Outlines of Environmental Education. PUB DATE 71 NOTE 257P

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 050 973 SE 011 310

AUTHOR Schoenfeld, Clay, Ed. TITLE Outlines of Environmental Education. PUB DATE 71 NOTE 257p. AVAILABLE FROM Dembar Educational Research Services, Box 1148, Madison, Wisconsin 53701

EDRS PRICE EDRS Price MF-$0.65 HC-$9.87 DESCRIPTORS Ecology, Educational Programs, *Environmental Education, *Essays, *Instructional Materials, Nature Centers, Outdoor Education, *Publications, Resource Materials

ABSTRACT Selected articles from the first two years of publication of the quarterly journal "Environmental Education" are reprinted in this book together with editorial remarks where appropriate. Contributions from 76 individuals and organizations are included. Chapters deal with the setting for environmental education, definitions and directions, elementary and secondary school curricula, university dimensions, new nature centers and learning laboratories, and community action programs. References are included at the end of each article when necessary. The goal of the book is to help professionalize the field of environmental education by presenting relevant reporting of investigations, creative developments, and imaginative insights in conservation communications. (BL) &dated 4 smoidameatat Edam/tag re%

C=) Featuring Articles By Li1

t4J Allen Fox Ames Hafner Archbald Hansen Ashbaugh Harrison Ayers Harr ar Brennan Logan Brewer McConnell Bryson M9nesini Caldwell Nash Chaney Roth Clark Sargent Cole Scheffey Dambach Shorn= Dasmanfi Stapp Evison Wang

Foster is Weidner

And Others

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION & WELFARE OFFICE OF EDUCATION THIS DOCUMENT HAS SEEN REPRO- DUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIG- INATING IT. POINTS OF VIEW OR OPIN- IONS STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDU- I 'CATION,POSITION OR POLICY. e004ev de Edam&

Everybody's Ecology

Cabins,Conservation,andFun Wisconsin Sideroads to Somewhere Canada GooseManage'rnent (editor, with Ruth Hine)

TheUniversityland ItsPublics EffectiveFeatureWriting PublicityMediaand Methods TheShapeofSummer Sessions to Come (editor) YearRound Educationwith Neil Schmitz) University Extensionwith T. J. Shannon) The American University in Summerwith Donald Zillman)

t t Ourated 46 Eowitoomeatat Edge-areal( Edited by Clay Schoenfeld

JointProfessorof Journalism andWildlife Ecology, and ChairmanoftheCenter for Environmental Communications and EducationStudies,TheUniversity of Wisconsin, Madison;Editor of EnvironmentalEducationQuarterly.

From the 1969-70 and1970-71 IssuesoftheJournalof

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

Dembar Educational Research Services; Inc. Box 1148 Madison,Wisconsin 53701

iii CONSERVATION is a state of harmony between men and land. Despite a century of propaganda, conservation still proceeds at a snail's pace... The usual answer to this dilemma is "more conservation education." No one will debate this, but is it certain that the votame of education needs stepping up? Is something lacking in the content as well?... The "key log" which must be moved to release the evolutionary process for a land ethic is simply this: quit thinking about decent land-use as an economic problem. Examine each question in terms of what is ethically and esthetically right, as well as what is economically expedient. A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community.It is wrong when it tends otherwise.... By and lar ge our present problem is one of attitudes and implements. We are remodeling the Alhambrawith a steam shovel, and we are proud of our yardage. We shall hardly relinquish the shovel, which after all has many good points, but we are in need of gentler and more objective criteria for its successful use. ALDO LEOPOLD

OUTLINES OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

Reprinted and Preprinted from ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION by Dernhar Educational Research Services, Inc. Printed in the Urdted States of America Library of Congress Catalog Number 78-149598

iv CULTIVATING more concern for the environmental consequences of society's activity is becoming a national goal. Hence, environmental education programs are growing in number and size, The scope and velocity that characterize this growth are little short of stunning, as more and more people sense that man may well be the most endangered species of all.While many environmental education practices continue to be founded more on folklore than on fact, research is underway to identify ',11tors actually related to the development of environmental awareness. imaginative field projects are discovering better ways to convert that awareness into ecological action, and new forms of conservation communications are emerging. One such conservation communication is EnvirionmentatEducation, a quarterly journal of research and development launched inSeptember 1989. In its first 2 years of publication, this journal has stimulated and recorded a remarkable series of man- uscripts at the growing edge of its chosen fieldthe crucial point where ecology and education impinge: something of the conservation history of America; the dimensions of environmental degradation; the political configurations, economic stresses, social values, and esthetic perceptions that condition any quest for environmental quality; critical factors in translating ecological concepts into action programs on the landscape; public policy processes by which resource management decisions seem tobe crystallized; communications techniques designed to build public interest, understanding, and support for enlightened resource use; and edUclitional media and methods that seek to develop an ecological conscience and improve environmental housekeeping, Out of past, current, and coming issues of EnvaonmentatEducation we have selected outstanding articles, organized them into logical sections, and added suitable editorialremarksto fornvthe li&st nutionat Icevizo 015 education 6oit todayie ccatog- ical caioie. Chapters deal with the setting for environmental education, definitions and directions, elementary and secondary school curricula, university dimensions, new nature centers, and community action programs. The overall goal of this book is to help professionalize the new field of environmental education. The measure of its success will be the degree to which it is of service to the growing numbers of people engaged systematically in relating man to his world. In short, we do our best here to present clear, relevant reportingof rigorous investigations, creative developments, and imaginative insight& in conservation communications. Aldo Leopold was once constrained to say that conservation consisted mostly of letterhead pieties and convention oratory. We trust this book isn't that.We are trying to help inject deep-digging research, practical field approaches, and vaulting imagination to a field that may represent the difference b e- tween human survival at the cesspool level and the fulfillment of the American promise.

1 January 1971

v eoferefea Page

Pre Ogee v

Teeedeatetve viii

1. We Swevuemeated Decade

An Environment Fit For People Raymond F, Dasmann 3 The Ecological View Gordon Harrison 5 Conservation Comes of Age Grant McConnell 7 A Report On The American Environment The President's Council on Recreation and Natural Beauty 9 Some Critical Issues Today In The Field Irving Fox Of Natural Resources 11 The Population-Pollution Syndrome David Archbald 15 The Potential of Conservation History Roderick Nash 21 Environmental Pollution: An Ecological Durward L. Allen Perspective 24 People and Environment Lamont C. Cole 29 Can Technology Correct Its Wasteland ? Irwin Hersey 33 Why The World Is Not Our Oyster Robert I. Standish 37

II2,441,49. Stmemmussearal Edweateolo 40

Identifying Needs, Obstacles, and Solutions Mario Mennen( 42 The Environmental Education Banner Wilson B. Clark 45 Toward Course Content Improvement Matthew J. Brennan 49 Conservation In Transition Ruben L. Parson 51 The Concept of Environmental Education William B. Stapp, et. al. 53 Toward A Curriculum In Environmental Douglas C. Covert Education 55 Vitalizing Natural Resources Education Beverly H. Southern 57 A Systems Approach Toward Environmental J. Y. Wang Education 58 A New Ethic of Responsibility J. George Harrel. 63 Fundamental Concepts For Environmental Robert E. Roth Management Education (IC-16 ) 65 Environmental Education: An Integrated Approach David Archbald and Paul Gundlach 75 What's New About Environmental Education ? The Editor 77

III74 Se/044 Efte.outips44 Sweiumeateatal Seauteitut 81

New Horizons for Environmental Education Wilhelmina Hill and Roy C. White 83 Toward An Environmental Ethic Rudolph J. H. Schafer 87 The Conceptual Field Trip Matthew J. Brennan 89 About Project "Spruce" Phyllis S. Busch 91 Schools and The Environment Edward A. Ames 92 The Resource Agency Seminar Richard S. Peterson 95 The Environment and Man Robert E. Roth 96 An Environmental Approach to Mar!ne Alan Rabinowitz Science K-12 101 Change Toward Better Ecological Studies Richard L. Delnickas and Edward G. Smith 103 Environmental Encounters William B. Stapp 104 vi ivemiesoftetearal Staled. (,arse to to &sofa 111 A Glimpse and Analysis of Environmental Spenser W. Havlick Education Opprtuniti es in American Higher Education 113 The Preparation of the Interpretive Naturalist AIN Task Force 117 A Focus in the Humanities for Resource Philip N. Joranson Management Education 119 The Long, Wide View of Biology H. Lewis Batts, Jr. 123 The University and Environmental Education The Editor 125 Roles for Social Scientists in Environmental Robert N. Saveland Education 128 The Education in Environmental Education Ira Winn 131 The Man-Environment System Approach Reid A. Bryson 133 Ecography: A New Scientific Discipline Everett M. Hefner 135 Forestry's Changing Ecology Richard W. Jones 138 Visual Conservation Doris M. Carter 141 Environment and the College Student Frank M. Corrado 142 Dartmouth's College Course I Alvin 0. Converse, S. Law, ..tnce Dingman, and Malcolm Lewis 147 The Politics of Environmental Quality John Baden 152 A Demonstration of Ecosystem Stress R. A. Coler and H. B. thinner 155 A Whole University Goes Environmental Edward W. Weidner 157 The Williams Center for Environmental Studies Andrew J. W. Scheffey 159 Outdoor Education, Dayton Style Simon J. Chavez 161 Regional Environmental Education Centers The Editor 163

V VA. Zuvegeseg Zetiowitave.4 e c 7ield awe 7etatvtv 166

Full Disclosure in Environnzental Use Michael F. Brewer 167 InterpretationSomething New R. Yorke Edwards 171 Nature Center Purposes and Values Byron L. Ashbaugh 173 Toward an Urban Ecological Structure Thomas J. Rillo 175 Whither Urban Environmental Education ? Barbara J. Reid 179 The National Park System and,Environmental Boyd Evison Education 181 Outdoor Learning Laboratories Norman F. Marsh 183 Nature CentersOne Approach to Urban Joseph J. Shomon Environmental Education 184 The Ecological Study Plot Gordon J. F-wearingen 189 New Interpretive Methods and Techniques Byron L. Lshbaugh 190 Project R. A. C. E. Jerry Passer 193 Antioch's Glen Helen Kenneth W. Hunt 195 The Faits Creek Project Meridan Bennett 198

vI "Milt Edauteeose Ors Seolofteese "team. 201

Informed Forces for Environmentalquality Frederick Sargent II 203 A Cross-Cultural Environmental Education Model Noel P. Ralston and Ivan R. Martin 207 Conservation Through Adult Education Charles A. Dambach 211 Needed: Citizen Conservationists Durward L. Allen 212 Evaluating a University Extension Conservation Bruce T. Wilkins and Program, Richard J. McNeil 215 A Self-Guiding Communities Approach Leonard R. Askham 219 A Nature Corps for Public Action Nancy Ayers 221 The Environment: Wb) Cares? Why ?So What? Ed Chaney 225 Guidelines for Citizen Action Charles H. W. Foster 228 An Independent Study Course in Water Resources Paul F. Nowak 231 Conservation Synergism: New Dynamics Roger P. Hansen For Effective Action 233 Environment and the Shaping of Civilization Lynton K. Caldwell 296 Af-.:tr the Teach-Ins What ? The Editor 239 vii Tatoduereoa

ALEAST five gross attitudes can be identified in American man-land relationships. The first is the economic impulse, which tends to view natural resources essentially as a God-given stockpiletobema- nipulated largely for private profit. The second is thelevangetical attitude ,which prefers to sense in nature a mys- tic shrine that is to be adored but not altered.The third attitude is the ea thetic-athletic, seeking enjoyment of one kind or another in the outofdoors. The fourth is the apocalyptic attitude, which sees a mushrooming population, a rampant technology, and a fragile biosphere on a collision coursetoward Inexorablecatastrophe. Thefifth posture is the ecological, under which we recognize thevalidity of each of the other approaches and attempt-through some sort of scientific understanding, technical design, and social entente-to achieve a viable balance that will protect without penalizing, develop without destroying.These attitudes do not necessarily exist in a pure and exclusive state either within a culture or within an individual.roll the five approaches are at one and the same time competitive and complimentary renders man-landrelationships frustrating for the biologist, fascinatingfor the social scientist, and functional for the politician. While all five approaches to man-land relationships have existed for many years and exist site -by -side today, each has had an ascendancy at a particular time.Prior to the turn of the century in America, the economic motive was dominant in resource use. With an almost religious fervor, all of society acquiesced in an exploitation of natural resources. As William Freeman Vitas expressed the philosophy of the day, if God had -lot meant Wisconsin's virgin pineries to be clear-cut to build Chicago, He would not have caused the major rivers of the state to flow southward. The government bestowed various bounties on the more adroit explorers; society r e - served its accolades for the barons of rampant industry; the universities devoted some of their growing &Ails toward a more efficient assault on field, forest, and mine. While the exploitation of natural resources can scarcely be said to have been halted, since about 1900 the sheer economic attitude toward man-land relationships has had to answer increasingly to the evangelists and their vision of nature's "vast, pulsing harmony." The evangelical attitude has found its expression in three principal developments: the scientific study of the dynamics of nature; the ptewtvation of such natural phenomena as rare scenery and remnant wildlife populations; and a populist revolt against monopolistic practices of resource waste. Confronted with these thrusts, the economic attitude became tempered by a concern for resource management more in the public interest.Using as its touchstone the term con.senvation,this wedding of research and reform has seen attempts at manipulation for wider and wiser use of soil, water, forest, range, and game. State and federal bureaus have been founded to foster various brands of conservation, and the courts have rendered several classic decisions defending the integrity of the biota.Schools and colleges came to devote a portion of their enterprise to conservation education. Conservation creeds became linked to broad programs of arid land reclamation, water power development, public welfare, economic pump-priming, awl national defense.Indeed, by becoming all things to all men, the conservation movement tended to lose some of its viability as a man-land ethic. In more recent years, the esthetic-athletic attitude toward man-land relationships came to be heard from in swelling tones. The well-nigh cabalistic word for it was necneation. Recreation enjoyed an "in" phrase as a catchall term to describe the manifold outdoor activities of millions of Americans, andas a politically attractive device for developing a region's economy. The term should not be dismissed as mere phrasemaking.Its well- springs are deep in the American psyche. Americans and their outofdoors have been carrying on a love affair for a' Long time.It is no accident of the songwriter's art that two of our favorite national songs speak of "woods and templed hills," "spacious skies," "amber waves of grain," and "purpled mountain majesty." It is of tome significance that one of the most popular movies and record albums of all time starts outwith magnificent views and strains of "hills alive with the sound of music." Americans simply possess this deep yearning to get into the outdoors. Be he a Thoreau or a lathe operator, when an American looks for meaning in life, he seeks it not in ancient ruins or in the canyons of a city but in a forest, by a river, or at the edge of a lake. Theoutdoors is a source of inspiration and, literally, re-creation-a renewing experience, a refreshing relief from alarms and routine, plus a dab of physical exercise. Scarcely had recreation had its day as a phrase with political sex appeal when it was overtaken at the turn of the decade by a revival of Malthusian fear.The new Jeremiahs, with their apocalyptic warnings of impending disaster, substituted sheer human istavtval as the basic motivation in man-land relatons.Over-pollution and over-population, they said, render man the most endangered species of all. These four attitudes toward man-land relationships-the economic, the evangelical, the esthetic-athletic, and the apocalyptic-have led to two principal-and competing-doctrines of conservation. The first, what Prof. Samuel P. Hays has called the "gospel of efficiency," has perhaps never been better expressed than by Gifford Pinchot in his dictum that land and water use should be governed by a concern for "the greatest benefit for the greatest number of people for the longest possible time." This principle runs hard up against a second view of conservation-what might be called the Muir-Leopold thesis, that what we should really seek is "a state of harmony between man and land," in the attainment of which we must recognize that land and water, as well as people, have certain inalienable rights. The schism inherent in these competing philosophies of conservation is rendered even more intense by the fact that modern conservation issues seldom involve raw exploitation versus preservation, but rather excruciat- ing conflicts between prudent use of resources for one acceptable purpose versus prudent use for another, as a growing population impinges on a shrinking, or at best a static, resource base. Irrigationversus power, access viii highways versus wild rivers, logging and grazing versus downstream siltation, potato plantatitms versus trout streams, wheat fields versus duck factories, pulp mills versus clean water, artificial lakes versus ancient canyons, camp grounds versus forest cloisters, smokestacks versus prairie vistas, suburban sprawl versus parklands, air conditioned offices versus power plant pollution, automobiles versus smog, convenience packaging versus mountains of garbage, worm-free apples versus si!ent springs-the list is unending and overpowering. For example, even the so-called outdoor recreation movement can hardly be considered homogeneous. On the contrary, it is composed of a wide variety of essentially competitive activities and values. The water skier, the fisherman, the duck hunter, the bird watcher, the lotus fancier, the cottager, the hermit all competefor the same patch of water. The quality or a mountain view for one hiker is in inverse ratio to the number of campers who seek to share that view.Indeed, high-density outdoor recreation has the capacity to destroy the very enjoyment it sets out to capture. The number of sans at a football stadium does not detract from, and may even en - hance, the sport. The same cannot be said for grouse hunting on a back 40 or even for picnicking in a park. Importantly, the contending parties in conservation are not asking simply, "When are we going to `run out' of my resource?" Long before we are aware of an impending "running out," we are becoming acutely aware of something else that is happening to us-a deterioration in thequalityof the resource. Thebasic issue in resource conservation today is hence not quantity but quality.The great concern in the management of resources has become the maximization of quality of output.It is not the quality of the resource itself that we are concerned with so much as its capacity to enhance the quality of life.This is a very sticky problem, as Ayers Brinser said, and becomes involved in many subjective evaluations. It is the making of sophisticated choices, then, the rendering of subtle value judgments, that is the essence of conservation today.Should we do it, and if we do it, what do we gain, at what cost, and what do we lose, at what cost? These are the questions, and the term "cost" is being used in the context of physical and mental health as well as simply in reference to dollars.In the words of John C. Weaver, conservation has become more ethics than economics. Enter, thus, theecotogiect.attitude toward man-lacci relationshipsthe attempt to balance the demandsof an industrialized, urbanized society against the demands of the living landscape, both of them being basic to modern health and happiness.This attitude thinks of man in nature, rather than of mana,,dnature.It is the long, integrated view: Landscape is something to enjoy, not merely to mine or till.Space is something to roam in, not merely to fill.Beauty is something personalty to cultivate, not merely to read about.Flora and fauna are something to cherish, not merely to harvest. Water and land and air are resources with an all-to-fragile integrity that defies any doctrine of anthropocentricism.Yet, man is something more than an animal. His spirit mertts something more than a niche on the African veldt. In this decade of ecological concern, what are ourmajor environmental problems? Using my state of Wis- consin as a parameter, key issues include the following: Patution willcertainly show up at the top of anybody's list.There is the problem of gross municipal and industrial water pollution; the problem of more subtle over - enrichment of water from agricultural and residential sources; the problem of air, land, water, and even human pollution from the use of chemicals as pesticides. The harmful effects of all types of pollution must be determined through continued research and eradicatedthrough improved technology and control. By any standard, another major land and water use problem is 4012wean.Despite over 30 years of federal and University efforts, we have completed only about a third of the erosion control job in Wisconsin. Scarcely one-quarter of the landowners in Wisconsin have conservation plans, and many of the existing plans are only haphazardly followed.Soil erosion is a serious problem on over 6 million acres of Wisconsin farmland. Top soil continues to disappear, robbing us of food and fiber and silting our streams, lakes, and wetlands.

A third major problem is Umbel'. Land management. Some suitable acres of Wisconsin cou1d yetbe replanted or newly planted to trees. Many unsuitable acres already have been or are being replanted or newly planted to trees. Many acres of extensive forest land require timber stand development measures, applied with an eye to multiple use. The many widely scattered woodlots which account for some 40 percent of the state's timber acreage need protection from encroachment by unsuitable land uses, as well as good forest management practices.

What may seem like a narrow problem yet one with wide repercussions is the problem of waningwettands. Wetlands are those little pockets of damp countryside characterized by a high water table and heavy emergent vegetation. They arr vital to upland game bird, furbearer, and waterfowl populations, arerelevantifrequently to game fish production, play a role in the recharge of underground aquifers, act as pollution-filters for lakes and streams, and invariably are associated with various forms of outdoor recreation. We have lost wetlands at an alarming rate over the past 4 decades to agriculture and urbanization, in some counties as much as 90 percent. The preservation of a viable array of wetlands is absolutely essential to a healthy Wisconsin landscape.

A fifth problem is what we might call collectively theexime, oi thecity. It has two aspects: (1) the noise, congestion, dirt, foul air, foul water, and general lack of amenities in the inner city-uncultured blight; and (2) the encroachment of the outer city and its appurtenances like transportation systems, dumps, septic tanks, and "Blurbs" in nearby cropland, open space, woodlots, wetlands, and recreation areas-unintelligent sprawl. A sixth broad problem is thedegtadattono6outdoon. itemortion aneaethrough improper and conflicting land- use development in relationship to agricultural practices, parks, highways, waterways, resort areas,natural areas, beaches, and so on; to the point where water, fish, game, scenery, and other recreational resources are ix

{N9 being destroyed by the very people who seek them out, where persistent unintelligent use of floodplains subjects people to economic loss and even loss of life, whet e unzoned shorelands are taking on the appearance of outdoor slums, and where fewer and fewer people have access to a natural heritage of decent quality. All of the problems so far listed concern man's stake in the man-land equation. There is a seventh collective problem in land and water use; namely, the preservation of the biota.Here our concern is with scientific areas, wild rivers, remote forests, rare flora, disappearing birds.Call this problem the problem of prtea env - ay naturtat beautywhat Stewart Udall eescribed as "our groping for something we cannot forgetthe long waves and the beach grass; white wings on morning air, and, in afternoon, the shadows castby the doorways of history." We can say some things about this list: First, it is parochial.Other states have somewhatdifferent stresses.Second, the list represents a gross oversimplification of what is in reality a congeries of problems which could easily become a roster of fourscore or more. Third, it tends to identify symptoms of disease rather than the disease itself.What ..eaiej causes our basic problems in land and water use? At the bottom, of course, is the simple fact that we have too many people in the wrong places who do not exercise restraint. U we do not practice some form of " people management, PP all other approachestoeonservation will be for naught.Yet there are some other very profound reasons for our current land and water use problems. Robert Ardrey suggests one of them in his book,The Temitoniat ImpeAative. It is seemingly a biologicallaw that an individual or a troup stake out a piece of real estatea territor and call it their own. Those of us w ho go out into the country to buy land, to do with it what we will, may think we have some very advanced economic or cultural motives for so doing.In reality we are simply reacting to the territorial instinct which our ape ancestors acquired on the African veldt.The institution of private property, with all its attendant threatstoresource management in the public interest, may be immutable. Our Western culture complicates conservation.Unlike an aborigine who has no concept of "ownership" and who views himself as simply one of many manifestations of nature, we have been given "dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every P:treepingthing that creepeth upon the earth"; and we exercise that dominion as a coach rather than as a team player. Our economic system complicates conservation. What frugal land and water use requires of us is that we manage our resources at least in part for other people who cannot or will not pay us because they are either not direct customers or they are not yet born. There is nothing, or very little, in our system of interest rates to encourage such management.In fact, under our pervasive doctrine of conspicuous consumption, we are driven in just the opposite direction, to make a fast buck today by catering to the demands of a market. Our tax practices often mitigate against wise land and water use.Vle persist in billing the wrong people too much and the right people too little for conservation services rendered by the state. We are often hamstrung in reform by constitutional provisions, irrelevant precedents, and unrepresentative legislative bodies; witness the widespread reluctance to impose user fees for recreational purposes. Our research posture complicates conservation.While our colleges and universities house a numberof disciplines related to land and water use, each department has an.Lnt,radisciplinary approach. What havebeen lacking are interidisciplinary studies concerned with the total relationship of man and his environment. Our attitude toward teaching complicates wise land and water use. We are so objective we define no right or wrong, assign no obligations, call for no sacrifice, imply no change in philosophy oP.' values. We have been too timed, too anxious for quick success, to tell our sLuderts the true magnitude of their obligations. We are prisoners of antiseptic concepts. We march up to the moment of decision and then turn and run. Our action techniques complicate wise land and water use. Too often we seize on oversimplified solutions, cloak them in catch-words, and peddle them like lightning rods to customers who apply them with religious fervor and then wonder why earthly salvation continues to elude them. Our instrumentalities of government complicate wise land and water use.State, county, and munic ipal boundaries were laid out at the whim of surveyors a century ago; they bear little or no relationship to the configurations of the land and water with which units of government must deal. We desperately need n e w political and social devices which stand a decent chance of translating value judgment into action on the living landscape. Listen to these words: "The true enemy of preservation of our environment is our system of government, particularly local governments and county governments'which are entirely dependent upon the property tax and the payroll structure.Conservation can never be accomplished so long as local government must as a means of its financial survival get new development into its boundaries." And those are not the words of a Berkeley fanatic; they are the words of a Republican Congresstara. All of these problems contribute to one central problem: unilateral approaches to land and water management. Time and again we persist in applying to our environment a practice which, while it may be beneficial f or one purpose, is deliterious for other purposes. Our governmental agencies, our educational institutions, our socioeconomic patterns, our cultural standards, are all seemingly in league toforce us into theseunilateral approaches, and hence to introduce or aggravate land and water use conflicts. Somehow we must breakout of our assorted straight jackets to take an integrated view of our surroundings and carry out programs which truly reflect the "oneness" of our environment, its problems and its needs. This is the crucial challenge to American education today.In this book we reconnoiter the critical terrain features of the response that is emerging under the broad rubric of environmental education. x WE ARE experiencing what you might call the third American revolution. The first American revolution YY 200 years ago was of course a political revolution. The second American revolution 100 years ago was a technological revolution. The third American revolution is a cultural revolution, characterized by anew man- land ethic. The spirit of the seventies is a spirited concern for environmental quality. We are figuratively and literally sick and tired of amts - development of America that diminishes daily the quality of the human experience: water pollution; air pollution; soil erosion; forest, range, and wetland deterioration; waning wildlif e; urban sprawl; preempted open spaces; vanishing wilderness; landscapes scarred by highways, litter, noise, and blighta not-so-quiet crisis of decreasing beauty and increasing contamination that threatens not only the pursuit of happiness but life itself. And we are beginning to do something ab rut environmentalquality conservation, redevelopment, and maintenance. How we got into this revolution and where we are going is the story of one of the crucial currents in American history. As never before, Americans are coming to appreciate this "oneness" of the elements of their environmentthat insects, birds, fish, animals, water, soil, wilderness, trees, plants, and man are all par t of the same scheme of nature, a sort of intricately woven fabric; snip one thread and the whole thing begins to unravel.Americans are coming to appreciate as well a continuing and intimate relationship with their natural sur - roundings that surmounts the curtains of civilization. New Yorkers, for example, during the drought of recent years, saw air conditioners silenced, lawns browned, and water glasses banished from restaurant tables, while the Hudson River was daily carrying 11 billion gallons of undrinkable, uncleanable water pastthe city and dumping it into the ocean. As seldom before, Americans are expressing a deep concern about the management of their environment. The public prints have made "the rape of the land" a headline story. Our affluence, our general values, and our social objectives are beginning to permit us to make viable choices respecting the utilization of n at u al r e - sources. We no longer assume that all land and water must inevitably be devoted to the basic sustenance and protection of human life. We are ready for what Prof. Philip Lewis, Jr., calls "a second integrated look" to identify the meaningful natural and cultural resources which, if protected and enhanced, can provide many types of environmental experiences for richer living, working, playingand survival. As seldom before, Americans are acting to conserve. Too often, the act may be too little, too late, but each act is at least some evidence of faith, hope, and maybe even love.Legislative bodies at all levels of government, public agencies, and private groups are seeking answers to the difficult questions posed by multiplying man and disappearing land. The alarm has been sounded by senators like Gaylord Nelson, calling on "the energy, idealism, and di Eve of the oncoming generation" to save us from the "poisonous air and deadly waters of th. earth." The alarm has been sounded by ecologists like Paul Ehrlich, askingus to see"the connection between growing population and steady deterioration of the quality of life before our planet is irreversibly ruined. " The alarm has been sounded also by hucksters like Arthur Godfrey intoning that "our country's highest priority in the 1970's must be survival." Epitomizing public response to such warnings is the establishment, under a 1969 National Environmental Policy Act, of a 3-man Cnuncil on Environmental Quality to "advise, assist, and suppeet the President of the United States on allenvironmental concerns." ear That ecological thinking is growing the public prints bear increasing witness.Ecologist Leonard Hall asks us to think large about "the dilemma which mankind faces today": 1,The danger of planet-wide environmental poisoning from nuclear fallout and nuclear waste disposal; or of a nuclear or biological holocaust that would end the world we have known. 2.The danger of famine, starvation, and pestilence affecting hundreds of millions of human beings in the world's unproductive areas, if we cannot bring about a drastic and revolutionary flat- tening of the world's population curve. And while it is easy to saythe consequences cannotreach our rich and comfortable enclave, this ignores the fact of the chaos that would sweepthe planet. 3.Destruction of the environment for humans and countless other living creatures through t h e poisoning of soil, air, and water by sewage and industrial wastes; by combustion and overuse of fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides; and by erosion and soil exhaustion caused by today's monoculture and the continued stripping of forest cover. 4.Destruction of the esthetic environmentwhich is to say, the quality oiti.e-throvigh sustained attack on wilderness and wild nature, on wildlife, on the beauty of the rural scene,and on the equally essential slid largely neglected orderliness of the urban and suburban ar eau where 7 5 percent of our people live today. 11 2 AP The administrator Edward C. Crafts asks us to think large about " hard, unavoidable steps to reverse the trend of envir ental retrogression": Population control, higher taxes, higher consumer prices, lower corporate profits, lower material standard of living, revision of national priorities, and coercion. ,Lirdr Look magazine asks us to think large about an 'agenda for survival": Man's quarrel with nature is nothing new.It is rooted in the Book of Genesis, in God's command to "be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth and subdue it; and have dominion over ... every living thing." Armed with this injunction and a mischievous new technology of awful power, we have multiplied recklessly and asserted our dominion by random slaughter. Thequestion now is: What can we do to repair the damage we have done and avert future disaster? First, we must get rid of the notion that the rest of Creation exists on/; for man's convenience and profit and that other forms of life are somehow inferior-enemies to be conquered, harnessed, or crushed. The fact is, man is just one member of a natural and interdependent community of every living thing. Then, we have to check population growth. Without an immediate commitment to an effective program of birth control, the underdeveloped world is doomed to death by famine, and the affluent world to social chaos. We must take stock of our planet's resources to learn how much and what kind of development our environment can sustain and how best to protect the irreplaceable wilderness we have left. Such an undertaking will have to be coordinated internationally by the UNand might, in fact, give that body a new lease on life.In America, we should strengthen the President's Environmental Quality Council and create like groups at every level of government. And we must clean up the mess we have already made. Industry and government together must restore our polluted air and water and our defiled landscape. The cost of a healthy environment must become part of the basic cost of doing business. We need not be discouraged. When threatened, man is capable of almost anything.Nothing less than our survival is at stake. The problem is getting enough people to realize this blunt truth while there is still time to act. "'Eighty Congressmen ask us to think large about what we can do as individuals: Among citizens, we Wu to youth as the great hope for the Environmental Decade. Young people are understandably outraged by the cynicism and materialism of their older generation. We urge them to substitute constructive impulse for negativism, and to build for future generations an environment worthy of free men and women. We hope they will conduct studies, sponsor educational forums, initiate petitions, support corsuits, pressure administrative agencies, and draft legislation, as well as do the many private things needed to help protect against environmental destruction. All American institutions and individuals must adjust their functions and policies in thespirit of thequest for environmental quality. The implications for American education are particularly clear. To paraphrase Aldo Leopold, barring love and war, few enterprises continue to be undertaken with such abandon, or by such diverse individuals, or with so paradoxical a mixture of appetite and altruism, as that group of vocations and avocations known collectively, precisely or not, as conservation.It is, by common consent, a good thingto practice conservation. But wherein lies the goodness, and what can be done to encourage its pursuit? On these questions there continues to be confusion of counsel, and only the most uncritical minds are free from doubt. America certainly has as yet no magic formula for capsuling conservation and administering it to assorted people and places.It increasingly recognizes the importance, however, of confronting researchers and implementers with sets of resource management principles and values, and encouraging professionals and public officials alike to face the broad environmental problems upon which the American public is beingasked to render crucialjudgrnents, Per- haps out of this flux will come integrated programs and techniques based on, and consistent with, a synthesis of new knowledge in both the natural and soda, aciences, and which will find their expression through public policies; private management decisions; actions of businessmen, farmers, and labor; consumer behavior in the market; and voter behavior at the polls.In essence, we are coming to address ourselves to laying a basis for action, to elucidating the choices in land and water use and relating them to generalvalues and social objectives, to instilling in people a desire for constructive change, and to providing practical guidelines characterized by integrated approaches. This is the changing role of America in conservation, as American life and American learning proceed together toward what can yet be broader lands and fairer days. It may well be that modern man can never achieve complete harmony with land, any more than we shall achieve in our day justice or liberty for all people.In these higher aspirations, as Leopold said, the important thing is to strive. We must cease being intimidated out of hand by the argument that an action is impossible if it does not yield quick profits, or that an action is necessarily to be condoned because it seems to pay; that philosophy is dead in human relations, and its funeral in land relations is long overdue. The third American revolution is the appearance of this ecological conscience. To support and sustain this third American revolution we will require an educational program as massive as the problem of human survival.In this introductory chapter we examine in some detail the dimensions of today's environments'. problems, and we speculate about the nature of the educational programs that will be required to accomplish what Odum calls "ecosystem surgery" in the decade of the environment.. The new meaning of conservation

AN ENVIRONMENT FIT FOR PEOPLE

Raymond F. Dasmann

A CONCERN for keeping the world a fit place ments as well as today's necessities. for people is the basis for the social movement known as conservation.Like our environment, the meaning of conservation has been changing.It has neces- It is non-rational to use a forested area, for ex- sarily become broader, its concerns reach more ample, for the production of some immediate food deeply into human experience. The conservationist crops if this involves destruction of the forest, loss was once involved mostly with the natural world and of soil, and a loss of the long-term productivity of the rural scene- -with wildlife and fisheries, forests the area.It would be rational to use the area in such and rangelands, soils and river basins, or with the a way that its productivity of wood, water, wildlife, minerals and fuels available for man's use. He was and other forest products would be sustained into the concerned with these things because their care was distant future. usually neglected by a human society bent upon growth and material advancement.The natural world and It is non-rational to destroy a living species or the raw materials upon which man depended were to shatter the last remnant of a living community in exploited with no thought for tomorrow: forestswent order to make way for some marginal expansion of up in smoke, or fell before the indiscriminate axe; some already abundant crop or a misplaced suburb. soils blew or washed away; wildlife vanished from But what is non-rational for society in the long run the land.The attention of the conservationist was may seem entirely rational to an individual or to a rarely directed toward the towns and cities where social group with short-term objectives.Further- people were concentrated; the dangers of pollution more, ignorance of the interrelationships among liv- were at worst local and seemed a small price to pay ing things and their environment may often lead to for progress; the population explosion was unheard unexpectee, damage when a resource is exploited in of in a world that seemed large, mostly untamed, a superficially rational way. and with room for many kinds of people and many ways of life. The term quality of living is more elusive, since people differ in their wants and aspirations. Conser- But today the world is small, shrunken by t he vation, however, seeks to maintain the highest quality rapid expansion of its population, tied in a tight web of environment, meaning an environment that is by networks of transportation over which people and healthy, esthetically appealing, and diversified. goods move in greater speed and greater volume. Human increase and unchecked exploitation threaten It is a goal of conservation to maintain wild spe- the most remote corners of tan earth.Cities have cies and natural communities on earth, so that man become focal points in a threatened decline in t he will always find present the natural variety that ac- quality of human life.Pollution spreads everywhere. companied his own long course of evolution.Conser- The emservation movement has therefore shifted vation's goal is also to encouragethe building of its emphasis. The old problems remain, but the new diversified and pleasing man-made environments, ones become more acute. from farmlands to cities, so that nobody need live in a monotonous and ugly world. Another goal is to use the living resources of the earth in such a way that THE MEANING OF CONSERVATION they will continue to yield, as well-cared-for far m- lands have yielded, through the centuries to come. Conservation is now defined as the rational use of Conservation seeks also to avoid those uses that lead the environment to achieve the highest quality of liv- to the degradation of the earth, through pollution, ing for mankind. Such a definition, however, re- poisoning, or the loss of productive capacity.It is quires explanation. What is meant by rational use? a responsibility of those concerned with conservation What is meant by qualttof living? to seek to maintain human populations at such a level that all may enjoy a rich and varied life, and not to Rational use of the environment takes the future allow human population increase to endanger the fu- into account.It is based on an understanding of the ture of mankind. continuing long-term needs of humanity.It involves consideration of the natural laws that govern man's ECOLOGY AND CONSERVATION occupancy of the planet.It will involve at timesnon- use of resources, if these happen to be scarce and Life on earth exists in a thin layer of soil, water, their preservation of importance.It will at alitimes and atmosphere near the surface of the planet. This be based on a considerationof tomorrow's require- layer and the life it contains, form the biosphere,

Dr. Dasmann is Director of Environmental Studies for the Conservation Foundation, Washington, D. C.Thi s article is excerpted from Public Affairs Pamphlet No. 421, the Public Affairs Committee, Inc. ,1988.

13&- 4 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION the sphere of life, upon earth. As our knowledge ural world, based upon our present knowledge would of the biosphere grows, our knowledge of the intri- be: The disturbance of any nt.tural environment should cate ways in which all parts of it are related to one not exceed the minimum needed to accomplish its ra- another also grows. Thus air pollution from Cali- tional use for worthy human_goals. fornia's coastal cities affects the health of pine trees in the distant Sierra Nevada.Radioisotopes from It is difficult to know to what extent man's future atomic explosions in central Asia c an appear in may depend upon the continuance on earth of s a me alarming concentrations in Alaskan caribou. Pesti- other species.Many of our great gains in science cidesfrom thefactories of America or Europe appear and medicine have come from research upon some in the tissues of Antarctic penguins. A decision made previously unnoticed species of plant or animal. The in Washington, Cl. C. , can affect the conditions of life rhesus monkey brought us greater understanding of for creatures in remote Amazonian jungles. Security human blood groups. Foreknowledge of the Rh (rhesus) and prosperity in the United States may depend on factor in blood has saved countless lives. The sea food and population in southern Asia. urchin brought new knowledge of problems of growth and development. A simple mold gave birth to our We are unaware of all of the consequences of ow. families of antibiotics.Thus, for our own welfare, activities. We depend for oxygen upon the activities U for no other reason, we ought to maintain on earth of green plants on the land and in the ocean We adequ2.te samples of all of the profuse diversity of produce carbon dioxide through combustion of fos- living things, unmodified by man. sil fuels and many other activities that promote oxi- dation. When do we reach the danger point int he POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT oxygen-carbon dioxide balance of the atmosphere? At what point does the accumulation of atmospheric Withou control over human population increase, carbon dioxide bring about potentially disastrous all other efforts at conservation must inevitably fall changes in the earth's climatesmelting polar ice short.Th' concept of "standing room only" for man caps rarhaps and raising sea levels dangerously high? on earth has been .raised as a nightmare to call atten- Our activities proceed faster than our knowledge of tion to the dangers of our present rate of population their consequences. growth.This is, of course, a levelof population that cannot be reached s Inc e catastrophe would The great numbers of living species on earth, hun- intervene long before such a level had been attained. dreds of thousands of kinds of animals and plant a , are arranged over the planet, not at random, but in Unfortunately, at present levels of population, organized and structured communities ofl iv ing catastrophe has already intervened.Thousands die things, the biotic communities. Each community is of starvation each day.Still more are killed in riots distinct.The species within each are tied together and revolutions, major and minor wars, waged by in intricate networks of energy flew or pathways of or on behalf of peoplo who are dissatisfied with their chemical raw materials from soil, air, and water share of the earth's tlessings. With present levels through various plants to various animals.Distur- of population we are as yet unable to pr.aride anything bance of any part of a community affects all parts. approaching "q tality of living" for all.As inevitable growth occurs, our environmental problems and hu- Each community in turn forms the living portion man problems grow lesa easy to solve. of ecosystem, built up of soil, air, water, the energy from sunlight, the physical characteristius of A major question of population policy must be earth and atmosphere, all interacting with life. The faced in every community and nation: how many peo- resistance of ecosystems to disturbance varies enor- ple can be supported without loss of thequality anddi- mously.Some, the more complex systems of the versity in the human environment? Some nations and warmer and more humid regions, show a strong abil- regions behave as though their policy was to maintain ity to rebound from outside Interference: the forest maximum numbers of people at a minimum subsis- clearing is soon grown over and reclaimed by forest. tence level.Technologically advanced nations seem Others, the more simple systems of air or cold re- to feel that no problem exists so long as economic giona may be easily shattered by man's influence or gain exceeds population growth.But the growth of natural disturbance, and take decades or even cen- gross national product can conceal loss of those turies to recover.Complexity adds stability to nat- qualities in living that add color and meaning to ex- ural communities.Simple communities tend toward istence, that give hope for the future and joy to dai- instability. ly living.The question of how many people can have an opportunity for living a full and satisfying l if e Man's tampering may produce unexpected side is one we have hardly begun to explore. Yet in area effects.In the tropics it may seem common sense after area, growth is proving disastrous, whether to control a crop pest with an insecticide.Yet such it be growth of subsistence populations in an impov- common sense can lead to new and more destructive erished country or the unplanned spread of middle pests previously held in check by predators or para- class suburbs in a wealthy land blotting out natural sites that the insecticide has destroyed, which call diversity and creating a world of uniformity and in turn for new insecticides that may in turn produce discontent. greater damage.Simplification of complex natural systems has been the baste for man's agriculture The question of what kind of an environment peo- and cannot be abandoned. Yet extreme simplifica- ple do prefer is one that deserves far greater and tion, as exemplified by single-crop cultures (mono- much more searching study than it has yet received. cultures), leads always to a precarious balance be- One knows that people will differ and can hope that tween crop plant anti an unstable ecological system. these human differences can be maintained and satis- Perhaps a general guideline for man's use of the nat- fied in a world that still has room for diversity.

14 "The effort to do something about problems that arise out of conflict between man's need and capacity to engineer his environment for economic use, and the need and capacity of natural systemstoadjusttotheconsequences."

THE ECOLOGICAL VIEW

Gordon Harrison

OF ALL THE creatures who over the eons have tive farmlands for suburban housing, and the cava- inhabited this planet, man has bean unique in his lier destruction of landscape by strip mines, high- ability deliberately and massively to alter the envi- ways, power lines, billboards, as though man did ronment. One striking way in which he has done so indeed live by these alone.Pollution in this sense has been to reduce disease by making the man - is often regarded like famine as another direct con- occupied world less hospitable for parasites and sequence of over-population, and there is no question their insect transport.Technological success here that increased numbers of people and especially their has lowered death rates 'much faster than society concentration in urban areas have made pollution could adjust to the implications.Hence to simplify critical and highly visible.Pollution, however, is slightly, the world population began to grow cancer- not caused by too many people: It is the result of ously. human disturbance of the cycling of energy and materials in natural systems. In the unindustrialized world this sudden imbalance faces millions with starvation. Family-planning That cycle in outline is well known: Primary pro- programs cannot achieve results quickly enough to ducers (chiefly green plants) with energy from the avert the food crisis.Technical efforts to increase sun synthesize their own organic food out of carbon food supplies, despite some dramatic successes, dioxide, water, and minerals.All other living crea- are too meager to do the Job, and it is not certain tures feed on these plants either directly by graz- that even an all-out effort could succeed. The typi- ing or indirectly by grazing the grazers as caonivor es cal conservationist approaches, to warn of a devel- or parasites. A part of the food eaten is excrettsi; all oping imbalance between resources and consumption of it is returned in one form or another to the environ- while trying both to save the resource and rational- ment. The organic discard passing through a variety ize the patterns of consumptionthese have little of scavengers is eventually broken down by bacteria into relevance at this late hour.Many observersbelieve its inorganic components which are thus made available that millions of people will starve in the 1970's, vic- to the plants as raw materials once more. tims of our failure to recognize that we are not masters of the living system on which we depend for our Man's intervention is radically disruptive. When life but parts of it, just as much as cells are parts a farmer clears a wood and plows a field he functions of a body. with respect to nature like a natural catastrophe-- indeed generally more effective than fire, earth- That lesson of folly is infinitely more tragic than quake, or tornado. HI exterminates a system of any we face immediately in the developed world. We interrelated plants and animal life which over along here are nevertheless pursuing a course that is sim- period of time had become mutually adapted to th e ilarly at odds with our circumstances aboard asmall physical environment and to each other in such a planet, similarly heedless of natural constraints on way that each creature was just making a living. consumption, and therefore finally catastrophic as surely as if a man were to spend his days gorging In a natural system, fully developed as a primeval himself without stopping. forest, for instance, the input of sunlight is used to maintain the community of organisms. While indi- The most obvious symptom of our own approach- viduals come and go within it and populations of spe- ing crisis is pollution. By pollution I mean not only cies fluctuate so that at times there may be more the poisoning of air and water by the wastes of pro- oak and less hickory or more mice and fewer ow is, duction but equally the splurge of metropolis, the the total quantity of living matter remains constant; needless engrossment of some of our most produc- that is to say the system ideally yields no net biological

Mr. Harrison is the Ford Fowidation's program officer incisive of Resources andEnvironment. This statement is taken from the 1968 pamphlet, Ford Foundation Grants in Resourc es and Environment. 6 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION product.Net biological product a crophow-crop Man is the only creature who values wealth be- ever, is just what the farmer wants.He therefore cause only he can achieve it.An important conse- destroys the balanced system and creates a deliber- quence of the farmer's productive system is that it ately unbalanced one whose cycle from plowed field enables him to capture excess produce from the soil, to seed to crop to harvest and back to plowed field More tban he needs at once to consume. He c an is completed in a single season. He does this es- exploit wealth by storing it and that i e ad s to the sentially by simplification, suppressing on his farm settled life, to villages, and at last to cities.It is as many c.' the living things as possible that would in permanent human settlements that off -premise compete with his plaited crop for energy and miner- consumption produces the specifically human prob- als.He weeds; he fences; he sprays against pests. lem of garbage and wastes. Waste is in fact only a symptom that geographically the metabolic cycle has The result is a system that in nature's terms is been split: Production has occurred at one place, disturbed.The excess productthe developing consumption and excretion at another.The byprod- croprepresents unexploited environmental oppor- ucts of human use that would in nature return imme- tunities, or in the ecologist's jargon, unfilled niches. diately as food for other organisms in the cycle are, Pests arrive on the scene to take advantage of these as it were, left high, dry, and a nuisance out of unusual opportunities.Unlike men they cannot cart their natural context.Civilization so far has been away the crop; they can only multiply in numberto more impressed with the nuisance than with the consume it.If left alone they would make off vi .h anomaly that processes which on the land sustain the feast and then move on,or starve down to num- life, in town can poison it. bers adapted to lower supplies of food, or provide a bonanza for predators who obeying the same law Currently this nation devotes a lot of energy and of nature might increase in their turn to exploit it. money (though not nearly enough) to seeking a tech- By many complicated interactions over time, popu- nolo;ical fix for the waste problem.So long as this lations feeding on each other would come once more technology explores essentially for more sophisti- into balance. Balanr of course is never a static con- cated holes in which to throw things away, it may be dition but rather a moderated pattern of ups and immediately useful in changing the locus of the nui- downs around a mean, much like temperature fluc- sancegarbage is after all more tolerable on the tuations in a thermostatically controlled room, al- town dump than in the bedroom but in the long run though immensely more complicated. it is doomed.Let it be noted, again that all the materials by weight extracted and processed for human consumption are breathed away or end up as waste. It is clear that the simpler a natural system is The concepts of use and discard therefore are simply the more unstable it must be.Consider a three- irrelevant to the facts of life within a system that is part food chain: grass, rabbits, and lynx.Suppose closed so far as materials are concerned. The tra- drought destroys the grass crop.Then r abb its ditional focus on production and consumption looks wholly dependent on it will die off and so will lynx at only one segment of the indivisible circle: Con- who are wholly dependent on rabbits.But if among sumption, if it is to continue, must be tied to pr o- the grass were drought-resistant plants and rabbits duction at both ends, accepting the product and giving were adapted to eat them, then as least a proportion up the raw materials for new products. of plants, rabbits, and lynx would be likely to sur- The problem of waste disposal is not the focal or vive prolonged dry spells.The system would be even necessarily the most important issue for con- made hardier still if chipmunks were added to feed servation, but it serves as well as any to illustrate on nuts and could be caught perhaps by more skill- the principles of interdependence that make it nec- ful lynx who would then not entirely die out for lack essary for man in all regards to pay more attention of rabbits but might produce a cleverer strain better to his impact on his environment and vice ver ea. able in the future to handle environmental adversity. The concept of the natural system, along with the recog- In any event the more alternative ways there are of nition that nature has a tactic realizedby maximum sta- eating and being eaten the better the chance a living bility while man embraces an opposite tactic aimed at system has to avoid massive fluctuations in the birth maximum production, provides the essential philosophic and death of species.Variety thus appears tohe context within which it becomes possible to see w hat nature's grand tactic for survival. conservation can and cannot, should and should not do. The environment and the quality of political life.

CONSERVATION COMES OF AGE

Grant McConnell

WHAT IS significant is that today there is a conser- state would flow to the narrow interests of such an vation movement and that it is grounded firmly in bot h industry. Some local citizens would be aggrieved at popular support and principle. It is no longer a matter of the costs in natural beauty and wilderness but their a handful of scientists and other enlightened individuals voices would be so weac in the face of the seeming- quietly influencing key statesmen to slip actions through ly monolithic determination of their neighbors as to which will have genuine public support only at a late r be beneath the threshold of hearing.Indeed, the time. This is the sense in which it is appropriate to agree feeling of powerlessness would generally lead them that conservation " has come of age ". not to speak at all, given the inevitability of failure and the necessity of living with those neighbors. What accounts for this development? A full explanation would be complex. On the face of things Thus, it has generally been true that fights for conser- it might seem that the values of great numbers of vation have taken on an aspect of outsiders against 1 o - Americans have changed over the years.In the cals. The appearance has been false in that almost any sense that values are really testable only by choices locality contains some individuals concerned for con- actually given effect, this is plainly true. But this servation. Nevertheless, these individuals could only is to say very little.There is a genuine possibility be heard in chorus with like-minded f ellows drawn from that recent generations have wanted different things a larger constituency. The exploiters of commodities, than their predecessors, but in view of the possibil- understanding the situation at least intuitively, have perity that the political system may have had a bias in sistently appealed to the strong American tradition of validating some preferences instead of others, cast- decentralization as a supposedly democratic principle ing aspersions on our ancestors as a wholly materi- and have sought to retain the power of decision in local alistic lot is not justified. If current Americans show hands. There have been contests in which localities have more signs of caring for the nonmaterial aspects of lined up for conservation, establishment of the Gila1411- their environment, it may well be because the polit- derness, for example, but these have been rare. Conser- ical order has evolved sufficiently to allow such con- vation, and conservation of wilderness and scenic val- cern to have occasional effect. ues especially, have depended on creation of larger con- There are good grounds for believing this is the case. stituencies. Thus it is not difficult to imagine what would Very briefly, the United States is much more of a nation have happened to the Grand Canyon if its future had been than it has been in the past. It is knit together with roads, decided by Arizona instead of the nation. The American airlines, telephones, television, magazines to adegree people as a whole have a far smaller per capita money difficult to have foreseen even a relatively few decades stake in damming the Canyon's potential kilowatts than ago. The horizons of the average American have vastly do the people of Arizona. It is also understandable why expanded so that the inhabitants of Sauk Center and all its officials of Humboldt County resisted creation of a Red- real counterparts now share a national culture as never woods National Park, while a strong drive for the park before. Inevitably, this has been reflected in the work- came from San Francisco, and why opposition to the ings of the political system. Many decisions that were North Cascades Park was loudest in Bellingham a n d formerly within the exclusive provinces of states and lo- Wenatchee and weakest in Seattle. calities are now made in larger arenas, arenas in which The change that has come about is far from total. an inevitably greater diversity of citizens participate. It is in degree only.It is, moreover, a change of Formerly, choices on the allocation of values, some complexity.It involves a new awareness and as for example between natural beauty and resource knowledge of people in New England, the Midwest, exploitation, were largely in the ha'xis of localities and California about the North Cascades, many miles and, in fact, were regarded mainly ns a private m at - distant from their homes. It involves the increasing ter.Insofar as the choice lay in the hands of a lum- urbanization of Americans and the drift of political ber or mining company, the choice for exploitation power to city dwellers.It involves the changing eco- was preordained. But the situation was more com- nomic base of cities like Seattle, with the relative plex than this suggests.If the choice were in the decline and position of the lumber industry. Thus, handsas it usually has beenof a locality or state it is not inconceivable that the success of the Boeing in which the lumbering or mining industry bulked Company may have been the essential factor in pre- particularly large, the support of the community or serving the North CascadesThe change also in-

Dr. McConnell is professor 01 Politica and Academic Assistant to theChancellor at the University of California at Santa Cruz. This is an excerpt from his prologue to Congress and theEnvironment, edit ed by Richard A. Cooley and Geoffrey Wandesforde-Smith, University of Washington Press, 1970. i9 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION volves the development of national conservation or- conception that everything of meaning in life can be ganizations.All of these have converged in the stated in either dollar or head-count terms. It is ev- creation of a larger and more diverse constituency, ident, for .xa3nple, that many Americans are willing with a consequently growing power supporting wilder- to go to extreme lengths in their principled opposition ness, scenic values, and environmental protection. I to the Vietnam war.It is plain that many individuals Second, a deep and general change has occurred are willing to lay their lives on the line for simple hu- in our national political life.This is now a rich and man dignity. And many of our best young people are prosperous nation. We now have a large generation going to extremes to assert their rejection of the ma- of youth that has no memory of depression. At long terial calculus.Both moral and aesthetic principles last, we are generally free of the incubus of fear that are emerging everywhere as the fundamental materi- tomorrow the economy will collapse.This has every al of politics and comma* life.In this setting,i n - profound meaningthat the substance of political a n d creasing numbers of individuals are declaring them- moral life is no longer almost wholly economic. Eco- selves for what they really believe.It is hardly nomic matters have, in the past, bei highly preoc- surprising that many are declaring the values of sce- cupying, simply because hitherto we have never been nic beauty and wilderness; there are hardly any val- out of the shadow of potential famine or other econom- ues less uncertain and ambiguous than these.For- ic disaster.It is highly unlikely that men have ever merly, the sort of ridicule offered by spokesmen for really believed that economic affairs are the most firms such as the Kennecott Copper Corporation, that important department of life, but it is true that so far concern for these values is "sentimental, " was ef- we have always had to give first thought to that d e - fective. We were once half persuaded that such con- partment simply because it has had a prior urgency. cern was soft-headed, and that these values we re As a result, our political system has been formulat- inferior.It is beginning to emerge that the really ed to adjust economic claims, and it has worked pe- soft-headed sentimentalism is that attached to money. culiarly well.The reason for this is that economic The striking evidence of growth in the conservation claims are bargainable; it is almost always possible movement since 1954 is directly r elated to the clarity to split the difference somewhere in an economic con- with which the conservation leaders of today have per- test so that each side is reasonably satisfied. When ceived the strategic nature of conservation issues. A we respond to the injunction, "Come, let us reason telling incident on this score is one related to the Echo together, " it is to bargain and to split differences. Park controversy. When the Upper Colorado Project As the nation has become richer, however, eco- was put forward, nearly everyone believed Echo Par k nomic values have lost their old urgency and other was necessarily doomed. But a small group of individu- more important matters have emerged and taken the als got together and decided that the principle involve,' foreground. The values of natural. beauty and wilder- was simply wrong and that they should say so. This was ness are critical examples here, but they are really to be a gestur e,but the declaration struck such a chord not bargainable. The sort of "reasoning" which has of public response that ultimately itbecame possible to been characteristic of politics on the economic model save Echo Park by sheer mass support. does not apply. It is faintly conceivable, for example, that by offering a sufficiently high pr ice to the National The style of the conservation movement is intransi- Museum in Amsterdam to acquir e its tx easure, " The gent. It is often shrill and str ident.It gives rise to inter- Night Watch," one could get that gr eat painting away from nal controversies of much intensity. However distress - the Dutch; but it is absolutely inconceivable that one ing those controversies maybe, they a r e themselves could make a deal to get a 2-foot square cut out of the low- strong evidence of the degree to which participants r e - er left- hand quadrant of the picture for price. This gard their cause as serious. By the same token, today's is just not a possible bargain. movement is princ [pled. This very feature is responsible for the gr eat current growth of the conservation So it is with supposed bargains offered on natural movement, and, infect, is why there is a genuine move- beauty and wilderness. To bargain over the Grand ment today w here there was none before. To the degree Canyon, the redwoods, the North Cascades, may th-t it stands by its principles, it will continue to grow seem eminently sensible if you are interested inkilo- and fr equently to succeed. To the degree that it seeks to watts, lumber, or copper, but it is nonetheless im- compromise and make deals, it willfail and wither. moral if your concern is with scenic beauty and wilderness. Such a bargain might be possible if the The leaders of the modern conservation movement value of scenic beauty and wilderness could be stated must expect to be told that they are unreasonable. They in the same dollar measure as kilowatts, lumber, and must expect continued demands to enter into "bargains" copper.It would, alternatively, be bargainable i if in whic h they can only lose and never gain. They may be the economic developers were able to off e r a new told that they should go back to the old reliable way of qui- Grand Canyon, some new 2,000-year-old redwoods, etly finessing things through men of influence. But those or some new North Cascades in the exchange. Un- days are gone, and with all gratitude to the notable men fortunately, however, this alternative has practical who managed those coups of influence, their coups can- difficulties.The fact of the matter is that any such not now be emulated. Henceforth, the conservation move- bargain is completely one-sidedto take away more ment will have to succeed as a movement, enduring all or less of the Grand Ca4on, the redwoods, or the the committee meetings, the endless work of organiza- North Cascades. The brute power of the opposition tion, ind, most of all, hammering out the principles and may conceivably win, but such an outcome will not the applications of those principles. be a bargain in the sense of being mutually acceptable. This fundamental characteristic of the politics of FOOTNOTE conservation is deeply involved in what has occurred 1.Regarding the general principle involved, see my with the conservation movement. There is much ev- Private Power and American Democracy, Al- idence that Americans today have moved beyond the fred A. katopf, New York, 1966, Chapter iv.

18r The ability to perceive beauty may, in the long run, prove man's salvatit ta.

A REPORT ON THE AMERICAN ENVIRONMENT

The President's Council on Recreation and Natural Beauty

AT A TIME when science and technology h av e scape caused the waterways to flood and further dev- raised the human condition to unprecedented heights astate the land. These alterations of the landscape and feed the mind of man for incomparably greater also disturbed the habitats of other living things , adventures, man is perplexed by a growing sense of resulting in the depletion and extinction of entire insecurity in the natural system that has always been species. his home. For man brought with him into this world not only the brilliant promise of a higher order of Technological civilization opened unlimited new life, but also the threat that he will wrest from the vistas to man.It made possible cities larger than earth a victory that is destructive to the victor. ever before, offering the benefits of urban life to ever greater numbers of men, and bringing a diver- At a distance, this seems an enormous paradox. sity of social life and cultural and intellectual ex - Nature, having produced man, seems equipped to change never before known. But now, in the center support him lavishly. As evolution proceeds, t he of most of these cities, malignant cores of decay mind of man displays a growing capacity to shape a have developed. The residents of city slums know world hospitable to his fullest development. little of the rich variety of choice and quality that exalts human life.More frequently, their lives are These harmonious prospects are imperiled, how- encompassed by filth, ugliness, and squalor. ever, by the accelerating pace of change.In the technologically advanced portions of the earth, there Man learned that his knowledge could be used to have been greater changes in the lives of ordinary provide him with an enormous range of goods and men within the past century than in all previous his- services. He developed vast industries with energy tory. But the immense powers that man has acquired borrowed or captured from nature. The wastes in- over nature have not been matched by an equivalent evitably generated by industrial processes are poured growth of wisdom in their use.In his single-minded into the water, released into the air, buried in t he pursuit of particular aimsevolving into the inten- soil, or scattered about the landscape. Harmful sub- sive specialization accompanying technological ad- stances have thus been freed to find their way into vanceman has often been oblivious to unintended the cells of plants and animals throughout the earth. side effects of his actions. As change is introduced on an increasingly larger scale andat an ever swifter Unlike most species of life, man has roamed the rate, these unplanned consequences of man-induced earth building a home for himself in every climate. change have coalesced to create an extraordinary Human survival has even been accomplished beneath crisis. To be understood, this crisis must be taken the sea, at the poles, and now far out in space. Intri- apart like the pieces of a puzzle. Some of the pres- cate systems of roads and highways have been con- ent dilemma was set in motion ages ago. structed to speed the transport of man and his goods across the land.In America, the idea of the road From observing and experimenting with the proc- leading on to better things is part of the national esses of nature, mandiscovered that he could mani- heritage. pulate them to serve him. He invented agriculture and learned todrain, plow, fertilize, and terrace the Yet, as roads, houses, factories, and commer- land. He changed the courses of .rivers, made gar- cial centers spread across the landscape, t he dis- dens of deserts, and reshaped mountains and coast- tinct forms of the land and the profuse features of lines.But in his haste to exploit the wealth that lay plant and animal life that have always been part of in the earth, he also deforested mountains and val- man's habitat are obscured or obliterated. leys, destroyed the ground cover, and exposed the soil to destruction. In pursuing survival and greater security, man has tampered with the careful balances in natural systems, sometimes with unintended consequences that endan- The result was to fill the streams with silt and the ger his security. He often overlooks the elaborate marshes with debris. Man's alterations of the land- relations between predators and prey that exist in

This statement is taken from the Introduction to From Sea to Shining Seat the Council's 1988 Report.

19r 10 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION nature. Frequently, he has waged successful war ciency of the single system but also by their effects against one species only to see the resulting unnatur- on other systems. al gap filled by disastrous proliferation of another species. Similarly, a human environment is composed of various systems and sub-systems, including a resi- Man has learned to inoculate himself against dead- dential system, a park system, an educational sys- ly plagues, and diseases that once took a dreadful tem, a commericial system, an industrial system, an toll have oeen almost banished from the more ad- agricultural system, a communications system, and vanced societies.Yet simultaneously there has been a transportation system. The goal of all these systems a tremendous increase in the diseases of urbaniza- should be a total environment capable of satisfying the tion and high-pressure living heart disease, ulcers, broadest range of human needs. The effects of ac :.ei- arteriosclerosis, hypertension, and others. Man is ties within each of these syste ins must be evaluated for a part of nature aad cannot with impunity separate their influence on all other systems con sitituting the en- himself from the natural rhythms that have given him vironment. A transportation system, for example, nurture during all his previous millenna on this planet. should be measured not merely for its efficiency in moving people and goods, but for its effect on residential One of the most ominous threats to the environ- neighborhoods, parks, schools, thedistribution of mcat lies in the failure of man thus far to provide commercial and industrial facilities, the total deve lop- humane solutions to the problems posed by the spread ment of the community and of the individuals who com- of his own numbers. No major urban center in the pose it. Sophisticated methods of evaluating these world has yet demonstrated satisfactory ways to effects have yet to be developed, and therein lies a ma- accommodate growth.In many areas expanding pop- jor contemporary challenge to science and technology. ulalon is outrunning the readily available supply of food, water, and other basic resources and threatens to aggravate beyond solution the staggering problems Yet, whatever knowledge science can bring to bear of the new urban society. A limitless proliferation on the problems of these times will not be sufficient. of the species would eventually condemn man him- The adaptation that the future demands will require self to a termite existence. the efforts of a whole people. Will that effort be made? The beginnings of a response may be found There are elements of tragedy in man's abuse of in the widespread enthusiasm for the natural beauty nature and of his own promise.Yet the increasing movement.It is almost as if Americans, confronted recognition of America's environmental crisis con- with the staggering consequences of nature out of stitutes abundant ground for hope. There is still balance, have fallen back on the one faculty that can opportunity to repair the damaged fabric of life if somehow judge it and respond: the esthetic sense. Americans begin to consider themselves part of the If something is beautiful, it is likely to be function- earth's interlocking, interdependent natural system. ing properly and in good health. The ability to par- Americans who learned in the frontier era to "conceive beauty may, in the long run, prove man's sal- quer" nature now need to learn new techniques of co- vation. operating with nature. The natural ueauty movement has from the start Cooperation with nature can lead to new forms of meant far more than "beautification." It means a creative expression. Man has traditionally found ex- vigorous expansion of traditiohal concepts of t he pression in music, poetry, painting, the performing American conservation movement started by John and plastic arts, in the sciences, in industrial tech- Muir, Gifford Pinchot, and Theodore Roosevelt. It nology. Only recently has he begun to give this impulse means turning also to the problems of the cities, expression on a large scale in the art and science of de- where most Americans live.It means the control of signing his environment. pollution and litter and the elimination of public eye- sores. It means a resurgence of civic pride in the Basic to intelligent adaptation of design to the en- neighborhoods and towns of America.It means a new vironment is the science of ecologya word derived emphasis on amenities in the man-made environment from two Greek words meaning "the study of the such as grass, flowers, t.ees, parks and open spaces, home. It is the study of the relation of an organism fountains, art in public places, and design excellence to its total environment. No man is an island, and in buildings and streets.It means broadening th e no creature of any kind is independent of its habitat. process of decision-making by public agencies to in- Changes cannot take place in one part of the complex clude humane and esthetic considerations. The natural web of life without affecting the whole. Every pro- beauty movement implies a faith in the capacity of posed human change in the emdronreent must be con- technology to solve the problems it has created and sidered for it... total effects. Ignorance of the long- an imaginative determination to fi nd innovative so- term, indirect consequences of human activities is lutions.Finally, the idea central to the natural the root of the contemporary crisip. Ecology helps beauty movement is the belief that exposure to na- to reveal nature as a laboratory offering the guidance ture in some form contributes to the renewal an d man sorely needs in his efforts to l'artore and en- fulfillment of every human being, in body and in spir- hance the quality of his environment` it. Ecology has a counterpart in the Wei of technolgy The ambitious aims of the natural beauty move- with the development of systems analysis. A space ment will not be quickly achieved. The effort re- missile, for example, is a combmation of systems quires hard thought, difficult decisions, and a reap- each composed of sub-systems --for propalsiott, guid- praisal of some habitual standards and values. Suc- ance, enclosure of passengers, and communications. cess will ultimately depend on the willingness of the The effects of all activities within each system and individual to accept the responsibility of environment- sub-system must be measured not only by the effi- al stewardship.

