an end be made of our dealings XXVI B:65; as aux. taka (at) with inf. begin to III:50, 88, VII A:157, B:30, VIII:72, XIV:1, 47, XIX:58, XXI:110, 116, XXII:39/1 (or meaningless auxiliary), XXVI B:121, 126; taka at as meaningless auxiliary did XXII:62/1 (or ‘took the relics intending to, in order to’). 2. -sk form be accepted, be successful, take root VIII:85; begin: supine tekizk begun V:92; af takask be abolished XIV:85; fail, come to an end XXI:60; takask til turn out I:89 tákna (past tákna›i, pp. táknat) wv. mean, signify XXI:99 tal n. talk, tale II:84; conversation IV:4, 37, VII A:45, XV:29 (with 240 A New Introduction to Old Norse

suffixed def. art.); reckoning VIII:149; tal af honum what he said, his opinions (cf. halda) XXI:15 tál f. deceit, betrayal; pl. draga á tálar entrap, betray VI:145 tala1 (past tala›i, past pl. tƒlu›u, pp. tala›r) wv. speak (vi› with) III:15, IV:36, XIV:33, XV:6, 58, XXII:31/1, XXVI B:40, 155; say (vi› to) XXII:15/2; speak of, discuss III:18, VII A:62, 95; tala um speak about, discuss IV:77, XXI:2, write about, treat of XIV:90, note; impers. pass. um var talat at it was discussed that III:105 tala2 (acc. tƒlu, pl. tƒlur) f. speech VIII:123; in pl. persuasion VIII:152; reckoning VIII:8, 61; number XI:12 tal›r, tal›i see telja tálma (past tálma›i, pp. tálmat) wv. hinder XVI:70 tanngnjóstr m. ‘Tooth-gnasher’ or ‘Tooth-crushed’, a nickname; also the name of one of fiórr’s goats (SnE, Gylfaginning ch. 21) IV:107 téa see tjá tefla (past tefldi, pp. tefldr) wv. weave braid, do tablet weaving XIV:189 tegr/tigr/tugr (pl. tigir) m. (a group of) ten, a decade (Gr 3.4.1 and 2 (5), (9)) VIII:56, 60, 196; with gen. (Gr 3.4.2.(9)) fjórir tigir forty XXI:18, 164, sjau tigir seventy XIX:49, tíu tigir a hundred XXI:162; acc. pl. tegu VIII:29, sex tigu sixty VI:21, sjau tigu seventy VI:49; dat. pl. nær flremr tigum nearly thirty XXVI B:47; sex tigum ok einu with seventy-one VI:53 (adv. with fór); sjau tegum vetra ens níunda hundra›s eptir = 870 years after VIII:13; flremr tegum vetra ens annars hundra›s eptir = 130 years after VIII:148; sex vetr ens fjór›a tegar 36 years VIII:194; hálfr flri›i tugr manna half the third ten (= two tens and half the third) of men, i. e. 25 men III:79 (Gr 3.4.2 (9)) teitr adj. cheerful, happy, joyful XXII:21/2 Teitr Ísleifsson m. priest VIII:8, 36, 93, 144 Teitr Ketilbjarnarson m. 10th-century Icelander VIII:80 tekinn (Gr 3.3.8.4 (3a), 3.3.8.2–5 ex. 4), tekit, teknir, tekr see taka telja (past tal›i, past pl. tƒl›u, pp. tal›r) wv. reckon, declare II:110; tell, report XII:63; calculate, reckon up VIII:153; count VIII:165, X:56; enumerate XXII:28/2; telja fyrir work out or argue in the presence of VIII:73, put to, plead to, try to persuade VIII:125; -sk form tal›isk said that he II:132; teljask undan decline, refuse XXVI B:145 téna›arma›r m. assistant, deputy XIV:170 Glossary and Index 241 tendra (past tendra›i, pp. tendrat) wv. kindle; -sk form tendrask me› be kindled by (or in), be excited by (or in) XIII:23 tengja (past teng›i, pp. tengt) wv. tie together VI:169 (imp. pl.) tenn see tƒnn tét see tjá teygja (past teyg›i) wv. entice, lure II:38, XXVI A:15 teygjask (past teyg›isk) wv. -sk form show oneself; tenn hánum teygjask his teeth are bared X:81 tí› f. time VIII:129; pl. tí›ir divine service XIV:43, 58, 124; the canonical ‘hours’, prayers XIV:69; til tí›a for services, for prayers XIV:160 tí›a (past tíddi, pp. títt) wv. impers. with acc. desire XVI:88 tí›agjƒr› f. (holding of) church services XIV:152 tí›indalauss adj. uneventful, without incident XV:57 tí›indi n. pl. tidings, news, events II:14, 37, VI:89, 106, 134, XV:72, 91, XIX:74 (‘what had happened’), XXVI B:6; lƒng tí›indi long drawn-out story IX:37; vera myndi nƒkkur tí›indi something must be going on, something must be up VI:124; hvat til tí›inda haf›i gƒrzk what had happened of importance XV:121 tí›r1 adj. frequent; common, popular (with dat. with) XIV:83; swift; n. hvat títt væri what was happening XV:112; n. as adv. títt pleasant XXV:62; quickly; sup. sem tí›ast as quickly as possible, at once VI:63 tí›r2 m. time VIII:8, 20 tiginn adj. noble, of high rank; dat. pl. tignum VI:194, XVI:152, 184; sup. tignastr XI:58, f. tignust XII:24 tigir see tegr tignarliga adv. splendidly, majestically, nobly, magnificently XII:24 tigr, tigu, tigum see tegr til 1. prep. with gen. to (Gr 3.7.2) I:1, 23, 25, 38, 46, 56, 68, 88, 98, II:3, 37, VI:5, VIII:15, 43 (2), X:10, 95, XI:64, XV:43, XVI:10, 96, XIX:30, XXI:130, XXII:27/1, XXV:56, XXVI A:1, 5, 10, B:40; towards XXIII:21; towards, to, at I:13, 35, V:129, VII A:102, XIX:71, 80, XXVII:22, 29; to the home of (cf. Gr 3.1.5 (13)) II:50, 95, IV:3; til hans at him XXVI A:71, B:90, to see him X:88, til sín to see him XVI:87, til mín to see me XVI:39, til flín to you XXIV:1, 3, til fleir(r)a at them XXVI A:45, to them XXIV:75; til fless about it XXII:22/4, so far XXVII:32, for this I:119; for VI:7, VII A:100, VIII:55, XIV:174, XVI:97, 189, XXII:28/4, 37/2, XXIII:27, XXVII:17; for (the purpose of) III:105, XVI:90, 165, 167, XXI:41, 242 A New Introduction to Old Norse

XXII:1/4, XXVI A:85; for or until XVI:51; for, to bring about or until XXV:30; for (voyages to) XVI:129; XIX:43; engaged in XIV:136; to get II:17 (see illr), III:20; until VI:304, 324, XXVI B:124; about II:45, VI:331; as I:39 (to cause), II:73, 114, VII A:52; til bogastrengs mér as a bowstring for me XXVI A:79; ok til and (go) to VI:129; gera til earn I:61. 2. as adv. towards (something), in that direction II:24, there, to that place II:112, XXI:73, up to it I:108, for it I:118, 121, 130, VIII:39, 43 (1), 89, XVI:35, for this III:105 (1), VII A:135, XXIV:3 (2), to earn it I:137, to do (it) I:126, III:17, VIII:164, of this I:115; available, possible XVI:38, 48; til búit prepared, ready XIX:57 (cf. búa); taka til, takask til see taka; vera til be available, be enough VI:225, be available (to do) VII B:20, XXVI B:102; sem flú ert ma›r til as a man like you would XXVI B:112; flat var mest til at this was the main reason why VI:46; hér til for this XV:27; up to now V:77; flangat til up to then VIII:95; flar til for it (cf. Gr 3.9.1) VII A:98, for that event, i.e. at that battle VI:154; flar til . . . sem towards the spot where XXIII:18. 3. forming conjunctions til fless er in order to bring about what XIV:90, note; til fless er, til fless unz until VI:45, VII A:28, VIII:25, XII:4, XXI:87, XXVI B:43, 228; flar til er until XI:47, XIX:33, 50, XXI:52; svá til fless er on until VI:10; til fless at in order that, so that VII A:51, VIII:163, XIV:122, 124, (in order) to XIV:26, 151, so that XIV:55, to (do something) XXVII:3, for this, that XXIV:14; til at for the purpose of, to XXVII:4, (in order) to XIX:47, in order that XXVI B:65 tilgjƒf f. bridal gift (from the bridegroom to the bride) VI:2, 4 tillit n. glance I:30 tilræ›i n. attack IV:8 tilskipat pp. n. ordained XXIV:45 tilstilli n. guidance, contrivance, action XIV:112 tími m. time XV:35; einn tíma on one occasion XIII:13 tína (past tíndi, pp. tínt) wv. rehearse XXVII:29 tingl n. prow-piece, a triangular piece of wood between the gunwales at a ship’s prow; gen. pl. with tangar (see tƒng) VI:232 tinsmi›r m. a worker in tin or pewter; as nickname III:79 tírr m. glory VII A:22; fame XXV:108 títt see tí›r1 tíu num. (Gr 3.4.1) ten III:46, VIII:92, XV:79, XIX:36, XXI:162, XXVII:29; tíu (hundru›) i.e. 1200 (Gr 3.4.1) VIII:166, XXV:81 Glossary and Index 243 tíund f. a tenth part; a tithe, tithe-payment VIII:154, 157 tíundi num. (ordinal) adj. tenth Gr 3.4.1; vi›/me› tíunda mann with nine others (Gr 3.4.2.(8)) XV:130, 134 tívar m. pl. gods IX:55 tjá/téa (past té›i, pp. tét) wv. show X:81; describe XII:63; give an account of, enumerate XXII:13/3; -sk form tjásk be shown, be to be seen (or be used, be useful?) XIV:179 tjald n. tent; sheet of tarpaulin XIX:58 tjalda (past tjalda›i, pp. tjaldat) wv. cover, hang; pp. n. pl. tjƒldu› II:12 Tjaldanes n. farm on the south side of Gilsfjƒr›r XV:131 tjara f. tar III:4 (with suffixed def. art.) tjƒrr m. poetical word for sword or spear; gen. pl. tjƒrva VII A:21 tjƒrupinnr m. a piece of wood covered in tar or a small container for tar III:2 tók, tóku see taka tólf num. twelve (Gr 3.4.1) II:7, VII A:100, VIII:171, 193, XIV:143, 173, XV:133, XIX:48, XXII:59/4; tólf (hundru›) i.e. 1440 VIII:167 tólfti num. (ordinal) adj. twelfth Gr 3.4.1; me› tólfta mann i.e. with eleven others (Gr 3.4.2 (8)) VIII:98, XV:75 tópt f. foundations, ground plan (i.e. overall length) XIX:62 Torfi Hamalsson m. XIX:114 tradda see tre›ja tra›ir see trƒ› trana f. crane (bird) XXV:62; with suffixed def. art. Tranan name of a ship VI:105, 227; acc. Tranu (with sá fljóta au›a) VI:307; gen. with suffixed def. art. Trƒnunnar VI:216 trau›r adj. reluctant; n. as adv. trautt scarcely XXI:54 traust n. protection, support XV:127 traustr adj. reliable, strong VI:288, XXII:17/3 tré n. tree II:27 (with suffixed def. art.); tree or a piece of wood XXI:150; dat. pl. with suffixed def. art. trjánum their pieces of wood XXI:97, 112 (these may have been bullroarers, which were widely used by North American Indians for ceremonial purposes); timber, wood XIII:14, 30 tre›ja (past traddi, pp. traddr) wv. cause to be trodden on (with dat. by) XXV:11; pp. acc. f. sg. tradda (Gr 3.9.7.1) XXV:69 trega (past treg›i) wv. 1. grieve for, lament X:138. 2. cause to grieve, cause grief to X:168 treginn adj. (pp.) grievous, sad XXV:1 tregr adj. reluctant I:102 244 A New Introduction to Old Norse trésmi›r m. wood-carver, carpenter XII:2 treysta (past treyst, pp. treystr) wv. trust (á in) XXII:24/1; -sk form treystask dare XIV:164 tréflak n. wooden roof XIV:8 trítill m. (spinning) top; urchin; small movements XXIII:39 (see note) Tristram m. XII:1, 3, 5, 16, 36, 38, 62, 64, 69, 70 trjánum see tré tro›a (past tra›, past pl. trá›u, pp. tro›it) sv. (Gr 3.6.9.3) 1. tread XVI:122 (subj.). 2. stuff III:4 (object understood; Gr 3.9.5.1) trú f. belief, religion XXII:22/3; (i.e. the Christian religion) XXI:13; faith XIV:65 (with dat. in?); (the) faith, i.e. Christianity VII A:50, VIII:78, XXIV:46; rétt trú VII A:68, XXIV:52; acc. helga trú Christianity XXII:25/1 trúa (past trú›i, pp. trúa›r) wv. believe Gr 3.6.9.1 (8); trúa á believe in XXIV:33, 34; with dat. believe in, trust XXII:17/4 (3rd person pres. trúr?—cf. trúr adj.); imp. trúi› flér ok flví also trust in this XXVI B:124 trúanligr adj. believable XIII:40 trúr adj. (Gr 3.3.8.5 (4)) true, loyal (with dat. to someone) VII A:41, XXII:17/4 (cf. trúa); dat. pl. trúm Gr 3.3.8 (4) and 3.3.9 (5) tryggiliga adv. securely XII:76 tryggr adj. trusty XXII:17/3 Tryggvason, Tryggvasunr m. son of Tryggvi Óláfsson VI:48, 77, 89, 130, 211, 215, VIII:145, XXI:37 Tryggvi Óláfsson m. father of King Óláfr of Norway; gen. Tryggva VI:144, 336, 367, VIII:75 tr‡ta (past tr‡tti, pp. tr‡tt) wv. dangle XXV:62 trƒ› f. (trodden) path; sheep pen? XXVI A:13; in kenning for sea, fjar›m‡ils trƒ› VI:251 trƒll n. monster I:81 Trƒllaskógr m. ‘troll forest’, farm in southern Iceland XXVI A:17 trƒnu see trana -tu = flú I:10, 15, 20, 125, IV:97, XXV:23, XXVI B:218; see flú tugli see tygill tugr see tegr Tumba f. mountain on the coast of Normandy XIII:1, 11, 28 tún n. enclosure, farmyard, infield III:59 (with suffixed def. art.), V:33; court(yard); gen. pl. túna to the dwelling, abode IX:9 Glossary and Index 245 tunga f. language VI:317 Tunga1 f. a farm, the home of fiorkell and Steinger›r, in Gnúpsdalr, off Mi›fjƒr›r, about fifteen miles south of Steinssta›ir IV:3, 6, 107 Tunga2 f. an area in eastern Iceland Gr 3.1.8 túngar›r m. farmyard wall, hayfield wall XV:100 tungl n. moon; in kenning for shields (referring to the way they were fastened along the sides of viking ships) tungl tingla tangar (subject of skrusk) VI:232 tunglkváma f. new moon XIV:80 turn m. tower XI:2, 48 tuttugu num. twenty (Gr 3.4.1) V:83, VIII:59, 62, 191 tvá, tvau see tveir tveir num. two (Gr 3.4.1) V:48, VI:198, VII A:97, VIII:163, X:100, 106, XII:18, XV:94, XXI:23, 144, XXVI B:102; tveir einir just two XXV:81; acc. m. tvá I:74, 103, IV:2, VI:159 (with jƒfra), VIII:82, 83, X:2, XV:32, 95, XIX:62, XXI:38, 165, XXVI A:11, 78; two (warriors) XXVI A:100; flá tvá those two (flá2) or now, by then two (flá1) XXVI A:76; f. tvær II:74, X:8, ok tvær and two (were) XXI:199; n. tvau I:76, II:28, 97, III:30, XIV:140, XXI:21, 199, XXVI A:76, XXVII:37, of two persons, a male and female IX:47; tvau ver› slík double that price XVI:24; gen. tveggja VII A:154, XIV:177, tveggja fleira of the two of them X:120, 164; dat. tveim VIII:195, tveimr (to) two XXVI A:104, 105 tvímána›r m. ‘double month’, the fifth month of summer (late August to late September); at tvímánu›i at the beginning of double-month, i.e. in late August XV:14 tvisvar adv. twice III:116 tvær see tveir tyggi m. ruler, king VII A:24 (subject of bar›i and hjó); dat. sg. tyggja (here = King Óláfr) VI:353 tygill (dat. tugli) m. strap Gr 3.1.7.2 ex. 4 t‡na (past t‡ndi, pp. t‡nt) wv. with dat. lose VII A:53, XIII:36 (pres. part.), XVI:139, 143, 182; destroy: -sk form as passive t‡nask be lost, perish II:91, 105; supine (Gr 3.9.7.1) t‡nzk II:108 typpa (past typ›u, pp. typ›r) wv. top; typpa um dress around the top, put a head-dress on IX:64 (typpum let us put . . .), 77 T‡r m. a god (one of the Æsir) II:9; in kenning for warrior (here the king), T‡r tjƒrva d‡rra VII A:21 246 A New Introduction to Old Norse tær see tá tœki see taka tƒ›u see ta›a tƒku, tƒkum see taka tƒl›u see telja tƒlu see tala2 tƒlu›u see tala1 tƒlvíss adj. skilled in mathematics and computation XIV:191, note tƒng f. (a pair of) tongs; tƒng tingla a pair of ornamental strips of wood along the sides of ship’s prow VI:233 (gen. tangar with tungl) tƒnn (pl. tenn) f. tooth X:81, 120, 164, XII:57 uf see of1 úfár adj. no few, i.e. many VI:365 (gen. with fljó›ar) ugga (past ugg›i, pp. uggat) wv. fear, be afraid III:1, VI:12 úkristni see ókristinn Úlfdalir m. pl. ‘Wolf-dales’, valley in Sweden X:5, 14, 36, 42, 68 Úlfhe›inn Gunnarssonr m. lawspeaker from 1108 until his death in 1116 VIII:55, 169 Úlfljótr m. Norwegian, 9th–10th century VIII:36, 40, 44, 59 Úlfljótslƒg n. pl. Úlfljót’s law VIII:37 úlfr m. wolf IV:45, VII A:15, XXV:102 Úlfr enn rau›i m. one of Óláfr Tryggvason’s men (his standard-bearer according to Heimskringla, Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar ch. 94, ÍF XXVI 344) VI:270, 274 Úlfsjár m. ‘Wolf-lake’, in Sweden X:6 Ullr m. a god (one of the Æsir) II:9 um1 prep. with acc. (Gr 3.7.1) 1. of time IV:101, 108, see sí›ir, stund; during, in I:87, 112, 113, II:4, IV:52, V:7 (2), XVI:9, XIX:9, 90, XXI:4, XXV:3, 19, XXVI A:2; at XIV:41; through(out) IV:47, XIX:63; um kveldit that evening XXVI B:4. 2. of place over II:17, 94, III:73, 99, VI:279, VII A:2, 35, X:52, XI:50, XIX:35, XXII:64/2, XXVI B:14, 28; across XIX:98; round II:69, 70, III:23, V:56, 109, VI:81, 283, VII A:156, 159, IX:64, XXI:116, 177, XXVI A:59, 60, B:149; ok um and (they went) round XXI:53; around I:110, VI:267, VII B:31, IX:62, XI:76, XII:82, about XII:61; all over III:45, VI:241, throughout XXVI A:119; by VI:268, XII:79; through III:116, IV:13, VII A:116, XXII:60/3 (or over?); past VI:45, 89; allt um all over, over the whole of VII B:24; útan um round the outside of XXIII:33; lúka um surround VI:282. 3. of abstract relations about I:54, 129, Glossary and Index 247

