A NEW INTRODUCTION TO OLD NORSE PART I: GRAMMAR A NEW INTRODUCTION TO OLD NORSE PART I GRAMMAR THIRD EDITION BY MICHAEL BARNES VIKING SOCIETY FOR NORTHERN RESEARCH UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON 2008 © M. P. Barnes 1999/2004/2008 ISBN: 978-0-903521-74-1 First published 1999 Reprinted with corrections and additions 2001 Second edition 2004 Third edition 2008 Printed by Short Run Press Limited, Exeter Preface This Grammar is intended for university students with no previous knowledge of Old Norse. It covers considerably more than the essen- tials, however, and is suitable for study up to first degree level. Full account is taken of the fact that grammatical concepts may be unfa- miliar to many using the work, and all but the most basic are explained. Comparison is made with English where helpful, and a glossary of grammatical terms included at the end. Although it is possible to study the Grammar on one’s own, the guidance of a tutor is strongly recom- mended. The bulk of the Grammar was available in draft by the time of the 1998–99 session, and was tried out by several teachers at British uni- versities. Content and presentation have benefited greatly from the comments and suggestions of both teachers and students. I would like in particular to thank Alison Finlay, Judith Jesch and Svanhildur Óskarsdóttir, who offered many valuable insights, Peter Foote, who read the whole work and improved it in countless ways, and finally Anthony Faulkes, who not only commented on numerous points of detail but designed the layout and saw the production of the book through from start to finish. Needless to say, such faults as remain are my responsibility. Michael P. Barnes University College London July 1999 Preface to second edition The necessity for a further reprint has made it possible to introduce a number of corrections and changes, and to add a new section on points of syntax (3.9.9). Users will also be pleased to know that there is now a CD that can be obtained from the Viking Society containing extracts I, II, IV, VIIB, VIII (b) and (e), IX and X from NION II read with Modern Icelandic pronunciation by Icelanders: Selected Readings from A New Intro- duction to Old Norse, published by The Chaucer Studio, 2003. April 2004 Preface to third edition The book has been corrected and revised throughout, and a postscript added (pp. 262–3). May 2007 Contents Abbreviations and Symbols ........................................................... xii 1. Introduction 1.1 The aim of the Grammar .................................................. 1 1.2 What is Old Norse? ........................................................... 1 1.3 Old Norse and modern English ......................................... 2 1.4 Pronunciation .................................................................... 3 1.5 Orthography ...................................................................... 4 1.6 General advice to the student ............................................ 5 2. Pronunciation and Orthography 2.1 Old Norse .......................................................................... 8 2.1.1 Pure vowels .......................................................... 8 2.1.1 Exercise ................................................................ 9 2.1.2 Diphthongs ........................................................... 9 2.1.2 Exercise .............................................................. 10 2.1.3 Consonants ......................................................... 10 2.1.3 Exercise .............................................................. 12 2.1.4 Syllables ............................................................. 13 2.1.4 Exercise .............................................................. 13 2.2 Modern Icelandic ............................................................ 14 2.2.1 Vowels ................................................................ 14 2.2.1 Exercise .............................................................. 16 2.2.2 Consonants ......................................................... 16 2.2.2 Exercise .............................................................. 20 2.2.3 Syllables ............................................................. 20 2.2.4 The epenthetic vowel ......................................... 20 2.2.3/2.2.4 Exercise ......................................................... 21 3. Morphology and Syntax 3.1 Noun inflexions and their function ................................. 22 3.1.1 Number ............................................................... 22 3.1.2 Case .................................................................... 22 3.1.3 Gender ................................................................ 27 3.1.1/3.1.2/3.1.3 Exercise ................................................ 28 3.1.4 Basic noun inflexions ......................................... 28 3.1.4 Exercise .............................................................. 31 3.1.5 Examples of noun usage..................................... 31 3.1.5 Exercise .............................................................. 37 3.1.6 Difficulties in recognising noun inflexions and ways of overcoming them ..................... 37 3.1.6 Exercise .............................................................. 39 3.1.7 Important variations in noun inflexion ............... 39 3.1.7.1 Labial mutation ............................................ 39 3.1.7.1 Exercise ....................................................... 41 3.1.7.2 Front mutation ............................................. 41 3.1.7.2 Exercise ....................................................... 44 3.1.7.3 Breaking ...................................................... 44 3.1.7.4 Deviations from the basic endings .............. 45 3.1.7.5 Minor irregularities ...................................... 45 3.1.7.3/3.1.7.4/3.1.7.5 Exercise ................................. 46 3.1.8 Examples of noun inflexion ............................... 47 3.1.8 Exercise .............................................................. 53 3.1.9 The suffixed definite article ............................... 56 3.1.9 Exercise .............................................................. 58 3.2 Pronoun inflexions and their function ............................. 60 3.2.1 Personal pronouns: form .................................... 61 3.2.2 Demonstrative pronouns: form .......................... 63 3.2.3 Indefinite pronouns: form .................................. 65 3.2.4 Negative pronouns: form.................................... 66 3.2.5 Interrogative and distributive pronouns: form ... 67 3.2.1/3.2.2/3.2.3/3.2.4/3.2.5 Exercise .............................. 68 3.2.6 Examples of pronoun usage ............................... 68 3.2.6 Exercise .............................................................. 76 3.3 Adjective inflexions and their function ........................... 77 3.3.1 Number, case and gender ................................... 77 3.3.2 Definiteness ........................................................ 78 3.3.3 Degree (comparison) .......................................... 79 3.3.1/3.3.2/3.3.3 Exercise ................................................ 79 3.3.4 Basic adjective inflexions .................................. 80 3.3.4 Exercise .............................................................. 84 3.3.5 The free-standing definite article ....................... 84 3.3.5 Exercise .............................................................. 86 3.3.6 Examples of adjective usage .............................. 87 3.3.6 Exercise .............................................................. 95 3.3.7 Difficulties in recognising adjective inflexions and ways of overcoming them ..................... 96 3.3.7 Exercise .............................................................. 97 3.3.8 Important variations in adjective inflexion ........ 98 3.3.8.1 Labial mutation ............................................ 98 3.3.8.1 Exercise ....................................................... 99 3.3.8.2 Front mutation ............................................. 99 3.3.8.3 Suppletive forms ........................................ 100 3.3.8.4 Deviations from the basic endings ............ 101 3.3.8.5 Minor irregularities .................................... 102 3.3.8.2/3.3.8.3/3.3.8.4/3.3.8.5 Exercise ................... 103 3.3.9 Examples of adjective inflexion ....................... 104 3.3.9 Exercise ............................................................ 111 3.4 Numerals ....................................................................... 115 3.4.1 The numerals and their inflexions .................... 115 3.4.1 Exercise ............................................................ 119 3.4.2 Examples of numeral usage ............................. 120 3.4.2 Exercise ............................................................ 123 3.5 Adverbs ......................................................................... 124 3.5.1 Adverb formation ............................................. 124 3.5.2 Inflexion for degree .......................................... 125 3.5.3 Examples of adverb usage ................................ 127 3.5.1/3.5.2/3.5.3 Exercise .............................................. 129 3.5.4 Adverbs and adverbials .................................... 130 3.6 Verb inflexions and their function................................. 131 3.6.1 Person and number ........................................... 131 3.6.2 Tense ...............................................................