29 "The quality of theenvironmentconfronts man withhismostseriousdifficulty." SOME CRITICAL ISSUES TODAY IN THE FIELD OF NATURAL RESOURCES

Irving Fox A C CURSE in natural resources given 50 years ities, in spite of the need to mine less accessiblede- ago, 20 years Ago, or even if it had been given 10 posits of coal andother minerals, to use lower-rade years ago, woad have emphasized substantially dif- ore, to produce much more food on the sameland, to ferent issues than those we now consider important. drill deepir for petroleum, it is as easy and it costs From, let us say, about 1910 to 1950, the problems no more to provide resource commodities today than and issues remained much the same. During t ha t it did in 1870.Stated another way, because of advanc- 50-year period you would have heard aboutthe grow- es in science and technology of production, we have ing scarcity of resource commodities and the terrible no greater shortage of natural resources in America threat that this scarcity posed for our future welfare. today than we did nearly 100 years ago.In 1963, Re- You would have heard about the importance of r e - sources for the Future published another boor.its source programs as a stimulant to economic devel- title was Resources in America's Future, and it con- opment and the regulation of monopoly, especially in sisted of 1,000 pages, dealing with a projection of the power and transportation fields. economic growth of the U.S. from 1960 to 2000, estimates of the demand for resource commodities anda These issues remain today, but they are a faint comparison of this demand with the supply outlook. echo of what they once were.In part, the resource Its findings are also revealing.It concluded that in problem has changed frrwhat it was.In part, a the face of a prospective doubling of population and a new sophistication has a' .sea with regard to the na- quadrupling of economic activity over the 40-year pe- ture of resource problem: aid issues. But these old riod from 1960 to 2000, no significant resource com- ideas persist, and many people, if not most, have been modity shortages could be envisaged in the United States. indoctrinated with a concept of resource problems that is now passe.Thus, my first task is to explain Resources for the Future also published another why the preservation of the resource bas' to supply book entitled Scarcity and Growth, by Barnett and food, fiber, energy, and minerals is an oversimplifi- Morse.It is a scholarly inquiry into the doctrine of cation of the resource problem and no longer should scarcity as originated by Malthus. This analysis con- be considered a central resource issue.After this tained some significant conclusions. One conclusion. is done, we can turn to the critical issues in the field was that: of natural resources as we proceed throughthe latter The transformation of materials into final part of the twentieth century. goods is becoming increasingly a matter of THE RESOURCE SUPPLY - DEMAND OUTLOOK chemical processing.... The natural resource building blocks are now, to a large Since the days of Malthus, the doctrine of scarcity extent, atoms and molecules. Nature's in- the fear of running out of resource commoditieshas put should now be conceived as units of mass dominated much e our thinking about natural resourc- and energy, not acres and tons. Now the es. The themei,familiartoday. Most of us have been problem is more one of manipulating the victims of it. *Se've heard that we're running out of available store of iron, magnesium, alumi- water, that our mineral resources are being deplet- num, carbon, hydrogen, andoxygen atoms, ed, that the world will soon be unable to feed itself; even electrons. This has major economic soon there will be no petroleum, and in another gen- significance (1:238). eration we will lack timber. These gentlemen go on to say: In 1962 a book was published by Resources for the It is by no means necessary to reduce pro- Future, entitled Trends in Natural Resource Com- duce today in order to increase production modities. It deals with the production, prices con- tomorrow. If, instead, current production sumption, and employment, as related to resource com- is maintained and consumption is reduced modities from 1870 to 1957. It reveals that per capita, in favor of research and investment, future as well as total consumption, has been increasing with production will be increased. Higher pro- regard to resource commodities.It indicates that duction today, if it also means more research employment per unit of output has sharply declined in and investment today, thus will serve the the natural resource industries. And it indicates that economic interest of future generations bet- the cost of production, with the exception of forest ter than reservation of resources and lower products, has remained relatively constant. current production (2:247). What does this mean? It means that in spite of a In short, these gentlemen are saying that the lim- tremendous increase in the use of resource commod- itation upon our resources base is not the supply of Formerly an executive of Resources for the Future, Professor Fox is now Chairmanof the Department of Urban and Regional Planning and Associate Director of the Water Resources Center,The University of Wisconsin, Madison. gl 12 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION natural resources as we think of them usually, but It is a very solemn thing to extinguish a formof life the supply of atoms, energy, and human ingenuity; because once a species is destroyed ,it cannot b e that it's not necessarily wise to reduce production brought back to life. Once a valley is inundated by a today to have resources available for tomorrow. reservoir, it is next to impossible to restore it. Once a lake is seriously polluted, it may be impossible to THE MAJOR RESOURCE PROBLEMS make it once again a productive and usefulwater area. You are mistaken if you feel that these conclusions A third reason this is a serious problem relates to lead to the conclusion that there are no resource prob- the fact that man does not live by bread alone. A large lems. There are, in my judgment, three .iajor prob- part of our income is the well-being we derive from lems in the natural resources management field to- our physical and biological environment. This sort of day, and these create five major issues. income does not appear in our national income accounts. We could continue to have high, even increasing mon- Environmental Quality ey incomes, and suffer a net decline in human welfare. If we could measure environmental values, it is pos- The first major problem is that of environmental sible that we would find this happening today. In con- quality. There is clear evidence that the most seri- sidering the seriouness of environmentalquality prob- ous general resource problem in the world today is lems, it is sobering to realize that our traditional that of preserving and enhancing the quality of t he economic and political institutions tend to foster the physical and biological environment.This, in my destruction of the quality of the environment.This judgment, is one of the three or four most serious situation creates one of the major issues which will problems confronting mankind. be discussed and illuminated later in this paper. What is the nature of this problem? One aspect Managing the Resource Industries is environmental contamination; contamination from nuci ar radiation, fromchemicals used for the con- A second major resource problem is that of manag- trol of pests. fertilizers, food preservatives, an d ing the resource industries to serve best the overall pub- from the west products of our cities and our indus- lic interest.These are agriculture, mining and petro- tries. These threaten human health and well being. leum extraction, fishing, forestry, water development, A second aspect is the destruction of critical elements and the provision of outdoor rebreationopportunities. of our ecological system. These may be destroyed by contaminants or more directly by the hunting and Simply stated, an unregulated private enterprise sys- killing of animals and agricultural practices which tem for these industries simply does not serve the public destroy all but a few species of plants produced for interest. The reasons are complex, and it would not be agricultural markets. Many:of these threatened biota possible to describe them in any detail in a short presen- are sources of medicinal drugs. Ecological imbalance tation of this nature. However, a f ew of the reasons may leads to the emergence of pests, bacteria, and virus- be cited. First is what the economist refers to as the es. Species such as the bald eagle, the mountain lion, price inelasticity of demand for many resource commod- and the wolf, which are threatened with extinction, ities. This is the reason that agriculture tends to be fac- add to the richness of life. A third aspect is the deg- ed with periodic instability. Supply simply cannot adjust radation of the aesthetic character of the landscape. readily to changes in price and as a result in afree mar- Urban concentrations often are ugly to look at as well ket the prices of agricultural products tend to fluctuate as noisy and dirty. Rural landscapes maybe marred wildly with, at times, disastrous effects to consumers by unsightly billboards, litter, and crude structures. as well as producers. A fourth aspect may be termed crowding, which A second reason an unregulated sector of resource in- evidently has unfortunate social and psychological dustries does not tend to serve the public interest is the consequences. We appear to be losing our opportun- common property nature of some resources. A good ex- ities for privacy, to be relatively alone when one ample where everyone is free to use the same lake, riv- wants to be. An increasingly larger percentage of er, or ocean area is fisheries.But there are others. our people are being concentrated in urban places. The air, the seas, the radio spectrum, an d outer Today we have crowded parks, and we are crowding apace are the common property of the people of the into the wild places. In short, we are generally cre- world. When no one owns the resource, there is no ating a less happy and less attractive physical envi- motivation to manage it to optimize benefits from it. ronment than we once had. We face a general decline Thus there is a tendency toward over-exploitation. in the richness and beauty of mankind's surroundings. This is the case of the blue whale, which is almost ex- tinct. This is the cause of a serious problem in the And why do I characterize this as our mostcriti- management of fisheries all over the world. If w e cal problem? There are several reasons. First is fail to develop international institutions to manage its complexity and the uncertainty this complexity cre- common property resources, over-exploitation and ates. We simply do not understand the consequences conflict almost certainly will result. to mankind of what were doing through nuclear radiation, contamination of the air and water, chemicals A third reason that the resources industries do not in our food, and urban crowding. The nature of these tend to serve the public interest if they are unregu- problems are such that early answers are unlikely. lated is that some of these industries tend to be nat- Your children are unlikely to suffer from hunger, lack ural monopolies. Water supply, electric power, and of clothing, or lack of shelter. But they may be the navigation are classic examples. A fourth reason is victi Ma of environmental contaminants, which we do thatfor some resource development activities we must not now understand and which we may not understand have long-term horizons, longer possibly than a farm- until it is too late. A second reason that this is a fse- er or a forester can afford to have in terms of his rious problem is that some of the actions we take in own economic interests. This means that the ordi- the resource field constitute irreversible decisions. nary individual or small private enterprises are in- FOX 13 hibited from dealing with these resources in terms of sary. We merely have to project what is going on now the long-range needs of society. And finally, there into the next century to see (whether we want it or not) are what might be called the collective goods nature that some sort of limitation on the natural growth of of a good many of these resources. That is, if you population will be essential. This simply cannot be have a beautiful scenic valley, that scenery is avail- avoided. There is considerable evidence that slowing able to all, and the private individual may or may not the rate of population growth would aid in bringing the be motivated to preserve the scenic area. supply of resource commodities in to better balance with demand today and in the nextfew years. This is Over the world, governments have intervened to quite apart from the question of having a doubling of deal with these limitations, but serious problems re- population or a large increase to deal with 50 years from main. There are large sectors of poverty inAmeri- now. There is no doubt, also, that population growth can agriculture while many prosperous farmers in complicates the problem of preserving environmental the United States receive large subsidies. There is quality. The issue then that all the countries of the good evidence of gross inefficiencies in petroleum world face, is how, when, and to what extent should extraction. We are faced, as in Alaska, with the de- population control be introduced. pletion of fishery resources and an over-investment of capital in the fishery industry. The smallforests Extinction of Plant and Animal Species of the United States are in economic trouble, and their potentialities are not being realized. It is charged The second critical issue relating to resources and I think with some justificationthat we make un- (and in a sense this is an ethical issue raised by such economic investments in water projects. And today, people as Albert Schweitzer and Aldo Leopold ) is the we're strugglingand I think with so ne degree of suc- issue of to what extent man is justified in continuing cesswith the management of our outdoor recrea- through his action to modify and extinguish plant and tion resources. In brief, one of the major problem animal species. Man's welfare, we know, is inextrica- areas in the resource field is the large question of bly interrelated with the ecology of this planet. How how to manage the resource industries to serve pres- and to what extent is imperfectly understood. Yet ent and future generations both efficiently and equitably. through the use of pesticides, the extension of agriculture to more and more land, and in a variety of other Realizing Scientific and Technological Opportunities ways, we are modifying and destroying species at a A third problem.area is that of making world re- rapid ratea rate heretofore unknown. The question sources available to serve best the needs of mankind is whether it is time that this be 'dewed not as a sci- generally. Even in the most congested areas of the entific problem alone, but essentially as an ethical issue. world it is technically possible for people tobewell In my judgment, it is extremely dubious that early ad- fed, clothed, and housed if the resources of this planet vances in science can unravel all of the consequences are utilized effectively. Thee are vast under-uti- of what we are doing. In the face of such uncertainities lized resources in Asia, Africa, South and North in the past, man has adopted ethical norms to govern America. The technology is available to develop and human behavior. Should we not view the destruction utilize these resources to serve mankind. To sup- of any species of life as a very solemn actsomething port this view your attention is invited to the recent that mankind should accept as being contrary to the ba- experience in India where this past year a bumper sic rules of a civilized society.The issue deserves crop of grain was grown. Because of scientific ad- careful but urgent attention. vances in rice and wheat genetics, production ha s The Application of Knowledge to Resource Potentials skyrocketed and for the first time in several years a The third major issue is that of how to improve com- surplus exists. The technology is there; the resourc- rnunications and apply knowledge so that resource po- es are there, but there are serious problems in real- tentialities can be realized more effectively than they izing the opportunities that are available, not only in are at the present time. This is a critical problem in the underdeveloped countries of the world, but also dealing with environmental problems in ty..Irth Ameri- in countries such as our own. ca and Europe. In the low-income countries, this issue THE CRITICAL ISSUES must be confronted and solved if the supply potentials are to be realized and environmental problems are to be These three problem areasthe problem of envi- dealt with to meet the needs of the populations that are ronmental quality, the problem of managing the pri- there today and the populations that certainly will be mary industries, the problem of realizing scientific there over the next couple of decades. and technological opportunitieslead to five critical Let us examine a little more deeply the situation in issues. There may be more, but these five interrelat- North America and Europe. The complexity of environ- ed issues are the ones we will be most concerned with mental proble ms has been mentioned. There are two in dealing with resource problems in the years ahead. other problems that merit attention here. First, pri- Population Control vate institutions are not motivated by a market economy to reduce many of the adverse environmental conse- First is the question of population control. How quences of their activities. Since they do notbear the rapidly and to what extent should population growth cost of such actions as pollution of the air and water, be controlled to aid in solving the problems of envi- private organizations are not encouraged to take these ronmental quality and in,meeting the demands for goods effects into account in the calculus of their operations. and services produced from resources? We're hear- The second problem relates to research public insti- ing a great deal about this, and we will hear a great tutions sponsor or undertake on environmental prob- deal more about it in the years ahead. There canbe lems. Decisions asto what research to support are no doubt, if one looks at the statistics and examines dominated by the scientists who are supportedbythe what has happened in the past, that population limita- research. Scientists are well qualified to judge the tion in some form or another will eventually beneces- prospects of advance and determine appropriate 14 ENVIRONMENTALEDUCATION research methods. But they have no special qualifica- source commodities between the high-income and low- tionJ to judge what research is most important to man- income countries of the world? For both developed kind. There is a growing uneasiness that our research and low-income countries, this is one of the critical programs are designed to serve the interests of re- issues relating to the exploitation of resources. This searchers rather than the public generally. One of applies to food products, timber, minerals, energy, the most urgent needs we face in the field of environ- and the fibers. Why is this such an important issue? mental quality is research strategy to get at our envi- First, the low-income countries urgently need capital ronmental problems in a systematic way. It is doubtful in order to develop. One of the best ways available that such a strategy is developing today. to many of them to secure capital is throughthe pro- In the low-income countries, the problem is some- duction and sale of resource commodities.Second, what different. The advancement of knowledge and ap- many of the smaller countries are not nearly self- plication thereof to resource problems is much more sufficient in natural resources. The future welfare important than it is in North America or in Europe. of these countries, especially such countries as we The potential, as noted earlier, is there. It's not the have in Africa, is dependent on their ability to secure lack of resources that causes famine today. It is the resources from abroad throughtrade. Many countries, inability to apply modern science and technology to both developed and low-income, can produce some re- food production. If the supply problems of the low- source commodities only at a high cost. The economic income countries are to be met, over the short run, growth of such countries will be advanced if they can over the next 10, 20 years or so, this problem must trade the commodities they can produce economically be overcome. It will require capital to support re- for commodities which are costly to produce. And search and education and especially new institutions fourth, unfortunately the low-income countries asso- to provide motivation to advance and apply knowledge. ciate the exploitation and shipment abroad of natural This problem, of dealing with the application of knowl- resource commodities with colonialism and the em- edge and communication in cultures quite foreign to our pires of the last century. Thus, they tend to discour- own, is one of the most difficult problems faced in the age the entry of foreign capital for such purposes and world today. the export of resource commodities. In short, there is a need to develop the resources of these low-income Policy Design countries. The capital is in the developed countries The fourth issue is the question of public policy of Europe and NorthAmerica. The use of these com- design in the resource field. Government is here to modities today takes place preponderantly in the high- stay. Government intervention in the natural resourc- income countries. How are we to achieve an appro- es field is essential if public interest is to be served. priate balance in the use of the resource commodities No other recourse is available. In theory, since gov- of the world in the interest not only of the developed ernment represents all of the people, one would expect countries, but of the low-income countries as well? governmental agencies to weigh all costs and benefits It now appears that long before population and econ- in deciding what programs to undertake and what poli- omic growth in North America and Europe encounter cies to impose on private individuals and organizations. serious problems of resourc, supply, the quality of As you are well aware, the problem is not that simple. the environment that man is creating will confront him An important point is that the benefits from environ- with a much more critical difficulty. We will continue mental contamination are concentrated, but the damag- to be faced, as we have been in the past, with the probes tend to be diffused. This is evident in water and air lems of managing the resource industries to serve the pollution and landscape deterioration.If one looks at overall interest of the public. We will also face, in the the programs that affect the resource industries and kind of international world we have today, the problem seeks to make them more effective organizations, a similar situation exists. Subsidies and public proof making world resources available so as to best serve grams concentrate tic benefits while the costs are the needs of mankind. If these problems are to be met, widely shared by the people of the country. The re- we must realize a new type of policy design which is cap- sult .s that there are strong political and economic able of weighing environmental values and other consid- forces which support the destruction of the environ- erations with which we are concerned, and we must ment and strong political forces that say programs develop a research strategy which will assure an must be provided to aid the resource industries. At adequate advance in knowledge about t he relation- the same time the political forces, which aim to pre- ship between man's activity and his physical and bi- serve and enhance the quality of the environment and ological environment. Here critical issues arise which are concerned with the effect of programs of with regard to population and to the preservation of aid to the resource industries upon people, generally species.In the developing countries, the most crit- have tended to be weak. The outlook today is a con- ical problem relates to the advancement and applica- tinuing decline in environmental quality unless there tion of science to resource management tasks.In- is a substantial strengthening of public institutions ternationally, our major challenge lies in aiding that deal with environmental quality matters. In ad- scientific advanom..ents in the developing countries, dition, the erosion of confidence in the foundations of in encouraging the free flow of resource commodi- our society will continue if some of the glaring in- ties in international trade, and in finding ways and equities in governmental treatment of resource in- means of managing amicably and efficiently the com- dustries are not remedied. We have a long way to mon property resources of the world, including the go to develop resource policies which on the basis air, outer space, the radio spectrum, and most im- of objective criteria can be said to serve satisfac- portant of all, the resources of the sea. torily the public generally. REFERENCES 1. Barnett, Harold J. and Morse, Chandler, Scar- International Flow of Capital and Re source Commodities city and Growth, Resources for the Future, 1755 The fifth issue is the question of how can there Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, D.C. be achieved a good balance in the flow of capital and re- 20036,1953. Man and his environment are on a collision coarse.

THE POPULATION-POLLUTION SYNDROME

David Archbald

ARE MAN and his environment on a collision his natural environment. Consequently, he experienced course? Yes according to most environmental scien- his first minor collisions with his environment. tists and many statisticians. But where, when, and how great the collisions arc still partly up to man. In addition By about 6,000 B. C. , man had leal.ned to irrigate to our exploding population, we must recognize we have his crops and the world's first civilization developed become a geological force. We are converting over a the Sum erians of Mesopotamia. Further population in- million acres a year from farm and wild lands to high- crease created cities like Nil:el:ea and Babylon. Lum- ways and building sites in the United States alone. We ber came into demand and the forests on I ne upland can literally move mountains and poison rivers, lakes, slopes of the Tigris and Euphrates were cut to fill the and ever-increasing portions of the oceans and atmo- need. Soon thereafter, thedenuded mountains relin- sphere. So the best we can expect is that we learn to di- quished their soil to rains which eroded the denuded up- rect this force and to develop and implement effective lands, washing a sea of mud into the irrigation ditches. controls to check the population-pollution spiral to min- The Sumerians removed silt until it was piled 50-feet imize the future man-environment collisions. high along the banks. With the primitive tools of that age further dr edging became impossible. The irriga- HISTORY tion systems began to breakdown. This, with man's newfound enemiesplant and animal pests, caused Actually a series of local or regional collisions have cropf allure. Fish died in the muddy river waters. Star- already occurred dating back to the time when man vation ensued. Sumer ia began its decline. Once again, moved out of the Mesolithic into the Neolithic or Stone man had modified his ecosystem, won temporary bene- Age, about 10,000 B. C. At this point he walked out of the f its, and destroyed his environment in the process. " woods " and left behind over a million years of natural evolution, of natural interaction with all the other plants This drama, with the same leading character, can and animals on earth. Man had" arrived. " He had be- be recounted over and over. Only time and place change: come a farmer. He ttirned from simple wild food gath- the locust swarms of ancient Egypt which were mention- ering to agriculture domesticating animals and raising ed in Exodus in the Bible; epidemics such as bubonic crops. Rats, which he formerly ate, became competi - plague which killed a fourth of Europe's population in tors for his grain. His gardens promoted unnatural con- the 1300's ; the draught-caused famine of 1877-79 in e entrations of single-plant species and permitted cer- China where 9 million died; and the global flu which tain insect species to build high populations, too. These killed 25 million in 1918-20. insects no longer had to expend much time and energy on foraging for food over a d iversif ied plant community. Na- POPULATION: BIRTHQUAKE tive plants also competed by attempting to naturally re- vegetate man's croplands, formerly ignored, now they Thomas Malthus correctly predicted in 1798 our cur- were weeds. rent population dilema ( seeTabte 1). From Table 1 we can statistically figure that there are 1,300,000 addi- These competing animals and plants had not really tional mouths to feed around the world every week. In- changed, but nevertheless they were now pests. It was crease in any population occurs when the birth rate ex- true then, as is usually is today, that we see things not ceeds the death rate. Man, through his technological as they arebut as we are. discoveries over the past few centuries has sharply reduced death rates. Through this same technology, he Thus, agriculture was mants first attempt to mod- also has been able to increase the production and distri- ify his local ecosystem. He replaced naturally evolved bution of foodbut not fast enough, as indicated by the complex stable ecosystems with unnatural simple un- following quote from the May 31,1970 issue of the Cara- stable ecosystems and in so doing set himself apart from cas newspaper.

Dr. Archbald is President of the Man-Environment Communication Center, Madison, Wisconsin. 16 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION Today General Da Fonseca mobilized all units of the TABLE 2 4th military region of Brazil to ship food and other materials to sections of the Northeast ravaged by severe SOME NATURAL RESOURCES: THEN AND NOW drought. The order to mobilize came while 200, 000 hungry men, women, and children were migrating from Natural Original %of Original the interior to the Atlantic coast in search of food and Resource Acreage Now Resource Re- water. Starving northeastern peasants have ransack- maining ed many businesses in different cities of the region and Wisconsin Less than Less than have assaulted at least six freight trains carrying food prairies 2, 000, 000 20,000 1% supplies ( 4 ). California (Redwood The July 17 issue of the same paper reported, " Bra- Redwoods 2, 000, 000+ Park 58, 000) 3 zilian President, General Garr astazu Medici, has declared all townships of the Northeast region a disaster Passenger area because of the severe drought.ff has been estimated Pigeon 5, 000, 000, 000 0 0 that about a million people have been affected. " Bison 50, 000, 000 6, 000 1/100 of 1 POPULATION: IMPACT ON ENVIRONMENT The Prodigal Population Population - Pollution Syndrome Man, in his eagerness to rush toward an unknown destination, has been prodigal indeedWhen the Pit- In recent decades, man's chemical assault on his gr tins stepped ashore on Plymouth Rock, North America environment has surpassed even his physical attack. was an unending wilderness, seemingly inexhaustible The " effluence of his affluence " municipal and in- yet hostilea challenge to the settlers' very survival. dustr tat wastes, vehicular exhaust, atmospheric dust, Consequently, a cultural pattern of natural resource ex- chemical pesticides used on crops, lawns and gar - ploitation and building developed which has continued densis staggering. down to the present day. In Table 2 we can see a few of man's "triumphs " in his " battle with nature." Air. Air pollution now costs every A merican $ 65 per year in property damage. Moreover, it takes thou- It is a tragic irony that the U. S. , the world's most sands of lives prematurely by aggravating bronchial ail- affluent country, has been able to afford to preserve ments. Yet, the total 1969 Congressional outlay for air so little of its wilderness. The tiny percentage of the pollution control is about 45 cents per person. natural resources we have today was preserved by default, not by foresight.Either the particular resource The relative increase in world population and com- became too scattered or too inaccessible to exploit prof- bustion of fossil fuels ( coal, liquid hydrocarbons, nat- itably. Virgin eastern white pine forests or bits of prai- ural gas, and lignite) is described in the Report of the rie are such isolated remnant resources. Many of our Environmental Pollution Panel of the President's Sci- natural areas are hardly virgin, having been subjected ence Advisory Committee (8). The carbon dioxide in- to some grazing, selective lumbering, fire, erosion, crease is presented as an indication of man's ability to chemical invasion, and other forms of abuse. We are release long- stor ed energy into his environment, ener- presently converting over one minion acres of farm and gy that throws the environment into ecological disarray. wildlands to highways and building sites every year. With more and more energy available, man is able to plow, cut, net, mine, or bulldozefor thequick dollar. True, natural resources made possible the phe- We are accumulating waste by-products roughly at the nomenal development of the U. S. But why did so many rate the CO2 curve is ascending. So, environmental resources have to be 98-100 percent depleted? This degradation is progressing considerably faster than the same story holds for each continent, only the chro- population is increasing. nology is different. The climatologists are not in complete accord in their interpretation of the significance of atmospheric TABLE 1 CO2 accumulation. It has been suggested that atmospheric warming due to an increased CO2 " greenhouse effect" could melt the Antarctic ice cap and raise sea level 400 WORLD POPULATION (10) IN MILLIONS OF PEOPLE feet. If this takes 1, 000 years, and it could occur soon- BY " DEVELOPED" AND " UNDERDEVELOPED " er, the seas would still r lee 4feet every decade and in 30 CONTINENTS years many of the world's great seaports would be large- % increase ly inundated. Indeed, between 1885 and 1940 the average 19652000 surface temperature over the entire earth showed arise South Amer tea 240 624 160 of . 9° F. But between 1940 and 1980 the temperature Africa 306 768 118 Asia 1A003300 83 dropped. 2 °F. Some scientists attribute this decrease to the abrupt increase in the atmospheric dust (1 ). Un- Total " underdeveloped" 2,-34-64 692 Tor fortunately, it is nowhere near as simple as one injection negating the effects of a second. Atmospheric dust NorthAmer Ica 213 354 61 U. S. S. R. 231 353 53 and CO2 have quite different effects on such important Europe 440 527 20 factors as light quality and intensity, photosynthesis, Total "developed" 11:1-17E34- plant and animal respiration, wind velocity and direction, and water acidity. One estimate of the various 3,229 pollutants being released into the air is presented in Total for world 5,926 184 Table 3 (2) , ARCHBALD 17

TABLE al Research Council warned 2 years later that by the mid- 1980's the nation's municipal wastes are expected to ESTIMATED U. S. AIR POLLUTION TONNAGE PER have a biological demand equal to the oxygen available YEAR in the entire summertime flow of the nation's river systems. In other words, if the nation's mid-1980 municipal water were uniformly dumped into the country's Source Millions of Tons%D of Total streams and rivers the water's dissolved oxygen would Cars, trucks, and buses 85 65 be completely depleted and all aquatic life exterminated. Manufacturing industry 22 17 Electric power plants 15 12 Finally, the so-called clean power from nuclear en- Heating of homes and ergy has two potentially harmful waste products: dis- buildings 8 6 charge of heated water used in the cooling process and Total 130 100 radioactive wastes. Thermal pollution reduces dissolved oxygen levels and encourages algae growthil- lustrating again that we cannot get something for nothing. Water. Certain lower forms of life survive without The story of DDT accumulation throughboth aquatic oxygen. All forms of life, at least on this planet, require and terr estrial food chains is now too well known to be water to survive and reproduce. Man can go many weeks recounted. But what about the half-million chemicals without food but only a few days without water. Clean air the FDA estimates we are now exposing ourselves and and clean water are man's two most important natural our environment to? FDA estimates the number is in- resources. Yet look at what we have done to Lake Erie, creasing by 400 to 500 per year. We ar e begging the one of the world's gr eat fr eshwater lakes. Through mis- question of how these chemicals directly affect us and management and abuse, we have converted a clean, blue all other organisms. But what are the possible effects lake into an aquatic desert, listless and murky green. of various chemicals in combination? We just do not know. In 1900, the whole U. S. sewage system discharaged less than 10 million pounds of phosphates annually. By Aldo Leopold (5) wrote 20 years ago: " A thing is 1964, the discharge totaled 250 million pounds, with syn- right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, thetic detergents being a major contributor. The Nation- and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when

FIGURE 12 PUBLIC CONSTRUCTION UTILITY SALES OF HIGHWAYS OF ELECTRICIT IN FREIGHT 2020 a MO% TRANSPORTATION 3150% / I i CHEMleAL 8 EXPANSIONOF REVENUE Et PRODUCTS IT PROJECTED gaga cm-cr 125 ECONOMICDEVELOPMENTS ,.fiss DIRECTLY AFFECTINGTHE 1 ENVIRONMENT (TO THEYEAR 2000) / a. . S 100 1 cgii1RuPtN W O PUBLICCONSTRUCTION OF VATER Et SEWERAGE AUT°NOBLE STOCK

1 /-AdAi.di pZ75 ' NOBLES (ANNUM PRODUCTION/ FERROUS METALS e PRODUCTS

RaPAPER BOARD PRODUCTION O MAlT BEVERAGES ON CANS S NATIONAL PRODUCTS

c..)4( 111111rAM I AV, 50 PETRCLEUM CONEUMPTION

u. O iiro;P#0.0";A STEEL INGOTPRI CTION O '.....'1SOAPIa DTERGENTS c7i Ad16 dig...11,A POPIATION

a.< /.4'.'r,J1.....--rompimm,._00 il7;141!1. 02 o 10 ?, )47 50 60 70 80 90 2000 YEflfiS 2 18 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION it tends otherwise. " Many of the chemicals we are ing population, ignorance of ecological principles and using are destroying or dislocating biotic communities. exploitation of the world's limited resources. We have unleashed superpowerful forces which we may not b e Figure 1 indicates the extent to which Americans able to check: a runaway population, poverty, and pol- will pollute our environment in the next 30 years unless lutionchemical, physical, thermal, and biological. broad protectIve measures are adopted. What comfort can we derive from the fact that our gross national prod- As these forces continue to gain momentum.our abil- uct (GNP) is expected to double in the next 20 years ? ity to control our destiny diminishes proportionately. After comparing the socioecologic environment in the Given our mesent anti-pollution programs and laws, we U. S. and the world in 1950 and 1970, I see little cause cannot possibly even hold the line at the present level of for optimism for 1990 unless our national and world val- pollution, let alone reserve it.If, in the next 15 years, ues change. When a GNP is sufficient to meet its peo- we can muster the know how and money to rid the U. S. of ple's basic biological and social needs, the value of a the equivalent of the total 1970 effluent, we will still be growing GNP depends on the values, wisdom, and goals polluting the environment at today's rate. Our effluent of the nation producing it. We are still selling our vir- will have doubled by then because of increased popula- tue to buy wealth. For our own long-term survival, we tion and increased per capita consumption of apparent- must chart and follow a course designed "...to preserve ly indispensable creature comforts. the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community ." Why do we find ourselves in this bind? Primarily because of our money-making drivesdollars and drach- WHAT SIGNIFICANCE: ECOSYSTEMS? mas, rupees and rubles, pounds and pesosmoney takes precedence over all other values. Minimize costs and Man is clever in adapting but also brazen and arro- maximize benefits. This is fine if we consider the input gant. He has insinuated himself into the forefront of the of all the costs, monetary, and environmental, and out- biotic community. And in his scramble to dominate, he put of all benefits, short and long-term. has broken nearly every ecological principle of energy flow, isolation, community interaction, and population In this milieu, the environmentalist is often hamper- control. He is trying to rule without knowing nature's ed by cumbersome legal machinery. Civil and criminal rules. The more he manages, the more managing he laws have been evolving over the centuries, whereas the has to do. If he extirpates a natural predator, then he body of anti-pollution law is relatively new and very in- has to assume that predator's role or riskbeing over- complete. A party or chemical suspected of polluting is run by the now uncontrolled prey. Can he poison the pest innocent until proven guilty. In some cases of pollution, plants and animals without poisoning the pollinating in- years may slipby before enough scientific proof of dam- sects, honeybees, earthworms, or the ocean die' ams age can be gathered. By this time irreparable damage wiiich produce 70 percent of the oxygen we breahe? may have occurred. The extent to which all species are "hooked in" to Government is a balance of conflicting interests. Un- each other is remarkable. This interlocking of species til a need is clearly demonstrated, in some cases "over- moved Leopold to comment: " How do we know but when demonstrated, " little is done. Hence, the term " gov- we pick a pasque flower but what we change the course ernment by crisis. " This is especially true of the natu- of a star." That we have been unrestrained in picking ral environment where man is so woefully ignorant of its pasque flowers is evident from extreme intricacies and delicate balances. Because of MAN'S HAND ON THE LANDSCAPE our lack of understanding, by the time scientists suspect environmental deterioration it is usually far advanced. Before After Moreover , because it usually costs the pollutor m or e Natural ecosystem Man-dominated eco- money initially to quit polluting or to adopt precaution- system ary measures, he is unlikely to act on his own. The Chipmunk and mink House mice and rats 1988Santa Barbara of 1 slick mess illustrates govern- Butterflies and luna Houseflies and house ment-by-crisis, yet isn't as critical as the slow deg- moths moths radation of Lake Erie. orchids and trilliums Ragweed and thistles TWO CASES OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION Gamebirds and Song- Housesparrows, star- birds lings and pigeons Atyp.lal Typical Gamefish Bullheads and carp Santa Barbara oil slick Lake Erie Earthworms and fire- Termites and cock- Sudden Relatively slow flies roaches Visually dramatic Visually undr a - Prairie community Corn monoculture matic; one year Blue skies Brown haze was much like Blue water Green?Black?Brown? the previous Tens of thousands of Man-controlled, man Instant property damage Property damage, species interacting driven community but not as obvious in a stable, dynamic Responsibility easily Responsibility dif- self-perpetuating com- f ixed f icult to fixthou- munity sands of polluters " Underdeveloped" Biological recovery: 5? 25? Biological r ecov- "Developed" years e r y centuries, Quality environment ????????? if ever

OUR PROBLEMS)) Lake Erie points up several aspects of man's role as The problem is multi-faceted. It involves an explod- despoiler of the environment, aspects of which society ARCHBALD 19 is usually unaware. The despoiling process is usually vomit. Clearly, the gr eater the population and the gr eat- gradual, in man's own time scale. Total property and er the mobility, the gr eater the opportunity for spread esthetic damage may be staggering but rarely fully of the disease. Health officials are still uncertain how appreciated because the loss is not abrupt. T her e is dif- the epidemic got its start. But according to Time maga- ficulty in assigning blame. Too often the stupid response zine, September 14, 1970, " Perhaps the most disturb- we get is "that's the cost of progress. " Little or no heed ing aspect of the current epidemic is the refusal of many was given to the cost of environmental degradation when governments toface up to the presence of the disease the cost/benefit ratio was considered for the various within their borders. " Why? One main reason was to economic ventures in the Erie basin. avoid scaring off tourists. At any rate, at this writing Parhospitals have begun to ration cholera vaccine. The adage " an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure" takes on special significance in resource man- We Americans must check our population growth. " agement because so often there is no cure for environ- Saying that the population explosion is a problem of un- mental pollution. We hear about" cleaning up "Lake derdeveloped countries is like telling a fellow passen- Erie, chemically perhaps. But we will be about as suc- ger your end of the boat is sinking, " asserts Paul Mu cessful in the Lake's biological restoration as all the itch (3 ). king's horses and all the king's men were with Humpty Dumpty. We are convinced technology is waiting in the Another critical part of our problem is that we are wings to rescue mankind from himself. Nonsense. That's daily inundated with a torrent of" facts; often apparent- wishful thinking and specious reasoning. Our unbridled ly conflicting, about racism, Vietnam, the generation faith in our own technological abilityreinforced by the gap and even population-pollution problems. We must, Apollo space shots, heart transplants, etc. is simply a however, keep these issues in perspective. Is it not to relative thing. Comparing such accomplishments with be expected that with more people going in more direc- the complex chemical, physical, and biological interre- tions, there will be more social conflict? The real dan- lationships of Lake Erie is like comparing the complex- ger lies in wasting our energies in fruitless nation-to- ity of a single leaf with that of a whole forest. Killing an nation and man-to-man conflict, which only keeps us organism is infinitely easier than bringing it back to life. from facing the universal challenge mass famine in a It appears this will remain so in the for seeable future. degraded environment. Another instance of our over-confidence in our tech- That Americans are not alone in their pollution prob- nology concerns the world' s food crisis. We hear how lem is evident from the following two excerpts from So- we will farm the unlimited resources of the sea. First, viet publications. the sea's resources are as limited as our knowledge about how to farm it. Let us look at the record. In 1955, Pravda recently asserted (7) " Every violation If the world catch of marine food would have provided hygienic rules and sanitary norms, large or small,has enough calories to support 23 million. A decade later, a direct effect on the peopletheir mood, their attitudes, enough calories for 46 million. But during this same their health. We have received many letters protesting decade when the seas yielded food for just 23 million water and air pollution. The working people propose the more, the world population increased by 500 million. adoption of a number of legal measures to put an end to Hardly encouraging. Moreover, to cause considerable instances of this barbarous attitude toward nature. " damage to the seas, all we need to do is pollute coastal waters. This would prevent the reproduction of many " The problem of geohygiene ( earth hygiene) is high- species harvested at sea. ly complex and closely tied to economic and social problems. This problem can therefore not be solved on a Famine is here: 15, 000, and many more by other es- national and especially not on a local basis. The salva- timates, are dying from starvation daily and millions tion of our environment requires that we overcome our are suff ereing from malnutrition. And, apparently, re- divisions and the pressure of temporary, local inter- gardless of our technology and ambitious progr ams,the ests, " says AndreiSakharov, the Russian Nobel prize crisis is worsening. Projected dates of widespread fam- winner in physics (10). ines vary from 1975 ( 6), 1975-80 (9 ), and accordin:; to the U.S. Department of Agriculture as late as 1984. Harrison E. Salisbury comments on Sakharov's new book, " There is roughly a quarter century left before During the summer of 1970, a new virulent strain of the year 2000. Saithar ov does not claim universality for southern leaf blight swept through the midwest states his thoughts. But he would agree that unless his blue- from the Gulf resulting in an 9stimated national corn printor some reasonablevariationis adopted by the yield loss for 1970 of 8 percent. Tons of corn were flovm principal societies of the world, the prospects of surviv- to Hawaii to assure a seed source for next year. Mass al into the second millennium are virtually nil. " simplification of ecosystems, in this case from hundreds of prairie species, to one species, corn, followed by further genetic purification of this one remaining spe- CONCLUSION cies is true ecological brinksmanship. The natural environment is shared by every indi- The other side of the coin here is, of course, expand- vidual. We all use the environment. We all pollute ing populations which divert capital from improving the the environment. It is, therefore, the social respon- lot of those already on earth and aid and abet man's old- sibility of every individual to help preserve environ- est enemydisease. A case in point, is the new strain mental quality for others here today, tomorrow and of cholera sweeping across Asia towar ds Europe. the days afterbecause, the chances of mankind's survival tomorrow can be measured directly in terms Typically, the disease is contracted from food or of mankind' s efforts to preserve a quality drinking water contaminated by human excrement or environment today.

2 20 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION FOOTNOTES lution, Washington D. C. , December 12-14, 1966 pp. 18-12. 1. This paper is now available as a 26-minute, 16mm, 3. Ehrlich, P. R. , The Population Bomb, Ballantine color, sound film entitled" Spaceship Without a Skip- Books, Inc. , New York, New York, 1968. per." Contact Man Environment Communication Center, 545 West Dayton Street, Madison Wisconsin 4. El Nacional, Caracas, Venequela, May 31, and July 53703. 17,1970 (translated news articles ). 2. Data for this chart com es from Resources in Amer- 5. Leopold, Aldo, A Sand County Almanac, Oxford Uni- ica's Future, Landsberg, Hans L. ; Fischman, Leo- versity Press, New York, New York, 1949. nard L.; Fisher, Joseph L., Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, Maryland, 1962. 6. Paddock, W. ; Paddock, P. , Famine-19751 Little, Brown and Company, Boston, Massachusetts, 1967. 7. Pravda, June 21, 1965, Moscow, U. S. S. R. , p. 20. REFERENCES 8. Report of the Environmental Pollution Panel Pr es- ident' s Science Advisory Committee, 1965, pp. 114- 1. Bryson, R. A. , "Climatic Effects of At- 120. mospheric Pollution," me!. pre:ented at 9. Sakharov, A. D. , " Progress, Coexistence and In- National Association for the Advancement of Sci- tellectual Freedom ", W. W. Norton and Company, ence meeting, Dallas, Texas, December 27, 1968. Inc., New York, 1968.

2. Dixon, J. P., " The State of Our Atmosphere, " Pro- 10. World Resources Inventory, Southern Illinois Uni- ceedings: The Third National Conference on Air Pol- versity, 1965, p.8.

3 0if "In attempting to `sell' conservationtoday,itisespecially important to know something of thenationaltasteinenvironment."

THE POTENTIAL OF CONSERVATION HISTORY

RoderickNash

LOOK OUT the nearest window (if there isn't bining with intellectual and cultural historians and one, that too is revealing about attitude toward the students of literature and speech lo investigate the environment) and consider the face of the land. What many levels of man's relation to the land. We are you see is a human creation.The tree or shrub or only beginning to learn how and why men react to the patch of grass is there, in other words either be - outdoors.Often such knowledge i s buried beneath cause men put it there or because they allowed it to intertwined layers of custom, symbol, and myth ex- remain.Is the vegetation beyond your window care- tending back to prehistory.Untangling the meaning fully manicured, farmed, or growing wild? If the of concepts such as garden and wilderness or deter- last, is it from choice or neglect?Such questions mining the significance of the color green have aston- probe deeply into public tastes, values, and ambi- ishing possibilities. tions. Perhaps your glance meets only concrete and asphalt; this exclusion of nature tells something else It follows that conservation history maybe studied about a people's preferences. And what of the build- as something more than past politics or economics to ings, utility installations, and other accouterments the record of resource management. Inextricably in- of civilization? Are they constructed with aesthetic volved are ideas about national identity and purpose considerations in mind, related to each other, to the as well as a society's aesthetic, religious, and eth- landscape, and to human needs, or erected haphaz- ical convictions. The history of American conserva- ardly? tion, in particular, can be made to bear on some of the basic issues in American life.Natural resource The point is that any landscape is an artifactan policy, for example, is one of the best places to ex- object made by man.Its condition, rightly seen, re- amine the tension between individual freedom and veals a society's culture and traditions as directly social purpose.Enlightened use of the land demands as does a novel or a newspaper or a Fourth of July a limitation on the action of landowner because the oration because today's environment, the "natural" easiest, or most lucrative, method of exploiting a part included, is synthetic.Especially since the resource is seldom in the best long-term interests advent of modern technology, man has shaped the of the nation as a whole. But in a society that covers face of the earth. He has, in fact,been the primary individualism and free enterprise, especially as it agent of change.In an hour, a bulldozer performs concerns the land, how can conservation principles the equivalent of thousands of years of erosionper- be instituted? The profit motive w ill not suf fice haps more. And the choice not to alter the earth, although the payment of bonuses and extension of in most regions, now also involves a conscious ex- tax advantages to those who practice conservation ercise of human will.The landscape as a result, has been tried. And, public lands aside, legal co- either developed or wild, is an historical document. ercion is difficult since it means interfering with a The bulldozer, as well as the pen, makes a record man's relationship to his property.Telling an indi- that the historian would do well to study. And the vidual, or a corporation, how to manage his land is realization is growing in regard to the environment close enough to telling him how to furnish his house that today's choices will in large part determine to- as to make most Americans uneasy. Consequently, morrow's experiences. So the land, in the last a- conservationists have argued that some kinds of prop- nalysis, is not only a document revealing past thought erty are less private than others: specifically, those and action but also a slate Upon which the present which everyone sharesin the environment. What outlines the kind of life it bequeaths to the future. one does inside one's home is truly private, but when individual action affects rivers and soil and When considerelion of the environment is broad- scenery that other people use and see, individual ened to include what people have thought about it as rights must be redefined. well as its actual condition, the potential of conservation history is increased.Indeed a new interdisci- Faced with this problem, conservation leaders plinary field concerned with man's understanding of have endeavored to secure the voluntary cooperation the environment seems imminent. Geographers, psy- of landowners and the sympathy of the citizenry. chologists, anthropologists, and ecologists are com- This explains the frequent justification of conserva-

Dr. Nash is Associate Professor of History at the University of California, Santa Barbara.This is the foreword to his new book, The American Environment: Readings in the History of Conservation, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1968.

31 22 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION tion in terms of patriotism, prosperity, nation al closely connected to the history of conservation. strength or greatness, democracy, and efficiency. Another way conservation serves the study of bas- Such ends, it is argued are worth the extra cost and ic issues in the American experience is in its ability effort of intelligent custodianship of the land and its to focus the chronic controversy between utilitarian resources. But this line of reasoning evades the and aesthetic interests. Obviously a particular nat- idea that land health and beauty are desirable ends ural object, such as a tree, can be claimed by both in themselves. The relatively small, but increas- interestsas lumber or as scenery. The same i s ing, number of American conservationists who have true of a canyon that could be dammed for use as a taken this position believe that land has rights which reservoir or preserved as wilderness. The fact that men should respect as part of their ethical code. neither tree nor canyon can satisfy both demands si- The same restraints that, 11, theory, prevent a man multaneously has given rise to violent altercations. from killing his neighbors, they assert, should pre- In the context of allocating resources, Americans have vent him from exterminating a species or destroy- been confronted with basic questions of value and ul- ing a forest. To be sure, such advocates of a land timately with choices about the nature of their civili- ethic as Aldo Leopold and Stewart Udall are under zation.Frequently the issue reduces to the question no illusions about the difficulty of its acceptance. of whether the nation, with its well-known material Yet they insist that such a fundamental shift Iii val- abinties and appetites, also possesses an aesthetic ues is a prerequisite for the success of conserva- and spiritual sense. tion.Securing the public's cooperation is as big a problem as devising the techniques for managing the Conservation history i3 important for the w ay it land. illuminates the advantages and limitations of our custodianship of the land. Anyone professionally concern- Framed another way, this issue involved the re- ed with resource policy or involvedn a citizens' lationship between the expert and the people.Fre- crusade can benefit from knowing how his predeces- quently planners and scientists know what to do to sors formulated ideas, secured the public approval further conservation, but persuading the people to necessary for their institutionalization, and evaluat- apply this knowledge is a different matter.It is the ed their results.In attempting to'sell'conservation horse- and -water problem in classic form; communi- policies today, it is especially important to know cation is the key. Row does the expert, whose under- something of the national taste in environment. Such standing of a situation is often built on years of technical information is perhaps best derived from an examina- research, convince the nonspecialist and secure his tion of how this task was formed. approval for instituting a program of land reform? In a totalitarian state, this is relatively easy: appro- Two pitfalls are commonly encountered in the teach- priate use of resources is simplydecreed.The ing and writing of the history of resource management. king's forest will not be clear-cut. But the demo- The first is to speak of "conservation" as if it denot- cratic assumptions and institutions of A me rican ed a single school of thought. In fact, as some of the civilization as well as its pervasive anti-intellectu- statements in this volume will reveal, conflicts among alism (especially in regard to land, common sense conservationists are as frequent and bitter as those is difficult to displace as the source ofauthority) between them and the parties they seek to restrain complicate the matter. Policy decisions concerning and reform. Prenounced differences in ends separ- the environment must be hacked out of a thicket of ate those who would preserve the environment for re- contending often directly contradictory, interests. creation from those who would develop its resources, And once a course of action is set, there is no as- albeit wisely, in the public's economic interest. Yet surance, given the vagaries of public favor, that it both factions ( best represented today by the dam- will be continued.This is particularly unfortunate building Bureau of Reclamation and the wilderness- in the case of resources since the land responds minded Sierra Club ) vigorously insist that they a r e slowly to threatment Political leadership changes conservationists. Even those in closely related fields much more quickly than the environment. often find themselves at odds: optimum conditions for ducks are not the most conducive for the prop- The record of conservation in the United States agation of fish, and "outdoor recreation" ranges has direct relevance to assessing the significance of from wilderness backpacking to roadside picnicking. the concepts of the frontier and of abundance in the Yet in spite of evidence to the contrary, politicians, national experience. A number of scholars have fol- journalists, scholars, and the public at large usual- lowed Frederick Jackson Turner in suggesting that ly refer to 'conservation' as a unified interest. Part if we have a national character, it is due to these of the difficulty stems from the fact that nobody to- formative influences. Conservation may be interpret- day is really against conservation any more than ed as an effort to extend both the frontier and abun- they are against peace or freedom. But when more dance beyond the point at which they mieht otherwise specific definitions are demanded, the rhetorical have ended.Clearly, the desire for an easy way to similarity disappears. a full stomach is not the only relevant factor h e r e. At stake, many believe, is the perpetuation of Amer- The second common mistake is to approach the ican traits and ideals: democracy, individualism, history of the environment with a manichean orien- independence, and even the nation's youth and con- tation.It is easy, in writing about the landscape, fidence are being "conserved" along with resources. to fall into the rhetoric of moralismthe 'good Nor can we discount as a factor in the American con- guys' versus the 'bad guys.' Most accounts of A- servation movement the vague feeling that there is merican conservation contain at some point an el- something special about the New World environment egiac description of the 'unspoiled' continent: once worth preservinga certain freshness, a chance for the country was beautiful and rich in resources, but a new start and for progress that inspired the trans- then came the 'greedy exploiters' who 'raped' the planted Europeans with 'messianic expectations. The 'virgin'land.Such a representation unjustly uses national sense of pride and identity, in sum, are the emotions of the present to describe the actions

2 NASH 23 of the past.It fails to employ historical sympathy, concern natural resources; they also reflect distinc- to understand the pastinits own terms. tive traits of the American character. Almost u- Neither the pioneers nor most subsequent resource niquely among modern peoples, the emigrants who developers considered themselves unthinking spoil- settled the New World had the opportunity and the ers or were regarded as such by their contemporar- responsibility to make their own environment. Noth- ies.Instead, they acted in a manner consistent with ing was inherited in this respect but wilderness. their environmental circumstances and intellectual Asians or Europeans of the same era, however, had heritage. When the forest seemed limitless, cut- no alternative but to live in a physical setting shap- out-and-get-out was an appropriate response. Cer- ed by thousands of years of occupancy. Except in a tainly early Americans made mistakes in usingthe limited way, the landscape could not express the ir land, but they became such only in the opinion of preferences. North Americans, on the contrary, later generations. Rather than shaking moralistic had, and to some extent still have, the chance to fingers, conservation historians would do well to make fundamental choices about t he character of attempt to understand why men acted a s they did their environment.Attitudes toward the past, con- toward the environment. temporary tastes, and ideals for the future combine to influence such decisions. There are, in sum, few richer lodes than conservation history from which to Readings in the history of conservation not only mine an understanding of American culture..

3(s 'Whatisneededisleadershiptoward redirection of our way oflife."

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION: AN ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

DurwardL.Allen

ANY REALISTIC appraisal of the influences a product of evolution.It is likely that primordial of waste products on human life must take place in food gathering and scavenging, and later hunting, ac- an ecological context.That is to say, it should con- tivities disturbed the environment relatively little. sider characteristics of the human habitat, the dy- For this kind of life, the social unit had to be small namics of human numbers, and the kind of life we and foraging was commonly restricted to the most want to live.Such an evaluation might logically sug- favorable sites (13).However, it probably was true gest expedients in the husbandry of people that could that with the earliest use of fire the influence of the lead to desirable goals. Those goals cannot be strictly innovating biped was seen extensively in certain veg- defined, but we can indicate them in a general way. etation types.In climatically favorable regions the It probably is fair to say that our long -term objective in primitive arsonist helped along the regime of natural mediating the relationships of mankind to this earthly burning that expanded grasslands into forested areas. environment is to improve the life of the individual. This probably did not materially impair the biologi- We must assume, ingenuously perhaps, that time will cal productivity of the land, especially in terms of the reveal the solid values on a basis of trial aim; crror- hoofed animals that were human food. provided the critical errors are not irreversibly'. The next instar of the man-culture was a different matter, for sedentary peoples with livestock and cul- CULTURE: ANOMALY OF THE AGES tivated grains were able to commit heavy aggression There can be no doubt that many of the logistic against their immediate habitat. The denuding of land and social conditions affecting humanity are deeply and the spreading of he earth's deserts is an old story rooted in our biological past.Studies of the ecology amply documented by Harroy (5), Shantz (15), Low- and behavior of other forms of life can contribute to dermilk (8), and others. an understanding of the human species, and unquestionably we have reached a stage in the development While human settlements were scattered and rel- of environmental problems that calls for all the en- atively small, environmental pollution was not a ma- lightenment we can muster. jor problem. When people concentrated in too great a degree and fouled their environs, they were subject in:would be helpful indeed if it were possible to in- to the same limitations as other living things.Epi- terpret reliably what can be learned from laboratory demic disease reduced their numbers.Biologically populations of certain animals or from natural com- we can recognize pollution as acharacteristic density- munities and to judge thereby our own status and es- dependent mortality factor that acts as a natural check tate.Major difficulties arise in the fact that both on the expansion of populations of most animals. innate behaviorisms and basic environmental rela- After the advent of the industrial era and the de- tionships are masked and complicated by a great velopment of modernized technologies-principally array of cultural developments. We are well r e - within the past century-human relationships to the moved from that primate ancestor who lived, pre- earth were vastly changed.Medical science upgrad- sumably, as a well-adjusted component of a natural ed sanitary standards, reduced death rates, and ex- and a sell-sustaining ecosystem. Developmentfrom tended life expectancy.Populations grew more rap- hominid to human took place over at least a million idly than ever before. Increasing mastery of physical years, and even in the recent past, progress from a and engineering sciences permitted the large-scale hunting and gathering culture to a modern industrial exploitation of resources, radical modification of nat- way of life encompassed at least 10,000 years.Itis ural conditions on land and water, and the use, if not not strange that we have difficulty recognizing ho- mologies among many analogies or that people are occupation, of practically every major habitat. inclined to regard their own species as something SUCCESS AND JEOPARDY apart from nature. In a period so brief as nearly to preclude the up- As George Gaylord Simpson (14) effectively pro- dating of mores or the development of an ethos of pounds, it is proper to recognize man the creature resource use, man has extended his dom'aion over the as a part of nature and at the same time to contend earthall of it. The very f act that man can do this may realistically with the fact that he is totally unique as turn out to be less than a blessing. In his overflowing

Dr. Allen is Professor of Wildlife Ecology, Department of Forestry and Conservation, Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana. This paper was presented at the Conservation Leaders' Forum on Environmental Quality, Cornell Universi- ty, Ithaca, New York, Ntober 29, 1969. It is Journal Paper No. 4020 of the Purdue AgriculturalExperiment Station. 34 ALLEN 25 numbers and in his ubiquitous presence, this creature beaches, tidal zones, and estuaries has steadily made has lost his place in any natural ecosystem. That should more and more such areas unfit for human use and be disturbing, since it is invariably true that the or- necessitated the condemnation of shellfish and simi- ganisms of this world live in communities, of which lar resources. the plants and animals are interdependent.If on e We have a technological cure for this problem, creature becomes too succet. iful, it will destroy the since we do know how to treat sewage. We also recog- community and its basis of livelihood. nize what is needed, since in the Clean Water Restor- Most other kinds of life are adapted to afairly lim- ation Act of 1966, the Congress authorized an annual ited spectrum of environmental conditions.Thus, federal cost-sharing for grants to construct locally with their living and dying, their nibbling and defe- needed sewage treatment works. As planned, under cating, they affect only certain areas of the earth's that program the national government should by now surface.In terms of effects on water, atmosphere, have contributed some two and a half billion dollars. and land, there are dilution factors and regeneration Actual appropriations have been slightly more than periods.But man the generalist, the omnivore, the a billion less than enough to meet the matching funds cosmopolite, the technocrat, has managed to find some now available in local communities. kind of grist from the mountaintop to the ocean, and The delays in doing the job on domestic sewage he builds his mill on every falling water.Unless he have much in common with our other failures in the engenders a wisdom to match his ingenuity, he could field of pollution abatement.In any case we will pay commit costly errors. for pollution. We will pay by cleaning it up, or we The state of world overpopulation, as a result of will pay in the quality of our habitat.Thus far, in widespread public health programs and declining major degree, we have chosen the latter course. death rates, is so well known and so much discuss- In the long view, our visible plans for sevngedis- ed as to be almost commonplace. Predictions are posal are inadequate and improvident. We still have that the accelerating increase of human numbers will the wastrel attitudes of our first three centuries when convert the present world population of 3.5 billions to our population was building toward an optimum (which more than 6 billions in the next 30 years. The year we undoubtedly have passed) and when our exploita- 2000 is a popular chronological benchmark, and by tion of every kind of natural wealth was an open-end- that time our U. S. population of 200 million 3 may well ed free-for-all. We are not in the habit of "saving" be more than 300 millions. The major burden of human things, least of all products that are waste almost by increase is in the underprivileged two-thirds of the definition.But the year-by-year transfer of nutri- world, which is to say that segment of humanity little ents from the land to fresh waters to the ocean is not changed by our own mass-production technology. an enduring system. Organic wastes need to be ac- Cultural diff er ences in various regions create wide cumulated, refined, and put back on the land. T h e variations in the impact made by humane on their sooner this operation is planned in its entirety, the environment, and this applies particularly to the na- faster we can get on with the job of upgrading our re- hire and rate of pollution. In many tropical countries source base. teeming rural populations have long lived under prim- PROBLEMS AT COMPOUND INTEREST itive sanitary conditions and used the much subdi- The growth of human numbers has been at geometric vided land intensively, especially under a night-soil rates as open spaces of the world (e. g., North Ameri- regime of fertilization.In their forthright book, ca) were occupied, as medical science mitigated natu- Moment in the Sun, Robert and Leona Rienow (12) ral checks, and as the resource base of the population describe this disease-ridden habitat as a "septic was broadened through extractive technology. As May- world" where waters, soils, and even deep aquifers er (10) has pointed out, men of the industrialized coun- bear the inoculum of universal plagues and contam- tries, armed with mechanized might, have far greater inants.Travelers from the We stern World know well impact on their environment than similar numbers of the precautions to be taken by those from regions of people in agrarian cultures of the world. The strength higher sanitary standards. This is biologically de- of the human arm has been multiplied many times gradable pollutionthat much can be said for it. The over, and scientific enterprise is tireless in devis- return of organic waste products to soils and waters ing new ways to recover and use the products, natu- is natural, and below cer tain thresholds it is the means ral features, and spaces of the earth. by which nutrients are recycled and the productivity of ecosystems maintained. But in this case excessive pop- Modern technology is said to be elaborating on an ulaticai density produces a major disease potential held exponential curve, and many of its manifestations cer- in abeyance to some degree by endemic resistence tainly are growing even more rapidly than the popu- and nonendemic public health measures. At least, lation.Electric power production, and with it ther- the population remains ruinously high. mal pollution of waters, is doubling in 10 years . Aetomobiles, with their attendent noise and fouling In the so-called Western World, we also have had of the atmosphere, are increasing twice as fast as a problem with organic pollution, but there are ma- people. On another plane, the demand .f or outdoor jor differences.In large areas, population levels recreation is expected toquadruple in 30 years. Else- have been much lower than in the tropics, and our where (2) I have cited evidence suggesting that as agriculture does not make use of human wastes. For people aggregate in high densities their social, eco- the most part citiu:s are served by sewage systems nomic, and biological problems proliferate on a scale that remove the burden of defilement from the im- far greater than the growth of numbers. The strik- mediate habitat. This burden has been placed directly ing upsurge of interest in social and environmental on our waterways, with the result of widespread over- problemsa phenomenon of the past several years enrichment and the degradation of waters for wildlife indicates that we are being overwhelmed by what production and recreation. T h e contamination of Abelson (1) called "the inexorable exponential."

35I, 26 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION There appears little doubt that oar rapidly mount- cattle feed lots under conditions timt produce an ol- ing levels of pollution, both organic and industrial, factory horror downwind, designing vehicles that stead- manifest rates of increase that are accelerating. ily increase the level of auditory harrassment on our Stewart (18) has noted that the population of the Unit- thoroughfares-this has been considered a. part of "used States has multiplied five times over since 1870. ing" resources, creating jobs, and how do you spell But the effect of pollution is aggravated outof propor- environment anyway? A social ecolo;Ist (e) tells us tion because the wastes of today's population are go- that a major difference between the human species ing into the same area of land and water.Locally, and other animals is that man is capable of "an ex- the problems are even greater because of the stead- traordinary degree of flexibility and refinement in be- ily increasing concentration of people in cities. Do- havior. " Of course, that same febdbility makes pos- mestic waste disposal in a scattered population i s sible an extreme degree of unrefined behavior. largely a do-it-yourself operation.In cities the individual is dependent on public services-services Profit-taking at the cost of habitat conditions has that must be increasingly efficient as the space oc- been so universal and so firmly established it is evi- cupied by the individual is reduced. dent that legal innovations of a drastic nature are called for.There is growing support for a constitutional Significant to the above is Martino's (9) discus- amendment that would affirm the right of the individ- sion of equilibrium growth rates. He notes that "it ual to reasonably salubrious living conditions. It would should be clear that no component of society can long require a semantic genius to word such an am e nd- continue to grow at a rate greater than the rate of ment, but it is worth the effort. growth of the society as a whole." We probably are on the verge of important changes Actually, waste disposal is only one of the press- in our standards of biological decency. In our society ing dependencies of city dwellers. No doubt a great many people have found it immoral to interfere with deal can be done for our cities through technical stud- purely animal rates of procreation, even though t he ies and improved planning.But thus far efforts at new generations could not be adequately supported. rehabilitation and easing the ills of social stress do They have remained strangely aloof to the vulgarity not appear to be self supporting.Inevitably the large of human swarming and spoliation of our world. Our cities go back to the federal governmentfor financing. principal motivation in the use of natural wealth has There we do not seem to collect enough taxes either, been, how fast can we convert it into something that as the mounting public debt witnesses. The indica- can be used, worn out, and thrown away. Se n at or tions raise a suspicion as to whether truly adequate Muskie has commented (U.S. Congress, 1968) that service to great concentrations of humans can ever "thus far the so-called natural resource policies have be self - supporting. Thus far the only visible trend been designed not to work toward enhancement or p.o- that could alleviate many problems would be an or- tection of these resources, but to indicate the maxi- derly regression in human density. mum levels of exploitation which we will permit." WASTAGE ON THE GRAND SCALE It is evident that we have a limited but socially responsible citizenry who are becoming aware of what In an ecological system the outputs of substance the run-away population spree is costing and what it and energy must equal the inputs. This is essentially portends for the future.It should be obvious by now true of what is happening in our great industrialcom- thatlike every other species of this biosphere, hu- plex that converts resources of the earth into things manity will depend for its actual survival on popula- that, immediately or ultimately, become items need- tion limitation.This containment of numbers maybe ing disposal. Over millions of years, organisms evolv- through "internal" controls, as in the case of the ef- ed in earth and water that were capable of breaking fective behavioral responses of many carnivores, or down every component of living things.But our lat- it can be through environmental checks, as frequently ter-day chemistry has produced a weltet of compounds happens for a wide diversity of creatures.Obviously, new to the world, and for which no natural degrading in our own case it would be degrading and disastrous process exists. An estimated half a million substances to allow habitat conditions to deteriorate to the point are being dumped into our waters eventually to accu- of limiting the population. A planned limitation is the mulate in the oceans. Facing up to the degradability only choice, and there is particular futility in attempts question has become z major issue.In the case of to estimate the maximum number of people our earth detergents, the transition has been made, which con- could support. Above an optimum level additional num- stitutes a small start on the total problem. Long and bers are accommodated only at the expense of living costly effort went into the development of an immor- standard and by damaging the resource base.It is tal beer can. Now we find that what we really need also unrealistic to accept a doubling of the population is a degradable beez can. by the year 2000 as inevitable and to develop every In both quantity and quality our industrial pollution resource to meet the prospective "need." The avail- is becoming an embarrassment thatwitnesses the car- ability of new usable space and material would guar- ry over of primitive habits to modern times. The antee the anticipated increases in number. middens left by early human settlements attest to a simple, over-the-shoulder kind of waste disposal. This On this basis I postulate that there is no accept- is still the basic procedure in our modern industrial able alternative to a balanced steady-state society in plant. It has bees a prevailing practice simply to dis- which resources are used only as rapidly as they can card our leavings in ways that were easy and cheap. be renewed, recycled, or substituted for.In this kind This made profits higher, and what was done to the of system waste disposal and pollution control would environment in which people had to live was consider- take their place as intermediate benefits in a chain of ed one of those things.Clouding the sky with smoke, processes that would use organic residues to renew littering the countryside with junk, destroying every land productivity and employ other byproducts as in- kind of recreation water, establishing pig farms or dustrial raw materials.