II:37, III:34, IV:60, 104, V:11, 14, VI:137, 314, 320, 333, VII A:51, 98, 134, IX:55, XII:83, XIV:90, note, XV:19 (as to), XIX:11, 41, XXI:3, 79, XXIV:54, XXV:68, XXVI B:38; concerning XXIV:49, XXVI A:92; on XXIV:28; in relation to I:135; with V:7 (1), XV:141; with respect to, for IV:71, XV:136, XVI:86. 4. in complex prepositions (Gr 3.7, 3.7.1) um fram, umfram beyond XXIII:35, in greater measure than VII B:10; um fram hátt beyond measure XXIII:62; um flvert/flverar across I:35, III:53 (flvert/flverar is a strong adjective in agreement with the accompanying noun). 5. with dat. um sumrum during the summer(s), in summer XXI:10. 6. as adv. about it III:105, 110, IV:86, 105, V:72, X:15, XIV:34, XV:76, XXIV:9; for it XXV:103 (or um2); vera mest um be most significant V:9; hér um about this I:50, 86; with -sk forms of verbs (see 1/15 n.; Gr 3.9.8.3): um búizk arranged things around oneself I:15; litask um, um sjásk look around (oneself) IV:16, X:33; flar um at sjásk to look around (oneself) there II:11; um at flreifask to grope around IX:4 um2 meaningless adverbial particle with verbs (cf. of3) VI:55, IX:2, 5, 10, 27, 29, 35, 38, 39, 42, 45, 56, 71, 81, 93, 101, 103, 109, 111, 124, 129, X:28, 63, 75, 82, 107, 115, 131, 140, 159, 169, XV:74, XXV:4, 10, 11, 50, 65, 69, 103 (? or adv. about it), 105, XXVII:28 umbergis adv. round about XIII:34; as prep. with acc. round XII:50 umbrá› n. counsel, guidance VIII:152, 173; help, patronage XVI:3 umbs‡sla f. management, organisation VIII:89 umbú› f. preparation, arrangement XXVI A:62 umbúna›r m. bedding XI:63 umfram see um1, 4 (Gr 3.7, 3.7.1) umgjƒr› f. scabbard; with suffixed def. art., his scabbard I:94, 96 umhverfis/umhverfum prep. with acc. around (Gr 3.7.1) V:11, XIV:152, XXVI B:87 umkringis adv. around XIII:16 umrœ›a f. talk, discussion; rumour, gossip XV:19; í allri umrœ›u in everything they said VI:318 umsjá f. care, guardianship, looking after XVI:6 umvandan f. admonition, reprimand, discipline XIV:103 und1 prep. with acc. beneath IX:106; und lok under/into (the power of) death VI:363; with dat. under X:116, 160; und hánum beneath him (his body), i.e. from his belt IX:61; und skildi carrying a shield V:50; und hjálmum wearing helmets XXV:67; und holmi close to, under the shelter of, the island VI:236 248 A New Introduction to Old Norse und2 f. wound XXII:40/1 undan prep. with dat. (Gr 3.7.3) from under XII:19, away from XXI:133; out from XXI:21; off XXI:27; as adv. away VI:215, 219, 272, 313 (see halda), XXI:130, 132, 200, XXII:11/4, XXVI B:67, 221; out XXI:20; down XXVI B:29; undan ganga escape V:107; láta undan ganga let off VII B:54; draga undan vi› get away from XXVI B:94; see leysa 2, telja, fliggja undanbrag› n. subterfuge, trick (in order to escape), means of escape III:92 undarliga adv. strangely XVI:120; wondrously XXVI B:28 undir prep. (Gr 3.7.4) 1. with acc. under, underneath, beneath II:55, III:59, X:115, 159; close to, under the shelter of VI:121, 123, 133, XV:126, up to XXI:30; within range of VI:189. 2. with dat. beneath I:97, XII:2, 16, XV:100, XXIII:96; below, at the foot of XIX:91, XXVI A:5; under XIV:177, 187, XXIV:65, XXVI B:152, i.e. with XIV:8; undir sér under him/them, under his/their authority XIV:133, 178. 3. as adv. under her IX:49; flar undir under (the roof) there III:74, under them, underneath XI:19 undirferli f. underhandedness XXIII:55 undirfƒrull adj. underhand, cunning XI:12 undirma›r m. subordinate XIV:73, 105, 119 undit see vinda undr n. wonder, something strange V:17; miracle, marvel XXII:30/3, 44/2, 55/2 undrask (past undra›isk) wv. refl. wonder, be amazed V:143, stare in amazement XXI:105; with acc. be surprised at something XXI:70; undru›usk flá were amazed at them XXI:102 ungr adj. young VII A:95, XI:30, XIV:34, XXV:9, 56; young ones XXV:41; i.e. new XIV:79; wk. f. form X:18, 30, 59; when young VII A:11 (with konungr), when I was young VI:202, XXVI B:163 (f. sg.); pl. with synir X:100 unna (pres. ann, past unni, past pl. unnu, past subj. ynni, pp. unnat/ unnt) pret.-pres. vb. with dat. 1. love (Gr 3.6.7) IV:61 (inf. with skal ek), VI:322, XIV:114, XV:14. 2. grant, refuse not; ef a›rir unna honum if others are content that he should XXVII:46 unnit see vinna unnvigg n. wave-horse, kenning for ship; gen. with mei›r VI:51 unz, til fless unz conj. until (Gr 3.8.2.4) VIII:25, 31, 103, 129, IX:17, XVI:87 Glossary and Index 249 upp adv. up I:6, 13, 22, 29, 45, 52, 69, 99, 109, II:22, 28, III:12, IV:62, VI:76, IX:86, X:175, XI:18, XII:10, XV:68, 106, XIX:80, XXI:130, XXIII:70 (see hefja), XXVI A:17, 29, 68, B:11; uphill IV:82; upwards XV:151, XXI:67; ashore VII A:159, B:34, 37 (with ganga), XVI:154; aboard VI:269, 273; thoroughly I:24; á upp on it at the top XXI:45; upp frá above XXI:106; segja upp see segja; ‡la upp see ‡la; of time, on: upp frá flessu from now on I:107, 147 upphaf n. beginning XIX:48; pl. origins II:88, VIII:29 upphald n. support XIV:30; maintenance XXIV:68; er Gu›s kristni væri mest upphald at in which there would be the best preservation of God’s Christianity XIV:126 upphaldsma›r m. support(er), upholder XIV:176 upphiminn m. the sky above; adv. gen. in the sky above IX:8 uppi adv. 1. up X:172, XXVI A:15; i.e. ashore VI:60. 2. exhausted, gone XVI:43. 3. evident, known about XV:150; mun langt uppi will be remembered, spoken of, for ever XXVI A:87, similarly XXVI A:102 uppréttr adj. upright, straight up, erect XXIII:81 Uppsalir m. pl. modern Uppsala, north of Stockholm, Sweden; it was the ancient seat of the Swedish kings VIII:147 úr prep. with dat. = ór from (Gr 3.7.3) VIII:7, 25, 36, 59, 80, 128; out of, see lƒg ur› f. heap of stones, gravel II:32 Ur›ir f. pl. farm in Skálmarfjƒr›r in north-western Iceland XV:41 ur›u see ver›a úrigr adj. wet XXV:41 úsi›r m. bad practice, immoral behaviour XXII:4/4 út adv. out Gr 3.5.3 (11), I:22, II:35, III:44, V:34, VI:20, VII B:35, X:33, XI:47, XXI:120, 132, 176, XXVI A:37, 52, B:136; outwards XXVI A:75; i.e. out of the hall XI:45, 74; i.e. from the shore VI:103, 167, VII A:59, 157, out to sea XVI:8, XXI:61, 81; i.e. towards the sea VII B:75, 80; ƒll nes út right out to all the nesses XIX:97; i.e. across the sea XVI:122; = westwards, i.e. from Europe to Iceland IV:108, VIII:25, 36, 186, XV:38, XVI:119, 189; i.e. from Iceland or Norway to Greenland VIII:65, 74, XVI:10; út fyrir out (in the sea), off it XXI:53; út í frá as prep. with dat. on the outside of, outermost of, beyond VII A:82 útan adv. back, away IX:107; round the outside X:117, 161; on the outside XXVI A:24; from without: útan at round outside up to, 250 A New Introduction to Old Norse

around I:17; abroad (from Iceland, i.e. in or to Europe) IV:108, VIII:88, 186, XVI:2; útan af back from (Greenland) XVI:63; útan um round the outside of XXIII:33; as prep. with acc. without XIII:48, XXIII:78; as conj. except XV:148; see also fyr útan, fyrir útan; cf. Gr 3.7.5, 3.8.2.4 útanfer› f. journey abroad, passage abroad XVI:5 (with suffixed def. art.) útar adv. farther out I:5 útarliga adv. far out, near the door (i.e. a position of fairly low rank) I:4 útbur›r m. exposure VIII:140 útganga f. exit, going out XXVI B:157; to go out XXVI B:131; gen. in bi›ja útgƒngu with dat. ask that someone be allowed to go out III:40 úti adv. outside III:3, VII B:60, 63, 64, X:139, XVI:97, XXVI A:44, B:46, 53; out of doors, unsheltered, in the open XXI:108; úti fyrir out in front of the house XXVI B:49; out at sea XXI:21 útibúr n. outhouse, storehouse (entered from outside the house) IV:14 útlagr adj. subject to a fine (with the amount in the dat.) XXVII:35, 40 útleg› f. penalty, fine XXVII:38 útlendr adj. foreign VII A:87 útnes n. outlying, remote ness XIX:99 útrau›r adj. red round the edges or = ótrau›r not reluctant XXIII:37 útró›r m. rowing out to fish, fishing-grounds, sea-fishing XXI:84 (acc. pl.) útsu›r n. south-west XIX:71; í útsu›r to the south-west XIX:80 úvígr (= óvígr) adj. invincible VI:58 úvinr see óvinr uxi, oxi m. ox; acc. sg. oxa IX:95, uxa XIX:64, with suffixed def. art. uxann II:19, XIX:66, gen. sg. oxans II:28, dat. sg. uxa XXVI B:179, with suffixed def. art. oxanum II:25; nom. pl. øxn IX:90; gen. pl. øxna II:18 vá see vega va›a (pres. ve›r, past ó›/vó›, past pl. ó›u, pp. va›inn) sv. (Gr 3.6.9.1 (1)) wade, rush VII A:157, XXII:46/1; pp. va›inn at destitute of XXV:18 va›mál n. cloth of standard quality, 2 ells wide, used as a form of currency (Laws I 246) XXVII:37 (gen. pl.) vaf›i, vafit see vefja Glossary and Index 251 vágr m. (small) bay XXI:36 (dat. pl. with suffixed def. art.), 181 vágrek n. flotsam and jetsam, driftage VII A:136 vágskorinn (n. vágskorit) adj. (pp.; cf. skera) indented with bays XXI:35 vágum see vega vaka1 (pres. vakir, past vak›i, pp. vakat) wv. (Gr 3.6.9.2 (4)) be awake V:18, X:143; keep vigil XIV:121; vakir ﬂú? are you awake? X:142 vaka2 f. watch, vigil Gr 3.1.7.1 ex. 3 vak›i see vekja and vaka1 vakna (past vakna›i, pp. vaknat Gr 3.3.8.2–5 ex. 4) wv. wake up IX:1, X:61, XIV:64, 67, XV:112, XXVI A:22 vakr adj. watchful, on the lookout (til for) XXIII:27 val = vel adv. well XIV:187 vald n. power III:17 (til to do it); ﬂat er á y›ru valdi it is/lies in your power, it is up to you XVI:36; fær í vald jƒtunsins gives it into the giant’s charge XII:65; me› valdi by force VII B:57 valda (pres. veldr, past olli, pp. valdit) sv. irregular (Gr 3.6.7), with dat. cause, be the reason for, bring about VI:23 Valdidida m. native king in North America XXI:203 val›i see velja Valdís f. former wife of Bishop Jón, separated from him when he became bishop XIV:128 valdsmerki n. sceptre XII:29 Váli m. a god, one of the Æsir II:9 valit see velja válk n. restlessness, trouble XII:36, 39 válkask (past valka›isk) wv. be being turned or rolled over, pondered XXIII:26 valkyrja f. valkyrie X:8 valla = varla Valland n. France (Frankia) VII A:8, X:10 valr1 m. falcon; with suffixed def. art. II:54, 56, gen. II:58 valr2 m. corpses of those slain in battle XXV:106 valshamr m. falcon shape, falcon form II:48, 49 (with suffixed def. art.) valslƒngva f. war-sling, catapult XXI:126 ván f. hope, expectation; er ván with dat. of person and gen. of thing someone has expectation of something, someone can expect something VI:195; sem ván er as is to be expected XXVI B:191; 252 A New Introduction to Old Norse

vita sér ván with gen. know where to look for something II:132; eigi er minni ván it is no less than would have been expected; there is no small hope V:62; vera eigi minni ván there was not less expectation, it was more than likely VI:96; létu sér eigi annars ván en said they expected nothing else but that VIII:90; at vánum to be expected, as it should be XXVI B:34 van›atí› (vandatí›?) f. customary times (cf. van›i) or obligatory (important) times (cf. vandi 2) XIV:58 vandar see vƒndr vandi m. 1. difficulty, problem XXII:26/2, 52/2. 2. obligation, relationship; ef mér er nƒkkur vandi á vi› ﬂik if I am under some obligation to you, if I am related to you in some way V:140 van›i m. custom, practice I:34, 52; habit Gr 3.1.8 ex. vandliga adv. carefully, with care XIV:25, XXIV:2; in detail XXVI B:185; completely XIV:10 vandr adj. difficult Gr 3.3.8.4 (2); vandr at particular about XIV:138, note; comp. n. as adv. mun oss vandara gert we will be judged more strictly, more will be demanded of us XXVI B:33 vándr adj. wicked, evil IV:75, XII:42, 89, XIV:2, 41 vandræ›askáld n. ‘troublesome poet’ VI:322, VII A:10 (on the origin of the nickname see Heimskringla, Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar ch. 83, ÍF XXVI 331; Hallfre›ar saga ch. 6, ÍF VIII 155) vanhagr m. misdeed, error or disadvantage, loss? XIV:106 vanheilsa f. sickness VI:323 Vanir m. pl. a race of gods II:89, IX:58 vanmeginn adj. feeble, weak XXIII:41 vann, vannsk, vanntu see vinna vanr1 (n. vant) adj. with gen. lacking VI:263; n. er vant there is lacking XXV:97; or›z ﬂikkir vant with dat. one thinks a word is lacking, one wants to have the last word XXV:34 vanr2 (n. vant) adj. accustomed XII:85; eru vanir at vera are usually XXIII:101; sem hann var vanr, sem fyrr var vant as usual XII:71, XV:44, 45 vanrœkt f. negligence, carelessness XXIII:22 vansem› f. offence, insult V:161 vápn n. weapon V:49 (see Eir), XI:36; pl. I:77, III:55 (partitive gen., Gr 3.2.6 (20)), IV:17, 63, VI:174, 257, 290, 303, XI:16, XXI:135, XXVI A:46; undir vápn with dat. within range of, to meet someone’s Glossary and Index 253

weapons VI:189; dat. pl. (me›) vápnum by (with) weapons, in battle VI:316, XXVI B:100 vápnabúna›r m. equipment of arms VI:291 vápnabur›r m. wielding of weapons, weapons being used VI:288 vápna›r pp. armed V:71, XIV:66 Vápnafjƒr›r m. fjord in north-eastern Iceland VII A:150, 166 vápnask (past vápna›isk) wv. arm oneself, be armed VII B:55 vápnaskipti n. exchange of weapons (missiles), fighting VI:196, (vi› flá with them) XXVI B:196 vápn-Eir V:49 see Eir vápnlauss adj. weaponless, unarmed V:143 vápnrei› f. wielding of weapons, fighting VI:284 (subject of var›) var see vera vár1 n. spring XV:29; with suffixed def. art. XVI:115, 128; um várit in the spring XIX:63, XXI:83; eptir um várit, um várit eptir the following spring XV:124, XIX:14 vár2 pron. gen. 2nd person pl. (of) us XXVI B:80, 94 Vár f. a goddess IX:122 vara1 (past var›i, pp. var›r) wv. impers. with acc. flá var›i they expected IV:15 vara2 see vera vara3 (past vara›i, pp. varat) wv. warn, caution; vara flik take care, beware, be on your guard XI:70; -sk form (refl.) varask/varaz beware (of), be one’s guard (that), be careful (that) XXIV:2; pres. subj. VI:108 vára1 see várr vára2 (past vára›i, pp. várat) wv. impers. become spring XXI:110 varat see vera var› see ver›a var›a (past var›a›i, pp. var›at) wv. guard; with acc. and dat. keep someone from someone IV:57; be a penalty, incur a penalty VIII:142; impers. hvat konu var›a›i what was the penalty for a woman XV:59; láta var›a declare as penalty, call for the penalty of XV:136 var›i see verja1 and verja2; var›isk see verja1 var›menn m. pl. watchmen, guards I:115 var›veita (past var›veitti, pp. var›veittr) wv. keep, take care of, guard V:109, XII:66 var›veizla f. keeping; pl. things to take care of, responsibilities XXI:10 254 A New Introduction to Old Norse vargtré n. ‘wolf-tree’ or ‘criminal tree’, gallows XXV:61 (pl.) varit see verja1, verja2 várkunn f. what is to be excused XXVI A:106 varla/valla adv. hardly V:114, XVI:105; scarcely XIV:108, XV:99, XXI:178, XXII:6/2 varmr adj. warm XXV:19 varna (past varna›i, pp. varnat) wv. with gen. refuse, withhold IV:71; varna vi› abstain from, refuse to eat or drink (or refuse to look upon, i.e. the person would not hold back from shedding; cf. note 8) XXIII:37 varna›r m. goods, cargo XVI:154 varp see verpa varr (n. vart) adj. wary; varr vi› aware of XII:80; ver›a vi› ekki varr be aware of nothing (untoward), notice nothing or be wary about nothing, take no precautions XXI:95; var› flá ekki vart vi› flá then there was no sign of them XXI:121 ok vera vara um sik and to beware about themselves, they were to be on their guard XXVI B:38; sup. sem varastr as careful as possible V:14 várr = órr poss. adj. our (cf. Gr 3.3.9 (21, 22), 3.9.6.1) VI:166, XIII:10, 31, XIV:166, XVI:72 (the king referring to himself), XXIV:28, 42, XXVI B:50, 72; referring to the writer XIV:26, note; acc. sg. f. vára VII A:114; n. várt X:70; dat. sg. n. váru VI:167; acc. pl. m. vára X:68; dat. pl. várum XIV:168, XXVI A:104, 110, B:99 varrir see vƒrr vart adv. barely XXI:165 váru1, váru›, várum1 see vera váru2, várum2 see várr vas = var, see vera vás n. hardship, suffering XII:88 vask = var ek, see vera vásklæ›i n. pl. bad-weather clothes, storm-gear VII A:82 vaskr adj. valiant; diligent, clever XIV:178; sup. Gr 3.3.9 ex. 1 vástígr m. path of or to woe or disaster XXV:59 vatn n. water XIX:58; lake (Gr 3.1.7.1, 3.1.8 (26)) I:23, V:43 (with suffixed def. art., i.e. Hítárvatn), X:5, XXI:88, 106, XXIV: 37 vatnfátt n. (cf. fár adj.) shortage of water; fá vatnfátt get short of water XIX:55 vatnsstrƒnd f. lake-shore X:6 Glossary and Index 255 vátr adj. wet, moist, XXIII:39 vátta (past vátta›i, pp. váttat) wv. bear witness to, attest VI:172, 304 váttr m. witness VIII:113, 142, XV:68 vax n. wax; var› vax eitt turned completely to wax, i.e. became a weakling VII A:141 vaxa (past óx, past pl. óxu/uxu, pp. vaxinn) sv. (Gr 3.6.9.1 (1), 3.6.9.3 ex. 8) grow, increase VII B:12; pp. n. vaxit with dat. grown with, covered with VIII:20; shaped (svá sem like) XXIII:11 vaxtar see vƒxtr ve›r n. weather XV:48; storm (with suffixed def. art.) XV:145; adv. acc. fagrt ve›r in fine weather VI:26; wind VI:124; with suffixed def. art. ve›ret the wind VI:121; meira ve›rit the more wind, the wind (to be) stronger VI:27 ve›reygr adj. weather-eyed, having an eye for the weather X:31, 51 vefa (past vaf/óf, past pl. váfu/ófu, pp. ofinn) sv. weave Gr 3.6.9.1 (1); pp. f. pl. ofnar woven (with dat. by) XXV:25 vefja (past vaf›i, pp. vafit) wv. 1. with dat. wrap, tie XXVI B:146; impers. pass. (Gr 3.9.3) ok vafit there were tied V:56, en vafit spjƒrrum with cross-garters wrapped round XV:50. 2. -sk form pp. vafizk become entangled III:23 vega (past vá, past pl. vágu, pp. veginn/vegit) sv. kill (Gr 3.6.9.1 (2)) III:83, VIII:83 (supine vegit), XXV:99; fight (vi› against) VI:158; pp. vegit fought XXV:106; veginn, vegit slain, killed XXVI A:75, 115; vega at attack, strike at V:110; vega tveir at mér if the two attack me IV:44 veggr m. wall; á vegginum (on the roof) above the top of the wall (of the house) XXVI A:44; af vegginum from (the roof) above the top of the wall XXVI A:75 veggflili n. wall-panel; pl. II:11 vegligr adj. grand, magnificent Gr 3.3.9 ex. 5; sup. n. as adv. sem vegligast as grandly as possible VII A:34 vegr m. way; distance X:52; á marga vega in many ways III:9, VIII:125; á einn veg in the same way VII A:118; adv. acc. hvern veg in what way, how V:84; flann veg (= flannig) this-wise, like this (sem as if) XXI:159, in that way XXVI B:62, that way, similarly XXII:8/3; annan veg in a different way VIII:40, otherwise XIV:107, in any other way XXVI B:65; á nƒkkurn veg in some way XIV:112; sinn veg hverr each his own way, all in different directions XIX:84; 256 A New Introduction to Old Norse

alla vega from all sides VI:255; adv. gen. tveggja vegna in two directions, on both sides VII A:155 vei›a (past veiddi, pp. veiddr) wv. hunt, catch V:63 (subj. that I may catch), 64, X:4 vei›ifƒr f. hunting expedition XXI:9 vei›ima›r m. huntsman, hunter XXI:9 vei›r f. hunting X:31, 51; pl. fishing catches, hunting catches, game XXI:61 (with suffixed def. art.), 84; nƒkkut af vei›um something to catch or hunt XXI:62 veifa (past veif›i, pp. veift) wv. with dat. wave, swing: impers. pass. var veift trjánum their pieces of wood were waved XXI:97, 112 veifun f. swinging from side to side, waving; veifanar or› unreliable report, rumour VI:358 veik, veiksk see víkja veill adj. ailing, wretched; wk. form as nickname XXVI A:115 veit see vita veita (past veitti, pp. veitt) wv. give IV:51, V:105, 129, 132, VII B:27, XV:107, XXII:21/4, XXV:45, XXVI A:116; ok veita and giving XIV:138; be given XXIV:27; grant XXVI A:103, 105; pres. part. veitandi granting XIII:46; provide XIV:29; carry out XXVI A:62; make, put up V:143, VII B:87, XXI:130, make (an attack) on someone IV:8, V:137; make, take (an oath) II:35 (subj.); perform, hold XIV:124; veita svƒr firi be responsible for XXIV:64; impers. cause: hefir oss erfitt veitt it has proved difficult for us XXVI A:102; with dat. help XIX:18, XXV:47 veizla f. feast, banquet XI:59, XV:79, XIX:9; pl. veizlur a nobleman’s right to receive entertainment from landowners VII B:3 (see note) veizt see vita vekja (past vak›i, pp. vak›r) wv. wake (transitive) XV:106, XXV:22; rouse XXVI A:47 vel adv. well (Gr 3.5.2, 3.5.3 (9)) I:15, 79, 108, II:3, 85, VI:68, VII A:81, VIII:93, 179, IX:58, 82, X:38, XV:23, XVI:12, XIX:8, XXI:63, XXIV:49, XXV:106, XXVI A:38, 88, B:33, 76; very much XVI:133; well, very much or very (see trúa and trúr) XXII:17/4; kindly, warmly VI:46; courteously XI:14, XVI:19, 158; valiantly VI:273; nicely XXIII:89; quite XXIII:66; easily XXI:23, soon XI:34, 67, XIII:39; vel má ek I am content to XXVI B:74; with comp. much, many, considerably V:49; lætr ﬂat vel vera agrees, says it is a good Glossary and Index 257

idea II:142; vel er it is good XV:73, it is a good thing XXVII:7; vel ek happy me! or all right! X:134; svá vel at sér so noble-minded, of such fine character XXVI B:63. Cf. fara, ver›a vél f. trick, cunning plan II:142; artifice, cunning things, subtle things X:99 veldi n. rule, domain, territory ruled over (with gen. by) VI:149; kingdom XXII:63/4; power XIV:2, XXIV:65 veldr see valda velja (past val›i, pp. valit) wv. choose Gr 3.6.5.2, XIV:15, 27, 101; select XXII:28/4 Vellankatla f. ‘boiling crater’, at the north-eastern corner of ¯lfossvatn, about 4 km from Lƒgberg VIII:104 velli see vƒllr venda (past vendi, pp. vendr) wv. with dat. turn VI:134 vendiliga adv. carefully, minutely, in detail VII A:63 venja (pres. venr, past van›i, pp. vaninn) wv. accustom; make a habit (of doing something) IV:3 vér pron. 1st person pl. we (Gr 3.2.1) VI:81, 183, 184, 195, VIII:132, 135, IX:59, X:71, 72, XIII:7, XV:23, XXI:177, XXII:24/1, XXIV:34, 40, XXVI B:7, 10, 33; referring to the writer V:104, XIII:44, XIV:26, note, 72, 154, to the speaker X:154 (Vƒlundr), XV:54?, XVI:36, 37 (or to Au›unn and the bear?), to the poet XXVI A:93 vera/vesa (pres. er/es, past var/vas, past pl. váru/vóru, past subj. væri, pp. verit) sv. irregular be (Gr 3.6.7, 3.6.10) inf. I:19, 62, 63, 109, 117, 125, 143, 145, II:8, 85, 143, VI:1, 214, IX:79, XI:9, XIII:21, XVI:10, 40, XXV:52, XXIII:12, 36, 101, XXVI A:2, 112, B:16, XXVII:2, to be XXIII:104, XXIV:31, XXVI A:19; okr vera to be (should be) for us (sc. to follow) XXV:102; hverr vera skal who it is to be XXVII:6, 18; stay IV:50, XV:18, XIX:88, 90, XXI:59 (2), 94, 162, 164, 193 (2), 208, XXVI A:109, 116, B:4; live VIII:151; flar at vera being there III:126; ekki vera mega could not be true III:123; fless er var such as there was, such as he had XVI:6; pres. em am VII A:87, 91, XXIV:25, XXV:16, XXVI B:67; flú ert you are XVI:32, XXVI A:57, B:112; with suffixed pron. ertu you are I:105, V:10, VII A:41, XXVI A:22, B:94, are you I:10, IX:24, XVI:61, you will be XVI:142; er I:26, 36, 56, 81, 90, 94, 102, 125, 132, 133, 146 (2), VI:140, 160, XI:10, XXVII:7, 11, he is XXII:62/3, it is VI:331, 340, XXV:51, there is I:53, XXV:7, it will be IV:45; er 258 A New Introduction to Old Norse

flat that will be VI:85, it is VI:167; nú er fleim út at ganga ƒllum er now all those are to go out to whom XXVI B:135; hvat er what’s up IX:23; hvárt er can it be XVI:32; illt er it is bad IX:25; with dat. (poss.) 1st person pron. suffixed erum (= er mér, I have) IV:28; with suffixed neg. era is not X:77, erat there is not (no) X:170, XVIII:122ra20; pl. eru I:78, VI:106, IX:108, X:83, XI:11, XXIII:7, XXV:104, XXVI A:16, 104, ro X:64, eru nú til there are now available XXVI B:102, Nú eru If there are XXVII:16; with suffixed neg. erut will not be IV:42; 1st person pl. referring to the speaker erum I am IV:33, erumk XVIII:122ra15; pres. subj. sé I:46, 143, VI:183, XVI:53 (is evidently), would be XXVI B:66, should be XXIV:32, may be XIII:46, XXIV:71, is XXI:100, XXIII:1, XXIV:22, XXVI B:14, 29, XXVII:3, 27, am XXIV:19, 2nd person sér VII A:41, XVI:40, XXIV:85, stay XXVI A:110, sért I:136, 1st person pl. sém vér let us be XIII:45, 3rd person pl. sé V:72, séu should be I:83, are XXIII:25, sé augun mikil if the eyes are large XXIII:33; imp. ver be XI:69, ver flú stay! VII B:63, ver hér stay here XVI:76. imp. pl. veri› stay XXII:25/4; past var was I:3, 7, 23, 71 (2), II:2, VI:8, 252, 333, IX:1, XIX:4, XXI:7, XXII:1/3, XXV:7, he was (Gr 3.9.5) III:65, it was XV:13, there was XV:32, XXI:27, XXV:63, vas VIII:11; with suffixed neg. vara was not V:54, it was not XXV:5, varat it was not XXV:62; past pl. várum we were V:48, flér váru› you were XXVI B:70; váru/vóru were II:5 (subject understood), III:3, IX:53, XI:17, XV:6, XIX:2, XXII:3/2, XXIV:70, there were X:3, XV:15, XXI:17, 91, XXVI A:13, had been X:116, 160, (found they) were, had arrived XIX:28, sem flar váru as there were there XXVI B:61; váru flat, flat váru these were (cf. I:26–27, note; Gr 3.9.8.2) III:113, XV:143; past subj. væri was I:7, 113, III:20, VI:14, VIII:28, 29, 42, 57, XV:113, XXI:69, XXVI A:51, B:8, there was XIII:31, would be I:123, XV:116, XVI:73, XXV:98, might be XIV:15, should be XIV:138, note, there should be VIII:163, it was III:122, VI:298, (he) was VII A:35, were X:105, XV:59, XXI:44, XXIV:44, XXVI A:53, XXVI B:88, were, should last XV:10, it were IX:14, 15, XXI:160, XXIV:45, at flú værir that you should be XVI:73, ok værir and that you should be V:14, fleiri væri there would be (or were?) more XXIV:42, flar væri there were there XXI:153; pp. hafa verit (to) have been II:75, VIII:29–30, XXVI B:168, XXVII:42, hafi verit have been, were Glossary and Index 259

V:15; haf›i (hƒf›u, haf›u) verit had been IV:108, VI:42, 47, XV:32, XIX:48, XXI:9, had been staying VIII:82; hef›i verit has been XV:150; var á there was on it XXVI A:52; vera af see af; væri at was in, was to be gained from XIV:125; vera at at be occupied or busy in XVI:131; váru eptir were left, remained VI:218, hafi ﬂar eptir verit stayed behind there XXI:162; vera fyrir portend V:8; vera í be engaged in XXI:9; var í was wearing V:56, lived in, resided in VIII:40; vas í stayed in VIII:189; vera me› stay with XVI:8, 113, XXI:208; vera til be there, be to come VI:72; relate to XXIV:28–29 (cf. Gr 3.9.8.2), var til was available, was enough VI:225; vera mest um be most significant, be most troublesome V:9; vera úti fyrir be out there (on that side) XXVI B:221; væri vi› were present VII B:27; váru vi› were at it XXVI A:43; pres. part. verandi being, continuing to be XIII:46; as aux. forming pass. (Gr 3.9.7.2), inf. I:37, II:19, III:14, pres. I:79, 137, II:1, 37, 145, VI:199, 355, VIII:5, 14, 17, IX:8, XI:15, XXII:59/1, XXVII:39; pres. subj. sé are XXVII:7, should be XXIV:14, ok sé and that they may be XXVI A:104, sé mælt it is spoken (‘it is then not the king alone that is addressed’) XXIV:80, svá sé as if it is XXVI A:23, past I:18, 29, 118, II:20, III:83, IV:102, VII B:69, X:43, XI:36, XV:12, XVI:7, XIX:23, 34, 86, XXII:19/1, XXV:10, 24, 67, impers. I:8, 71 (1), 113, II:3, 6 (2), XV:4 (2), past pl. II:8, VI:151, IX:81, XV:17, past subj. væri should be XIV:137, 138, note, pp. hefi verit V:77, hƒf›u/hef›i verit had been I:48, XIX:88; as aux. with pp. of intransitive verb forming perfect (or past perfect) (Gr 3.9.7.1) I:128, II:50, IV:20, 48, V:2, 60, 163, VI:14, 337 (inf. in acc. and inf. construction), 361, IX:24, X:59, XVI:17, XIX:81, XXI:30, 69, XXII:9/3, XXIII:26; var komit it was come or (people) had arrived IX:93; eru komnir are arrived XXV:68 veraldar see verƒld veraldligr adj. worldly XIII:42 ver› n. price XVI:22, 24 ver›a (past var›, past pl. ur›u/vur›u, past subj. yr›i, pp. or›inn, n. or›it) sv. (Gr 3.6.7, 3.6.9.3 ex. 1) 1. become I:105 (pp. or›inn), II:28, 35, 36, 43, 47, 99, III:25, 129, IV:66, 72 (subj.), V:117, VII A:35, 49, 140, VIII:47, 53, IX:48, 51, XII:79, XIV:89, 144, 187, XV:108, 140, XVI:125, XIX:83, XXIV:69, XXV:16, XXVI A:31; come to be III:5, V:156 (inf. with myndak), VI:283, 296 (get), VIII:4, 260 A New Introduction to Old Norse

29, 61 (ver›a dau›r = die), XVI:12, XIX:12, 77, come about V:132; happen VIII:126 (1); happen to be III:74; take place VIII:25, XIX:22, XXI:125, XXV:83, XXVI B:214; flat skal ver›a aldri that shall never be XXVI A:56; ver›a má svá enn it may still happen XVI:143; turn out to be V:100, 145, VI:209, 345 (inf. with mundut), VIII:135, XXVII:7; inf. ver›a it happens XIX:78; pres. ver›r will be XXVII:34, is turning out XXVI B:138; ver›um eigi let us not be VI:70; var› was, became, turned out to be XIV:108, 169, XV:123, XIX:102, XXI:78, 137; engi var› there was no VII B:74; var› flat ekki that did not happen, he could not XV:111; pres. subj. ver›a ek if I could get X:134 (cf. note); fló at svá illa ver›i though it should turn out so badly XVI:147; past subj. yr›i would have been IV:95, he might become, he could become XXVI A:28; pp. vel er or›it it has turned out well I:108; sem á›r er or›it as it has already turned out XI:41; er á or›it fyrir mér I have a serious problem, I have got into a difficulty XVI:64; var› flar af there became from it, it turned into II:98; hvat var› af what became of, what has happened to X:148; var› ekki af nothing came of (it) III:124, VII B:73; ekki ver›r af oss we are getting nowhere XXVI A:42; ver›a at come to, lead to VIII:126, come to be, be accepted as II:114; var› at there was at this, there arose from it VI:131; mundu at or›it would have resulted from it XV:122; vándum mƒnnum var› at for wicked men they caused XIV:41; ver›a at bana with dat. put someone to death X:153; ver›a fyrir be in the way, get in the way V:128, be subject to, be the victim of XV:113; ver›a í there turn out to be in them IV:103; var› í flví there came about in this VI:220; ver›a til come about, happen XXIV:7, be available, be there VII B:88; ver›a vel do well, get on well XXI:62; imp. pl. ver›i› vel vi› put up with it bravely XXVI B:123; past subj. yr›i vi› reacted to it, took it, bore it III:107; impers. ver›r it gets XXIII:20, var› it got XXI:52, var› flá ekki vart vi› flá then there was no sign of them XXI:121, var› fleim they became IV:15, var› ƒllum illt af they all got ill from it XXI:76, fyrir yr›i something was there III:110, 112; impers. pass. svá var honum kalt or›it he had become so cold III:126; see mismælt; as aux. of pass. (Gr 3.9.7.2) VI:315, 316, VIII:35, 56, X:107, XXI:144, XXVI B:78, impers. yr›i tekit vi› might be accepted VIII:90, mun getit ver›a XIV:130, ver›r mælt it is spoken, one speaks XXIV:79. 2. ver›a, ver›a at with inf. must III:43, have to, be forced to I:89, Glossary and Index 261

VI:272, XVI:43, mun/munu ver›a at will/shall have to XXVI B:79, 101; ver›r vera will have to be XI:40; var› fram at ganga at it had to come on to XXII:33/4; var› at fram fara at turned out to happen that? had to happen that? VIII:177; impers. with inf. it is necessary, we must III:39 ver›r1 (n. vert) adj. with gen. worth; ﬂótti ﬂeim meira um vert they found it more valuable XIV:34; betr en ek sé ver›r more than I deserve XXIV:19 ver›r2 see ver›a vergjarn adj. eager for men; sup. very eager for men, quite man- crazy IX:51 verja1 (past var›i, past pl. vƒr›u, pp. varit) wv. 1. impers. with dat. er varit someone is dressed V:84. 2. defend Gr 3.6.6 ex. 5, XXI:140, XXII:41/3, XXVI A:88, 89; guard XII:55; with dat. and acc. bar someone from something VIII:106, deprive someone of something XXII:10/4; verja ƒ›rum til aldrlaga encompass others’ deaths XXV:30 (or verja2?) 3. enfold, put one’s arms round X:25; verja fa›mi enfold in an embrace X:21. 4. -sk form verjask defend oneself: past var›isk V:130, 142, XXVI A:37, 93, past pl. vƒr›usk VI:255 verja2 (past var›i, past pl. vƒr›u, pp. varit) wv. with dat. invest, lay out (til in/for) XVI:189, XIX:31; verja sver›i ƒ›rum til aldrlaga use a sword to bring about other people’s deaths? XXV:30 (or verja1?); impers. pass. er hingat er bezt varit í Nóreg which is the most advantageous to exchange here in Norway, which is of the greatest value to bring to Norway XVI:173 verk n. work II:134, XIV:191, deed I:145, V:161, VII A:49 (pl.), VII B:86, XIV:39, 51; gó› verk good works XIV:55 verkandi m. (pres. part.) worker, user, in kenning for warriors, He›ins baugs serkjar verkendr VI:262 (subject of sukku ni›r and ger›ut vi› vægjask) verkfœri n. tool XIV:135 verkma›r m. workman, labourer II:132 verkna›r m. task(s) XIV:138, note verkrei›i m. work equipment XIV:136 verma (past verm›i, pp. verm›r) wv. transitive warm III:127 vernda (past vernda›i, pp. verndat) wv. protect; pres. part. XIII:43 verpa (past varp, past pl. urpu, pp. orpinn) sv. throw Gr 3.6.9.1 (1); cast up, raise (at for) XV:154; verpa frá sér with dat. throw down 262 A New Introduction to Old Norse

XXII:50/1; impers. pass. with dat. hƒndum flínum orpit your arms thrown XXV:88 verr1 m. husband IX:97; man XXV:100; vers your husband’s (Sigur›r’s) XXV:25; kjósa sér at ver choose as one’s husband IV:91 verr2 adv. worse Gr 3.5.2, X:169; mjƒk er verr it is much worse VI:340; sup. verst worst Gr 3.5.2 verri adj. comp. worse Gr 3.3.8.3, XXV:29; hit verra what was worse, the worse course XXI:13; sup. verstr worst Gr 3.3.8.3 versagjƒr› f. verse-making, composition (probably in Latin) XIV:156 vert see ver›r verƒld f. world VI:113; gen. of this world, secular XXIV:55 vesa = vera vesall adj. wretched, miserable I:12 vestan adv. from the west V:53, XV:125, eastwards XV:77; from the west of Europe (to England) VII A:9; fyr vestan, fyrir vestan with acc. west of (Gr 3.5.3 (7), 3.7.1) VIII:19, XV:36; fyrir vestan fram on past to the west of it XXI:167; vestan with gen. west of XXV:61 Vestfir›ir m. pl. the Western Fjords (of Iceland) XV:16 Vestfirzkr adj. from the Western Fjords (of Iceland) XV:2 Vestmannaeyjar f. pl. Westmann Islands (‘Islands of the Irishmen’), islands off the south coast of Iceland VIII:92, XIX:86 vestmenn m. pl. Irishmen XIX:87 vestr n. the west; í vestr to the west XXI:169; as adv. (in the) west VIII:69; west(wards) VII A:10, XV:34, 84, XIX:72, 75, 90; in a westerly direction VII A:148, XV:131; to the west (of Europe; actually in an easterly direction here; see Saga-Book XXV, 72–82) VII A:8; to the west V:6 (i.e. to Dalir, in the west of Iceland, where fiorsteinn Kuggason lived; actually north of Hítardalr); vestr frá to the west of XIV:25; vestr fyrir west past XV:146; vestr fyrir land west along the coast VII A:153, XIX:55; vestr til Saurbœjar to Saurbœr in the west XV:75; útan vestr flar í fjƒr›um abroad (to Norway) from those fjords in the west (i.e. from the Western Fjords) XVI:2; vestr um landit west round the country VII A:156 Vestribygg› f. Western Settlement (the more northerly settlement on the western coast of Greenland) XXI:20 vestrvíking f. raiding in the British Isles XIX:32 vesƒl› f. misery XII:36; pl. XII:40, 88 vetfangr m. scene of action V:162 Glossary and Index 263 vetr m. winter (Gr 3.1.7.4 (1)) VIII:82, 189, XV:32, XIX:29, 90; acc. of time flann vetr for that winter XXI:107; vetr annan for a second winter XIX:89; hinn flri›ja vetr for the third winter XXI:194; with suffixed def. art. of/um vetrinn during the winter XV:124, XVI:4, XIX:9, XXI:59, 208, of/um vetrinn eptir during the following winter VIII:173, XIX:20; at vetri at the beginning of winter II:138; vetri mi›r en one year short of VIII:192; nom. pl. vetr years XIX:49; acc. pl. with suffixed def. art. um vetrna in winter, during the winters XXI:160; acc. pl. of time years I:74, VII A:27, VIII:190, 194, X:11, 26; gen. pl. vetra (Gr 3.4.2 (5), (6), (7)) years III:22, 46, V:32, VIII:13, 16, 29, 56, XIV:173, XV:4, XVI:7, XIX:49; dat. pl. fám vetrum sí›arr, sí›ar fám vetrum a few years later VIII:17, 143; tólf vetrum sí›ar twelve years later VIII:193; tveim vetrum meir en two years over VIII:196 vetrhús n. pl. the buildings used in the winter, i.e. the main farm buildings XV:88, 94 vexti see vƒxtr vi›, vi›r prep. (Gr 3.7.4) 1. with acc. to, against II:31, 56, V:157 (1), VI:30, 41, 199 (1), 228, VIII:146, X:37, XIX:16, from XXII:34/4, 65/4, to XXII:15/2, XXIV:18, XXV:79; with II:98, IV:4, VI:90, 197, X:146, 177, XII:84, XV:129, XXII:54/3, XXIII:52, XXV:33, XXVI B:40; towards XIV:49, XXII:1/3, 42/4, XXIV:21; close to III:7, 85, XXVI A:30, 89; by, near XXI:175, XXVI A:115; by, beside V:157 (2), VI:253 (vi›r; phrase goes with fœr›u› Bar›a), VII A:52, B:64, X:172, XI:17, XIX:60, 92, 103, XXIII:18; on the coast of XVI:177; off VI:28, XIX:15, XXI:170; with, in relation to I:66, 71, II:72, 73, V:161, 162, VIII:89, 114, 117; vi› mek with me, to me XXIV:26; in connection with VI:199 (2), XVI:155; in connection with, from I:84; using VI:122, XXVI B:117; with the help of VI:118; accompanied by V:93, VII B:60; in company with VIII:22; in (the light of) X:44, together with XXII:43/1 (postposition); me› honum vi› sex menn with a group of six men in all with him (with him, accompanied by six men?) V:94; at, engaged in II:6; in response to II:30, because of II:43, at XXII:53/2, XXVI B:36; vi› fletta at this XV:112, XXI:128; vi› flat thereupon, after that, in spite of that III:87, at that, in response to that VIII:86; kenna vi› see kenna. 2. with dat. against I:17; from XXIII:37 (see varna); towards, at XXI:173; in response to IX:103; for, in return for XVI:22; taka vi› see taka. 3. as adv. at this I:14, 264 A New Introduction to Old Norse

II:71 (see skrækja), IV:104 (see víkja), XXV:90, XXVI A:18, at it XXVI B:95; by it XXI:120 (2); at the same time, as well XXI:120 (1); against VI:166, against it I:41, against them VI:261, XXVI A:82; with (each other; see eiga) I:104, II:13; close by VI:215 (vi›r); vera vi› be present VII B:27; flar vi› (in return) for it XVI:25; flar vi›r auka, vi› auka add to it VIII:3, 40 vi›a (past vi›a›i) wv. cut wood (til for) VIII:54 ví›a adv. widely, to many places II:94, in many places VII A:2, 16, 126, XIV:179, XVI:138, XIX:35, XXI:16, extensively VIII:35 Vi›arr m. a god (one of the Æsir) II:9 vi›fƒng n. pl. supplies XXVI A:53 Ví›im‡rr f. farm in Skagafjƒr›r, northern Iceland III:129, XIV:133 vi›r1 m. tree; tree or wood XXV:18; forest X:29; timber V:27, XXVI A:24; wood X:55; piece of wood, rod XII:30; vi›r hau›rmens ‘timber of the sea’ is a kenning for ship XXVI A:98; dat. vi›i with trees VIII:20; acc. pl. vi›u trees II:32 vi›r2 = vi› ví›r adj. wide XXIII:62; extensive XXII:29/2; á ví›um velli in the open IV:43 Vi›rir see hand-Vi›rir vi›rkvæmiligr adj. fitting XIII:39; at s‡na vi›rkvæmiligt vera to show that it was fitting XIII:20 vi›(r)taka f. resistance VI:286, defence XXI:131 vi›rtal n. conversation (with gen. between) XXVI B:39 vi›skipti n. pl. dealings, encounter VII A:57 Vífill m. slave XIX:72, 91; dat. Vífli XIX:100 Vífilsfell n. mountain 20 km south-east of Reykjavík XIX:101 vífilstoptir f. pl. a farm near Reykjavík (= Vífilssta›ir) XIX:101 víg n. killing, slaying II:60, XIX:3, XXII:37/2, XXV:101, XXVI A:21, 118; battle VI:246, X:12; dat. vígi by force of arms VIII:106; dat. sg. with suffixed def. art. V:158 vígfrœkn adj. bold in battle XXV:100 Vígi m. a dog VII A:123 vígja (past víg›i, pp. víg›r) wv. 1. consecrate; imp. pl. vígi› IX:122; bless IX:120; vígja til ordain as VIII:187, 191, 194, consecrate to VIII:195. 2. -sk form láta vígjask til let oneself be consecrated, be ordained (as) VIII:184 vígmó›r adj. wearied, exhausted by fighting XXVI A:94 Glossary and Index 265 vígr adj. able to fight V:31 Vígsló›i m. Manslaughter Section (of the Law), ‘Treatment of Homicide’, dealing largely with offences against the person (injuries, assaults, killings; see Laws I 139–74) VIII:178 Vík f. Oslofjord XVI:41 vika f. week VIII:92, 197; viku fyrr a week earlier (in the year) VIII:96; at tíu vikum sumars when ten weeks of summer remained, i.e. in late July XV:79; fyrr en tíu vikur eru af sumri before ten weeks of summer have passed XXVII:29; flrjár vikur í samt for three weeks together, for three whole weeks running XXI:121 Víkarsskei› n. the coast to the west of the mouth of the ¯lfoss river, south-western Iceland (modern Skei›) VII A:159 víkja (past veik, past pl. viku, pp. vikinn) sv. 1. turn (back) V:91; víkja út turn back out XVI:102; transitive with dat. turn, direct XXIV:49; impers. with dat. svá víkr vi› it turns out in such a way IV:104. 2. -sk form víkjask; past veiksk undan turned himself away, dodged (out of the way) V:128; veiksk vi› responded to XV:128 víl n. misery; a hard task IV:56 (object of hafa) vili m. wish: acc. vilja VI:22, will XIV:117; dat. vilja purpose XXII:34/2; desire, compliance XIV:90, note; joy: gen. vilja X:61, 143, dat. vilja XXV:18 vilja1 (pres. vil/vill/vil(l)t, past vildi, pp. viljat) wv. (Gr 3.6.7, 3.6.9.1 (11), 3.6.9.2 (3)) wish, want, be willing (to, for) I:27, 31, 47, 68, 83, 85, 121, II:36, 48, 91, 108, 127, 160, III:33, 34, IV:68, V:113, 158, VI:8, 23, VII A:120, B:14, 21, VIII:22, 133, XI:50, XII:65, XIV:187, XV:125, XVI:39, 47, XXI:80, 113, XXII:4/3, XXIV:54, XXVII:8, 16; want to, try to II:129, XV:111, XXI:136; mean to, try to I:95, V:98; be trying to II:146; intend to IV:70, V:125, XIX:63; intend to, be going to VII A:57, 102, 159, VIII:106, XII:58, XIX:21; vil ek I wish XXII:31/3, XXVI B:157, I will XXIV:25, 29, I desire that I:147, XXVI B:59; ef ek vil if I want to XXVI B:24; vil ek eigi I do not wish, I do not intend VIII:101; eigi vil ek I am not williing XXVI B:132, eigi vil ek flat I do not want that XXVI B:210; with suffixed pron. and neg. vilkat ek I do not wish XXV:33; 2nd person sg. flú vill IX:117, XVI:39, XXVI A:66 (you insist on), flú vil XVI:80, flú vilt you wish XIV:10; villt flú will you, are you willing to XXVI B:130; with suffixed pron. viltu you want I:15, if you are willing VII A:88, are you willing I:60, 62, villtu will you XVI:22, XXVI A:103, do 266 A New Introduction to Old Norse