36.1 ALLEN 27 For the present, in this country we undoubtedly are Antartic ice cap. With certain assumptions, the re- many billions of dollars in arrears on the job of clean- port speculated that this process might produce a ing up existing messes and reworking our industrial rise in sea level amounting to 400 feet in 400 years. establishment to avoid the pollution abuses that now are rife in cities and open spaces alike. As Chauncey Cole (3) has described the events of geological Starr (17) said recently, "Many of our environmen- history that tied up huge amounts of carbon in the tal pollution problems have known engineering solu- form of fossil fuels and thereby created a reservoir tions, but the problems of economic readjustment, of oxygen in the atmosphere. He points out our heavy political jurisdiction, and social behavior loom very dependence on the replenishment of that oxygen by large.It will take many decades to put into effect the green plants and also on the proper cycling of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and other major constitutents technical solutions we know today. " of living things. One might well be restive over the fact that, if we are confronted with exponentials to the extend indi- It is quite possible that the concentration of such cated, our time for effective action may be short in- toxicants as DDT, which is now accumuiating (with deed. The truth is that the costs of controlling pol- a half-life of 10-15 years) in water, air, and every lution to tolerable Ic-iels may well be prohibitive. We kind of organism over the entire earth, could pass a are dealing with an already overburdened environ- critical threshold.A change for the phytoplankton ment. Too many people armed with an inconceivably of the oceans or little-understood microf'ora of the powerful and ecologically unaware tochnology have soil could bring on disastrous alteration of the atmo- little chance of enjoying a clean, cosifortable, and in- sphere.Monitoring operations are being developed, spiring world. and computer modeling of complex ecological systems offer hope that some of these trends could be THE UNKNOWN HAZARDS predicted.But many problems are hardly being investigated, and out permissiveness in the face of In the haphazard release into the environment of poorly understood pollution hazards could be incon- thousands of substances new to the biological world, ceivably costly. men have taken a heedless risk.Highly persistent substances accumulate, and infinitesimally low con- It goes without saying that through our food, water, centrations may have effects on specific organisms. the air we breathe, and radiation possibilities, we Even the great dilutions do not stay that way, for in ourselves may well be vulnerable to the effects of progressive transfers through trophic levels of the long-term expo sure to widespread contaminants. Yet food chain, a dosage may build up that is lethal o r in discussing the need for cross-disciplinary research, damaging to a high-ranking consumer. The insidious Walter Orr Roberts (U.S. Congress, 1968) remark- effects of organochlorine pesticides are showing up ed that "only modest efforts have been made... to in the impaired reproduction of many fish-eating and mount a sustained research program on the medical raptorial birds, to cite one example. Even more ob- effects involved in slowly-developing health impair- scure relationships could become c ritivally important. ments-like aging-that result from ,w-levelbut long- A recent environn ;ntal report of a task force of the per sistent alterations of the atmospheric environment... American C he mic:1 Society (4) deprecated our almost through pollutants added in the form of trace gases, total lack of knowledge regarding the ecological ef- liquids or solids that result from industrial activity fects of long exposure to lowlevels of pervasive chemi- or urbanization.This is an area of biometeorology cal pollutants.It remarked, "If man were to destroy that has significance to every living person, andyet any of at least half a dozen types of bacteria involved we have not seen the first beginnings of an adequate- in the nitrogen cycle, say, life on earth could end. " ly sustained research effort in this area." In terms of ultimate consequences and the need for As one investigates the ramifications of pollution reliable studies and projections, one of the mostchal- problems, he inevitably concludes that men in haste lenging pollution problems of our time concerns the and ignorance have been extremely lucky in the ir carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere.In their meddling with only sketchily understood relationships report, "Restoring the Quality of our Environment," of the biosphere. In effect, they have carried out bio- the Environmental Pollution Panel of the President's assays on the entire human race.It is an ominous Science Advisory Committee (19) brought together thought that, the scale of operations being what it is, information pertinent to this situation: the statistics could easily go against us. The panel noted that over the past century more TEE BEGINNINGS OF CHANGE than 122 million metric tons of coal, lignite, petroleum, and natural gas have been removed f rom the earth, Here in America, we are deciding whether it is oxidized, and liberated as carbon dioxide. About half the birthright of a few overbrending generations of the CO2 produced in this way remains as a residuum men to devastate a continent.Of course, there has in the atmosphere. Measurements in a recent 5-year long been an opposing view, but the conservation period indicate that the concentration of carbon dioxide' concept has in some quarters been discounted as an in the atmosphere increased by 1.38 percent.The ideology garrisoned by malcontents-obstructionist outlook is that by the year 2000 thi s steadily increasing reactionaries who could not face progress. The truth combustion of fossil fuels will build up the atmospheric is that the idea of management for the future as well content of carbon dioxide by at least 25 percent, Nei- as the present-the essence of the conservation policy- ther the exact level nor its effects can be reliably is the only course available if the human race is to predicted at present, but it is likely that a change of avoid self-destruction.Ideally, conservation should this magnitude would cause a significant alteration be a part of our guiding folk-wisdom, with moralistic of the earth's climate. This 'would come about through implications.Unfortunately, one does not develop more efficient trapping of the radiant energy of the sun, this in a frontier boom-town atmosphere, which is bringing increases in temperature and a melting of the the kind of air Americans breathe. We are under ex-

3 7j 28 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION treme pressures, and there is no time to await the necessary. We will need to look at that, but there is results of extensive trial and error. an immediate ar,d critical job much closer at hand. For those attuned to the resource manage ment field, REFERENCES we have had plenty of trials and also abundant errors. What is needed is leadership and an authoritative re- 1. Abelson, P. H., "The Inexorable Exponential, " direction of our way of life. There is noquestion that Science, 162:(no. 3850)222, 1968. a statement in a recent congressional "white paper" 2. Allen, D. L., Population, Resources, and the Great (7) was correct. that "the Congress is the only insti- Complexity, 34th North American Wildlife and Nat- tution having the scope to deal with the broad range ural Resources Conference Transcript, 1969. of man's interactions with his physical-biological surroundings. We therefore believe that leadership toward 3.Cole, LaMont C., "Can the World Be Saved?" a national environmental policy is our responsibility. " Bioscience 18:(no. 7)679 -684, 1968. Increasing numbers of our representatives inCon- 4.Cooke, L. M. and others, Cleaning our Environ- gress are joining action to protect and improve our ment-the Chemical Basis for Action American mishandled environment-to clean up pollution, guard Chemical Society Report, 1269, 249 pp. public health, preserve the scenic beauties of our 5. Harroy, J. P., Afrique,Terre yui Meurt, M. Hayez, country, and defend dwindling samples of primitive Bruxelles, Belgique, 1944, 55'i pp. nature from the on-rush of development. Recently 41 Senators, led by Senator Muskie of Maine, sponsored 6.Hawley, A. H. Human c:::-2,, , The Ronald Press, a bill that they hope will become the "Environmental New York, 1950, 456 pp. Quality Act of 1969. " In both houses of Congress there are statesmen of this neglected cause fighting 7.Jackson, Henry M: and others, "Congressional its battles, often with a minimum show of interest White Paper on a National Policy for the Environ- from their public. As their knowledge and under- ment," Senate Committee on Interior and Insular standing grows, so grows their awareness that this Affairs and the House Committee on Science and drive for a decent world must not be allowed to fail. Astronautics, 1968, 19 pp. There has been some discussion of the need for a 8. Lowder milk, W. C., Conquest of the Land Through "Council of Environmental and Population Advisors" 7,000 Years, U. S. Department of Agriculture, to be created by law in the office of the President (16). Agricultural Bulletin 99, 1953, 30 pp. Such a council might be of major benefit if is were able, 9. Maxtino, J. P.,"Science and Society in Equilibrium," through the authority of the President, to place a re- Science, 165:(no. 3895)769-772, 1969. straining order, pending further review by Congress, on activities of the federal government that threaten 10. Mayer, Jean, "Toward a Non-malthustan Popula- further damage or deterioration of the environment. tion Policy," Columbia Forum, 12:(no. 2)5-13,1969. Some such mechanism is most urgently needed to 11. Rickover, H. G., "C an Technology be Humanized- change our longstanding practice of permitting far- in Time ?" National Parks Magazine, 43:(no. 262) reaching plans to be made by specialists in single - 4-7, 1969. interest agencies, then carrying them out until something goes radically wrong. 12. Rienow, Robert; Rienow, Leona T., Moment in the Sun, The Dial Press, New York, 1967, 286 pp. The extent to which environmental issues are com- manding attention in the public press-including the 13. Sauer, C. 0., "Early Relations of Man to Planets," challenge of population control, which mug be our first Geographical Review, 37:(no. 1)1-25, 1947. concern-provides a basis of hope that we actually can do the things that are so urgent, despite the roadblocks 14. Simpson, George G., Biology and Man, Harcourt, of ignorance and self interest.The key to that hope Brace, and World, New York, 1969, 175 pp. lies in Admiral Hickover's (11) perceptive statement 15. Shantz, H. L., "An Estimate of the Shrinkage of Af- that making "wise use of technology in the future is rica's Tropical Forests," Unasylva 2: (no. 2)66-67, perhaps the paramount issue facing electorates in all 1948. industrial democracies." For it is true that the scientific know-how that has shown such vast potential 16. Smith, A. W., "Washington Needs a C ouncil of En- for environmental damage has the same potential for vironmental and Population Advisors," National healing and improvement. The deficiency lies not in Parks Magazine, 43:(no. 261)10-11, 1969. the knowledge of how to do things, but in how it is ap- 17. Starr, Chauncey, "Social Benefits Versus Techno- plied.With the truly fantastic degree of scientific logical Risk," Science, 165: (no. 3899)1232-1238,1969. enlightenment now at our disposal it would be possible to make this world a realm of beauty and comfort for 18. Stweart, G. R., Not so Rich as You Think, Hough- a reasonable number of human inhabitants. ton, Mifflin, Boston, 1967, 248 pp. Our concerns over an unending variety of pollution 19. Tukey, J. W. and others, Restoring the Quality of problems must be a part of our calculations in the entire Our Environment, Environmental Pollution Panel, field of population-resource strategy. As if this were President's Science Advisory Committee Report, rot broad enough, the complex of challenges is world- 1965, 317 pp. wide. The bulk of DDT we produce is going to tropical count ries as their cheapest method of malaria control. 20.United States Congress, Joint House -Senate Col- Sweden, a socially conscious nation much concerned loquim to discuss a national policy for the envi- with pollution, is finding that a substantial portion of ronment; Committee on Interior and Insular Af- the sulfur dioxide in their atmosphere is coming from fairs, U.S. Senate; and Committee on Science outside their borders. No doubt, this is an area in and Astronautics, House of Representatives, which international under standings and action will be Hearing, 1968, 233 pp.

38 "The high standard of living we talk about appears to be for this generation only."

PEOPLE AND ENVIRONMENT

Lamont C.Cole

I AM SURE you have all been hearing a good the microscopic ones floating in the oceans, the phy- deal about what we are doing to the environment toplankton.It is perfectly true that a field of grass it's suddenly become a good "in" topic.In fact the or a woods n an produce tremendous amounts of oxy- College of Home Economics has changed its name to gen, but when these plants burn, decay, or are con- the College of Human Ecology; this show that it is sumed by animals, they use up as much oxygen as certainly popular.Still our environment continues was produced in their formation.So, the only way to degenerate at an alarming rate. The United States to compensate for the oxygen we are using in burn- has less than 6 percent of the world's population, is ing fossil fuels, which we are doing at an increasing using something close to 60 percent of the world's rate every year, is to have green plants produce the resources that are being consumed, is talking about oxygen and then have the remains of these plants se- industrializing the rest of the world to match U.S. questered away somewhere without being oxidized. standards, and these standards may leave s om e This happens in swamps, bogs, and lakesthere is things to be desired. an awful lot of oxygen demand buried on the bottom of Lake Eriebut the big and important reservoir If you take seriously the United Nations' vital sta- of this .moxiclized organic matter is the marine phy- tistics: the U.S. has slipped from seventeenth to toplankton, because they sink into the sediments with- twenty-third place among the world's nations in terms out being oxidizedand this compensates for the ox- of infant mortality within the last year. We are im- ygen used in burning fossil fuels. posing on our environment something like over half a million kinds of different chemicalspractically So, if one of o'er half-million chemicals should turn none of these have ever been tested in advance, sin- out to be a deadly poison for the marine phytoplank- gly or in combination, to see what they may be doing ton or for the denitrifying bacteria, the composition to the living things in the environment. In fact, all of our entire atmosphere would begin to change very of these half-million chemicals eventually wind up rapidly.In fact there was an alarming paper by in the oceans which are necessary for the continua- Charles Wurster at the New York State University tion of life on earth.I think it is very surprising to at Stony Brook. He showed that for phytoplankton in see how few people recognize that our atmosphere is Long Island Sound, at least, very small concentra- a biological product. Ninety-nine percent of the at- tions of DDT, as little as a tenth of a part per mil- mosphere, neglecting pollutants, consists of justtwo lion, was strongly inhibitory of photosynthesis.if gases: nitrogen and oxygen; both of these are put this should turn out to be a general phenomenon, we there by living forms.If it were not for denitrifying may already be in trouble. Even if we stopped all bacteria in the soil and water and especially i in the use of DDT tomorrow, it would still continue to wash marine sediments, there would not be any nitrogen into the oceans for a number of years, and most of it in the atmosphere. would go into the coastal waters which are much more productive of life than the open ocean. We are just It was surprising to me to see that the astronom- playing Russian roulette with our whole environment. ers were so surprised when they could not detect nitrogen in the atmosphere of Mars. Well, you would We are talking about industrializing the restof the not detect it here either, if we should happen to poi- world. You have probably noticed how the clearness son the denitrifying bacteria, because nitrogen is a of the atmosphere is changing everywhere. Denver scarce element on earth and it is their activities on used to be noted for its clear air.I was in Denver earth that maintain the balance of t he atmosphere. last month, and driving in I noticed a nasty, yellow The oxygen is put into the atmosphere by green plants cloud hanging over Denverit might as well i'ave carrying out the process known as photosynthesis. been Buffalo.This atmospheric pollution is quite By far the most important of these green plants are general.Vincent Schaeffer, the head of the Dr. Cole is Professor of Ecology at Cornell University. He is president of the American Institute of Biological Sciences and past president of the Ecological Society of America. This paper is taken from the Proceedings of the 1970 Extension Conference at Cornell.

38t; 30 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION atmospheric laboratory at New York State University paper was published in 1923. Years ago we had our at Albany, summarized in a 1969 paper some of the early warning about automobile exhaust.Since that conclusions from his more than 25 years of monitor- time the manufacturers have made cars larger and ing the IL S. atmosphere.I think his most striking more powerful; they have increased the compression finding was the increase of air pollution upwind from ratio so that it hes added nitrogen oxides to the inven- our cities.I don't think, even 10 years ago, that tory of pollutants; they have added lead to the gaso- Syracuse could have been taken seriously as a region- line, then boron, and most recently, nickel; and I al source of air pollution; and yet now we read in the would not predict what Madison Avenue will think of papers that Cortland is threatening to sue Syracuse next for a gasoline additive.I think it is high time for polluting its air.What is happening, apparent- that the public started demandingand government ly, is that the air that Syracuse receives from the started enforcing. west has already been to Buffalo and Rochester and doesn't have time to become purified before Syracuse For the first time, in the summer of 1969, we lost adds its contribution.So how far do we have to go to the entire catch or a marine fishery towaterpollution. get Asia industrialized to the point where its air pol- You saw a lot of publicity about the coho salmon in lution is coming over to add to California's problem? Lake Michigan.I don't know why that got so much Or, how long will it be before air pollution from our publicity, because the same thing happened off th 9 east coast megalopolis is drifting over and adding to southern coast of California with a jack mackerel Europe's problems? As a matter of fact Reid Bryson catch. The entire catch was declared unfit for hu- of the University of Wisconsin has made some very man consumption because of pesticide residues and sophisticated measurements tracing the movements had to be destroyed.So we are dumping all the se of air pollutants from Japan into California. They are complex pollutants around. You may have read that not where you can follow them with the naked eye, yet, the mustard gas England disposed of by dumping Bin but they are where they can be detected.If we do try the Baltic Sea in 1.945 has now reappeared, injuring to industrialize Asia in general, this is going to be a fishermen and causing alarm about the Baltic resorts much more general phenomenon. in Scandanavia. I r emind you that we dumped mustard gas ourselves: into the Atlantic Ocean, and more re- This is happening all over the world. The British cently than 1945. We do not know just when it's going are talking about how they have cleaned up the air in to reappear. London.This was done partly by putting high stacks on the factories. Now in Scandanavia they are com- In some cases we force the polluters underground. plaining about the air pollution coming from London. There are something like forty deep wells operating We in this country cause fully a third of all air pol- in the United States where the hazardous materials lution in the world, and it is going to be an awful mess are shot down into the rocks and it is hoped that they if we try to make the rest of the world like we are. will not reappear at some later date.I think this is a doubtful assumption. We are doing other things, too.I published a paper in which I attempted to answer the question, "If Right up to this year, the military has been taking we've got to keep our use of energy doubling every10 all of our production of certain herbicides, 2, 4, 5-T years the way most people say we have to, how are and Picloram which is a much more persistent mate- we going to be able to get rid of all this heat?" Well, rial.They have been taking much of the production you can make some simplifying assumptions that let of 2, 4 D and they have been shippingthese to Vietnam you apply rather simple physical theory to this ques- for the purpose of defoliating the rain forest to make tionand unfortunately in my paper Imade aterrible the enemy more visible.There are lots of reasons arithmetic error that made the results come out much for an ecologist to be worried about what happens too optimistic.I thought it was going to be on the or- when you defoliate a rain forest; but I'm also worried der of 800 years before the earth would become un- about what happens if some of these tankers, carry- inhabitable, simply from the high temperature that ing the concentrated herbicides, sink in the Pacific would be necessary to radiate all of this heat energy. Ocean. What will they do to the phytoplankton? I was wrong. The correct figure is 130 years if we go on doubling the production of the use of ener gy I made calculations sometime back on the amount every 10 years. of oxygen we consumed burning fossil fuels in1966 in this country.Then I made what I think is a very good At a UNESCO conference on the environment in estimate of the amount of oxygen produced in that year San Francisco, I think I got an indication of how we inside the borders of the coterminous 48 United are going to have to proceed to get action on some of States.It turned out that the amount produced w as these sources of pollution.Just as I was about to go not quite 60 percent of the amount used.In othe r on the program, a friend handed me a reprint from words, we are absolutely dependent upon atmospher- the Journal of the American Medical Association and ic circulation to bring in oxygen produced outside of I just had a chance to glance at it.The paper w as our borders and, in our case, mostly in the Pacific entitled something like "Hazards of Automobile Ex- Ocean. haust Gases on the City Streets," and in it the authors quoted the secretary of one'of the largest auto- I am quite sure that a similar study would also mobile manufacturers.I think I c an quote t hat show that industrial Europe is dependent upon t he statement verbatim: "Our business is toproduc,land Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean for much of sell automobiles; we'll worry about the public health its oxygen and yet we are willing to play Russ i an aspects ... when the public demands it and legisla- roulette with this source. The Navy and various com- tion enforces it." Now this is a more forthright panies are making noises about exploiting the ocean statement than you are used to hearing, but I'm sure bottom. Sometimes the Navy talks as though it is you know the attitude and have heard it before.What going to thrn it into an armed camp and mount each is surprising about this particular case is th at the sea into a fort.I don't know how this is going to come COLE 31 out, whether the countries are going t o embark on soil that is decreasing in fertility; exhausted miner- another colonial type race for the ocean bottoms, or al deposits; polluted oceans; and such things as the just what is going to happen.I do know that the Navy high-level radioactive wastes that we have burled at sought appropriations on the grounds that American Hanford, Washington, in South Carolina's Savannah industry would be unwilling to invest in exploitation River, and elsewhere. These wastes are so hot that of the ocean bottom unless they could be assured of it has been estimated that they would boil spontane- protection from piracy and foreign intervention. This ously for at least 300 years if they were not kept was a self-fulfilling prophesy, because a company cooled.The Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) has that would like to mine manganese from t he ocean them in stainless steel and concrete tanks. AEC says bottoms has asked the Navy that it be protected from this stuff must be kept from contaminating the envi- foreign intervention and piracy. ronment for at least 600 yearsI say 1,000 years. But, AEC's own survey a couple of years ago showed It begins to look as though the carrying capacity that about 5 percent of the tanks are already leaking of the earth for human life is going to be governed after only 20 years. Each year they have items in not so much by its ability to produce food as by its their budget request for new tanks to replace some ability to degrade wastes.Frederick Smith, a Har- of those. Look what we are giving our descendants: vard ecologist, recently estimated and testified be- this stuff billions of gallons of itwith directions fore a Congressional committee that the rate of de- that you must keep this refrigerated for at least 600 terioration of the U. S. environment appears to be years and spend your resources to produce new tanks approximately $30 billion per year.This is an es- every 20 years or so.And then we are talking about timate of what it would cost to stay evento k eep greatly expanding the use of nuclear energy, without things from getting any worse. Dr. Smith is a very knowing how to dispose of the wastes. capable person to be making such an estimate and I think it's quite clear if we assume that about a third Our trouble here is that all of the decisions are of this can be allocated to water pollution; $10 billion made on the basis of short-term economic gain s. a year might enable us to stay even. The $2 billion We are now seeing a spread of the no-deposit, no- that President Nixon is talking about to clean up our return bottle.In fact, the Ithaca grocery stores have bodies of water cannot possibly do anything more signs on the doors saying they will not accept depos- than slightly reduce the rate at which things get worse. it bottles.Statistics show that the deposit bottle makes an average of 20 round trips.So, by this one New pollutants keep coming to light.I served on decision, we are increasing this particular s ol id Secretary Finch's Pesticides Commission where we waste disposal problem by a factor of 20. Our leg- became acutely aware that mercury is a seriousprob- islation gives depletion allowances to industry f o r lem in the environmentmercury used in seed dress- mining, and mining has many detrimental effects on ings, and such things.There have been a number of the environment, as you know. But if they repealed cases of food poisoning from shellfish in Japan from these depletion allowancesif they made it as expen- mercury pollution; in this case from plastics facto- sive to mine and refine new ore as it is to reclaim ries.Sweden has recently closed 40 bodies of water used metalthen these automobile graveyards that to fishing because of accumulation of mercury in the are plaguing us would disappear, V.nd empty beer cans fish and has announced that these will undoubtedly would be much less in evidence around the country. have to remain closed for at least 100 years. The United States is using much more mercury than Swe- Even our agricultural practices have change(' dras- den didboth on an absolute basis and on a per cap- tically. My grandfather was an Illinois farmer. He ita basis, so it may be that the problem has not yet never bought synthetic fertilizers of any sort.The gotten to where we have noticed it.Also, it was just manure from the animals was sufficient.But now last summer that I became concerned about another they say this is uneconomical. The animals are fat- class of compounds: the polychlorinated biphenyls tened in feed yardssometimes as many as 2, 500 (PCB's). These are very widely used in industry: to the acre. The synthetic fertilizers are put in the plastics industry, in the packaging industry, on t he fields, so you then have this problem of and in the rubber industry.The wear of tires in the animal waste. Some 2 billion t on s of animal streets is releasing PCB's into the environment. waste per year as a disposal problem is second in amount only to the sediment that we must dispose of. Our original concern with PCB's was that they interfere with the chemical testing for chlorinated hy- The basic problem, without which the others can- drocarbon pesticides, which is DDT and its relatives, not be solved at all, is the population explosion. But and we looked at them as just an annoyance. Now it even in principle, the others cannot be solved if the turns out that they are serious pollutants in their own population is going to continue to grow indefinitely. right.They are going all over the world. They un- I have heard many times that we do not have a popu- dergo this biological magnification where each ani- lation problem in this country, but in some ways ours mal that eats another animal accumulates a bigger is the worst in the world.In terms of the resources dose than the prey had. Dr. Pettingillof the Cornell he is going to use in his lifetime, the amount of pol- University Ornithology Laboratory after a trip to lution he is going to cause, the impacton the environ- Antarctica informed me that PCB's have now been ment, one American is equivalent to approximately found in Antarctic life.They have gone everywhere, 80 Indians.This is the most serious of all our prob- and yet we have been unable to find out even what the lems, and yet former Secretary of the Interior Stew- quantities produced are, because these are industri- art Udall testified before a Congressional committee al secrets. that the amount of money the U. S. spends onpopula- tion regulation each year, at home and abroad, would The high standard of living which w e talk about run the Pentagon for 3 hours.I mentioned this to a appears to be for this generation only. We are be- man who is very knowledgeable in the inner circles queathing our descendants dying lakes and rivers; of our government and he said he was confident that 32 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION the 3 hours must refer to a Sunday afternoon.Yet, environmental degradation, and their problems are in his "State of the Nation Message, " Mr. Nixon as- identical with ours.Second, one of the very worst serted that 100 million children will be born in t he sources of environmental deterioration in this coun- United States between now and the turn of the century. try is our own government.I could spend a lot o f I hope this is not a self-fulfilling prophesy because time telling you what I think the public ought to know it presupposes continued population growth at just about the Army Corps of Engineers, the Bureau of about the present rate.I am no sociologist, but feel Reclamation, the Atomic Energy Commissionand, confident that many of our other problems are also yes, some segments of the Department of Agricul- related to this crowding, this increased density of ture. Our basic problem, Ithink the most fundamen- the population.I am sure it has somethingtodo with tal of all, is this passion for growththe thing that the violence in our cities; the rise of mysticism, I have been calling the Chamber of Commerce syn- where everybody wants his own guru; the multiplica- drome. Mr Nixon, for example, promised to main- tion and expansion of the astrology columns in o u r tain a healthy growth of the gross national product. newspapers; and the attempts to get away from it all I cannot think of any worse measure that one can de- through the use of drugs. People are uneasy about sign for the health of anything than the GNP. Every the future; they recognize that something's wrongand automobile accident adds to the GNP.If vandals I think the population mplosion is the thing that un- would stop breaking school windows, the glass com- derlies all of this. panies would have to cut back a little on production. Glazier's unions would have to lay off a few people. I have been going around to some of the environ- All this would hurt the GNP; yet we want to keep this mental teach-ins and have gotten a little feel for some growing. Walter Heller, former head of the Council of the directions in which the discussions m ay go of Economic Advisors, was quoted in Time as speak- among the young people. You can be pretty sure of ing for most economists when he said that he could one thing that is likely to come up, and that is blam- not conceive of a viable economy without growth.I ing our troubles on the private enterprise system and think this is our basic problem and this is why Rus- the profit motive.I tell these young people that I hope sia's problems are identical with ours. Because like they will not accept any such simplistic explanation. us, although theirs is a planned economy, they are In the first place, I know something about Russia's committed to continuous growth and expansion.

42 Only by being our own sternest taskmaster can we keep from beingour own worst enemy.

CAN TECHNOLOGY CORRECT ITS WASTELAND?

IrwinHersey

WA TER pollution has been defined by Robert T. WATER USE IS INCREAt3tNG Eckenrode, president of the System Sciences Divi- sion of Dunlap and Associates, Inc., as "the pres- Five categories of use were included in these da- ence of toxic or noxious substances or forms of en- ta:irrigation, municipal consumption, manufactur- ergy in natural water resources. Water pollutants ing, mining, and steam-electric power generation. may be noxious or toxic to people where the water The projected increase for irrigation is very small, source is used for drinking water, transportation, the principal change in returned irrigation water be- or recreation; to industry where the source is used ing an increase in the amount of dissolved mineral for industrial processes or cooling; or to nature where salts and some added contamination from chemicals the pollutants disrupt the desired balance. Heat used in fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides. Mu- manifests itself as a water pollutant where waste nicipal sewage returns are expected to more than water is returned to the source with thermal charac- double, since more than 95 percent of the estimated teristics so different as to upset the natural or de- U.S. population of 280 million will be living in urban sired fauna and flora balance of the source." areas. A sevenfold increase is expected in industrial wastes and the residues will be varied in charac- So much has been written during the past few years ter, containing oxygen-consuming ingredients as well on the extent of water pollution today that little use- as industrial chemicals of every kind. ful purpose would be served by reviewing the matter in detail. However, the National Academy of Sc i - The major withdrawal of water -ill be for power ences National Research Council ( NAS-NRC ) report generation, and this water will be returned almost on "Waste Management and Control," published in undiminished in quantity but at appreciably higher 1966, gives some idea of the scope of the problem, temperatures. As already noted, this "thermalpol- and particularly of how rapidly it is growing. lution" can have a shattering effect on the ecologyof streams into which it is introduced. The report notes that any assessment of the magnitude of water pollution must consider the relation- Pollutants entering water sources have been broad- ship between the total available supply of freshwater ly classified into eight categories: domestic sewage and the quantity of waste-carrying water. The for- and other oxygen-demanding wastes; inf e c tious merthe average annual stream flow that discharges agents; plant nutrients; organic chemicals such as into the oceans from the continental U. S. is essen- insecticides, pesticides, and detergents; other min- tially fixed and amounts to about 1,100 billion gallons a erals and chemicals; sediment from land erosion; day. The latter is the quantity viturned to the stream radioactive substances; and heat from power and in- flow after use by man, with its quality altered in one way dustrial plants. or another. All pose different problems. For example, by A few past and projected ideas point up the scope 1980 it is estimated that the oxygen required to re- of the problem. In 1954, some 300 billion gallons of duce sewage to stable compounds through the action the total were withdrawn daily, of which 100 billion of arobic bacteria will be large enough to consume gallons were consumed and thus represented deple- the entire oxygen content of a volume of water equal tion through use, and 190 billion gallons were re- to the dry-weather flow of all 22 of the U.S. river turned to the streams. Corresponding values for the basins. A health hazard is posed by the incomplete year 2000 are 889 billion gallons returned. Thus, in elimination of infectious agents, while problems from 1954, withdrawals amounted to less than a third of the excessive growth of algae blooms and plants ha v e total and waste - ridden returns less than a fifth, in 2000, croppee up in many large lakes and remedial meas- withdrawals will be a little over four-fifths and polluted ures are largely lacking. Organic chemicals have returns about two-thirds of the total stream flow. already caused spectacular kills of fish andwildlife,

The author is Contributing Editor of Engineering Opportunities, in which this article appeared in June 1969.

4P 34 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATI011 and we know very 1 it t 1 e about the effects of long- is intended primarily to gather experience that will term sublethal exposure. Methods of removing other be useful elsewhere, and the $200,000 pricet a g on minerals and chemicals, many of which are toxic, the entire project does not seem high. As Professor are poorly developed.Sedimentation fills stream Bjork has noted, "it is still possible to do r at he r channels and reservoirs, necessitating expensive ad- much with small investments" in the water pollution ditional purification measures. While intense public fight. concern has led to the development of techniques to prevent radiation contamination under present condi- Other approaches to the same problem are being tions, the increase in nuclear power reactors by the tried. One is a variant on the bubble technique used year 2000 poses a serious challenge.And, since the to pump air into submerged, perforated plastic hoses amount of oxygen water can contain is reduced when to keep harbors free of ice during the winter months. the water is heated, the consequences for fish an d The method is being studied as a possible means of aquatic life may be quite serious. bringing lakes back to life.The injected air adds oxygen to the water near the bottom of the lake and also So much for the extent of the problem. The im- agitates it in such a manner that the water near the mediate reaction to all this is to throw up one's hands bottom of the lake comes into contact with air at the and give up.However, there are indications that surface, thus providing a double dose of oxygen. Ther e something can be done about it, the prime example are some problems involved 3n using the technique. probably being Sweden, which is making a concerted If, for example, the air is injected too rapidly, all effort to solve its water pollution problems. the "dead" water may rise to the surface atthe same time and possibly suffocate surface life.One aim of SWEDEN IS ATTACHING THE PROBLEM the project is to work out precise methods for applying the technique. One particular problem that has concerned the Swedes is what has been done to many of the lakes Another phase of the same project involves pump- near population centers into which unprocessed o r ing up water from the bottom of a dead lake, running incompletely treated sewage has been released over it through an artificial stream to aerate it, and then the years. While this is a temptingly cheap waste pumping it back to where it came from, thus adding disposal method, it eventually destroys the lakes by oxygen and evacuating sulphurated hydrogen, which adding large quantities of phosphorus and other nu- kills off fish life.These studies, covering 4 lakes trients, encouraging the growth of algae, which re- and scheduled to last 4 years, will cost about $220,000. duce the amount of oxygen in the water and eventually kill all fresh-water life.Sweden is today dotted A third project is focused on the potential of alu- with such "dead" lakes, many formerly prized rec- minum sulphate for curing lakes which have an ex- reational areas and now deserted. cessive nutrient content.In the spring of 1969, two badly polluted lakes near Stockholm w er e sprayed A number of projects aimed at revivingthese lakes with the substance, which combines with phosphorus are now under way. One is at Lake Trummen, near in the water, flocculates, and then settles tothe floor Vaxjo, which suffered from the injection not only of of the lake, producing a harmless blanket on the bot- raw sewage, but also of waste from a local textile tom. A preliminary check the following fall showed plant.While the pollution was stopped, the damage that algae formation, usually quite heavy in the sum- had long since been done. The lake is strangled with mer, had dropped to nearly zero and pollution h ad plant growth, making swimming impossible, and all been cut down considerably. However, there is still the fish have died. A 16-foot-thick blanket of dead some question as to whether the improvement is per- matter coats the lake bottom and the maximum water manent, and only time can answer this question. depth is now only 6 feet.Left alone, the polluted lake would eventually disappear. A LAKE DRAINED OF LIFE Scientists from the Limnological Institution at Another project involves the famous Lake Horn- Lund University, however, have launched a lon g - borga in south central Sweden, at one time a world- term project to bring the lake back to We and at the renowned bird sanctuary which formed part of a chain same time to gather data which may help in othe- of rest stops along the north-south route traveled by such cases. The first stage of the project, al-year many migratory birds. Most birds now avoid the ar- research period, was just concluded, and the second ea although this is not because the lake has been pol- stage, begun in fall 1970, consists of pumping up the luted, but rather because it has almost disappeared relativelyloose top layer of the sediment blanket, due to attempts by local farmers to create more ara- which contains most of t he pollutants. Prof. Sven ble land by sinking its water level 5 times, beginning Bjork of the Limnological Institution says this layer in the 19th Century. The lake's area has shrunk from contains from 10 to 20 times more phosphorus than about 15 square miles to the present 4 1/2 squa r e the lower, more densely packed sediment. Various miles in the process and, as Lennart Vilborg of the ideas for disposing of the rich mud will be tested Swedish National Nature Conservancy Office s ay s spreading it in forest areas and on farm land, and "to call it a lake today is somewhat pretentious. " using it as filler in old gravel quarries in the area. The accuracy of Vilborg's comment is indicated LOW BUDGETBUT RESULTS by the fact that only about one-fifteenth of the area was open water when the field investigation was started The pumping will take several months and, after in 1967. The rest was a vast sea of reeds, birch it is completed, studies will be made of the lake's trees, and a relatively small amount of other forms progress over the next 9 or 10 years. While t hi s of plant life. Maximum depth is only 2 1/2 feet and study period may appear to be unduly longforalake in the summer most of the "lake" is completely dry. with less than 10,000 square feet of surface area, it In winter, the lack of oxygen is so great after thefirst

44,, HERSEY 35 freeze that the fish remaining in the lake die.The It has been estimated that water pollution control current attempt to restore Hornborga involves cutting is now costing about $6 billion annually, and this fig- the reeds and raising the water level. ure is expected to double by 1980.While it is difficult to come up with a figure on how much it would That Sweden is particularly conscious of the pol- cost to do away completely with water pollution (and lution problem is indicated by the fact t h e country that's probably impossible), the NAS-NRC report on has formally asked the United Nations to sponsor an "Waste Management and Control" indicated that "the international conference in 1972 to combat the in- total cost of meeting all projected needs will undoutt- creasing tide of pollutants. The proposal drew 54 edly run into tens of billions of dollars." cosponsors in it s original form, and was adopted without opposition.In fact, it was, as one cynical REMEDIES ARE COSTLY UN observer put it, "the most acceptable international topic this side of motherhood." The report pointed out that ore proposed system to separate all present combined sewer system s CONTROLLING THE POLLUTERS would cost $20 to $30 billion, and alternate solutions would also be very expensive. "An investment of tens The Swedes hope the conference will not only dis- of billions of dollars will be needed just to eliminate pel public ignorance and apathy, but also enable re- the backlog, " the report went on."For the future, searchers in this area to persuade their govenune.,cs it becomes clear that a major investment will be re- to take whatever measures are necessary to combat quired to keep the quality of the waters in our streams, pollution, and produce a common outlook and direc- lakes, and estuaries at reasonable levels. " tion in the consideration of environmental controls. Meanwhile, Sweden has passed a new law requiring What exactly can be done? The report suggested all pollution-causing industries, mi well as local some possible areas for future technology which could councils, to conform to specified pollutant levels . contribute to water pollution control. One hope is Companies must apply for concessions to operate so that industrial technique3 will be developed which that the harmful effects may be weighed against the would completely eliminate water transportation as economic benefits. a means of waste disposal. This would involve the replacement of liquid-based cleaning or plating tech- Evidence is beginning to appear that the U. S. is niques by mechanical or other methods, and by chang- also becoming concerned over water pollution.For ing the raw materials usld for certain processes in example, the Food and Drug Administration, reacting order to eliminate pollutant discharges. to growing public pressure for stricter enforcement of pesticide control laws, seized some 28,000 pounds In addition, synthesis, typified by the present con- of processed Lake Michigan coho salmon infected by version of some "hard" detergents to "soft" biode- pesticide residues.It is interesting to note that no gradable detergents, could be made into a design cri- one really knows today how many of the fish caught terion for new products. Although it is impractical in U. S. lakes by commercial and sport fishermen to expect all products destined for eventual w ate r every day are contaminated. A classic example is disposal to be non-polluting or easily treatable, this Clear Lake, ;California, where DDT, at the minus- general technology is deserving of major emphasis, cule concentration of 2 one-hundredths part per mil- particularly in the control of non-point sources. lion, was used to kill off a troublesome insect that hatched its eggs in the lake. As a result, plankton CONTROL AT THE SOURCE accumulated DDT residues at the rate of 5 parts per million, fatty tissue of fish feeding on lake-bottom Perhaps the most prominent area for a majo r was found to contain several hundred to 2,000 parts breakthrough is the control of pollution from point per m illion of DDT, and grebes and other diving birds sources by means of new waste treatment techniques. died from eating the fish. It could conceivably produce effluents as good as, or even better than, the original water supply.If treat- The New York State Health Department repc.-ts ment techniques could be developed which would per- high concentrations of DDT in the state's central and mit the recycling of treated waste water for reuse, northern lakes, and frankly admits its concern. As and the ultimate disposal of the waste concentrates, John Gottschalk, director of the U.S. Bureau of Sport it might be possible to completely control pollution Fisheries and Wildlife, puts it, "What is happening from municipal and industrial wastes. in Lake Michigan is an indication of what to expect elsewhere. There will be a day, and It may not The distribution of waste over a larger area or in- be until the year 2000, when we are the coho to a larger volume of water has some utility but can- salmon. " not effect major improvements in the total pollution picture. Detention or dispersion with time similarly Concern over DDT led Sen. Gaylord Nelson hold no great promise for th e future, although all (D. Wis. ) to commemorate the fifth anniversary these techniques could pr3vide an immediate solution of the death of Rachel Carson (who in the book Si- in some areas. lentrin7 years before first exposed the pesticide threat by introducing a bill to create a national com- DIVERTING WASTE MATERIALS mission on pesticides.Although federal regulatory legislation is on the hooks, it is rarely enforced and, Diversion of waste out of areas of use i a some- in fact, there has been no criminal prosecution under what similar to elimination, at least with respect to the statute for some 13 years. As a result, the chem- the use region.Although there is some question as ical industry is currently producing pesticides at the to whether this technique would be competitive with rate of better than a billionpounds annually, and their other methods from the cost standpoint, the approach use is virtually uncontrolled. seems deserving of more attention than it has had in

4U 36 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION the past.In particular, the practicability of a 2-pipe systems problem, since disposal of solid waste can system for water supply and waste disposal appears cause air and land pollution, reduction of air pollu- worthy of study.Another technique, dilution, or low- tion can lead to land pollution, and sewage disposal flow augmentation, has broad applicability for both can cause water and air pollution.Systems tech- poir... and non-point pollution sources, and also ap- niques can be used to analyze t he overall problem pears deserving of emphasis. and yield insights to solutions, while prevenzing the use of specific solutions which could generate n e w Perhaps most important, the report concludes, and unexpected problems. the complementary application of several or all of these processes, together with increased water con- This systems approach has frequently beer advo- servation and reuse of treated water, warrants re- cated before Congress, and has been used in a f e w view.Re-engineering the home, and use of knowl- projects by Aerojet-General Corporation for the state edge gained in developing the closed-cycle system of California and by Dunlap and Associates.T he found on the Gemini and Apollo spacecraft, could con- NAS-NRC report also indicates that the systems ap- ceivably minimize the amount of waste leaving t he proach offers the best possibility for devising a suc- home. Collection of non-point source pollution, or cessful pollution-control program. blending two streams of different qualities to provide a product of intermediate quality, could be helpful in FREEDOM FROM THIRST some areas. Lord Ritchie - Calder, who has long been concerned In addition, pre - concentration of waste concentrate with ecological problems, recently wrote that the pol- could lead to the use of more economic dispos al lution of our sweet-water lakea and rivers has in- methods.The concept of dual use of existing facili- creased so much during the past 25 y ears t hat a ties, such as adapting existing sewer systems f o r "Freedom from Thirst" campaign is rapidly be _oming new treatment techniques, or grouping industries or az necessary as a "Fr eedom from Hunger "campaign. municipalities to achieve the economies inherent in large-scale treatment, and even combining facilities "Po!luting the environment," he went on, "has for treating both waste water and solid waste, all may been sufficiently dramatized by events in recent years hold a practical answer to pollution abatement, a nd to show the price wl have to pay for our rfiikless- all are worthy of serious attention. ness.It is not just the destruction of natural beauty One thing is becoming more and more clear a s or the sacrifice of recreational amenities which are time goes on and that is that the overall pollution crimes i' themselves, but interference with the whole problem cannot be attacked piecemeal.Unfortunate- ecology with the balance of nature on which the per- ly, that's what we have been doing. The present war sistence of life on this planet depends. We a re so on pollution (in this country, at least) ha, been and fascinated by the gimmicks al.: gadgetry of science is being hampered by its fractionation, not only at and technology, and are in such a hurry to exploit the local and state levels, but also at the federal lev- them, that we do not count the consequences." el, where more than 80 different commissions, of - fices, agencies. administrations, corps, and Services However, the consequences are rapidly catching are concerned %-ith, and spend money o n , pollution up with us, as even a glance at our seas and inland control. waterways will indicate.It is long past the time for liquidating our dirty-water problems, or we may This is especially frustrating because pollution all !.c..o soon be "drinking today the water our control, even more than most urban problems, is a neighbors drank yesterday. " A popular interpretation of the ecological crisis.

WHY THE WORLD IS NOT OUR OYSTER

RobertI.Standish

IN THE current widespread burst of interest in and soils of the earth, in the waters, and in the air. our urban and rural surroundings, I am sure there These, plus sunshine, and the ability of plants to is a vast amount of public confusion. We generalize change elements into the stuff of life, are the essen- about the problems and grope for solutions, knowing tials in the living process we call ecology. only that something has gone wrong. Even the terms are vague, and often carelessly used. The word en For billions of years, creatures in fantastic vari- vironment, for example, has no equivalent in some ety and countless numbers, have existed together in languages. Ecology is a favorite term liberally an interrelated, balanced kind of water-soil-biological sprinkled throughout most articles, as is the phrase, society.The waters nourish the soils, and the soils quality of life. bring forth green things in which sunlight throughthe miracle of photosynthesis, creates oxygen and carbo- What w e badly need are clear definitions and a hydrates.Herbivores find plants good to eat, and clear understanding of relationships.Fortunately, carnivores find the herbivores good to eat. And the certain aspecte of our present condition are common remains of all threeand humans toodecompose to all. and are simple enough to be understood ( if not to nourish the earth to permit the process to go on agreed to) by everyone.In this paper I would like to and on and on. The same general kind of system try tc sort out some of these things, to give you, if functions everywhere, in the waters of the world as I can, a perspective and a deeper appreciation of the well as on land, and even among forms too small to 'erribly important job ahead in which all of us are in- see. Bugs, worms, yeasts, molds, fungi, and bac- volved. teria all play essential parts, and without them you and I and all the so-called higher forms of life would Let us look first at ecology.This is a science of soon perish. natural relationships and interactions of all elements and all life.In practice, one generally deals with As the ecologists say, everything has its niche, segments of this vast field, such as forest ecology, each helping make possible the existence of some- wildlife ecology, or human ecology.Within the s e thing else and ultimately the whole body of life.This segments are even smaller units which are termed relationship of creatures is especially visible in eco- ecosystems.Food chains, the cycling of elements, systems where certain species control or are con- energy transfers, and so on, are the basic fabric of trolled by other species.When the balance is inter- the system. Everything is prey ." something else. rupted through some natural disaster, or far more To have life, there must be death. often by the interventions of man, the results a r e usually plain to see. John Muir, founder of the Sierra Club, described it very well."When we try to pick out anything by The story of a spruce forest illustrates thispoint. itself," he said, "we find it hitched to everything You have probably heard of pine beetles, or bark bee- else in the universe." That's ecology: the hitching tles.These insects attack conifers, feeding on the of everything to everyluing else. succulent inner layers of tree tissues and microscopic living things which invade their tunnels.The y Although this is an ancient field of study, predat- spend most of their lives hidden beneath the tree's ing the Greek, surprisingly few people outside pro- protective shell.Bark beetles would make short fessional ranks have any real idea of what it is all work of all the pine trees except that woodpeckers about, why it is important, or why scientists are so find them extraordinarily tasty.In a natural forest alarmed right now by what is happening in the world there are plenty of beetles but there are plenty of around us. woodpeckers too, so the beetles rarely multiply fast enough to be a damaging factor in forest ecology. Let me try to explain, very simply, how all this They cannot get ahead of the woodpeckers. There is works.It all starts with the minerals in the rocks an ecological balance.

Mr. Standish is Public Inforr ation Officer, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Re- sources, Morges, Switzerland. 38 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION Sometimes things get out of hand.For example, without the bacteria which cause decay and carry out in the White River National Forest in Colorado, a bad the complex business of breaking down animal and storm blew down several groups of trees. (T he y plant remains into substances plants can use again. might also have been felled by some irresponsible Nor could we live without other kinds of bacteria person with a chainsaw, but in this case the weather which can convert nitrate to molecular nitrogento was at fault. ) Here, tinder the bark of thes4 fallen replenish the atmosphere. As you know, there can trees, protected by crushed branches where 'le wood- be no life without oxygen. The air is full of it, but peckers could not get to them, the beetles f- as =i and only because plants keep putting it there, taking in multiplied, producing too many new general. s of carbon-dioxide, and giving off the vital gas. A ma- beetles for the local woodpecker crops to taw". As ture beech tree, for example, gives off enough oxy- a result, the entire forest of sever and gen to keep five people breathing.But most of the acres was eventually killed, and aloc., iiit world's supply of free oxygenabout 70 percent went its great dependent community ci nit:in living comes from microscopic plantsthe planktonic di- things. atoms in the oceans, and in freshwater too.These tiny plants are also the indispensable base of all ma- In the natural world, balances are usually achieved rine food chains. in communities of plants, and in communities of animals, and between them both. Forests, for example, If 1969 was notable for anything good, it probably will support certain varieties of trees, certain un- was the developing awareness tat mankind is upset- dergrowths, and brush, grasses, ferns, lichens, ting the world's ecological balance, in massive ways, mosses, and so forth. Animal and bird life adjust and to an extent that has most of the world's biologi- to the food and shelter this environment supplies. cal scientists gravely concerned.It seems terribly Insects, worms, snakes, lizards, and all manner of ironic to rrthat presumably intelligent peoples things play essential roles too, as pollinators, pred- could live almost 2,000 years into the Christian era ators, parasites, or scavengers, so the forest can without any general awareness that our supposedly support a certain number of birds and animals that enlightened societies have been frightfully unintelli- feed on these forms. There will be a population of gentand aggressively ignorantin our use of the seed and nut eaters, a smaller number of herbivores biosphere, and the resources of the earth. But there such as rabbits, deer, or elk, and a few predators are some glimmers of light. A few people are atlast such as coyotes, bears, wolves, owls, hawks, and becoming aware that sur environment, our own eco- so forth up to the top of the food chains. logical habitat, which of all species only humans take for granted, as theirs to play with or freely alter to There will be fluctuations, of course. Populations suit any whim or purpose, is in serious trouble. rise or fall in number, depending on the food supply and habitat.But as we saw with the beetles and wood- Scientists fear that some tragic, stupid error or pecker::these balances can be easily upset. If some- miscalculation, or simply the overwhelming accumu- one thoughtlessly poisons the coyote, the rabbits may lation of evil consequences, might trigger an ecolog- get out of hand. Or if the mountain lion or w o If is ical catastrophy that could do to mankind what t he eliminated, the deer will soon eat and breed t he m- windste- m did to that spruce forest in Colorado. In selves into trouble. a highly technological age, when men still play with pathogenic viruses, deadly chemicals, nuclear ex- I like the woodpecker-beetle story because it il- plosions, and massive changes to the face of the earth, lustrates another principlethat when living things it could happen. Historically, m en have been too become too successful, they destroy the source of careless to believe otherwise. their livelihood and disappear, along with the community on which they depend.This happened to the Our environment bears terrible scars and op en bark-beetles in our forest example. And unfortu- wounds still unhealed. Air in some citiesand even natoly, it could also happen to mankind. Man is so in great areasis not fit to breathe. Most of the successful in the business of producing children and world's major lakes and streams are foul, or have controlling death, that he is very very rapidly de - long since been killed by pollution.Food is contam- stroying the source of his livelihood, through care- inated by such poisons as Strontium 90 and residues lessness, greed, ignorance, and insensitivity, bol- of many lethal chemicals. Even mother's milk not; stered by a blind belief that science can fix any contains 2 to 6 times (11 + ppm) the amount of DDT problem he creates, a capacity not yet demonstrated in considered a safe level ( 5ppm) in cow's milk. It was realway. One could go on citing examples to il- pointed out that if mother's milk came in any other lustrateany. elements of ecology, but I think one or two container, it wouldn't be allowed to cross state lines. more will be sufficient to fill out this brief and simplified look at certain basic facts of life. Have you been to New York lately? New York and many once great cities, in substantial part at least, This science involves all living things, including are becoming madhouses of confusion and social de- the molds, fungi, bacteria, and other microscopic cay. Our once abundant open spaceliving space organists s, all of which play important roles in the is shrinking at alarming rates.Wildlife has be en web of life.There could be no life without the sev- destroyed.Forests are cut recklessly.Precious eral kinds of microorganisms, which take nitrogen mineral resources are being squandered. Mountains from the air and convert it by several steps to ni- of waste still accumulatehundreds of millions of trate, which is used by green plante, in building pro- tons each year in the U.S. alone. And on top of all teins.All animals, including humans, difcctly or these horrors, proudly, complacently, and smugly, indirectly get raw materials for building their own sits the naked ape, the human species, the most suc- proteins from the proteins of plants. cessful breeding animal of all the higher forms. There could be no life, at least as we know it, Is it any wonder that some people are beginning

tY8 STANDISH 39 to wake up? Is it any wonder that youth all over the Millions of people are starving for proteins, yet the world is searching for new value systems and stan- richest protein supply, the fisheries of the Humbolt dards? Plainly, we will have to change our ways if current off Peru, goes mainly to feed cats, cattle, we are to survive an- have the kind of life we allwant and chickensnot in South America, but in Europe t o have. W e must restore our environment, and and North America, which are already fat with food. maintain it, as a safe, decent, and hopefully pleasant place to livenot just for our own sell-centered Obviously, and sadly, such basic inequities can few remaining years, but for all generations to fol- only mean great trouble ahead.It boggles the imag- low us, for all time. We must realize that the earth ination even to try to think of the measures that will is a closed system into which nothing enters but sun- be needed if the world's present population is to be shine.Adlai Stevenson called it "spaceship earth," fedbut what is to be done to feed the 75 millions an apt simile.There is no new source of supply, no new people being added every year? I won't try to new frontier, no new continents to conquer. Withthe answer that one. But I will say that the facts of the exception of an occasional meteorite and some moon human condition demolish any of the pious arguments rocks, nothing has been added to the earth since the I have heard against trying to limit human fertility. beginning of time, and nothing more will ever '.e. Next, pollution of all kinds must be controlled. What must we do to ensure our survival? Very This is a deeply rooted economic and social prob- simply, here are some of the main things environ- lem, involving industry, agriculture, housing, pub- mental scientists believe human society must do. lic health, forestry, foreigh aid, w ar, marketing, First of all, because people consume resources and urbanization, transportationand even you and me, destroy their environment, the world's population individuals whose inconsequential personal contribu- must be stabilized in relation to its resources. Vir- tions of empty cigaret packages, or automobile ex- tually every expert agrees that this is of the highest haust or household waste add up to an almost incon- priority.This is urgent, because the children have ceivable mountain of litter, filth, and poison. already been born who, without any encouragement whatever, will push the human mass to double it s The cost of control must be built into production present sizefrom about 3 1/2 billions to 6 or 7 costs, and our cherished habits of thinking simply billionsin approximately 30 years. This matter must change, not only about our own rich societies, is not only the most urgent problem, but the most but also about the kind of aid and advice we give to complex because of the profound social, political, those parts of the world which have not yet learned and economic changes needed for stability.Birth how wonderful Qectric toothbrushes and throw-away controls alone ar e not enough, but in my judgment beer cans can be.Critical decisions bearing on the tney must come first, and they must be pushed vig- general environment, in my view anyway, should no orously and enthusiastically by every means and longer be permitted on the basis of an individual's every device and at every pressure point for if the self-interest, or the profitability interest of a man- millions of unwanted children who arrive each year ufacturing company, or the tax load interest of a were not born, we would be well on the road toward community, whether it is in Kansas or Canton Vand. achieving stability.It is plainly silly to think that These things must come, and are coming, whether because there are some unoccupied areas, and a few we lilt, them or not. improved sources of food, that the world can accom- Certainly, before too long I think we will be forced modate more and more billions.It is thought that to give up conspicuous consumption, whether for wnr we could survive with 8 billionsjust barely. But material, 100- star y buildings, 300 - horsepower road the world cannot feed its present 3 1/2 billion s . monsters, 16 suits in our wardrobes, or whatever. Clearly, we have exceeded optimum levels. I think we must stabilize our economic life along with Second, I'd say some kind of reform in distribu- our Populations, and stop going so heavily into debt tion of the world's food supply, and the handling of to the future.I think we must learn to be frugal, to food resources, needs to be developed. One hears recycle materials and to conserve energy sources. a great deal of nonsense on the subject of food abun- I believe in the old slogan " waste not, want not," dance. The facts are that three-fifths of the present for myself and for my country.Until we learn to do world populationor more than 2 billions people these things, in my view, the proliferation of junk are perpetually hungry. These are the people living products, and planned obsolescence in marketing in much of Latin America and in older parts of the are not only idiotic, but morally wrong as world, in Africa, Asia, India, and China, areas now critically short of water, soil, forests, and resources Lastlyalthough this must be concurrent and of all kinds, where there is little h An that food sup- continuing is the education of our children and our plies can be increased significantly. What is worse, young professional people and businessmen to under- their populations are increasing at double the rates stand and respect nature and her unchanging laws. of the Western World's. According to Dr. George Francis Bacon said it succinctly: "We cannot com- Borgstrom, professor of Food Science at Michigan mand nature except by obeying her." We cannotpoi- State University, if all the food in the world were son the planktonic diatoms with pesticides, radioac- equally distributed, and each human received iden- tive garbage, or surplus nerve gas and still expect tical quantities, we would all be malnourished. And them to produce 70 percent of our oxygen, or func- if all the food were distributed at the U. S. dietary tion as the initial source of all life in the sea. level only about one-third of the human race could be fed. Every action has a counter action.This must be taken into account by some means more sensitive India is taking g_ eat risks to bring enough land and more realistic than by figuring cost benefit ra- under cultivation to try to feed her present popula- tios for projects that benefit a few rather than many, tion, while Europe and America have a food Eurphis. for the short-term rather than the long-term. Dedieeft9 Sitobtomosteatai Edeecateeut

ALTHOUGH the mass media may only just then have delineated it, environmetnal educationdid not spring full-blown from the head of any ecological Zeus on April 22, 1970.Its antecedents are many. Various aspects of a concern for interrelations between man and his environment havebeen recognizable in American education for a' least 70 years. One of the oldest root-stocks has gone under the broad rubric of natural history or notate study. The goal of nature study has been to increase our understanding of the ways of the wild and thus to heighten our appreciation of "nature's vast, pulsing harmony." Nature study has been the province of many informal educational agencies, and has been found in schools and colleges principally in biology courses. Conservation education has attempted to add to nature study the concept of a concern for the wise use of natural resources.But society-and the schools-have had trouble defining "wise use." Where it has been interpreted to mean rational development, conservation education has round a base indepartments of geography and in social studies courses. Where it has been interpreted to mean 'reservation of vanishing wonders, conservation education has been carried forward most effectiv, ly by a number of voluntary organizations. Outdoor education has been a mixture. To the extent that it is focused in departments of physical education, it is oriented strongly toward the theories and methods of outdoor recreation. Some educationists, how - ever, have given outdoor education a broader domain, saying that it applies to all outdoor experiences that c ut across the entire curriculum. Then there has been an eclectic thrust which could be called citizenship education. From one perspective this genre has been concerned with a cultural and esthetic appreciation of the American endowment and the American mission. From another perspective, citizenship education has sought to generate a commitment to social action, which in recent years has found its particular emphasis in a concern for the rehabilitation of the cityscape and its poor.From a third perspective, citizenship education has involved consumer education- an orientation to the shortcomings and excesses of the economy.

Resourcemanagementeducation has represented the professionalization of certain distinct man-landrelationships: soil conservation, water management, game management, park management, urban and regional planning, landscape design, architecture, environmental engineering, metropolitan management, and so on. AU these antecedent forms of environmental education have certain things in common. First, they tend to take an "egg-crate" approach to man-environment relations.That is, they carve up the natural and physical environment into compartments like woods, water, inner core, and wilderness. This is so, on the one hand, because societal approach'.s to resource management have been assigned to various discretebureaus, eachwith its own gospel; and on the other hand, because of the rather rigid departmental organization of knowledge in schools and colleges:Second, the antecedent forms of environmental education tend to be rather lnng on rhetoric and short on both ecological principles and practical guidelines to public action.Third, with some exceptions,t he training of environmental educators has grown up outside the mainstream of American teacher education. College courses for the training of planners, interpretive naturalists, conservation educatnr.s, social workers, and resource management specialists have frequently developed quite independent of schools of education. Overall, lire- environmental education has lacked compelling theories of content and m ethodology. Its concepts and materials have been rooted in an agrarian era.It has lacked practitioners of adequatebackground and scope.It has been oriented to particular "users" of the environment rather than to the overall environment itself, and it has had no clear-cut federal or foundation impetus or funding. Enter environmental education. Some might say the term has sprung into being merely at the whim of phrase-makers, or to pr,t a new label on an old bottle.On the contrary, there are real and significant differences between the old conservation and the new environmentalism. In terms of its drape, the new environmentalism attemptstobeall-encompassing. Whereasyesterday we tended to treat soil conservation, architecture, water conservation, art, forest conservation, wildlife conscrva- tion, urban engineering, and so on, as separate units, today we try to understand and explain the ecological unity 6 01 41 of all man-land relationships.In terms of its 6oca s , then, the new environmentalism is man-centered. That is, our primary concern has shifted from the survival of remnant redwoods and raptores to the survival of nothing less than the human species itself.At the same time, we are not so much concerned about quantities of natural resources as we are about the quality of the hnman experience. In terms of its tocu.6, while the old conservation conjured up images of open country, the new environmentalism incorporates the pressing problems of the city.In terms of its emotional. undapinning6, the new environmentalism is based more on fear for man's tomorrow than on a love for nature's yesterday.In t er m s of its potitieat attianeez , the old conservation was linked to such orthodox causesasdepr ession pump-priming, national defense, and outdoor recreation; the new environmentalism, on the other hand, encompasses population control. It is, however, in its bazic cat -tuna onientatZon, that the new environmentalism differs most strikingly from its principal antecedent, conservation. The latter, in the words of one patron saint, stood clearlyfor economic development, for the infinite goodness of American "progress." But environmentalism reflects a growing suspicion that bigger is not necessarily better, slower can be faster, and less can be more.If anything surely marks this revolutionary nature of the rationale of the new environmentalism, it would be the recent words of a Republican President of the United States, telling us that "wealth and happiness are not the same thing," that now is the time to "make our peace with nature," and that we must "measure success or failure by a new criteria. " From nature study, environmental education draws an emphasisonanunderstanding of our ecologicalsys- temman, culture, natural environment.From conservation education, environmental education draws a concern for the husbandry of the system. From outdoor education, environmental education borrows the concept that such issues should cut across the entire curriculum. From citizenship education, environmental education draws social dimensions and a commitment to action.From resource management education, environmental education draws a technological point of entre to public policy change. In turn, the environmental impulse is energizing changes in its antecedents.Nature study is becoming less taxonomic and anthropomorphic and more ecological.Furthermore, biology departments that leaned heavily in a molecular direction in the post-Sputnik era are switching back to a science-and-society orientation. The American Institute for the Biological Sciences, for example, has a special committee at work under a distinguished ecologist, Dr. Edward Kormondy, on a review of courses and materials such as the EMS series. Conservation education, as practiced by lay gruups particularly, is taking on a broader context. For example, a new brochure for schools, put out by The National Wildlife Federation, opens with these words:"Con- servation is no longer just the story of vanishing wildlife and vanishing wilderness areas. There is a new urgency ir. the word today.Suddenly, as we step and look at our total environment, it has taken on the meaning of human sarvival." Project ME (Man's Environment) is also diagnostic of change: "Alert man to his environmental problems and the need for solution. ... Comm-nicate to pupils that clean air, water, and land are essential in man's survival kit." These are the underlying alms of the new outdoor education pr )gram sponsored by the American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation. Citizenship education is discovering the intimate and essential relationship between "people problems" and the problems of the environmentnatural and man-made. The National Environmental Education Development (NEED) Prograra is a National Park Service effort in curriculum development to foster environmental awareness and involvement in school children.The Forest Service, the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, the Soil Conservation Service, andother agencies long concerned with resource management education are adjusting their programs in a frank recognition of the fact that swelling population, rampant technology, and fragile biosphere are on a collision course, threatening the quality of the human experience if not the very survival of man. Environmental education programs themselves are emerging largely from a new college and university configuration, commonly called an "environmental studies center." Each such center tries to be multidisciplinary in its posture and multi-process in its programs. By multi-process is meant a university program concerned with the production of new knowledge and new knowledge-seekers, of more andbetter resource managers, of citizenship education, and of technical counseling and services.By multidisciplinary is meaat a concern with the total environment of man: its social, cultural, economic, and esthetic, as well as its physical and biological aspects. In essence, then, specific new educational programs are either already underway or are on the drawing boards.Springing from various roots, fostered by various movements and agencies, what is being called environmental education is undergoing definition, as the articles that follow attest.. A report on an environmental education seminar series.

IDENTIFYING NEEDS, OBSTACLES, AND SOLUTIONS

Mario Menesini

OUR ENVIRONMENT and its, resources are Development Act) Grant No. 45 4174 to John F. Ken- a major concern of mankind today.That concern can nedy University, Martinez, California.The semi- be voiced, legislated for, and exercised, but the one nars were produced in cooperation with Boston Uni- most positive means of creating concern forand versity, Boston, DAL.; sachusetts, the Morton intelligent management ofour world is through the Arboretum, Lisle, Illinois, and Educational Consult- environmental education of those who will inherit it. ing Service, Orinda, California. There is no better way to integrate and estal,lish As a preliminary planning step, outstanding edu- people relationships thi.n through recognition of' mu- cators were named to an advisory group.Within the tual environments shared by total populations. A se- framework of the proposed seminar structure ,t he ries of environmental education seminars were con- advisory group suggested various activitiesand meth- cerned with education of people to the total environment ods of operation for the seminars. Each of the semi- and, particularly, with the relationships of individu- nars conformed to a basic series of lectures and pan- als within their natural and technologirel environ- el discussions. The individual reactions of the mental structures.Another purpose, from a prag- participants, however, which followed the forma l matic approach, concerns the fact thr ..nvironmental presentation gave rise to a number of findings which education is now a curriculum requisite inCalifornia, are the essence of this seminar report.While there as provided by Senate Bill 1 passed in the 1968 leg- are some minor differences in the reactions of the islative session. Many other states and districts participants from one part of the country to another, have or are adopting similar requirements.The the significant findings presented here were basical- seminar goals were: ly found to be common concerns relative to environmental education throughout the educational commu- 1.To give all students, including the culturally nity. different, the disadvantaged, the exceptional, and the handicapped, an opportunity to develop an environ- SMALL GROUP DISCUSSIONS mental awareness through education. The participants were provided an opportunity to 2.To provide and coordinate environmental/eco- meet in small groups with colleagues.This enabled logical education ideas for the curricula. each participant to meet with a cross-section of educators in various stages of environmental education 3.To develop operational or logistical skills so work: those who had established ongoing env i r on - that participants could implement environmental edu- mental education programs; others who were experi- cation programs. encing the developmental a'.?yes of establishing programs and those who were interested in beginning a 4.To provide a platform for discussion and un- plan for environmental education in their schools. derstanding of the term "environmental education." The groups were arranged so that discussions took place relative to the participants' varying interests. 5.To exchange information about what is needed For example, the educators were grouped according to implement environmental education, the specific to grade levels in the San Francisco Bay area and obstacles which prevent implementation, and t he Chicago area so that participants interested in sec- problem solutions which have been tried. ondary, intermediate, and primary grades could discuss common problems. In the Boston s e m n a r, SEMINAR BACKGROUND those interested in curriculum development, environmental law, population problems, and urban ecol- The seminars were sponsored by the U. S. Office ogy met together. Leaders were identified for each of Education E P DA ( Education Professions group to organize discussions and report on their

Dr. Menesini is Director of the Educational Consulting Service, Orinda, California.