you want XVI:24, 80, do you wish XVI:29, villdu you want to go XVI:137; 3rd person sg. vill wishes XXVI B:72, XXVII:23, 45 (1), wants XXVI A:66; eigi vill does not want VI:94, he will not XIX:78; vill eigi is determined not to V:146, is not going to VII B:29, is not willing to VI:95; nú vill hann but if he is willing XXVII:45; pl. vili› flér if you are willing II:25; vilja want (to have) XXVII:14; ef vilja if they want to XXVII:51; past vildi would XIX:42; wished it to be XXV:27; vilda wanted XXVI B:172; eigi vilda ek at flú I would like you not to V:14; vildu heldr they would rather XXVI B:63; vildu æ fram always wanted to advance VI:258; pres. subj. vili II:124, né ek vilja nor would I wish (nor for which I would wish?) X:169, pl. vili XXVII:20; past subj. ef flú vildir eigi if you had not wished XVI:83; past subj. pl. vildim V:64, vildi eigi did not want it VIII:130; ef fleir vildi if they liked VI:103; impers. (of fate; see au›na) III:92; past inf. vildu XXVI B:155 vilja2 see vili vilja›r adj. (pp.) (well) disposed, kind (with dat. fleim to them) XXIV:71 villa f. error; fantasy XXII:43/4 (‘made a big mistake’?); delusion, heresy, i.e. heathendom XXII:25/3 villdu, villtu see vilja villustígr m. false path XXIV:46 Vilmundr fiórólfsson m. abbot at fiingeyrar 1133–48 XIV:180 vilnask (past vilna›isk) wv. -sk form with gen. wish for, desire X:146 vín n. wine XI:59; at víni over his wine XXV:71 vin see vinr vinátta f. friendship VII A:122 vínber n. grape XXI:50 (pl.) vinda (past vatt, past pl. undu, pp. undit) sv. twist, wind (af off) XXVI A:63, vindum af let us wind off XXVI A:60 vindáss m. winding-pole (put between two ropes and twisted to tighten them) XXVI A:60 (acc. pl.) Vin›ir m. pl. the Wends VI:283, VII A:140 vindkaldr adj. ‘wind-cold’, made cold by winds XXV:61 vínker n. wine-goblet XXI:50, textual note Vin›land n. Wendland (parts of modern Poland and north-eastern Germany) VI:6, 13, 19, 21, 25, 28, 48, 320, VII A:27 vindr m. wind XIV:38 Glossary and Index 267 vindflurr adj. wind-dried X:55 vingask (past vinga›isk) wv. make friends (vi› with), get on good terms with, show affection for VI:318 vingjarnliga adv. friendlily XV:88 Ving-fiórr m. a name for fiórr (‘swing-fiórr’) IX:1 Vínland n. the name given by the Vikings to (some part of) the north- east coast of North America VIII:71, XXI:2, 4 vinna1 (past vann, past pl. unnu, past subj. ynni, pp. unninn, n. unnit) sv. irregular (Gr 3.6.9.1 (6)) 1. perform II:137; achieve VII A:49; vanntu you brought about XXV:94; work (at): vinna hannyr›ir me› work embroidery with pictures of, make embroidered pictures of XIV:189; fight (a battle) VI:236; defeat, overcome VI:315, XXVI B:58, 197; at vinna to overcome (with hafa fœtr; or at vinna [sver›] = fight hard) IV:81; with dat. resist, prevail against, withstand X:183, 184; at vinna to perform with hafa víl IV:56; hafa œrit at vinna have enough work to do, have plenty to do, have a hard enough job VI:92; vinna ei›a at swear oaths by X:149; with acc. and adj. or pp. cause someone to be, make someone something VI:247, vinna (menn) sára cause men to be wounded XXVI A:97; vinna á with dat. injure someone III:120, XV:114; vinna til earn, deserve, achieve, accomplish I:140; allt til vinna at do everything (anything) in order that (so that) XXVI B:65; ef fletta er til unnit if this is achieved to earn it I:137; ekki fyrir unnit no preparations or provision had been made for it XXI:60. 2. -sk form hánum vannsk with dat. lasted him VI:324; honum vinnsk eigi fró›leikr til fless (his) knowledge does not extend so far in him XXVII:32 vinna2 f. work, labour XIV:134 vinr/vin m. friend III:33, VIII:109, 182, XI:46, XII:77, XIX:23 vinstri adj. comp. left XI:55 vinsæld f. popularity; pl. XXI:14 vinsæll adj. popular XV:36, 42; comp. vinsælli more popular Gr 3.3.9 ex. 22; sup. inn vinsælsti the most popular, a very popular VII B:10 vintr = vetr (archaic form or a loan-word from some other Germanic language) XXI:194, textual note vínvi›r m. (grape)vine(s) XXI:91 vir›a (past vir›i/virti, pp. vir›r, n. virt) wv. 1. value (Gr 3.6.9.1 (7)) VIII:153, 156; with gen. of amount of price or value vir›a mik engis value me at nothing, show no respect to me XXVI B:70; value, 268 A New Introduction to Old Norse

regard XXVI B:113; consider, esteem, rank, honour (flik yourself) XXIV:85; judge, decide, conclude XXI:157. 2. -sk form impers. with dat. vir›isk it seems to someone (sem as if, that) V:15; fleim vir›isk landit betra they thought the land looked better XIX:29 vir›ar m. pl. men XXII:60/1; vocative you men XXII:25/3 vir›ing f. honour; gó› vir›ing high honours XVI:117 vir›uligr adj. magnificent XIV:12; worthy XIV:128 virtu see vir›a vísa1 f. verse, stanza IV:17, 26, 53, 77, V:16, 148, 164, XIV:84, XXVI A:92 vísa2 (past vísa›i, pp. vísat) wv. with dat. direct (í towards) VII A:115; vísa ífrá with dat. refuse or forbid to someone XXIV:53; vísa til indicate XXIII:55, 81, with dat. direct someone to XIX:42 vísaván f. certain expectation VIII:126 vísi/vísir m. ruler X:67, 147 (Vƒlundr), XXII:60/2 (Sveinn Knútsson) víss adj. certain; hvers víss yr›i of what he could become certain, what he could find out XXVI A:28; n. as substantive at vísu indeed XV:98. Cf. víst vissa, vissi, vissu see vita vist f. habitation, dwelling VIII:69; board and lodging XVI:4; in pl. food XIV:146, XVI:45, 47, 51 víst adv. (n. of víss) indeed, to be sure I:102,141, XXII:14/3, XXIV:25; for certain VI:82, XXVI B:73; svá var víst it was indeed so XVI:181 vit pron. 2nd person dual (Gr 3.2.1) I:63, 65, V:79, IX:47, XVI:108, XXIV:47, XXV:99, 103, 106, XVII B:166, 167; vit Hƒttr (Gr 3.9.6.1) Hƒttr and I I:64; vit Vƒlundr Vƒlundr and I X:181; vit Grímr Grímr and I XXVI B:16 vita (pres. veit, past vissi, pp. vitat) pret.-pres. vb. 1. know (Gr 3.6.7, 3.6.9.1 (10), 3.6.9.3 ex. 7) I:111, 128, 144, II:132, V:7, 126, VI:14, 108, VII A:65, IX:7, XIV:59, XV:73, XVI:106, XIX:110, XXI:80, XXIV:26, XXVI A:26, 50, B:73; know to be, feel, find X:62; veit ek eigi, eigi veit ek I do not know VI:325, XXVI A:66; veit ek ei at I am not sure whether XXIV:22; eigi má ek flat vita I cannot see, I am not sure V:80, I canot bear it XVI:121; see, find out XXVI A:28; viti› flér flat you find that out XXVI A:35; varla mátti hann vita he could not bear to know XIV:108; with acc. and inf. mik veiztu ver›a you will know that I am becoming IX:51; vér megum víst vita we shall certainly know it VI:82; pres. subj. viti will know Glossary and Index 269

XXVII:32, may know I:56, flótt ek vita even if I knew XXVI A:56, svá at menn viti as far as is known X:14, pl. 1st person es vér vitim whom we know VIII:151, pl. 3rd person viti til know of I:112; past vissi knew XV:114; hitt vissa ek this I found out XXVI A:35; vissi . . . fram could see into the future IX:58; past pl. vissu knew about II:3, XIV:51; inf. (after skyldi) find out, see III:107; flykkjask vita feel sure VI:134, VII A:59, VII B:54; impers. hvat má vita what can one know, how can one be sure I:135, hvat vissi til what was known about II:45. 2. with gen. indicate, betoken, lead to IV:22 víti n. punishment XV:117; penalty XV:61, torment, trouble IV:25 (gen. object of vita); vengeance V:35 vitja (past vitja›i, pp. vitjat) wv. visit I:77; with gen. go to see, go to attend X:12; visit XIV:143 vitni n. witness, testimony VI:324 vitr (acc. vitran) adj. wise II:93, VI:165, XIV:40, 51, XXIII:77, XXIV:79; clever VII A:119; sensible XXIV:60; sup. vitrasti Gr 3.3.5 ex. 3, 3.3.8.1 ex. 3 vitrlega adv. wisely XXIV:45 vitugr adj. intelligent, sensible, clever XXIII:86 vizka f. wisdom XXIII:17, 53 vó› = ó›, see va›a vóndzligr adj. evil, harsh, terrible XXII:60/1 vóru see vera vur›u see ver›a væg› f. mercy, giving way, yielding; dat. sg. with mercy or giving way VI:246 vægjask (past væg›isk) wv. -sk form yield, give way (vi› in the face of their enemies) VI:261 væl f. trickery, deception XXIII:55 vængr m. wing VII A:154 (pl. with suffixed def. art.), XII:33; acc. pl. vængi I:76 vænligast adv. sup. most promising or useful XXIV:30 vænn adj. (Gr 3.3.8.4 (1)) handsome V:30; fine, splendid XXII:38/2 vænta (pres. væntir, past vænti, pp. vænt) wv. expect (that) I:105, XXI:61; with dat. of person and dat. of thing expect something for someone, expect that someone will achieve something XV:148; with gen. expect XXIV:23; impers. væntir mek I expect, I have expectation of, I anticipate VI:91 270 A New Introduction to Old Norse væri, værir see vera værugjarn adj. fond of rest and warmth XXVI B:168 Vætildr f. North American native woman XXI:202 vætr pron. nothing IX:104; as adv. not at all IX:112, X:183, 184 vƒk›u see vekja vƒllr (dat. velli, pl. vellir) m. field Gr 3.3.7.1, 2 (4); ground; with suffixed def. art. III:45, XXVI A:28, 32, 71; dat. sg. at velli to the ground XXVI A:101; á ví›um velli in the open IV:43; acc. pl. vƒllu space, battlefield? XXII:29/2 Vƒlundarkvi›a f. a poem about Vƒlundr X:title Vƒlundr m. legendary smith X:1, 4, 11, 13, 16, 25, 36, 42, 52, 55, 67, 90, 125, 134, 136, 146, 147, 152, 169, 173, 179, 181; elliptical gen. at Vƒlundar at Vƒlundr’s home X:79; poss. dat. (Gr 3.9.6.2) Vƒlundi til smi›ju to Vƒlundr’s smithy X:95; dat. pl. as common noun by craftsmen XXV:25 (see note) vƒndr m. stick, thin rod, wand; with suffixed def. art. XII:32; in kenning for sword, vƒndr hjalts V:40 vƒr›r m. guardian, defender; in kenning for warrior (see note) vƒr›r vápn-Eirar V:48 (vocative) vƒr›usk see verja1 vƒrn f. defence V:143, VI:315, XXVI A:92, 102; dat. sg. with suffixed def. art. vƒrnenni VI:255 vƒrr (pl. varrir) f. lip XXIII:57 vƒrusekkr m. sack of wares Gr 3.1.9 ex.2 vƒtnum see vatn vƒxtr (gen. vaxtar Gr 3.1.7.1 ex. 5) m. size VII B:9; dat. sg. vexti in size III:23, V:30, XXI:11; at vexti in shape XII:11 y›ar/y›var pron. 2nd person pl. gen. (Gr 3.2.1) your I:59, 63, of you XXI:135 y›arr/y›varr poss. adj. your (pl.) Gr 3.3.6 (11), 3.3.9 ex. 4, 3.9.6.1, XXI:78; acc. sg. m. y›arn XIV:56; gen. sg. f. y›arrar XXIV:21; n. y›art XIV:55, XXVI B:71; dat. sg. n. y›ru (i.e. of you Icelanders) XVI:138; n. pl. y›ur XIV:56 y›r pron. 2nd person pl. acc., dat. (Gr 3.2.1) you, to you, for you I:53, XXVI A:105, for yourselves XXVI B:20; in addressing king XVI:63, 118, yourself XXIV:11 ‡dróg f. bowstring VII A:19 ‡fask (past ‡f›isk) wv. -sk form become angry or hostile XXII:7/1 Glossary and Index 271 yfir prep. (Gr 3.7.4); with acc. above, over, upon I:44, II:22, 109, III:26, 54, XI:47, XIII:3, XXII:53/1, XXVI B:164; above XXI:128; across V:42, 163, VII B:61, XV:47, 100, XXV:41, XXVI A:4; of time, for XXI:65; with dat. about XIX:75, above XXIII:5; as adv. across Gr 3.5.3 (2), VI:25; about it IV:77; over him XXV:26; yfir ofan up on the top XXIII:10; flar yfir above it, on top of it III:100 yfirbo› n. command, authority, rule XIV:177 yfirbœtr f. pl. compensation, atonement II:63, 73, V:161 yfirfƒr f. visitation XIV:1 Yggr m. a name for Ó›inn; gen. Yggs used elliptically to mean ‘Ó›inn’s business’, i.e. fighting or poetry, which is the object of ne leggjum fyr li› IV:24 ykkar, yk(k)r dual pron. (Gr 3.2.1) your, you, to you IV:50, X:107; ykr fljó›konunga (acc. with eptir er flrungit) you great kings XXV:14; used for pl. I:17; me› ykkr Njáli with you and Njáll XXVI B:173 ykkarr poss. adj. dual your Gr 3.3.8.1, 3.3.9 (22), 3.9.6.1; f. ykkur your XXV:10, ykkur beggja of you both X:167; dat. sg. n. ykru hváru to each of you XXV:34 ‡la (past ‡ldi, pp. ‡lt) wv. howl; ‡la hátt upp raise a great howling or screaming XXI:123 ‡miss adj. various, XVI:129; n. pl. flau ymsi they in turn II:70 yn›i f. happiness, bliss XII:86 yngri adj. comp. younger (Gr 3.3.8.2) IV:2, XIV:158, XXVI B:70 ynni see unna and vinna yr›i see ver›a yrkja (pres. yrkir, past orti, pp. ort) wv. irregular (Gr 3.6.9.3) compose (poetry) II:161, V:164, VII A:137, XXI:79, XXVI A:92; impers. yrkja skyldi there should be composed VII A:134 ‡tar m. pl. men XXII:18/2, 63/2 ‡tri adj. comp. outer; acc. n. as adv. it ‡tra on the outside, on the fringe IV:63; hit ‡tra on the outer (seaward) side VI:59; sup. ‡ztr outermost, on the outside, on top VII A:82, furthest out (from the centre) VI:217 flá1 adv. then Gr 3.5.3 (3, 10, 12), 3.5.1–3 ex. 6 (a), I:8, 14, 50, 82, 95, 98, 108, 131, II:7, 71, 72, III:5, V:47, 92 (by then), 101, VI:3, 73, 232 (followed by flá er), VII B:63, 71, IX:16, 31, 48, 59, 72, X:174, XI:23, 54 (of place), XV:21, XVI:12, XIX:22, 30, 57, XXI:26, 272 A New Introduction to Old Norse

102 (1), 121 (1), XXII:11/3, XXV:20, XXVI A:5, 37, B:15, 50, XXVII:6, 10, 45, 50; at that time VIII:21, 37, 38, 165; at this time VI:8, 38 (2), VII B:6, XV:38; at the time VI:317; then, at any given time VII B:21; by that time XIX:48; ok flá var and (which) then (or thereafter) was XIX:27; flá ok flá at every moment I:37; introducing main clause after er-clause (Gr 3.8.2.1) II:5, 47, 79, III:27, V:44, 163, VI:271, XIX:65, 68, XXI:42, 117; after flá er-clause II:95, III:2, VI:227, 269, 273, 294, VII A:140, VIII:82, XII:78, XXVI B:70; after flá es VIII:35, 194; flá . . . es/er VIII:92, IX:1, XIX:83, 113; flá . . . er . . . flá (second flá pleonastic) XXIV:76–77; flá . . . ef VIII:124, XXIV:79, XXV:74; fló . . . flá . . . fló . . . fló at XXIV:22–24; flá . . . flau er (= when or if they) . . . heldr en XXIV:14–15; after nú er XVI:95; after ef XXIV:8, 16, 47, 67, XXVI B:25, 78, 214, XXVII:4, 15, 32; ef . . . ok . . . flá XXVII:9 (see ok); after conditional vb. with inverted word order II:25, after Nú and conditional vb. with inverted word order XXIV:1, XXVII:46; after eptir flat VI:298, eptir flat er VI:302; after hvatki es VIII:5; after me›an-clause V:111, VI:225; after til fless at VII A:51; after sí›an er VII A:92; after svá sem VI:221; after sem (= when) XII:70, 81; after me› flví at VIII:3; XXIV:29, 73; after fló at VI:118, XIV:146, XXIV:85; after fló XVI:137; flá as conj. when 1:30, 138, 144; flá er/es as conj. (Gr 3.8.2.1) when II:21, 56, 94, 111, III:1, 59, 131, IV:10, VI:25, 48, 54, 75, 185, 205, 226, 234, 250, 269, 272, 281, 294, VII A:30, 138, B:31, VIII:16, 188, XI:64, 73, XII:77, XIV:159, XV:4, XIX:52, XXI:30, 37, XXIII:82, XXV:19, XXVI A:26, B:70, XXVII:18, 43; while VI:59, 240; flá . . . er when XVI:39, by the time . . . , XV:138 flá2 pron. (Gr 3.2.2) acc. f. sg., acc. m. pl. that, this, these, those, them etc. I:92, 107, II:90, 113, IV:4, 5, 15, 16, 105, V:8, 42, 60, 87, VI:34, 38 (1), 102, 124, 172, VII A:137, B:9, 25, VIII:89, 118, XI:9, 66, XV:153, XIX:21, 72, 82, 84, XXI:70, 102 (2), 121 (2), 129, 134, 158, XXII:22/1, XXIII:104, XXIV:74, XXV:76, XXVI A:47, B:49, 100, 104, 195, 197, XXVII:36; á flá at them XXVI B:194; flá fiorkel nefju fiorkell nefja and those with him (acc.) VI:120; vi› flá Leif against Leifr and Íngólfr XIX:16; flá Hjƒrleif Hjƒrleifr and the others XIX:67; flá er as rel. pron. acc. f. sg. which, whom (Gr 3.8.2.1) VI:4, 324, X:154; acc. m. pl. VIII:83, 132 (those who), XIV:172, flá es/er VIII:87, XXIII:85, flá . . . er those . . . that XXIV:28, flá alla es all those who VIII:78, flá sem those who XIII:25, whom XIV:166 Glossary and Index 273

(normally fleir sem; perhaps the influence of Latin grammar; cf. Gr 3.8.2.1); flá er . . . af those (lƒgmenn) from whom XXVII:34 flá3 see fliggja VI:9, XVI:5, 162 fla›an adv. from there Gr 3.5.3 (5), III:38, VII A:3, 68, 156, 158, VIII:104, 107, X:46, XIX:102, XXI:21, XXVI A:38; i.e. from Norway VIII:15, 28 flagall adj. silent Gr 3.3.8.1 ex. 3 flagna (past flagna›i, pp. flagnat) wv. fall silent; past pl. flagnu›u VI:131 flágu see fliggja flak n. roof; with suffixed def. art. flakit XXVI A:63 flak›r, flaki› see flekja flakka (past flakka›i, pp. flakkat) wv. thank Gr 3.6.10; with acc. say thanks for XVI:135; subj. Gu› flakki y›r with acc. may God thank (reward) you for XVI:118 fiakkrá›r m. slave of Ní›u›r X:175 flambarskelfir m. nickname, either ‘paunch-shaker’ or ‘bow-string- shaker’ VI:301, VII B:1, 2, 39 flang n. seaweed (in a kenning for the sea) VII B:40 flangat adv. (Gr 3.8.2.1) thither, to that place, there I:5, 7, 34, 113, V:79, VIII:65, 67, XIX:81, XXI:17, XXVI A:39, to it V:97, XXVI B:42; onto it (that ship) VI:225; flangat sem to where I:99, V:118, XVI:92, 187, XXI:174; flangat til up to then VIII:95; flangat heim into the precincts there XIV:150 fiangbrandr m. Saxon missionary priest VIII:77 flann pron. acc. m. sg. (Gr 3.2.2, 3.8.2.1) that VIII:120, XXV:94, XXVI B:62, flann enn this (Gr 3.3.5) XXII:15/4; it (the sword) X:95; that man V:155, XVI:185, him XXII:27/2; flann mann this man XIX:34; flann er who XIV:56, whom XXIV:40, someone who XXIII:74, which XI:24, flann (. . .) er/es/sem that one (. . .) who I:43, VII A:33, B:38, XI:9, the one who (object of nefna) VI:142, the . . . who VI:156, the . . . which VIII:103, X:78, XVI:33, 118, XXIII:35, flann sem . . . á the . . . on whom XXVII:10; í flann tí› . . . es at the time when VIII:8–11; flann vetr for that winter XXI:107; flann veg that way, similarly XXII:8/3, flann veg . . . sem thus . . . as if XXI:159 flannig, flannug (= flann veg) adv. there, to that place II:55, XIV:42; in this way, thus XXII:38/3 flar adv. (Gr 3.5.3 (2), 3.8.2.1) there, in that place I:3, 4, 6, 7, 23, 26, 274 A New Introduction to Old Norse