52; MENESINI 43 results.Participants were asked to discuss the fol- Solutions lowing: The central offices of state, regional, and nation- to evolve the needs which could be met within al facilities should be approached for listings.If, as their school districts by implementing envi- is usually the case, there are no such listings for ed- ronmental/ecological education; ucational purposes, request should be made to those in authority for the creation of a comprehensive reg- to describe the problems which they faced in istry or listing of available facilities.Political in- establishing such ecological programs; and volvement, that is, school boards meeting with county supervisors as well as being involved with govern- to describe what solutions they could derive ment agencies, can produce sites for school use. or were presently using to implement envi- Many industrial complexes are now providing land ronmental education in their school districts. for educational use.Imagination in the development of "improbable" sites (for example, streets, empty Th r. needs, problems, and solutions most frequently lots, playgrounds, and dumps) is another solution. mentioned in the group discussions follow. School districts which have been successful in developing unique areas should share the key to their suc- (1) NEED: FINANCES cesses; a brief "how to do it" guideline would be helpful and could be distributed widely. It goes without saying that the most frequently mentioned need is that of finances.Most school dis- ( 3) NEED: TEACHER INVOLVEMENT tricts report a desire to be involved in environmental education.Often administrative support is either ne- A program without proper supervision and instruc- gotiable or well-informed and favorable to aprogram. tion will be a loss from the start.The need to in- Yet the need for immediate implementation is thwart- volve teachers, not only as instructors but also as ed by the financial problem. planners,is most imperative. Problems Problems Previous priorities and satisfaction of the public Some teachers will consider extra activities, such often dictate that other school activities receive the as outdoor education, a drain on their private lives. budgetary appropriations.Costs of transportation, More frequently, teachers may feel an insecurity or materials, and housing of students for on-site visits lack of confidence in their ability to instruct in what can be high and environmental education is often in is often considered a science subject.This is be- competition with such programs as driver education, cause a significant number of teachers do not realize music, and athletics.Unfortunately the more imme- the comparative ease of discovery-teaching with en- diately visible programs receive the benefits. viromn.ctal education vehicles. In service ?rograms rarely solve the problem because the instr ictionusu- Solutions ally centers on the scientific approach.Tt:achersdo not often receive an adequate explanation of the phi- Sometimes the financial problem solves itself . losophy, methods, and objectives specific t o their When the program is well presented,tricts in- preparation and teaching situations. dicate their willingness to support sfivironrnentaled- ucation by providing funds from district resources. Solutions Other districts rely on service clubs and PTA contributions to produce the program. A third, andper- The first big step toward positive teacher involve- haps more educationally sound, concept is for stu- ment is administrative understanding and support for dents to organize activities and work projects that an adequate environmental teacher-education pr o - will supply funding for their own environmental ed- gram. A well-organized program, reinforced by the ucation on-site experiences.Recently several gov- expertise of consultants and specialists, will give ernment agencies ( such as the National Park Service, teachers the added incentive and background neces- Fish and Game, and Forestry Departments) have be- sary for implementing an environmental education come aware of environmental education needs and experience.Positive attitudes are attained through problems and have contributed toward implementa- clear and logical explanation of the values of thepro- tion of on-site programs. gram.Goals are set that are reasonably high but not intimidating, and supplementary, student-motivational (2) NEED: FACILITIES materiale are used to alleviate teacher insecurities. The explanation of programs should demonstrate rel- The second largest ...... terrent toprovidingenviron- evancy and a pragmatic association with learning ac- mental experiences is a lack of on-site facilities. tivities.There should be an understanding that environmental education is not a frill and that using the Problems environment as a reference is as necessary as using the school library. A valuable dialogue betwe en Despite the fact that the nation has a large system teachers, administrators, and environmental spe- of national and state parks, educators have no way of cialists can be gained through environmental teach- knowing where sites are available for educationaluse in's such as this seminar series. The ultimate now or in the future.For districts with limitedfunds, scheduling of the environmental program should con- or with no available government site, educational use sider the feelings of reluctant staff so that alienation of local areas (small parks, playgrounds, streets) factors will not ultimately destroy a total program. is often obstructed by limited imagination. Many are Many variations for faculty assignments have been unable to envision the possibilities near at hand. considered, as for instance, exchanging c la i s e s

5a 71.g 44 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION during on-site visits with faculty who enjoy this type instructional department at the district level.This of experience and are more capable of implementing will help insure materials which will be coordinated outdoor programs. Use of college students and high with subject-matter areas found in the traditional school seniors to augment teacher ranks has also school program. This instructional d e par tm e nt solved assignment and coordination problems. should compile an adequate index of materials which can readily be used for environmental educa- ( 4 ) NEED: ADMINISTFtA TION/LE ADE RSHI? tion.If none fit the district's needs, the available materials can often serve as guidelines for the cre- Since all-important coordination and articulation ation of an individualized set of materials f or the are functions of the administrator, informed instruc- district.Problems with outside resource personnel tional leadership is a necessity for initiating an en- can be solved through orientation.Especially when vironmental education program. dealing with the on-site program, school and site personnel should meet and discuss mutual objec- Problems tives so that no clash will occur on tt e actu al experience. Those in a position to lead environmental education programs too often are lacking in a full under- SUMMARY standing necessary to implement a comprehensive program.Traditional beliefs about in-class educa- The degree of difference from one seminar to an- tion can stifle the flexibility and spontaneity neces- other was more in the realm of emphasis than in dis- sary for a successful experience with the environ- regard for any aspects of environmental education. ment. To some ad m in i s tr at or senvironmental For example, the emphasis in the San Francisco Bay education represents a departure from tradition which area conference was on logisticshow to establish they are unwilling to risk.Administrative insecuri- the environmental.':station program, the facilities, ties are sometimes underlined by ill-defined or in- and the financial arrangements. In the Chicago area adequately communicated environmental objectives the theme focused more generally on the background and philosophy.Most important, administrative of environmental education, its needs, and the avail- concern is often divided among many other recently ability of facilities for teaching it.In Boston there defined priorities for special education, such as was more emphasis on the availability of curriculum drugs, sex education, and ethnic studies. materials and the development of programs for teaching environmental education. The above ob- Solutions servations were subjectively not ed and these observations do not mean to imply that there was The school district's sociological makeup often an exclusion of other discussed topics at each of dictates the priorities of its education programs. the seminars. Teachers and parents aware of the necessity for en- virodmental education might embark on a public re- In general, seminar speakers, panelists, andpar- lations campaign to "sell" the program to the com- ticipants indicated three major areas for concentra- munity and the school board.Present measuring tion of effort: politics or interactions in the educa- and evaluation devices should be applied and adapted tional community, the economic community, andthe so as to demonstrate the necessity and adequacy of social community. environmental education In meet the local desired goals. As in the solutions air teacher involvement, The political relationships of school personnel to environmental philosophy and objectives can be clar- conservation groups, to community planners and in- ified in such seminars as those in this series. ternally within the school faculty should be resolved so that constructive relationships exist. ( 5) NEED: ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATIONAL RESOURCES AND MATERIALS To the economic community, additional educational programs often mean additional taxes.Also eco- Most new programs suffer from a lack of adequate nomically, many producers are wary of consumer- background information and th. foundation of past education biases generated in terms oi environmental trial, and errors.So it is with environmental edu- concepts.Often the local industrialist fears a role cation.There is a great need for integrated re- as the villain in an environmentally orienttd pro - sources and experienced consultants. gram.Local polluters must be considered only in terms of rational assessment of environmentalprob- Problems lems. Both instructional and reference materials a r e Socially, many groups of culturally different peo- at a premium and often what little there is lacks co- ple are wary about programs that take students away hesion and often seems contradictory.It is often from home. They hesitate to relinquish parental con- difficult to fit the fragmented existing materials in- trol. An active parent-education program is a neces- to the school's curriculum. This can be complicated sity to demonstrate the benefits of the on-site expe- by special interests of the agencies which provide riences. materials.Outside environmental experts have little knowledge of the problems of school operation a ri,1 Finally, pressure must be applied in the field of bring about coordination difficulties. politics in its strictest sense.If environmental/ ecological education is to become an important fac- Solutions tor in the schools of our nation, fl° interest of legislators should focus on the problems of bringingad- Materials from the various agencies, collated and equate resources to our schools for relevant evaluated for the teacher, should be a function of an environmental education. 53 "Many more people are waking up to the environmental crisis we are fac,'ng, and finally are understanding some of the concepts and causes conservation educator, have been pleading for years."

THE ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION BANNER

Wilson B. Clark

TEE GOAL of environmental education is to bring indeed are facing, and finally are understanding some home to every citizen, so that he knows it deep in his of the concepts and causes conservation educators heart and bones, the simple facts that he is absolute- have been pleading for years. ly dependent on his environment, that he is affected by his environment, and that he affects his environ- If we go back to read of the early days of conser- ment.T' self- evident truths are obviously neither vation and of conservation education in this nation, self-e.4at to nor coir,iaered truths by many people, we can find all of the ingredients of today's environ- judging oy their actton i.For if they were considered mental education. True, they perhaps wpre nottied both sell-evident and '.rue we would not have 2,100 together as well, but what is Aldo Leopold's philoso- communities in the L. S. today still dumping r a w phy of "harmony between man and the land" but an sewage into streams, nor Lake Erie giving its last early, clear, succinct statement of modern concepts gasp, nor some 140 million tons of air pollutants of human ocology. The old saw that "conservation spewed into our atmosphere each year, nor the small means wise use of natural resources" seemed to dollar payroll of an industry like a paper millin never quite do the job, for it was so subject to value Missoula, Montana, being allowed to outweigh he judgements of what constituted wise use. And indeed, considerations of the health, comfort, and indeed the very word conservation unfortunately did notthen- economics of thousands of people.The examples ca and even today does not convey to many people any- idiotic, even criminal irresponsibility to the environ- thing more than saving things.Certainly the widely ment are endless. To try to cure this Idiocy, this used "Conservation Pledge," recited by thousands blindness, this irresponsibility is the reason for all of school children, has reinforced this "saving" con- the recent concern about environmental education, cept, and has done little to foster the needed wider and the past as well as continuing concern about con- meaning of conservation. servation education. From this narrow interpretation has stemmed We've come to the point where today the banner many problems.It has caused fierce and bitter of environmental education is thq rallying point for polarization, between the avid savers on one side hundreds of newly awakened people. It's a newquest, and the overt exploiters on the other. And even a new crusade, they say. And yet, it's not really within those orgarizetions and agencies ostensibly new. What's happening is merely that mans more devoted to conservation the broad conceit 3 of conser- people are waking up to the environmental crisis we vation have been splintered, fractionated, shattered

Dr. Clark is Chairman, Division of Science and Mathematics, Eastern Montana C o 11 e ge , and President of the Conservation Education Association. This article is based on his address to the Governor's Environ- mental Education Conference, Boise, Idaho, March 28, 1989. 46 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION into many pieces- with each agency or 'iganization fell on infertile, unresponsive ground. Perhaps like clutching its MU( nterpretation to its bt.som as the spreading manure on land to make things grow, we one true gospel.Vitness the fights that have gone had to get our destructiveness so evident and t he on between the Bureau of Reclamation and the Forest manure of our civilization so widespread before the Service, or tne Forest Service and the Park Service, seeds of conservation education could really take hold. or the Soil Conservation Service and the Extension Service. Witness the "holier than thou" actitudeof And so to me the terms conservation education many private conservation organizations, each wav- and environmental education are and always have been ing its own flag and never realizing that its goals and synonymous. The latter term is now in vogue. It's philosophy are but a tiny piece of the whole picture. all right with me.I care not one bit what handle we The internecine warfare between conservation organ- give to the concept.I do care how we go about the izations has been one of the major obstacles to genu- job, for environmental education is just as amorphous ine conservation progress.But happily that situation a term as is conservation education, and is subject seems to be diminishing, and the totally inadequate to just as many different interpretations. "wise use" definition of conservation is being replaced. The major concepts of envir nrnental education are few in number but all-inclusive in content. They have been stated in many places and in many forms, A step forward in definition was '.hat which stated: but in my opinion one of the clearest presentations "Conservation involves the mak .ng of intelligent of the three major concepts is in the recently pub- choices among the competitive uses of resources." lished Teachers' Curriculum Guide to Conservation This definitica_ recognized that many resource-use Education, the result of tile Pinchot Institute's South decisions are irreversible and preclude other deci- Carolina project. These three fundamental concepts sions. For instance, once our. Class Iirrigated are as follows: valley lands of the western states are under the concrete or asphalt of the interstate-highway system at the cost of 40 acres per milewe cannot again nse 1. Living things are interdenendent with one an- that valuable agricultur: I land for crops.It is gone other and with their environment. as irrevocably as II it had been swept away by severe erosion. How intelligent are the decisions made by 2. All organisms (or populations of organisms) the engineers and road-building officials, very f e w are the product of their heredity and environment. of whom have any broad concepts of resource interrelationships and relative values of competitive uses 3. All organisms and environments are in constant of resources? change. These three concepts lie at the heart of environ- In the last fere years the long-existing and broad mental education. All aspects of an environmental conservation philosophy has finally been articulated, education program need to be weighed as to t he ir by Dr. Matt Brennan, for instance, in a definition cor'xibution towards building understanding of these that embodies a truly broad view.It states: major concepts. But environmental educators as they like to call themselveswill be making a siri- "Conservation consists in the recognition by man ous mistake II they think this is a brand new educa- of his interdependence with his environment andwith tional area. A major part of the previously produced life everywhere, and the development of a culture material, curriculum guides, handbooks, or work- which maintains that relationship through policies shop outlines that he-. e been the products and tools and practice necessary to secure the future of an en- of conservation education are applicable to the field vironment fit for life and fit for living." of environmental education. This statement is definitive, all - inclusive, and The techniques of conservation educationor en- succinct.It gives a yardstick by which to measure vironmental education II you preferembrace many resource-use or development techniques.It states classroom projects, studies, and activities; t hey clearly that we must view our totalenvironment include school ground experiments and explorations; ambler than the small pieces, as in the past.It clari- and they often involve outdoor education activities in fies the objective of resource management as being park or camp situations.But each plias,. of any such the creation not of mere dollarswhich has too long program neene to help the person build an attitude of been the objectivebut as being the, creation of an urleretanding and responsibilitypersonal, indl-eid- environment which gives us what we need to live and ual responsibilitytowards the total environto,ent also which gives us a livable place. Each phase must help him see that manevery single personis part of the environment. Brennan's definition does the job admirably, for defining conservation, or conservation education, or Some good environmental education programs are the now popular term environmental education. going on now. Many fine conservation education pro- r ams have gone on forears.The real key to suc- For years and years the broad conservation mes- cess in three efforts is not the money, not the grants, sage has been broadcast. Some people who should not the beautiful publishRmaterials, not the fancy know better say that conservation education failed, camp fac.ties, not the specially-built laboratory through faulty planning, or poor educational techniques. facilities.The key is the attitude of educational ad- their answer seems to be to kick conservation edu- ministrators and officials.If they consider conser- cation under the rug and raise the flag of environ- vation education important, it can he (and in many mental education. But in my book conservation edu- areas has been) incorporated significantly into school cation did not fail to the extent claimed; rather, it curricula without major trouble or expense.The

56 CLARK 47 attitude is indeed the key. water by gleefudy counting (and reporting to the Chamber of Commerce) the number of powerboats Today education in general is suffering from a using and fouling it; and we make burnt offerings (by diseasethe disease of judging the worth of a pro- means of the internal combustion engine) while ex- gram by the size of the grant of money obtained f o r claiming over the beauties of the Grand Canyon. We it.The major question often asked is "how large a obser ve the rituals and have the trappings of conser- grant can be obtained"; rather than "what can bt done vation, but we've lost 01,4ht of the fundamental ethi- to solve the educational problem. " There are quite cal concepts. a number of Title M ESEA (Elementary and Secondary Education Act) programs in conservation or environ- A second cause of our belief in these myths is mental education headed by individuals talented in perhaps due to the imbalance we've developed in our writing grant proposals but having little background educational system. Most people today are merely or experience in the field.I actually had one person trained, not educated.If you find a really educated write me to the effect that he had obtained a $300,000 man, you'll usually also find that probably his con- grant, and he needed ideas of how to use this. dition was acquired after he finished his formal"education. " In the main, the scientists and engineers, And then today we find some organization. Ind lawyers and doctors, educators and astronauts are agencies who with much fanfare inaugurate a NEW but highly trained and narrowly educated individuals. PROGRAM, yet are largely ignorant of the fact it They lack perception, knowledge, or often even much isn't new, and also are inexperienced indealingwith curiosity about things outside of their own special ruts. the subject as applies to school curricula. Microscopic views are the order of the day, but To make real progress in conservation or environ- we forget that the bigger the magnification,t he mental education we need to have our schools and smaller the field of vision.Look at the nature of school officials and administrators responsive to the many beginning biology courses todayeven those rising public understanding of the environmentaleri- which are terminal or general-education coursesfor sis. We need to have our college administrators and non-science studentsin which a student might end teachers get their heads out of their narrow little with the ability to draw the DNA molecule, but won't specialties and realize that educational compartmen- have much idea of how biological systems interact. talization In no longer tenable. We need to have our technical training institutions critically examine their That the narrowness and often self-defeating or objectives and curricula. Nothing in their training circular education of professional people vastly hind- programs gives their students any basis for broad ers broad resource management has been pointed ecological understanding. out many times by many people. The delusion we all suffer from is that because we are perhaps compe- Why do we find ourselves in this sad state of tent in one line, we presume to pass ourselves off as com- educational affairs? Why have we come so far so petent in othersand I most certainly include myself in blindly? this castigation. Value judgements often bear no relationship to the degree of "expertise" possessed by an First and foremost, I believe we are in this fix individual. Nowhere is this delusion of omnipotence because of several mythsmyths supported by and more dramatically or often more tragically illustrated perpetuated by not only our educational system but than in the field of civil engineering, in which merely be- by most every aspect of our society and culture. In cause the arts and technology of an engineer show him particular, we believe in the myth of endless abun- HOW to build a dam or a superhighway or an urban devel- dance of resources; we believe in the myth of the in- opment, he presumes to also know WHERE to build it fallability of science (also called the "Science is a (irrespective of other possible competitiveuses of that Sacred Cow" dogma); and we believe in the myth of land), and he seldom considers WHETHER it should be the environment having an insatiable capacity to ab- built. sorb punishment and abuse. But more deeply significant than either the confin- ing and horizon-shrinking nature of much profession- The belief in these myths in turn seems to me to al education, or the dell ication of the dollar, in explain- be the result of several things. ing our belief in those several myths, is the nature of Firstour economic philosophy, traditions, and several other aspects of our society. We forget, t o histo:-., all lead us down the rosy path. For instance, paraphrase Dr. Norman Taylor, the "... land is neu- we worship the Gross National Product, :Ind over- tral; it is the people that cause the problems." look many of the elements of the hrman condition which GNP cannot measure. We praise bigness and There is something seriously wrong in our patterns growth, irrespective of the nature of the growth or of social thought, our processes of education, and of the often destructive, stupid, or near- criminal our public sense of responsibility. A child today violation of the environment involved in achievingthe grows up and lives in such a synthetic, pre-packaged, bigness. Our measure of success is the dollar, and Teflon-coated, Dacron-padded environment that he only the dollar. has little realization of the vastly intricate man-made and natural interdependencies of which he is the bene- In The Conservation Attitude, Luna Leopold points ficiary.His knowledge of his own environment ex- out that just as many religions tend to obscure their tends only to things within his ken, and most of these ethical goals vdth rituals, temples, and prayer-sticks, are taken for granted.His knowledge of the world so in resource management and manipulation we lose outside his range of personal experience frequently sight of the ultimate goal being the meeting of the is limited to the pap delivered by the idiot box, oc- materialand spiritual needsof humans. Vitt genuflect casionally interrupted by worthwhile programs, and to large dams; we give thanks for a lovely body of always subject to the vagaries of viewer ratings. In 5 7 48 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION so many instances neither the informal education oc- that God planned all of the world explicitly for man's curring in a child's home nor the formal education benefit and rule, and western man (or industrial man, he receives in school gives him any sense of identi- if you wish) has missed the real meaning of steward- fication with the to-him-unfamiliar natural world, ship.White suggests that western religionsmust which in the final analysis is the basis of his artifi- revert to the teachings of St. Francis of Assisi to cial world. Thus he grows up knowing some things understanding of the "virtue of humility, not merely about his man-made environment, but ignorant of for the individual but for man as a species"if man the natural environment. He does not understand is to come to peaceful terms with his environment. his total environment. But can we afford to wait for a religious revival, Thus a child may grow up to become ; n engineer, or even for biological or physical science tofind slick with a sliderule but frequently not ealizing that some more answers? I doubt it.We can, however, when water runs downhill, it moves soil. Or he grad- mend our ways here and nowWe can apply what uates in law, and staunchly defends the right of a stnel'er we know, as wisely as we can, now. We can start to denude many square miles of landperhaps land that taking the responsibility implicitly associated with is the water nhed of a town. He may, if he is glib enough the freedom we have, but which too many people ig- of tongue, go into the real estate business, without nore. We can apply the scientific knowledge we have, a thought to the suitablility of a particular soil f or now, towards the solutions of environmental prob- a housing development.He'll of course always de- lems we have, now, and be willing to pay the costs mand clear, clean water out of the tap, and vote involved, now. against a bond issue to bu ild a sewage treatment plant. Perhaps this child will become avociferous hunter, We know many answers, but refuse to apply them with an image of himself as a modern-dayDanl Boone, or to bring to bear adequate social, educational, and and he will loudly claim the God-given, red-blooded, political pressures to cause them to be applied. To true-blue American right to have just as much free- do nothing about a situatior is the easiest solution dom of movement and ac':on as Boone had some two but we must not forget that doing nothing still indi- centuries agobefore game biologists and bureau- cates that a value judgement has been made, andfar crats were invented.Of course, he'll have to take too many people have made this judgement. And we along his rafrigerator, and he'll complain if there is must realize that the real costs of correcting environ- not an outlet for his electric razor in the campground mental destruction will not decrease with time, and washroom, while he lets his campfire set the woods that the problems won't go away if we close our eyes. ablaze.This child may even turn into a school board member who sees absolutely no connection between What's the answer? It's really very simple. We the tax base which supports the schools, and the quality must refocus our educational goals. No longer can of land and water management of the district. it be sufficient that our elementary schools merely Or, good grief, the man has become a college or teach the 3 R's. No longer can it be enough for our school administrator and has become so concerned high schools to emphasize specializing at an ea "ly in juggling the curriculum demands of hisfaculty age, or accelerating programs merely because edu- (most of whom are rather narrow specialists) that cat-ms have come to realize how much children can he takes no real leadership in seeing that environ- learn. No longer can colleges and universities be mental understanding is built, or a chance and chal- largely vocationally oriented. We've come to the lenge given for students to develop an ecological con- grim time in history when emery citizen must have science. a deep feeling of his own relationship to the to to 1 environment. We've come to the time when it is es- Many more examples could be given of individuals sential that a social cost of doing businessany busi- posevssing fine formai and technical backgrounds, nessis the prevention of the degradation of the en yet who are but half-educated.They know their ur- vironment. We've come to the time when educational ban and metropolitan environments. They know their officials must face the reality of the serious defici- professions and social positions.But these people ency of our present educational system in largely do not know their total environmentthat all-encom- overlooking conservation education or environmental passing environment of the man-made world plus_ education at every level of our formal educational the natural world.They are blind to the fact that structure. the former depends absolutely on the latter. Some good programs are going on. Some teach- Are there ways out of, or solutions to the environ- ers at every level do have the breadth and the attitude mental crisis? Many people believe so.While some to do the Job of environmental education. Some few ask, "Is mankind playing a game of environmental far too feweducational administrators and school Russian roulette?", others state: officials have seen the vital importance of incorporating environmental education into existing t-Laxi- Man is not defenseless against the on- culum structures, and have encouraged teachers to slaught of modern technology. Knowledge do so. gained through researchand applied (with wisdom)can enable him to deal with the Everyone has a stake in this, in one way or ma- great majority of environmental hazards. other, whether you are a teacher,an educational But he is still a long way from adequate administrator, a representative of a federal or state understanding of the intricate web of life resource agency, a lawyer, a politician, or a busi- which links plants, animals, and man. nessman. Merely by being a person and a citizen you have a deep responsibility to do all you canin Still others, such as Dr. Lynn White, explain large ways or smallto forward environmental edu- our past actions and arrogance as a species on the cation outside of as well as within the formal educa- deeply rooted concept in Christianity and Jude.iera tional structure. 58 "The role of environmental education is ready for

TOWARD COURSE CONTENT IMPROVEMEI-

Matthew J. Brennan

IF MAN is the only organism on earth which can The role of environmental education is ready for consciously manipulate, control, destroy, or pre- review. There exist toaay large numbers of examples serve his environment, then a knowledge of how he of efforts in environmental education in America. manipulates, controls, destroys, or preserves hi s These are evident in: environment, and equally important, a knowledge of the consequences of his actions in relation to his en- 1.Published materials, of which there have been vironment should be an essential element of man's several thousand, most of dubious value to the edu- understanding.It is not.Yet man, in common with cational enterprise, and generally not used (6). These all other living things, is the product of his heredity publications are often conceived and developed with- and his environment. The present environment is, out recognition of the problems faced by teachers M and the future environment will be, largely determined Instruction of a given concept within the time g iv e n by man. What man does, in turn, will be largely a over to the particular study recommended, and its consequence of his education. conetruction. 2.Teacher training programs (such as at the It is a matter of fact that envizonmental education University of Michigan). has not proven successful in aiding man to under stand his environment.If this were not true, the quality 3. Model school environmental education proof the environment would not be one of man's great- grams, as currently operating in 20 locations in the est concerns. Man must rely on his environment as nation, assisted by the Pinchot Institute for Conser- it is and as he strives to conserve it. vation Studies.

Conservation is the recognition by man of his in- 4.State Depar ment- of Education conservation terdependence with sits environment and with life curriculum development projects, such as that in op- everywhere, and the development of a culture which eration M SouthCaroli.:.a, which resulted in the publica- maintains that relationship through policiesan d tion of eight curriculum gedes (3). p7 entices necessary to secure the future of a sanative environment (2). As witnessed by public information 5.103 ESEA Title 131 programs in conservation today, the nature of man's environment is not com- and environmental education. pletely knovri, and is particularly of csestionable nature in the future These and other enterprises have possibly made some impact cm what is considered environmental ed- Many educators readily admit that past and present ucation.There are, however, several views which activities in environmental education have been sus- mustbe taken of the role of environmental education pect in their effectiveness and efficiency for aiding in America. man to maintain a sanative environment. Too often in the past decade, attempts at educational change We need a study that will establish the role of ed- have been exercised without a perspective of the role ucation in the development of man's understanding of of education In society.The recent curricular organ- his environment. Such astudy will establish relation- izations in science seem to be becoming suspect and ships among man, environment, and education, as seem to bc, losing acceptance in the oducational enter- they were exercised in the past, are now, and will prise. potentially be in the future.The need for such a

Dr. Brennan is Director, The Pinchot Institute for Conservation Studies, Milford, Pennsylvagia. 596 50 ENVIRONME1 'AL EDUCATION study has an essential urgency as prescribed by the 2. Brandwein, Paul F., in Future Environments of seemingly inefficient environmental education of the North America, (New York: Natural History Press, present, and the deteriorating quality of the environ- 1966), p. 630. ment. The American Association of School Adminis- trators, N. E. A. ,has devoted two of its yearbooks to this urgency (4,5). As stated in the foreword of 3. Brennan, Matthew J.ed.,People and T he ir Conservation-in tne People's Hands (5), the A.A.S. A. Environment-Teacher's Curriculum Guides t o said, "The manner in whLzh this responsibility ( con- Conservation Education, Grades 1-12, (Chicago: servation) is met depends in great measure upon a J. G. Ferguson Publishing Co. (Doubleday), 1969.) broadly conceived educational program that reaches all the people." 4. Conservation Education in American S c ho ol s_, The recent White House Conference on Natural (Washington, D.C.: American Association o f Beauty (1) emphasized the encompassing nature of Scl.)ol Administrators, 1951). the newer view of conservation as pervasive in the life of modern man. This newer mood and mode of conservation needs careful analysis and review. The 5.Conservation-in the People's Hands, (Washington, development of curricular snd instructional programs D.C.: American Association of School Adminis- should not proceed without it. trators, 1964). REFERENCES 6. Johnson, Carl S., and Bambach, Charles A. , 1.Beauty for America (Washington, D. C.: Proceed- A Survey of Printed Materials for Conservation ings of the White House Conference on Natural Education. (Columbus, Ohio: Cooperative R e - Beauty, May 24-25, 1985). sePseb Project No, 2213 The Ohio State Uni..sity).

60, "Conservation is shifting from natural science theory to social science practice."

CONSERVATION IN TRANSITION

Ruben L. Parson

TO GEOGRAPHERS in general, and to resource a more complete foundation. As a Geographer I salute geographers in particular, Outdoor Education is the Outdoor Educator neither new nor startling.Geographers of my vintage ha a been preoccupied with the outdoor approach As a Resource Geographer I am less enthusiastic, since they began their professional training, and, because I fear that Outdoor Educators may be going hopefully, throughout their professional careers. As out on a limb soon to be sawed off.I am referring students, some 30 years ago, their ears fairly vibrat- here to their bold venture into the realm of Resource ed to such tunes as "natural environment, "' environ- Management. Here 1 fear they may be overextending m e ntal determinism,""regional "region composites," themselves. I am aware that various and sundry have "natural-cultural re _ationships," "place attributes, " got astride Conservation as a convenient horse to "human response to natural conditions, "in keys ride; but I can also predict that some will fall off and both major and minor, Intones both harmonious and be trod upon. Outdoor Education will be badly bruised discordant. They spoke glibly about natural controls unless it revises its precepts to accommodate Social and human adaptations. They summarized the natural Sciences as the prime moversof conservation. This earth otenomena in.arent in a given area and inter- done, it will have approached the central idea in Ge- preted human cultural attainment in relation to those ography the integration of enviror mental and cultur- phenomena. There were those who spoke and wrote al phenomena. geography under the label "hu'nan ecology. " Why this admonition? Because Conservation is Then came a "ref ormatice," that greatly discounted sure ly in transition.It is shifting from Natural environmental determinism in geographic thought; Science theory to Social Science practicea depart- whilst, at the very same time human ecology became ure long overdue.It is changing alignment much as a discipline quite independent of geography.Ideas Pedology changed when it shifted from Geology to once compatible have no become discordant: geog- Agriculture. And unless the Outdoor Educator ad- raphers disdain their old-fashioned determinism as justs accordingly, he will be propounding the obso- something almost profane; human ecologists, mean- lete, much as the human ecologists who remain s while, venerate t he idea of human conformance to adamant about environmental determinism. nature as a basic precept.The younger discipline, human ecology, innocently promulgatos profundities The abandon with which so-called "Outdoor Con- long since discredited by the older discipline, geog- servation Education" has been hitched onto elemen- raphy, which fostered them initially. Communication tary nature study reminds me of the spiritual, "Glory is obviously lacking! Road," made famous by Lawrence Tibbett several yoars ago.It seems that everyone got on the 1 o ng I have used this oblique approach for a purpose: horse, and he swept them all into the sky to glory before I end this short epistle I shall caution m y free of bridle and reins. We assume that the believers friends, the Outdoor Educators, about certain trends arrived safely without a driver. in their philosophy that may require modification. Conservation ( Resource Management )needs Certainly geographers would applaud Outdoor Edu- drivers-- leader ship ; but sue h leadership is certainly cation such as I have observed. Field study of natural not generated by elementary nature study, whatever environmental attributes, and particularly of the inter- the label it bears. Nor should nature study be warped action of atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and to accommodate this superficial conservation "caper." biosphere must ever be fundamental to Physical Ge- Its special kind of nature study has given Outdoor ography. And, when we relate these f acts and concepts Education the status and promise it now holds.Its to man and his culture, we have the scope of Geography prestige and woefulness might be better enhanced by in general.All kinds of nature study contribute to a refinement than by spreading and diluting. foundation on which to build geographic knowledge; the unique virtue of Outdoor Education (as I envision Can it be that Outdoor Education, while still young it) is that it integrates the components, and thus lays and immature, has come to a philosophical c .ossroad?

Professor Parson is Chairman, Geography Department, St. Cloud State College, Minnesota.This article first appeared in the Fall, 1968, Journal of Outdoor Education, under another title. 52 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION Has it so completely accomplished its original pur- vation, soe that you also incorporate the social pose that it can now assume new objectives? Can it scienceseconomics, demography, sociology, po- enlarge its scope without commensurate expansion of litical science, etc.3.Study and teach the natural concept? Can it preserve its identity despite a vast attributes asyou did before; then relate themto man's expansion of compass, incorporating social sciences culture and his progressive development of resource with the natural? Is its identity worth retaining? management.4.Finally, integrate the natural with These are questions demanding answersfrom edu- the cultural.Analyze, describe, interpret, predict, cators and the public alike. and direct the course of events generated by natural resources and their manipulation. Now, if you can If one of my colleagues in Outdoor Education were preside over this operation, you will be practicing to ask my opinion, I would without hesitation offer geographic synthesis as an integral part of Outdoor him these friendly suggestions:1.Do not corrupt Education.Personally, I believe you have a profes- the integrated nature study for which Outdoor Educa- sional obligation to incorporate it and then to se e tion was conceived.2.If you must embrace conser- that it is adequately accommodated. "Producing a citizenry that is knowledgeable conr'rning the biophysical environment and its associated problems, aware of how to help solve these problems, and motivated to work toward their solution."

THE CONCEPT OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

William B. Stapp, et. al.

WITHIN THE past 50 years, the United State s bility for their solution rests, to a large extent, has become a predominately urban nation, both in with citizens. thought arri in physical character.Large and middle- sized communities, many within complex urban re- To an increasing extent citizens are being asked gions, have evolved to where over 70 percent of this to make decisions that affect (directly and indirectly) country's population resides on one and one-half per- their environment.Specifically, citizens make cent of the nation's land surface.By 1980, eight these decisions as they cast vote s on community out of ten Americans will probably live in an urban issues; as they elect representatives to policy-making environment.Consequently, the independent rural- bodies; as they directly act upcn the environment oriented living that once characterized this country's itself.Citizens can be effective in influencing sound social and political heritage is no longer a dominat- policy in other ways.They can ask informed ques- ing influence in the lives of most Americans. tions, at the proper time, of the right people.They can serve on advisory and policy-making committees. They can support sound legislation directed at resolv- In rural surroundings, direct daily contact with ing environmental problems. To perform these tasks the basic natural resources was prevalent, especially effectively, it is vital t hat the citizenry be know- within man's immediate environmentAs man be- ledgeable concerning their biophysical environment came progressively urbanized, his intimate associ- and associated problems, aware of how they can ation and interaction with natural resources dimin- help solve these problems, and motivated to work ished and with it his awareness of his dependency .toward effective solutions. on them.Yet, it is imperative that man, whe7ever he lives, comprehend that his welfare is dependent Most current programs in conservation education upon the proper management and use of those are oriented primarily to basic resources; they do resources. not focus on community environment and its associated problems.Furthermore, few programs empha- Man should also have an awareness and under- size the role of the citizen in working, both individu- standing of his community and its associated prob- ally and collectively, toward the solution of problems lems. Our communities are being plaguedwith prob- that affect our well being.There is a vital need for lems such as: lack of comprehensive environmental an educational approach that effectively educate planning; indiscriminate use of pesticides; commun- man regarding his relationship to the total environ- ity blight; air and water pollution; traffic congestion; ment. and the lack of institutional arrangements needed to cope effectively with environmental problems. While The Supreme Court decision regarding the one- these problems are legitimate concerns of commun- man, one-vote concept, is enabling the increasing ity governmental officials and planners, the responsi- urban majority to acquire greater powers in decision-

The definition and major objectives of environmental education presented in this paper were developed in a graduate seminar in the Department of Resource Planning and Conservation, School of Natural Resources, The University of Michigan. The members of the seminar were: Mr. Dean Bennett, Mr. William Bryan, Jr., Mr. Jerome Fulton, Miss Jean Mac Gregor, Mr. Paul Nowak, Mr. James Swan, Mr. Robert Wall, and Professore Spenser Havlick and William B. Stapp. 54 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION making, makes it imperative that programs developed interrelationships, and their present and potential for urbanites be designed with them in mind.It is uses.Natural resources serve man in many ways, impoftant to assist each individual, whether urban- whether in a relatively undisturbed condition or in ite or ruralite, to obtain a fuller understanding of the the highly altered utilitarian forms of the man-made environment, problems that coofront it, the inter- biophysical environment. A strong understanding of relationship between the community And surrounding how these resources are used requires knowledge land, and opportunities for the individual to be effec- of the social, political, economic,technological tive in working toward the solution of environmental processes, institutional arrangements, and aesthe- problems. tic considerations which govern their utilization. The man-made components of the biophysical environment results from man's use of natural r e - This new approach, designed to reach citizens sources. An understanding of this aspect is also of all ages, is called "environmental education. essential:it should ideally include familiarity with We define it in this way u-ban and rural design, including transportation systems, spatial patterns of development, and aesthetic Environmental education is aimed at producing a qualities v Mch have a major impact on the functioning citizenry that is knowledgeable concerning the bio- of society.Fundamental to these understandings physical environment and its associated problems, should be the realization that the development of the aware of how to help solve these problems, and mo- man-made environment should strive for a high quali- tivated to work toward their solution. ty system which improves human welfare in relation to the natural environment. The major objectives of environmental education are to help individuals acquire: v.A fundamental understanding of the biophysical environmental problems confronting man, how these 1.A clear understanding that man is an insepar- problems can be solved, and the responsibility of able part of a system, consisting of man, culture, citizens and government to work toward their solution. and the biop_hysical environment, and that man has the ability to alter the interrelationships oft h is Biophysical environmental nroblems result from ayste n.. the interractions between man, culture, andthe biophysical environment.Pollution, the inefficient The principal feature of the philosophy of environ- utilization and management of naturalresources, mental education is that man is an integral part of the indiscriminate use of pesticides, urban blight, a system from which he cannot be separated. Spe- and transportation congestion are just a few bio- cifically, this system consists of three components, physical environmental problems. These problems, man, culture, and the biophysical environment. Cul- caused 1.5, a complex set of biological, physi,A, and ture, in this context, incorporates organizational social factors, affect the total environmental system. strategies, technological processes, and social arrangements (political, I-gal, managerial, education- Citizens need to understand how to work toward al, etc.) through which man interacts with the bio- solutions of biophysical environmental problems physical environment.The biophysical environment through laws, public policies, planning, resource designates both the natural and man-made components management, research, technological developments, of the environment. and institutional arrangements. The fundamental relationship between the integral Citizens should realize that the responsibility parts of the system is man's interaction through for solutions to these problems belongs to them and culture on the biophysical environment to produce the governments which represent them. or obtain the goods and services that he needs. Within the system, man has the ability either to 4.Attitudes of concern for the quality of the bio- strengthen, weaken, or maintain the interrelation- physical environment which will motivate citizens ship between the system's major components. The to participate in biophysical environmental problem- ultimate goal of environmental education is the de- solving. velopment and maintenance of a high quality system in which man interacts through culture on the bio- The word "attitude" used in this context implies physical environment to advance human welfare. more than simply the knowledge of a body of factual information.Instead, it implies a combination of factual knowledge and motivating emotional concern 2. A broad understanding of the biophysical en- which result in a tendency to act.Further, it is vironment, both natural and man-made, and its understood that clusters of attitudes about similar role in contemporary society. environmental conditions will motivate individuals to express their attitudes.Therefore, for environ- The existence of any civilization is dependent up- mental education to achieve its greatest impact, it on man's use of natural resources. Resources are must:1)provide factual information which will lead defined as those parts of the biophysical environment to understanding of the total biophysical environment; which are appraised by man as being immediately or 2) develop a concern for environmental quality which potentially useful to him. will motivate citizens to work toward solutions to biophysical environmental problems; and 3) inform A basic understanding of natural resources ideally citizens as to how they can play an effective role in includes their chara.cter`stics, distribution, status, achieving the goals derived from their attitudes.

64 "'Conservation' has lost its real significance. We need a new name, a larg,..r base, to accommodate the magnitude of the need."

TOWARD A CURRICULUM IN ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

Douglas C. covert

ECOLOGISTS, conservationists, educator s The efforts to promote a sense of responsibility sociologists and economists are gradually coming in the American people toward their environment has to a full realization of the enormity of man's impact come from those engaged in Conservation Education. on his environment.Man's disruptive influence on Unfortunately, t he word conservation has come lo biological ecology, his economic demands and his haverather narrow meaning.In the minds of most ability to engineer his surroundings are forcing upon it signifies special use of resources rather than the us a gigantic sociological problem with which we are broader "wise use" concept. It has a rmal connota- not prepared to cope--either technologically or philo- tion, and a relation to water and air pollation, van- sophically.It is time for a new and vital educational ishing wilderness and vanishing species, hunters and approach to the ramifications of man's interaction fishermen, Audubon Societies, and the National with his environment. Geographic , and so on. Conservation has lo st its rerti significance. We need a new name for a larger There has been a small, but strong movement in base to accommodate the magnitude of the neel.It is this country toward the development and protection time to abandon Conservation Education, as we know it, of what has been termed quality in our environment. in favor of Environmental Education.This is not a The concepts of this movement have encompassed radically disruptive alteration, oat rather an adjust- more than the biological and physical characteristics ment to our changing needs.It is abroader outlook of the land - -they have been extended to include, among deriving from the interrelationships bet we en others, the social, economic, cultural and tsthetic resources and sociology. Conservation education factors. The aim has been stated in the broad terms must become more comprehensive in its content and of "conservation and developraent"of environmental in its effect on the total population. quality.But, what is environmental quality? And who is to set the standards of quality control? And how Several decades of effort in conservation educa- are we to deter mine when today's standards of quality tion have produced a didactic instructional pattern have become outmoded? In other words, Who is to with emphasis on natural resources and their wise be the judge of quality in our environment? use. But, the present basis of relating academic study of natural science to a limited natural ecology without considering man's influence, and the restric- Our surroundings are a dynamic andfinite contin- ted use of an "outdoor laboratory" is no longer uum of naturalforces. The human population is only adequate. The total environment of man and all the one of those forces.Yet the human population has impinging factors of interaction are of far greater the capacity for the greatest impact. In any attempt significance.The limited approach of the past and to protect and develop quality in our environment, we present rural orientation to resource use, and the must consider man's needs, his desires, and his outdoor biology - ecology laboratory as presently characteristics, not from the standpoint of any indi- employed have a small meaning for today's needs. vidual or group, but as an interaction of the total population. Suck a philosophicalapproachlies more Most efforts in conservation education place em- within the realm of sociology than resource manage- phasis on a special aspect or orientation: on natural ment, yet it is the resource managers and conserva- sciene) ecology; on water pollution, air pollution, tionists who have been most directly involved at this pesticides and so or; al careers related to natural interaction and have been, consequently, the strong- resources and their use; on "a state of harmony be- est advocates of environmental quality. tween men and land." The urban citizen, on the

Mr. Covert is Programs Administrator, Educational Media, Inc., Detroit.

65 56 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION other hand, is just as concerned and more directly well serve the rural student who is now feeling the involved with conservation in his ow: environment impact of urban pressure and may well become a population shifts, traffic congestion ard Eke decay of part of it. cities.These aspects of the total environment a r e just ar important to man as forestry and agriculture. With a developed and tested program, we have the We can no longer be satisfied with .'tie "outdoorsy" opportunity for teacher training. Effective methods orientation of conservation education.. We must face have already becn used in other subject area 3.I n the changing nature of our population--the fact that, addition to training incolleges of education, teacher by 1980, eight out of ten Americans will be in workshops and in-service training programs have the cities, and that the pressure of leisure has and proved themselves as efficient techniques for imple- will continue to change the nature of our outdoor rec- mentation. Continuing in-service program s aid reation.Today's effort must be directed at an ad- teachers in acquiring competence.With valid and justment of attitude if we are to implement our re- useful tools for both teucher training and classroom sponsibility to people and to the natural systems of use, wP can readily incorporate environmental edu- which we ...re a part.The goals must be broad: cit- cation in existing curricula for an integrated total izenship--an environmental awareness--a conserva- experierce. tion conscience--a sound sociological philosophy. The resPlt must be a reasonable and realistic attitude ThL present absen'e of an organized program of of the American people toward their environment. instruction has prevented the inclusion of tine necessary environmental education in elementary and sec- The urgency is apparent and we must P.... let our- ondary school curricula. Therefore, it is proposed selves be discouraged by the false assumption that that an integrated, interdisciplinary, instructional the task of conversion from the present method i s program be developed in environmental education, enormous.Many subjects of the elementary and designed to promote an environmental awareness and secondary school program have been and are being a sociological attitude. revised--mathematics, science, and social studies are obvious examples. With development and ix oof The basic purposes of such a program are twofold: of these programs, implementation comes swiftly. to provide information as a basis for intelligent action It can be even easier and quicker to convert fro m and a recognition of consequences; and to promote today's conservation education to an expanded and perception of the problems and ramifications of man's vital prograra of Environmental Education. A f wor- impact on his environment and the ability of man and able climate already exists. AU that is missing is the natural system to adjust to the consequences of a specific and effective program and the tools for the interaction. implementation. Today's narrow approach to natural science ecology How would an effective program in environmental and to the economics of use of our natural resources education be implementcui? By the development of can not begin to meet the need for intelligent recog- an integrated, interdisciplinary and modular cu..rit.u- nition of consequences and consideration of alterna- lum, flexible and adaptable to meet, primarily, the tives. There is the utmost urgency to establish a needs ofran children and adults, large city or national environmental awareness and a sound socio- small town, with the emphasis on the total environ- logical attitude toward the total environment. W e ment. Such a program would have an inherent ca- need a new cultural orientation to man's interdepend- pac ity for teacher modif icatinito meet specific needs mce with his environment, a positive program to de- without destroying the validity of the total program. velop an attitude of responsibility, an academie com- This program would be oriented primarily to the mitment to an all-encompassing andvital .urriculum needs of the majority of our population but would also in environmental education.

66. "Education must present ct ,,,nervation as realistic, practical. and farsighted public policy worthy of concern by on informed electorate."

VITALIZING NATURAL RESOURCES EDUCATION

Beverly H. ',:outhern

THERE exists in the United States and in the work', drcn to a particular cur riculum structure. Communica- a grave and subtle conservation cnallenge one that tion or meaning flowing between the education agent (e.g., has implications for the prosperity and even survi% al teacher or community, through vicarious or (tirect ex- of mankind. The challenge is that of an exploding perience) and the child is a critical f actor i- determining population, a shrinking allotment of space per person, whethe* natur al resour ces education takes place. the inevitable conflict of apportioning available space, There appears to be little doubt that the responsi- and how to make natural resources available to all bility for develoning informed and aroused citizens while yet prese: ving environmental quality. who will take an active role in local, state, national, and international resource issues lies with the schools. The challenge to education cannot be denied. Accord- It is also true that, In addition to transmitting the ing to former Secretary of the Interior Udall, "the con- cultural heritage, "schools have cume increasingly cert of conservation cannot be isolated on little islands to accept such purposes as(a) helping citizens to of awareness. It must become universally accepted as become more fully aware of the problems of society a familiar, taken-for-granted part of everyday 1 if and (b)studying those problems with the view of Only thus can the 'golden days balance' we now enjoy improving the conditions for living, and ways of liv- be preserved" (4). In meeting this challenge, educa- ing" (I). This point of view undoubtedly led the 1948 tion must present conservation as realistic, practical, Yearbook Committee of the Association for Super- and f arsighted public policy worthy of concern by an in- vision and Curriculum Developtic nt to state that: ".. . formed electorate. The apramach must be broad-based the school is obligated to make the facts of resources and relevantboth rura' and particularly urban suc le- known; to snake the possible choices and consequences ties. It must truly be environmental education the clear; and to guide individuals to establiz.1 sets of study of man in relation to his environment. values which will balance immediate gain agair st future need and private riches against social good(2). Conservation education, or Natural Resources Edu- It is important, an d may soon become critical, cation, as his here conceived, is essentially education that Americans become apprised of resource prob- for attitudes. It would develop in the child a social con- lems and their remedies.It is even more important sc lonce in respect to the environment. Social con- that they understand the requirements for quality science implies particular attitudes toward environ- environment.Man has accelerated environmental ment. The attitudes and values determined to be the change to the extent that he has It In his power to take most desirable outcomes of Natural Resources Educa- a course of action toward resources and populations tion are respeatfor, identification -dfli, and responsi- which will force future human beings to live at a mere bility toward the total environment. "Respect" may be subsistence level, if they survive at all.The choice expreseld by the attitude that all f ving things have the is his--"if eachof us fails to help in building the kind right to exist. It might also take the form of a cautious of world that he wants to live in he may find too late approach when dealing with natura1 "Re spo n s i- t hat the'brave new world' that someone else has bility" may be expressed in individual or collective created has no place in it for him" (3). terms and would probably appear in both forms. For The demand for educational change to meet envi- the individual it means management of the resources ronmental change cannot be ignored; the charge for with which he comes in contact. Collectively, it means exercising the vote to maintain, preserve, and public education is clear. create resources. REFERENCES 1.American Association of School Administraloa s, As more people become producers of services o r Conservation Education in American Schools, deal with resource s secondarily, fewer have the oppor- American Association of School Administrators, tunity for meaningful contact with the land. A feeling of Washington, D.C., 1951, p. 82. alienation, or lack of purpose may be the result. People 2.Association for Supervision and Curriculum De- must be reunaed, must "identify" with the natural envi- velopment of the National Education Association, ronment if they are to recognize its inherent value. Large Was Our Bounty: Natural Resources and Itis proposed herein that if the child acquires particu- t he Schools, National Education Association, lar broad environmental understandings (knowledge) he Washington, D.C. ,1948, p. 7. will develop a social conscience (attitudes) that will af- 3. Dasmann, Raymond F., EnvironmentalConservation, fect his behavior (actions) toward the total environment. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1984, pp. 2-3. 4.United States Department of the Interior, Quest Knowledge, respect, responsibility, identification, for Quality, United States Department of the In- and action are not the automatic result of exposing chit- terior, Washington, D.C., 1985, p. 8. Mrs. Southern is Director of the Natural Resources Education-Demonstration Center, Title III, ESEA, De Kalb County, Genoa, Minols. "Desperately neededisinterdisciplinaryresearchonthedevelopment ofenvironmental educationcurriculaand methodology."

A SYSTEMS APPROACH TOWARD ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

J. Y. Wang

IN AN ARTICLE eutitled "A Rational Ap- total env tronmental science which strives to pre serve proach to Clarification of Environmental Sciences" and improve tla overall life-supp,rting systems. (3), the author has defined a total environmental science as "the horizontal science which considers all These concepts or criteria are universally a7pli- conceivable and/or measurable components affecting cable to logical subdivisions, namely: environmen- mar. as an individual and his society as a w hole . tal research, education, and service in natural and These components may be broadly classified as the mar. -made environments. Of these three, research, both basic and applied, contributes to a bette r tmde r- Physical. (energy, air, water, and land) standing, interpretation, and integration of all fac- Biological (plant, animal, microbe, and man as tors in an environmental system, supplying this fun- a biologtial body) dame:. 'I knot ;ledge and information to environmental Socioeconomic (society', polities, economics, and sciences. Education trains future research workers, law) teachers, practitioners, and citizenry. Se r vi ce Benavioral (conceptual and perceptual processes provides instrumentation for the communication of of man and animals as a result of physical, bio- environmental information among decision-makers, logical, and socioeconomic environments) scientists, professors, s t ude ntsindustrialists, businessmen, avd citizens.This includes consult- The interaction and interdependence of these compo ant services offered to the public on both technolog- nents and factors thereof are basic and logistic con- ical and social issues. An environmental se r vi ce siderations to all theories and practices of total en- administration may be considered as a clearinghouse vironmental science." and a data disseminating center as well. According to the definition above, some basic con- This article will stress the development of a total cepts of total environmental science are in order: environmental education system through the cooperation of interdisciplinary scientists and educators. 1.a new science which is non-existent by itself, It must be understood that although some environ- integrated through a group of interdisciplines mental problems require immediate attention, it is emphasizing the interaction and interdepend- not, of course, the function of an educational system ence of man and his environment; to initiate action in solving the problems. Instead, however, the educational system should provide the 2.an applied and interdisciplinary science rather student with adequate knowledge for alleviating such than a basic and multidisciplinary one; conditions. 3. a problem-oriented science with its final goal ENVIEONMENTAL EDUCATION as the. establishment of problem-solving techniques; Undoubtedly the complications of such an educational system are tremendous. For clarification, 4.a human-centered science and therefore hu- first of all, it will be necessary to classify a total man values in such senses as one's dignity, environmental science with respect to the problem birth right, aesthetics, quality of life, and areas and the processes involved. These will bepro- survival, are the most fundamentalf all uided in Tables 1 and 2.Secondly, it will be essen- considerations. tial to demonstrate the implementation of a total environmental education system. This is illustrated Such factors as the motivation and change of atti- in the four-dimensional matrix shown 1 n Figure 1. tudes of individuals and groups, as well as social Obviously, this matrix can only serve as a frame of ethics are therefore of paramount importance to reference or a guideline for the future development

Dr. Wang is Director of the Environmental Sciences Institute, 125 South Seventh Street, San Jose, California.

68t: WANG 59 TABLE 1 C !ABM:F.1C ATION OF PROBLEM AREAS ACCORDING TO ENVIRONMENTS

Environment-Component Environment Sampler) Natural Hazards Man-Made Hazards

Solar Energy, Geotherme LIRadioactive Radiction, Noise Hydraulic Power Pollution (Thunder), Lightning IISonic Boom, Industrial Radioactive rENEPOYSPHERE Nuclear Paver Glare Emission, Thermal Pollution, Household Fossil Endrgy Electronic Equipment Radiation Illiackground Pollution, Hurricane, Tornado, Dust Devil, and Other Atmosphere Air Pollution Severe Storms, Wind Erosion, Sea Spray

Tsunami, Blizzards, Flood, rGEOSPHERE Hydrosphere Water Pollution (Oil Pollution) Drought, Water Erosion

Earthquake, Volcanic Eruption, Lithosphere Slide, Soil Compaction, Soil Land Pollution (Scenic Pollution) (Pedosphere) Erosion, Frost Mound

Monica' and Biological Inzfare (IBM), iPlants Thermal Damage (Freezing and Overpopulation, Phytotc,catien, Disease Animas Excess Heating), Mechanical Disability, Bioci!ce (Pesticide, Fertilizer IBIOSPHERE Bacteria tsa.ge, Biological Decay, Spray), Famine, Natritional Deficiency Viruses Pestilence, Forest and Brush Fungi inn Disease, liability

Group Behavior Civil and International Warfare (Riocs, Pattern (Family Campus Unrest, Border Strife, World War), and Individual) Drug and Alcohol Abuse, Mental Health Socioeconomical Inflation, Recession, Depression Behavior 'Physical Limitations (later, Civil L'ieobedience, Social Disorders SOC10SPHERE Legal Restvintions ;Abln Land, and Natal al (Racial and Religious Prejudice), Vtolenc source Deficiencies Urban Environment Traffic Congestion, Accidents, Urban Sprawl, Indoor Pollution, Waste Disposal Political RmindWries (Solid and Fluid) Rural Environment

TABLE 2 EXAMPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMBALANCES

Environment Natural Hazards Man-Made Hazards

-Excess electromagnetic waves (Thunder, lightning -Shock (eccoustic) waves (Noise pollution) glare , magnetic disturbance) ENERGYSPHERE. -Crustal forces imbalance (Earthquake) -Excess industrial heating on water (Thermal -Fluid pressure imbalance (Volcanic eruption) pollution) -Radioactive pollution

-Atmospheric pressure imbalance (severe storm) -ExCese airborne chemicals (Air pollution) -Seismic seawsves (Tsunami) -Excess chemical and biological materials -Precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration, (water pollution) GEOSPKERE: runoff and percolation to the extreme -Excess oil in water (Oil pollution) (Flood) - Excess fertiliser and waSte deposits (Land -Evaporation exceeds precipitation to the pollution) extreme (Drought) -Irrigation salt deposition (Farm land pollution)

-Heat deficiency (Freezing damage to biosphere/ -High birth rate, low mortality rate, and -Excess heat (Foaled insufficient occupant space (Famine and -Lightning ignition (Forest and brush fire) urban sprawl) BIOSPHERE( -Pestilence (Vegetation damage and destruction -Imbalance of nature (Extinction of species) and epidemics) -Excess biocides (Health hazard) -Drug and vaccine accidents - Physical limitations of earth (Shortage of - Overpopulation, racial strife, herd behavior land, water, and other resources) (Warfare) -Excess vehicle' (Congestion, accidents, and SOCIOSPHERE, sir pollution) -Urbanization (Alienation and social disorders) -Poverty (Unemployment, hunger,andsocial disorders)

69 60 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

0 FIGURE I. ENVIRONMENTAL MODEL FOR HIGHER EDUCATION Enginar

Doelorof

Masters Ef BOCColaureote

Vacotiona t."060 Students 9, *a

Instructors 6.1351111111 121--1 ";0- Behorictal Research SOCI011(0110,11i Workers 1111 O.'Physiew Adminis,rators " a0.0*,o,'," 9

of such an education system. Owing to its greater environment according to both natural and man-made complexity, this system will require yerrs of re- processes related to these problem areas i s illus- search and experience (service) for its initial estab- trated in Table 2. lishment. As the concepts and understanding of man and his environment are constantly revised and re- In any educational system, an information input evaluated, so too must the educational system adapt of human environment components (physical, biolog- to thee, changes accordingly. ical, socioeconomic, and behavioral) is processed and transformed into useful form through the educa- As shown in Table 1, the problem areas, both tional components (administrators, research work- natural and man-made, are classified in accordance ers, instructors, and students).It mvst be noted with the four major types of hum an environment: that the input is integrated environmental informa- physical (geosphere and energy), biological (bio- tion r environmental curriculum. The term "cur- sphere and energy), sociological (sociosphere and rica_Jm" here designates more than merely an out- energy) and energy (energy sphere and the ot he r line of a course or a textbook se; it enco_apasses three types of environment). Imbalances of nature a constant flow of up-dated research findings, field and/or urban society are the sourcesof eavirmimen- performance, and laboratory experiments. An out- tal problems. Needless to say, of course, unde r put which represents all major activities of the indi- certain conditions those "natural hazards" listed in vidual may include career, voluntary work, leisure Table 1 may be beneficial, such as a brush fire in a time, and peer group activities.The output itself Sequoia forest which may facilitate regeneration. may be divided into two groups: career- and non- Once an environmental problem arises, however, it career-oriented activities.The latter may be fur- may well produce a series of related problems in a ther divided into an infinite number of acti% .ies, chain-reaction manner. depending upon the scope of the individual.Hence, the output activities shown in Figure 1 merely rep- Overpopulation in a city caucrls "urban sprawl" resent an arbitrary illustration. which is an environmental prob.,em. As overpopulation persists, urban crime, pollution, traffic con- This educational system may be conveniently de- gestion, and the like follow.When overpopulation scribed by t he 3-dimensional matrix f or higher spreads over a large geographical or poililrnlregion, education which is illustrated in Figure 1.The in- it inevitably results in famine, infirmity, disease, put (or subject matter) enters the matrix on one side and death. An imbalance of energy may cause si.ch of the educational system cube element, and pro- environmental problems as thermal, noise, and ra- cessing ( or decision- making) enters on the other side dioactive pollution.The classification of the human of the cube. The output, which may only be deter- 70 WANG st mined by close cooperation, may be measured through 1.The concepts or criteria mentioned above individual reports, subjective evaluations, andobjec- must be agreed upon by those concerned with the five surveys.It is obvious that an integratedproce- environment. dure exists among the four components of each of the 2. The procedures, as described in our 4-dimen- first two mairices. The result of the interrelationships sional matrix, must be followed in order to render among the components of the first matrix is the inte- environmental education workable as well as effective. grated know'edge or information of the input. Th e cooperation and interaction among administrators, 3.Regarding environmental educational institu- research workers, instructors, and students are the t ions, the Office of Science and Technology (2) has products of the process. issued two significant recommendations: " (a) Variations are to be expected from the output owing substantial or complete control of faculty reward to individual differences in interest, age, mentality, structure and (b) freedom to be innovaive in in- social sect, religion, etc. This 3-dimensional troducing course material, educationaiprograms, matrix cube element, which may be considered as a work study programs, and curriculum require- model, should be treated further with a TIME factor, ments for degrees." These arose from the grow- or the fourth dimension.Since the human environ- ing frustrations of environmental scientists over ment is subject to change, the projection of short- or lack of funding and short-lived programs. long-term effects for the three-dimensional matrix 4.The preparation of course material involving must be considered. While a short term may be des- new textbooks should be specified for general as ignated as 3 to 5 years, a long term may range from as technical courses. A highly technical 10 to 30 years.Of course, these figures depend sole- course such as cybernetics, for example, when ly upon the problem to be solved and are flexible. The applied to environmental sciences, should be of- question isdoes the present model meet future re- fered to graduate students in the areas of bio- quirements? A projection must therefore be accom- engineering and opera' onal analysis. Ageneral en- panied by a "feedback" process which will eventually vironmental sciences course offered to high school change the original model. The broad and general students should stress overall environmental prob- procedures have been considered thus far; however, lems in a qualitative manner which is informative details must be worked out to fulfill requirements of and comprehensive, yet nontechnical. the "real world" situation.The latter will undoubtedly involve race, reDgion, social ethics, regional 5.Evaluation of the environmental education sys- problems, and many other complicated factors. tem should be made in sequences of input-process- feedback-output.Here the input refers tct he The 5-years' projection will generate a new model background education and mental capabilities of in which the expansions of the first two matrices are the student. The process involves the teaching self-explanatory.The expansion of the third matrix, methods, learning environment, audio-v is ua 1 on the other hand, may require additional elaboration: aid techniques, and the like.The feedback system designates the responses of subjects (e.g. students or community audiences) to the designed Career ape process(es). Henceforth, continual modification of the original design will be possible.The out- Engineer Designing of instruments or equip- put will be the contribution and performance of ment (hardware or software) for en- graduates. fk vironmental data acquisition 6.Finally, environmental research and service Producer andProduction of goods for the better- should be implemented alongside the overall ed- Manufachaerment of the P.alronment ucational programs in order to innovate the system.In fact, any improvement in educational Teacher Teaching of environmental courses systems requires both basic and applied research at any educational level (including in environmental science. On the other hand, citizenry) service of any kind will offer practical e xpe rience and better communication to the educators Physician Medical researcher concerned with and students alike.It will narrow the gaps among effects of environmental pollution on all groups. humar Traditionally courses offered in conservation ed- The above listing of careers, merely an illustration, ucation, natural resources education, outdoor edu- is far from sufficient.Obviously, it can be expanded cation, ecology, agriculture, environmental health, into many other areas. and the like have emphasized specific phases of the environmental problems area. Although tremendous REVOLUTIONARY APPROACH achievements have been made, many improvements are being suggested (1, 2).With the exception of en- The present higher educational system has been vironmental health, almost allof the courses offered inherited with its more or less artificial boundaries are restricted to the rural areas.It is estimated, between one discipline and another; whereas in the however, that by 1980, about 80 percent of the pop- natural and social environment such boundaries are ulation of the United States will be concentrated in irrelevant or non-existent.In order to avoid these urban areas. boundary restrictions revolutionary steps must be taken by all who are concerned and/or involvedin en- Schoenfeld ( 1) has contrasted yesterday's conserva- viror.mental education.The following steps are rection education with todayls environmental education. 011,u:tended: His listings may be reclassified and modified as follows: 62 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

CATEGORIES CONTRASTS pA Goals Classical education on all levels Citizen education in addition Unilateral solutions Open-ended options Elementary education Adult education Methods of Approach Biophysical sciences Social studies Evangelical Ecological Gospel of efficiency Quest for quality Printed media All media Hunch Res-:arch Business as usual Sense of urgency Regional Coverage Local Global Rural Urban Terrestrial Universal Disciplinary Boundaries Artificial Natural Multidisciplinary Interdisciplinary Compartmentalized Comprehensive Parochial interest Broader awareness Solutions Appended rationales Indigenous concern Resource -centered Man- cente red In conclusion, research on the development of a total Education?" Environmental Education, 1:(1) tal environmental education system is desperately 1-4, Fall 1969. needed.Establishing curricula for all levels of environmental education is the first task of this r e- 2.Steinhart, J. S. ; Cherniak, Stacie ,"T he search.Its degree of success depends upon the will- Universities and Environmental Quality (Commit- ingness and closeness of cooperation. among ment to Problem-focused Education)," Office of interdisciplinary scientists. Science and Technology, U. S. Government Print- FOOTNOTE ing Office, Washington D.C. 20402, 1969, 71pp. 1.The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance and critical review of Dr. Harvey I. Scudder 3.Wang, J. Y., "An Approach Toward A Rational of Ca1 -State College, Hayward, California, Dr. Clarification of Environmental ;3"cierces," Pro- Fred Gordon and Miss Patricia Fenton, free- ceedings on Man and His Environment Interac- lance environmental education experts. Thanks tion and Interdependence, Environmental S c i - also are extended to Mr. Ralph Miler, Direc- ences Institute, San Jose, California, 1969, pp. tor, Institute of World Ecology of Monterey, 147-166. California for his advice in the preparation of this article. 4.Wang, J. Y. ; Sc udder ,H. I. ,A proposed Western Center for Environmental Education, REFERENCES Environmental Sciences Institute, San Jose, 1.Schoenfeld, C., "What's New About Environmen- California, 1969, 14 pp.

72 We must adopt self-imposed restraints.

A NEW ETHIC OF RESPONSIBILITY

J.George Harrar

ENVIRONMENTAL damage has been going on fo puts him under grave obligations. Morally no society years, but it is only recently that a general concern has the right to over-utilize the world's resources and a growing awareness that we are face to face v ith for its own contemporary and selfish interests. Man an ecological crisis have come about. Most of us now must understand biological systems and conduct his recognize the need for immediatemeasures to arrest affairs in such ways as to improve the quality of life the palpable threat to the quality of life, and realize rather than to degrade it through wanton exploitation. that there is no single-formula solution to the prob- It is admirable and public-spirited to be deeply ',em. Numerous individuals and groups in both public committed to the well-being of the present generation, and private life are currently attempting, in their own and hopefully this attitude will grow and continue.It ways in their own specialized fields, to cope with, or is even more commendable for men living today t o at least to push back to some degree, the impending become increasingly concerned about the future of crisis. Municipal authorities, scientists, doctors, their children and their children's children in the technicians, state and federal legislators, city plan- face of a worsening environment.But the new ethic ners, university faculties and students, philanthro- of ecological responsibility must extend far beyond pists, and corporations are increasingly involved in even this highly humanitarian concern.It must em- finding ways to prevent the further impairment of our body the highest responsibility of allthe ultimate environment, to slow down its rate of deterioration, responsibility for the total natural environment, the or to repair the damage done thus far. biosphere, and life itselfnot human life only, but The problem has, of course, reached its most se- alllife,in its varied and diverse forms. rious proportions in the developed nations where industrialization and technology are highly advanced. The first principle of the new ethic would be that Nevertheless, the crisis is beginning to assume global man must control his own fertility. Whether we are dimensions and is becoming a concern of the develop- concerned primarily with the present population of ing nations as well.It threatens islands as well as the world, with future generations, with man's sur- continents, rural as well as urban populations, the vival as a species, or with preserving the stability high seas as well as the coastal waters, the tropics of the entire biosphere, it is absolutely imperative as well as the tundras, the Volga as well as the Hudson, that the human birth rate be curtailed. Man's supe- and the Caspian Sea as well as Lake Erie. Moreover, rior intelligence and his belief in the intrinsic worth we are coming to realize that what is done to the en- of each human beingdo not entitle him to as_ ume that vironment in one place today i3 likely to affect it also the natural environment should be dedicated to the pro- in other places and at other times. duction and maintenance of the human race. Instead, it is incumbent on man, as the only species capable At this critical juncture, when we are finally com- of making moral decisions to move toward a zero ing to realize the hazards and dangers of our situation, rate of increase. it would be well for man to question the validity of his attitudes toward nature and to consider seriously the The new ethic would also reject the premise that desirability and wisdom of formulating a new ethic for technology alone can provide answers to all or most dealing with his natural environment, an ethic which of our environmental problems. It is true that tech- would transcend most of the values we have tradition- nology has been a major andconstructive force in the ally held concerning our world. The Bible tells us that development of our society, and is using its inventive- God gave man dominion over all the earth and over ness today to provide new methods of cleaning up after every living creature on it. Man has misinterpreted itself, of controlling pollution at its source, and of re- this injunction as a "3ense to exploit rathcr than as a using the residuals being produced by our present in- conferral of responsibility.In the last analysis, man dustrial system. But technology does have its limita- does indeed have dominion over all the earth, but this tions. Advanced technology has a tendency to create

J. George Harrar is president of the Rockefeller Foundation. This statement is the preamble to its 1970 Report.

73 64 ENVIRONMENTALEDUCATION a need for even more technology and often merely The third principle of the ethic of responsiblity for substitutes one kind of pollution for another. the environment is that we, in the more advanced nations at least, should put considerably less emphasis R is easy to blame technology for many of our en- on that form of economic growth that simply multiplies vironmental ills, but it must be remembered t hat production and consumption of material goods. We technological advances are oftenin direct response dwellina finite worldwhere many changes andpro- '1 public demand. The entire society has therespon- cesses are irreversible. Our resources are not lim- sibility of recognizing what we are doing to our en- itless, and when those that are non-renewable are con- vironment and of making individual and collective ef- sumed or transformed, they can never be replenished. forts to reverse the negative effectsf certain forms Our present resources shuuld be carefully husbanded of technology, We are e,one to overvalue the pr o- and conserved. With stabilized populations, more at- duction of nonessential material goods which rapidly tention and resources could and should be devoted to become obsolescent and are eventually consigned to services and to those areas of life that enrich the quality the already tremendous body of accumulated w as t e of human existence: cultural activities, the arts, lit- that is piling up around us.We must, of necessity, erature, intellectual and scientific pursuits, aesthetic adopt self-imposed restraints by which the individu- improvements, and human relationships. al voluntarily refrains from contributing further tt.: our ecological imbalance and is ever conscious of the A final basic principle is that man should consider need to live. Conserve and not destroy.Oniy when in- the equilibrium of the natural environment before increasing numbers of individuals, groups, and communi- itiating any actions that world disturb existing eco- ties recognize and accept their responsibilities and systems. Modern technology, urban expansion, and take organized action can improvement occur. To- rapid industrialization have drastically altered the ec- day, in this country, we have more than 200 million ological balance in many lucalities, extinguishing cer- people, all contributing in some measure to the deg- tain plant and animal species. Complex genetic ma- radation of their environment. When these individu- terial, once destroyed, cannot be recreated in a als can be persuaded to embrace the new ethic, to laboratory. Not only will the natural environment be become "conservers" in the best sense of the word, altered and impoverished; it will become amuchless a major victory will have been won. varied, inter esting, and desirable place fut man to

74 What shouldo person know aboutenvironmentalntanagentent inorderto functionasaneffectivecitizen?

FUNDAMENTAL CONCEP fS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT EDUCATION (K -16)

RobertE.Roth

THE QUESTION : "What should our citizens d organization for instruction and understanding. know about environmental m..nagement ?" is prereql- site to developing meaningful environmental education- This investigation is important because: al programs and curricula for children and adults, Regardless of the educational procedures adopted 1. Ittvill provide a list of conceptual objectives im- relative to environmental management education there portant to understanding environmental management. are several needs that must be fulfilled for an ef- This kind of information is essential before a new fective program: 1. The concepts important to an un- instructional program can be developed. derstanding of environmental management must be ic.antified.2. Identified concepts must be coordinated 2.It will provide some information concerning bias- with existing school courses, and 3. Concept grade es of experts from 40 professional areas and several placement must be determined, The concern of this ecological regions regarding judgments relative to the report is the identification of the important environ- importance of certain environmental concepts. mental management concepts that relate to scientific, 3.It will provide an organized structure of the im- social, humanistic, and technological disciplines. portant environmental management concepts as a sug- The process of identifying the conceptual content ap- ge sted base for instructional purposes. This and other propriate to the study of environmental management follow-up studies may help answer such questions as: may thus begin by asking a variety of scholars:"What "How, in what environment(s), and at what grade lev- should a person know about environmental manage- el(s) should the various environmental management ment education in order to function as an effective concepts be taught?" citizen?" In this procedure it is assumed that scholars from environmental-management related disci- Definition of Terms. The terms "environmental plines have informed and essentially agreeing opinions management education," "environmental education," as to what concepts in and of environmental manage- "cons'rvation education," "outdoor education," and ment should be included in the education of citizens. "resource (or resource-use) education" are often used The recognized need and assumptions set ved as t h e interchangeably and are confused. For purposes of this bases for this study. study the term "environmental management of education" is defined as being the process of developing a THE PROBLEM AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE citizenry that is: The Proble m. To develop a taxonomy of conceptual 1. knowledgeable of the interrelated biophysical objectives related to environmental management educa- and sociocult,,ral environments of which man is a part; tion for use in planning programs of instruction (1C-16). 2. aware of the associated environmental problems and management alternativesof use in solving these Subproblem. Todetermine whether biases exist problems; and as follows: (1) among scholars in representative di- 3. motivated to work toward the maintenance and fur- sciplines relative to the conceptual objectives of en- ther development of diverse environments that are op- vironmental management education, and ( 2) among timum for living (modified after Stapp, and others (5)). scholars residing in selected ecological regions rel- "Optimum environment"Potter (4) "one which... ative to the conceptual objectives of environmental induces each individual to develop continually f rom birth management education. to death as a result of systematic challenges by physical and mental tasks which elicit normal adaptive re- Significance of the Study, 7'he present investiga- sponses within his rapidly increasing and eventually tion isan attempt to provide a structure of important declining capabilities." ideas which may be helpful to educators at all school levels in developing meanin' ,ful programsof environ- "Sociocultural environment" social systems with- mental management educa ion. A focus on envrion- in which individuals and groups with different cultures mental management th,'is different from the tradi- participate and interact. tional agrarian approach is needed; one which will bring man, the physical and cultural environments, "Culture" Goodenough (3) "...t he shared and their interrelationships into a different structur- products of human learning. " Dr. Roth is Assistant Professor of Conservation andOutdoor Education, School of Natural Resources, The Ohio State University. A complete version of his doctoral studycan be obtained from the Research and Devel- opment Center for Cognitive Learning, The University of Wisconsin, Madison.

5l1, 7 66 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION "Biophysical environment" -the biological and science; 6. economics; and also 7. sociology and 8. physical aspects of environment with which man in- cultural anthropology), 89 major concepts were collect- teracts and from which he obtains life supporting ed and formed into a list. The list was presented to the sustenance and natural resources. panel at UW. 2. Establishing Concept Credibility. The initial list "Management"-the intentional and rational ma- of 89 ,oncepts was sent to the the WPS with a letter indi- nipuiation of objects or events to achieve a predeter- cating the nature of their desired participation. They mined end, goal, or objective. u ere asked to accept or rewrite the concepts listed and to make additions wherever necessary. Each WPS was Procedure. This study utilized survey techniques contacted so that an interview at a mutually convenient involving both written instrume.lits and person.1 inter- time could be scheduled when the completed survey in- views to obtain and validate concepts appropriate for strument was rece:ved by the investigator. During the environmental management education. The population personal interview with the Investigator each scholar surveyed consisted of scholars in disciplines related was requested to respond to the question: "What should to environmental management who were associated a student know about environmental management?" A with The University of Wisconsin (UW) and other se- standard form of questioning was used, and all relevant lected universities in the United States. In order to comments made by the panel members were recorded by economize on time and effort, the project of concept the interviewer. selection was initialed by first utilizing UW scholars. 3. Revised-Concept List No. 2. A revised list of The derived list of concepts was then submitted to a 157 concepts based on results of the mail survey and in- Natiohal Panel of Scholars (NPS) consisting of the terviews with the WPS and a cover letter were develop- same professional areas as those responding in the ed and sent to all respondents participating in the initial Wisconsin phase.The concept s included in the final snrvey. The revised list was reformulated into an in- taxonomy were those agreed up.= by 90 percent o f strument utilizing a modified Blanchet scale technique the scholars responding. (2). The scale included Our , .:e.eptable choices in de- Selection of Populations to be Surveyed. scending order of importar e and one unacceptable 1. "Wisconsin Panel of Scholars" (WPS). The WPS choice I Essential (+5), High Desirable (+4), Desirable included about 80 practitioner s and/or educators from (+3), Satisfactory (+2), Unacceptable (-5)]. This pro- 40 disciplinary areas incltding the sciences, humani- cedure eliminated the necessity of marking each item ties, alid social studies who met the following criteria: twice by providing an indication of acceptability and de- a. interested, rr actively engaged in conservation and g! ee of essentiality for each concept with one response or environmental management education; b. located thus reducing the total time required of each respondent. atthc UW; and c. likely to participate in the study. In addition respondents were invited to react to t he credibility of items. 2. "NationalPanel of Scholars" (NPF). A NPS 4. Revised-Concept List No. 3. A third list of 128 699 environmental management educators and practi- concepts was prepared based on the responses received tioners corresponding by professional area to those in from the WPS and reformulated again utilizing the the Wisconsin phase of the study were selected who Blanchet scale technique. The revised list was sent to met the following criteria: a. generally committed to the 699-member NPS with a cover letter explaining the the area of this study by professional activity and nature of their desired participation for evaluation in interest; and b. willing to devote 2 hours to complet- terms of credibility and degree of acceptability. ing the survey instrument. Schedule of Operations, Phase (1): Instrument No To assurebreadth of coverage in the United States, / was sent to the WPS and within 2 weeks an oral in- two universities located in each of 12 of Transeau's terview was scheduled with each participant at which Major Vegetation Zones (6) were selected ( Tundra, time the completed instrument was obtainea. Boreal Forest, Pacific Forest, Rocky Mountain For- Phase (2 ): Instrument No. 2 was developed based on est, Hemlock-Hardwood Forest, Grassland, Chapar- the written and oral comments received, and the revis- ral, Northern Desert, Deciduous Forest, Southeast Ev- ed instrument was sent to all respondents participating ergreen Forest, Sonoran and ChihuahuanDesert, Trop- in Phase (1). One probe letter was sent to all respon- ical Rain Forest ). Twenty-seven universities were dents not complying with the suggested termination date. selected from those listed as having membership in Phase (3): Instrument No. 3 was revised based on the the Association of University Summer Sessions and/ written comments obtained in Phase ( 2) and sent to or the National Association of College and University the NPS. Up to three probe letters were sent to those Summer Sessions whichmet the criteria of being large respondents who failed to reply within the time limits universities and having extensive graduate programs. established by the investigator. The letters were The director of summer sessions (ss) from each of the spaced about 3 weeks apart thereby allowing about 2 selected universities was contacted and asked to pro- months for acceptable responses. vide the names of 40 individuals corrr3ponding to the 40 academic areas selected in the WPS. The ss direc- TREATMENT OF DATA tor was believed to be the one who was likely to know of the professional interests and activities of many of the 1. Wisconsin Phase. The written comments and ad- faculty members within his institution. The total sam- ditions made f;), the WPSon Concept List No. 1 were ple consisted of about 700 individuals. recorded for use in revising the initial list. CONCEPT LISTS Data obtained from the WPS's reactions to List No. 2 (Blanchet scale ) were tabulated using the RAVE 1. Initial List. By reviewing the relevant literature (Reciprocal Averages Program, Baker, (1) ),and in eachof the eight major areas traditionally consider- the frequencies of response for each of five cated to be conservation (1. wildlife management; 2. plant egories were determined. A 75 percent level of to- ecology; 3. water management; 4. soils; 5. political tal acceptability was established a s a criterion to ROTH 67 exempt a concept from further revision met the criterion, all were not rated at equal levels of or exclusion. essentiality; the weighted item-mean scores vary 2. National Phase. Data from the NF'S reactions from 4. 85 to 2. 54. Concept No. 1 has implications to List No.3 were tabulated using the RAVE (Baker, 1 ), for the majority of topics that follow and therefore and frequencies for each of five categories of response has been plaeedsingly at the top of the list. Topics were determined. A 90 percent level of acceptability and numbe^ of concepts that were used in classifying was establishee as requisite f or concepts included in each concept are: Environmental Management (16); the final list. Therefore, any concept receiving 10 per- Management Techniques (8); Economics (18); Envi- cent or more unacceptable responses was eliminated ronmental Problems (3); Environmental 5cology (8); reaoons f.or its exclusion were analyzed. Adaptation and Evolution (9); Natural Resources (18); 3. Forming the Topical List. Concepts receiving Sociocultural Environment (10); Culture (4); Politics a 90 percent or greater level of acceptability were (5); The Family (1); The Individual (6); and Psycholog- ranked in descending order of importance based on a icalAspects (4).The classification of concepts used weighted item-mean score derivedby using the fol- here is not considered exhaustive nor is it suggested lowing formula: as the only possible organization of topics and concepts. 5n1 + 4n, + 3n, + 2n4 - 5n, = Weighted Item-Mean TABLE 1 Eni Score Using this formula the maximum score was 5.0. Con- RESPONSE BY UNIVERSITY TO MAILED SURVEY cepts were arranged and rearranged in lists based on the similarity of content until a topical outline became University Total Total Completed evident. The content and the weighted item- mean scor- Number Mailed Respondents Instruments es were used todetermine the relative position of each concept within each topic in the taxonomic list. It was 1 31 28 25 assumed that the panels of scholars represented the 2 29 23 13 interdisciplinary area of environmental management 3 38 26 23 4 31 19 11 education and that their judgments of the relative im- 15 portance of each concept was a true measure of its 5 30 12 importance. 6 27 15 6 4. Subproblem 1. The possible relevance of aca- 7 36 11 4 demic discipline of respondents as a basis for concept 8 30 26 21 rejection was tested by reviewing the academic affilia- 9 33 20 14 tion of those individuals who rejected the concept. A 10 34 24 19 determination of academic discipline biases was made 11 36 25 17 by analyzing the frequencies of "unacceptable" mark- 12 28 23 21 ings and the written comments made about each item 13 12 8 7 excluded. 14 30 28 26 5. Subproblem 2.The possible relevance of eco- 15 23 17 11 logical region of respondents as a basis for concept 16 26 13 10 rejection was tested by reviewing regiona I association 17 27 13 8 of those individuals who rejected concept 3. A determi- 18 19 11 7 nation of regional biases was made by the same method 19 35 19 13 used in Subproblem 1. 20 32 19 16 21 38 24 20 RESULTS (In three parts) 22 20 10 6 The National Panel. The NPS initially selected con- 23 35 27 22 sisted of 699 scholars representing 40 scholarly disci- 24 29 19 18 plines in 24 universities from 12 ecological zones in TotTs 6691100%) 4-65(66.23%)330(50.07%) the U. S.however, useable responses were received from only 350(50. 07 percent) of the scholars chosen. Subproblem Analysis. Examination of "unaccept- There were four or more responses from each of the 24 able" concepts andfrequency of rejection of each con- universities (see Table 1); however, no institution had cept (see Table 5) reveals little to help understand the 100 percent responses. The discrepancy between the cause of rejection. Observable, however, is the fact total number responding (350, 50.07 percent) is ac- that only one concept (No.65) was rejected by 27 per- counted for by those not completing questionnaires who cent, whereas the other 16 concepts were rejected by usually indicated their reason(s) as "no time,"or "be- only 18 percent or fewer judges. yond my professional competence and/or interest." 1. A speculated cause of rejection of a given con- The distribution of the competencies of the panel cept was that scholars in a given professional area members (see Table 2) includes the 40 rrofessional ar- may, because of orientation, not assess a high value eas selected and a minimum of three scholars from to it. When rejected concepts are tabulated according each. Although the number of respondents varies from to professional area of respondents, there is little one professional area to another it is assumed that the evidence to support this speculation. Examination of unequal number of respondents does not affect the re- Concepts 15, 18, 24, 43, 100, 111, and 112 provides no sults of the investigation. clear evidence of any pattern. While analyses of the The Taxonomic List.The 111 concepts that met tabulations of the remaining ten concepts reveals very the criterion "acceptable by 90 percent of the panel little pattern, a slight indication might be suggested. members responding, "are classified by topics in Table Four concepts were rejected by 45.5-60 percent of the 4.Note also, from Table r, that although the concepts respondents of a given professional area as follows: 68 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION TABLE 2 seven, Social Work (42.9percent); and Concept 65 -five of ten, Natural Resource Conservation (50percent), RESPONDENTS BY PROFESSIONAL AREA and Lair of eight, Urban and Regional Planning (50 percent). One concept was rejected by about 40per- cent of the respondents representing three professional areas as follows: Concept 55-three of seven, Oncology (42.9percent), four of ten, Political Science Professional Area Respondents (40 percent), and five of 12, Sociology (41. 7 percent). 1. Agriculture (General) 5 Two concepts were rejected by 40- 50 percent of the 2. Agriculture Economics 5 respondents from five professional areas as follows: 3. Art (Fine Arts ) Conceit 53-two of five, Agriculture (40 percent), six 4. Botany (Plant Ecology ) 14 of 14. Botany (42.9 percent), two of five, Hydrology 5. Chemistry 14 (40 percent), four of ten, Natural Resources Conser- 6. Civil Engineering (Sanitation vation (40 percent), three of seven, Social Work (42.4 Engineering) 13 percent); and Concept 54-four of seven,Medical 7. Commerce (Business) 6 Education (57.1 percent); five of ten, Natural Resourc - 8. Community Leadership (Extension esConser vation (50 perec.1, three of seven, Music Education ) 8 (42.9 percent), three of seven, Oncology (42.9 percent), 9. Computer Sciences 6 four of ten, Political Szience (40 nercent).However, 10. Economics 10 since the preceeding is based on tower than 20 percent 11. Education 18 of the respondents on the NPS, itvould seem that any 12. Environmental Design 4 indication of bias of respondents affi 'iated with a given 13. Food Science 13 professional area would be tenuous 1 t best. 14. Genetics 7 15. Geography 13 16. Geology (Mining Engineering', 11 17. Guidance and Counseling 7 18. Hydrology (Water Resources.; 5 2. Another speculated cause of rejection of a concept 19. Journalism 6 was that scholars in a given ecological region might, 20. Landscape Architecture 9 because of a regional orientation, not assess high val- 21. Mass Communications 7 ue to the concept. Analysis of rejected concepts by 22. Medical Education 7 ecological regions reveals little to support this. While 23. Meterology 5 no clear pattern of response is in evidence, there ap- 24. Music 7 pears to be a very slight indication that respondents 25. Natural Resources Conservation 10 representing the Hemlock-Hardwood Forest region 26. Oncology (Biochemistry) 7 might have a tendency to reject more and respondents 27. Parks and Recreation Management 4 representing the Northern Desert region might have 28. Pharmacology 4 a tendency to reject fewer concepts. 29. Physics 12 30. Political Scienne 10 31. Public. Health 7 32. Recreation Education 13 33. Rural Sociology 3 3. A third cause speculated as a basis for rejection of a concept was the possibility of multiple interpretations 34. Social Work 7 35. Sociology 12 or vagueness of meaning (see Table 5) and some 36. Soils (Agronomy, Soil and Water Conservation ) 9 37. Theater Production 10 38. Urban and Regional Planning 8 39. Veterinary Science 7 TABLE 3 40. Wildlife Ecology (Wildlife Management, RESPONDENTS BY ECOLOGICAL ZONE* Zoology ) 16

TOTAL 350 1. Tundra 13 2. Boreal Forest 21 3. `lac if ic Forest 30 4. Rocky Mountain Forest 33 5. Hemlock-Hardwood Forest 52 6. Grassland 75 7. Chaparral 11 Concept 21-eight of 16, Wildlife Ecology (50 percent); 8. Northern Desert 33 Concept 25-three of six, Commerce (50 percent ); Con- 9. Deciduous Forest 24 cept 77-six of ten, Political Science (60 percent); Con- 10. Southeast Evergreen Forest 32 cept 94-five of 11, Geology (45. 5 percent).Three 11. Sonoran andChihuahuan Desert 29 concepts rejected by 40-60 percent of two groups of 12. Tropical Rain Forest 7 respondents are as follows: Conceit 45-four of ten, -- Political Science (40 percent), and three of seven, TOTAL 350 Guidance andCounseling (42.9percent); Conceit 46- six of ten, Political Science (60 percent), and three of * From E. N. Transeau (1948). ROTH 69 TABLE 4 TAXONOMIC LIST OF CONCEPTS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT EDUCATION ORGANIZED ACCORD- ING TO TOPICS ON THE BASIS OF WEIGHTED ITEM-MEAN SCORE

Concept Concert Weighted Item- No. * Mean Score

1. (1) Living things are interdependent with one another and their environment. 4. 85 215. Essential 13 Highly Desirable liDesirable 2 Satisfactory0 Unacceptable

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGE M E NT 2. (4) Man has been a factor affecting plant and animal succession and environmental processes. 4.58 la. Essential _6ILHighly Desirable ..2$Desirable a Satisfactory _ LUnacceptable 3. (78) The management of natural resources to meet the needs of successive generations demands long-range planning. 4. 42 =Essential S15.Highly Desirable 24. Desirable .11.Satisfactory 6Unacceptable 4. ( 56 ) Environmental management involves the application of knowledge from many different disciplines.4. 27 186 Essential 82 Highly Desirable 48 Desirable /3. Satisfactory a Unacceptable 5. (62) Modern man affects the structure of his environment. 4. 08 .111 Essential 84 Highly Desirable NDesirable 20 Satisfactory 6 Unacceptable 6. (127) Esthetic resources and recreational facilities of economic and noneconomic value are becoming increasingly important in leisure-time activities. 4. 08 _IA Essential 191 Highly Desirable 52 Desirable 23_ Satisfactory3 Unacceptable 7. (87) Man has ability to manipulate and change the environment. 4. 01 al Essential 27..Highly Desirable AlDestrable .22. Satisfactory _LUnacceptable 8. (86) A knowledge of the social, physicM, and biological sciences and humanities are important for environmental understanding 3. 98 a.4. Essential 33. Highly Desirable 47 Desirable 21 Satisfactory9 Unacceptable 9. (80) Social and technological changes alter the interrelationships, importance and uses for natural resources. 3. 93 124 Essential 114 Highly Desirable 73 Desirable 22 Satisfactory 2 Unacceptable 10. (102) There are certain risks taken, and limitations experienced, when manipulating the natural environment. 3. 92 j23. Essential Highly Desirable 31 Desirable $7 Satisfactory Unacceptable 11. (63) Resource depletion can be slowed by the development and adoption of alternatives. 3. 84 litEssential 101 Highly Desirable 65 Desirable 24 oatisfactory 8 Unacceptable 12. (97) Environmental management has effects on individuals and social institutions. 3. 74 114 Essential 31 Highly Desirable 84 Desirable j Satisfactory3 Unacceptable 13. (68) Man's need for food, fiber, and minerals increases as populations expand and levels of consumptior rise. 3. 67 Essential §Q Highly Desirable jia Desirable la Satisfactory 1.9Unacceptabie 14. (73) Conflicts emerge between private land use rights and the maintenance of environmental quality for the general public. 3. 65 122 Essential 33 Highly Desirable 1Q.Desirable 1Q, Satisfactory al Unacceptable 15. (93) A cultural and time lag exists between the development of knowledge in science and technology and application of that knowledge to resource and environmental problems. 3. 44 27 Essential $2 Highly Desirable 2g Desirable jSatisfactory 11. Unacceptable 16. (90) Management is the result of technical and scientific knowledge being applied in a rational direction to achieve a particular objective 2. 62 n Essential &A Highly Desirable 91 Desirable 56 Satisfactory 34 Unacceptable 17. (91) The management of natural resources is culture bound. 2. 52 ,.,53 Essential a Highly Desirable 33 Desirable fiSatisfactory 31_ Unacceptable MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES 18. (69) Increased population mobility is changing the nature of the demands upon some resources. 3.61 Ica Essential 98 Desirable 90 Desirable 39 Satisfactory 7 Unacceptable 19. (98) Options available to future generations must not be foreclosed. 3. 51 JjEssential Highly Desirable la Desirable J.Satisfactory 26 Unacceptable 20. (113) A variety of institutional structures are involved in planning and managing the environment. 3. 49 3.0 Essential ..6.1 Highly Desirable 102 Desirable 84 Satisfactory2 Unacceptable 21. (47) Hunting regulations are useful in maintaining and restoring populations as well as in dis- 1 tributing the game harvest. 3. 43 31 Essential .01 Highly Desirable 1 Desirable 61 Satisfactory J. Unacceptable 22. (71) Multiple use is a practice in which a given land area functions in two or morecom patible ways. 3.41 11, Essential Ai Highly Desirable 31Destrable ALSatisfactory _1.2. Unacceptable 23. (42) Management of habitat is considered to be an effective technique of wildlife management when the desire is to increase numbers of particular populations. 3. 35 1 Essential JSQ Highly Desirable 31 Desirable 41 Satisfactory13 Unacceptable

7gc ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

24.(122) Architecture can be one of the positively persuasive influences in developing a congenial environment. 3. 27 74 Essential 95 Highly Desirable 85 Desirable 71 Satisfactory 10 Unacceptable 25.(72) Zuning is a practice in which land uses are prescribed based upon value judgments regarding the needs of society. 3. 20 72 Essential 89 Highly Desirable 101 Desirable 54 Satisfactory 14 Unacceptable ECONOMICS 26.(84) Ready t-c.nsportation, growing interest, money surpluses, and increased leisure time combine to create heavy pressures on existing recreation facilities and demands for new ones. 3. 96 159 Essential 83 Highly Desirable 65 Desirable 26 Satisfactory 6 Unacceptable 27.(128) Outdoor recreation is an increasingly important part of our culture and our economy. 3. 93 138 Essential 93 Highly Desirable 71 Desirable 32 Satisfactory 3 Unacceptable 28.(28) '"1.- economy of a region depends on the utilization of its natural, human, and cultural reso 'rces and technologies over time. 3.79 147 Essential 96 Highly Desirable 65 Desirable 22 Satisfactory 12 Unacceptable 29.(821 Fconomic efficiency does not always result in conservation of a natural resource. 3. 79 157 Essential 88 Highly Desirable 47 Desirable 36 Satisfactory 12 Unacceptable 30.(61- The distribution or location of resources in relation to population, technological and economic factors are critical to problems of resource conservation and use. 3. 73 125 Essential 87 Highly Desirable 88 Desirable 33 Satisfactory 7 Unacceptable 31.(58) The political and economic strength of a country is in part, dependent upon its access to domestic and foreign resources and international relationships. 3. 67 116 Essential 96 Highly Desirable Desirable 40 Satisfactory AUnacceptable 32.(66) Conservation policy is determined by the interaction of science and technology; social and political factors; and aesthetic, ethical, and economic considerations. 3.61 127 Essential 92 Highly Desirable 78 Desirable 28 Satisfactory14 Unacceptable 33.(83) Conventional benefit-cost analyses do not always result in sound conservation decisions. 3. 54 123 Essential94 Highly Desirable 62 Desirable 39 Satisfactory 15 Unacceptable 34.(85) A sound natural resource policy is dependent upon a flexible political system, pragmatically appraising and reappraising policies and programs in terms of their effect upon the public interest and in light of scientific knowledge about the natural resources. 3. 53 Essential Highly Desirable 65 Desirable 37 Satisfactory16 Unacceptable 35.(75) Consumption practices are constantly being expanded by our ability to produce and create wants and market, which affects the rate of resource use. 3.45 90 Essential 103 Highly Desirable 80 Desirable 47 Satisfactory11 Unacceptable 36.(81) Individuals tend to select short term economic gains, often at the expense of greater long term environmental benefits. 3. 27 _In Essential _MHighly Desirable (Desirable jiSatisfactory .22. Unacceptable 37.(76) Increasing population and per capita use of resources have brought changed land to man or resource to population ratios. 3. 21 99 Essential 63 Highly Desirable 85 Desirable 5i7 Satisfactory17 Unacceptable 38.(80) Goods and services are produced by the interaction of labor, capital, natural resources, and technology. 3. 18 32 Essential.. Highly Desirable la Desirable 2Q.Satisfactory 1(). Unacceptable 39.(105) Long range planning for the use and allocation of natural and human resources is continually evovling. 3. 17 95 Essential 87 Highly Desirable 82 Desirable 2.41 Satisfactory 22 Unacceptable 40.(74) Choices between needs (essentials) ) and wants or desires (nonessentials)are) are often in conflict. 3. 15 96 Essential 75 Highly Desirable 93 Desirable 49 Satisfactory 21 Unacceptable 41.(79) Raw materials and energy supplies are generally obtained from those resources and places where they are available at least cost, usually in short economic terms. 2. 96 69 Essential ao Highly Desirable 94 Desirable 73 Satisfactory 20 Unacceptable 42.(64) Supply and demand, in relation to values held by society, determines what is a resource and its economic values. 2. 86 78 Essential 89 Highly Desirable 102 Desirable 2§. Satisfactory la Unacceptable 43.(67) The more efficient use of some resources is the result of technical and marketing improvements. 2. 76 a Essential .§1. Highly Desirable ju Desirable aSatisfactory 2,1 Unacceptable

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS 44.(9) Safe waste disposal, including the reduction of harmful and cumulative effects of various solids, liquids, gases, radio-active wastes, and heat, is important if the well being of man and the environment is to be preserved. 4.65 275 Essential 51 Highly Desirable 17 Desirabley?Satisfactory3 Unacceptable 45.(87Tollutants and contaminants are produced by natural and man-made processes. 4. 09 211 Essential 60 Highly Desirable 47 Desirable j Satisfactory 12 Unacceptable 46.(49) Increasing human populations, rising levelsof living and the resultant demands for greater industrial and agricultural productivity promotes increasing environmental contamination. 4. 01 Mg Essential a Highly Desirable .21'.e sir able la Satisfactory j. Unacceptable

80 ROTH 71 ENVIRONMENTAL ECOLOGY 47.(2) Natural resources are interdependent and the use or misuse of one will affect others. 4.35 245 Essential 64 Highly Desirable 21 Desirable 7 Satisfactory 10 Unacceptable 48.(20 ) In any environment, one component like: space, eater, air, or food may become a limiting factor.4. 22 19_1 Essential 89 Highly Desirable 39 Desirable 20 Satisfactory 4 Unacceptable 49.(22) Most resources are vulnerable to depletion in quantity, quality, or both. 4. 17 204 Essential 74 Highly Desirable 36 Desirable 23 Satisfactory 7 Unacceptable 50.(5) The interaction of environmental and biological factors determines the size and range of species and populations. 3. 84 147 Essential 94 Highly Desirable 77 Desirable 13 Satisfactory 11 Unacceptable 51.(29) Natural resources, water and minerals in particular, are unequally distributed with respect to land areas and political boundaries. 3. 75 144 Essential 72 Highly Desirable 81 Desirable 38 Satisfactory 8 Unacceptable 52.(26) The renewable resource base can be extended by reproduction, growth, and management. 3.75 136 Essential 106 Highly Desirable 58 Desirable 23 Satisfactory 13 Unacceptable 53.(57) Natural resources affect and are affected by the material welfare of a culture and directly or Indirectly by philosophy, religion, government, and the arts. 3. 58 106 Essential 99 Highly Desirable 72 Desirable 47 Satisfactory 9 Unacceptable 54.(3) The natural environment is irreplaceable. 2. 96 185 Essential 50 Highly Desirable 37 Desirable 18 Satisfactory 52 Unacceptable ADAPTATION AND EVOLUTION 55.(10) An organism is the product of its heredity and environment. 4. 14 1KEssential 67 Highly Desirable 60 Desirable 26 Satisfactory 3 Unacceptable 56.(12) Man is influenced by many of the same hereditary and environmental factors that affect other organisms and their populations. 3. 80 148 Essential 81 Highly Desirable 74 Desirable 35 Satisfactory 8 Unacceptat:e 57.(14) The rate of change in an environment may exceed the rate of organism adaptation. 3. 76 AI Essential 101 Highly Desirable 72 Desirable 26 Satisfactory 10 Unacceptable 58.(16) Organisms and environments are in constant change. 3. 56 142 Essential 74 Highly Desirable 75 Desirable 37 Satisfactory 16 Unacceptable 59.(11) All living things, including man, are continually evolving. 3.49 143 Essential 77 Highly Desirable 68 Desirable 40 Satisfactory 19 Unacceptable 60.(13) The form of life present depends upon the coincidence of the life needs and their availability in an environment. 3. 25 .1117 Essential 22 Highly Desirable 23 Desirable _la Satisfactory _g1 Unacceptable 61.(17) Biological systems are described as dynamic because the materials and energy involved are parts of continuous cycles; inorganic materials and energy become part of organic materials and are subsequently broken down into simpler substances and energy as a result of the operation of organic systems. 3. 09 1_Q1 Essential 66 Highly Desirable 84 Desirable 43 Satisfactory 26 Unacceptable 62. (40) Animal populations are renewable resources. 3. 08 60 Essential 61 Highly Desirable 91 Desirable 1 Satisfactory 24 Unacceptable 63.(19) Succession is the gradual and continuous replacement of one kind of plant or animal complex by another and is characterized by gradual changes in species composition. 3. 03 68 Essential 77 Highly Desirable 1.Qa Desirable ,U Satisfactory 19 Unacceptable NATURAL RESOURCES 64.(37) Water supplie., both in quantit7 and quality are important to all levels of living. 4.39 2 Essential 81 Highly Desirable 40 Desirable 13 Satisfactory 3 Unacceptable 65.(7) The earth and life on it are greatly affected by the atmosphere. 4. 29 213 Essential 62 Highly Desirable 53 Desirable 1.Q Satisfactory 3 Unacceptable 66.(35) Water is a reusable and transient resource, but the available quantity may be reduced or quality impaired. 4. 17 190 Essential 88 Highly Desirable 34 Desirable j_a Satisfactory 6 Unacceptable 67.(70) As populations increase competition for the use of water increases resulting in a need for establishing water use priorities. 4.1C AI Essential 100 Highly Desirable _la Desirable 2,2 Satisfactory 3 Unacceptable 68.(36) The amcunt of precipitation that becomes available for use by man varies with topography, land vse, and applied management practices. 3. 52 110 Essential 93 Highly Desirable 81 Desirable 41 Satisfactory 12 Unacceptable (Minerals) 69. (31) Mineral conservation involves the utilization of all known methods of using the minerals of the earth's crust that will cause them to serve more people forlonger time. 3. 27 124 Essential 79 Highly Desirable 78 Desirable 35 Satisfactory JA Unacceptable 70.(23) The nonrenewable resource base is considered finite. 3. 27 kij Essential Li Highly Desirable _51 Desirable 1/ Satisfactory 34 Unacceptable 71.(32) Soil is classified as a renewable resource, but, because it may take a few years to thousands of years to be "renewed," it is more practically termed a depletable resource. 2. 94 _21Essential _91 Highly Desirable .352. Desirable 59 Satisfactory 31 Unacceptable

81 72 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION 72.(30) Minerals are nonrenewable resources 3.87 .111Q Essential 66 Highly Desirable 80 Desirable 49 Satisfactory 34 Unaccept able (Soil) 73.(33) Maintaining, improving, and in some cases restoring soil productivity is important to the welfare of people. 4. 25 179 Essential 101 Highly Desirable 46 Desirable 15 Satisfactory2 Unacceptable 74.(27) Geological process is like erosion and deposition modify the landscape. 3. 61 122 Essential 62 Highly Desirable 98 Desirable 56 Satisfactory 5 Unacceptable 75.(34) Soil productivity caa be maintained by utilizing known agronomic, mechanical, and chemical processes. 3. 51 111 Essential 96 Highly Desirable 83 Desirable 33 Satisfactory14 Unacceptable ( Plants ) 76.(39) Green plants are the ultimate sources of food, clothing, shelter, and energy in most societies. 3. 56 132 Essential 82 Highly Desirable 68 Desirable 39 Satisfactory15 Unacceptable 77.(38) Plants are renewable resources. 3.44 101 Essential 61 Highly Desirable 89 Desirable 55 S-":sfactory 10 Unacceptable 78.(6) Energy is supplied to an ecosystem by the activities of green plants. 3, 36 127 Essential 69 Highly Desirable 66 Desirable 38 Satisfactory 21 Unacceptable (Animals ) 79.(48) Wildlife refuges, undisturbed natural areas, and preserves may be of value in protecting endangered species and perpetuating the gene pool. 3. 99 140 Essential 101 Highly Desirable 61 Desirable 33 Satisfactory 2 Unacceptabl? 80.(44) Wildlife populations are important economically, aesthetically, and biologically. 3. 69 129 Essential 93 Highly Desirable 74 Desirable 29 Satisfactory11 Unacceptable 81.(41) Wildlife is considered to be a public resource. 3. 26 101 Essential 100 Highly Desirable 71 Desirable 40 Satisfactory 22 Unacceptable THE SOCIO-CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT 82.(126) Man has responsibility to develop an appreciation of and respect for the rights of others. 4. 38 216 Essential 70 Highly Desirable 30 Desirable 20 Satisfactory2 Unacceptable 83.(115) Individual citizens should be stimulated to become well informed about resource issues, problems, management procedures, and ecological principles. 4. 29 188 Essential 89 Highly Desirable 48 Desirable 15 Satisfactory1 Unacceptable 84.(117) Conservation responsibilities should be shared by individuals, businesses and industries, special interest groups, and all levels of government and education. 4. 16 184 Essential 85 Highly Desirable 43 Desirable 17 Satisfactory 6 Unacceptable 85.(98) Man :las moral responsibility for his environmental decisions. 3. 94 178 Essential 80 Highly Desirable 43 Desirable 24 Satisfactory 12 Unacceptable 86.(88) Knowledge of the social structures, institutions, and culture of a society must be brought to bear on environmental considerations. 3. 75 119 Essential IQ Highly Dee' tble la.Deslrable 24 Satisfactory 8 Unacceptable 87.(59) The relationships between man and the natural e ivironment are mediated by his culture. 3. 65 94 Essential 97 Highly Desirable 101 Desirable11 Satisfactory3 Unacceptable 88.(104) Man is developing the technical and sociological knowledge needed to control population growth, modify environments, and alter resource cue patterns. 3. 58 124 Essential 100 Highly Desirable 65 Desirable 33 Satisfactory15 Unacceptable 89.(109) Social values and more: influence personal conservation behavior. 3. 34 86 Essential 104 Highly Desirable 85 Desirable 48 Satisfactory 14 Unacceptable 90.(108) Public opinion constitutes a control over the use of conservation practices. 3. 11 84 Essential 104 Highly Desirable 76 Desirable 49,_ Satisfactory 23 Unacceptable 91.(114) In a democracy, a basic theory is that increasing restrictions on resource allocation and use are imposed by the consent or insistence of the people. 2. 92 69 Essential 80 Highly Desirable 89 Desirable 68 Satisfactory 22 Uqacceptable CULTURE 92.(50) The culture of a group is its learned behavior in the form of customs, habits, attitudes, institutions, and lifeways that are transmitted to its progeny. 3. 49 =I Essential la Highly Desirable 70 Desirable 53 Satisfactory 12 Unacceptable 93.(51) Man has psychobiological and biosocial needs. 3. 27 111 Essential 68 Highly Desirable 68 Desirable 51 Satisfactory19 Unacceptable 94.(95) Human resources include the physical and mental abilities with which man in endowed and the knowledge he has generated. 3. 26 I42 Essential ZaHighly Desirable 94 Desirable 48 Satisfactory 18 Unacceptable 95.(106) Historically, cultures with high technological development have used more natural resources than those with lower levels of technological development. 2. 98 _79 Essential 78 Highly Desirable 91 Desirable 57 Satisfactory 23 Unacceptable POLITICS 96.(116) Individual citizens should be stimulated to become active in the political process. 3. 85 148 Essential 92 Highly Desirable 58 Desirable 34 Satisfactory 8 Unacceptable

82 ROTH 73 97.(118) We have "legal" ownership of some resources like real estate and control cver others during our lifetime, but ethically we are "stewards" rather than owners of the resource base. 3. 75 laEssential 81 Highly Desirable 49 Desirable 34 Satisfactory 14 Unacceptable 98.(92) Policies, including natural resource policies, came about as the result of interacting social processes: science and technology, governmentoperations, private interests, and public attitudes. 3. 51 110 Essential 92 Highly Desirable 74 Desirable 45 Satisfactory12 Unacceptable 99.(110) Conservation policies are often the result of group action. 3.51 1Q1 Essential 94 Highly Desirable 85 Desirable 46 Satisfactory 10 Unacceptable 100.(107) As populations increase and/or as resource supplies decrease, the freedom of the individual to use the resources as he wishes decreases irrespective of the form of government. 3. 44 133 Essential 76 Highly Desirable 63 Desirable 37 Satisfactory 20 Unacceptable THE FAMILY 101.(103) Family planning and the limiting of family size are important if overpopulation is to be avoided and a reasonable standard of living assured for successive generations. 3. 88 200 Essential 70 Highly Desirable 29 Desirable 21 Satisfactory 19 Unacceptable 102.(I 2-15-The individual must develop his ability to perceive if he is to increase his awareness and develop environmental perspective. 3. 63 in Essential 75 Highly Desirable 85 Desirable 46 Satisfactory 7 Unacceptable 103.(89) Individuals perceive different self-roles depending upon their position in the social and environmental context. 2. 99 66 Essential 73 Highly Desirable 92 Desirable 80 Satisfactory16 Unacceptable 104.(101) Man has the capability of improving society through sociology, psychology, and science. 2. 95 91 Essential 91 Highly Desirable 67 Desirable 57 Satisfactory 29 Unacceptable 105.(52) Man is a high animal form because of his ability to reason. 2.83 102 Essential 61 Highly Desirable 71 Desirable 67 Satisfactory 32 Unacceptable 106. (99Than is continually developing an ethical base for making value judgments. 2. 65 la_ Essential la Highly Desirable .11¢ Desirable IL Satisfactory 33 Unacceptable 107.(119) Man performs some tasks at a high physiological cost. 2. 62 S2Q Essential la Highly Desirable 78 Desirable 84 Satisfactory 27 Unacceptable PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS 108.(125) Opportunities to experience and enjoy nature are psychologically rewarding to many and are important to mental health. 3. 60 ,k Essential 106 Highly Desirable 62 Desirable 36 Satisfactory13 Unacceptable 109.(124) The need of man to turn inward for self renewal can be stimulated by his external esthetic experiences. 2.79 1.11 Essential 74 Highly Desirable 81 Desirable 58 Satisfactory 31 Unacceptable 110.(120) Resources have a psychological impact oil people. 2. 78 74 Essential 59 Highly Desirable Q Desirable Sa Satisfactory 2,¢ Unacceptable 111. (121) Emotional reactions can be elicited by exposure to physical objects and geometric forms. 2.54 55 Essential 55 Highly Desirable 88 Desirable 91 Satisfactory 2,7 Unacceptable *Concept numbers correspond to enumeration used on the questionnaire.

possible causes for rejection on this basis follow: Concept 54-confusion exists in definition of the Concept 15-culture is equated withbiologicaldi- terms "excessive" and "optimum. " versity. Concept 18-fails to clarify that energy transfer is Concept 55-definition of the terms "satisfactory" a consequence of the metabolic efficiency of organisms and "optimum" are obscure. involved. Concept 65-mineral resources are equated with Concept 21-does not ac'equately define the term the cultural pyramid. "level. " Concept 77-production and benefits are equated. Concept 24-an editorial error was responsible for Concept 94-contains a typographical error in that the use of the term "st.lisiance" when the term "sub- the terms "Man to" should have been used in place of stitute" should haze been used. the term "nor. " Concept 25-a contradiction exists between the Concept 100-terminology used is poorly defined. phrase "rate of renewal" and the definition of the Concept 111-poor definition of terms leads to con- term "exhaustible. " f usion. Concept 43-individuals, population, and species Concept 112- the phrase "countervailing power are equated thus leading to confusion. structures" is not defined. Concept 45-confusion exists in definition of the term "stockpiled." Comments in relation to the above concepts were Concept 46-confusion exists in definition of the often noted by the respondents indicating some of the term "stockpiled. " above possible causes for rejection. Concept 53-might be interpreted to be contradictory because of the usage assigned the terms "growth" 4. Rating of the concepts indicates an individual di- and "constant. vergence of opinion and interpretation, but no clear

83 74 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION TABLE 5 CONCEPTS RATED AS "UNACCEPTABLE" BY 10 PERCENT OR MORE OF THE NATIONAL PANEL

Concept Frequency Percent 15. A diverse biological community or culture perpetuates diversity within the gene pool. 35 10.0 18. At each successively higher levelof an energy pyramid, the organic mass is reduced due to metabolic and energy transfer losses occurring at each exchange. 35 10.0 21. The carrying capacity of an ecosystem Is the level at which a population can be sustained at an acceptable level of nutrition. 37 10.6 24. The rate of use of a nonrenewabie natural resource is dependent upon supply and demand, availability of substances, and technology. 35 10.0 25. The rate of renewal of an exhaustible natural resource is usually extremely slow. 46 13. 1 43. A rapid turnover of individuals making up a population of most species exists whether or not the species are exploited. 47 13. 4 45. Nonmigratory small game wildlife populations cannot b.-tockpiled; when hunting mortality replaces natural mortality-the resource is ut.azed. 53 15. 1 46.Migratory wildlife populations can be stockpiled for short periods of time. 55 15. 7 53. Man's biological life requirements for growth and deve lopme nt are relatively constant. 59 16.9 54. Reduction of environmental stressesfrom excessive to optimum levels results in a feeling of well being. 63 18.0 55. A satisfactory levelof physical, osychological, and social health for man depends upon an optimum level of environmental stress. 58 16. 6 65.Mineral resources form the base of the cultural pyramid. 93 26.6 77. An increase in input (capital, labor resources) will produce a proportionate increase in production or benefiti up to a limit defined as the margin of diminishing returns. 47 13.4 94. Science does not cause nor become independent of the natural environment. 48 13. 7 100. There are sensory prerequisites to the appreciation of the cultural heritage. 47 1.?, 4 111. Government is the interaction of custom, rule, and law. 47 13.4 112. Decisions in society are made throur0 the interaction of countervailir; power structures. 36 10. 3

bias is ident on the basis of either professional ar- between maturity and/or ecological settings and con- ea or ecological region. It can therefore be suggested cept attainment. that the 111 acceptable concepts included in the tax- 3. The degree of essentiality of each concept in the onomic list are reasonably well agreed upon. Tax Atomic List (Table 4) should be reevaluated periodic.illy (e.g., every 5 years) to ensure hat the con- SUMMARY, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS cepts appropriate for e indron mental numage me nt ed- Summary. Based upon the findings of this study it ucation arepertinent. mry be stated that: 1. Lists of concepts related to environmental man- REFERENCES agement recommended for teaching in grades K-16 can be formed by utilizing pracV,iing scholiirsf rom many 1. Baker, Frank, Test Analysic Package, Laboratory disciplines. of Experimental Design, Department of Educa- 2. Scholars represe..iing 40 disciplines agree on tional Psychology, The University of Wisconsin, the majority of concepts to be emphasized in environ- Madison, Wisconsin, 1966. mental management education. 3. Academic bias does not appear to exist relative 2. Blanchet, Waldo E., "A Basis for the Selection of to concept preferences for inclusion in grades K-16. Course Content for Survey Courses in the Natural 4. Regior.al bias based upon ecological region does Sciences," unpublished PhD dissertation, Univer- not appear to exist relative to concept preferences sity of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1946. for inclusion in grades K-16. 5. The cause of the rejection of selected concepts 3. Goodenough, Ward Hunt, Cooperation in Change: appears to be due to communication failures. An Anthro_pologIcal Approach to Community Devel- opment, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. , New York, 1986. Implications. 1. The concepts included in Table 4 may be used in curriculum planning for gradesK-16. 4. Potter, Van R., "The Role of the Individual in Mod- 2. The concepts included in Table 4 may be divided ern Society," in Robert B. Boyd (Ed. ), Concepts of into subconcepts and related to indigenous educational Productive Living, University Extension, Madison, conditions. Wisconsin, 1987. Recommendations. 1. A variety of methodologies 5. Stapp, William B., andothers, "The Concept of should be used in teaching the concepts and subcon- Environmental Education," Environmental Edu- cepts to assess the probabilities of success of each ap- cation, 1:30, 1989. proach. 2. The concepts and subconcepts should be taught 6. Transeau, E.N., "Vegetation Zones of North Amer- at a variety of grade levels and in a variety of eco- ica, "lecture, The Ohio State University, Colum- logical settings to determine if relationships exist bus, 1948.

84 Fundamentalconceptsinaction.

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION: AN INTEGRATED APPROACH

DavidArchbald and PaulGundlach

SEVERAL PAPERS in the Fall 1969 issue of TABLE 1 this journal made two points abundantly clear.En- FREQUENCY OF OCCURENCE OF KEY WORDS IN vironmental education must be both () pervasive and THE 112 MOST IMPORTANT OF ROTH'S (5) (2) integrated.Southern (4) states, "It is proposed herein that if the child acquires particular broad en- ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATIONAL CONCEPTS vironmental understanding (knowledge) ) he will develop social conscience (attitudes) that will affect his behavior (actions) toward the total environment." Frequency of Key Words Covert (2) asserts, "Therefore, it is proposed that occurence an integrated, interdisciplinary, instructional program be developed in environmental education, de- 16 or moreEnvironment, Man, Populations, Re - signed to promote an environmental awareness and sources, Use (Utilize) a sociological attitude. " 11-15 Economic, Increase, Management, Na- tural Resources, Social, Technological Stapp (5) claims, "A strong understandingof how 8-10 Conservation, Culture, Development, these resources are used requires knowledge of the Individual, Knowledge, Life, Needs, slcial, political, economic, technological processes, Values institutional a, rangements, and aesthetic considera- 6-7 Affect, Change, Energy, Factors. Land, tions which govern their utilization. " Natural (Nature), Processes, Produce (Productivity), Risks, Science, Water These educators are precisely Pon-target" a s 5 Ability, Biological, Human, Levels, de:nonstrated by a word frequency count of Roth's Long-Range, Minerals, Others, Plant, ( 3 ) environmental educational concepts.' See Table 1. Policy, Political, Public, Quality, So- ciety Table 1 tells us loud and clear of the pervasive nature of the key concepts in environmental education. It is not simply contour plowing, white-tail deer present decisionmakers, and (B) sufficient pressure management, the life cycle of plants, etc., tradition- from the public for broad environmental action pro- ally known as conservation education, but the study grams. of man and his total relationship to his environment, A second startling analysis of these key environ- i.e., environmental education. A selection of key mental concepts is that 44 of the 50 most important words from Table 1 indicating the diversity of disci- concepts, as ranked by the computer, can and should plines that contribute to environmental education is be introduced in the K-6 curriculum. The grade visually presented in Figure 1. level determination was based upon the evaluation of 120 K-12 teachers.Obviously, however, these con- It is manifest that educational curricula have not cepts once introduced must extend throughout the discussed man's relationshipto his totalenvironment students' education. in terms of energy flow, values, cultural, social, political, legal, and long range quality implications, i.e., To develop an integrated curriculum, the follow- in terms of Table 1 and Figure 1.This educational ing steps are being pursued. gap has resulted in a nation of socio-ecologic illit- erates committing an unending series of ecological 1.Key environmental concepts were graded by atrocities with little thought of long-term effect. level: K-3, 4-6, 7-9, and 10-12. Furthermore, this gap has contributed to an almost total lack of development of: (A) channels for intel- 2.Concepts were grouped by relationship, i.e. , ligent environmental communication among society's economic, culture, ecology, and management.

Dr. Archbald is Managing Director of The University of Wisconsin Arboretum and on the Executive Committee of the University of Wisconsin Center for Environmental Communications and Education Studies. Mr. Grundlach is Project Director of a Title 111Elementary-Secondary Education Act Projectin Conservation Education at Co- operative Educational Service Agency 12, Portage, Wisconsin. 76 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

ENVIRONMENT

RESOURCES POPULATIONS WATER THIS IS PUBLIC TECHNOLOGY ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION POLITICAL ENERGY

FIGURE 1.Key WordsinEnvironmentalEducationStatistically Identifiedfrom the 112Key EnvironmentalEducationConcepts (Seealso Table 1.)

3.Teacher background and interpretive materials management education.They represented 40 were developed for each concept. disciplines including the sciences, humanities, and social studies.The concepts finally iden- 4. A variety of student activities are being de- tified were then rated for relevancy to environ- veloped that are relevant and highly motivating and mental education by a national pane 1 of 699 can be inductively taught. scholars ( 50% response ), corresponding to the same 40 disciplines as The University of Wis- 5.The Quick-Key technique (1), a random ac- consin scholars and representing 24 universi- cess retrieval system will be used so the teacher ties across the country. The results w er e can integrate the environmental curriculum into the computer analyzed which yielded a ranked or- existing school curriculum.That is, she w ill be der of 112 concepts from the most to the least able to identify in a few seconds, all the concepts important. and activities that relate to her subject and offer appropriate classroom and/or field activities at t he level she teaches. REFERENCES Preliminary field testing of the curriculum was conducted during the summer of 1969.This pro- 1. Archbald, David, Quick-Key Guide to Trees (New gram was followed by a 2-week in-service program York: Doubleday and Co. ,Inc. 1967). for 80 classroom teachers.The in-service program was designed to acquaint classroom teachers with 2. Covert, Douglas C., "Toward A Curriculum in the curriculum guide and familiarize them with the Environmental Education," Environmental Edu- techniques of utilizing it during the 1969-70 school cation, Vol. 1, No.1 ,(Fall 1969), p. 11. year.Based on their input, these 80 teachers are providing further refinement of the curriculum. 3. Roth, Robert E.,"Fundamental Concepts for En- vironmental Management Education (K-16 ), "En- When materials are available, further details will vironmental Education, Vol. 1, No. 3 (S pring be given in this journal. 1970), p. 65. FOOTNOTE 4. Southern, Beverly H., "Vitalizing Natural Re- sources Education," Environmental Education, 1. Roth's methodology, greatly simplified.He re- Vol. 1, No. 1 (Fall 1969), p. 29. viewed the literature for environmental c on - cepts.Then he interviewed 80 University of 5. Stapp, Wm. etal., "The Concept of Environmen- Wisconsin scholars interested, or actively ental Education," Environmental Education, Vol.1, gaged in conservation and /or envii anmental No. 1 (Fall 1969), p. 30. The changing content of conservation

WHAT'S NEW ABOUT ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION?

The Editor

Is there anything really new about environmental education. or is it simply conventional conservation education in a new bottle? Are we merely "word-merchandising," or are we in fact creating new dimensions in ecological communications? When these questions were put to a group of graduate students recently in The University of Wisconsin's Conservation Communications Program, the students were unanimous in the feeling that environmental education does indeed represent a significant new scale in the interpretation of man-land relationships. Asked then to define any changing concepts they perceive, the students developed a list of characteristics.

* * * *

YESTERDAY TODAY Compartmentalized Comprehensive To a considerable degree, conservation education has been approached from single-resource orientations. "We have had forest conservation, water conservation, soil conservation,wildlife conservation, and so on; what is more, each of these approaches has been institutionalized in various federal, state, and local instrumentalities of government or voluntary associations" (17). Environ- mental education tries to take a more encompassing view of man's environment. "We are concerned with the total environment--its social, cultural, economic, and esthetic, as well as its physical and biological aspects.The development and management of this environment requires contributions by all the arts, sciences, and professions.The essential nature of environmental education looks toward research, teaching, and service arrangements that transcend traditional lines of endeavor and are concerned with the wholeness of the relationship between man and his surroundings" (16). "This need for an integrated approach to the problems of the human environment has become apparent to the various specialists in environmental management, and is being demanded from many quarters" (7). Parochial interests Broader awareness Yesterday's conservationist was generally satisfied with limited concerns. Today we increasingly sense, for example, the connection between overpopulation in India and drained duck marshes in the Dakotas. "We are after the best possible living standard for every individual" (1)."Conser- vation is the recognition by man of his interdependence with his environment and with life ever y - where" (2)."The conservationist was once involved mostly with the natural world and the rural scenes. Today conservation has necessarily become broader" (6)."Our concern must not be limited to stewardship of farmlands, or game management, or scouting skills. We must he 1p the individual see himself as a part of a vast living ecosystem. Much of the customary conservation education and nature instruction has been narrowly concerned or directed to limited groups. Our concern should be to bring to all people the fullest realization of the We beyond self" (14). Local Global Put another way, environmental education does not stop at the boundaries of a state or the ocean edge. "Resource problems are a national concern; at the local level they frequently are obscured and fragmented by provincial issues and politics" (1)."Today we know that the world we liv e in is one biosphere and, unless we take a global view of environmental problems, our chances for survival are slim" (6). Witness, for example, "The Unforeseen International EcologicalBoom- erang," in the February 1969 issue of Natural History. "No man is an island, and no creature of any kind is independent of its habitat. Changes cannot take place in one part of the complex web of We without affecting the whole. Every proposed human change in the environment must be considered for its total effects.Ignorance of the long-term in.Arect consequences of human activities is the root of the contemporary crisis" (13). 78 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

YESTERDAY TODAY Rural Urban Whereas yesterday's conservation was generally oriented to open-country people and problems, environmental education includes megalopolis al its circumference. "The attention of the conservationist was mainly directed toward the towns and cities where people were concentrated; now cities have become focal points of our concern for a threatened decline in the quality of human life" (7). "We can no longer be satisfied with the 'outdoorsy' orientation of conservation education; we must face the cbanging nature of our population" (3)."Our approach must be broad - based and relevant particularly to urban societies" (20).The urban citizen is concerned with conservation h: his own environment--population shifts, traffic congestion, and the decay of cities, and these aspects of the total environment are just as important to man as forestry or agriculture" (3). Appended rationales Indigenous concern The first waves of conservation activities had to be linked for their support to regional economic development, depression pump-priming, or national defense. Today's concern for a sanative environment is salable on its own merits. "The frequent justification of conservation was in terms of patriotism, prosperity, national strength or greatness, democracy, and efficiency.But increasing numbers of Americans take the position that land health and beauty are desirable ends in themselves" (11). Evangelical Ecological The emotional overtones of yesterday's conservation literature are giving way to a more profound approach. There is developing "a scientific discipline concerned with the relationship of humanity to the total environment" (1)."Environmental education presents conservation as a realistic, practical, and far-sighted public policy worthy of concern by an informed electorate" (20)."Environ- mental conservation is the effort to do something about problems that arise out of conflict between man's need and capacity to engineer his environment for economic use, and the need and capacity of natural systems to adjust to the consequences" (9). Resource-centered Man-centered Yesterday's concern was often for the denizens of field and forest.Today the implications for human health are increasingly our touchstone."Conservation means not only the protection and management of natural resources but also the maintenance of sanity in the human environment" (19). "A concern for keeping the world a fit place for people is the basis for conservation today" (7). "En- vironmental education deals comprehensively with both human resources and natural resources and their relationship to each other" (5)."It is possible, of course, to study the physical nature and the biological characteristics of the environment on an infra-human basis, but the emphasis in environmental education is on the study of man as he affects and is affected by his environment, f or good or ill" (18)."The study of ecology leads conservation away from a preoccupation with resources per se and toward a consideration of man's fitness to the whole environment" (29). Terrestrial Universal Oceans of water and air have joined the land as components of the biosphere in popular understanding."It was possible 10 years ago for a text on conservation to give minor space to the problem of pollution of water and none to pollution of air.It is no longer possible" (8). Biophysical sciences Social studies "Conservation is shifting from natural science theory to social science practice" (12). What is im- plied in environmental education is the broadest approach possible, going beyond the bounds of the typical science course. "As conservation becomes more man-environment oriented, it begins to occur more frequently in social studies curricula" (20)."Curricula must provide our people with an understanding of how man controls, transforms, usea wisely, preserves, or destroys his world, or how he is dependent upon it" (2)."The present basis of relating academic study of natural science to a limited natural ecology without considering man's influence is no longer adequate. The total environment of man and all the impinging factors of interaction are of far greater significance"(3). coapel of efficiency Quest for quality "The essence of yesterday's conservation was rational planning to provide efficient development of natural resources" (10).Today the basic issue in resource conservation is not quantity but quality. Conservation has become at least as much a matter of ethics and esthetics as economics (18)."Frequently a conservation issue reduces to the question of whether the nation, with all its well-known material abilities and appetites, also possesses an esthetic and spiritual sense"(10).

8 8: SCHOENFELD 79

YESTERDAY TODAY The classic Governor's Conference of 1908 called for "conserving the resource foundations of our prosperity. " Today's semantics, at least, are dint .ent: "Our conservation challenge today is one of quality--purity of surroundings, and opportunity to stretch, a chance for solitude, for quiet reflection" (21)."The ability to perceive beauty may, in the long run, prove man's salvation"(13). Technical impetus Public involvement Where an association for the advancement of science may have ei. Nrgized conservation at the turn of the century, leagues of women voters carry it forward today.'Conservation did not arise from a broad popular outcry; conservation, above all, was a scientific movement. Conservation views did not arise from widely held assumptions and values.They came from a limited group of people with a particular set of goals who played a special role in society" (10).Today millions of Ameri- cans are expressing a deep concern about the management of their environment. As a Los Angeles business executive recently said, "I don't see how anybody can avoid getting on the conservation bandwagon." Unilateral solutions Open-ended options Under environmental education we are taking a hard look single-purpose practices with spill- over effects."Unplanned consequences of man-induced change have coalesced to create an extraordinary crisis" (13)."Conservationists have often failed to offer valid alternatives to environmental destruction" (8). We are now concerned with "the development of open-ended solutions for environmental problems, rather than short-term approaches that may actually degrade the environment" (18)."In essence, we are coming to address ourselves to laying a basis for rational actions, to elucidating the choices in land and {rater use and relating them to general values and social objectives, to instilling in people a desire for construtive change, and to providing practical guidelines characterized by integrated approaches" (18). Elementary education Adult education While interest in incorporating conservation lessons into school curricula has not abated, there is increasing attention to building adult awareness and action. We sense that the urgency of need will not be met through educational processes of normal pace and dispersion at the school level. "There is a special need for adult education programs in which new insights will be gained into the multidisciplinary character of resource problem-solving" (4). Print media All media The audio-visual media are c >ming into their own as conveyors of the conservation messages. "An effective opportunity to reach larger segments of the public lies in media and television broadcasts. They are being used increasingly by public agencies as a more available and more attractive medium than the printed word for reaching a larger number of people more frequently" (5).

Hunch Research Conservation education and communications have been lacking in compelling theories of content and methodology. Classroom techniques and mass media approaches have all too frequently been combinations of hunch, old wives' tales, and soft soap. Now we are beginning to engage in deep- digging research that will inquire profoundly into public conservation attitudes and how they are formed, into unifying concepts fundamental to ecological understanding, into innovative pedagogy, into media avenues to the new conservation publics, aid into effective themes and methods of public persuasion. "Various elements of the interpretive effort are now accepted areas of research in colleges and universities" (19). "Much research is needed to determine how best to improve the quantity and quality of the material presented" (5). Business as usual Sense of urgency_ Twenty years ago conservation was charteterized as "a sissy, with ruffled pantalettes, a May basket in her hand, and a yellow ribbon in her hair." Today a United Nations resolution addresses itself to tht "environment crisis." "Man is the agent of this ecological crisis.Because of it he is at risk. Man indeed now holds his destiny in his own hands" (15). "We :lave a vital problem in communication. The message concerns the greatest challenge with which mankind has yet to deal" (1).

Some of these characteristics may be over-stated for effect. Some are more significant than others. Some might be deleted and others added. As a working outline, however, this list of old and new outlooks in conservation may serve to stimulate discussion and definition of the emerging content, clientele, and techniques of environments: education.

8g 80 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

REFERENCES 11.Nash, Roderick,"The American and His En- vironment," Environmental Education, Winter, 1969. 1. Allen, Durward, "Needed: Citizen Conservation- ists," Environmental Education, Spring, 1270. 12.Parson, Ruben L., "Conservation in Transition," Environmental Education, Fall, 1969, pp. 25-26 2. Brer.nan, Matthew J., "Toward a Course Content Improvement," Environmental EducationFall, 13.President's Council on Recreation and Natural 1969, pp. 5-7. Beauty, "A Report of the American Environment," Environmental Education, Fall, 1969, pp. 27 -28. 3. Covert, Dc..1,;las, "Toward a Curriculum in En- vironmental Education, "Environmental Edu- 14.Replinger, Mrs. J. Sanford- "The Preparation cation,Fall,1969, pp. 11-12. of the Interpretive Natural: 3t," Environmental Education. Spring, 1970. 4. Dambach, Charles A."Conservation through Adult Education,"Environmental Education, 15.Sargent, Frederick, "Informed Forces for En- Spring, 1970. vironmental Quality," Environmental Education, Spring, 1970. 5. Dana, Samuel T., "Strengthening Environmental Education," Environmental Education, Fall, 16.Schoenfeld, Clarence A. "Environmental Edu- 1969,pp. 13-14. cation and the University," Educational Record, Summer 1968, pp. 309-310. 6. Dasmann, Raymond F. , "An Environment Fit for People: The New Meaning of Conservation, " 17.Schoenfeld, Clay, "Educating the Public in Nat- Environmental Education, Fall, 1969, pp. 15-16. ural Resources, " Journal of Soil and Water Con- servation November-December, 1968, p. 31. 7. Dasmann, Raymond F. , "Frontiers in Environ- mental Conservation," Environmental Educa- tion Winter, 1969. 18.Schoenfeld, Clarence A., "The What and Why of Environmental Studies," Environmental Ed- ucation Winter, 1969. 8. Hansen, Roger P. ,"How to Win Conservation Battles," Environmental Education, Spring, 19.Shomon, Joseph J. , "Interpretive Research, " 1970. Environmental Education, Winter, 1969.

9. Harrison, Gordon, "The Ecological View, " 20.Southern, Beverly H. ,"Vitalizing Natural Re- Environmental Education, Fall, 1969, pp. 19-20. sources Education, " Environmental Education Fall, 1969, p. 30.

10.Hays, Samuel P. ,Conservation and the Gospel 21.Udall, Stewart, The Population C ha lle ng e, of Efficiency (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard (Washington, D.C. :Conservation Yearbook No. University Press, 1959), p. 2. 2, U. S. Department of Interior, 1966), p. 80.