70, 73, 92, 116, II:11, 12, III:3, V:157, VI:11, VIII:46, IX:93, X:5, 87, XI:10, XIII:4, XV:19, 151, XVI:4, XIX:32 (1), XXI:24, 48, 204, XXII:43/2, XXV:110, XXVI A:6, 107, B:2; present XXVII:28; on it (i.e. that ship) VI:130; at it (the battle) XXII:35/3; to that place I:74, II:41, VI:14, VIII:107, X:31, XV:25, XXI:73, XXVI B:5; to or in that place XXI:108 (1); to that point IV:101; in this matter V:162, VIII:30, 91, 113, on that topic XXIV:28; flar var there was there XXI:32, 53, flar váru there were there X:7, XXI:168, it was (there) X:8; flar eru enn are still there XIX:95; ef flar er if there it is XXIII:97; flar á on it III:24, XII:37, on that ship XXI:17; flar á landi in that country VIII:69; flar af therefrom, from them II:6; flar at at the point (in the story) where II:16; flar at bo›inu at that feast XIX:13; flar austr there in the east, in Norway VIII:87; flar frá from this III:39; flar fyrir ahead there XXVI A:16, in front of them XXVI A:25, for this reason XII:35, flar firi about that XXIV:57; flar hjá honum (fleim) next to him (them) there III:7, 8; flar í into them or it III:3, 4, XIX:32, in it III:24; flar í anddyrit into the doorway there III:21; flar í skógum in those woods VIII:53–54; flar í ofan down into it XXVI B:229; flar inn in there, into it (the lopt) XXVI B:117; flar innan bor›s on board that ship VI:81; flar me› along with it I:42, and in addition XIV:44; flar . . . me›al between them (the eyebrows) XXIII:19; flar næst next, secondly VI:315; flar ór out of it II:92; flar til (cf. Gr 3.9.1) for it VII A:98, for that event, i.e. at that battle VI:154; flar um landit throughout that country VII A:72; flar undir under them XI:18; flar úti outside there III:37, XXI:108, XXVI A:44; flar vi› for it XVI:25; flar vi›r thereto, to it VIII:3; flar as conj. since, whereas XIV:34; where XXVI B:16; flar er, flar sem as conj. (Gr 3.8.2.1) where II:108, VI:202, 267, VIII:44, X:172, XII:20, XV:155, XIX:59, XXI:29, 91, 128, to where II:124, VII A:85, VII B:79, XVI:15, in which XI:17, in a place which XIX:85, from where V:60, XV:145, when VI:292, XVI:69, as VI:265, while, whereas V:11, XIV:116, where, if, in a person in whom XXIII:30; flar sem heita/heitir in a place called II:115, XIX:82; flar . . . sem/es/er where VIII:17, 19, 52, 65, XIX:53, 54, XXI:92, to where XV:152, XVI:34, the place where XIX:86; at flar er to where VI:271, flar at sem to or at where XXVI B:89; hér . . . flar er Hƒttr er here where Hƒttr is, i.e. out of Hƒttr I:146; flar til sem to where II:150, XXIII:18; flar til er until XI:47, XVI:126, XIX:33, 50, XXI:52, XXVI A:89 Glossary and Index 275

flarf see flurfa flars conj. since XVI:53 flat, flau pron. n. (Gr 3.2.1 and 2) it, the, that, this, those, they etc. I:28, 51, 98, 123, 124, 145, VI:26, 27, 107, 227, VIII:6, 29, 38, XI:34, 35, XV:25, XVI:23, XIX:23, XXI:3, 5, XXII:23/2, 30/3, XXIII:4, 39, 54, 97, XXIV:4, XXV:5, XXVI A:4, 19, 35, 43, B:72, 230 (that place, sc. gróf), XXVII:6; that one I:69; it I:76, 77, 81, 88, 94, 112, 115, 142; this VI:270, 334, IX:57 (as follows); er flat it is XXI:161; ok er flat and that is XXVI B:33; flat var it was XXI:37, these were VI:300; flat váru, váru flat with pl. complement (Gr 3.9.8.2; cf. I:26–27, note) it was III:113, they were X:7; flat hefir there has XXV:6; flá var flat ekki hús then there was no building XIV:157; flat or›a this (in the way) of words, these words IX:5; flat it (Gr 3.3.5) IX:50; engi flau any of those XXIV:3; flat (. . .) at this (namely) that X:41, XXI:126, XXIV:2, 12, 44, XXVI A:47, 76, that which, what XXV:80, such a . . . that XXVI B:53; ok flat at and this too, that XI:3; flat er/es which X:92, XIV:157, XV:132, XVI:90, XXIII:13, 77, one that XXIII:14, that which VI:118, VIII:45, what XV:23, XVI:156, XXVI B:20, as much as XII:1; flat es af flví such that from it, from which VIII:70; flat . . . er what XVI:67, XXVI A:66, B:113, that . . . when XXVI A:106; flat sem which XV:33, XXVI B:121, that which, what XIV:57, XV:149, to what VII B:21; flat allt er everything that XXIV:25; flat nef er a nose which XXIII:51; flat er flá væri whatever might make XIV:14; flau er/es/sem which VI:107, 110, VIII:117, XXIII:24, XXIV:7, XXV:104, XXVI A:57, which, when they, if they XXIV:15, those that XXI:192, XXIII:42, 47, XXIV:6; flau . . . er . . . flau such as VIII:175; n. pl. flau referring to a man and a woman or men and women (Gr 3.9.6.1) IV:13, 77, 106, VI:11, 46, VII A:95, X:11, XV:9, 18, 29, 40, 41, 133, XXI:40, 162, XXVI B:22, 165, to a herd of horses consisting of a stallion and some mares V:6; flau Gu›rún he (fiorvaldr) and Gu›rún XV:5; flau Kormak her and Kormakr IV:14; flau Einarr she and Einarr VII B:78 fláttr m. (Gr 3.1.7.2 (3)) strand, member XXV:15; story, section of a story, episode I:149, XVI:title; section of the law XXVII:34; acc. pl. fláttu alla all sections of the law XXVII:31 flau see flat flaut see fljóta flegar adv. immediately, straightway Gr 3.5.3 (8), 3.5.1–3 ex. 6 (a), I:2, 97, II:28, III:54, V:102, 113, 129, 141, 162, VI:13, VII B:69, 78, 276 A New Introduction to Old Norse

VIII:97, IX:70, XI:20, XIV:118, XV:68, 151, XVI:18, XIX:16, XXVI B:64, 91, 206; ok flegar and (was) immediately XXVI B:92; flegar eptir immediately behind, immediately after III:64, XXVI B:204, 211; flegar í sta› on the spot VII A:122; flegar um sumarit that same summer XVI:189; as conj. flegar when, as soon as XXVI A:4, as long as III:20; flegar er (Gr 3.8.2.1) when IV:52, XIV:64, 67, 160, as soon as V:94, XV:9, XVI:106 flegit see fliggja flegja (past flag›i, pp. flagat) wv. (Gr 3.6.9.2 (4, 5)) be silent I:41, 92; imp. flegi flú desist from speaking IX:69 flegn m. servant, follower or officer of a ruler, subject, warrior, man VI:342 (subject of sóttu), XXII:37/4, 46/3; flegnar your servants, i.e. we XXII:23/1 fleim, flenna, flennan, fleir, fleira, fleirar, fleirra, fleir(r)i pron. (Gr 3.2.1 and 2) that, this, these, those, they, their, them etc. I:31, 34, 89, 90, 110, 111, 112, VIII:2, 5, IX:9, 69, XI:15, XV:8, 39, XIX:2, 8, 10, XXI:4, 5, 20, 137, XXII:11/2, 16/2, 21/3, XXIII:7, 71, XXV:22, 95, XXVI A:4 (2), 19, B:4, XXVII:9, 11, 12, 17, 21, 35; fleir they, i.e. those people XXIII:72; ok fleir together with those, and also those V:88; fleim that person XVI:152; to/for them XXII:10/2, for them XXVI B:3, me› fleim between them XXVII:13; fleira of them XIX:69, til fleir(r)a to them XXIV:55, 75, XXVI B:122, at them XXVI A:49; ein(n) fleira, einn af fleim one of them X:21, XIV:169, XXI:150; tveggja fleira of the two of them X:120, 164; hvárr fleira . . . annan each of them . . . the other XI:46; fleim poss. dat. XIII:3; fleir er/es, fleir sem, fleira er, fleirar er, fleiri er, fleim er, fleim sem as rel. pron. (Gr 3.8.2.1) (those) who, which I:78, 132, II:7, 14, V:27, 57, VI:1, 255, 299, 303 (referring to margs manns), VIII:47, 140, X:64, 135, 156, XII:60 (enginn . . . fleir er no one who), XIII:7, 48, XIV:182, XV:66, 104, XXI:87, XXIII:32, XXVII:16, those people who XXIII:69, 100; fleirar sem of that woman who XIII:21, 41; fleirar er with which XIV:114; fleira (. . .) er of those who XIX:87, XXII:32/3; fleim er to anyone who XIV:90, note, those (ships) which VI:218, af fleim er from those who XXI:154, at fleim er at those who XXVI B:220; fleirra manna er from among those men whom XXVII:12 (with taka, line 10); ór fleim . . . er . . . í from the . . . in which XXVII:4–5; fleir . . . er those (. . .) who XXIV:62, XXVI B:63, 119, XXVII:13; fleir er . . . fleim er those who . . . those who Glossary and Index 277

XXI:195–96; fleir . . . er . . . me› those with whom XXVII:15; fleim . . . er those . . . which XXIII:61; fleirar . . . at such a . . . that VI:91; fleir brœ›r the brothers XXVI B:5, similarly XV:71, XIX:9; fleir bragnar those men XXII:20/3; fleir Skrælingar the Skrælings XXI:118; fleir with a singular name (Gr 3.9.6.1): fleir Hƒttr he and Hƒttr I:70; fleir Hólmsteinn brœ›r Hólmsteinn and his brothers XIX:15; fleir Gizurr he and Gizurr III:8, at fleim Gizuri up to Gizurr and the others XXVI A:32; fleir Hjƒrleifr Hjƒrleifr and the others (that were not slaves) XIX:64; me› fleim fiorvaldi with fiorvaldr and his men XXI:15; fleir Einarr Einarr and the other man III:59; fleir Jón Jón and Gu›mundr III:95; fleim Ingólfi Ingólfr and Leifr XIX:18, similarly XIX:20, 47; fleir Au›unn Au›unn and the king XVI:130; fleira Bƒlverks of (between) him and Bƒlverkr II:140; fleira Sæmundar of him and Sæmundr VIII:152; fleira Bergflórs of Bergflórr and Hafli›i VIII:173; me› fleim Haraldi between him and Haraldr VII B:3, similarly XIX:12; fleir fiorkell fiorkell and his men, fiorkell and his companions VI:109; fleir Gizurr Gizurr and his party VIII:103; fleir Flosi Flosi and his party XXVI B:87, 120; fleir Karlsefni Karlsefni and his party XXI:89, 119, me› fleim Karlsefni with Karlsefni and his party or with Karlsefni and Snorri XXI:17; fleir Sveinn konungr King Sveinn and his companions VI:109; fleim Óláfi konungi King Óláfr and his men VI:276; fleir Ósvífr tveir both he (fiór›r) and Ósvífr XV:94; synir fleira Kotkels the sons of Kotkell and his wife XV:134; with two or more names (cf. Gr 3.9.6.1) fleira Einars ok Eindri›a of Einarr and Eindri›i VII B:84; fleir Gizurr ok Hjalti VIII:88, 111, similarly XV:39, XIX:4, 6, 91, XXI:2, 41, 66, 114, 163, XXVI A:4, B:2, 24; fleira fiór›ar ok Gu›rúnar between fiór›r and Gu›rún XV:19, 80; fleira Teits . . . ok fiorkels . . . ok fiórí›ar VIII:8–11, similarly XIX:7, XXVI B:193; fleir anticipating subject (hir›menninir) XVI:100 (1). Cf. Gr 3.9.6.1 flek see flik flekja1 (past flak›i, pp. flak›r/flaki›r) wv. thatch, roof, cover (af with) VI:152, XIV:10; pp. f. flaki› re-roofed XIV:13 flekja2 f. roof; with suffixed def. art. XXVI A:32, 53, 68, B:220 flekkja (past flek›i, pp. flek›r) wv. recognise IX:124, X:82; flek›i mann realised that there was a man XVI:101; -sk form flekkjask agree to, accept XVI:77 278 A New Introduction to Old Norse

fielamƒrk f. Telemark in Norway XIX:3 flengill/fleingill m. ruler (Eiríkr jarl) VI:280 (subject of hét), (King Óláfr Tryggvason) VI:361, (Óláfr Haraldsson) XXII:27/1, 49/1, 65/1 (in address) flenna/flennan pron. acc. m. sg. (Gr 3.2.2) this VIII:100, XII:51, XV:35, XVI:182, XXII:26/2, XXV:79 flér pron. 2nd person dat. sg. and nom. pl. (Gr 3.2.1) you, yourself I:55, 64, 124, 125, 128, IV:83, VII A:50, IX:79, XIII:23, XVI:111, 120, XXI:134, XXII:25/1, XXIV:13, 85, XXVI A:35, 57, 83, B:20, 55; to you IX:14, X:180, XI:25, XV:92, XVI:24, XXII:65/1; towards you XVI:75; for you XXV:27, XXVI A:80, B:113, for yourself IX:71; nom. pl. in addressing a king X:154, XVI:118, XXII:32/2, XXIV:11, 20; in addressing one’s father XXIV:22, 54; sjálfri flér to you yourself X:129; flér einum to you alone X:124; poss. dat. flér af hƒndum from your hands IX:116; flér í sjó›i into your purse (or to you in a purse, since sjó›i is dat.) XXII:31/3 fless, flessa, flessar, flessara, flessarar, flessi, flessir, flessu, flessum, fletta pron. (Gr 3.2.2) this, that, these, those I:15, 24, 25, 27, 30, 36, 39, 45, 54, 55, 61, 68, 119, 127, 128, 132, 137, VIII:3, 5, XI:10, XIII:9, XIV:185, XV:13, 25, 39, XVI:5, 33, XIX:11, 48, XXI:40, 41, 80, 179, XXII:34/1, 46/4, XXIV:26, 36, XXVI A:62, 68, 92, B:25, 30, 62; it I:138; til fless about it XXII:22/4; fletta with pl. vb. V:69, XXV:112 (Gr 3.9.8.2); fletta allt all this XXVII:30; flessi that man (the one who had been killed) I:64; flessu (i.e. silfri) XVI:143 (1); upp frá flessu from now on I:107, 148; fless for that X:97; flessa for this XXVI A:85; fless er var such as there was XVI:6; fless er who XVI:45, which XIX:27; fless er from this that XVI:144, of one who XIII:75; fless manns er a person who XXIII:81; flessu er that which XVI:37; fless at (of) this, that XXVI B:85; til fless at for this, that XXIV:14; fless . . . at for this, that VI:342 (with skƒp ver›a), XIII:8; flau er . . . ok flessi er those that . . . and these that XXI:192–93; fless at meir all the more VII A:43; flessir these men XXVI B:64; flessir lutir eru fleir enn er there are these things in addition that XXIV:76; acc. m. pl. flessa these ones XXIII:65; til fless so far XXVII:32 (see vinna) fleygi adv. not at all XXII:47/1 flí see flví fii›rekr af Bern m. Theoderic the Great (died AD 526), king of the Ostrogoths XI:title, 43, 45, 56, 64, 65, 69, 73, 75 Glossary and Index 279

fliggja (past flá, past pl. flágu, pp. flegit) sv. (Gr 3.6.9.3) receive XVI:4, XXIV:61; accept XVI:152; flá af received from XVI:5; flá at accepted from VI:9, XVI:162; fliggja undan get (someone) let off VIII:89; pres. part. fliggjandi receiving (them) XIII:48 flik/flek pron. 2nd person sg. acc. (Gr 3.2.1) you I:107, 129, 136, X:169, XVI:69, XXVI B:94, 144; flek XXIV:12 (object of henda), 48; yourself IX:46, XXIV:83, XXVI A:84 flik(k)ja see flykkja flín1 pron, 2nd person (of) you XXVI B:80; til flín to you XXIV:1, XXVI B:215 flín2, flína, flínar poss. adj. (cf. Gr 3.3.9 (21)) your I:135, IV:71, X:145, XI:70, XVI:25, 33, XXV:24, 36, XXVI A:87, B:132 fling n. meeting; darra fling is a kenning for battle XXII:54/2; assembly, conference II:44, VII A:72, 73, 79, B:25, 26, IX:53; with suffixed def. art. II:46; i.e. the Alflingi VIII:104, 108 (with suffixed def. art.), XV:12, 43, 46, 65, XXVII:40, í flingi of the assembly XXVII:44; local assembly in Iceland VIII:45, XIX:108 flingbo› n. summons to an assembly VII A:72 fiingeyrar f. pl. monastery in northern Iceland XIV:180 flingfararkaup n. assembly attendance tax or dues VIII:168 flinglausnir f. pl. the close of the assembly XXVII:30 flingskƒp n. pl. assembly procedure XXVII:5, 26 flingvƒllr m. assembly-field, the site of the assembly, Alflingi (south- western Iceland) VIII:106 (with suffixed def. art.) flínir, flinn, flinna, flinnar, flinni, flíns, flínu, flínum poss. adj. (cf. Gr 3.3.9 (21) and ex. 11) your I:12, 144, IX:41, 71, X:127, 128, 158, XXII:47/4, XXIV:2, 85, XXV:87, 88, XXVI A:78, B:113 flistill m. thistle Gr 3.1.7.5 (1) flit pron. dual (Gr 3.2.1) you; flit mó›ir mín you and my mother XXVI A:79; used for pl. I:52, 54 flitt poss. adj. (Gr 3.3.9 (21)) your I:145 fljalfi m. noose, encircler; in kenning for the sea, fljalfi flangs VII B:39 (object of skeina) fijazi m. a giant II:41, 50, 52, 59, 61, 74, 75, 81 fljó› f. people, nation VI:179, VII A:26 (pl., object of hjó), B:22 (subject of l‡tr), VIII:70; men VI:279 (subject of stƒkk), people VI:365 (gen. with gœ›i), XXII:10/3, 65/4 fljó›á f. mighty river; pl. allar fljó›ár subject of skulu rinna upp 280 A New Introduction to Old Norse

IV:85 (the older pl. form -áar would provide an additional syllable and make the metre more regular) fljó›gata f. high road XXIV:46 fljó›konungr m. king of the people or country, great king XXV:14 (cf. fljó›á) fljó›lei› f. main sea-route, normal route VI:87 (acc. with siglir) fijó›ólfr (Arnórsson) m. 11th-century Icelandic poet VII B:14 fljófna›r m. theft XV:136 fljófr m. thief VII B:52, XV:129, XXIII:53 fljóhnappr m. buttock V:146 fljóna (past fljóna›i, pp. fljónat) wv. with dat. serve XIII:12, 25, XXIV:40; attend to, provide for: at fljóna looking after XIV:137; pres. part. sér fljónandi menn people serving her XIII:45 fljónusta f. service XIII:46, XXIV:65 fljónustuma›r m. servant XII:66 fijórsárdalr m. valley in south-western Iceland VIII:80 fljóta (past flaut, past pl. flutu pp. flotinn) sv. sound, blow XXV:65 (a horn) fló adv. yet, nevertheless, even so I:18, 27, 102, 145, II:4, III:63, IV:66, V:6, 7, 122, 144, VI:102, 200, 254, 288, 293 (i.e. in spite of being valiant), 316, VII B:3, 31, 72, XI:68, XII:73, XV:5, 14, XVI:49, XXI:12, 73 (in spite of the fact that?), 144, 177, XXII:27/3, XXIII:37, 102, XXIV:22, 51, XXVI A:90, B:101; but XXI:76; however VIII:81, XVI:64, XXI:62, XXIV:12, 23, 57, XXVI B:23, 58; fló . . . flótt even . . . if IX:14; ok fló and yet were (Gr 3.9.5.2) VI:299, but only XV:139; e›a fló or rather, or in spite of everything VI:328; fló as conj. even though, although XVI:137, XXII:65/1; fló at conj. (Gr 3.8.2.2) even if, although VI:4, 85, 117, VII B:27, XVI:147, 177, XXIII:83, XXIV:3, 24, 84, even though VI:226, XIV:145, XVI:35; fló . . . at even . . . if IX:15; fló . . . fló at still . . . even if XIV:91–93 flola (past flol›i/floldi, pp. flolat) wv. endure XXII:6/2; suffer XII:36, 40, 88; hann flol›i eigi he could not bear III:126; with acc. and dat. put up with something from someone VII B:29; flola illa take it badly XXVI B:121 flollr m. tree; in kenning for man or warrior, hjalms flollr, i.e. Bjƒrn Hítdœlakappi V:171 flopta f. thwart, rowing bench (on a ship) VI:279 flora (pres. florir, past flor›i, pp. florat) wv. dare (Gr 3.6.9.2 (3)) Glossary and Index 281