9 O 1- 74e Sdodd Ee 0 of a IIIEp Iva oameatai Edeaateda

I N THE past, our schools have been asked to support a series of national goals-the melting pot, prosperity, depression pump-priming, national defense, the conquest of space, and so on. Today's mission is nothing less than human survival. To do something about environmental conservation, redevelopment, and maintenance requires a sense of husbandry, a sense of responsibility on the part of every American citizen that man-land ethic or "ecological conscience' which Aldo Leopold bespoke.It is unthinking people who pollute the environment; it is thinking people who can effect a "new conservation": to restore as well as to protect, to bring beauty to the cities as well as to keep it in the countryside, to handle the waste products of technology a s well as the waste of natural resources, to halt the massive deterioration in the American environment. We are talking then, about environmental educatio.:: a recognition by man of Ms interdependence with his environment and all of life, and his responsibility for developing a culture which maintains that r e I at io n s h ip through policies and practices necessary to secure the future of an environment fit for life andfit for living. In V"schools we are at the point where education in the physical sciences was 125 years ago, when scientists weo. hating whether a course in physics would be useful or whether it would be just as feasible to continue work i.atural philosophy. We are at the point where a program in environmental management needs organization.Such a program should deal broadly with the development of a conservation literacy, aimed at contributing to a general knowledge of resource management science, technology ,history ,organization, and philosophy, and to a basic understanding of current issues and problems calling for intelligent citizen decisions. We are turning out too man; engineers that are ecologically ignorant and esthetically insensitive, and too many biologists that are sociologically and economically naive. Our major goal should be to help pupils develop broad ideas and concepts useful in approaching resource problems. U anything, the program shouldemphasizethatre- source management issues are not simple and the answers not easy; yet, that in the absence of a concensus on definitions and viewpoints, the educated man has a particular obligation to confront the problems involved wit h ad the ecological facts and ethical considerations he can bring to bear. It is clear that the content of environmental education is qualitatively different than the content of the older conservation education.The confirming research was conducted by Dr. Robert Roti: in his PhD thesis under the supowision of Prof. Milton Pella of the University of Wisconsin School of Education.It is hard to overempha- size the contribution of this research to meaningful environmental education.Greatly simplified, Roth's meth - odolof,y was as follows: He reviewed the literature for environmental concepts. Then he interviewed eighty Uni- verety of Wisconsin scholars interested or actively engaged in conservation and/or environmental education. Th'.y represented forty disciplines, including the sciences, humanities, and social studies. The conceptsfinally P,entified then were rated for relevancy to environmental education by a national panel of 350 scholars c or r e- sponding to the same forty disciplines as the University scholars and representing twenty-four universitiesacross the country. The results were computer-analyzed, yielding a ranked order of 112 concepts, from the most to th least important. Upon further analysis of the 112 concepts, several things were especially revealing. First, a count of the words most frequently used clearly showed the breadth, or interdisciplinary nature, demanded in environmental management. Consider how broad a spectrum is covered by some of the most frequently used words in th es e key concepts: environment, man, population, resources, economic, social, culture, individual. life, need s, v al u e s, long-range, political, public, quality, and society. The point is clear. Environemental management is NOT simply contour plowing, white-taildeer management, and life cycles of plants. That is,it is not the narrow focus traditionally labeledconservation. Instead, environmehtal management is of the broadest scope in that it requires an understanding of man and his total relationshipto his environment. The second startling revelation from analysis of these key environmental concepts is that forty-four of the fifty most important concepts, as ranked by the computer, can and should be introduced in the kindergarten through sixth-grade curriculum. The grade level determination was based upon the evaluation of 120 kindergarten through twelfth-grade teachers.Obviously, however, ttese concepts once introduced must extend throughout the student's education.It is manifestthat educational curricula have not discussed man's relationship to his total environment in terms of energy flow, values, cultural, social, political, legal, and long-range quality implications. Nor have we provided any significant environmental instruction at the kindergarten throughsixth-grade

91.1s 82 level.These educational gaps have resulted in a nation of socio-ecologic illiter:lies committing an unending series of ecological atrocities with little thought of long-term effect.Furthermore.these gaps have cca. ributed to an almost total lack of communication among society's present decision-makers, and insufficient press, re f r o m the public for broad environmental action programs, says Dr. David Archbald. Some of the more pertinent problems identified by William Stapp in the path of a successful national of fort directed toward environmental education for youth through instructional programs (K-12) are a general lack of: ( 1 ) a coherent philosophy of environmental education among leaders in the f i e ld of conservation education; (2) teacher interest and background in environmental education; (3) school administrators dedicated to environmental educational programs for school systems; (4) existing programs that focus on environmental education; (5) well-conceived instructional material directed toward environmental education; (6) textbook orientation to environmental educatio:(7) individuals trained to serve as environmental educational consultants for school systems; (8) collegiate programs that provide adequate training in environmental education; (9) citizen concern in environmental education; (10) national, state, and local leadership in environmental education; (11) coordination among private and public conservation organizations; (12) a continuing information system directed toward environmental education. Yet all is not black. Weare beginning to make progress.This chapter presents clear evidence from around the country that our nation's schools are beginning to encompass environmental education policies and practices. Environmentaleducation programs and opportunitiesthrough theU.S.Officeof Education.

NEW HORIZONS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

WilhelminaHilland Roy C.White

AS MAN REACHES out into space, probes sources as forests, lakes, or swamps. Outdoor ed- the depths of the ocean, and t-ies to renew the en- ucation centers, such as the one at High Roc k on vironment for living in its .iities, environmental Staten Island, New York, offer opportunities for educat ion is reaching for new dimensions. The im- children of New York City to visit a nature area provement of the quality of man's surroundings, re- with the guidance of naturalists.At such a center, duction of pollution, and accomodation to population inner city children often see many birds andanimals increases and problems require studies in depth. A other than the pigeons, starlings, and sparrows or high priority is essential for educational programs even rats that inhabit their home nieghborhoods. One that deal with new developments and problems relat- little girl reported, "this is the first time I've seen ed to man and the new technology. all the way around a horse." From first-hand knowledge and experience, children may gain not on ly Quality control of the environment is one of the knowledge but appreciationDf their natural resources. basic needs of mankind. Preservation and enhancement of our natural resources go hand in hand with Responsibility for improvement of the environ- resource use developments that will benefit people. ment and for attaining real action may often be Survival on this planet i.s dependent upon man's will- learned effectively through actual experiences. ingness to cope with these problems. Through participation in school groundand neighbor- hoodconservation or beautification projects, child- Some of the most serior., pollution problems with ren learn skills and develop interests in environmental which we are now faced are in the areas of air pol- improvement. Conservation then can become a way lution, noise, water pollution, and landscape dese- of life. cration. Due to technology and population increases, some of these kinds of pollution are becoming ex- A striking illustration of pupil participation in tremely serious and difficult or impossible to c o n- conservation was carried out in the Shore and Ma- trol. rine Environmental Program at the Sandy Hook State Park in New Jersey. Among other activities, the When 20th century man ventures into space, lands children planted large numbers of used Christmas on the moon, or explores the ocean resources, he trees from New York City along ,.he barrier beach. must cope with new environmental conditions and The trees were planted at such an angle as to catch problems. Wherever people have clustered into ur- sand and start the building of sand dunes. The pro- ban centers, large or small, environmental problems ject director, Richard Cole, reports that during a have been encountered. And these people represent recent storm the part of the beach where the trees approximately three-fourths of the population in our were planted withstood the wind and waves best. country. Environmental pollution problems may be studied The new environmental education is resultingfrom entirely through the use of textbook or lecture meth- the crucial needs and problems of man in relation to ods. Not so in the classes of Dr. Phyllis Busch of his environment.It is people centered and includes Project Spruce at Pine Planes, New York. Whe n urban as well as rural areas.Natural resources providing instruction about air pollution in inner city their uses, preservation, and enhancementare con- classrooms of mid-Hudson New York State, she sidered in their relationship to people. takes the children into the streets and city squares. There they note the degree and types of air pollution, School children as well as adults require many take samples on moist blotters or cloth, observe the opportunities to become aware of such natural resources of pollution, and consider ways in which it

Dr. Hill is Coordinator for Environmental Education, U.S. Office of Education.Dr. White is an Office of Education Fellow who was on leave from the University of Montana, Missoula, until last June SO. 84 THE JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

The floating laboratory ship Fury II leaves daily from Newport Beach Harbor on Balboa Island. could be controlled or reduced. On rainy days the improved education programs in this rapidly devel- sampling may be made by similar methods on w in- oping resource area from the oceans of the world. dow sills.Every child has a role to play in these problem solving activities.In such discovery meth- In the bureau of Higher Education, fellowships ods of learning, textbooks, reference books, maga- have been and are being awarded in the support of zines, films, television, and many other media are graduate studies in Oceanography and Marine Science. used as appropriate for the learners.The teacher's Last year approximately 49 fellowships were award- contributions are of value.However, the pupil is ed in this field. central, and the out-of-door resources, teachers, and communication media are the means to help him As an outcome of the increased focus on environ- learn about the natural environment and 'Ais relation- mental education, some curriculum guides have been ship to it. produced or are in the process of development. 1 :,e State departments of education of South Carolina, Oceanography and marine science are meriting Louisiana, and Colorado are among those which have increased attention by students.The ocean world published such guides. its resources and its problemsis being probed as never before as a source of food, minerals, water, The ecological approach to environmental educa- and energy. While students study the ocean, man- tion is believed to `loll considerable promise. Some agement problems related to uses and pollution are progress in this direction has been made by an ex- increasing. perimental planning project in the Arlington and Alexandria, Virginia public schools.Outstanding Orange County children of California have been ecologists from the Smithsonian Institution and local learning about the ocean's characteristics, re - universities have been working with the school people sources, and pollution problems through an ocean- on this project. ography center at Santa Ana. The floating laboratory ship, Fury II, leaves Newport Beach harbor at Bal- Concept development is important in environmental boa Island daily with groups of 30 or 40 children and as well as other curriculum areas.Various forms their teachers. The junior high school groups have of generalized knowledge have greater significance 4-hour and the senior high 8-hour cruises. They and more likelihood of retention by the learner than divide into six or seven groups to study and record factual knowledge only.These concepts and gener- findings about plankton, water temperatures at vari- alizations can be designed to run through the envi- ous depths, sea birds, seals, types of pollution car- ronmental curriculum as threads or strands in a ried by the tides, and kinds of things netted from the more or less spiral order. ocean floor.Some of their findings are recorded and reported daily to science people in the area as People concerned with various aspects of envi- valuable information. ronmental education have been identifying and publishing basic concepts and understandings w hic h A training project is being carried out on a ves- could be useful in curriculum development. A spe- sel anchored in the Washington, D.C. area. Here cial ts...:o of the Grade Teacher on ecology contains 120 unemployed, disadvantaged young people are be- one article that identifies four basic ecological con- ing given training to prepare them as oceanographic cepts as well as other materials gleaned from out- aides.This project is sponsored by the U.S. Office door education programs in Minnesota, Missouri, of Education under the Manpower Development and Idaho, and Connecticut. A fairly recent doctoral Training Act. dissertation at the University of Montana (by one of the authors of this article ) presents a comprehensive Approximately 15 oceanography and marine sci- treatment of "conservation understandings associ- ence centers have been funded through Title HI of ated with community resources." the Elementary and Secondary Education Act. They are helping many school systems develop new or In concept development, it is well to keep in min,' 94 HILL and WHITE 85 that one cannot teach concepts to people.Concepts New Jersey.Currently a Prospective Teacher Fel- develop within the individual as the result of his ed- lowship Program in the same field, leading to a Mas- ucational experiences. ter of Arts Degree, is being carried out through four cooperating institutions: Trenton State College, Curriculum workers are as muchconcerned with Glassboro State College, Montclair State College, and human society and the quality of our environment the New Jersey State School of Conservation. as with the use of natural resources. As technology increases in sophistication, there is an apparent de- The momentum thus far gained for contemporary crease in the quality of our environment. No longer environmental education cannot be increased only can conservation education be concerned only with through curriculum development and teacher educa- problems relevant to the proper use of natural r e - tion.There is still another facet of the educational sources.It must also become more concernedwith community that must be considered before a compre- social and health problems resulting from a rapidly hensive environmental education program can become increasing population and from an affluent society. fully operational. The schools in a community usually reflect the educational philosophy of that com- The educational community can, and must, pro- munity.If this is a valid assumption, we need to alert vide action oriented programs of environmental ed- parents and other residents of a community aboutthe ucation for young people.The students of today urgent need for including environmental education in must become more cognizant ofthe consequences the school curriculum. School administartors, school they will face tomorrow if the environment is allow- governing bodies, and parents must support the envi- ed to become more polluted and the quality of the en- ronmental education program if it is to be effective. vironment is allowed to deteriorate further. Unfortunately, community support for environmental education is sometimes lacking. Since all people are affected by their environment, it seems essential that all people become more aware Many community resources can be incorporated of their environment and their relation with it. There- into an environmental education program. Resources fore, environmental education does not lend itself such as people, places, and things are available in only to a single subject, but may be incorporated in- all communities and if properly utilized can enhance to the total curriculum. It is importanthowever that t he curriculum. Resource people residing in the this incorporation into the total curriculum not place school community may be availableand willingto the teaching of environmental education in a subor- assist teachers and administrators with their envi- dinate position, as has sometimes happened in the ronmental education program.Pe) 3ons knowledge- past. able about conservation may be enlisted to serve as classroom visitors or assist with trips to natural ar- Many subject areas offer opportunities for the eas.Thus, two kinds of community resourc- integration of environmental educational concepts. espeople and field study sitescould be included However, to accomplish this effectively, consideration in environmental programs. must be given to another aspect of the educational Some outdoor education projects currently re- spectrum, that is to teacher education. ceive assistance from employees of state and national conservation agencies.These personnel may be At the present time many colleges and universi- employed by fish and game departments, state and ties have courses related to environmental education national forests and parks, and public health agen- available for teachers, or other students.Few of cies.College and university professors may also these institutions require or recommend that these be available to assist with local environmental stu- courses be studied by prospective teachers.If we dies.Each community could identify available re- are to have young people educated about the relation- source personnel for its geographic area. ship of man with his environment, we need classroom teachers who are somewhat knowledgeable about con- Field study sites may be in a wide variety of ar- cepts of human ecology. To accomplish this goal, eas, school grounds being the most accessible. Much colleges and universities should accept the challenge study of the students' environmentcan be undertaken of improving their curricula in environmental edu- on the local school grounds and surrounding neighbor- cation.This could be done by providing expanded hood.These areas, where available, should be used and improved programs in environmental education as extensively as possible. and requiring that some courses in this field be stu- In many environmental education programs, field died by all prospective teachers, along with expand- study sites, whether large or small, are selected ed summer programs for experienced teachers. away from the school. Some schools take their stu- Through the Education Professions Development dents to national parks and forests, while others go Act, funds have been made available for proposals to local parks, lakes, or vacant lots within the com- related to the education of teachers, including the munity.The students may stay at these field study area of conservation and evnironmental studies. U- sites for a few hours to a full week, or longer.Sea- niversities, states, and local school systems may sonal changes in the environment are observed by apply for financial aid through this act.Fellowship students in some programs as sites are visited sev- programs, both at prospective and experienced teach- eral times in a school year. er levels, provide an opportunity for full-time edu- Some programs involve the students during sev- cational programs in a variety of fields, including eral weeks of the summer. The Summer Ecology those closely related to environmental education. Program at Deer Lodge, Montana, provides the opportunity for Powell County High School students to One Experienced Teacher Fellowship Program study ecology for 4 weeks in the out-of-doors. The in Outdoor Education and Conservation was held in students in the summer outdoor education program

9.5 86 THE JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION Student activities at "Land Between the Lakes. "

program. Each year since 1965-66 more than $1 billion has gone to serve underachievers from low- income families. More than 16,000 of the Nation's school districts participate. Because of Title I, ESEA, many children w ho have never before had an opportunity to walk in a forest or see wildlife in its natural habitat are now having these experiences.Dozens of camping facilities are operating all year round, serving children from low-income families from t he impoverished areas of the inner cities.Hundreds more operate during the summertime. There are nature andcon- servation camps, day camps, sleep-away camps, laboratories and science camps operating throughout the country with the support of Title I, ESEA. In addition, during warm weather, some classes are also held outdoorsin places like Tiffin and Springfield, Ohio; Memphis, Tennessee; and Garrett, Maryland. The outdoor camping programs are, generally, operated by local school districtsfrom Los Angeles and Seattle, to Detroit and New York City. In addition to the camps there are mobile science laboratories through which students are exposed to those areas of science which can be most directly related to their environmentrdarine biology, astronomy, and earth science. A typical project of this type serves the island, Martha's Vineyard. at Cedar Rapids, Iowa, have continuing classroom Title III, ESEA, whichfunds innovative center pro- activities during the following school year. jects, has made possible the funding of approximately Some programs furnish children the opportunity 110 outdoor education projects.These have included to live in an outdoor areafor several continuous days. such varied projects as the Oceanographic Education Such experiences are provided for students near Center at Falmouth, Massachusetts; Suffolk Environ- Golden Pond, Kentucky,at "Land Between the Lakes." mental Biology Center, Port Jefferson, New York; Other students from Marshfield, Wisconsin;Alber- the Conservation and Environmental Science Center ton, Montana; and North Bend, Washington, also for Southern New Jersey at Browns Mills; the Pro- gram of Outdoor Education for southern Idaho (office live at outdoor camps for several days at a time. at American Falls), the Napa Experimental Forest Other environmental education programs limit education center in California; an ecological oriented the field experiences for children to short visits to conservation project at Missoula, Montana, which outdoor sites, or to several visits to the same area includes habitat improvement; and Project Introspec- during the school term,This type of program can tion, dealing with the cultural, historical, and natural be observed at Media, Pennsylvania; Newark, Dela- resources of the Virgin Islands. ware; and Missoula, Montana. Over a period of 3 years, Title I of the Higher The variety of outdoor education programs r e - Education Act has provided funds for over 150 pro- fleets the philosophies of the communities an d in- grams in areas of environmental education, includ- dicates the resources available within communities. ing planning, beautification, land us e , and con- It is encouraging to observe that many schools are servation. These grants are available for community providing diverse opportunities for their students to services and continuing education projects through gain experiences related to their environment.It is designated State agencies and are to utilize the re- also obvious that many schools are utilizing resources sources of colleges and universities to help solve within the community to enhance their environment- problems relating to the quality of the environment. al education programs. Other Office of Education programs which have environmental education aspects or opportunities The U.S. Office of Education provides a wide var- include: iety of services and administers fiscal aid assigned Elementary and Secondary Education Act, Titles to it through federal aid legislation. A good many II, V, and VIII of these programs are available for environmental Bureau of Research (especially Small Projects education. Some have been used f or developing a of the Regional Research Program) substantial number of conservation/environmental Health, Physical Education, and Recreation pro- projects. The resources of others are just begin- gram (Bureau of Elementary and Secondary Ed- ning to be applied to this rapidly developing field. ucation) Title I, of the Elementary and Secondary Education Manpower Development and Training Act Act is the Nation's largest Federal aid-to-education Office of Construction Services 96 "Conservation education inCalifornia: A progressreport."

TOWARD AN ENVIRONMENTAL ETHIC Rudolph J.H. Schafer A FAVORED technique for encouraging a horse At the 1966 Senate hearings the status of conserva- or mule to greater efforts is to dangle a juicy carrot be- tion education in California was studies in detail, and fore him just out of reach of his ever-advancing jaws. it was determined that, despite the few bright spots The current situation in conservation education in Cal- noted, the statewide situation was far from satisfac- ifornia might well be described by using this homely tory. A program of improvement with more effective illustration. We have made, and are making, many sig- statewide leadership by the Department of Education nificant advances but at the same time,. ur environmen- was recommended. tal problems are increasing at such a rate that much As an outg, zwth of the Senate hearings, a plan- of what we accomplish may soon be negated. ning conference was held at Asiolomar Conference Even though we recognize that no matter how hard Center near Monterey, California, July 9- 1 1 ,1966. we run, that carrot will probably always be just out of Staff personnei from the Senate Committees, legis- reach, we can take some satisfaction in out accomplish- lators, educators, conservationists, and industry ments to date as we redouble our efforts toward bring- representatives were invited.Plans and programs ing about the day when all people will recognize their designed to improve and encourage conservation ed- personal responsibility for caringfor our environment ucation in the Golden State were discussed, and a and its resources and will be willing and able to take the report containing basic recommendations was issued. action necessary to preserve and enhance them. In May, 1967, the State Board of Education activated Perhaps the most important reason for the progress an advisory committee consisting of representatives we have made to date in California is the growing inter- of industry, government, education, and private con- est and concern on the part of the general public in en- servation agencies to study in detail the problems i- vironmental problems and the role education must play dentified by the Senate Committee and the Asilomar in solving them. Organizations such as California To- Conference and to make specific recommendations for morrow, the Sierra Club, California Conservation solving them.In its Charge to the Committee, the Council, Audubon Society, California Parent Teachers State Board of Education requested that these specific Association as well as resource orientedfederal and areas, among others, be studied in detail: state agencies and responsible elements of the busi- 1. Teacher training both at the undergraduate and ness community have been largely responsible for inservicr levels. this growing public awareness and concern. 2. Cooperation with governmental, industrial , and It might well be said that the modern age in private organizations in providing worthwhile printed conservation education in California began official- materials, films, field trips, and other resources for ly in March of 1966 with the State Senate Joint Edu- teacher and student use. cation and Natural Resources Committee hearings 3. The conservationcontent of State adopted texts. on the subject "A Program of Conservation Educa- 4, The role of the State Department of Education and tion for the Department of Education." Prior to the Resources Agency in Conservation Education. this time, conservation was a permissive subject 5. The possibility of establishing pilot conservation in the schools of the State and minimal leadership education programs at various locations in the State. and assistance was supplied to local school districts by the Department of Education and the California On July 5, 1967, Dr. Max Rafferty, State Super- Resources Agency. Hugo Fisher, former adminis- intendent of Public Instruction and Mr. Norman trator of the Resources Agency, had as far back as Livermore, Jr. , Administrator of the State Resourc- 1963, urged the Department of Education to take a es Agency issued a joint statement of conservation more active role of leadership in the conservation education.In this statement Mr. Livermore and education field, but for lack of funds and personnel, Dr. Rafferty agreed to pool the resources of their this was not done.The only legal requirement for respective organizations under the leadership of the conservation instruction in the schools was that "Con- Department of Education in an effort to provide the servation, Bird, and Arbor Day" was to be observed best possible program of conservation for the public each year with appropriate educational activities. schools of California. Despite this official lack of interest, some good In October, 1967, Rudolph J.H. Schafer, at the programs were under way in several local school dis- time, Conservation Education Specialist with the Los tricts throughout the State. San Diego City and County Angeles City Schools, was appointed project coordi- Schools, for example, established a resident outdoor nator to work full time with the Conservation Educa- school in 1948 enabling most of their sixth graders to tion Advisory Committee and to serve as Conservation participate in a week- long environmental education Education Consultant to the State Department of Educa- program. Lo ig Beach City and Los Angeles City estab- tion. Mr. Schafer assumed his duties in Sacramento lished similar programs and many districts made an on January 2, 1968. Funds for committee operations effort to include some conservation instruction in the and staff personnel were supplied by a federal grant fourth-grade-California studies unit. The overall pic- under the terms of the Elementary and Secondary Ed- ture, however, was not too encouraging. ucation Act, Title V. Mr. Schafer is Consultant in Conservation Educa ion to the California State Department of Education. 97J. 88 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION Up to this point, conservation instruction was per- must be planned to emphasize the economic, political, mitted in the schools but not required except on one and sociological aspects of conservation as well as day of the yearConservation, Bird and Arbor Day. the ecological and technological. All this was changed in May of 1968 when the Governor signed Senate Bill 1 (Miller) into law which overhauled 5. A frameword showing how conservation instruc- tha entire State schoolcurriculum structure. Inc luded tion may be integrated in the curriculum in many sub- in this legislation was a requirementthat adopted ject areas and grade levels should be produced by the courses of study must provide for instruction in "... State Department of Education to assist local districts protection and conservation of resources" at appro- in planning programs suited to local needs. priate grade levels and subject areas grades 1-12 and 6. Efforts must be made to convince classroom teach- that"... man's relation to his human and natural envi- ers that they are the key to a successful conservation ronment" shall be part of the social sciences program. education program. Strong efforts at the preservice and inservice training levels must be made to provide teach- Shortly thereafter, Senate Bill 206 (Moscone and ers with the background knowledge and specific teaching Marks) was also signed by the Governor establishing skills necessary to assume this role of leadership. a conservation education service in the Department of Education and authorizing planning grants to local 7. Adequate materials are essential to an effective districts to develop new conservation and outdoor educa- program. The State Curriculum Commission is urged tion programs. No funds were provided for these pur- to insist upon a strong emphasis on conservationwhen poses but the conservation education service duties were appropriate in all textbooks adopted for school use. The assigned to Mr. Schafer as a part of the Title V project. State Department is urged to expand and keep current the bibliography of free and inexpensive conservation As may be expected, the new conservation educa- education materials and the list of films andfilmstrips tion requirement stimulated quite a bit of activity on begun as a part of the Committee study. These studies the local level. Many new programs and projects were should be made readily available to county offices and started and this trendcontinues to date. As a result the collected materials should be available for study at of this increased activity, the demand for assistance various locations throughout the State. from the Department of Education and the various resource management agencies in California increased 8. The resident outdoor education program is re- dramatically.There appears to be no slowdown in cognized as a most effective method of helping chil- sight in the demand for such services. dren develop an awareness of their interrelationship with their environment. The Committee urges the In September of 1969, the ConservationEducation legislature, state and federal resource agencies, and Advisory Committee presented their recommendations the Department of Education to cooperate in making together with c omplete d reports and studies to the Cal- this experience available to all students at least once ifornia State Board of Education. Among their major recommendations: during their school career. 1. California today stands at an environmental cross- 9. A great reservoir of potential assistance in the roads. Although much of the Golden State has been ir- form of publications, field trips, and technical as- reparably damaged or destroyed through past greed, sistance is available to the schools from governmen- neglect, and ignorance, much of value remains.The tal agencies, industry, and private conservation future lies in the hands of present and future genera- groups. A close working relationshipbetween these tions. Children must be helped through an effective con- groups and educators at state, county, and local servation education program, to acquire the skills, levels is essential. knowledge, an" ,Ititudes n .tessary to the development At this point in time, fall 1969, it is still too early of an acceptable environmental ethic if we expect to to determine what effect the Advisory Committee re- continue living here in any degree of healthand com- port will have on the Board of Education, the legis- fort. The Committee considers the encouragement and ture, the schools of California, or the general public. developmentof sucheducational programs to be de- What the future holds is by no means certain.The serving of the highest priority. consultant position in the Department of Education 2. The State Board of Education and the State Depart- is funded through fiscal 1969-70 under ESEA Title V. ment of Education should, with financial assistance What happens after that is by no means clear. A bill from the legislature, assume the strong role of lead- in the legislature to provide $125, 000 to operate the ership in the field of conservation education required service and to make limited planning grants to local by law. A State supported consultant positionwith ai school districts died in committee during the 1969 adequate operating budget is considered a minimum. A session.Local programs may suffer as a result of close working relationship with county school offices, a shortage of funds. The governmental agencies, pri- local school districts, industry, governmental agencies, vate conservation agencies, and the business com- and private conservation agencies should be establish- munity are also caught in the financial crunch when ed and maintained to provide the Department with the expanded services and increased materials are call- support and assitance it will need in this leadership role. ed for. Clearly adequate financial support in many 3. Financial assistance and leadership is also needed areas is needed if California is to continue the prog- from the legislature to enable local districts to de elop ress made in conservation education over the past facilities, plan, and operate effective conservation ed- few years. To slip back now when we have come so ucation programs. The legislature has authorized the far would be indeed tragic. Department of Education to make planning grants to Victor Hugo once said, "Nothing in this world is local districts to developconservation education pro- so powerful as an idea whose time has come." Has grams (Education Code 6011.5) but has not provided the time arrived for conservation education in Cali- funds for the purpose. fornia? Will the means be found to continue the prog- 4. Recognizing that conservation is a social regard- ress made thus far? In the months to come we shall ing the common environment, local school programs have our answer. 98 .,) Teaching about people and their environment.

THE CONCEPTUAL FIELD TRIP

MatthewJ. Brennan

SINCE EDUCATORS first directed their attention ementary science sequence, than through a unit taught to the idea of helping children develop concepts rath- a day or longer. er than filling their minds with facts, the "concepts" approach has found general acceptance. Textbooks, For example, at The Pinchot Institute, many inter- elementary science projects, and more recently a esting field trips are taken with children at all levels. series of teachers' curriculum guides for conserva- With kindergartners, the Institute has had great suc- tion education, have been developed under the South cess with a 10-minute trip to see three trees. One is Carolina Curriculum Improvement Project using the big and tall and straight, the forester's dream tree. same concepts. 1Even so, in the field, teachers still The second is a hemlock that blew down in a storm sev- stuff their pupils with facts. Some interpretive nat- eral years ago. Its roots are still intact and the tip uralists in the park and forest programs for the public has turned up toward the sun. (Or is it away from the also go in for the "whole load approach." A teacher, pull of gravity?) The third tree was bent over when an- forester, or park naturalist may take a group out in- other fell on it in a storm. Three of its side branches are to the field and proceed to tell the children numerous now growing upright. facts he has learned during his formal education and At the kindergarten level, we are told that children work experience, in a period of 1 hour or less. cannot develop a concept of plant response to sunlight. At some resident outdoor educationprograms, the That is generally done in third grade ( or is it fourth?) children get the "whole load" on a different area of by putting a box over a geranium plant in the classroom science every day (sometimes two a day). On a trip window. Nevertheless, when the 5-year-olds are asked through a national park or forest, the child or visitor what they have learnedfrom seeing these trees,several may be exposed to all about the geology, soils, plants. in the class will invariably say. " All of the trees a r e animals, and the type of conservation which the man- trying to get up to the sun. " aging agency prat; Ices oa the area. Theresult is that The other concepts necessary to an understanding children in school and summer tourists are environ- of forestry can be developed just as easily as the child mentally illiterate-they have no concepts of environ- progresses through elementary school science.Last ment and particularly their own interdependence with May, a different kind of "conceptual field trip" was the environment. If the conceptual approach is accept- tried with students from an Oregon school. As it be- able for textbooks, teachers' guides, and media mate- gan, the children were asked to look for two things: rials, why not try it for teaching and learning in the (1) evidence of change (concept: living things and the field-in the natural science laboratory? A "concep- environment are in constant change); and (2) evidence tual field trip," can be used effectively, lasting 5 to that one living thing is dependent on another-that living 10 minutes, off erir g a child acquaintance with a single things are dependent on one another, or. interdependent. concept of the environment. In this way, rather than (Concept: living things are interdependent with their en- the "whole loa 1" the teacher can present a sequen- vironment and each other. ) tially planned series of field experiences which will lead to development of sever alc one epts of environment. The directions for the 10-minute field trip were simple: " In the next 10 minutes, find as many examples as In an analysis of the "whole load " presentation you can of change and dependence. " The children r e - of several foresters, explaining the reasons for block grouped after 10 minutes. They were loaded down with cutting of Douglas fir, black walnut; or cherry, why dead leaves, flowers, and seeds. The students saw all not prepare a list of the concepts they briefly mention: kinds of changes, and discussed how these were caused. germination on mineral soil, response to sunlight, tol- They decided that changes in living things were: erance to shade, effects of crowding, and thinning. These concepts can be better developed in a planned el- 1. natural( species ) buds flowers"

The author, a consulting editor of this journal, is Editor of People and Their Environment and a special consultant to the U. S. Office of Education. This paper first appeared in the March 1970 issue of Science and Children. 99 90 ENVIRONMENTALEDUCATION seeds dead remains; just as quickly developed through this type of experience.In the very short time spent on the field trip, 2. natural (caused by other living things)chew- the children are beginning to develop the third major ed, sucked, mined leaves; concept of environmentliving things are theproduct of their heredity and their environment. This con- 3. physicalstorm, erosion, flood, time; cept also applies to populations of organisms. What would happen if an animal ate all the leaves of atree? 4. chemicalpH, mineral deficiency, salt spray; If man killed all grouse? Why are two Sitka spruce trees different? Two daisies? Two sixth 5. man-caused (In another hour the chtldr en graders? might have decided that man-made changes are also natural.Is not man a natural animal?) This type of field trip means a new role for the teacherbut it is an enjoyable one.All he has to do The children further decided that changes are go- is direct his students to new experiences and help them ing on all the time.Living things change, environ- explore unknown environments.Let them develop ments change, sixth graders change, constantly. their own concepts of environment. Then every new experience they have in the environment in the future Concepts of dependence and interdependence are will reinforce their concept or cause it to be modified.

100 "Bigger than allindoors."

ABOUT PROJECT "SPRUCE"

Phyllis S.Busch

THERE WAS an air of excitement among the Another day the children learned about dill e r - children as they filed out of their fourth-grade class- ences in textures by feeling things.They walked room one clear spring day. When they were outside, from tree to ti ee, feeling the various barks with they hurried over to the privet hedge that surrounded their fingertips.They compared the rough texture the playground and peered at it closely.Spaced out of two Norway maples with that of a slender birch along the hedge were clear plastic bags which t he nearby. They made bark rubbings by placing a children had tied firmly on some of the branches. sheet of tracing paper over a section of bark and Under the guidance of their teacher they had closed rubbing the side of a crayon across the pope r some bags over dead twigs and others over live ones Each kind of tree produced its own distinctive pat- in an experiment to learn whether moisture is given tern.Indoors, the children could readily d is t in- off by leaves.The children shook the bag s and guish the maple rubbing from that of the birch. made notes about the amount of water in each bag. Some were only slightly moist; some containedquite On a day when it appeared that t he sparrows a lot of water; but all the dead ones were dry. were chirping more actively than usual the teacher called this to the children' s attention and they troop- On another day, this same class went for a walk ed outside. Each found a "listening spot" fro m in a nearby field.It was pleasant outside, but very which they could concentrate on the sounds around windy. They were enjoying the outing, especially them. They agreed that they could hear the spar- the feel of the breezes ruffling their hair. The ir rows better, as well as other things, w hen they teacher hadn't told them what she had in mind, but were really attentive to sound. finally she stopped them and asked from which direction the wind was blowing. There was a differ- When it began to rain, the children listened to ence of opinion among the children. One boy pointed the different sounds as the rain splashed ont he to the flag waving on the roof of the school; another leaves and on the ground.Before they went indoors suggested an opposite direction.Finally, the teach- the teacher asked them how rain tastes.Mouths er reminded them of the dandelions that dotted t he wide open, they collected a few drops. Some chil- field.The blooms had gone to seed and the teacher dren looked surprised and they were all amused. suggested that the students each pick one of the "blowballs" and watch where the wind scattered the This class has become used to studying science- soft feathery seeds. Later in the day they checked the conservation both indoors and outdoors.Their ex- wind direction again to see whether it had changed. At citement is reflected is the joy they show when they the suggestion of their teacher each of them took a deep make their own discoveries, either in their class- breath of fvesh air before they returned to their classroom or in the open.They have learned to investi- room for a lively discussion about where w,nds blow gate their environment by using all their senses: from andwhere they blow to. The children alsotalked sight, smell, taste, hearing, and touch. about the scents and particles that the air carries. Project S. P. R. U. C. E. , a federally sponsored The next day they discussed air pollution, and program (Title III, E. S. E.A. ) is introducing such went outside to observe pollutants in the making. science-conservation teaching approaches in elemen- Their teacher tied a clean square of cloth over her tary schools. S. P. R. U. C. E. stands for Science Pro- car vxhaust, turned the ignition on, and let the motor ject Related to Upgrading Conservation Education. The rnn for 30 seconds. She removed the cloth and held it emphasis is on extending science-conservation inves- up for the children to inspect. In the center was a tigations to the outdoor environment because t he circle of black deposit which the cloth had trapped. world is bigger than all indoors.

This article originally appeared in the January, 1969, issue of Jack and Jill.

101 The key to preserving the human :Invironmentisthe collective behavior of individualcitizens."

SCHOOLS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

EdwardA. Ames

THERE IS a characteristic impulse in our soci- The values which affect society's behavior toward ety to turn to education to solve complex social prob- the environment are fundamental, widely held, and lems. This impulse was exemplified by the flood of deeply involved with our perceptions of the world attempts at curriculum reform in science and math around us.For instance, a:, a society we attach an that followed the launching of Sputnik in 1957.The almost mystical importance to the inevitability of pro- emergence of Russia's scientific eminence was seen gress and to the value of economic growth. So much as a threat to national security and the scramble was so that we seldom examine these ideas, even though on. So it is that Congress, reflecting the public's they are by no means shared by other people around cor...:ern over the deterioration of the physical envi- the world or even by all segments of our own society. ronment, is now considering two bills which would Progress, of course, is not inevitable, and growth, support educational programs designed to protect the whether in human population or h. grossnational prod- quality of the nation's environment.This congres- uct, has finite limits. The fact that we continue to sional effort may well reinforce the efforts of those behave as though this were an inf.nite world even educators and laymen who have worked to develop pro- though weclearly know better, leads us to some pretty grams in conservation, outdoor education, andthe nat- grim conclusions about the future of our society. ural science for our schools during the last few years. While one may disagree with the doomsday prophets While this source of potential support can only be wel- predicting ecological disaster in this century,t he comed, some hard questions should be raised by the trend is clear enough.' expectation that our schools can achieve t he social goals which are implicit in this challenge. SCHOOLS AND VALUES If our behavior toward the environment is indeed Senator Gaylord Nelson, in introducing the Envi- based on unexamined values and faulty assumptions, ronmental Quality Act in Congress, recognized that then it should be the business of education to examine the problem of checking environmental deterioration these values and challenge the assumptions. While is largely a behaviorai one. He then made thefollow- this idea sounds revolutionary, nothing less direct ing statement: will stand a chance of being effective in changing so- Education, I believe, is the only proper way cial behavior. After all, our assumptions about the to influence values, attitudes, and basic as- nature of the world and our role in it are widely held sumptions in a democratic society. Behavior, in society because they are constantly reinforced. in the long run, can best be changed through The communications media, the behavior of our peers, the process of education. and even our folk culture confirm our perceptions of the world. Examination of these perceptions must A number of questions ought to be asked about this start with our schools since they also tend to rein- statement. For instance, what kinds of behavioral force whatever values are widely held by society at changes are needed to halt environmental deteriora- any given time. Indeed, they are one of the means tion? Who is to prescribe them? How are they tobe by which we institutionalize our beliefs and transmit achieved through education? How are behavior an d them to succeeding generations. social values affected ly our school systems? I suggest, that if we really examined these questions we Much of this communication is done. through im- would get some unexpected answers, that the assump- plicit messages which are a part of the school envi- tions on which much of our current environmental ed- ronment and may or may not be contained in textbooks ucation are based are of questionable utility, and that or other teaching materials. For instance, one of we have not yet come to grips with the underlying ba- the most important messages from the point of view sis of the environmental problems which face us. of environmental significance has to do with the child's

Mr. Amps is a program officer in the Office of Resources and Environment of the Ford Foundation. This paper was prepared for the American Nature Study Society, 27 December, 1969. 1Qjr AMES 93 perception of his role in society and of his ability to has been mounted from outside the school system and affect his environment, either for better or for worse. has seldom come to grips with the broader social is- This is a particularly critical question in urban pov- sues which now concern us. Ecology as curriculum erty areas where the effectiveness of the individual content is primarily useful in that it relates a great is so much in question. We can assume that a teach- deal of diverse information about the environment and er who comes from a different cultural background its processes.I do not question for a minute the im- and lives in a different neighborhood will no t share portance of environmental learning in this sense, but the same environmental perceptions and concerns as in competition with other subjects it must remain a his children.If, at the same time, that teacher has relatively distinct part of the curriculum and as such a low estimation of the abilityof his childrento relate represents only a limited gain. to the broader social community in coping with their problems, a message of futility and isolation comes What is needed is a far more eclectic approach to through to those children all too clearly. Students in education, an approach which would embrace many more privileged suburban schools may receive dif- new kinds of learning experiences. These new expe- ferent messages but ones which also haveunfavor able riences would be selected to involve students in the implications for their values and behavior in r elation critical analysis of, among other things, the social to their environment.I would guess that it is an un- values and interactions that underlie environmental usual classroom in which Students are encouraged by degradation. A high priority woul, be placed on the either practice or example to examine critically that processes of inquiry and problem solving but the fo- which is bad in their environment or to question at cus would be outward into the community and on acall the assumptions and values which underlie envi- tual problems affecting the Eves of the students. ronmental deterioration. In general, we do not seem RESEARCH BY STUDENTS to give children a very high estimation of their ability to effect change or even to do more than passively A good example of this kind of environmental ed- cope with the environmental insults which our society ucation is the water pollution resear ch problem at the has prepared for them. Tilton School in New Hampshire. The students learn about the science and technology of pollution by doing David Hawkins, an educator at the University of research on the water quality in local streams and lakes Colorado, often performs the simple test of examin- In addition to learning a good deal of basic science ing bulletin boards and physical materials being used they also produce data that are useful to the Federal by pupils to determine what is happening in the class- Water Pollution Control Administration. But, rather room with regard to environmental education. It is than stopping at the academic boundary of their sub- rare that he finds any signifizant clues as to the na- ject, the students then investigate relevant legislature of that specific physical and social environment- tion on water ouality, and finally pursue the economic al surrounding a school.While there may be a map and political consequences of the enforcement of that or two, most of the material is generalized and rep- legislation. All of this is done using actual local resentative of any area of the country. Usually such problems as a case study. The behavioralobjectives physical evidence is a good indicator of the teacher's of the Tilton work have to do with the ability of the approach, of the children's activities, and hence of students to carry out a research program, produce the kinds of learning experiences that take place in acceptable data, and analyze actual environmental that classroom. A self-c-mtained classroom isolated problems. I can only surmise that the implicit mes- from the surrounding community provides a sterile sages that are communicated to the students doing atmosphere for learning about environmental prob- such work will have an important influence on their lems, whether one approaches them from the point roles as individuals in society and withtheir respon- of view of their social or physical basis.But per- sibilities in relationship to their environment. haps more importantly, this kind of classroom environment may impart implicit messages about the rel- There are, of course, all sorts of barriers to in- evance of environmental concerns, messages with itiating such open-ended work in the schools. T he obviously negative implications for the way in which basic structure and organization of the classroom are those children will perceive their role in effecting often inimical to environmental education and teach- environmental change. ers lack the training and experience to organize such programs. It is far easier to teach about the envi- If we are to change the behavior of children through ronment as a generalized subject with the support of formal education, which is precisely the challenge textbooks and films than it is to conduct an open-ended before us, we obviously must understand and change inquiry into the specific problems of an actual com- some rather basic aspects of the school environment. munity. It is also easier to relegate the entire re- Furthermore, education will have to be organized sponsibility for environmental education to special- around the goal of teaching children how to be effec- ists iron, outside the school system, perhaps at the tive agents for change so that they in turn may par- end of a bus ride at a local nature center, than it is ticipate in the social processes which shape their to embrace environmental education as a fundamen- communities and their lives. Environmental educa- tal aspect of the overall curriculum. tion, when viewed in these terms, becomes a fundamental part of the school experience. COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT Much of the quite extensive effort at environmen- Changes in education are taking place, however, tal education which has been mounted in recent years and there are trends developing which should make has been at quite a different level. The main thrust it easier to pursue environmental education in the has been to teach children about the natural environ- classroom. For instance, in many urban areas there ment through interpretation of the landscape and the is a drive toward greater community involvement in processes which change it.But this ecological em- the schools. This is more than a matter of control phasis, important though it may be in its own right, over the administration of the school, although that Ad) 94 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION may be the prime motivation behind the movement. used to teach children a good deal abcpit exploratory In fact, community education makes it possible to draw techniques and problem solving as w ell as about upon .nary kinds of community resources, both hu- the history, climate, iemography, and so forth, of man and institutional, to support the educational pro- their community.But, in addition, the fact that the gram at the school. In Philadelphia at the Parkway teaching deals with the immedi. e environment and School, and in Baltimore's Dunbar High School, pro- involves children in an open-ended ex p lor at ion grams are either being developed or are underway of those surroundings carries an implication f or in which entire segments of the curriculum are con- the children that their ow n environment and their ducted in agencies o' the municipal government, in individual perceptions of it really count.This kind businesses, and in local cultural institutions such of individualized, child-centered learning which as zoos and museums. Efforts are being made to deals with the immediate physical surroundings cer- involve representatives from the community and tainly develops different and presumably more pos- from local colleges in classes taking place within itive attitudes, values, and behavior toward the the school itself. The potential for environment- environment than the traditional, more structured al education is obviously far greater under these approaches.Furthermore, we can make the as- conditions than it has been in the traditionally sumption that programs which involve 5tudents more restrictive school. But this potential remains in attempts to solve actual environmental to be fulfilled and the opportunities f orenvi- problems can engender a social commit- ronmental education m ay not be recognized as ment that may have a lasting effect on their such even in the schools themselves. behavior.

While the examples I have cited above happen The more successful environmental programs to be high schools, there are similar trends de- have undoubtedly contributed to the willingness of the veloping in elementary schools. Here t heline of schools to open the classroom doors to new experi- attack isto break down t he traditional concept ences. The great public concern over environmen- oft he self-contained classroom which has always tal degradation is now reinforcing that movement and limited the kinds of learning experiences provided the result may be the best chance yet for introducing by the school. Team teaching,to the extent behaviorally effective educational programs. To re- that itinvolves teachers with ha variety of back- alize this opportunity, schools must make use of grounds working inclose cooperation with each that particular environment perceived by their stu- other, has cracked the classroom wall. Further dents.In effect they must teach through the envi- inroads are being made by schools experimenting ronment using the community as a source of learn- with open-structure orwith the integrated day., ing experiences rather than about the environment an approach to education based on the works as a generalized object of study.Furthermore, if of John Dewey and Jean Piaget, but developed schools are to affect the behavior of children in or- most fully inBritish primary schools.Here as der to moderate society's impact on the environ- in the high schools, w e are dealing with a po- ment they must lead students to explore the social tential f or imaginative programming which has interactions and the whole system of hun.u.n values, not been widely recognized, particularly on this concerns, and assumptions which underlie our beside of the Atlantic. havior.After all, the physical limitations of natural systems are constant, and technology is only ef- The significance of the integrated day for en- fective in alleviating the pressures we place on our vironmental education is profound indeed. It places environment when we use it to that purpose.The an emphasis on an eclectic environmentalism based key to preserving the human environment is in- on the heavy use of materials found in the lo- escapably the collective behavior of individual citi- cal environment ranging from building rubble to zens.In the final analysis, the success of envi- living plants and animals.Itcombines c lass - ronmental education will be measured in ter ms rooms, breaking down the walls so that children of its ability to change the behavior of c an work together in teams on problems which society. interest them and atthe same time provide valuable learning experiences. Itdisregards the traditional subject area boundaries and follows a unified approach to learning which much more closely approximates the child's actual perception of his environment.Itdrops the rigid schedule enforced by periodic bells and allows FOOTNOTES t he use of blocks oftime to pursue problems which could not even be tackled in a more traditional classroom. In fact,after seeing an inte- 1.For a pal ticularly enlighting treatise on this grated day in process, itishard to imagine subject see Garret Hardin's article, "T he how effective environmental education could be Tragedy of the Commons," in Science, Vol- pursued in the elementary school under any less ume 162, December 13, 1968. open-structured conditions. 2.The term "integrated day" refers to a way of An integrated day affords an cpportunity to ac hiev e organizing the classroom without the formal certain behavioral objectives through the kinds of constraints imposed by fixed-length classes learning experiences that it provides f or children. dealing with specialized, academic disci- Thus the excavaticof a pile of building rubble treat- plines.It also implies an inductive, individ- ed as a neighborhood archaeological site might be ualized approach to learning. w4.L. A key tomore andbetterenvironmentaleducation programs.

THE RESOURCE AGENCY SEMINAR Richard S.Peterson

FOR A NUMBER of years emphasis has been was given and the "multiplier effect" was employed. placed on school programs in environmental educa- One of the educators from each of the four schooldis- tion. The following is a description of an innovative tricts was asked to serve as chairman of a local dis- procedure we have used to get teachers, supervisors, trict environmental education committee and to be and resource agency personnel in Utah's loca' school responsible for establishing a continuing program in districts involved in planning and implementing com- that particular district. prehensive environmental education programs in grades kindergarten through 12. In cooperation with the superintendent of he district, the chairman invited other educators (repre- INTRODUCTION senting K-12 and all subject areas) from the district Utah has a statewide committee that is responsi- and resource agency personnelwho work in that dis- ble for environmental education in the public schools. trict, or in close proximity, to serve on the committee. The chairman of this committee is the science spe- Committee membership, as well as number, varied cialist in the Office of the State Superintendent of from district to district.In some instances, in ad- Public Instruction, and membership is drawn from dition to educators an" agency personnel, a county or the public resource agencies, i. e. , Forest Service, city commissioner serves on the committee, thus in- Bureau of Land Management, Soil Conservation suring the consideration of problems and concerns Service, National Parks Service, and the State De- by policy-making bodies. partment of Fish and Game.Also, institutions of No attempt was made to prescribe a fixed program higher learning are represented.It should be reit- for each of the 40 school districts; rather, each was erated that the committee's membership from edu- free to synthesize its own unique program in environ- cation and from the resource agencies is comprised mental education. Most district committees leaned of personnelwho, for the most part, have leadership heavily upon the statewide guidelines but wisely includ- responsibilities that extend statewide.This comed other features which made the program more ap- mittee, discharging one of its major responsibilities, propriate to a given group of students in a given locale. developed guidelines for a comprehensive environmental education program i n grades kindergarten SUMMARY through 12.It was clear, however, that the work We believe the approach is most successful. Thirty- was only a "paper tiger" and would remain just eight of the 40 school districts participated in one or that until "life" was breathed into it. more of the seminars and a majority of them have organized a local committee. To our knowledge, this attempt to establishenvironmental education programs PROCEDURE in every local schooldistrict within a state is unique to How does one take statewide guidelines and give them Utah. Further, the utilization of the multiplier effect " life"in 40 local school districts? Looking back over 2 through the establishment of a localcommittee, very years of experience, we would say: "Naturally, you similar in structure and composition to the statewide conduct a series of Resource Agency Seminars. " committee, is, we believe, also unique to Utah. Here is how Hwy work. Members of the statewide The cooperative working alliance of educators and committee, referred to ahove, planned a 2-day semi- resource agency personnel is most effective. It is un- nar in which many tacets of a comprehensive environ- likely that all educators or all resource agency per- mental education program were presented to approxi- sonnelare "down" at the same time. Therefore, such mately six educators from each of four local school an organizational pattern offers several avenues of districts.Also in attendance were representatives stimulation, rather than a single one, and it leads to a of the Forest Se, vice, Bureau of Land Management, more comprehensive program because more people Soil Conservation Service, National Parks Service, are involved in a program which is really theirs. and Fish and Game personnel who worked in the same Things which previously had been thotght geographical area that the four school districts e n - are now being done in environmental education pro- compassed. The number attending each seminar was grams in Utah, anti the vision is constantly expanding. approximately 50.This technique brought the educators and t::e local representatives of the resource Through this approach the efforts of the state group agencies together and built bridges that supported fu- have been multiplied many times over. In short the op- ture working relationships.In many instances, this portunity for Utah pupils to become involved in thought- was the first face-to-face meeting of the two groups. fully planned environmental education programs has been significantly increased through the use of Resource At the end of the 2-day seminar, a call to action Agency Seminars. The paper tiger has come to life!

Mr. Peterson is a Specialist in Science Education with the Utah State Board of Education.

103 A K-12 approach to environmental management education.

THE ENVIRONMENT AND MAN

RobertE. Roth

A SHORT time ago a youngster from a metro- ecology unit.It was based on the concept that "liv- politan school, whom I shall call Bi1y, visited a na- ing things are interdependent with one anotherandthe ture center with hie sixth grade class. Billy was environment, " so the nature center immediately came understandably excited about the visit and also a bit to mind, because that's where these things happen. relieved to get out of the classroom."Let's go see In addition, Mrs. Schwartz hoped the children could the owl, and over there is somethingto look through, " then come in more intimate contact with a variety of said Billy to two of his companions. plants and animals because two sub-categoriesof information were: "There are many kinds of plants, " Beginning a pell mell race toward the cage they and "There are many kinds of animals." Perhaps heard a rather stern command."Boys'. Please: she also had hopes that man's role in relation to the Get back in line, and remember you are to stay with environment might be included, but this did not ap- the class." Billy thinks to himself, "This ain't go- pear in the syllabus, so it wasn't verbalized in the ing to be any fun.I can't go see the things I want to unit lesson plan.Similarly, the man-land relation- see, and I gotta stay in line and listen to some guy ship idea had been head by her from time to time in talk again, just like last year.But. gee, he's got a the mass media, but it was stil an unclear concept. uniform on, and look at that swell shoulder patch!" However, she did like wild flowers. The children's teacher, /.a. Schwartz, begins, Mr. Green, being a sensitive and effective "Children, this is Mr. Green, our naturalist for to- naturalist-science teacher, evolved a format for Ins day. He is going to lead us on our nature walk, and group presentation that had considerable content and point out some of the plants and animals we came to could be adapted to the interests of the various groups see, and help us learn somethingmore about ecology. quite readily. He based his efforts on a concept of Remember, while we are here I want you to all act conservation that embraced a philosophy of living as like ladies and gentlemen, and pay very close atten- well as land management practices.Other catego- tion to what Mr. Green has to say." ries of information to be included were the traditional things that can be "better taught" in the outdoors When Billy first heard about the field trip he prob- such as geology, minerals, soils, water, plants, an- ably set Ls goal as having a good time because he imals, and of course, the various interrelationships. likes freedom of movement. He is curious about A concern that Mr. Green and his associates had been things most of the time, and he eagerly looks forward studying was how to provide more direct involvement to anything he can do at the nature center.In short, activities for the visitors.But this was his third he wants participation and involvement.Billy is con- group that morning, and many other immediate duties cerned with his immediate surroundings short term kept him from giving a lot of thought to the problem. gratifications. He will respond to some structure, and he exhibits good soi-lal control when directed in Another problem that has continually confronted a positive way.Subconsciously Billy notes voice inenvironmental educators, and one which you undoubt- flections that give indication of values, patterns are edly recognize, is that of disparity in goals and ob- observed as certain concepts are reinforced, and of jectives, and a concomitant lack of communication. course, he is impressed by the uniform and readily Billy had his goals, the teacher had hers, and Mr. identifies with the naturalist, perhaps because the Green had his.All three individuals were at differ- role he plays is one to which Billy aspires. ent levels of sophistication and approach, and as a result, a considerable challenge existed in determin- The teacher had some reasons in mind for coming ing whether or not any or all of these goals were at- to the nature center which were different from Billy's. tained.Note in particular the level at which the First was the search for a culminating activity that "Land-man Ethic" if we can call it that, existed in would tie together some of the loose ends of the i r the minds of our three role players.Billy was not

Dr. Roth is Assistant Professor, School of Natural Resources, The Ohio State University.

10601 ROTH 97 at the verbz0. level but he might have had a fleeting thinking.This idea still appears to be valid and our glimmer of the idea of land ethic as the naturalist land laboratories, school forests, srliool gardens gave some voice inflection that communicated in and resident outdoor education programs have been emotional concern. Mrs. Schwartz knew about pol- some approaches used in addition to traditionil sci- lution problems, over-population, urban sprawl, and ence laboratory programs. that mass media promoted anti-litter campaigns as a public service, but her again, a verbalized knowl- The area being confronted today is of course that edge of an ecological consciousness was not evident. of the environment of man in its total form, its so- It can be inferred consequently, that for the school, cial, cultural, economic, esthetic, biological, and the class, and Billy, the Land Ethic didn't really exist physical aspects. To seek an optimum total environ- even though they were studying ecology. ment requites an understanding both of human needs and the needs of a healthy environment, natural and What about Mr. Green? Just how adequate was man influenced.Leopold knew this and was trying to his knowledge about the "Land Ethic?" In fact, how show us the way. His sudden and unfortunate death adequate is the Land Ethic as described and formed emanating f om a cabin fire left us without the orig- by its author, Aldo Leopold? Does it contain suffi- inator of the ethical idea. We have been groping ever cient dimension to cover all of the kinds of concerns since.But with the enormous complexity of p ro b- to which we apply it, or not? Does it hold the possi- lems facing us today in our environment we must get bility of conveying meaning to a boy like Billy who on with the search and see what can be done to draw lives on the eighteenth floor of a high-rise apartment closer to the philosophy Leopold saw so clearly. building in an urban renewal development? Can Mrs. Schwartz interpret enough from the statements about ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT DEFINED the "band Ethic" already in print to be ableto incor- The terms "environmental management e du c a- porate it as part of her verbalized lesson objectives, tion, " "environmental education, " "conservation not to mention her way of life? These are becoming education, " "outdoor education," and "resource crucial questions in interpretation of the land ethic, (or resource-use) education" are often used inter- which need careful tholght and consideration from changeably and hence confused.Environmental man- all of us.In short, whit should a student know about agement education is the process of developing a cit- environmental management? izenry that is: THE ROLE OF EDUCATION 1.Knowledgeable of the interrelated biophysical and sociocultural environments of which man is The schools have long attempted to t r an slat e a part; pieces of our cultural heritage into teachable con - 2. Aware of the associated environmental prob- cepts, and have found that the related educationalob- jectives exist at three basic levelscognitive, a f - lems and management alternatives of use in solv- fective, and psychomotor. The cognitive area is ing these problems; and concerned with recall and recognition of knowledge 3.Motivated to work toward the maintenance and and lilt development of intellectual abilities and further development of diverse environments that skills. The clearest ci,linitions also occur in th is aye optimum for living. domain.Affectivity centers on values, judgments, appreciations, and emotions. The associated learn- Note the fact that I suggest we ecognize both the ing experiences that are appropriate for this area biophysical and the sociocultural environments.The are not at all clear.Psychomotor or motor skills definition suggested here also is an attempt to change as an area of study is just beginning to be scruti- the emphasis of man and his environment to that of nized.Education has developed approaches to teach- the environment and man. In the past we have relied ing that are based on the needs, interests, and abil- on the environmental pyramid depicted by Odum and ities of the children and on the knowledge, others that progressed from the abiotic to the biotic comprehension, and application levels of concepts and concluded with man on top.I am suggesting that from the cognitive domains. Knowledge represents the pressure of living, our increasing population, our the specifics in terminology; comprehension the un- finite resource supplies, and the cycle of the produc- derstanding of what is being communicated; the ap- tion of goods and waste, has altered that form of sim- plication level represents the ability to apply ab- plistic relationship. Man is reduced from the role straction without prompting and with no mode of so- of "dominant" or "master" in the Judeo-Christian lution being specified.Before thelandethic attitudes ethical sense to a lower state of existence.He i s can be built, ii seems probable that the ideas w ill part of the environment. A crude model of this idea have to be formulated in the cognitive, or verbal lev- might be as follows: el.Emotionalism, or affectivity per se, will not do Natural Physical Knowledge the job in the present state of the art.Allof ourpast experience with failures in conservation education clearly indicate this.The only effective programs have been those that began in the knowledge area and V then proceeded to blend with the emotional. R i A A second problem is that of an experience on the 0 N land.The idea of direct citizen involvement with the N land was at least partly developed underthe influence of Dewey's progressive education movement. Dew- ey's observation that we learn by experience anddis- covery from the environment in which we live made sense to Leopold, and was incorporated into his Socio- cultural Socio-cultural Knowledge

10 7 98 ENVIRONMEN AL EDUCATION Building on this conceptualization and definition it informal interviews with each of 54 cooperating pro- becomes obvious that we must ask again: "What fessors. A list of 108 conservation related top ic s should our citizens know abut environmental man- was developed covering 15 areas of conservation such agement?" as: economic, ecological, sociocultural, etc. After analyzing the results by card sort and hand tabulation APPROACHES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGE- it was concluded that professors showed a keen inter- MENT EDUCATION est in conservation education and indicated concern for improving it.Also concluded was the idea that There have been several approaches recently to conservation education received by most students in t he preceding question. Historically there have been attendance was spotty and inadequate.Hanselman's other attempts. The former approaches did not pro- investigation provides a basis for developing an ef- duce any long lasting conservation educationprograms fective conservation education program through in- and it remains to be seen if the newer thrusts will be terdepartmental approaches in that both the concepts any more successful. developed and the apparent interdepartmental concern and interest in conservation education could be com- Visher attempted to determine those conservation bined to implement a refocused approach to conser- principles and concepts desirable for use in the sec- vation education. ondary schools.An original list was developed b y analyzing 15 conservation textbooks, nine books for White sought "...to determine some important general reading, two specialconservation-issue jour- conservation understandings that might be desirable nals, one reprint series, five publications of profes- for conservation education in grades 4 through 12," sional material for teachers, and four doctoral dis- and "...to identify some community resources sertations. The list produced was submitted to 11 which could assist in the teaching of these conserva- specialists in conservation for refinement and criti- tion understandings." Related literature was exam- cal analysis.The refined list was then submitted to ined and a list of understandings was developed and five nationally recognized leaders familiar with in- organized into nine resource areas for evaluation by struction at the secondary level.The result of the people knowledgeable in each of the areas. Each restudy was a list of 477 concepts that included the fol- source area was rated by 30 people classified as be- lowing areas and numberof concepts per area: soil- ing teachers in elementary or secondary schools , 85; water-56; forests-55; grasslands-20; miner- colleges, or as professional conservationists and in- als-57; wildlife-51; recreation -37; human re- terested resource personnel.Using a 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 sources-38; and general-78. This attempt resulted rating scale, a mean score of at least 3.0 was used in a considerable expansion of both the number and as the criteria for acceptance of the item.Of the quality of concepts appropriate for conservation edu- 274 understandings evaluated: (1) 271 met the cri- cation. teria; (2) all were associated with community resources in the geographic area in which the study was While developing a framework of "descriptive and conducted; (3) 103 of the understandings were judged predictive generalizations" pertaining to the field of as appropriate for field study, and ( 4) 168 were ap- conservation, Yambert surveyed and analyzed exist- propriate for teaching in the classrooms. A marked ing studies of generalizations related to conservation individual difference in opinion on the majority of un- at the elementary and secondary levels.A broad derstandings was observed among professional con- range of professional literature in conservation and servationists and college teachers.It was also con- allied fields was included.Twelve generalizations cluded that since 172 understandings were scored in were selected as being inclusive and/or representa- the range from 1-5, conservation understandings tive ci their group and others were formulated to com- more acceptable to conservationists were needed. plirrent the previously selected 12.It was suggested that the generalizations developed could serve as a NEW APPROACHES basic framework adaptable to many situations in conservation education with application to other areas Presently there are several new approaches being as well.With a basic structure so developed, Yam- attempted to develop concepts that are appropriate for bert suggested that other concepts and principles environmental education. One of the more extensive could be appended.His investigation represents a was conducted by Brennan and the South CarolinaDe- first attempt to develop a different framework of gen- partment of Education in 1968. A statewide workshop eralizations of conservation for use in developing an was held whereby about 80 teachers participated un- expanded and less agrarian focused conservation ori- der the direction of Mr. Albert H. H. Dorsey to de- entation. velop and write lessons based on about a dozen "conceptual schemes."Each lesson is composed of a Hanselman investigated the scope of conservation concept, a purpose of the lesson, ways of introduc- education afforded the majority of students at The ing, developing, and extending the concept. Various Ohio State University.Specifically he measured the instructional materials are suggested also.The top- current status of interdepartmental conservation- ics are designed to be integrated with existing cur - related teachings presented through the large enroll- ricula through science, social studies, home e co - ment courses.Procedures included: (1) a litera- nomics, and biology, and in elementary, junior high, ture review to develop a list of important conserva- and high school grade levels. tion concepts and concerns which "should be included in conservation education"; ( 2) revision and correc- The most common criticism is in the selection of tion of the list i.)y 24 leading conservationists, e. g., exemplary teaching activities, and the assump'ions econ, mists, geographers, ecologists, agronomers, that:( 1 ) adequate reference materials are available; etc.; (3) development of two survey instruments, an ( 2) in- service teachers are able to integrate cmser- 18-page topic survey to determine the scope, and a vation concepts with their existing curricula; and 2-page opinion questionnaire to be used along with (3) that the teachers will integrate the suggested r 8 ROTH 99 points of view.The activities were developed in and grade 6, the region. Each and every teacher Souti, Carolina and consequently have been designed plays an important role in maintaining the sequence fo with local examples.Similarly, many teach- of educational development. Without a year by year not have either the interest or ability to inte- continuity in the educational process, the program 6,ate some of the rather complex concepts with their will be weakened. curricula.Rather it would seem that every ecological zone or region of the country will need to "grow Briefly, the program at each grade level will con- their own" environmental education programs. sist of:(1) 20 to 30 minute classroom presentation by the coordinator relating to the school environment A second program is that entitled the National Envi- and providing an orientation for a field trip ; (2) a ronuicntal Education Development ( NEED) program field trip in the outdoors around the theme environ- designed by Dr. Mario M. Menesini for the National ment with the students led in small groups by the co- Park Service.The major goal as indicated by Mene- ordinator, teachers, and volunteer members of the sini is:"to foster an appreciative and critical community; and (3) follow-up investigative, plan- awareness of their environment, particularly an un- ning, and conservation action activities with assis- derstanding of the interactions of natural and social tance being given by the coordinator when and where processes as illustrated in national park areas.Its needed. aim also is to increase their will and capacity to improve the environment." Prior to the initiation of the program at your grade level, the coordinator will meet with the teacher and The NEED systems and interpretive materials the field trip volunteer leaders to further acquaint for teaching are being developed at the University them with the program, go over the field trip in de- of California, Davis Campus, under the direction of tail in the theme environment, set up schedules, and Dr. Mario Menesini.Though they are presently be- answer any questions.To prepare for this meeting, ing field tested at selected Park Service areas and a teacher's guide has been prepared to give you de- outdoor schools throughout the nation, the programs tailed information about the operation of the program are sufficiently flexible for adaptation to a wide va- at your grade level.It is designed to assist in pre- riety of sites. paring your class for the presentation, field trip, and follow-up conservation activities. Basic to the NEED program is the premise that environmental awareness requires not only class- During the program the learner will be guided to room work, but experience out-of-doors.Further, discover problems by interacting with the environ- the outdoors experiences should be related to all ment through an orientation presentation, field trip, subjects in the curriculum: to art, literature, and and follow-up conservation activities.These three history, as well as the natural sciences.Materials teaching "tools" will be directed at encouraging the are being created for pre-site ( classroom), on-site student to become aware of how we use our em iron - (environmental school), and post-site follow-up. ment to satisfy our needs. He will be led Hut to observe the things he likes and uses and then to discov- The first phase of the NEED program emphasizes er or identify those things which he doesn't like o r the appreciative level in an encounter with natural which interfere with the capability of the environment phenomena at an environmental schoolsite which will to meet his needs (physical environmental prob- emphasize academic, aesthetic, and skill relation- lems). Problems will involve both natural and man- ships with the natural order. This developmental made physical elements of the environment. Finally, phase will focus on a fifth to sixth grade level. the student will be given the opportunity to investigate a problem further and actually do something to The second phase for the intermediate ( grades help resolve it. 7, 8, 9) levels of the program, will emphasize man's positive and negative utilization of his natural r e - Again, little evaluation has been accomplished to sources, and his efforts to rectify a self-imposed date.The pattern has worked under the guidance of contaminated environment through technological ap- Stapp, however, in the Ann Arbor, Michigan, public pli cations. schools.There too the level of concept attainment remains to be determined. In the third phase ( grades 10, 11, 12) the necessity of environmental ethics, centered on attitudes Most of the preceeding environmental education of the individual, will be developed, integrating the programs have been initiated on the assumption that disciplines of political science, economics, and so- the concepts to be acquired by the students are known. cioloiy. I am unable to make that assumption because of the twist in definition to which I alluded earlier in this There is little information available at present presentation. Because of the different ways of view- that can be further evaluated.However, the Pilot ing things in the environmental context, it is neces- Environmental Edu c at ion Program in Yarmouth, sary to again ask: "What should we know about en- Maine being developed by Bennett is an attempt to vironmental management?" focus on the concept of "Community." At the elementary level the program will focus on developing A project in which I was engaged from June 1967 attitudes toward the theme environmentits physi- to May 1969 was an attempt to develop a taxonomy of cal elements and its environmental problems. The conceptual objectives for use in planning programs theme environments are selected to provide a means of instruction related to environmental management of expanding the scope and complexity of understand- education (K-16).Coincidental to that, some indi- ings.At the kindergarten-grade 1 level, the select- cation of whether or not biases existed within selected theme environment is the school; grades 2 and 3, ed disciplines representing several ecological zones the neighborhood; grades 4 and 5,the community; throughout the U. S. was also given.