I:93, VI:12, 77, IX:115, X:88, XVI:95, XXVI B:50, dare to do I:102; with suffixed pron and neg. floriga I dare not X:124; past subj. flyr›a ek I have dared XXII:65/2; flyr›i eigi dared not, should not dare XIII:40 fiórarinn Ragabró›ir m. lawspeaker 950–969 VIII:61 fiórbergr Árnason m. XXII:18/2 fiorbjƒrn nef (‘nose, beak’) (fiór›arson) m. III:8, 9 fiorbjƒrn Vífilson m. XXI:16 (he was already dead by this time) fiorbrandr Snorrason m. XXI:139; probably an error for Snorri fiorbrandsson; see note 18 fiorbrandr fiorleiksson m. XXVI A:68 fiórdís f. wife of Bjƒrn Hítdœlakappi V:5 fiór›r djákni (deacon) m. III:118 fiór›r Ei›sson m. enemy of Bjƒrn Hítdœlakappi V:98, 102 (poss. dat.) fiór›r gellir (Óláfsson) m. 10th-century Icelander, a go›i, who lived at Hvammr in Hvammsfjƒr›r, off Brei›afjƒr›r VII A:167 fiór›r Ingunnarson m. son of Glúmr Geirason XV:18, 19, 25, 26, 45, 47, 49, 57, 59, 64, 68, 71, 75, 76, 80, 81, 89, 93, 104, 105, 106, 107, 111, 113, 115, 117, 122, 124, 126, 128, 131, 134, 138, 144, 146, 148, 151, 153 fiór›r Kárason m. grandson of Njáll and Bergflóra, fostered by Njáll XXVI B:169 fiór›r Kolbeinsson m. of Hítarnes, poet, enemy of Bjƒrn Hítdœlakappi V:110, 119, 125, 127, 128, 145, 146, 148, 157, 162, 164 fiorfinnr m. died in the fire at Flugum‡rr III:79 fiorfinnr fivarason m. son of Arnórr flvari and cousin of Bjƒrn Hítdœlakappi V:30, 58, 116 fiorgeirr m. father of Go›mundr, 11th–12th century VIII:171 fiorgeir(r) (of Kvistssta›ir) m. XXII:46/1, 47/1, 48/3 fiorgeirr Starka›arson m. XXVI A:109, 117 fiorgeirr (fiorkelsson, Ljósvetningago›i) m. lawspeaker 985–1001 VIII:118; hann fiorgeirr the aforementioned fiorgeirr VIII:120 fiorger›r Njálsdóttir f. wife of Ketill ór Mƒrk XXVI B:148 fiorgils Hálmuson m. Norwegian farmer XXII:31/1, 32/1, 58/1 fiorgrímr m. a Norwegian XXVI A:29, 30, 35 fiórhalla Ásgrímsdóttir f. wife of Helgi Njálsson XXVI B:136, 138 fiórhallr Gamlason m. XXI:5 fiórhallr vei›ima›r m. XXI:9, 10, 14, 65, 67, 77, 166 fiórhildr Hrafnsdóttir f. wife of Skarphe›inn XXVI B:146 282 A New Introduction to Old Norse

fiórí›r f. daughter of Snorri go›i, died 1112 VIII:11 fiórir m. Norwegian sea-captain XVI:3, 5, 9 fiórir hundr fiórisson m. XXII:8/3, 10/1, 42/1, 43/1, 44/1, 45/4, 51/1. Cf. Hundr fiórir kroppinskeggi m. 10th-century Icelander VIII:48 fiorkatli dat. of fiorkell fiorkell m. nicknamed dyr›ill, one of Óláfr Tryggvason’s followers VI:165 fiorkell (dat. fiorkatli) m. neighbour of Gunnarr XXVI A:8, 10, 14, 17 fiorkell Elfaraskáld m. XXVI A:92 (see note) fiorkell Gellisson m. Ari’s uncle, 11th century VIII:10, 33, 73 fiorkell máni fiorsteinsson m. lawspeaker 970–84 VIII:46, XIX:109 fiorkell m. nicknamed nefja, Óláfr Tryggvason’s half-brother VI:105, 300, 304; fleir fiorkell fiorkell and his men, fiorkell and his companions VI:109; flá fiorkel nefju fiorkell nefja and those with him (acc.) VI:120; archaic nom. fiórketill VI:313 fiorkell hvelpr m. brother of Au›r XV:80 fiorkell smi›r m. one of the incendiaries at Flugum‡rr III:83 (see note) fiorkell í Tungu m. father of Steinger›r IV:4, 8, 11, 48, 50, 63, 67, 107; dat. fiorkatli IV:100 fiorkell of Ví›im‡rr m. XIV:133 fiorkell m. son of fiorkell í Tungu IV:107 fiórketill see fiorkell nefja fiorlákr Rúnólfsson m. 1085/86–1133, bishop at Skálaholt 1118–33 VIII:1, 183, 194, 195 fiorlákr fiorleifsson m. III:43 (in apposition to sveinsins) fiorleifr enn spaki Hƒr›a-Kárason m. 10th-century Norwegian VIII:39 fiorleifr (Ketilsson) hreimr (‘cry, noise, shriek’) m. died 1289; married to Gróa’s sister III:44 fiorleikr (fiórarinsson) m. 11th-century Icelander VIII:183 fiormó›r m. priest VIII:92 fiormó›r Bersason (Kolbrúnarskáld) m. XXII:19/1, 41/1 fiormó›r Hamalsson m. XIX:114 fiormó›r fiorkelsson m. XIX:113 fióroddr Gamlason m. XIV:17 fióroddr go›i (Eyvindarson) m. 10th-century Icelander who lived at Hjalli in ¯lfus VII A:167 fiórólfr munkr frá fiverá m. III:57 Glossary and Index 283

fiórólfr tinsmi›r (pewterer) fiorfinnsson m. III:79 fiórr m. a god (one of the Æsir) II:8, IX:34, 59, 65, 69, 72, XIV:81 (fiórs dagr = Thursday), XXI:79 fiorskafjƒr›r m. fjord in north-western Iceland XV:36 fiorsteinn m. farmer in the Western Fjords of Iceland XVI:3, 4 fiorsteinn (Bƒ›varsson) m. 10th-century Icelander VIII:79 fiorsteinn genja m. III:47 fiorsteinn Gy›uson m. descendant of Au›unn XVI:191 fiorsteinn Ingólfsson m. go›i, 10th-century Icelander VIII:45. XIX:108, 109 fiorsteinn Knarrarsmi›r m. XXII:43/1, 49/1 fiorsteinn Kuggason m. friend of Bjƒrn Hítdœlakappi V:6 fiorsteinn m. (uxafótr? — see OddrÓT chs 71, 73), one of Óláfr Tryggva- son’s followers VI:300 fiorvaldr Ei›sson m. enemy of Bjƒrn Hítdœlakappi V:94, 96 fiorvaldr Eiríksson m. XXI:8, 15, 174, 176, 179, 175–80, textual note fiorvaldr (Gizurarson) m. Gizurr’s father (died 1235) III:32 fiorvaldr Halldórsson m. XV:1, 2, 6, 7, 15, 17, 18, 20, 21, 30, 31 fiorvaldr kroppinskeggi m. 10th-century Icelander VIII:49 fiorvaldr hinn veili m. XXVI A:115 fiorvar›r m. husband of Freydís Eiríksdóttir XXI:7 fiorveig f. a sorceress IV:1, 68, 72, 105 fiorveigarsynir m. pl. the sons of fiorveig, Oddr and Gu›mundr IV:Ch. 5, heading, 7, 38, 49 (acc. pl. -sonu), 62, XVIII:121vb28 flótt1 conj. although V:82, 104, VII B:55, XXI:153; even though VI:263, VIII:130, IX:14, X:154, XV:129, XVI:142, 167, XXVI A:56, B:52, 209; even though, whether or not V:106, XXV:108 flótt2, flótti, flóttisk, flóttu, flóttusk see flykkja flrá›u see flreyja firándheimr m. district of northern Norway, modern Trøndelag VII B:2, 24 flrausk n. rustling noise, rummaging I:5 flraut f. test, difficulty, trouble XXII:60/1; trial or struggle; at flraut var› fram at ganga it was going to have to come (on) to a (final) trial XXII:33/4; battle: flrautar gildr mighty or doughty in battle XXII:42/1 flreif see flrífa flreifa (flreifa›i, flreifat) wv. grope; um at flreifask to grope around (oneself) IX:4 284 A New Introduction to Old Norse

flrekstórr adj. great in strength and endurance XXII:27/1 flremr see flrír flrettán num. thirteen (Gr 3.4.1) III:22 flreyja (past flrá›i, pp. flrát) wv. long for Gr 3.6.9.3, yearn X:27 flreyngja (past flreyngdi, pp. flreyngt) wv. with dat. oppress, trouble, ill-treat, attack XXII:47/2 flreyta (past flreytti, pp. flreytt) wv. with acc. contend in VII B:28 flreyttr adj. pp. tired III:53 flri›i num. adj. (Gr 3.4.1) (the) third II:81, III:79, X:4, XXII:8/4; hinn flri›i XIV:181, 183, XXIV:36; acc. sg. m. flri›ja VI:163 (or dat.?), hinn/enn flri›ja XIX:90, XXI:194; ok jarl enn flri›ja (with vá vi›, parallel to jƒfra tvá) and a jarl (who was) the third (enemy) VI:161; dat. sg. m. flri›ja II:153, flri›ja degi í viku the third day in the week, i.e. Tuesday VIII:197; nom. sg. f. en/in flri›ja X:9, 24; acc. sg. f. ina flri›ju XXVI A:43 flri›jungr m. third part; at flri›jungi by a third XXV:55; at flri›jungi hverr vi› annan each in a third share with the other, sharing with each other three ways VI:149 flrífa (past flreif, past pl. flrifu, pp. flrifinn) sv. grab, grasp I:13, V:101, XXII:42/2, XXVI A:49, 69 firíhyrningr m. three-peaked mountain in southern Iceland XXVI A:5 firíhyrningshálsar m. pl. the ridges of firíhyrningr XXVI B:11 flrír num. three (Gr 3.4.1) II:16, III:105, 109, X:3, XIX:49, XXI:49; m. acc. flrjá II:152, IV:53, VIII:83; f. acc. flrjár II:151, X:6, XXI:121; n. flrjú VI:98, 126, IX:97, XXI:44, 65, XXVII:20; gen. flriggja VI:162, XVI:7; dat. flremr I:69, VIII:148, 196, XXVI B:47, XXVII:26, 35, 41 flrítøgr adj. thirty years old; tveim vetrum meir en flrítøgr i.e. thirty- two VIII:196 flrívetr adj. three years old XXI:197 flrjá(r), flrjú see flrír flrjótlyndi n. stubbornness XXIII:76 flrjózka f. defiance XXII:23/1 flrjózkr adj. defiant, rebellious XXII:46/3 flróask (past flróa›isk, pp. flróazk) wv. prosper, increase in wealth VIII:162 flrotna (past flrotna›i, pp. flrotna›r) wv. dwindle, come to an end; pres. part. dwindling XXIII:107 Glossary and Index 285

flrótthar›r adj. strong in valour VI:343 flróttr m. valour, courage (gen. with or›) VI:180; strength XXV:55 flrú›ugr adj. mighty IX:65 flrungit see flryngva flrútinn adj. (pp.) swollen, inflamed XXII:33/3 firymheimr m. the mountain home of the giant fijazi II:42 firymr m. a giant IX:19, 22, 41, 85, 98, 119, 125 firymskvi›a f. a poem about firymr IX:title flryngva (past flrƒng, past pl. flrungu, pp. flrungit) wv. push, press; impers. pass. eptir er ykr flrungit you have been pushed to the rear XXV:14 flræll m. slave II:124, 131, VIII:47, XIX:36; with suffixed def. art. XIX:55, 64; liegeman, vassal XII:66 flræta (past flrætti, pp. flrætt) wv. quarrel (um about it) III:110; dispute, deny VI:129 firœndir/firændir m. pl. people of firándheimr XXII:10/1, 14/4 firœnzkr adj. Trondish, from firándheimr (Trøndelag, Norway) VI:157 flrƒngr adj. narrow XXIII:93; n. pl. flrƒng narrow ones (sc. ears) XXIII:46; n. as adv. flrƒngt close together XXVI:44; comp. flrøngri Gr 3.3.8.2 flrøngva/flrøngja (past flrøng›i, pp. flrøng›r) wv. press XXIII:5 flú pron. 2nd person sg. (Gr 3.2.1) you I:10, 16, 105, 130, 136, 142, 144, 145, IX:26, 36, 69, 71, X:152, XI:23, XV:24, XVI:22, 32, XXII:31/4, 47/1, XXIV:2, 83, XXV:21, XXVI A:47, 110, B:171; in address to God, thou XXIV:18; attu = at2 flú XXVI B:218; suffixed to verbs bittu IX:46 (see binda); ertu I:10, IX:24, heyr›u IX:6, láttu IX:116, muntu I:20, IX:11, sáttu IX:99, saztu XXV:23, segflu IX:37, veiztu IX:51 (see vita), viltu I:15, flarftu XXIV:8 flungi m. heaviness, weight; vera til flunga be of any weight XV:147 flungr adj. heavy VI:287; weighty, serious XXII:52/2; stern XXII:14/3; n. as adv. ganga oss flungt go hard (or badly) for us XXVI B:196 flunnhær›r adj. thin-haired XXIII:3 flunnr adj. thin VII B:48, XXII:49/2, XXIII:8, 49, 57 flurfa (pres. flarf, past flurfti, past subj. flyrfti, pp. flurft) pret.-pres. vb. need (Gr 3.6.7) VI:27, XVI:51, 53; flurfa at with inf. VI:188, XXI:71, XXVI B:110; flarf at rœ›a needs to be spoken or discussed XXIV:75; with suffixed pron. flarftu you need XXIV:8; eigi flurfu flér (Gr 3.6.9.1 (14)) you need not XVI:111; pres. subj. flurfi 286 A New Introduction to Old Norse

XXIV:13; past subj. flyrftu needed, might need XIV:59; have need (of it) IV:51; with gen. VI:108, VII A:110; flurfa vi› be necessary XIV:138, note; flurfa vi› with gen. be in need of something V:4, XXI:40; flurfti meira vi› flat he needed more help for this, it was a bigger job XVI:155; alls muntu fless vi› flurfa you will need all of that XI:72; pres. part. flurfandi Gr 3.3.9 ex. 25, XIII:47 flurka (past flurka›i, pp. flurkat) wv. dry; pres. are drying XI:18 flurs m. giant IX:19, 41 flursligr adj. giant-like XXI:11 flúsund f. thousand (years) (Gr 3.4.1, 3.4.2 (5)) VIII:149, XIX:49 flvá (pres. flvær, past fló/flvá›i, past pl. flógu, pp. flveginn) sv./wv. wash (Gr 3.6.9.3) I:24 flvarr see flverra fiverá (Munka-fiverá) f. a monastery in Eyjafjƒr›r, northern Iceland III:58 flverliga adv. absolutely, flatly II:140; comp. flverligar more definitely, more emphatically IV:30 flverr adj. across; flvers fingrar breitt the breadth across a finger XXI:117; see under um flverra1 (past flvarr, past pl. flurru, pp. florrinn) sv. (Gr 3.6.9.1 (1)) diminish, be sated VII A:25 flverra2 (past flver›i, pp. flver›r) wv. decrease (transitive), cause to lessen XXV:55 flvers‡ning f. optical illusion, magical delusion XXI:147 (pl.) flvertré n. cross-beam, joist XXVI B:116, 201; with suffixed def. art. XXVI B:219 flví, flí pron. n. dat. (Gr 3.2.1, 2) the, this, that, it I:95 (i.e. his sword), 122 (i.e. the beast), IV:64, 66, 72, 73, 75, 86, V:129, VI:19, 23, 322, VII B:28, 77, XIII:24, XIV:87, XV:4, XVI:41, XIX:58, XXI:3, XXVI B:32, XXVII:28; with this XVI:162, XXIII:6; object of jókkVIII:4; object of játa II:27, 125; flví er this that (object of rá›a) II:23, which XIX:33, what XXVII:8, 16; flví . . . es/er that which XXIV:31, such . . . as VIII:126; flví at of/in this that XXVI A:116; flví . . . at this . . . that XXVI B:163; at flví at on this, that XIX:25; á flví for this (affair) XXII:26/1; af flví from this VIII:23, as a result VIII:53; flat es af flví from which VIII:70; af flví at because (Gr 3.8.2.2) VI:290, 314, VIII:98; at flví es/er according to what VIII:14, 73, XIX:110 (as far as?); frá flví er from where V:43, about that which XXIV:75; í flví Glossary and Index 287

in this, by doing this I:53, VII A:50, in this, as a result of this VI:220, at this moment XXVI A:16; me› flví at according as VIII:2, since XXIV:22, 29; flví er . . . me› with which XIV:66; flví nær about that time? almost (with næstr)? VIII:58; flví næst next I:90, V:119, VI:109, XI:43, XXI:180; flví næsta close to that, almost, practically I:49; flví líkast sem exactly like XXI:97; flví ƒllu everything XV:147; flví at einu only then XIV:141; dat. of comparison flví fleira with more than that XVI:175; flví as adv. therefore II:161, XIV:187, XXIII:94, for this reason, so XIII:45, so (or dat. with í gegn?) VIII:179; for what (reason), why I:10, XXI:69, 133; flví meira . . . er the more . . . that IV:58; flví au›veldara . . . sem fleiri the easier . . . the more V:67; flví, flví at as conj. because, for 1:31, 33, 85, 136, III:16, 31, 125, IV:37, 82, V:21, 65, 70, 80, 92, 114, 126, 131, VI:2, 4, 12, 184, 209, VII B:71, XXIV:11, XXVI B:20, 48, 59, 62, for VII A:35, X:130, XII:73, 74, XIV:42, 138, 140, 156, XV:65, 76, 149, XVI:111, 123, 148, 152, 185, XIX:104, XXI:15, 34, 40, 137, XXIII:35, 60, XXIV:27, XXV:80, XXVI A:81, 106, since XIX:81, 87; flví . . . at for this reason . . . that XXVI B:57 flvílíkr adj. similar (sem to that which) VI:291; such VI:317, XXIII:34, 36 fl‡›ask (past fl‡ddisk) wv. -sk form fl‡›ask til pay attention to; be made responsive to XXIV:41; undir fl‡›ask attach/apply to oneself XXIV:53 flykkhær›r adj. thick-haired XXIII:4 flykkja1/flykja/flikkja (pres. flykir/flykkir/flikkir, past flótti, past subj. flœtti, pp. flótt) wv. (Gr 3.6.9.1 (15), 3.6.9.3, 3.9.4) 1. with dat. seem (to someone) I:29, 146, II:11, 40; be thought XIV:16; pres. pl. with suffixed neg. flykkjat do not seem VI:348; be considered (with dat., by someone), one considers, thinks something IV:111, V:3 (1), VII A:119, VII B:55 (past subj.); flykkir it will seem X:127; flótti vera was considered to be XVI:190; flykki(r) mér, flyki(r) mér, mér flikkir/flykki seems to me (Gr 3.6.9.1 (15)) I:145, II:75, 85, 121, IX:109, XXIV:31, seems to me to be VIII:132, seems to me to behave like VIII:102; flótti flér flat did that seem to you XVI:69; munu flér at flykkja will seem to you in it, you will find it II:77, flér munu flykkja you will think XV:92, flat flótti fleim it seemed to them XXVI A:19; flótti fleim vera they thought it was XXI:150; past subj. flœtti should seem XXIV:55; impers. with dat. flykki/ 288 A New Introduction to Old Norse

flykkir it seems XV:23, XXIV:57; mér flykkir/flikkir it seems to me to be IX:92 (‘it seems to me there is lacking only Freyja’), XXVI B:172; fliki mér sem it seems to me as if XXVI B:29; flykkir ykru hváru you each think XXV:34; en sjá flykir than seems apparent, evident I:136; flykir honum sem it seems to him as if I:37; flótti it seemed V:3 (2; understand at?), X:93; vi› flótti flurfa it seemed, they felt were necessary XIV:138, note; honum flótti, flótti honum he thought (it) VIII:26, XXI:152; flótti henni it seemed to her XII:78; flótti fleim they found it XIV:34; flótti mƒnnum people thought it I:71; past subj. flœtti it seemed XV:16; flœtti mér sem I would have thought that XXI:135; mér flœtti líkligt at I would have thought it likely that XXI:134; firi flykkja be displeased XXIV:11; mindi mér fyr flikkja í I would be displeased XVI:84; flykkir mikit fyr one finds it difficult: svá mikit sem honum flótti fyrr fyr difficult as he found it before XVI:99; flykki mér it seems to me with nom. (they understood) and inf. XXIV:50; honum/fleim flótti with nom. (and inf.) (Gr 3.9.4) II:126, VIII:162. 2. -sk form flikkjask consider oneself, feel oneself XVI:151, 179; flykisk hann he thinks that he I:27; munu fleir flykkjask they will think that they VI:196; flóttisk thought that he V:85, thought he was V:114, felt (himself) I:33, felt that he VI:1, 30, 41, felt that he was VI:3; hann flóttisk eigi mega he felt he could not III:10; flóttisk eiga hefna felt he needed to avenge VI:36; flóttiz flú you thought that you XXV:28; flóttusk hafa thought they had V:63, 144, XXI:51; sjá flykkjumk ek it seems to me V:137; ek flikjumsk sjá I seem to see XXVI B:28; flóttusk sjá thought they could see XXI:191, they realised, felt sure XXI:153; flykkjask finna, flykkjask vita feel sure VI:134, VII A:59, 118, B:54, XVI:101; flykjask kenna feel they recognise I:136; ek flœttumk I would think myself (to be) XXV:74 flykkja2 f. thought, mood; dat. sg. in mood XXII:14/3 flykkr (pl. flykkvir) adj. thick XXIII:6, 22, 48; sup. n. as adv. sem flykkvast as closely together as possible XXVI B:84 flylja (past flul›i, pp. fluli›r/flulinn) wv. recite, chant, mumble, mutter XXI:68 flyngja (past flyng›i, pp. flyng›r) wv. weigh down, make heavy XXIII:97 (subj.) flyr›u, flyr›a, flyr›i see flora flyrfti, flyrftu see flurfa Glossary and Index 289

fiyri f. daughter of Haraldr bluetooth VI:2, 4, 6, 31 flyrma (past flyrm›i, pp. flyrmt) wv. spare, show mercy to, show respect to, reverence; hverjum í er at flyrma who ought to be paid respect (regard?) to V:135 flær pron. f. pl. (Gr 3.2.1, 3.2.2) they, them, those X:10, 19, 116, 160, XII:85, XIV:90, note, XXIII:18, 94, XXVI B:6; those very XIX:96; flær er/sem as rel. pron. VI:2, IX:96, XI:15, XIV:179, XIX:71, XXVII:38, those which XXIII:48, those . . . which XXII:3/1; in apposition to two names (cf. Gr 3.9.6.1) III:39; flær . . . es such . . . as VIII:127 flœtti see flykkja flƒgull see flagall flƒkk f. liking, agreement VI:22; thanks XVI:75 flƒn f. tenter, stretcher (frame for preparing animal hides) III:3 æ adv. always VI:258, XXII:1/3, for ever X:94; constantly XXV:62 æ›ra f. words or sounds of fear or despair XXVI B:123 æ›rask (past æ›ra›isk) wv. refl. be afraid, hesitate VI:84 ær f. ewe; pl. ær IV:45 (subject of sœki) Ægir m. a giant, personification of the ocean II:1, 75, 85, 86, 121; dat. II:11, 13, 14; as common noun for sea in kenning for ship, ægis d‡r V:39 æsiligr (œsiligr) adj. vehement, furious XXII:55/1 Æsir m. pl. a race of (heathen gods II:3, 7, 15, 16, 43, 44, 62, 68, 122, 156, IX:53, 66; with suffixed def. art. II:54, 59; gen. pl. Ása IX:17, 33, 49, 57, with suffixed def. art. Ásanna II:72, 163; dat. pl. Ásum II:63, 100, 161 (with suffixed def. art.), IX:23, 25, XXII:24/3 æsta (past æsti, pp. æst) wv. request VIII:109, 164 (til to do, to arrange); with gen. æstir you wished for/desired XXV:86 ætla (past ætla›i, pp. ætla›r/ætlat) wv. think I:79, III:125, XII:11, XXIV:32, XXVI B:58; flat ætla think this XXVI B:66; flat ætla menn this is believed to be XXI:206; reckon, believe (them to be) XXI:192; expect III:31 (with dat., for someone), VI:316; intend, plan I:19, 39 (pp., understand vera), III:37, XVI:13, 94, XXI:2, 4, XXVI B:138, 176; flat hefi ek ætlat that is what I had intended XXVI B:78; decide VII A:132, VIII:86, XVI:37; decide to go XXI:155; propose XXVI A:38; with suffixed pron. ætla›ak I had intended XVI:63; ok ætlar (ætla›i) at intending to, meaning to V:127, VII A:150; ætlar flú do you think XVI:32; with acc. and inf. (Gr 3.9.4) vér ætlum we believe XV:54; kvazk ætla said he thought 290 A New Introduction to Old Norse

XV:115; ætla hóf fyrir sér know what is sensible for oneself, keep within one’s capabilities VI:167; ætla til make for, intend to go to VII A:9, believe, assume, take it (svá like this) I:134 (imp.); ætla til móts vi› intend (to go) against, plan to attack XIX:14; pp. til ætla›r appointed, detailed, selected (for this) III:105, 107, (to do something) IV:38; sé til ætlat it is destined/fated XXVI A:23 ætlan f. intention, purpose IV:64, XII:73; opinion VIII:8 ætt f. family VII A:90, XXV:15; race? IX:126; descent XIV:132 ætta, ætti see eiga ættvísi f. (knowledge of) genealogy, family relationships V:138 (with suffixed def. art.) æva adv. never X:182 ævi f. life, destiny VI:333 (the phrase belongs with sag›i) æztr (œztr) adj. sup. highest XXII:63/4 œ›i f. frenzy (of rage or madness) XXIII:108 œgir m. terrifier; ‡drógar œgir is a kenning for bowman, archer, warrior, here the king VII A:19 œpa (past œpti, pp. œpt) wv. cry out, shout I:90; œptu á shouted at it XXI:173; œptu hátt uttered/made loud cries XXI:206 œrinn (n. œrit, pl. œrnir) adj. enough Gr 3.3.9 ex. 4; n. as substantive VI:91; dat. n. as substantive œrnu (with) enough, sufficiently XXIV:57; n. as adv. sufficiently I:30; œrit hƒfugt hard enough XIV:92 œskja (past œskti, pp. œsktr) wv. wish XIV:169; betr œskja wish it to be better, wish for more XII:9 Œynir m. pl. Eynir, inhabitants of two islands near Trondheim; gen. with konungr VI:50 ƒ›lask (past ƒ›la›isk) wv. -sk form gain for oneself IX:117 ƒ›língr m. nobleman, king XXII:2/4, 63/1 ƒ›ru, ƒ›rum see annarr ƒflugr adj. powerful X:171 ƒfund f. malice, envy IV:60 (object of ala), XXIII:46, 49 ƒfundsjúkr adj. envious, jealous XXIII:65; acc. sg. m. an envious person XXIII:91, 103 ƒfunda (past ƒfunda›i, pp. ƒfundat) wv. envy XIV:160 ¯gmundr (ﬁorkelsson) m. 11th-century Icelander VIII:191 ƒgurstund f. X:182 see note ƒl n. ale IX:94 ƒld f. people VI:203, 337 (subject of kve›r), VII A:144 (subject of sá) Glossary and Index 291

ƒldnu see aldinn ƒldungr m. elder; hero XXVI A:101 ¯lfossá/¯lfusá f. river in the south of Iceland VIII:19, XIX:91, 96 ¯lfossvatn/¯lfusvatn n. lake near fiingvƒllr, now called fiingvallavatn; it is Iceland’s largest natural lake VIII:103, XIX:103 ¯lfus n. district in the south-west of Iceland VII A:167 ƒlger›arma›r m. brewer of ale III:58 ƒll, ƒllu, ƒllum see allr ¯lmó›r enn gamli m. XIX:17 ƒlreifr adj. merry with ale XXV:63 (understand were) ¯lrún f. a valkyrie X:9, 10, 12, 34, 74 ƒlskál f. ale-cup XXV:83 ƒlstafn m. ale-vessel (stafn stem (of a ship) = ship by synecdoche); a kenning for a bowl or cup (part of a kenning for woman) IV:83 ¯lvaldi m. a giant II:77 ƒnd f. soul XXVI B:182; his soul XXII:63/1 ƒndóttr adj. piercing, frightful IX:108 ƒndu›usk see andask ƒndugissúlur/ƒndvegissúlur f. pl. high-seat pillars, the pillars that had supported the roof on either side of the high seat in Ingólfr’s home in Norway XIX:52, 73, 92, 95, 96 ƒndver›a/andver›a f. beginning; firi andver›u in the beginning XXIV:59; frá andver›u in the first place XXIV:62 ƒnnu›usk see annask ƒnnur, ƒnnr see annarr ¯nundr Kolsson of Trƒllaskógr m. XXVI A:17 ƒr f. arrow Gr 3.1.7.5 (4), XXI:175, XXII:2/3, XXVI A:37, 44; acc. sg. with suffixed def. art. ƒrina XXI:176, XXVI A:49 ƒrmum (Gr 3.1.7.1 ex. 3) see armr2 ƒrn m. eagle (Gr 3.1.8 (5)) II:24; with suffixed def. art. II:24, 30; dat. sg. erni Gr 3.1.7.2 ex. 4, with suffixed def. art. erninum (dat. of respect or poss. dat. (cf. note to I:12), ‘the eagle’s’) II:30; gen. sg. with suffixed def. art. arnarins II:31, 58, 155; pl. ernir XXV:107 ¯rn = Fótar-¯rn ¯rn m. son of fiorkell of Ví›im‡rr XIV:132 ¯rn (gen. Arnar) Bjƒrnólfsson m. father of Ingólfr XIX:4, 11, 39 ƒrr adj. generous XIV:109, XXII:1/1; wk. acc. m. sg. ƒrva VII B:37 ƒsnum see asni 292 A New Introduction to Old Norse

ƒsp f. aspen (tree) XXV:16 ƒx see øx ƒxl f. shoulder II:33; yfir ƒxl sér over his shoulder XII:55 ø›li n. origin, extraction VII A:90 øngr/aungr pron. neg. no one, no = engi (Gr 3.2.4) ørindi n. pl. = erindi IX:40 ørlƒg n. pl. fate; war? X:18, 30 ørvænt adj. n. as adv. beyond expectation VIII:85; aldri ƒrvænt never unlikely, always to be expected V:3 (understand at that?) ørœfi n. desert; harbourless coast VII A:163, XVI:138, XXI:32 øx/ƒx f. axe XXI:149, with suffixed def. art. XXI:150, 152, XXVI B:91; acc. sg. øxi VII A:102; gen. sg. øxar VII B:48, dat. sg. øxi XXII:49/2 (instrumental), XXVI A:17 Øxará f. river flowing into the north side of ¯lfusvatn XIX:97 øxn, øxna see uxi Glossary and Index 293

SUPPLEMENT I: GLOSSARY AND INDEX OF NAMES TO EAST NORSE TEXTS (NION 2, XX A–D)

GLOSSARY AND INDEX OF NAMES TO EAST NORSE TEXTS (NION 2, XX A–D)

No references will be found in this glossary of East Norse texts to NION 1 (Grammar) since Old Danish and Old Swedish can differ considerably from Old West Norse. The abbreviations used, however, are the same as those found in the Grammar and the main glossary. A second or third occurrence of a word in a line is indicated by (2), (3). Cross-references are provided where there may be difficulty in identifying the entry form. Grammatical information is included as appropriate. Case forms, for example, are given for text A, and where relevant for C, but only sparingly for B or D since morphological case does not play a significant part in either. The distinction made between masculine and feminine in text D is notional, while grammatical gender of any kind is hard to discern in B (see B, notes on the language 12). The gender of some place-names is undiscoverable (e.g. Alexandria). The same alphabetical order is followed as in the main glossary. No attempt has been made to normalise the entries, and they are given just as they appear in the texts. Where different grammatical forms of a word occur the order is normally m., f., n.; sg., pl.; nom., acc., gen., dat.; and for verbs inf.; 1st, 2nd, 3rd; sg., pl.; pres., past; indic., subj.; pp. Certain grammatical forms are considered unmarked and are often, or as a rule, not noted: sg. in nouns, adjectives and pronouns, nom. sg. in nouns and pronouns, nom. m. sg. in adjectives and indic. in verbs. a prep. on B:3; sum allum snællum samflykkis a on which all sensible people agree A:19 aar n. year B:2 af1 conj. if B:8, 11 (2), 15, 22 af(f)2 prep. from, of B:1, 5, 8 (2), 10, 11, 24, C:4, 18, 20; off, from B:32, C:8; according to A:17; by D:11; of, about D:14; ther aff about it C:16; as adv. away A:18 affat adj. n. wanting, deficient A:14 aftæn m. evening, eve B:3 aldrigh adv. never D:11 aldræ see all aldærmen m. pl. masters of guilds B:3 alexandria Alexandria D:15 all pron. adj. all D:8; oll B:8, 27; n. sg. olt B:20; nom. m. pl. allir all, everyone A:10; m. pl. alle all C:7; pl. D:14; ollæ B:4; gen. pl. aldræ A:20; dat. pl. allum A:3, 12, 19; allom C:11 296 A New Introduction to Old Norse almænni n. dat. (the) common people A:6 alsø f. probably to be identified with Als, an island in the southern part of Lille Bælt, Denmark C:4 alzwærdugsth adj. n. sup. thet er alzwærdugsth at throo it is most worthy (for people) to believe D:7 and(h)re see annær annæn see annær annær pron. (num.) adj. second A:22; annæn another B:14, 17, 22; m. pl. andre other C:5, 21; pl. andhre D:5; hwar annan each other C:30 apostelæ m. pl. apostles D:5 arf m. inheritance B:7, 8, 16, 25, 26 arf skift n. division of inheritance B:8 aruing m. heir B:9 at1 prep. as adv. flungi ær. at is burdensome A:13 at2 conj. that C:12, D:1, 4, 5, 8 (2), 12 (2); for thi at/forthy at because B:6, D:11; swa at so that, in order that C:25; tho at even if B:13 at3 particle with inf. to D:8; till at to D:12 athælkunæ børnæ n. pl. children born in wedlock, legitimate children B:11 attundi num. adj. eighth A:26 attæ num. eight A:21 Augustine m. (St) Augustine D:1 balkær m. chapter, section (of the law) A:22, 23, 24 baptisthæ see johanni baptisthæ barn n. child B:19; pl. børn B:13, 22, 26; to the children B:18; pl. børnæ B:21 barn løt m. child’s share (of an inheritance) B:24 bafli conj. both A:6 benkt m. Bengt (this person is otherwise unknown) C:4 bestoodh sv. past sg. fought C:14 bewiisthe wv. past sg. demonstrated D:6 biscopp m. bishop D:15 bleff sv. past sg. remained C:32 bok f. (law)book A:20; acc. A:4, 12; dat. A:15 bordh n. table C:9; nom. pl. def. bordhin the tables C:27 breff n. letter D:16; pl. breffwe D:3 breffwe see breff Glossary and Index of Names to East Norse Texts 297 brollups kost m. wedding expenses B:23 brollæp n. wedding B:17 brollæps dagh m. wedding day B:17 broo f. acc. bridge C:15 brutin see sønder brutin brysthyggiu f. dat. conviction A:18 by m. town B:8 byggiæ wv. 3rd pl. pres. live A:4, 20 bygningæ balkær m. section (of the law) dealing with farming and the community A:26 bymens see bymæn bymæn m. pl. men of the town, burghers B:4; gen. pl. bymens of the burghers B:1 Byrghir m. King Birgir of Sweden (1290–1318), crowned 1302 A:3 Byrghiri iarli m. dat. Earl Birgir, de facto ruler of Sweden 1250–66 A:17 byriæs wv. 3rd sg. pres. -s form begins B:1 bør wv. 3rd sg. pres. behoves; bør thet sik ey it is unfitting D:12 børn(æ) see barn Cyrillus1 m. (St) Cyril (c.315–86), Bishop of Jerusalem (c.349–86) D:1 Cyrillus2 m. (St) Cyril (c.380–444), Bishop of Alexandria (412–44) and prominent theologian D:15 dagh m. (see brollæps dagh) B:17; pl. daghe days D:16; dagh days’ B:30 danmark f. Denmark C:20 danske adj. m. pl. Danish; the danske the Danes C:3 diwr see offe doo see døør drap n. acc. killing A:24 driffwen see wt diffwen dør f. door C:28 døør sv. 3rd sg. pres. dies B:8, 13; 3rd sg. past doo died C:16 e adv. ever, always; e mæth as long as B:19, 26; æ til right until C:16 een num. indef. art. a(n) C:13, 19, D:14; nom. f. C:1; acc. f. ena a certain C:15; acc. n. eth a(n) C:23; ien one B:9, 11, 24; n. ient a(n) B:29 eenfaldughe adj. pl. simple D:13 298 A New Introduction to Old Norse eldiærn n. fire-steel B:30 ellær see ællr en(n) see æn enghen neg. pron. adj. no D:7; ænik B:32; n. sg. ekki nothing B:11; pl.(?) D:9; mæth engi logh with no legal authority B:13 en waldughær adj. sole-ruling, absolute A:2 er see wæræ Erikinum hælghæ m. St Eriker, who was king of Sweden c.1156–60 A:16–17 Etake n.(?) an estate in Västergötland, modern Ettack/Ettak, a small community in Vartofta härad C:1 ey see æi eflsøre n. oath to defend the peace of the country (Sweden) sworn by the king and other leaders A:22 faangær sv. 3rd sg. pres. gets B:11; fæær B:19; 3rd sg. past fæk got, obtained B:21; 3rd pl. past fingo got C:9 fathær m. father B:12, 14, 17, 18, 26; gen. sg. fathærs B:24 fatøkum adj. dat. pl. as substantive almænni til styrls bafli rikum ok fatøkum for the direction of the common people, both rich and poor A:6; fatøkum til wærnær for the defence of the poor A:7 fierfli num. adj. fourth A:24 fingo see faangær fiyrsin num. adv. four times (see B, notes on the language 13) B:2 fiyræ num. four B:3 flere adj. comp. (in non-comp. sense) many C:5 flokkum m. dat. pl. sections, paragraphs (of the law) A:5 flænsborgh f. Flensburg B:1, 4 folki n. dat. sg. people A:1, 2 for(e) prep. for, of A:2; of time, before B:17; ago D:16 forfæflrum m. dat. pl. predecessors A:16 for glømer wv. 3rd sg. pres. neglects B:20 forklaræ wv. inf. establish D:12 for thi see forthy forthy conj. because D:11; for thi B:6 fra prep. from; fra wors hærræ aar contamination of from the birth of our Lord and in the year of our Lord B:2 friflær m. gen. spakum til friflær for the peace of the law-abiding A:8 fromer adj. doughty C:19 Glossary and Index of Names to East Norse Texts 299 frugh f. lady; a fyrmer wor frugh aftæn on the festival of the Assumption (the earlier of the principal feast days of the Virgin Mary; see B, note 1) B:3 full adj. complete, fully equipped B:9 fylghiæ wv. inf. follow A:16 fyndir f. acc. pl. finds, findings (of lost property) A:24 fyr adv. previously B:6; already B:22; førre before D:11 fyrmer1 adj. comp. earlier (see frugh) B:3 fyrmer2 adv. previously A:20 fyrsti num. adj. first A:2, 21; acc. n. pl. fyrstu A:1 fæk see faangær fæmpti num. adj. fifth A:25 færth see iorthæ færth fæthærn n. paternal inheritance B:12 fæær see faangær førre see fyr føræ wv. inf. move, take B:32 gaf see giuæ gaghin n. gain, growth B:27 gangæ sv. inf. go; af fathærs løt ut gangæ come from the father’s share B:24 gardhin m. acc. sg. def. the farm C:15 gawo see giuæ gif see giuæ gift man m. husband B:23 giptæ mal n. acc. pl. marriage(s) A:23 gitum sv. 1st pl. pres. (as aux. with pp.) hwat wir gitum til satt. ællr aff takit whatever we can add or remove A:18 giuæ sv. inf. give B:14; 3rd sg. pres. subj. gif is to give, shall give B:18; 3rd sg. past gaf gave B:5; gawo (3rd pl. past) sik alle godha trøst felt confident, felt themselves to be safe C:7 giæstning f. acc. provision of accommodation A:25 giømæ see gømæ giøtæ m. gen. pl. of the Geats A:3 glømer see for glømer goodh adj. good, fine C:13; acc. f. sg. godha (see giuæ) C:7 gooz n. goods, property B:26, 32; gwoz B:20; pl.(?) gotz fiefs C:24 gotz see gooz 300 A New Introduction to Old Norse gudelighet f.(?) devoutness, piety D:8 Gvfl m. God A:1 gwoth adj. n. good, solid B:18 gwoz see gooz gømæ wv. inf. giømæ protect, preserve A:22; inf. -s form gømæs be observed A:7; 3rd sg. pres. subj. gømæ is to keep, is to look after B:19 haffde/haffdhæ/haf(f)do see hauær haffs n. gen. (the) sea A:4 haffwe see hauær hafn f. harbour B:32; hauæn B:31 hafth see hauær hald n. succour, protection C:23 haldæs sv. inf. -s form be kept A:7 halft adj. n. half B:21, 22 hallande n. dat. Halland C:18 ham see han han pron. he B:19, 20, 22, C:14, 16, 20, D:5, 15, 16; oblique case ham B:29; gen. as poss. adj. hans his A:2, 11, 23, B:20, 21 (refl.), 21 (2), D:10 hauæn see hafn hauær wv. 3rd sg. pres. has B:11; hæuær B:22; haffwe (pres. pl.) ther vndher paa are astonished about it D:2; past sg. haffdhæ (as aux. with pp. forming past perfect) had D:2; haffde (3rd sg. past) them kæra held them dear, held them in affection C:26; 3rd pl. past haf(f)do had (as aux. with pp. forming past perfect) C:8, 23, (as aux. with pp. forming past perfect) 29; 3rd pl. past hafth B:6 hedherligh adj. honourable D:15 helgesthe adj. sup. wk. most holy D:10 helighet f.(?) holiness D:4 herra m. (as title) Sir C:4, 13, 18; wors hærræ (gen.) aar the year of our Lord B:2 hertoghen m. nom. sg. def. the duke C:24; dat. sg. def. hertoghanom C:23; hærtugh Duke B:4 hesta m. pl. horses C:29 heflin adj. heathen A:11; nom. m. sg. wk. heflne A:14; dat. m. sg. heflnum A:11 hin def. art. A:14; dat. m. sg. inum (see Erikinum hælghæ) A:17 hittum wv. 1st pl. pres. find A:11 Glossary and Index of Names to East Norse Texts 301 huilkin pron. acc. (as expression of wonderment) huilkin kamp what a fight! C:14; n. hwicketh which (things) D:6 hun pron. she B:9, 10, 11, 22 husbond m. master of the house, husband B:8 husfrugh/husfrø f. wife B:8, 14 hwannær adv. whenever B:12, 32 hwar see hwær hwat see hwo hwicketh see huilkin hwit see palne hwndrada num. hundred C:6 hwo pron. hwo sum whoever B:29; acc. n. hwat what(ever) A:18; hwat (. . .) ær whatever A:11, 14 hwær pron. each B:14, 18; hwar annan each other C:30 hælade m. warrior C:13, 19 hælghæ see Erikinum hælghæ hændhe wv. inf. oss skall enghen vndher oc thwiffwell hændhe ther om we shall not experience any amazement or doubt about it D:9 hænt wv. pp. pl. fetched C:31 hær adv. here B:1 hærræ see herra hærtugh see hertoghen hæuær see hauær hørdhe wv. pp. pl. heard D:11 i prep. in A:11, 12, 14, 16, B:4, 8, 31, C:10, D:3, 4, 5, 15 (2); at A:15; in(to) B:21, C:29; into A:21, B:32; on B:29; on (to) B:29 (2); of D:15; j in D:8 iarli m. dat. Earl A:17 iauæn adj. equal B:9; as adv. iauænt equally B:21 iek pron. I D:8, 12, 13; oblique case mik D:4, 16 ien see een inum see hin iorthæ færth f. funeral B:24 iorflir f. acc. pl. land and farming A:25 iutland n. Jutland B:5 j see i jeronimus m. (St) Jerome D:4 302 A New Introduction to Old Norse jnnan prep. in, at C:1; of time, within, at C:2 johanni baptisthæ m. John the Baptist D:4–5 jærthegnæ n. pl. miracles D:10 kamp m. acc. battle C:14 karsson see wlff karsson kirkiu balkær m. ecclesiastical section (of the law) A:21 kirkiu laghum n. dat. pl. ecclesiastical law A:15 kiøp see løsøræ kiøp klæthær n. pl. clothes B:10 koll m. acc. lupu hwar annan vm koll ran each other down, knocked each other over C:30 komo see kummær kompne see kummær kost m. provisions, sustenance B:30; (see brollups kost) B:23 krankær adj. comp. wk. (the) worse, (the) poorer B:11 krauæ wv. inf. demand B:12; 3rd pl. pres. subj. may demand B:13 kristnu ræt m. dat. Christian law A:14 kummær sv. 3rd sg. pres. comes, arrives B:32; 3rd pl. past komo were coming C:12; pp. m. pl. kompne come, arrived C:3 kunungær m. king A:3; acc. kunung A:22; gen. kununx A:3, 22; dat. kunungi A:17 kunæ f. wife B:17, 21 kæra adj. m. pl. dear C:26; sup. wk. kæresthe dearest D:1 lagh n. pl. law A:5, 7, 8; acc. A:1; gen. lagha A:10; dat. laghum A:5, 16; pl. mæth engi logh with no legal authority B:13 laghmaflær m. law speaker A:2 laghsaghu f. dat. enunciation of the law, oral law A:12 laghæ balkæ m. acc. pl. sections, parts (of the law) A:21 laghæ yrkir m. lawmaker A:10 latit see læt leffneth m. life D:10 legghe wv. inf. ther till legghe add to them D:13 lente wv. 3rd sg. past granted (as fiefs) C:24 ligherwiiss adv. ligherwiiss som just as if D:2 lighnes wv. pres. -s form resembles D:5 liighæ adj. equal, comparable D:4 liuær wv. 3rd sg. pres. is (still) alive B:8, 12 logh see lagh Glossary and Index of Names to East Norse Texts 303 lotæ see læt lupu sv. 3rd pl. past ran C:30 lykkia see utæn lykkia læt sv. 3rd sg. past let, caused A:14; lotæ (3rd pl. past) scriuæ had written, caused to be written B:4; pp. n. latit put C:29 læthæ adj. pl. of little weight, trifling D:13 løsøræ kiøp n. acc. pl.(?) buying of goods and chattels A:25 løt m. share B:9, 24 løøst wv. pp. n. aff sik løøst taken off, removed C:8 ma pret.-pres. vb. 3rd sg. pres. may, can B:32; 3rd pl. pres. mugh B:12; 3rd pl. past matto could, were able C:25 maat m. acc. food C:9 magnusæ m. gen. King Magnus of Sweden (1275–90), nicknamed ladulås ‘barnlock’ supposedly because he forbade his nobles, during their travels around the country, to claim maintenance from the peasants A:3; dat. magnusi A:17 mal see giptæ mal man m. man C:10; gen. pl. mannæ of men, of people A:20; dat. pl. mannum to men, to people A:12; as indefinite subject man one A:21 manghe adj. pl. many D:16; as substantive many people D:2 margh adj. f. sg. many a C:28, 32 mark f. mark (monetary unit) B:14 matto see ma megtughe adj. pl. powerful D:6 mellom prep. between C:15; mellum A:4, 6; mell B:26 mere adj. comp. more (in number) C:6; sup. as substantive mest most B:9 meth see mæth1 mothær f. mother B:13; gen. mothærs B:24 moyses m. Moses A:1 mugh see ma mykæt adj. n. as substantive (how) much B:18 mæn conj. but D:7 mænneske n.(?) pl.(?) people D:11 mæth1 prep. with B:13, 30; together with B:21, 22; with, by B:5; meth with D:6; mæfl with, through A:1; with, containing A:4; ær . . . mæfl with which A:22 304 A New Introduction to Old Norse mæth2 conj. while B:19, 26 mæthærn n. maternal inheritance B:13, 18, 19 mæthælst adj. sup. wk. (in non-sup. sense) average, middling (one) B:10 mæfl see mæth1 naath f. grace B:5 nogeth pron. n. something D:3; pl. noghre any D:13 nyth adj. n. new D:3 nytæ wv. 3rd pl. pres. subj. are to enjoy, are to have the benefit of B:23 næfnæ wv. 3rd sg. pres. subj. is to cite, is to summon B:18 næfst f. acc. punishment, chastisement A:8 næra wv. inf. support, maintain C:25 nøkæs wv. 3rd sg. pres. -s form (if their property) diminishes B:27 oc see ok1 and ok2 offe diwr m. Offe ‘animal’ (see C, note 4) C:21 offwergiffwe sv. inf. dismiss, drop D:14 ognær f. gen. dread, terror A:8 ok1 conj. and A:1, 4 etc., C:4, 5 etc.; oc B:2, 3 etc., D:3, 5 etc. ok2 adv. also A:2; furthermore A:14; oc also D:5 (3) oll/ollæ/olt see all orlof n. permission B:33 o ræt m. acc. wrong, injustice A:7 o snællum adj. dat. pl. as substantive (the) unwise, (the) foolish A:9 o spakum adj. dat. pl. as substantive (the) unruly A:8 ospent wv. pp. f. unfixed, unbuckled C:32 o flarfft adj. n. unnecessary, unsuitable A:13 paa prep. ther . . . paa about it D:2 palne hwit m. Palne ‘white’ may have been a member of a landowning family in Thy, northern Jutland (cf. Pipping 1926, 336–7) C:4 par n. pair B:11; pl. B:10 peder porsse m. Peder Porsse (see C, note 4) C:18 penning m. (in) money B:15 plata f. breastplate C:32; acc. pl. plator C:8 porsse see peder ran n. acc. robbery A:24 rasker adj. able, vigorous C:19 rasklika adv. quickly C:27, 31 rathmen m. pl. (town) counsellors B:3 rafl n. acc. counsel, deliberations A:18 Glossary and Index of Names to East Norse Texts 305 riddare m. pl. knights C:5 ridhande sv. pres. part. riding C:12 rikum adj. dat. pl. as substantive (the) rich A:6 roflæræt m. acc. special legal provisions governing life on board ship during time of war A:23 rymde wv. pp. m. pl. waro . . . rymde had fled, had escaped C:22 ræt m. law B:23; acc. right, justice A:7; (see o ræt) A:7 rætningær f. gen. correction A:10 rætwisir adj. m. pl. just, honest A:10; dat. pl. as substantive rætwisum (the) just, (the) honest A:9 saat sv. 3rd sg. past sat C:10; 3rd pl. past satho C:9 saer n. acc. pl. wounds A:24 saffdh see sighe sagde/sagdo see sighe sagh see sighe saghflum see sighe samma adj. acc.(?) f. sg. wk. same C:2; wk. samæ B:23 samflykkis wv. 3rd sg. pres. -s form, with dat. sum allum snællum samflykkis a on which all sensible people agree A:19 samæ see samma samæn sættiæ wv. inf. put together, compile A:19 sanctus Latin adj. (the) holy D:1 sandhet f.(?) truth D:8, 12 sanneligh adv. truly D:7 sannesthe adj. sup. wk. (the) most veritable D:8 satho see saat satt see sættiæ saw sv. 3rd sg. past saw D:15 scal see skal scra see skra scriuæ sv. inf. lotæ scriuæ had written, caused to be written B:4; 2nd sg. past skreffsth wrote D:3 scul see skal sial f. acc. soul A:21 sighe wv. inf. sighe aff tell about D:14; pres. sg. sigher says D:1; sagde (3rd sg. past) ther aff told about it C:16; 1st pl. past saghflum stated, said A:20; 3rd pl. past sagdo said (see C, notes on the language 6) C:11; pp. m.(?) sagh stated B:23; n. saffdh told D:2 siit see sin 306 A New Introduction to Old Norse sik refl. pron. oblique case themselves (see giuæ) C:7, (see løøst) 8, 9; ‘itself’ (see bør) D:12 sin refl. poss. her B:23; f.(?) his B:5; acc. f. sg. sinæ one’s A:22; n. siit its B:19; sint his B:32; sith his D:15; dat. n. sg. sinu his A:1; acc. m. pl. sina their C:29 siundi num. adj. seventh A:25 siflærsti adj. sup. wk. last A:26 siælwær adj. himself A:1 skal pret.-pres. vb. 3rd sg. pres. shall, is to A:21, B:20, 24; scal B:14; skall shall (see hændhe) D:9; 1st sg. pres. skall should D:13; 2nd sg. pres. skalth should, must D:1; 1st pl. pres. skulum shall A:15, 19; 3rd pl. pres. skulu shall, is to A:5, 7, 8; scul shall, are to B:29 skathæ m. loss B:27 skift see arf skift skiftæs wv. inf. -s form be divided B:21; 3rd sg. pres. skiptis is divided A:20 skiold m. shield B:15 skip n. ship B:29, 31, 32, 33 skipafli wv. 3rd sg. past made, compiled A:1; pp. n. pl. skipafl drawn up, compiled A:6 skipman m. member of the crew B:32; pl. skipmen (the) crew B:29; gen. pl. skipmenz (the) crew’s B:33 skipthiuf m. thief on board ship B:28 skiptis see skiftæs skipwistir f. acc. pl. the provisioning of ships levied by the king for aggressive or defensive war A:23 skiæl n. pl.(?) til . . . skiæl as a distinction, to distinguish A:6; n. pl. skæll grounds, reasons D:6, 11, 13 skra f. (law) scroll, legal code B:1, 6; scra B:4 skreffsth see scriuæ skutin sv. pp. n. pl. pushed aside C:27 skæll see skiæl slike adj. nom. m. pl. as substantive such people C:21 snællum adj. dat. pl. as substantive (the) wise, (the) sensible A:9; wise, sensible (see samflykkis) A:19; (see o snællum) A:9 som conj. as (see ligherwiiss) D:2, 15; who D:9; which D:4, 10, 14; sum as A:14, B:24; which (see a) A:18; hwo sum whoever B:29 son m. son A:3; syn B:14 Glossary and Index of Names to East Norse Texts 307 spa see wiger spakum adj. dat. pl. as substantive (the) peaceable, (the) law-abiding A:8; (see o spakum) A:8 spiyt n. speer B:15 stal m. acc. stable C:29 stark adj. strong C:19 stathfæst wv. 3rd sg. past confirmed B:5 stathæligh adj. town, for the town B:6 sthoræ adj. pl. great D:10, 12 stiyp mothær f. stepmother B:22 striidh f. battle C:1 strøms see sæw strøms styrls f. acc. guidance A:6 styræman m. captain (i.e. captain’s) B:33 stæl sv. 3rd sg. pres. steals B:29 sum see som summi adj. nom. m. pl. the . . . summi some of them C:29 swa adv. thus, in the same way A:2; such A:14; so D:12; swa at so that, in order that C:25 swena m. pl. squires C:5, 30 swerike n. acc. Sweden C:22 sweæ m. gen. pl. of the Swedes A:3 swørth n. sword B:15 syn see son sywffn f. vision D:14; n.(?) pl. visions, revelations D:6 sændhe see sændir sændi see sændir sændir wv. 3rd sg. pres. sends A:2; 3rd sg. past sændi sent A:1; past sg. sændhe D:4, 16 sæng f. bed B:10 sætti num. adj. sixth A:25 sættiæ wv. inf. (see samæn sættiæ) A:19; sættæ place, put B:29; 1st pl. pres. sætium (will) place, (will) include A:12; pp. n. gitum til satt can add A:18; n. pl. prescribed A:5 sæw strøms m. gen. the name of a river on the border between the provinces of Uppland and Västmanland A:4 sømdær f. gen. rætwisum ok snællum til sømdær to the honour of the just and the wise A:9 308 A New Introduction to Old Norse sønder brutin sv. pp. f. broken to pieces C:28 takær sv. 3rd sg. pres. takes B:9, 14, 17; 3rd sg. pres. subj. takæ is to take B:9, 10; 3rd pl. pres. subj. are to take B:21; pp. n. gitum . . . aff takit can take away, can remove A:18 tha adv. then B:20, C:2, 10, 22, 27, 31, D:12; fla A:10, 19 then1 pron. that C:10; n. thet it B:19, 20, D:7, (see bør) 12; that B:20 (2); nom.(?) n. flæt that A:13; acc. n. A:12, 13 (2), 15; gen. n. thes its D:12; pl. the they B:6, 12, 19, 23, C:22, 25, (see summi) 29; thee C:17; gen. as poss. adj. thera their C:8 (refl.), 30, 31; theræ B:12 (refl.), 13 (refl.), 22, 26; thers theirs B:27; oblique case them them B:5, C:11, 24, 25 (refl.), 26, (see hauær) 26 (2), D:3, 5, 14; dat. flem them, those A:3 then2 def. art. B:10, 23, D:14; acc.(?) f. sg. C:2; nom. m. sg. flæn A:21; pl. the (see danske) C:3, (see vplænzske) 12 ther adv. there C:12, 14, 32; ther aff about it C:16; thær yuær in addition B:9; ther . . . paa, ther . . . vppa, ther om about it D:2, 7, 9; ther till (see legghe) D:13; as conj. where, when D:3; thær B:17; flær where A:20; which D:16; thær who B:9; which B:4, 20; that, as B:23 thi see forthy thinnæ pron. this B:4; nom. f. sg. flæssi A:20; acc. f. sg. flessæ A:4, 13; dat. f. sg. flæssæri (for expected gen.) A:15; dat. pl. flæmmæ A:16 tho adv. nevertheless B:14; as conj. tho at even if B:13 thre num. three B:14; n. thry B:10; gen. thrigi B:30 thrigi see thre throo wv. inf. believe D:8 thry see thre thu pron. 2nd sg. you D:1, 2, 3, 4, 6 thusænd num. thousand B:2 thwiffwell m.(?) doubt D:7, 9 thy adv. therefore D:13 thynæ poss. adj. 2nd sg. (modifying pl.) your D:3, 11 thær see ther tidhande n. pl. tidings, news C:11 tiidh f. acc.(?) time, period C:2 tiit adv. thither, there C:3 til prep. to A:9, C:22; for A:6, 7, 8, 9 (2), 19; for, as B:19; (followed by clause) in evidence of B:18; till (followed by inf. phrase) D:12; Glossary and Index of Names to East Norse Texts 309