1 100 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION Survey techniques to obtain and validate concepts dent on the basis of either professional area or eco- appropriate for environmental management education logical vagueness of the concepts. involved written questionnaires and personalinter - views.The population consisted of scholars in dis- Scholars from the 40 professional areas and 12 ecological regions of the United States agree on the ciplines related to environmental management who majority of concepts to be emphasized in environ- were associated with the University of Wisconsin and mental management education. other selected universities throughout the U. S.A Knowledge of the con- list of 128 concepts developed with the cooperation cepts contained in the taxonomic list of environmen- of the Wisconsin Panel of Scholars was submitted to t al management i s appropriate f or use in public the National Panel consisting of 699 scholars repre- schools throughout the United States.It is suggested senting 40 academic disciplines in 24 universities further that the organization of topics used represents from 12 ecological zones in the U. S. a more useful and appropriate structure of concepts for environmental management education than th e Usable responses were received from 350 (50.07 agrarian focused conservation concepts and organi- percent) of the Scholars on the National Panel. There zations presently existing in many public schools. were 111 concepts that met the criterion of being ac- Gundlach and Archbald have initiated several at- cepted by 90 percent of the respondents. The accept- tempts based on the formulation of the taxonomic able concepts were organized into a taxonomic list list.Gundlach has had a summer pilot project con- according to topic on the basis of weighted item mean ducted by teachers in the Portage, Wisconsin, area score.Thirteen topics served in classifyingthe con- developing lesson plans and trying out activities based cepts: Environmental Management, Mana ge m e nt on these concepts.Similarly, Archbald is develop- Techniques, Economics, Environmental Problems, ing a "computerized key" of ecological examples to Environmental Ecology, Adaptation and Evolution, provide meaning for a variety of these concepts al- Natural Resources, The Sociocultural Environment, so.In addition, the Columbus, Ohio, public schools Culture, Politics, The Family, The Individual, and are in the design stage of a broad-based environmen- Psychological Aspects. The classification of con- tal and outdoor education program that will be based cepts used is not considered exhaustive but is sug- upon these concepts. gested as one possible organization of topics and concepts. It can be suggested that each situation will demand the application of these concepts in its own unique way. Examination of the 17 "unacceptable" concepts The concepts must be adapted to the local situation and the frequency of rejection of each on the basis and no amount of effort in developing a national cur- of response by professional area or ecological re- riculum in environment will have much applicability gion provides little evidence to support any specula- at a local level. Each teacher and naturalist w ill tion of the existence of possible bias. One concept have to "grow their own" teaching activities that fit was rejected by as many as 27 percent of the judges the environmental example and the personality of the while the remaining 16 concepts were rejected by 18 teacher.So, hop to it!But, keep in mind this ob- percent or fewer of the judges.The rating of t he servation: "You have to be in the middle, because concepts does indicate an individual divergence of you can't stay on km very long." The ecological opinion and interpretation, but no clear bias is evi- pyramid has been upset. Theroleoftheprivatesectorincurriculum andmaterialsdevelopment.

AN ENVIRONMENTAL APPROACH TO MARINE SCIENCE K-12

Alan Rabinowitz

C U R RIC ULUM development in the natural development of an environmental oceanography and sciences has taken great strides in the past 10 years. marine science program for grades K-12 with t he Consideration was given first to the learneras i t Fairfield Public Schools, Fairfield, Connecticut. Dr. should have beenbut not to t he "factors" outside Bette J. Del Giorno, formerly professorof science and related to the learning process.Specifically, education at the University of Hartford and presently these "factors" include such things as teacher train- science consultant for the Fairfield Public Schools, ing and preparation in the subject area, availability has created a unique curriculum design called ReTAL: of supplies and materials, environmental factors, The Research Team Approach to LearningA Struc- and a climate conducive to student experimentation ture For Open-endedness. ReTAL is an inductive or within the school2 r se and the community. discovery approach to science study.The author and Dr. Del Giorno are preparing a K-12 environmental marine science curriculum based upon ReTAL. Ideally, a cooperative effort between private industry and the school system would create a well- coordinated team approach toward developing a meaningful science curriculum.Furthermore, those The author is a licensed principal and a former "factors" heretofore neglected by most curriculum science department chairman; as one of the educa- projects would be given proper attention and consid- tional consultants for Oceanography Unlimited, he eration. brings his industrial as well as educational experience to share with the Fairfield school system.Together, he and Dr. Del Giorno are preparing the basic struc- Oceanography Unlimited Inc., Lodi, New Jersey, tures for the curriculum design: serves the educational community in a rather unique way.In addition to manufacturing materials and supplies relating to environmental and marine sci- I. Projects, Programs, Sub-programs, and Courses ence studies, its staff of consultants works with II. Units schools and school systems in curriculum develop- III. Lessons ment for the marine sciences.In this way, teachers, supervisors, and professional scientists c an share thoughts and ideas and prepare a structure for The complete resources of Oceanography Unlimit- curriculum design. ed will be made available to Dr. Del Giorno and he r staff so that the final project can be practically a n d successfully implemented.The purposes of the co- The educational division of Oceanography Unlim- operative venture between Oceanography Unlimited ited is staffed by educators from all levels as well and Dr. Del Giorno are fourfold: as professional marine scientists. The primary functions of the division are to prepare curriculum materials and coordinated teaching aids for the envi- 1.to promote teacher involvement in curricu- ronmental and marine sciences. An example of such lum development through the ReTAL-based cur- a cooperative effort in curriculum planning is the riculum project;

The author is Executive Vice President and Coordinator of Curriculum Development, Oceanography Unlimited, Inc. ,Lodi, New Jersey. 102 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

2.to provide a teacher training tool and r e source package for immediate use upon completion of the curriculum project;

3.to make available to teachers and pupils, a K-12 curriculum in environmental oceanography and marine science;

4.to bridge the communications gap between industry and the schools and to permit teachers and scientists to work together on curriculum projects.

Dr. Del Giorno has selected the Pequot Elementary School in Southport as the pilot school for the curriculum project.Conveniently situated on Long Island Sound, Pequot School will provide outdoor laboratory experiences as well as classroom activities related to ecology, oceanography, and conservation for its teachers and students.The sequentially developed and logically integrated curriculum design will provide for continuity throughout the program with constant emphasis on ecological relationships and environmental awareness.

Marine Science is the study of the sea and includes the biological, chemical, physical, geological, and meteorological aspects of the total acquatic environment.The concepts of the ecosystem, limiting factors, ecological indicators, habitats, and applied ecology are included as part of the curr iculum design.

Through independent work and experimentation, students will get first-hand experience with in-field testing procedures as well as develop competencies in study and research activities.Teachers will become acquainted with the most modern materials and equipment needed to study the marine environment and will develop "localized" curriculum packages for their schools using Pequot School as a model.In this way, they may involve their students in the study of limnology and fresh water biology where many of the activities and concepts from marine science are identical.

The private sector has a definite place in curriculum and product development.The expertise of the school community and the private sector can be shared for mutual benefit.Each has an important role to play and an investment in education.The preparation of our future leaders in the field of the natural sciences as well as the advances we as a country will make in basic research, are contingent upon the 1. A Secchi Disc and Fdrel Scale are Used to Study educational training received by our students.It is Light Penetration and Water Color. imperative therefore, that our curriculum designs not only meet the needs, interests, and abilities of 2.Seining Provides the Opportunity to Coilect Local our students but also provide them with meaningful Flora and Fauna. and challenging content. Our stake in the future of our youngsters is too high, and our interest is too 3.On the Beach Students Reveal What They Have sincere, to overlook the significance of this cooper- Collected in the Seine; Fish and Shrimp are ative relationship.Oceanography Unlimited has this Most Abundant. premise as its basic philosophy and hopes other companies will follow its lead in working closely with 4.This Plankton Tow Will Provide Approximately the schools to provide the best possible curriculum 30 Different Smcies of Marine Plankters. and materials that can be developed.

1T2 Sixth graders examine theirenvironment.

CHANGE TOWARD BETTER ECOLOGICAL STUDIES

Richard L. Delnickas and EdwardG. Smith

WATER... air... trees. .. soil ... so what? about the neighboring city of Springfield.To focus How could we make man's environmental problems attention on specific concepts, we developed trans- meaningful to our sixth-grade suburbanites who as- parencies and ditto masters. signed so little importance to the things which sustain our existence? Thefield experience revolved around the water system of Springfield. We visited Littlefield Dam, a pump- One day as we discussed previous attempts at ing station, Cobble Mountain Reservoir, West Parish teaching conservation and examined our resources, Filter Beds, and Provin Mountain storage tanks, with we came to several decisions: We would team to bet- the students seeking information from experts as ter utilize our time, talents, and techniques.Stu- these places.By rim class enthusiasm was high as dents' attitudes toward natural resources would have the children wondered how we would attack the prob- to change .Traditional textbook-film approaches lem of forest resources.Video tape again became wouldn't affect attitudes, so we would try field exper- a major tool.Because of the emphasis on forest suc- iences coordinated with the latest technology. And cession and economic significance of go od forest we would seek help from the community media cen- practice, w' chose the Harvard Forest and Fisher ter and EPIC, the federally funded EducationalPro- Museum, ou camera recording significant informa- ject to Implement Conservation. tion as the students experienced it firsthand. Beefed up by four student interns, our team met several times with media specialists and project di- On the 35-mile trip, we used the bus microphones to rectors to plan selective learning experiences. To make commentaries on watersheds, wildlife manage- support our chosen objectives, we chose media t o ment, andforest trimming practices.Children were deliver a series of multisensory events. We listed asked to collect such data along the way as visible signs hardware, teacher-prepared software, audio-equip- of air and water pollution, goodandbadsoil use, and ped buses, and community resources. To get through potential recreation sites. Later comparative graphs to our television-oriented students, we would center were constructed to summarize their observations our initial and followup environmental experiences and reinforce the importance of keeping records. around video tape. Reading books and stories by Thornton Burgess "I know that place!" Our 15-minute video docu- provided direction for a study of native wildlife in its mentary on problem spots in our local area achieved natural habitat, motivating a visit to his estate, now the identification we wanted, and raised questions to known as "Laughing Brook Nature Center." It was introduce the concepts we were seeking to develop. fascinating to see .ie children identifying various "Where will we bury the trash after room runs out?" species and telling what they knew about them. "What can we do for environment in our c ity ?" "What is flood control?" These student questions Subsequent trips were taken to other local nature provided directions and motivations for our study. areas. During a special trip to Mt. Tom Reserva- tion, a public recreation and nature center, small Small groups were formed to explore these subgroups investigated woodland use. jects further through slides, newspaper articles, bulletin boards, reference books, and field equipment. Our commitment to the conservation study plan To provide direct experiences, we planned to use was justified by the way our students attacked the some of the many community and regional resources projects in the culminating activities of the program. available, such as Westfield State College, Spring- We built around a theme of communication to t he field Water Works, Stanley Park, Harvard Forest community, utilizing posters, scrapbooks, bulletin and its Fisher Museum, Quabbin Reservoir, the Ar- boards, dioramas, displays of collections, and small my Engineers.Project EPIC furnished the sound- group discussions.The climax was an open-house equipped buses that became moving classrooms when ceremony at our new Juniper Park School. we made field trips. From a teacher's point of view, we felt that our Because of their experience with local drought, the program effectively focused students' attention on children already realized that the supply of w a te r the pressing problems right at hand in our local en- available to man is limited. To redirect pupil aware- vironment. We found that the multisensory approach ness to the problem, we replayed segments of our to teaciiing, highlighted by video tape and field exper- video tape and showed a film entitled Miracle Called iences, was an effective vehicle for developing pupil Water,which was particularly relevant because it was interest, motivation, and understanding.

The authors are sixth-grade teachers in Carew Street School, Springfield, Massachusetts. Their report w as one of 25 winners in a recent Instructor magazine contest.(Reprinted from Instructor, February 1970).

..3 A strategy for curriculum developmentand implementation(K-l2).

ENVIRONMENTAL ENCOUNTERS

WilliamB.Stapp

TODAY'S YOUTH in elementary and secondary schools will soon be assuming important roles as adult citizens in society. As citizens and voters, BIBLIOGRAPHY no matter what their occupations may be, they will be asked to make decisions that will affect not only 1.Atkin, Myron, "Behavioral Objectives in the immediate environment in which they live, but Curriculum Design: A Cautionary Note, " also that of their country. To an increasing extent Science Teacher, 35:27-30, May 1968. the votes they will cast and the choices they w ill :lake will be concerned with their environment. 2.Beauchamp, George, Curriculum Theory, They will be asked to make social and economic de- 1965. cisions about recreation, transportation, beautification, water needs, and air and water pollution con- 3.Bennett, Dean, Organization and Operation trol.Since these issues affect the totalenvironment of the Yarmouth Maine Environmental Edu- in which we live, we must assist our young people cation Program, Y?. mouth Public Schools, (and adults) to acquire the experiences, knowledge, 1969, pp. 1-9. and concern necessary for making informed environmental decisions. 4.Bruner, Jerome S., The Process of Edu- cation, Vintage Books, 1960. In our political system we depend upon the wisdom of individuals of the populace for making deci- 5.Bruner, Jerome, Toward a Processof In- sions. A major responsibility for assisting future struction W. W. Norton and Company, Inc. citizens to obtain the knowledge and incentive neces- New York. sary to make informed decisions has been delegated to school systems.Since environmental education 6.Bryan, William, "A Conceptual Plan for an is essential to our type of political system, it is im- Environmental Education Program," un- portant for the public to ask if school Evstems are ef- published master's thesis, University of fectively fulfilling their responsibility to society. Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1967.

One of the most important challenges of education 7.Cohen, Arthur R., Attitude Change and So- today is to develop an effective methodof implement- cial Influence, Basic Books, Inc. Publish- ing environmental education into elementary and sec- ers, New York, 1964. ondary school systems. 8.Dewey, John, Experience and Education, A STRATEGY OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT Collier Books, New York.

If individuals are to be prepared to make the kind 9.Hess, Robert, "Political Attitudes in Chil- of environmental dec;sions that our nation will face dren," Psychology Today, 2:(no. 8)24-28, in the future, schools must embark on a comprehen- January 1969. sive environmental education program that will span the curriculumkindergarten through t he twelfth 10.Hess, Robert; Torney, Judith, The Devel- gradeand link subject areas that relate most close- opment of Political Attitudes in Children, ly to the environment. Aldine Publishing Co., Chicago, 1967.

The information that follows reflects the author's 11.Kretch; Critchiield; Ballachey, Individuals 8 years of experience in serving a s conservation in Society, 1962. consultant with the Ann Arbor Public School System; a graduate seminar' in environmental e du c a t ion, 12.Kelley, Earl, Education for What is Real, School of Natural Resources, The University of Mich- 1947. igan; and a comprehensive review of the literature. (See following Bibliography. ) 13.Kelley, Earl, "The Place of Affective

Dr. Stapp is Associate Professor, Resource Planning and Conservation, School of Natural Resources, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.

4 STAPP 105 Learning, " Educational Leadership, 22: A school system (K-12) that is interested in de- 455-457, April 1965. veloping an environmental education program might consider tie following strategy: 14.Lane, Robert E.; Sears, David, Public Opinion, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Phase I:Identify the need for developing the pro- Cliffs, New Jersey, 1964. gram (page 36). Phase II:Establish an environmental education 15.Miller, H.; Smiley, H., Education in the committee to develop and implement the program Metropolis. The Free Press. and to facilitate communication (page 37). Phase III:Establish the goal and sub-goals of the 16.Montague, Earl; Butts, David P., "Behav- program (page 37 ). ioral Objectives, " Science 'leacher, Vol. 35, March 1968. Phase IV: Establish the objectives ( in terms of behavioral predispositions) of the program ( page 37 ). 17.Montague, Earl; Koran, John J., Jr., "Be- havioral Objectives and Instructional De Phase V: Review of the literah;re regarding theo- sign: An Elaboration, " Science Teacher, ries of learning and instruction that apply to the for- Vol. 35, March 1969. mulation and implementation of the program( page 38 ). Phase VI: Establish the curriculum organization 18.Neagley, Ross; Evans, Dean, Handbook for of the program (page 38). Effective Curriculum Development, 1967. Phase VII: Establish the curriculum of the program (page 39). 19.Ojemann, Ralph, "Should Educational Ob- jectives be Stated in Behavioral Terms?" Phase VDT: Establish a comprehensive in-service The Elementa School Journal, Vol. 68, teacher education program ( page 41 ). February 1968. Phase IX: Develop instruments to evaluate the 20.Pi-.get, Jean; Inhelder, Barbel, The Psy- effectiveness of the program (page 417- chology of the Child, Basic Books, Inc. Phase I:The Need for Dev :loping an Environmen- Publishers, New York, 1969. tal Education Program 21.Rokeach, Milton, Beliefs, Attitudes, and Within the past 50 years, the United States ha s Values, Jossez-Bass, 1968. become a predominantly urban nation, both in thought and in physical character. Large and middle-sized 22.Science Research Associates, Youth Pow- communities, many within complex urban regions, er, 1968. have evolved to where over 70 percent of this country's population resides on 1 1/2 percent of the na- 23.Stapp, William B., et al., "The Concept of tion's land surface. By 1980, eight out of ten Amer- Environmental Education," Environmental icans will probably live in an urban environment. Education, 1:(no. 1) 30-31, 1969. Consequently, the independent rural-oriented living that cnce characterized this country's social an d 24.Stapp, William B., Integrating Conservation politic:al heritage is no longer a dominating influence and Outdoor Education into the Curriculum in the lives of most Americans. (K-12). In rural surroundings, direct daily contact with the 25.Swan, James, "Pesponse to Air Pollution: basic natural resources was prevalent, especially A Study of Attitudes and Coping Strategies within man's immediate environment. As man became of High School Youth, " Journal of Environ- progressively urbanized, his intimate association ment and Behavior, 1970. and interaction with natural resources diminished, and with it his awareness of his dependency on them. 26.Swan, James, "The Challenge of Environ- Yet, it is imperative that ma., wherever he lives, mental Education," Phi Delta Kappa, 26- comprehend that his welfar is dependent upon the 28, September 19C.J. "proper" management and use of these resources. 27.Taba, Hilda, Curriculum Development, Man should also have an awareness and understand- Harcourt, Brace, and World, Inc., New ing of his community and its associatedproblems. Our York, 1962. communities are being plagued with problems such as lat.!: of comprehensive environmental planning, in- 28.Tyler, Ralph, Basic Principals of Curric- discriminate use of pesticides; community blight; air ulum and Instruction, 1950. and water pollution, traffic congestion; and the lack of institutional arrangements neededto cope effective- 29.Vaiozey, John, Education in the Mode rn ly with environmental problems. While these prob- World, World University Library, Toronto, lc are legitimate concerns of community govern- 1967. mental officials and planners, the responsibility for their solution rests, to a large extent, with citizens. 30.White, Gilbert, "Formation and Role of Public Attitudes, " Environmental Quality To an increasing extent citizens are being asked to in a Growing Economy, John Hopkins Press, make decisions thM. affect (directly and indirectly) their 1966, pp. 105-127. environment.Specifically, citizens make these decisions as they cast votes on community issues; as they nouumnnmuiluningumulammatiowantimmuusuutuenumummummtunminnumuuuniumulauin elect representatives to policy-making bodies; as they '115 106 ENV1RONME 'UALEDUCATION directly act upon the environment itself. Citizens can Some important duties the environmental edu- be effective in influencing soundpolicy in other ways. cation committee (or committees) would be to: They can ask informed questions, at the proper time, . . . Assist in the development of the philoso- of the right people.They can serve on advisory and phy and structure of the program. policy-making committees.They can support sound legislation directed at resolving environmental prob- . Become familiar with existing instruction- lems.To perform these tasks effectively, it is vital al material relevant to environmental education. that the citizenry be knowledgeable concerning their . .. Identify community resources, both phys- biophysical environment and associated problems, ical and human, to serve the program. aware of how they can help solve these problems, and . Assist in the development and distribution motivated to work toward effective solutions. of instre-tional material (such as environmental The Supreme Court decision regarding the one-man, encounters). one-vote concept, that has enabled the increasing urban majority to acquire greater powers in decision- . . . Provide a comprehensive in-se r vi ce making, makes it imperative thatprograms developed teacher education program. for urbanites be designed with them in mind.It is . .. Train community citizens to serve t he important to assist each individual, whether urbanite program or ruralite, to obtain a fuller understanding of the en- . .. Assist in the development of school sites vironment, problems that confrcnt it, the interrela- tc serve the program. tionship between the community ar.d surrounding land, and opportunities for the individual to be effective in . . . Administer the program. working toward the solution of environmental problems. . . . Make presentations to parent-teacher and Most current programs in conservation education other community organizations regarding the pro- are oriented primarily to basic resources; they do not gram. focus on the community environment and its ass.ci- . .. Evaluate tne effectiveness of the program ated problems.Furthermore, few programs empha- in achieviig stated objectives. size the role of the citizen in working, both individually and collectively, toward the solution of problems Phase, Establish the Goals' and Sub-Goals of the that affect our well being.There is a vital need for Environmental Education Program an educational approach that effecti sly educates man Without a clear statement of goals, an environ- regarding his relations p to the tot..avironment. mental education program would become a series of (See Stapp's article "The Concept of Environmental unrelated experiences, focusing perhaps on limited Education, " Environmental Education, Fall 1969.) program objectives. The goal (See Stapp, Environ- mental Education, Fall 1969.) of environmental edu- Phase II:Establish an Er dronmental Education Com- cation is to pi,:duce a citizenry that is knowledgeable mittee to Develcp and Implement the Program and to concerning the biophysical environment and its asso- Facilitate Communication ciated problems, aware of how to help solve t he se problems, and motivated to work toward their solution. An essential component of most successful school programs is effective communication between the com- The major sub-goals (Refer to Stapp, Environmen- munity and school system. The introduction of any new tal Education, Fall 1969.) of environmental education school program requires the involvement and prepa- are to help individuals acquire: ration of the community, administration, teaching staff, and student. One reason many well-conceived 1.A clear understanding that man is an insepara- programs have failed is because teachers and students ble part of a system, consisting of man, culture, were not involved in program development. and the biophysical environment, and that man has the ability to alter the interrelationships of this In developing an environmental education program, system. it is important that an environmental education committees be formed to develop and implement the pro- 2. A broad understanding of the biophysical en- gram and to facilitate communication between the com- vironment, both natural and man-made, and its munity and the school system. The committee should role in contemporary society. con iist of elementary teachers (representing each gra e level), secondary teachers (representing each 3. A fundamental understanding of the biophysi- dill Mine), school administrators, community citi- cal environmental problems confronting man, how zer s, and students.The environmental education to help solve these problems, and the responsi- committee should report to t he superintendent o f bility of citizens and government to work toward schools (or to an individual or committee designated their solution. by the superintendent). 4.Attitudes of concern for the quality of the biophysical environment which will motivate citi- In developing an ',nvironmental education program zens to participate In biophysical e.ivironmental for a school system, it i.. strongly recommendedthat prectem-solving. an environmental education consultant position be created.The environmental education consultant3 could Phase IV: Establish the Objectives4(in terms of be- provide the leadership and guidance essentiai to the havioral predispositions) for an Environmental Edu- success of au}, program. One of the major responsi- cation Program bilitles of the environmental education cons ultan would be to assist In the development and implemen- There are various ways to state the expected and tation of the in-service teacher education program. desired outcomes of an environmental education STAPP 107

program. Perhaps the most significant and dynamic . . . Helping citizens to acquire technical know- approach ,s to state them in terms of behavioral ledge alone regarding an environmental problem, predispositions.In other words, the product of an may not increase their concern for the problem. environmental education program (K-12) should be a citizen who is: ... Citizens are more likely to become involved in environmental issues if they are aware 1.Interested in his environment and its relation- of how they can have some effect upon decision- ship to society. making. 2.Sensitive (total awareness) to his environment, Phase VI:Estal: ish the Curriculum Organization both natural and man-made aspects of it. of the Environmental Education Program 3.Sensitive to the chmensionofquality of his environment and able to recognize environmental prob- An important criticism of our publLc school sys- lems. tem is the lack of adequate articulation between the 4.Inclined to participr..a in coping with environ- various divisions of the school organization. Instead mental problems. of a well-developed series of instructional units and Phase V: review of the Literature Regarding Theo- activities commencing at the kindergarten level and ries of Learning, and Instruction that Apply to the terminating at the twelfth grade, many school sys- Formulation and Implementation of an Environmen- tems present a series of units that have little rela- tal Education Program tionship between what has previously been taught and what will be taught in future years.The K-12 a p - A recent review of the literature reveals the fol- proach seems to be the most sound way to plan a cur- lowing points that should be considered in the formu- riculum for environmental education. lation of an environmental education program: It is also important to plan curriculum projects .. . Behaviors which are reinforced are most horizontally as well as vertically.Disciplines, such likely to recur.It is important that desired be- as science and social studies, should not be studied haviors be reinforced by the home, school, church, in isolation. A curriculum should be plannedso that youth organilations, etc. students can see the contributions of interdisciplinary .. . The most effective effort is put forth by studies in assisting the learner to better understand youth when they try tasks which fall in the "range the environment and to be more effective in solving of challenge"not too easy and not too hard environmental problems. where success seems likely but not certain. Furthermore, a curriculum program should rec- . .. Youth are more likely to throw themselves wholeheartedly into any project if they themselves ognize individual differences.There is no sequence that will meet the needs of allgroups of youth. There- ha'..e a meaningful role in the selection and plan- fore, a curriculum program should be flexible in de- ning of the enterprise. sign so that material can be presented in different ... Reaction to excessive direction of the ways depending on the background. needs, and as- teacher is likely to be: apathetic conformity; de- pirations of the students. fiance; escape from the whole affair. A set of guiding principles that should be consid- . . What is learned is most likely to be avail- ered when structuring an environmental education able for use if it is learned in a situation much like program are: that in which it is to be used and immediately preceding the time when it is needed.Learning in ... Span the curriculum, kindergartenthrough youth, then forgetting, and then relearning when the twelfth grade, so that environmental experi- need arises is not an efficient procedure. ences can be presented at every grade level, thereby capitalizing on the cumulative effects of the pro- . .. The learning process in school oughtto in- gram. volve dynamic methods of inquiry. . Link subject areas that relate most close-

. .. Research sixrys little correlation between ly to the environment, especially science and so- cognitive ach'evement and concern and values. cial studies, so that both the social and scientific Able student..oho achieve well in traditional knowledge important in understanding and solving "content-centered. courses" do not necessarily environmental problems are properly developed. demonstrate commitment to positive social goals. . . Integrate and correlate the program with ... Learning takes place through the active the existing curriculum in a manner that will en- behavior of the student.It is what he does that hance the instructional goals of the school system. he learns, not what the teacher does. The essen- . .. Focus on the local environment, but do not tial means of an education are the experiences neglect regional, national, and international envi- provided, not the things to which the student is ronmental iosues. merely exposed. ... Stress attitudes andproblem solving skills. L. . . One of the keys to motivation is a sense The most important environmental impact t ha t of excitement about discovering for one's self, most of our urban citizens will have upon our en- rather than having a generalization presented by vironment is through their action as community a teacher and requiring a student to prove it. citizens. ... The learner should play an active role in ... Attitudes may not be formed through a ra- the learning process. The learner develops atti- tional process by which facts are gathered and a tudes through personal experiences and thinking reasonable conclusion drawn, but rather through If and not through the presentation of predigested the repeated exposure to ideas. conclusions.

117 108 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

. Provide a comprehensive in-s e r vic e ... Environmental encounters that relate to teat.ber edation program which would operate environmental problems should expose the learn- throughout (lie school year and which is directed er to the following problem solving procedure: at assisting teachers to increase their understand- (1) Define the environmental problem or issue. ings, interest, awareness, and teaching skills in (2) Become informed about the problem.(3) environmental affairs and to involve them in cur- State the alternative solutions.(4) Develop a riculum developme.,:. plan of action.(5) Implement the plan of action. Phase VII:Establish the Curriculum 7of the Envi- Every environmental encounter should contain a ronmental Education Pro ram list of the outcomes that are desired.The outcomes desired should be expressedas behavioral objectives. In establishing an ens nmental education pro- They (behavioral objectives) provide: direction for gram for a school ;v.s (K-12), consideration the learnin,-.; process; guidance in selecting content should be given to a,. ,pment of a series of en- and experiences; greater focus on the learner what vironmental encountt he encounters should fo- the learner does; and the opportunity to appraise cus the attention of ri.Ptori ary and secondary youth (evaluate) the effectiveness of a particular learning on their environment ii manner that would link experience and of the total program. Behavioral ob- relevant ecological, ec, . Inc., social, technologi- jectives can be stated at different levels of complex- cal, and political information. ity and in the cognitive (knowledge), affective (concern), and action domains. The environmental encounters could be designed to provide the learner with meaningful environmental An example of an environmental encounter recom- experiences at each grade level, both elementary and mended for a sixth grade class, is as follows: secondary. The encounters could be used to enhance and extend an existing instructional program r to INVESTIGATING A POND COMMUNITY serve as the core of a comprehensive environmental education program. Environmental encounters would provide the flex- "An Environmental Encounter ibility that a program needs to meet varying local for a Sixth Grade Class" environmental conditions and situations, as well as individual class needs. Behavioral Objectives: Some examples of topics that the environmental encounters might focus upon, are: land resources, In the completion of a successful encounter, the water resources, air resources, plant resources, student should be able to: animal resources, environmental design, environmental planning, transportation, solid waste dispos- 1.Draw an accurate map of the drainage area of al, and recreation.The class could select with the the pond community. teacher environmental encounters to extend an existing class unit or to serve as the central thrust of a 2.Describe in writing four ways that the land in major teaching unit. the drainage areas affects the pond community. 3.Draw two (2) food chains illustrating organ- In developing environmental encounters, the fol- isms observed in the pond community. lowing guidelines are recommended: 4.List (number) major problems affecting the pond community. ... At each glade level the learner should be exposed to meaningful environmental encounters 5.Describe in writing the major steps in solving that relate relevant ecological, economic, politi- one (1) of the problems noted in question 4. cal, technological, and axial information.How- ever, greater exphasis in the earlier grades should Activity: be toward developing in youth an interest, awareness, understanding and respect for the environ- 1.What is the bottom of the pond community like: ment, and in the latter years emphasis should be How does the type of bottom affect the kinds of plants on "honing" problem solving skills. and animals found in the pond community? 2.As you look from the cen,er of the pond com- ... Environmental encounters should provide munity toward the shore, are there plants growing the o:portunity at each grade level for the learner under water, on the surface, ancrout of the water? to become personally involved in positive action Why are plants important to the pond community? toward the solution of environmental problems in 3.Dip a small jar into the pond and note if there which he has been exposed. are small organisms (these are probably plankton organisms). Why is plankton important to the pond ... The learner should play a major role in community? What would cause plankton to increase both selecting and designing environmental en - or decrease? counters. 4.Make or obtain a dip net and sample around the edge of the pond community. How are the ani- ... Environmental encounters should fall in mals you have caught important to the pond commu- the range of challengenot too easy and not too ity? Draw a food chain linking some of the plants ha rd. and animals you have noted in and around the pond community. ... Environmental encounters should involve dynamic methods of inquiry. 5.On a map of your community color in the land

118- STAPP 109 area that drains toward the pond. How has the use plains as a result of flooding over the past 60 years? of this land changed over the past 15 years? What d.What does your state flood plain ordinance changes are occurring at the present time? Ho say? If none exists, is it conside ring an ordinance ? does the use of this land affect the pond community? e.What does your community floodplain ordi- 6.Do both children and adults visit the pond com- nance say?If none exists, is it considering such munity? What do people do when they visit the pond an ordinance? community? f.How is the undeveloped land on the flood 7.Do you see any problems that are affecting plain zoned? the pond community? Who is responsible for creat- g.Are there any current proposals to utilize ing the problems? What could your class do to help the undeveloped flood plains of your river for rec- solve one of the problems noted above (define the reational, residential, commercial, or industrial problem, become informed about the problem, state development? alternative solutions, develop a plan of action, im- h.What proposals seem wise or unwise in plement the plan)? Is your class motivated and con- cemed about one of the problems to the degree that light of the hazards you have identified? they desire to work toward its solution? 3.Draw on a map of your cummunity the flood plains (50 year flood line) of the (name) River An example of an environmental encounter rec- from (location) to (location) and record how ommended for a high school American Government each flood plain is developed. class, is as follows: 4.Determine by interviews the points of view of FLOOD PLAIN ZONING land developers, community citizens, real to r s , chamber of commerce officials, planning commis- "An Environmental Encounter for an American sion members, city council members, and students Government Class" of your class regarding the future development of the flood plains of the(name)River from(location) Behavioral Objectives: to (location) . 5.Based on the information collected, have the In the completion of a successful encounter, the class formulate alternative solutions to the develop- student should be able to: ment (or preservation) of the flood plains on the 1. Draw on a map of his community the floo d (name) River from(location)to( location) . plains (50 year flood line) of the (name) River from (location) to (location) and record ac- 6.Draw a chart of the power structure (pressure curately how each flood plain is developed. groups, governmental committees,governmental pulley makers) of your community regarding who in- 2.Describe in writing the number of floods and fluences (underline the influencers) aivi makes poli- flood damage that has occurred on the flood plains cy (circle the policy makers) on flood pl'a'n develop- of the (name) River from (location) to ment and zoning. (location) over the past 60 years (or over t he time that records have been filed). 7.If the solution advocated by the class members is different from the point of view held by the plan- 3.Describe in writing the major provisions in ning commission and policy makers of your commu- the laws of his state and community regarding flood nity, then develop 'Ind implement a plan of action plain zoning. (presentation tr.; the appropriate authority, develop 4.Identify the power structure (pressure groups, a fact sheet, publicize your position, etc.). governmental committees, governmental policy makers) of his community regarding who influences and Each environmental encounter should also provide makes policy on flood plain development and zoning. data regarding sources of additional information relevant to the topic. Activities: 1.Take a tour (or illustrate by slides) along the If the environmental educational program for a (name) River from (location to (location) school system revolved around environmental en - and note the following: counters, a twelfth grader may not be exposed to all aspects of the environment. However, through the a.Are there a series of flood plains? inductive (inquiry) approach advocated by this sys- b.How are the flood plains developed? tem, a twelfth grader that had been exposed to this c.Are there homes or buildings on the flood program should be more sensitive (total awareness) plain? Are they flood proofed? to his environment, betl.,ar able to recognize environ- d.Are there provisions for protecting t he mental problems, more sophisticated in the utiliza- flood plains from flooding? tion of problem solving skills essential to the solu- e.What trends regarding land development are tion of emerging environmental problems, and more occurring on the flood plains of your community? inclined to participate in coping with environmental 2.Seek information from reliable sources r e - problems than the product of other forms of instruc- garding the flood pL.ins of the (name Riverfrom tion known he author.The learner would also (location) have an understanding and should see the importance (location) to of relating ecological, economic, social, technolog- a.Has flooding of the flood plains occurred ical, and political information when working toward during the past 60 years? the solution of environmental problet 1. b.List the years in wnich flooding has occurred. The environmental encounters s!;:-..uld be produced c.Approximately how much damage (dollars, by the local environmental education committee and lives, inconveniences) has occurred on the flood by youth and teachers from throughout the school

119 110 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION system. The environmental encounters produced at Phase IX: Develop Instruments to Evaluate the Ef- the local level could be mimeographed and distribut- fectiveness of the Environmental Education Program ed to all schools in the system. Many school systems might need and desire consultant help (which It is imperative that instruments be developed to is available) to orient the local environmental educa- evaluate the extent to which behavioral objectives are tion committee to the task of developing environmen- attained and the effectiveness of the total environmental encounters.However, samples of environmental tal education program. An evaluation should be a con- encounters could be developed and produced by a na- tinuous process involving pupil and teacher feedback. tional publishing house according to elementary grade levels (lower elementary, middle elementary, upper It is imperative that the evaluative instruments elementary) and secondary subject matters (general be objective, reliable, and valid.It should be noted science, American Government, biology, economics, that behavioral objectives provide a n excellent op- social 2.----,z,biems, etc.).Environmental encounters portunity to appraise the effectiveness of particular produced at the national level could be adapted to learning experiences and of the total program. The meet local needs and situations by the local environ- evaluative instrument could be developed by the local mental education committee. environmental education committee. Phase VIII: Establish a Comprehensive In-Service SUMMARY Teacher Education Program' If we are to bring urbanized man to a fuller under- If our youth are to acquire the interest, aware- standing of his environment, our schools must em- ness, understandings, and skills essential in under- bark on a comprehensive environmental education standing and contributing to the solution of environ- prof,.m.The program should be aimed at helping mental problems, then it is imperative that our our youth to be more knowledgeable concerning the schools provide environmental learning experiences. environment and associated problems, aware of how However, few teachers are prepared in our colleges to help solve these problems, and motivated to work and universities to use the environment to enrich in- toward their solution. structional goals.For this reason a comprehensive One of the most important challenges of education in-service teacher education program is essential co today is to develop an effective method of implement- a successful environmental education program (K-12). ing environmental education into our elementary and An effective in-service teacher education program secondary school systems. should be developed by the local environmental edu- This paper provides one strategy as to how a school cation committee. An early task would be to formu- system might develop a comprehensive environmen- late a comprehensive in- service teacher education tal education program (K-12).The environmental plan, which might include the f.. 'lowing: encounters could be used to enhanc : and extend exist- a.Clear statement of objectives. ing class units or to serve as the core of a comprehensive environmental education 1,rogram. b.Time sequence regarding when offerings will occur throughout the school year. FOOTNOTES c.Involvement of teachers at all grade levels 1.The members of the seminar were: Donald Aus- and subject areas. tin, Marion Baker, William Bryan, Ellen Jack- d.Development of written material and in- son, Katherine Lien, Jean MacGregor, Paul structional aids to assist the teaciter in understand- Nowak, Cynthia Russell, Sara Segal, James ing and presenting environmental information. Swan, and Professor William Stapp. e.Blending of community environmental ex- 2.It should be recognized that part of the responsi- periences with indoor presentations. bility for developing and implementing an envi- f.Provisions for experiences to occur or ronmental education program might be assigned school sites. to an existing instructional committee. g.Promotion and publicity of local collegiate 3.The environmental education consultant co uld offerings and scholarship programs. serve as chairman of the environmental education committee. The first stage of an in-service teacher training program would be to orient all teachers and admin- 4.The local environmental education committee istrators to the philosophy of environmental educa- might consider the goals and sub-goals ex - tion, structure of the environmental education pro- pressed in the following phase. gram, and ways to effectively utilize environmental 5.The local environmental education committee might encounters. consider the theories of learning and instruc- The second stage of an in-service teacher train- tion expressed in the following section (these ing program would be to plan a bus tour of the com- are not unique to environmental education). munity to provide teachers with first hand experiences regarding their local environment and associated 6.The local environmental education committee problems. Information should be provided to all might consider thoughts on curriculum organ- teachers regarding community citizens atd govern- ization expressed in this section. mental officials knowledge: 'de on the environment 7.The local environmental education committee and available to serve the school system as resource might consider environmental encounters as persons on environmental matters. an integral part of their program. The third stage of the in-service teacher training 8.The local environmental education committee program would be to assist the teachers in ways to might consider the guidelines for developing effectively integrate environmental encounters into a comprehensive environmental education pro- the school program. gram expressed below..

124) Eivietoameatai Seca/tied eeuite to e.g.

HERE DO WE start in our national quest for environmental quality? What azimuths shall provide our Worientation? Whose standard of quality shall we adopt? For what? When? Where? How indeed do we begin to make wise choices in land and water use? How do we develop without destroying? How do we protect without penalizing? Enter the iniversity. For identifying he choices and for supplying the economic and ecological facts as well as the esthetic appreciations on which to make intelligent environmental decisions, perhaps no instrument of American society is potentially better equipped than a university. The university has basic research and teaching skill J.The university is relatively objective. The university has growing resources. Yetthe ordinary posture of a university may not be optimum for the task of contributing to the new conservation.For the university has become composed of highly individualistic professors organized into departmental enclaves, mar ked increasingly by what Laurence Veysey has called the breakup of knowledge into little pieces, with an accompanying "maiming and mutilation of the mird. " The university has a number of disciplines concerned with conservation, for example, each with a highly developed yet essentially narrow approach. Some schools have takenout a patent on the term "conservation," defying colleagues of any other stripe to trespass. Some departments tend to fence off the field as a preserve for basic research. Other departments may rush in with ac tion programs where scientists fear to tread.Still other professors may not recognize the extent of their involvement in t he matter at all.In effect, universities both influence, and are influenced by, centrifugal forces at work in co n- servation.What patently isneeded are university postures and instrumentalities that will influence, and be influenced by, centripetal changes in conservation.Fortunately, they are emerging, because universities inevitably reflect changes in the environment: a university is not something apart from the order to which it belongs; it is that order, shadow, and tint. To describe American college and university efforts to come to grips withthe degradation of man's inter- laced surrounuings, the term "environmental studies" is increasingly entering the lexicon of the cam'.,. Some might say this term has sprung into being merely at the whim of phrase-makers, or to lend a charismatic quality to the matter with which it is associated. On the contrary, the term is coming into use to satisfy the very real need of scholars to describe, if not a new discipline, at least a new way of looking at a variety of old disciplines, their relationships, and their potential contributions. While no pinpoint definition or delimitation of the term "environmental studies" is Possible at this time, and indeed may never be desirable, we can list the factors or criteria that seem to be implicit In the use of the term by a university.

First, we are concerned with the environment of man.It is possible, of course, to study the physical nature or the biological characteristics of the environment on an infra-human basis, but the concept in " environmental studies" is the study of man as he affects and is affected by his environment, for good or ill. Thefocus, in addition, is upon the growing number of humans concentrating in increasing densities and bringing gr eat er pressures to bear upon the environment. Second, we are concerned with the totatenvironment: its social, cultural, economic, and esthetic as well as its physical and biological, aspects. To seek an optimum total environment requires anunderstandIngbothof human needs and the needs of a healthy natural environment. Any discussion of the goals of society must dr a w upon knowledge of the nature of the world man lives in, just as any discussion of a balance of nature today must take into account the necessary impingements of man. Third, we are concerned with intendiaciptinaky studies. The development and management of an optimum total human environment requires an understanding of the contributions which can and must be made individually and collectively by all the arts, sciences, and professions, Fourth, we are concerned with integrated studies that have as their ultimate rationale the development of iY Fong -Wm open-ended zotutione for environmental problems, rather than short-term unilateral approaches that may actually degrade the environment. We are concerned with the adjustment of designed time and space for optimum human performance within the carrying capacities of the env,,nment. The desired objective is to bring conflicting forces into functional relationships, resulting in a unity called order, an order where human impact 12A, 112 does not needlessly destroy environmental quality, and where environmental quality contributes tomore fruitful human life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness. Finally, while we recognize the essential importance of qtrengthening existing disciplines,we looktoward teaching, research, and service configurations that will transcend traditional lines of endeavor,and be concerned with the wholeness of the relationship between man and the total environment. Whatwe seek is an integrtated env:o.onmentat ethic based in the scientific method. To ac!''eve such a goal we must literally developa new university environment in which environmental studies can flourish and in which *tie fruits ofsuch research can be reflected promptly in campus teaching and community service. The articles thatfollowsuggest that such campus environments may indeed be evolving. .

122 "At most institutions the resources are available; it is the mobilization and coordination of faculty and curriculum that are needed"

A GLIMPSE AND ANALYSIS OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

OPPORTUNITIES IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION

Spenser W. Havlick

THE DETERIORATION of the quality of the physi- stands out as a necessary and serious undertaking. cal environment in a de moceatic and informed nation continues in the face of a limited number of explanations. One of those explanations turns on what awareness, In 1968, under the chairmanship of Dr. Raymond information, and political efficacy the educational Dasmann, the Conservation Foundation Committee system gives citizens and decision-makers about on Environmental Education in American Universi- their environment.If institutions of higher learning ties undertook the task a identifying courses and are not providing relevant exposures about and pos- programs which are available to the general student sible solutions to enviz edmental problems then a com- as well as persons training to be environmental spe- prehensive appraisal would seem warrented. The cialists at graduate and undergraduate levels.With objective of this preliminary investigation was to encouragement from the Committee the author selec- inventory what several selected universities and ted a small number of institutions of higher educa- colleges are currently doing to provide effective en- tion which served as a preliminary sample of what vironmental education learning experiences for under- opportunities are ayailable on American university graduate and graduate students. As particularly suc- campuses in the area of environmentaleducation. cessful programs in environmental education a r e (For a definition of environmental education as used identified, new curricula, improved learning oppor- in this paper see the article by Professor Stapp on tunities, and teaching innovations can be shared page 30.) among institutions of higher learning throughout the United States. METHODOLOGY

More ';,al10 years ago the Conservation Founda- In preparation for an inventory of environmental tion sr,;portod a rather thorocqh study of conserva- education opportunities at several colleges and uni- tionducallan in the United SLAtes (Lively and Preius, versities a pilot study was carried out at the Univer- Con ,rrvation Education in American Colleges, Ronald sity of Michigan.In order for a course to be consid- Press, New York, 1957).Today, a fresh analysis ered relevant to environmental education, it was de- of programs in the area of environmental education cided that the course must fall into at least one of the

Dr. Havlick is Assistant Professor of Resource Planning and Conservation, School of Natural Resources and Faculty Associate, Institute of Social Research, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. The study is bang car- rini out with support from The Conservation Foundation, Washington, D. C. 11' 114 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION following four categories:1) the course must be a were apparently not training for primary or second- so-called "building block" that is, it must contri- ary teaching positions at the institutions observed. bute to a better understanding and knowledge of t he Most of the students interviewed in the Michigan pre- physical-biological environment, 2) the course must test were not expecting to be teachers.In the nation- be an "integrator" or relate man to his environment, wide inventory respondents indicated that students 3)it must be a techniques or problem solving course 'm courses related to environmental studies wer e which teaches problem solving techniques and stimu- probably destined for prlfessional positions in fed- lates students to work towards the solution of prob- eral, state, and county (planning) agencies, various lems facing their environment, and 4) any remain- research activities, private business and industry, ing courses which were believed relevant to environ- and universities. mental education, but did not fall into the above three categories. 4.The majority of schools under observation had three or fewer courses which qualified as comprehensive environmental education offerings. Without exception improvements and additions were being The pretest experience at The University of Mich- planned.It shouic be mentioned again that the cri- igan demonstrated the enormity of a nationwide effort teria for judging a course were based on the defini- to identify and evaluate effectiveness of courses and tion given earlier which stresses the development of programs in environmental education.It was deter- a citizenry that is knowledgeable about problems that mined that selected faculty be contacted for a person- affect our physical environment, understands how to al interview from a small number of institutions which be effective in helping to solve these p:oblems, and offered specific programs or courses.Faculty mem- is motivated to work toward their solution. bers at designated institutions were chosen by repu- tational and positional techniques.The Conservation Foundation's Committee on Environmental Education 5.Several universities present what could be con- in American Universities was particularly helpful n. sidered model opportunities in environmental educa- submitting names of schools and faculty throughout tion under the definition of the concept as used in this the United States who should be contacted during the report.Harvard University via its Committee on study. General Education, Clark University (Geography De- partment), University of Wisconsin (Environmenta. Studies Committee), Montana State University, Uni- versity of Michigan (School ef Natural Resources) MAJOR FINDINGS OF THE STUDY .ad Colorado State University stand among the leaders. A number of schools are inthe process of regrouping facilities and talents in the area of en- 1.Most liberal arts colleges with a Etodent pop- vironmental education (University of Wisconsin - ulation of less than 1,200 lack the depth of interde- Green Bay Center of Environmental Studies; Ohio partmental resources to sustain a multidisciplinary State University's School of Natural Resources; and program required of a program in environmental ed- University of Colorado's Man-Environment Relation- ucation.Unusual cases do exist where seminars are ships Center will be worth watching). offered in environmental problems (i.e. Springfield College, Massachusetts, and Befall College, Wiscon- sin.In these situations team teaching often substi- 6.Categorically all faculty members who were tutes for single courses taught by different depart- interviewed expressed a willingness to participate ments in the larger universities as in the example of in a sharing of skills related to the area of environ- Ohio State University, University of Washington, mentll education.This emerged as an expression Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Colorado of wantb.g, to learn from programs that were opera- State, University, Wisconsin State University, Uni- tional and to share whatever innovations may be help- versity of Utah, University of Wisconsin and others. ful to others contemplating, i,eginning or reorgani- zing a course or program in environmental education. There was particular interest in what curriculum or faculty combinations had produced satisfactory re- 2.Many universities have a program or part of sults elsewhei e in the country. it which qualifies as environmental education in a department (or departments), school or institute whose direction and policy are in keeping with a spe- 7.Every respondent mentioned or recognized cific discipline such as political science, civil engi- environmental education as a serious and legitimate neering, biology, geology, agricultural economics, area of concern in light of the problems which face or rural sociology.Under these administrative our biological-physical environment. circumstances it remains unclear whether or not a program or curriculum in environmental education 8.It appears That the success of an environmentcan have adequate ,readth for the spectrum of stu- al education program depends on a capable and de - dents who may wish to enroll. Examples include voted man or a faculty team that is able to coordinate Cornell University, Massachusetts Institute of Tech- the content and integrate the fundamental concepts of nology, and Indiana University. a program at a given institution. With tbschools that were struggling to launch a naw program or re- organize one that needs to 6ecome relevant to the urban resource problem:, "leadership" was given 3.The majority of students enrolled in compre- as one of the most vexing problems.Utah State Uni- hensive environmental education programs or courses versity, University of Colorado, NewJersey

12,E HAVLICK 115 Commission on Higher Education an d Ohio others on a regular basis.It is presumed that the State University serve as illustrations. environmental education "depository" could be housed in the Office of Education (HEW), in a Divi- sion of the AAAS, or at the Conservation Foundation, RECOMMENDATIONS Washington, D.C. From the findings and observations made during the initial inventory of environmental education op- 4.It is suggested that American universities and portunities in the United States certain general recom- colleges need to provide increased training programs mendations are presented.The suggestions which in the form of course offerings, field work, and re- follow are made despite the omission of schools in lated studies in order to adequately meet the demand geographic regions such as the Southeast and Pacific for more enviro.imental educators expected in the Coast. The reader is also cautioned about the in- decade ahead.For example, the New Jersey Council tensity and scale of the inquiry which permitted only for Environmental Education in their April 1968 re- an identification of selected programs and courses. port revealed that 181 districts are engaged in or The project evaluation task was carried out at an planning what are called environmental e d u c a ti on exploratory level.Nevertheless certain patterns programs. The upsurge in America's concern f or emerge from the general observations which c all for a quality environment is expressed at the operation- the following recommendations: al level by increased job opportunities for persons trained in environmental education.But American universities will fall short of supplying environment- 1.If a program or curriculum in environmental al educators which school systems and other agencies education is to be successfully administered on any will need unless new environmental education train- campus, the institution, through some mechanism of ing programs are initiated. interdepartmental or interdisciplinary faculty should establish a coordination body where environmental education resources are pooled. The instrumentality could be in the form of an Institute or Foundation 5.It is suggested that an inservice training and (University of Colorado), a Center (Cornell Univer- field seminar opportunity be provided for university- sity), an Environmental Education Program (Univer- based environmental educators. An annual sympos- sity of Wisconsin) or a committee (Harvard's Com- ium is envisioned which would bring together re- mittee on General Education). When no formal cur- searchers, university teachers anduniversity riculum coordination exists among contributing administrators in an effort to exchange anti explore disciplines several disadvantages can occur. The new areas of mutual concern.Teaching strategies, Master's and Doctorate programs in Environmental literature and research findings, and other learning Education at the University of Michigan can be innovations could be shared. The symposia could strengthened, for example, by more formal faculty be organized either nationally or iegionally w it h coordination in selected departments. divisions of graduate and undergraduate in separate sessions. 2. A strong plea. is submitted for more graduate levsl courses in the major concept areas of environ- 6.The suggestion is posed that an evaluation ,siental education.Several institutions are offering procedure be devised which enables graduates of en- 3nvironmental education courses to undergraduates vironmental eduction programs to provide feedback but none to graduate students. The specialization to their parent institutions on how programs could effort in graduate courses has tended to eliminate be strengthened and made more relevant. This no- instead of refine, sophisticate and upgrade the envi- tion seems to be especially important in an area of ronmental education listings in comparison with the academic attention as new as environmental educa- undergraduate courses.It is suggested that the ur- tion. With this suggestion the "g-aduate to alma- gency of biological and physical problems in the en- mater" reporting system promises to keep environ- vironment requires awareness and understanding at mental education courses and programs dynamic and least equivalent to the coo_ monly accepted graduate sensitive to the current issues not only as f ac u It y skills of foreign language, computer programming, members see the challenge but as practitioners at survey techniques, and communication (writing) abil- the community, agency, or other operational level ities. see the need and the challenge of environmental education.

3.It is recommended that a depository for environmental education regional and national case stud- SUMMARY ies be established. The proposal suggests the need for a file to be maintained that would list regional, The resolution of physical problems of America's state, or national problems which could serve a s urban and :-.on-urban environments will continue in current research tor'cs or c..se studies in need of an ineffective, ad hoc basis until more and better study.Upon complei.on of a case study the newly programs in environmental education can be pro- gathered information would be placed in the deposi- vided at the university level.College students who tory which could serve as an informational clearing are destined to be decision makers in business and house for a wide array of physical problems of the government, influentials in community life,a n d environment from the local to the national level. The teachers at primary and secondary levels require content.. of the depository would be made available a better understanding of the environment whichthey to interested institutions of higher education and effect and which effects them.

is' 125 116 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION Most current programs in conservation education Including the University of Michigan pretest, ninety are oriented primarily to basic resources; they do professors were interviewed or personally contacted not focus on conunity environmental pr o b 1 e rn s. from twenty-four institutions of higher education dur- Furthermore, few programs emphasize the role of ing the study. From the preliminary observations the citizen, both individually and collectively,in brought to light by this pilot study a workshop con- working toward the solution of problems that affect ference would provide the forum necessary for deans, our environment; very few c.f the programs are rele- faculty members, and selected students who were vant to the learner because of the lack of personal- environmentally educated to share innovations and ized, problem-centered focus. There is a vital explore Implementation procedures of new or revised need for an educational approach that effectively edu- courses and programs in environmental education. cates man regarding his relationship to the total environment. A national workshop on environmental education would provide the forum for professors and admini- This pilot evaluation of a limited number of insti- strators in American higher education to consider tutions of higher education revealed that no campus- objectives and alternatives for reaching those objec- wide mechanisms presently operate to plan for and tives in what appears to be a new and synthesizing coordinate programs in environmental education. discipline. An overview of this study indicates that Many of the schools have or had planning efforts un- a thorough analysis of environmentally oriented pro- derway.But "ery few universities provide or r e - grams and courses is in order on nearly all campuses quire a curriculum sequence in what could be termed where interviews were carried out.At most insti- environment .1 education.Harvard University is an tutions the resources are available; it is the mobili- example of he approach deemed satisfactory. zation and coordination of faculty and curriculum that Several institutions offer a rather rigorous track are needed after a rather thorough inventory is made. (but lacking breadth) in environmental education re- Readers of Environmental Education are invited to lated departments such as city and regional planning submit suggestions and additional examples of note- (Massachusetts Institute of Technology), civil engi- worthy approaches to the author in as much as the neering (University of Colorado; Massachusetts In- study is continuing. stitute of Technology).Another of the best examples The deterioration of the physical environment is the Center Lor Environmental Systems Engineering primarily in the urban regions of the United States at Cornell University. is nearing a proportion where the citizenry is sensing the environmental illnesses but is bewildered Perhaps the most serious shortcoming that was about the causes and remedies at local, regional, observed during this studyN'as the abst..ze of any and national levels.The availability of well-con- vigorous environmental education program in the ceived, nationally recognized programs and courses Departments or Schools of Education. Qualified ex- in environmental education is a challenge institutions ceptions to this point occur at Wisconsin State Uni- of higla: education in the United States can ill afford versity at Stevens Point and Eastern Montana Univer- to neglect any longer.Enough examples of good be- sity at Billings.Overall a very modest and unco- ginnings are available so that interested institutions ordinated teacher training effort in the area of and educators can share successes and innovations environmental education was the rule at every insti- with others wi:o are concerned about the future of tution studied in the inventory. man's environment.

126 "We must help the individual see himself as part of a vast living ecosystem."

THE PREPARATION OF THE INTERPRETIVE NATURALIST

AINTaskForce

THE ENVIRONMENT around us may be vast living ecosystem. Each person must somehow varied or monotonous, beautiful and exciting, or it find the thing of which he is a microcosmic par t may be ugly and depressing. The difference origi- safeguard it by understanding care, love it by a sen- nates in our own minds and determines our subse- sitivity to it.This is an involvement beyond self, quent action upon environment. What we understand, beyond friends to the complete encompassing of the we value, protect, and cultivate; what we do not un- living environment.It takes interpretation. derstand we neglect, waste, or fear. The interpreti "e naturalist therefore needs the The pressures of burgeoning population and abilities to begin his service at very elemental lev- technology upon the limited environment are already els and to extend his effort to life's largest dimen- critical.The deprivations imposed upon most of us sioi.J.No profession tins a greater challenge. are greatloss of scenic beauty, of clean air and water, of contact with the once-fascinating diversity of other forms of life.Severe economic penalties COMPETENCIES OF AN INTERPRETIVE may force us to obtain minimal corrections, but only NATURALIST an awareness, a positive understanding, and a love of the land, :ulters, and life around ug c an make (1) Knowledge and understanding of the natural and possible thhighest quality of environmental experi- man-made environment ences. Botany and Zoology with an ecological orienta- Much of the customary conservation education tion and nature instruction has been narrowly conceived Natural History or directed to limited groups. Our concern must Vertebrate and invertebrate zoology (such as not be limited to stewariship of farmiands, or game ornithology, mammology, entomology, and management, or scouting skills.Most people of to- limnology ) day are urban, largely ignorant, apathetic, orap- Local flora k including taxonomy, dendrology) prehensive of the land, yet hopeful of new ex ^eriences. Astronomy Our concern, an, therefore objective, is to bring to Physical and historical geology all of them the fullest realization possible of the life Natural Resources Conseevation beyond self and to waken the drive to preserve and Ecology (with inclusionof mar: in ecosystems) experience all of "this curious world of ours." Independent Field Study (with very practical application) The interpretive process si culd begin at an early age and as close as possible to home. Museum (2) Knowledge and understanding of the effective nature vans. green neighborhood parks, natural ar- use of communicative skills eas for srhools al" some of the opportunities. When c :ldren enjoy these glimpses of life outside Speech the i.nmeiliate home surroundings, interpretation has Expressive arts begun. The next step is programs to allay fear and Writing (especially expository) to arouse curiosity. The ultimate goal, after all, is Plastic and graphic to have and maintain a life supporting environment. Audio-visual aids An environment which man is rapidly fouling as Public Relations much through ignorance as through sloth.So we must help the individual see himself as a part of a (3) Knowledge and understandings related to:

This position paper has been developed by a special Association of Interpretive Naturalists task force under the chairmanship of J. Sanford Replinger.

127 116 THE JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION A. How people react, think, mature, etc. (hu- (2) Knowledge and understanding of the effective man behavior ) use of communicative skills Scciology History (American and world) Skill in the use M communicative arts can be Psychology, perhaps Educational and social used in a number of ways. Some ability and experi- Anthropology (with emphasis on relevance ence already acquired in this field is presupposed of human history ) for persons who choose training for this vocation. It is not intended that all students take course work B. Economic functioning of the community in all the areas mentioned, but to build on preexisting skills and to sharpen the ability to express their ideas. Economics This field is expanding rapidly and those whose Political Science jobs are to communicate should be familiarwith the Demography newest and most effective techniques.This need is Urban and Regional Planning the reason for listing desirable competencies in the Philosophical considerations broadest terms.In addition, basic public relations is a "must" for (a) techniques and (b) understand- (4)Knowledge and understandings that relate to ing of the problems of management which hire s program planning and administration interpreters.

Interpretive Methods and Techniques (3). Knowledge and understandings related topeople Administration of Interpretive Programs 'Thilosophy and Techniques of En tronmental Re- a.In order to convey his message, t he inter- source Management (using resource personnel preter must not only know his subject, but he who are not teachers) also must know and be interested in people, their needs and dynamic interrelationships. Thus (5) Integrative considerations in a final seminar the courses listed under this heading should make up a substantial portion of the curriculum. Seminar to consider Man, the Transformer of Environments, to deal with human ecology, i.e. In addition to course wurk, slimmer work in man in terms of competition vs. adjustment parks, gimip camps, and other situations where relative to world goods, energy supply, life experiences working with people may be gained, space, environmental contamination, religion, is essential to the development of capabilities in etc. , nationally and internationally. this area. The practicum in the senior year is highly recommended. b. Interpretation is dependent upon not only the SUPPORTIVE COMMENTS natural environment, but also the human environment: This includes local institutions, man's (1) Knowledge and understanding of the natural en- changing use of the land, and historical back- vironment grounds of the particular area in which interpretation takes place. The subject matter areas which are listed a s An understanding of man's dependence on the being of great importance to the interpretive natural- land, and problems related to future environ- Ia ist should be strongly field-oriented in presentation. In addition to the field work which may b e incorpo- ments should be achieved through experience, rated into the course work offered by the training in- in dialogue, action involvement, and related stitution, summer terms should be utilized t o gain argumentation; not limited to course work. practical experience and to provide opportunities for further extending the acquaintance with the out-of - doors.However, summer work experience alone (4) Knowledge and understandings that related to should not be considered to be an adequate means of program planning and administration gaining field experience. A methods course in interpretive techniques Courses in basic biological science should i n - should be developed as a part of any interpretive elude strong emphasis on evolutionary and ecological naturalist's curriculum. Training in administration aspects. The whole outlook of the interpretive natu- of interpretive programs including program phaming ralist must be that of the ecologist. Courses design- and the management of nature centers should be pro- ed to enable students to identify common organisms vided. Courses in the management of natural re- and to understand their life history provide the foun- sources are essential to an understanding of the dation upon which this ecological understanding can complex interactions of social and natural forces be built with more advanced courses. which mold the management planning and underlie the administrative programs of resource agencies. The geology, with strong emphasis on so i 1 s, should be Debi oriented and should include historical Here as in come of the other areas, it is ex- aspects of the subject. Natural resources conserva- pected that a considerable amount of the needed tion provides the bridge which connects this portion skills could be gained by summer employment with of the training with the "people oriented" portion of appropriate organizations and appropriate the curriculum. personal follow-up.

t Conservationtrainingmustinvolveethics andesthetics quiteasmuch aseconcrnics and ecology.

A FOCUS

IN THE HUMANITIES FOR RESOURCE MANAGEMENT EDUCATION

PhilipN.Joranson

NATURAL RESOURCE management educa- to look at all of the different kinds of relationships be- tion Is having growing pains of many kinds. Some tween man and nature. They are of many types. This have been diagnosed to a deficiency in exposure of is suggested by the center portion of Figure 1. students to the value concerns of tile humanities. Aside from the basic business of teaching effective writing and speaking, with few exceptions there has FIGURE 1 been no compelling rationale about the specific rele- FULL-SPECTRUM LIGHT ON MAN'S MULTIFORM vance of the humanitiesin the education of a resource RELATIONSHIPS WITH NATURE manager. (History, anthropology, political sciencand lawall But society is changing and resource management little used so faralso belong in this diagram. The is changing in ways that are placing some of the con- perspectives in these fields deserve the same kind of cerns of the humanities fields more and more obvi- emphasized attention that is here devoted to the four ously within the interest range and operational scope humanities fields.) of the resource management professions. A go od place to see this is in tin current running contest on one issue after another between those who are strongly partisan to "preservationist" action and those who just as ardently support "conservationist" policy. PHILOSop Surely there is some truth in both points of view. But when either of these positions is promoted u n - bendingly, it betrays a failure to appreciate and un- I 4) 9 derstand very much about the total matrix of needs, / t's values, and resources within which policy advocated I / - would have to be pursued. Only certain kinds of needs, I / selected out of the total array of diverse needs by which man is related to nature, are seriously con- , sidered within each of these two competing interest groups.Really res?onsible citizenship today, however, must mean trying to recognize and appropri- NATURE 61 Al ately value them all! WIDER PERSPECTIVES In attempting to size up these many kinds of rela- How can this actually be done in the professional tionships as to the kinds and importance of the values life of resource managers as it is intermeshed with- we will associate with each of them, we need, as a in the structure of society? It must be done by work- second major departure, to approach from a broader ing from a mental perspective that Is wide enough to base of information and value perspective than we embrace all of the different Lands of considerations have used in the past.This will mean making fulluse and values that need to be dealt with.This breadth of appropriate fields in the humanities, in addition to is needed for operating realistically.It is also an those fields of knowledge upon which we now rely. It indispensable condition for creativeness, and cl e- will meanas the arching portion of Figure 1 illustrat- ativeness is expected in humaa evolution. esadding to our usual approaches through natural science, mathematics, economics, and (latterly) ) sociol- There are two principal departures by means of ogy, so me purposeful adventuring in philosophy, which we must expand our mental reach in natural religion, literature, and art.No small part of the resources curricula toward this end.First, we need significance and richness of these fields consists in

Living at C'ider Mill Road, Andover, Connecticut, the author is a private consultant and lecturer in f ore stry education.