as conj. æ til right until C:16; as adv. ær til exists B:15; till (see legghe) D:13; til satt (see sættiæ) A:18 till see til til økiæ wv. inf. add A:15 timæ m. dat. time, era A:11 tiughæ num. score, unit of twenty B:2 træno n. dat. sg. def. the tree C:10 trøst f. acc. confidence (see giuæ) C:7 tu num. two B:10, 21 tuhundræth num. two hundred (to be analysed as two separate words tu hundræth) B:2; twhundradhe (tw hundradhe) C:17 tundær n. tinder B:30 twhundradhe see tuhundræth uilium see will um prep. about A:22, 23, 24, 25, 26; vm about, concerning B:7, 16, 25; vm koll (see koll) C:30 upbyriæn f. dat. beginning A:15 upplænzkum see vplænzske ut adv. out B:18, (see gangæ) 24 utæn lykkia wv. inf. exclude A:13 vbygd wv. pp. uninhabited B:29 vhørligth adj. n. unheard of, strange D:3 vm see um vndher n. wonder, amazement (see hauær) D:2; pl.(?) (see hændhe) D:9 vndherligh adj. miraculous D:14; pl. vndherlighe D:6, 10 vplænzske adj. m. pl. Upplandic, of Uppland; the vplænzske the Upplanders, the men of Uppland C:12; dat. upplænzkum A:5 vppa prep. ther . . . vppa about it D:7 vskift wv. pp. unapportioned, not shared out B:26 vtæn prep. without B:33 wald n. power (see C, note 6) C:24; wold B:5 waldughær see en waldughær war/ware/warin/waro see wæræ wari/warum/warflt see wors wi pron. we A:11; wij D:9; wir A:12, 13, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20; oblique case oss us D:8 wiger spa m. Wiger (the) prophetic, Wiger (the) wise, otherwise unknown A:11; gen. wigers Wiger’s A:5 310 A New Introduction to Old Norse wiid see with wij see wi wilium see will will wv. 1st sg. pres. will, want to D:13; 1st pl. pres. uilium will, wish to A:13; wilium A:16; 3rd pl. pres. wilæ want B:12, 19 wintær m. pl. winters B:2, 3 with prep. with B:9, 22; wiid at, by C:9; as adv. flurfpti æi . . . wifl one would not need, would not be needed (see flurfpti) A:10 withe see withæ withner wv. pres. sg. testifies D:15 withæ pret.-pres. vb. inf. know D:1; withe pres. pl. D:9 witnæ n. testimony B:18 wifl see with wlff karsson m. Ulf Karlsson, a Swedish nobleman and trusted servant of King Magnus C:13 wold see wald woldemar m. Duke Valdemar (IV) of Southern Jutland (born c.1262, duke 1283–1312) B:5 wordo sv. 3rd pl. past (as aux. forming pass.) were C:27 wors poss. adj. gen. m. of our B:2; f. wor our (see frugh) B:3; dat. f. wari A:17; acc. n. warflt A:18; dat. pl. warum A:16 wrangum adj. dat. pl. as substantive (the) unjust, (the) dishonest A:9 wt driffwen sv. pp. m. driven out C:20 wæl adv. well C:25, 26; wæl hwndrada a good hundred C:6; wæl twhundradhe a good two hundred C:17 wænther wv. pres. sg. expect D:8 wærnær f. gen. defence, protection A:7 wæræ sv. irregular inf. be (as aux. forming pass.) A:5, 8, 14; 3rd sg. pres. er is D:7; ær A:12 (2), 13, 14 (2), 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, (as aux. forming pass.) B:23, 26; ær til exists B:15; 3rd pl. pres. subj. wæræ are to be, shall be B:27; 3rd sg. past war was A:2, 11, C:1, (as aux. forming pass.) 20, D:4; past pl. ware were (as aux. forming pass.) D:11, 12; 3rd pl. past waro C:17, (as aux. forming pass.) 31; were, had (as aux. with pp. forming past perfect) C:3, 22; 3rd pl. past subj. warin were A:10 yrkir see laghæ yrkir yuær prep. thær yuær in addition B:9 fla adv. see tha Glossary and Index of Names to East Norse Texts 311

flarfflikt adj. n. beneficial A:12 flarfft see o flarfft flarwæ f. gen. pl. benefit A:19 flem see then1 flessæ see thinnæ flingmal n. acc. pl. assemblies and court procedure A:26 fliuffnæfl m. acc. theft A:24 flrifli num. adj. third A:23 flungi m. flungi ær. at is burdensome, is difficult A:13 flurfpti pret.-pres. vb. 3rd sg. past (with gen.) fla flurfpti æi lagha wifl then one would not need laws, laws would not be needed A:10 flæmmæ see thinnæ flæn see then2 flær see ther flæssi see thinnæ flæssæri see thinnæ flæt see then1 æ see e æfn n.(?) means, wealth B:15 æi adv. not A:10; ey B:6, D:12 ælskade wv. 3rd sg. past loved C:26 ællr conj. or A:18; ellær B:17, 18, 26 æn1 conj. but A:8, 9; en B:19, 23; enn B:12 æn2 adv. even C:6 ænik see enghen ær conj. who A:2, 4, 20; which A:12, 21 (2); hwat (. . .) ær whatever A:11, 14 æren f. def. (his) glory D:5 ærffflir f. acc. pl. inheritance A:24 økiæ see til økiæ økæs wv. 3rd sg. pres. -s form (if their property) increases, grows B:26 øland n. island B:29 øpte wv. 3rd sg. past shouted C:10 ørss n. pl. chargers, steeds C:6, 17, 31 øflmorflæ (gender and case uncertain) the name of a forest on the border between the provinces of Gästrikland and Hälsingland A:4

SUPPLEMENT II: GLOSSARY AND INDEX OF NAMES TO RUNIC TEXTS (NION 2, XVII A–G)

GLOSSARY AND INDEX OF NAMES TO RUNIC TEXTS (NION 2, XVII A–G)

This list is organised on the same principles as the main glossary. There are, however, no designated entry forms; only forms that occur in the inscriptions are given. References are to lines in the normalised texts of the inscriptions.

á prep. with dat. in E:7 aft prep. with acc. after, in memory of A:1, B:1, 2, 3, C:1, 2; after B:5; at after, in memory of E:1 ailti wv.(?) 3rd sg. pres. subj. removes(?), may remove(?) B:4 Alla m. acc. Alli B:1; gen. Alli’s B:2 alla adj. acc. f. sg. all, the whole of C:2 annan pron. acc. m. sg. another B:5 Arinbjƒrg f. acc. Arinbjƒrg D ást f. love G2 at1 see aft at2 prep. with dat. (see ver›i) B:4; for, in search of E:3 auk conj. and A:2, B:2, C:1, 2, 3, E:4; ok G3:2 austarla adv. in the east E:4 austr adv. in the east A:1 ba› sv. 3rd sg. past ordered, commanded C:1 bró›ur m. acc. brother E:1 dani m. acc. pl. (the) Danes C:3 Danmƒrk f. acc. Denmark C:2 dóu sv. 3rd pl. past died E:6 dragi sv. 3rd sg. pres. subj. drags, may drag B:5 dróttin m. acc. lord B:3 drængila adv. manfully E:2 e›a conj. or B:5 eigi pret.-pres. vb. 3rd sg. pres. subj. Ó›inn ﬂik eigi (may) Ó›inn own you G3:4 en conj. and, but B:3 eptir prep. with acc. after, in memory of D es conj. who B:4, C:2 fá›i wv. 3rd sg. past wrote, painted A:2 fa›ur m. acc. father B:2, C:1 fial sv. 3rd sg. past (inf. falla) fell A:1 fiarri adv. far E:3 316 A New Introduction to Old Norse fóru sv. 3rd pl. past went, travelled E:2 fyrir prep. with dat. of, in F:2 fyrr adv. earlier F:1 gáfu sv. 3rd pl. past gave E:5 go›a m. acc. leader (see B, notes) B:1 gó›um adj. dat. pl. good G3:2 Gorm m. acc. GormR (Gormr the old, Danish king of the mid-tenth century, father of Haraldr bluetooth) C:1 GrímulfR m. GrímulfR A:2 gulli n. dat. gold E:3 gƒrva wv. inf. ba› gƒrva ordered (people) to make, ordered to be made C:1; 3rd sg. past gær›i made A:1, C:3; 3rd pl. past gær›u B:2 hans pron. gen. as poss. adj. his B:3 Haraldr m. Haraldr bluetooth (Danish king and ultimately king of Denmark from somewhen in the 940s(?) to c.985) C:1, 2; Harald acc. Haraldr (brother of Ingvarr the far-travelled) E:1 haugr m. mound, cairn F:1 heil(l) adj. m. or f. sg. hale, well G3:1 heldr conj. with comp. fyrr . . . heldr earlier than, before F:1 hennar pron. gen. as poss. adj. her F:1 hinn def. art. the D hla›inn sv. pp. m. built, thrown up F:1 hugum m. dat. pl. spirits G3:2 hvatir adj. nom. m. pl. bold F:2 hæi›ver›an adj. acc. m. sg. noble, worthy of honour (see B, notes) B:1–2 í prep. with dat. in G3:2 Ingvars m. gen. of Ingvarr E:1 kona f. wife B:3 konungR m. king C:1 kristna adj. acc. m. pl. Christian C:3 kross m. acc. cross D kumbl n. pl. monument (consisting of more than one element) A:1, B:2, C:1 kvinnu f. acc. wife D kyss wv. imp. sg. kiss! G2 lét sv. 3rd sg. past lét ræisa had raised E:1 li›s n. gen. of (the) host, of (the) body of men (see B, notes) B:1 Glossary and Index of Names to Runic Texts 317

Lo›brókar f. gen. Lo›brók’s (see F, notes) F:1 menn m. pl. men F:2 meR prep. with dat. with A:2 mik pron. acc. me G2 mín poss. adj. nom. f. sg. my G2 mó›ur f. acc. mother C:2 myntari m. moneyer G1 Norveg m. acc. Norway C:3 ok see auk Ó›inn m. Ó›inn G3:4 pipar m. acc. pepper G1 Ragnhildr f. Ragnhildr B:1 reisti wv. 3rd sg. past raised D; inf. lét ræisa had raised E:1 retta m. dat. pervert (see B, notes) B:4 rúnaR f. acc. pl. runes B:3, 4 ræisa see reisti ræist sv. 3rd sg. past (inf. rísta) carved B:3 sá (demonstrative) pron. he A:1, B:4; that C:2 Sandulfr m. Sandulfr D satti wv. 3rd sg. past placed B:1 sé sv. irregular 2nd sg. pres. subj.(?) (see G, notes) may you be G3:1; 3rd sg. past (as aux. forming pass.) var was F:1; 3rd pl. past vru were F:2 sem conj. as F:2 sendir wv. 3rd sg. pres. sends G1 sér refl. pron. dat. themselves F:2; séR for himself C:2 Serklandi n. dat. Serkland (see E, notes) E:7 sinn refl. poss. acc. m. sg. his A:1, B:3 (2), C:1; her B:3, E:1; their B:2; acc. f. sg. sína his C:2, D sjá demonstrative pron. this F:1; acc. m. sg. flenna D; flennsa E:1; flennsi B:1, 4; acc. f. pl. flassi these B:3, 4; acc. n. pl. flausi B:2, C:1 slíkt adj. n. sg. as substantive such (a thing) F:2 Sóti m. Sóti B:3 StygguR m. StygguR (see A, notes) A:1 stæin m. acc. stone B:1, 4, E:1 sun m. acc. son E:1; sunu A:1; nom. pl. syniR sons B:2; synir F:1 sunnarla adv. in the south E:6 svarti adj. nom. m. sg. wk. black D 318 A New Introduction to Old Norse synir/syniR see sun Sƒlva m. gen. pl. of the SƒlvaR (see B, notes) B:1 Tolla f. Tolla (see E, notes) E:1 vann sv. 3rd sg. past won C:2 var see sé véa m. acc. priest (see B, notes) B:1 ver m. acc. husband, man B:3 ver›i sv. 3rd sg. pres. subj. at retta sá ver›i may he become as a pervert, be reckoned a pervert B:4 vígi wv. 3rd sg. pres. subj. hallow B:4 VíkingR m. VíkingR A:2 vru see sé flassi see sjá flausi see sjá flegn m. acc. thane (see B, notes) B:2 fleir pron. they F:1, 2; flæiR E:2; n. pl. flau these (see A, notes) A:1 flenna/flennsa/flennsi see sjá fliggi sv. 3rd sg. pres. subj. receive, take G3:3 fiorkell m. fiorkell G1 fiórr m. fiórr B:4, G3:3 fiórví f. acc. fiórví (generally known in Icelandic sources as fiyri, wife of King Gormr the old) C:2 flú pron. 2nd sg. you G3:1; acc. flik G3:3, 4; dat. flér G1 ærni m. dat. (nom. ƒrn) eagle E:5 Øyvind m. acc. ØyvindR A:1 Øyvísli m. dat. Øyvísl A:2