12,9 120 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION concepts, attitudes, and appreciations that concern productive, creative life in sufficient abundance to what nature is and the status and quality of man's provide leisure for development of his higher capac- relations with it.The questions we will ask in each ities.Nature environs man with beauty, cosmic corn of these fields are (1) What are the concepts or at- panionship, opportunity for recreational enjoyment, titudes or feelings toward nature thrtt are being ad- provides an originally mostly stable land surface for vanced, and (2) What are the consequent implications habitation, furnishes man with the evidences of hiss for our understanding: how should particular types own evolutionary origin and relationships and contrib- of man-nature relations-both individually and in re- utes to man's self-understanding.But nature also lation to each other-be conceived and handled. produces the potential threats to life, health or property, of earthquakes, lava flows, droughts, extreme We will be accumulating a fund of ideas and atti- temperatures, hurricanes, floods, disease, skin ir- tudes with which to approach the whole range of re- ritations, insect depredations and nuisance effects, etc. lationships.Only with this kind of background can These various interrelations between man and nature we claim the full respect of the public for the kinds involve many specific activities: eating and drinking, of decisions we make on natural resource issues in breathing, keeping clean, managing and harvesting which several types of man-nature relationship are forests, researching, farming, gardening, mining, breeding plant and animal species, suppressingfor- involved and value priorities must b e determined est fires, regulating wildlife populations, hunting, among them. fishing, vacationing, reserving and managing parks Such a program, including the humanities, as well and wilderness areas, planning and building dams and as some other largely neglected fields not specifi- managing watersheds, polluting the atmosphere, land- cally dealt with here, would provide a highly pur- scape, soil and water with wastes, designing and con- poseful and, 'believe, very rewarding total approach structing buildings from nmi:rAl materials, etc. for professional education in resource management. This is certainly not a co:nplete list, but what it I see it as a challenge both to each individual and to does include covers an enormous range in modes of the professions in approaching our many-sided land interrelationship.All of these human activities are management decision responsibilities.It could go subject to social or personal ordering for maximum a long way toward overcoming a bondage of tightly good, often through the use of a highly developed tech- held special interest within the resource manage- nology.In our rapidly moving society, generating ment professions themselves, and I am thinking most many kinds of pressure and now subject to increas- particularly here of forestry, which is the field I ingly limited benefits of .ome of the kinds listed above, know best.It would also make it possible for the what are the most appropriate and creative principles trained forester to become a much more effective and attitudes, where are the priorities as to the val- public advocate of balance and breadth in assigning ues to be achieved, what are the new directions? We priorities among nature-associated values. are ready now to turn to the spectrum of disciplines "Nature" has been defined in many ways. What which are open to our search for answers to s uc h I mean by it here is the whole of the earth and the questions. universe, both living and non-living, except mankind- Let us first take some notice of the fields of knowl- all the rocks and waters and mountains and soil, the edge-shown in the left half of the arching portion of mineral and energy deposi:-s and atmosphere, all the Figure 1-onwhich we now rely: natural science, math- plants and animals and all that lies beyond this plan- ematics, economics and, most recently, sociology. et-but not hrman beings. Although this is a common These four types of approach yield indispensable kinds and a useful definition, it needs some qualifying. In of guidance in understanding nature and dealing with the most fundamental sense, man is part of nature. man-nature relations as they are encountered in nat- Like all other living things, he owes his origin to evo- ural resource management. lutionary process and is therefore kin to a 11 other forms of life by ties as basic as thevery DNA But what about the humanities disciplines-religion, substance that guides the activity of the cells that philosophy, literature, art? What can they contribute compose both his body and theirs. Making very sure to a fund of ideas and attitudes useful to the graduate thatwe do not lose sight of this great bi plogical and philo- resource manager in reaching management decisions sophical truth, it is still, however, very useful and and formulating management policy? We will begin necessary for the purposes of analysis to make ths with religion. distinction between man and n at ur e ("not-man") which the definition of "nature" we have adopted mak- WHAT THE HUMANITIES OFFER es possible.1'e can now go ahead to distinguish and Religion study each of the many varieties of relationship between man and those entities-living and non-living- There have been many definitions of religion. For in the world and the universe that are other than man. our purposes here, a definition by Professor Theodore Together, these relationships constitute a vast and Gaster of Barnard College is useful, even though it is complex system within which each kind must be ac- necessarily so general that it does not recognize in its corded due attention and importance if the system is language the distinctiveness of such faiths as Chris- to thrive. tianity and Judaism..He says religion is a "synthesis of thought, emotion, and behavior whereby, under Let us now become more specific and try to sug- sanction, men attempt to formulate and articulate gest the great reach and variety of man-nature re- their place in the scheme of things," and that it points lationships and associated values. From nature man to "dimension beyond the immediate." Under this receives the necessary physical and chemical condi- definition, thought, emotion, and behavior will all be tions of biological existence, food, water for many of interest in searching out the status of nature in a par- uses, materials for shelter and to equip him for a ticular religious system. Thought here means creeds, Vac JORANSON 121 theologies, and In a qualified sense scriptures; emo- perience; a quest after ultimates, that is, after the tion means quality and intensity of feeling; and be- most profound understanding of the physical and bio- havior concerns personal and social ethics- in our logical world, of human history, of art and beauty and present concern including personal and social ethics of the goal of religious aspiration; and finally a meth- toward nature. od, called dialectical, that is simultaneously induc- Now a word about what a theology isBy a re- tive and deductive in its relation to the other disci- cent definition of John B. Cobb, Jr., a theology is plines (after Theodore M. Greene). "any coherent statement about matters of ultimate DesCarte's philosophy went a long way toward free- concern that recognizes that the perspective by which ing the world of nature for scientific study and toward it is governed is received from a community of faith." ushering in the era of science.But it also devalued There have been many theologies in Christianity's nature and contributed very substantially to our dom- history, as well as in our time, for each age needs inating modern view of nature as something material. to reinterpret in terms of its own time, problems, One of the trends of reaction to this came in the or- and resources for understanding. ganismic, evolutionary philosophies of Bergson, Al- exander, Lloyd Morgan, and Smuts, some of the writ- Among religious systems and among theologies ings of James and Dewey, and finally in a flowering there is enormous variation in value discernment in in the process philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead. nature and in the degree of concern with nature. Per- Whitehead's was a monumental achievement in at- haps a good start among systems might be to look at tempting to find common principles of explanation in Christianity, which is the faith most familiar to the terms of which all our experience and all natural majority in this country, and at some of the Far events taking place in the universe might be under- Eastern systems: Shintoism and Zen Buddhism in stood in reference to what is ultimate.Charles Japan; Taoism in China.Nature has a very prom- Hartshorne, Bernard E. Meland, Daniel D. Williams, inent place in these Far Eastern systems. John B. Cobb, Jr., and others have explicated and And what theologies should we study? In the stress carried forward his thought.Other modern philoso- of today's critical conditions and projections c o n- phers such as Husserl and Scheler have taken a dif- cerning human abuse and ill use of nature, theolo- ferent tack. gians are seeking as never before to understand, in Literature Christian terms, the values involved in man's relations with nature.This has led io a new look at the In English and American literature much has been Old and New Testaments and a restudy of theological written about attitudes toward nature. Especially well development since the New Testament. During most known is the nineteenth century nature poetry of of that long period influences were at work that dis- Wordsworth and Shelley. We should weigh the writ- couraged emergence of positive attitudes trPward na- ings of such authors as Herbert Spencer and Thomas ture in the Church. An outstanding exception was Huxley, Melville and Whitman, Thoreau and Emer- St. Francis of Assisi, a radically dedicated t hir - son and Muir, Aldo Leopold and Joseph Krutch and teenth century Christian.In his "Song of Brother many others; read what their critics have had to say; Sun and All Creatures," all nature is on a "broth- and decide for ourselves what we think of the suitabil- er" and "sister" basin: God, man, and nature are ity of their ideas and value judgments in view of the brought very close together. environmental facts and projections that we face today. Coming down to our own times, many have been In literature, trends and interests reflect the cul- drawn by the writings of Albert Schweitzer and Pierre tural preoccupations of the times.Thus the poetry Teilhard de Chardin.Schweitzer makes an impres- of Wordsworth and Shelley has been described by sive case for ethical treatment of all living things. Whitehead in his Science and the Modern World as "a Teilhard sees a rising inwardness in the course of protest on behalf of the organic view of nature, and inorganic, organic, and finally human evolution, to- also as a protest against the e;,clusion of value from ward a point of final cosmic spiritual convergence. the essence of matter of fact. " But are there not also Among other directly relevant thinkers are Martin some writings that seem to have an essentially age- Buber, Conrad Bonifazi, Allan D. Galloway, Chard s less quality? Hartshorne, Bernard E. Meland, Peter Schoonenberg, Paul Tillich, and Daniel D. Williams. Art A common thread that unites a number of the re- Nature has been one of the best loved subjects of ligious writers, as well as some other writers, is artists through the ages in both the East and the :'Vest. their insistence that the entities of nature have in- They have seen it in many different ways, and all of tegrity, value, and importance in their own right, these are open to our study. Some critics are c o n- and do not derive their value exclusively or neces- cerned today that it will be to its detriment if modern sarily from utility to man. art strays too long and too far away from nature. Philosopk Much of art is the portrayal of beauty and an entire branch of philosophy, called aesthetics, is de- What is it that makes philosophy relevant in our voted to a conceptualunderstanding of beauty. search for tenable attitudes toward nature and man- nature relationships? We can get some hints by tak- Summing Up ing a look at the main characteristics of philosophy. In philosophy we find a constant attitude of radical Let us again ask how the kinds of perspectives we inquiry with no predetermined co-FE tri-sTons; a scope have briefly described helpus in approaching the whole which is all-embracing, spanning the whole of reali- range of interrelationship between man and nature. ty knowable to man and the entire reach of man's ex- We see emerging from such a perspectival spectrum 122 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION that includes Uht humanities a rich fund of informa- total perspective and to apply it in his own deci- tion, theories, ideas, experiences, and attitudes sions on specific current problems. which become our resources for understanding, according to their relevancy, each of the many modes To run alongside and feed the educational process, of man-nature relationship.Then, after we have this is also a field for a great deal of research. The thought about the many modes and seen them in re- elucidation of attitudes toward nature in the Hebrew lationship to each other, we can narrow down from and Christian traditions and in other religious sys- the big total picture to see where such a process tems needs much more of the scholar's attention than brings us out on the values involved in specific de- it has h.A. Much the same is true in philosophy. One cisions of the kinds that we must deal with in our of the main tasks of scholarship in all four of t he professional work. humanities fields is to identify and make generally available and understandable the most relevant and We will not suppose, of course, that if we have creative of man's feelings and thoughts upon nature spent some time at this, we will have then arrived to be found in their literatures. at some master plan for selecting and balancing dis- cerned values in nature and in man that will hence- But not only does resource management need the forth supply confident answers to all our decision humanities; the humanities people also need the re- problems'.No, the human process is endless. It is source managers. In order to be relevant and accu- up to each resource manager, I think, t o continue rate, those whose creative work is done in t he hu- his growth in value sensitivity and maturity and to manities often need to know something about the realms do this with the help of all that he can learn and feel of nature in which our work as environmental manag- and appreciate from a sustained total spectrum ap- ers is done and what our problems are in meeting to- proach. day's challenges.Not a few philosophers and theo- logians today, for example, recognize that they cannot And the same challenge also confronts every citi- hope to accomplish their work without wide acquaint- zen.The approach outlined here is of course pro- ance in major fields of knowledge. So what we for- posed also for general education and teacher educa- esters, wildlife managers, and other resource man- tion curricula.But the natural resource manager agers work with and try to accomplish out in the field bears a special responsibility. and in response to the wider challenges we face, nee to be communicated. The people in other fields of A PROGRAM FOR EDUCATION, RESEARCH, endeavor are usually as distant from us as we a r e AND INTERDISCIPLTNARY EXCHANGE from them. What we have outlined must become an enterprise And there is yet another step to be taken. Some for education, for research, and for new kinds of ex- resource managers, because of the lively and r e - change between the familiar resource management sponsible situations where their work puts them, be- fields of study and the newer disciplines. In a teach- tween nature and society, ought to take up their own ing program, there would be at least three essential places among the other critics of what has emerged features: and is now emerging in the humanities f ie Ids. We must not only inform, but we must also evaluate what (1)Focusing of responsibility in the natural re- others have done in other fields, where we can con- sources faculty, but a blend of instructorshipfrom tribute a needed perspective or criticism. all the contributing disciplines.This means cultivating close relationships.There is no substi- A thoroughly reliable first principle f or making tute for real interdisciplinary sharing between the ready for the future and its demands is to envision instructors themselves.It's hard work, but it can much greater cooperative flow between f ields of learn- be very exciting, and there should be time and ing that are logically and practically interrelated and money for it. that need each other every day if the challenges that are being generated in an ever-changing society are (2) A core of common content, drawr from all to be taken up and met creatively.To establish and of the fields surveyed here and some others, but cultivate these working relationships right now, in our beyond this some leeway for the student to choose age of highly czitical environmental stress, therefore, fields in which he wants to spend the most time. is simply common sense. Whatever the difficulties of innovation and accommodation, this must not be jpst- (3) Challenge to the student to organize his own poned in re:source _management education!7 A plea for new methods and systems of ecologicaleducation.

THE LONG, WIDE VIEW OF BIOLOGY H. Lewis Batts, Jr. LIFE IS a qvallty, not a thing, and its essence liver, and heart, and mental disorders are on the inis orderorder as activity resulting in certain forms crease, even in young people, in the United States. and processes.Biologr is supposed to be the study of this quality, life, but in practice biologists study There ar-: population "explosions" of blackbird and not life, but its attributes, its resultsthe certain insect pests; and the war against crop-eating insects forms and processes. These are studied at all known in the United States gets harder and more costly each levels of complexitysome levels, the simpler ones, year, instead of easier. We lost our chestnut trees receiving more attention than others.All are equal- and passenger pigeons some time ago, and we a r e ly important to an ultimate understanding of life, but about to lose our elms and whooping cranes. What much more is known about particles than about parts, will be next, perhaps robins, oak trees, people? The about parts than wholes, about simple processes than importance of learning the causes of increased inci- complex systems. We do not need less study of sim- dence of human disease and increased populations of pler forms and pr ocesses than directed to them now, destructive pests is obvious. The importance of learn- but we do need more consideration of complex sys- ing how to save elm trees, whooping cranes, and other tems, whole patterns, than they now receive. forms, may not be so obvious, if indeed it is important at all. They are, however, parts of man's natural en- The simplest form exhibiting characteristics we identify with lifs is a virus, and it seems to possess vironment, and may be links in his chain of survival. these only when situated inside a living cessa rather Increasing numbers or people are being deprived direct and simple ( although unlmown ) r elationship of quickly of the opportunity to live in even a semblance dependence. We know much about the forms and proof the environment to which the human animal, man, cesses of cells and even of their molecules. We know has gradually adapted over very long periods of time. what substances some bacteria must have in order to Even though we do not know what they are, from ob- maintain normal life. We know what substances and servations of other animals it is inconceivable that conditions to provide in order to grow active yeasts, there are no limits to our adaptability. juicy tomatoes, gorgeous chrysanthemums, fat chick- Biology as pure science may have no obligation be- ens, cuddly poodles, and contented cows. We may yond the discovery and description of natural phenomena not fully understand it, but we recognize and accept pertaining to life, but biologists do.Someone needs the fact that ther e is a dependent relationship between to interpret the results of scientific inquiry and ap- these organisms and their environment. ply them toward improving the quality cl living for Man goes to great lengths to learn and then to pro- people. Much of this, of course, is being done, but vide the proper environments for his yeasts, chry- far too little and in too limited a perspective; an d santhemums, and cows. Man does not go to such much of what is being done is done by technologists great lengths to learn and then to pr ovide the proper who rummage through the masses of data gleaning environment for himself. isolated bits and pieces primarily for economic reasons and secondarily for immediate benefit of man- Yes, we do know that as human animals, people, kind. More research concerned u ith cancer, insect must have certain things in their environment in or- pests, and elm tree disease hr:s been aimed atfind- der to survivewater to drink, air to breathe, food ing commercially manufacturable substances for use to eat, and a place to live. We do not know, howev- in curing them rather than aimed at finding causes er, in what condition they must be. To what extent and preventing these conditions. There is much less can we change our water, air, and food and s till immediate economic profit in discovering a naturally survive? To what extent can we change them and re- operating system of checks and balances than there main healthy, much less, happy? We do not know, is in manufacturing an artificial substance. As Dr. but as we continually change our environment we act DonaldA.Spencer of the Pesticides Regulation Di- as though we know quite well.There are many indi- vision of the U.S. Department of Agriculture recent- cations that already we have made too much change in ly commented, the government has "no control over our environment; many people are suffering, m any industrial research, of course. The economics of more are uncomfortable.Lives are being lost b e - the country dictate this." cause of this ignorance. Manufacturers and producers of things and ser- Cancer is being more and more referred to as an vices, and their advertisers, determine to a larger indicator of civilization, a disease induced by the ar- extent than any other influence how people live, the tificial environment.Primitive tribes of people in very quality of our living.They persuade us what to Africa and Australia rarely have cancer, yet it kills consider important: powerful gasoline-fueled auto- more children in the United States each year than any mobiles and boats; color TV sets; large green lawns other disease; and it hao been diagnosed well enough of closely cropped, uniform, weedless grass; the and long enough so that it is obvious that it is on the looks of fruits and vegetables; the amounts of arti- increase.In addition to cancer, diseases of the lungs, ficially added nutrients in packaged foods, etc. The

Dr. Batts is Professor of Biology at Kalamazoo College, Kalamazoo, Michigan, and Executive Director of t h e Kalamazoo Nature Center for Environmental Education, 7000 North Westedge Avenue, Kalamazoo. 124 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION public is Just beginning to learn that there are higher, i.iow systemic pesticides are beginning to be used. hidden costs in addition to the purchase price attach- These poisons are meant to be taken up internally by ed to these things we are convinced we need. Our plants and the insect pest is killed when it feeds on gasoline engines pollute the atmosphere with toxic the plants-plants that are being grown for food for substances and noise; some TV sets now admittedly humans and for animals that are to be eaten by hu- leak X-radiation.The tremendous amounts of fertil- mans. DDT, systemic poisons, etc., even though izers and pesticides required to produce homogeneous they obviously get into human tissue, do not have to lawn;; and unblemished fruits and vegetables are kill- be tested by or for the manufacturers for internal ing unbelievable numbers of bees, fish, oysters, birds, effects of small amounts on humans, as do drugs, and mammals-the importance of at least some of because "they are not intended for use in the body." these we already know. Fortunately, anddue almost entirely to growing pres- Many people have exploited the long - held` -lief sure from an Increasingly enlightened and alarmed that nature is here for man to do with as he , L,ases- public, insect control research is moving away from a forest exists to be cut down and a stream exists to broad-spectrum persistent poisons to highly specific be used as a sewer-believing that no price need be natural substances such as an insect's own growth- paid for such behavior. As a consequence of this regulating hormobe.This is an ecologically sound belief we allow and contribute to the pollution of our approach and, wile. synthesized, such svh;tances own environment: can be produced commercially and thus contribute Yearly we release millions of tons of pollutants into to the economy. the air (approximately one ton per person in the United Biologists often appear to abdicate to technologists, States), pollutants which damage buildings, vehicles, or perhaps they are only out-shouted.There is no crops, lungs, etc. Yearly we dischargebillions of tons reason at all why the technology that produces the of pollutants into our creeks, rivers, lakes, and oceans, goods and services man wants cannot produce them some of which is returned tons in our food. Yearly we without polluting his environment. In the rush to get apply millions of tons of some of the most toxic chemi- the economic advantage over a competitor, the extra cals knownto man onto our crops and on soil in which care necessary to avoid polluting the environment they grow, and some of this we eat, also. Yearly we kill may not be taken.However, wherever it has berm outright or contaminate the homes and food of wildlife - demanded by the public it has been taken, and easily. plants and animals whose importance in the environment of man we do not know. When the public demanded that detergents be made so that foaming action would notbe evident in streams When confronted by the growing concern of public and lakes, manufacturers quickly produced the more health scientists and conservationists over the fact des ir able degradable detergents. Upon demand, man- that residues of certain insecticides called chlori- ufacturers of gasoline engines arefinding ways to re- nated hydrocarbons (DDT, dieldrin, aldrin, endrin, duce noxious exhaust gases; and pesticide manufactur- etc. ) are building up to higher and higher levels in ers are finding excellent substitutes for chloinated hy- our environment and in our own livers, fatty tissue, drocarbons. We will stopthr eats to our well-being only and brains, technological apologists point wIth pride when we see true relationships and insist that man's to- to the tremendous contribution to our economy made tal welfare be put above that of purely economic consid- by the widespread use of these highly toxic substances. erations. Only then will we refuse in accept the propo- Not only is the manufacture and sale of these poisonous sition that a polluted environment is a necessary price chemicals contributing directly to our economy (the ) to pay for having the goods and services we want. public paid $1 billion for pesticides in the United States in 1965), but through their use.cvop yield is much This is a challenge to our methods and systems of greater, populations of these disease-carrying flies education.The body of scientific knowledge is grow- and mosquitoes have been decitnated, etc. These eco- ing so large so rapidly that it is not possible to learn nomic and public healthresults have been produced in or to teach more than small fractions of any scientif- the short view but there are other results that should ic field.It is these tiny fragments that are not only be considered c even economically ) in the long view. inadequate, but misleading. Students are thereby prevented from seeing wholes and overall order. We Furthermore, target insects such as flies and need to teach the broad perspective so that, whether malaria-carrying mosquitoes have built up resistance the student becomes a farmer, lawyer, physician, or to DDT to the point where they are again becoming s e - biologist, he realizes that whenever changes are made rious threats to human health. Short-range battles with anywhere in our environment, other changes will re- these and other insects have been won, but apparently sult.Therefore, utmost care must he taken to un- the war has only begun; as resistance develops, subse- derstand the consequences of changes before they quent battles get harder to win and thus the problem is are attempted.Attitudes and perspectives are there- incr eased by the so-called solution. fore far more important to teach than are facts: for the facts of today change into tomorrow's fiction. No one knows the effects on us of any one of these substances as they accumulate in our own tissues. Knowledge must serve the future. The recently established federal monitoring program A broader perspective is needed, and who are bet- has indicated that the average human already c a r- ter equipped, and therefore more obligated, to pro- ries pesticide residues in his fatty tissues alone in vide this wider view if not biologists? Research and the amount of 12 parts per million, and we cannot interpretation to the public are desperately needed at avoid increasing this amount. These poisons are in levels of interacting systems of individuals, popula- our food, air, water, and soil, where their residues tions, communities, and their total environments. are known to remain toxic for many years. DDT re- Many of the problems we face today, whether po- portedly has been found in every animal tested for it litical, economic, sociological, orbiological, result from the Arctic to the Antarctic, and no DDT has from the expediency of yesterdaytaking the short, been applied anywhere near these two polar areas. fragmented glimpse rather than the long, wide view. The encrgies of thecampusmustberedirected."

THE UNIVERSITY AND ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

The Editor

TO SUPPORT and sustain the third American rev- Any attempt to dissect environmental education in- olutionthe search for environmental qualitywe need deed runs the risk of so multilating the specimen that it new integrated programs that will discover, dissem- loses its essential characteristicits multidisciplin- inate, and apply the ecological and economic facts, en- ary, multi-process nature. Yet it is necessary that gineering techniques, and esthetic appreciations basic we collate its contents and goals in some way if we tr an applied conservation conscience. Each Ameri- are at least to agree on what to disagree.One .4)- c..n institution must adjust itself accordingly.The proach is simply to ask the question: implications for our institutions of higher education With re3pect to environmental education, are particular ly clear. The energies of the campus what are the needs and demands of the mar- must be so redirected that environmental management ket for the goods and services of the university? will share in the skills and resources the university can contribute to the solution of public problems, and The university engages in basic research, and in the university in turn can profit from the stimulation applied research and development.The university that comes from confronting a pressing public issue. supports elementary and secondary education, and About how best to involve the university in abroad supports and may even engage in 2-year terminal vo- strategic campaign against the pervasive degradation cational training.The university performs under- of the American environment, there is considerable graduate instruction, pro:essional education, a n d discussion and experimentation. Because goals vary, advanced scientific training.The university engag- institutions vary, traditions vary, perceptions of probes in fo.mal adult education, informal counseling, lems vary, and terms are imprecise, there is a lack and extension services.L:nvironmental education of consensus. The aspects of the problem defy easy should be an aspect of all of these levels of enter- pigeonholing. They keep slipping out of the discrete prise: departments into which universities tend to be organ- New Knowledge and New Knowledge-Seekers ized, and out of the tight compartments into which action agencies tend to consign their tasks. The conservation, redevelopment, and maintenance of environmental quality requires more knowl- One approach, for example, would be to examine edge than we now possess. The things we do not know environmental education from the perspective of uni- about the earth machine and its denizens are stag- versity organization. The trouble here is that the prob- gering. At the level of fundamental knowledge, w e lems of environmental quality defy the traditional pat- are desperate for criteria and tools with which t o tern of the division of labor within the university which measure environmentalquality in an ecological sense arranges knowledge into a series of subject matter and in an economic sense.At the level of technolo- areas concerned with segments of the physical, bio- gy, we lack means and ways of abating, restoring, logical, and social sciences and the humanities. An- controlling.Actually it is rather fruitless to worry other approach would be to examine environmental whether the research to be performed is termedba- education from the perspective of such conserv..don sic or applied, or whether we start with a stated re- objectives as outdoor recreation opportunity, water quirement and proceed to a solution or start with a quality and supply, forest and field yield, urban beau- concept and proceed to an application.The impor- ty, and so on. The trouble here again is that conflicts tant thing is that we ask the right questions; in other among competing resource demands are frequent and words, that the research be cast in a problem-solv- intense, and it is becoming increasingly difficult to ing climatethe problem being the achievement of draw any clear quantitative or qualitative lines among environmental quality. Much of such research can the problems. Each specific resource use raises a be initiated by existing university departments; some congeries of questions about man's relationship to his will require development of hybrid departments or total Pnvirorment, and the choice of altbrnatives among at least of special task forces. Again, it would seem competingesource uses involves legal, economic, fruitless to worry about the "home" of the research. social, administrative, technological, esthetic, eco- The important thing is that each scholar, regardless lorticr:,1, and ethical considerations which in turn span of his stripe, accept a redefinition of his role and his manifold governmental agency and umversity depart- conceptual approach that recognizes the problem of ment lines (1). environ mental quality and its interdisciplinary nature.

Professor Schoenfeld's article is based upon testimony given before the House of Representatives Select Sub - Committee in behalf of the Brademus Environmental Quality Education Bill, 26 March 1970, Washington, ti 126 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION Intimately associated with the university's search agement will proceed only as far and as fast as public for new environmental knowledge will of course be opinion will sanction.The ,niversity can assist In graduate training of researchers equipped to fill th ree ways in the achievement of a mass conservation the public and private stations where environmental literacy. First, in its undergraduate education it can studies willbe pursued in the physical, biological, and confront all studentsnot just career majorswith the social sciences. How in fact to train such scholars kinds of resource management conflicts about wnich in a more productive cross-fertilization of ideaspos- as citizens and voters they will render crucial judges a vital question for th..: modern university.It is ments; it can attempt to instill a desire for construc- one of those striking anomalies that at the very motive change, it can suggest biosocial standardsof val- ment that the problems of the environment are seen ues. and it can offer practical guidelines to action. as being inextricably related, the university's spe- Second, the university can assist the public schools cialists are becoming ever more specialized. Clear- in the development of K-12 scope and sequence col:- ly the watchword of environmental studies must be cepts and materials that will lift conservation educa- the production of multidisciplinary knowldege and tion out of any rutof irrelevant or inadequate approach- multidisciplinary knowledge-seekers. es and techniques. Third, the un:versity can assist More and Better Professionals 2-year terminal technical institutions in developing sound curricula for the field aides who must increas- The conservation, redevelopment, and maintenance ingly b' produced to fill sub-professional positions in of environmental quality requires mere managers or resource management agencies of many types. operators better equipped to apply present and emerging knowledge. At least three broad types of profes- Technical Counsel and Services sionals can be identified.First, there are the re- Growing national programs of environmentalqual- source teennicians like park managers, geologists, ity management depend increasinCy on regional and ecologists, meteorologists, foresters, geographers, local initiative and responsibility.It is only at the in- economists, sociologists, architects, hydrologists, ire-state levelthat most federal policies can be trans- game managers, engineers, and soon. Not only must lated into public and private practices, yet it is atthis they be well grounded in their specialty if they are level where the forces of wise resource management to be immediately employable, but if they are to be continue to be ill-equipped to deal with the forces of promotable they must be able to relate their disci- exploitation.The inefficiency with which public agen- pline or function to that of other professionals and cies and private citizens go about performing the so- to the larger questions of human values and environ- cially essential tasks of environmental house-keeping mental policy. Second, there is the need for the broad stem largely from the fact that the technical and or- resource generalist, perhaps the rarest of all species, ganizational skills available to the land conserver or who can deal effectively and crePtively with whole poi- rational planner are normally inferior to those avail- icy issues in all of their complexity in a staff or ex- able to the land exploiter.In its traditional extension ecutive role. Third, the,e must be "change agents" mode, the university must reinforce local leaders with equipped with an understanding of the interrelation- improved educational materials and professional con- ships involved between theie callings and total envi- sultation on environinentaiquality. Whilewe continue ronmental management, and with a knowledge of the to search for more environmental facts and to train tools of the trade in energizing land and water u se more enviro a mental mai....6ers, we can help apply what controlslawyers with pertinent legal skills, design- we already do know by rifling skills and resources to ers and planners with a grasp of resource policy im- the local level.Those nonteading for environmental plementation, communicators and educators equipped quality need data to show that economically we can af- t, interpret resource problems in such a way as to ford such surroundings and that biologically we can- :.thieve consensus rather than conflict (2). not afford anything less. The facts and techniques need In the production of new professionals, are we talk- to be made applicable and available in localitieswhere ing about 4-year, 5-year, or 6-year programs? Do we the problems exist and where the issues are fought. start with generalists and make specialists out of some Local leade7ship needs a fund of inf( :illation and spe- or do we start with specialists and make generalists out cial talents on which to draw, including the effective of some? Do we modify, expand, broaden, intensify stimulus that would come from knowing the experienc- the curricula of existing departments and schools, es of other leaders in other communities who have met or do we invent custom configurations? These are and overcome some of the common problems. Inter- some of the questions presently agitating the univer- disciplinary teams of university extension persolmel sity as it faces the training of environmental tech'i- can collect, collate, and disseminate practical guide- cians, public policy formulators, and change agents. lines to community organization and action in Ian d One promising form of environmenlal management and water use controls (4). training involves the bringing back to the campus of A Federal Role operational per sonnel for more specialization or more broadening, depending on the needs and goals of the While it would be nice to think that the university selected individual. Such programs maybe of the non- would or could engage in a self-energizing program credit professional refresher type, or they may in- of environmental education of adequate scope and depth volve the granting of advanced degrees. Whatever sans outside help, the fact remains Mat in the absence the type or level of professional environmental man- of federal funds such is likely not to happen, particu- agement education, the product should be specialized larly in the presence of federal support for educational enough to be viable infield operations and broad enough programs that actually mitigate against the develop- to appreciate the complicated biotic and human phenom- ment of interdisciplinary research, teaching, and ex- ena over which he presides. It is no small challenge. tension focused on environmental quality.Federal funds, fcr example, support some water pollution a- Citizenship Education batement re search that is too unilateral; they support In the final analysis, environmental quality man- some highv,ay engineer training that is too narrow; they EDITOR 127 support some agricultural extension work in envi- REFERENCES ronmental degradation; they support elementary and secondary education programs that have nothing to 1. Cooley, Richard A.Graduate Educational Re- say about conservation.Until Congress reviews its search in Natural Resources Public Policy, The broad authorizations and appropriations for water University of Washington, Seattle, 1966, p. 6. management, agriculture, transportation, and urban redevelopment in the context of environmentalquality goals, and particularly until Congress investu spe- 2. Schoenfeld, Clay, "Educating the Public in Natu- cifically in broad environmental education, it is un- ro'liesources," Journal of Suil and Water Con- likely that the universities will have the will and the servation, November-December, 1968, p.17. way to enter the picture before substantial sectors of our environment reach a state of perturbation which 3. Schoenfeld, Clay, "Environmental Education and will be difficult if not impossible to correct at rea- the University," Educational Record, Sum:ner, sonable cost and within reasonable time limits. 1968, p. 306. In sum, we need a federal Environmental Educa- tion Act which will state unequivocally a commit- 4.Schoenfeld, Clay, "Regional Environmental Edu- ment to environmental quality research, teaching, cation C enters," Environmental Education,i n and extension, eAci provide segregated funds.The press. rationale for such an Act would be simple: it is unthinking people who pollute the environment, and it 5.Schoenf elClay, "Toward a National Strategy is thinking people who can bring about mivironmen- for Environmental Education," The Journal of tal quality conservation redevelopment and mainte- Educational Research, in press. nance (5).

137- History, archaeology, anthropology, political science,.ociology, economics, geography all are in the act.

ROLES FOR SOCIAL SCIENTISTS IN ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

Robert N. Save land

WHO STARTED the parade? There is no doubt process relative ti the kinds of surroundings which that it is moving. Ecology as a word has even been will reflect the vales of our society. turning up in the comic strips.Ecologists who heave been biking about environmental quality for years are The historian also has a role as a chronicler of suddenly finding themselves on the bandwagon. Not the environmental-quality movement. As such, he only are they up front with all the fanfare, they are perceives that it did not spring full-blown onto the also slapping the reins. What's more, there are plen- American scene; bat had its antecedents in earlier ty of others seeking a place beside them. conservation activities. John Muir, GiffordPinchot, and Theodore Roosevelt are known as pioneers in Popular media has taken up the cause of environ- this movement. Fairfield Osborn (2 ), William Vogt mental quality.Each of the major weekly newsmag- (5), and Rachael Carson (1) are latter-day expo- azines gives substantial space, if not entire issues, nents whose contributions deserve a place in this to environmental problems.Saturday Review has chronicle. started a supplement on the environment. Even Sports Illustrated came through and reprinted Lord Richie- Because a concern with the dead past and primi- Calder's article, "Mortgaging the Old Homestead," tive cultures is frequently attributed to archaeology which appeared originally in Foreign Affairs. and anthropology, these fields may not at first appear to relate to environmental quality.Italian sub- In these days of managed news, one is inclined to way builders might take issue with this proposition. view such hoopla with some misgivings.Is the dan- Repeated attempts to build a new tunnel in downtown ger real? While the President's State of the Union Rome have been thwarted when old ruins have been message has made environmental quality a national encountered. Each time, alternative routes had to issue, how long can the public interest in these prob- be planned.Recently inAtlanta, Georgia, construc- lems be sustained? It, is in this context that the role tion work on a new shopping center was delayed for of the social sciences in environmental quality needs weeks in order to give archaeologists time to com- to be evaluated, for environmental problems have plete a "dig" when Indian relies were uncoveredby not always been thought of as a socialscience concern. bulldozers.Anthropological studies of present-day communities of people woo live in harmony with their Whether a humanity or a social science, the dis- environment will be increasingly important as so- cipline of history is related to environmental quality. cial and technological changes bring more manipu- Beacon Hill, Georgetown, Lookout Mountain, T h e lation of those environments, as o n Nauru island Saarinen Gateway Arch in St. Louis, Glacier Nation- where phosphate mining is ei...ting away the island it- al Park, Alcatraz, and countless historical sites and self (3).Anthropologists, as well as other social monuments are outward manifestations of tat rela- scientists, are especially concerned with how mast tionship.The work of the historian is inextricably perceives his environment, and with the customs, linked with the development of our value systems. instituV.ons, and mores he conceives in an effort to By our sets of values we determine what we want to rationalize that environment. preserve of our environment and heritage.In the rebuilding of American cities, structures are often Among the social scientists, the political scien- torn down because they are old.In the process, we tist now has one of the more important roles in re- have sometimes exchanged a pat 't of our character lation to environmental quality. Many of our laws for a glass facade, or for the blacktop cf.' s harking are based on traditional freedoms, such as riparian lot.By communicating with architects and city plan- rights, mineral rights, and sovereignty of the seas, ners, historians can assist in the decision-making which come In conflict with emerging attitudes toward

Dr. Saveland is Professor of Social Science Education, University of Georgia, 127 Fain Hall, Athens. He is author of World Resources.

latSr At the Pruitt -Igoe Housing Com- plex in St. Louis,$1, 700 a day is spent in an effort to cope with vandalism. The Complex com- prises 33 high-rise buildings with a 50 percent vacar,:ty rate. environmental quality.Legislation which establish- Economists point to the rdspar ity between unlimited ed soil conservancy districts can be referred to as wants :and limited resources as a factor in environ- a model of how an environmental problem can be ap- mental quality.Plainly, many cf our environmental proached by legal means. New f enar al and state laws problems are an of tgrowti of the industrial and tech- are establishing standards of quality for our air and nological revolution.They are complicated by the water, and providing the means for achieving and en- high rate of product consumption within our society. forcing those standards.Beyond the letter of the law The costs of alleviating industrial pollution of our air lies the power structure of our society. The political and water are ultimately borne by tie consumer. Now, scientist is aware of the means by which pressure however, these costs are being taken into considera- groups work to achieve their desired goals. tion more and more in determining the profit to a community and region in locating an industrial facil- The sociologist is also concerned with the group ity within the area.By the use of simulations and a structure of our society.Race, caste, and prejudice systems approach, economists can contribute to in- play a part in the quality of our environments. Dur- telligent planning and zoning. ing the same month as the President's State of the Union message on environmental quality, vandals roamed through the Pruitt-Igoe housing project in Last but not least, the geographer has tradition- St. Louis. They smashed windows that ordinarily pro- ally called for the conservation of our natural r e - tect water pipes from freezing. Burst pipes caused sources (4).In essence, the cultural geographer is 10,001 residents to spend a weekend in fr eezingmis- &human ecologist (6). As such he is vitally concerned ery.Subsequent renovation will coot close to amil- with myriadsof interrelationships within the ecosys- lion dollars.At the time of its opening in 1954, the tem.His particular skill ht analyzing site factors, Pruitt-Igoe housing project was widely acclaimedfor routes, and land-uses especially equip him to deal its design. The public looks to the socinlogist and with problems of environmental quality.Paradox- psychologist for some explanations of the motivations, ically, on the issues of environmental quality, geog- frusty itions, and fears which have transformed s o raphers have not been in the public. eye to the extent much of our public housing into monsterous high-rise slums. that ecologists have. The rural landscape is not without its sociological TIVJ branches of geo,s_ aphy deserve particular problems related to the quality of the environment. mention in connection with environmental quality. Mechanization and farm consolidation are the basis Historical geography, with its emphasis on sequent for migrations leading to ghettos. The underemployed occupance, can demonstrate the changes which occur and destitu':e who remain on the land may suffer mal- in the environmental quality of an area through time. nutrition and hunger in substandard housing which Settlement geography, in part, focuses on frontier gives little credit tothe world's most pr osperous nation. areas of the world where man is beginning to im upon his env l... orment in sufficient numbers to Sociologists and demographers study the age-sex c use problems. composition of various populations.Data on birth rates are indicative of trends in population growth, From the foregoing, an overriding idea becomes a basic factor in environmental problems. Warning clear. Whereas each of the social science disciplines signs have gone up, the outcomes of population con- has its particular point of view regarding problems trol lies in unpredictable areas of human behavior of environmental quality, the problems themselves relative to contraception, abortion, hunger, disease, are a common concern. Thus, concerted action re- and nuclear warfare. garding these problems calls for interdisciplinary

Tao. 130 ENVIRONMENTALEDUCATION cooperation, not just among the social scientists, but In the last analysis, all social scientists operate also between social scientists and natural scientists. in the role of citizens.Currently the wolf cry is being raised on environmental problems.Is the dan- In addition to a role within a discipline, social ger real? As in the fable about the boy who cr i ed scientists alse function as researchers, technicians, wolf, will citizens disregard the warnings after a and teachers. Some of the areas for exploring hu- time'? The social scientist as a citizen has an obli- man behavior as related to environmental quality have gation to help bring about better human responses been indicated. In delving into these areas, research- that will result in a higher quality of life for the peo- ers will test hypotheses and accumulate more data ple of this earth. leading to new insights into environmental problems. The social science technician actually works on day-to-day problems associated with environmental FOOTNOTE quality. He maps the blighted areas of cities or seeks alternative expressway locations. As a social worker, 1.Thomas School, 40 Highland Avenue, Rowayton, he or she may work directly with people, especially Connecticut 06853. i.. trying to improve home environments. Not only in government, but also in business, can persons trained in the social sciences contribute to the bet- REFERENCES ter management of our surroundings. 1. Carson, Rachael, Silent Spring, Houghton Mifflin, Teachers have a special responsibility in the mat- Boston, Massachusetts, 1962. ter of environmental quality. The time lag between cause and effect in environmental matters can be compared to the gap that separates the high school stu- 2. Osborn, Fairfield, Our Plundered Planet, Lit- dent from the adult. The battleship Arizona went to tle, Brown, and Company, Boston, Massachu- its grave almost 30 years ago.Oil from its sunken setts, 1948. hulk still seeps to the surface at Pearl Harbor.If all use of DDT were stopped now, some would still reach Antarctic penguins 10 years hence.Further 3. Saveland, R. N. , World Resources, Easter n effects of the population explosion lie ahead. Hemisphere, Ginn-Xerox, Boston, Massachu- setts, p. 246. Under such circumstances, the civics teacher cannot confine his classes to the content of the constitution.History teachers cannot simply rehash 4. Thompson, J. L. ; Thompson, B. R. , "The Con- former happenings. Geography teachers must do cept of Conservation Needs Revision," T he more than girdle the globe.Social science instruc- Journal of Geography, pp. 516-517, December tion will have to operate in the aff ective domain. Stu- 1969. dents "turn on" when it comes to problems of environmental quality, like the Ohio high schoolers who wound up a study of pollution in Lake Erie by appear- 5. Vogt, William, Road to Survival, W. Sloan As- ing before a Senate committee. Or they become in- sociates, 1948. volved like the students in a school in Cornecticit who gained national recognition for their PYE (Pro- tect Your Environment) Club.' Through study trips 6. White, C. L. ; Renner, G. F. , Human Geography: and first-hand contact with decision makers, class- An Ecological Study of Society, Appleton-Centu- es can enter the affective domain. ry-Crofts, New York, New York, p. v, 1948.

1 4 0- Acall for reforminthepreparation of teachers forthe new conservation.

THE EDUCATION IN ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

IraWinn

TWO DOMINANT and interreiated themes are fects the entire fabric of our being and raises questions found in the new conservation movement in American about out perception of the way the world realiy works education:(1) the integrated or interdisciplinary ap- and what we are prepared to do about it. The purpose of proach as a substitute for narrow and traditional de- this article is to offer some perspectives for effec- partmentalized offerings; and (2) the corresponding tive training programs in environmental education, necessity to implement programs that will give peo- to set the sights and raise some standards, and to ple not only an understanding of the eco.ogical facts point out some of the pitfalls that lie along the way. of life, but will move them to action in helpingtopre- vei.i and solve environmental problems. The first It would be utopian to assume that most university theme underlies many problems of higher education. education in the near future will cake a fully integrated It signals the need for a basic reappraisal of educa- tack.Interdisciplinary seminars, however, can be tional structure and better organization and adminis- set into the more general dep^ rtmentalized f ram e- tration of curricula. But it is the second theme that in work and thus serve as a vitalizing force and a link many ways is the more difficult to act upon, for the plan- between subject specialists. Of course, the environ- ning involved can easily fall into the categor y of wishful mental education major, whatever hisparticular sub- thinking that so often widens and clouds the gap between ject specialty, will take a broad spectrum of course felt minds and a:cativo -4-^^th-mal programming. work involving both physical and social scienues and the humanistic studies which raise fundamental Havlick's survey of environmental education op- questions of esthetics, 'values and ethics. Most im- portunities in American higher education indicates portant during the upper division and graduate years, that the most serious weakness is "the absence o f interdisciplinary seminars and symposia should be any vigorous environmental educationprogram in the made a part of the requirement for all subject ma- Departments or Schools of Education ... very mod- jors in fields involving the environment. In fact, est and uncoordinated teacher training effort at ev- this is no more than to say that at least a 1-y e a r ery institution studied" (2).At the same time, inter- seminar on environmental pn oblems be made a part estingly, the study notes that f .77 students now in the of the minimum require menti!o r a university degree. field of environmental education plan to enter teaching.And when they arrive in training, daub tle SS CASE STUDIES 'lose few teacher candidates are highly specialized as biologists or geographers. Thus devclops the vi- The educational dialogues of the new conservation cious cycle that must be broken before the training must be strongly problem-oriented. Environmental of teachers for the new conservation movement be- educators should lean heavily on the use of case comes adequate for the needs and realistic for t he studies in order to bring field realities into the times. The departments of education, biology, city classroom and to cause diverse subject specialists planning and architecture, recreation, agriculture, to rub shoulders and broaden their pert:rsctives. sociology, etc. will have to work cooperatively o r The decisional character of case study is of partic- they will fail in the difficult task of environmental ed- ularly vital significance to environmental education ucation because they deny the interdependence of ed- (3). The approach not only forces cross-disciplinary ucational life even as they affirm it for life in general. thinking in the course of problem solving, but it is strongly directed toward consideration of fundamen- THE ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION TEACHER tal value problems inherent in the development of For one thing there are few teacher education special- democratic political life.Illustrative is the recent istswho are adequately trained in the evnrionmental sci- study by Erickson and Reynolds of the ecology of the ences. For another, there are few scientiats who have Que.bbin reservoir (1), a case analysis that moves a grasp of the difficulties of mounting an effective teach- thinking and discussion beyond the preliminary Lev- er training program. Commonly, training is seen as the el of problem description and data collection, where giving of courses-the filling of the pitcher of the mind so much of education today lies stagnant. The focus with facts about the environment that can be learned in on judgment (the solution of the case problem) helps the various departments. But what must be quickly the participants in the case discussion to adopt the learned by environmental educators is an old dictum of reflective-questioning attitude so vital to the new Plutarch: The mind should not be seen as a pitcher to be conservation. As the authors conclude, "The eco- filled, but as aflame to be kindled and fueled. The fact logical system of a reservoir includes our own soci- that man does not act simply on the basis of his knowledge ology.If it is scientifically possible to dredge a accounts not only for the high r ate e drug use among doc- reservoir, for example, is it sociologically wise to tors or the ease with which adverilsers and highway en- `dirty up' a fisherman's favorite lake? it is sci- gineers fool housewives and house owners; this fact al- entifically feasible to reduce nutrient levelsin a res-

Dr. Winn is Associate Professor of Education, San Fernando Valley State College, Los Angeles, California. 141 132 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION ervoir by strict surveillance of sewage disposal and may appear. The new conservation has the advantage fertilizer use in areas surrounding a reservoir, is it of notbeingbouncl by the constraints of traditional sub- politically feasible to do so? These are obviously ques- ject organization and methodology. And the changes in tions that the biologist and engineer cannot answer - teacher training will help f orce corresponding reform but it is often within the framework of just this kind in the secondary schools, as physical, social sciences, of question that their proposals must be built" (1 ). and recreation are brought into better articulation. Fi- The teacher candidate who is nurtured through nancial support seems to be steadily increasing, and, such an interdisciplinary sharpening process will be hopefully, the foundations and government agencies primed to enter into the modern currents of induc- co ncerned will increase their aid in order to institu- tive teaching.Those trends are now beginning to tionalize and expand environmental education centers revitalize teacher education as a force for social in the universities.Naturally, failures can be expect- change.First, the goals of teacher training for ened to occur, if only because the field is still emerging vironmental education need to be written from an op- from its infancy. But in a more basic sense, learn- erational standpoint, rather than in terms of glitter- ing is a form of borrowing and pi ufiting from error, ing generalities and traditionally vague objectives and often the best learning occurs in the act of teach- such as "appreciation of nature" or "understanding ing others while teaching oneself. the importance of conservation. " A more appropri- What larger outcomes can be expected from such :tely written lesson goal for the new conservation an educational reform movement? Properly admin- might be:"Students will be able to point out politi- istered, what should result is not only a transforma- cal factors influencing decision on a given park lo- tion in the structure of education but new perspec- calization or choice of freeway routing"; or, "Stu- tives, new perceptions, new actions by the general dents will be able to find examples of environmental public (5).The awakening of the citizenry to the del- contaminants in home or neighborhood store and be icate ecological fabric of life will bring into being a able to explain to their class and the owner the reason political body much more resistant to the blandish- for their danger. " The student teacher in environments of the hucksters, aware of long run conse- mental education should thus become proficient in quences of short run plans, and alive to the dangers jesson planning for behavioral change. While there of patchwork approaches to problems of food supply will stiu be room for a general statement of objec- and population, energy sources, underdevelopment, tives, incorporating a rationale or a general philos- pollution, and other social issues.Students of the ophy, modern educational experience dictates a new conservation will inevitably b e activists, ori- break away from the common fixation on lessonplan- ented toward involvement in the world community and ning at the abstract level.The second point of de- its problems. Thus will be created or recreatedthat parture from tradition is the need for stress on which gave heart to Tocqueville as he weighed the practice of problem solving techniques and innova- promise of the American scenea community of tive approaches that both stimulate Intel...le:Anal cu- publics, now engaged in thinking about the nature of riousity and practical wisdom. Peer teaching cri- their education and their environment, questioning tique sessions, perhaps using video tape, 'can be the kinds of cities they are living or going to live in, "traded" for factual knowledge with subject special- and concerned about the kind of life they are leading. ists in the science& and in other areas where schools Are we, those most concerned with environmental of education will likely be in short supply. education, fully ready to accept these changes? The use of combined teams and visiting consultants REFERENCES will further the healthy exchange of ideas as well as 1. Erickson, Paul A.; Reynolds, John T., " The Ecol- give the necessary substantive boost in what will con- ogy of a Reservoir, °) Natural Histor:, 78:(no. stitute a mutual learning phase over the next f ew years. 9) 52, November, 1969. Social science teacher trainers should have little difficulty adapting to the politicaieeonomic, and sociologi- 2. Havlick, Spenser W., "A Glimpse and Analysis cal side of environme:cal education, while science of Environmental Education Opportunities in Amer- trainers will easily '.earn to handle approaches to the ican Higher Education," Environmental Educa- physical aspects of environmental problems. But the tion1 :(no. 1 )21-24, Fall 1939. real trick is to combino these forces with all the other esthetic and value perspectives that make up the 3.Hunt, Pearson, "The Case Method of Instruction," whole of the new conservation-and life in general. Harvard Education Review, 21:177-178, 1951;Winn, ADOLESCENCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION Ira, The Case Study Reform Movement nt in Ameri- During the coming (and inevitable) 3-5-year period can Civil Education: Educational Implications of of adolescence and early adulthood of the environmen- Political Apathy, doctoral dissertation, Univer- tal education movement, there will be need for special sity of California, 1966, pp.109-166; Oliver Donald; and summer projects, federally and privately financ- Shaver, James P., The Analysis of Public C o n- ed, to develop training programs and new education- troversy, Harvard Graduate School of Education al techniques and to set standards for assessing pro- Report, chapters X -XI, 1962. gress. As the Report to the President's Council on Environmental Quality has noted, not only is there 4.Rockefeller, Laurance and others, "Report to the "excessive reliance on traditional classroom meth- President and the President's Council on Environ- odology," but environmental projects in the past have mentalQuality," pp. 13, 31-32, August, 1969. lacked evaluation and articulation, and it is nearly impossible to tell what works best and why (4 ). 5.Winn, Ira, "Public Parks and Private Lives," Na- tural History, 78: (no. 8 )20-26, October, 1 9 6 9 ; This admission of past deficiencies, this need to ex- Ferry, W. H., "The Technophiliacs," The Center periment anew and to borrow in order to build a new Magazine, Center for the study of Democratic In- field of knowledge is not as gloomy a course as first it stitutions, Santa Barbara, 1:(no. 5)45-49, July 1968.i

142 e..2 An integrated effort to combine bits and pieces of research into broad unJerstanding."

THE MAN ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM APPROACH

Reid A. Bryson

THROUGHOUT some 3 billion years of evo- must be utilized, but more critically, a true inter- lution, living things have adapted to the environment disciplinary effort is required to solve some of the by an intricate network of interaction and reaction. more intractable problems and to design effective poli- The threads of this web are so closely interwoven and cies to deal with them. The investment of effortmust complex that discord in one section usually spreads be multiplied through established disciplines and also like a wave into every corner of the pattern. Today must be expanded through the development of com- degradation of the earth's physical and biological en- prehensive interdisciplinary programs of education vironment poses grave threats to all living organ- and research which integrate the various disciplines. isms.This degradation has serious social, cultural, economic, and esthetic, as well as biological, There has been serious discussion orl organization consequences for mankind. Indeed, there is growing for environmental studies among students and faculty evidence that these threats could reach catastrophic at The University of Wisconsin-Madison through a levels.Within recent decades, man has rapidly pro- series of committees, beginning as early as 1 9 6 6. liferated in numbers, cleared forest and prairie for Actually, The University of Wisconsin had a long- agriculture, covered lands with highways and cities, standing reputation as a leader in environmental stu- stripped the wilderness of minerals and resources, dies, beginning in the early 1900's with the pioneer- and perhaps most disastrous of all, has endlessly ing research of Birge and Juday on the limnological polluted the waters, air, and lands.It is apparent problems of Madison's lakes.Since those early in- that man has begun to tear apart the fine fabric of vestigations, Wisconsin has become a national "center the very resources upon which he is so totally de- of excellence" for research on eutrophication, the pendent. Yet the environment is rapidly deteriorat- accelerated aging of natural waters due to man's ac- ing at a time when ever increasing numbers of peo- tivities, the contamination of natural waters, and pol- ple depend upon it and are seeking greater uses of it. lution abatement. The University also is a leader in research on legal aspects of environmental quality, We need abetter understanding of the physical and computer modeling of lakes and streams, and sewage biological effects of the natural and man-made en- treatment methods. Wisconsin experts have pioneer- vironment upon man. We most gain a clearer un- ed in rural land zoning and environmental diseases. derstanding of the relationship of all li.ing things to The University is one of the leading centers for re- their physical and biological surroundings. We must search on food poisoning and how bacterial organisms learn how to keep the earth's environment in a con- affect food. Our earth scientists continue their search dition capable of maintaining life throughout the de- for an adequate understanding of the basic geophysi- cades and centuries of the future. We can no longer cal and ecological principles which govern the rela- afford the luxury of assuming that the future will tionship of life in its environmentparticularly that take care of itself. of man to the earth.Wisconsin meteorologists are studying the physics of the atmosphere to better un- The university has a major responsibility to mo- derstand the mechanisms of energy distribution that bilize its resources to aid in the solution of environ- power the weather and account for climatic change. mental problems.It has a clear responsibility for Climatic change is of interest particularly for under- the survival and improvement of life for civilized standing world patterns of climate and the i.npactof man.In addition, our entire educational system has climate on ecological systems.University clima- a responsibility not only to preserve and transmit tologists are studying the possibility that atmospher- the knowledge, wisdom, and values of the past, but ic pollution from industry, large-scale man-made to discover and develop that which will ensure the changes in vegetation over the earth, or the triggering survival of the present and future generations with of cloud formation by jet contrails may intervene in improvement in the quality of life.The educational the delicate balance of atmospheric forces and re- system must have a mandate to develop a commonly suit in climatic changes of great significance. held body of knowledge about the whole man-environment system so a national environmental ethic c an Widespread interest in the broad area of environ- emerge. mental studies at The University of Wisconsin in the past decades has generated dozens of centers and To deal effectively with the intricate interrelatio. - programs in the biological, physical, and social sci- ships among features of the physical and biological ences on the Madison Campus, and many faculty mem- environment and their social, economic, and politi- bers have been engaged in teaching and research in cal consequences requires a measure of integration environmental studies. A number of programs have of intellectual effort rarely achieved in the past. The developed cooperation and participatidn of faculty from knowledge and analytical tools of m any disciplines several disciplines, and will continue to do so. Yet A distinguished meteorologist in his own right, Dr. Bryson is the Director of The University of Wisconsin's new Institute for Environmental Studies at Madison.

143./ 134 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION despite this impressive array of scientific and tech- and the lack of knowledge. Much of the attention on nical competence, we have felt that something signif- environmental problems so far has resulted from a icant was missingthe massive integrative effort to growing recognition that there are problems.This combine the bits and pieces of research into abroad recognition ranges from awareness of things around understanding of the total man- environment system, us that are unhealthy or unpleasant to awareness of in all its biological, physical, social, and cultural some global environmental problems. There has aspects. We also felt there was a need to deve'op been less attention to rational solutions of individu- several kinds of teaching programs: (1) broad u. al, local, or nonlocal problems.This is a source dergraduate programs concerned with the environ- of frustration.Individuals can gather up aluminum ment which would contribute to a knowledgable and cans in a spring cleanup, or choose low-phosphate ecologically perceptive citizenry; (2) a more ad- detergents, but they can't by themselves deal with vanced masters level program for the training of en- the large sources of environmental perturbation, or vironmental managers; (3) a doctoral research and set up the social, economic, and legal institutions education program directed particularly at those in- that will be able to do so.Many people are aware terdisciplinary environmental areas which have been of their individual impotence.Environmental edu- largely neglected in discipline-oriented research, and cation that elucidates problems or makes people more (4) a strong adult education and extension program aware of them will only increase this frustrationun- to carry the results of research to application on the less it also deals with means and methods for solution. many pressing environmental problems, and to provide an interchange of ideas between university and Second, much of the material on environmental citizens. problems has been rhetorical.There is a need to quantify as many of the factors influencing the en- To these ends, The University of Wisconsin this vironment as possible and a need for the construc- year reconstituted its Institute for Environmental tion of models. The educational process mustalso Studies as a divisional unit responsible to the Chan- deal with this need to quantify.People must under- cellor of the Madison Campus. The Institute, which stand irterrelationships in ecosystems. Decision had been a research unit within the Graduate School, makers must understand the consequences of alter- now has been administratively restructured to pro- native decisions throughout the system.It should vide improved leadership and impetus to the Univer- be pointed out that modeling work- on environmental sity's teaching and research efforts in the environ- systems is a young science in which students canbe mental studies area. Functions of the Institute a r e involved.This means that new curricula at all lev- threefold: els should aim at developing on the one hand an appreciation of the interrelation of all parts of the web 1.Provide leadership in interdisciplinary en- of life, but on the other a feel for which interactions vironmental research by initiating new, and co- are most sensitive. The totality of nature is too much ordinating existing, research programs; for the single human mind to comprehend, but the well-educated citizen must understand the essential 2.Initiate and support cross-disciplinary un- framework and how much stress is tolerable. dergraduate and graduate courses and degree programs; The above two points also say that new curricula aimed at environmental understanding and ecological 3.Improve communication among groups and awareness should notbe composed of "shopping lists" individual faculty, members involved in environ- of traditional courses and subjects, for the lack of mental research, training, and extension pro- integration of discipline-oriented courses and re- grams, and with the public. (The Institute will search is probably the most important reason for the develop and foster programs of external com- general lack of understanding of man as an integral munication to concerned publics through Univer- element of a complex system. It is clear that a prime sity Extension.) purpose of education is to help the citizen discover Many of these activities are already underway, who he is and how he relates to the rest of the world. and the Institute will assist in their further develop- Integrative environmental curricula, properly design- ment toward closer cross-disciplinary ties and greai tr ed, can do much to alleviate the general failure of public awareness. The integrating focus of the traditional curricula to achieve this goal.There is Institute for Environmental Studies is the man-en- a general lack of understanding of what is meant by vironment system: the eelationships between man, "ecology. " It is a term used inboth narrow andbroad individually and collectively, and his natural a h d senses. There is also great variation in the cue of man-made environment. We are concerned partic- the term " environmental quality." Both shorld mean ularly with quantitative answers, for the problems more than conservation of wildlife and abatement of are so complex that we must know which factors are pollution. more important and which actions may have conse- Many of our current environmental problems are quences far larger than their apparent significance. a function of population growth and increasing per- capita consumption of resources.That is to say that The above mentioned concerns and conclusions not all our problems are poor-housekeeping pr ob - prompt the following observations: lems.This means that the educational program needs First, there is a general lack of understanding of to establish the relationships between population, pol- the nature of the man-environment system and the lution, and ecology.Further, the public needs to need for ecological balance by professional acade- be in a position where it can make intelligent value micians and by the public. There is widespread pub- judgments about what kind of life it really wants; that lic concern over environmental quality today, which it is no longer possible to "let technology take it s will continue and increase, but there is considerable course." Because if we do, nature will surely re- dissonance because of the complexity of the problems spond and take its course. 1441 "A disciplinary beachhead in the noman'sland between the two cultures of science."

ECOGRAPHY: A NEW SCIENTIFIC DISCIPLINE

Everett M. Hafner

SEVEN - TENTHS of the way through the 20th and conspicuously beautiful neighbor in the sky, long century, we are suddenly all discussing the possibil- recognized by scientists as an .,,bode of life and apos- ity that man may be breeding and poisoning himself sible haven for the overpopulated societies of Venus. out of existence.Food shortages, limited mineral resources, water and air pollution, energy consump- It was already too late to develop more than pation, chemical and radioactive contamination, noise thetic and abortive attempts to send large colonies generation, deforestation, and many other problems of Venutians to Earth. But under the spell of panic suddenly seem to be growing faster than the rapidly and superstition, and with vast resources to support growing population itself. We' are also suddenly aware them, engineers designed a monstrousproject. Their that our attack on the environment is an attack upon idea was to bring about a dramatic change in the spin ourselves. Even as our technology expands, it ap- of Venus. Huge jets were erected on the equator and pears to threaten physical and mental health of men enormous amounts of fuel burned for many years in everywhere. Thus, we are beginning to see that a order to slow down and ultimately to reverse the ro- dramatic change in man's attitude toward himself tation. When the engines finally stopped, more than and his planet is necessary for his survival. one percent of the total mass of the planet had been sent into space; a fraction of the exhausts remained Each of us has his own dreadful vision, his s sce- as the atmosphere that we now see.Inthe final state nario as it w -re, of what can happen to us if we con- of rotation, Venus was spinning slowly backward at tinue along our present course. A brief but violent just such a rate that, once every 584 days, at the time nuclear war, brought on by the rage and frustration of closet approach of the two planets, a space station, of hungry millions or by tyranny or even by simple fixed on Venus had Earth shining at the zenith.But ineptitude, is the most familiar fantasy. Mine is all life had vanished. very different from this and in some respects even more dreadful.It is based loosely on our recent ob- I do not mean to propose this as a serious theory servations of Venus, a planet of Earth-like size, but for the explanation of the atmosphere of Venus or of whose atmosphere is grotesquely differentfrom ours. Its s+range and anomalous rotation.I am only sug- In my image, the cloud of dense water and carbon di- gesting something that is within the realm of possi- oxide enveloping the planet is the result of massive bility not only for the history of that planet, Lot also pollution of the air by runaway processes started by for our Own future. We are already well along t he an ancient technology. road toward irreve rsible change in the quality of the Earth, brought but by our own insatiable creed and In the light of what we now suddenly know about our inability to control our own growth.If v e reach ourselves and the natural world, the story of what a point of no return, it is not inconceivable to me that might have happened on Venus a billion years ago is we shall react to the pressure of a variety of fright- not unbelievable.Life evolved from lower to higher ening circumstances by going mad asa species. Then forms in a warm but otherwise benign habitat; an in- Earth, too, may grow a dense opaque atmospheric telligent species arose to exploit its resources for shroud which for all I know its the sign of the death the sake of power and growth; a point was reached of planets. where the balance of life was endangered by insults to the environment. increasing amounts of carbondi- But fortunately we seem to have some time in oxide in the atmosphere, coming from large-scale which to reverse the march toward the destruction of combustion of hydrocarbons, began to raise the tem- our world. We are also fortunate in witnessing t he perature of the planet by the familiar "greenhouse" emergence of a new generation of ydung people deep- effect until it became clear to all thinking people that 1 concerned for a wide range of social problems and life itself would soon be threatened. Despite the most nquipped with energy and good sense to act out their imaginative efforts on the part of her scientists to al- roles as responsible citizens for our time.I have leviate the problem, Venus grew steadily less habit- had the privilege of meeting and working with many able as the temperature rose. A strange and uncon- students who represent the movement toward resto- trollable panic gripped the planet, leading eventually ration of the environment, and I am convinced that to the revival of old and discredited superstitions. they deserve all the help that we can find for them. One of these had been the worship of Earth, a blue My own small contribution is a proposal that the y

Dr. Hafner is Dean, School of Natural Science and Mathematics, Hampshire College, Amherst, Massachusetts. This paper is from a Symposium on Undergraduate Studies inEnvironmental Science in connection with the Amer- ican Association for the Advancement of Science annual meeting in Boston in December 1969, and from a Na- tional Science Foundation Project Directors' meeting in Washington February 1970. The paper has also appeared in Ecotatics, Simon and Schuster, 1970. 145 136 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION learn to think of science in a broader and more com- work that physicists do, from bottom to top of the en- fortable sense than their experience has so far sug- ergy scale and from the smallest to the largest of gested to them. natural systems. Yet it is fair tc say that physicists share more than a label and a professional society; It is, of course, not the fault of young people alone they collect around a set of problems and modes of that science is now widely viewed with hostility, as inquiry most usefully identified as a single discipline. a cold and insensitive instrument whose wurk is de- This may, by the way, not always continue to be so. void of or even antagonistic to social and humanistic value.This is a picture that scientists themselves, If physics were forming today, we should o f ne- perhaps inadvertently, have helped to create.But cessity have to cies it as "interdisciplinary" since we are beginning to see vigorous signs of a change. physicists would not yet exist. Academic departments While much of the traditional hard science of the past of philosophy, mathematics, and so on, would be un- is now losing support, other areas which bear most comfortable hiding places for people concentratingon heavily on the condition of man are now coming strong- the study of energy for its own sake. A university ly forward.First among them is ecologythe branch here and there, supported by grants from special of biology which deals with mutual relations between panels of the National Science Foundation, would set organisms and their environment. It is a science with up a Center for Research on the Laws of Motion a long and venerable history, but only recently, in (CRLM), devoted mainly to graduate studies directed the presence of acute distress in the ecology of man, by the faculties of various schools and departments. has it come to prominence with the sense of excite- Undergraduate students, sensing a crisis of leader- ment and promise that I recall when nuclear physics ship, would devote summer and weekends to mechan- burst upon us more than three decadesago. But ecol- ics and radioacti ity.The American Associationfu ogy by itself, even with strong emphasis on the hu- the Advancement of Science would sponsor symposia man specie..., will not be sufficient to handle the grave on ways of organizing these activities into respect- problems that confront us now, since many of them able courses and progranis. appear to have their roots in social and political behavior.In the remarks that follow, therefore, I at- It is in this perspective thai 1 see ourpresent con- tempt to delineate a new field of science standing cern for the development of environmental science. midway between what we now recognize as the natu- My own mailhundreds of papers and reports, doz- ral sciences and the social sciences, combining in- ens of books, thousands of lettersbrings me mount- sights of both and developing its own fundamental ing news of responsible and intelligent concern forth technique. future of the Ear.th as a home for life, and of proposals for tooling up in response to that concern.Al- History tells us that ideas, like organisms, fol- though scane of what I read is simple-minded or self- low a pattern of evolution that we do well to under- serving or otherwise use le s st the mainstream is stand.In religion, in philosophy, in art and music strong and full of honest purpose.Take, for exam- and literature, and in history itself, newborn ideas ple the question of Environmental Law. Whereas a may or may not be strong enough to mature and wise few years ago it was hardly identifiable as a subject enough to age gracefully.Mutation and replication of serious study, it now commands the attention of are working processes in the history of ideas, as are professional lawyers, graduate students of law, and symbiosis, parasitism, slow disease, and sudden undergraduates who look toward careers in the field. death. Academic people are, or ought to be, midwives at the birth of ideas and coroners at their death. Too An enormous academic movement, supported by often 110 we neglect those roles. Many a conceptual students of all kinds from the most to the least rev- rose is born to blush unse en; many a corpse languishes olutionary, by faculty in all areas of study, by deans in the acauemy denied of its right to be buried. and presidents and authoritative figures in government, is pulling us forward. The movement is so Communities of ideas, gathered together around strong as to be hazardous in itself.Garrett Hardin central themes deeply rooted in human conscious- (Professor of Biology, University of California at ness, form the "disciplines" of academic life. At a Santa Barbara) has spoken of the dangers of a "eu- given stage of our development, each academic dis- Dhoria. .. likely to make us lower our critical guard, cipline represents a consensus on questions of prior W indulge in ill-considered enthusiasms." I sense ity, feasibility, research technique, continuity, and this too, and I add to it the hazard of inadequate or academic prestige. The enterprise of learning works irresponsible leadership. Much depends, especial- best when we nurse and nourish the newborn, while ly for the long future of environmental action, on the burying the dead with minimum expense and ceremony. guidance of the academic community. Nowhere are these processes more vivid than in This brings me to my point.It seems to be re- the history of science. My own most familiar di s- garded as inescapable that environmental science is ciplinephysicsregarded sometimes as a central interdisciplinary. And so it is, in the sense that it kingdom in the larger worldof natural science, formed connects almost all fields of study, ranging from ar- itself slowly and painfully from a set of powerful ideas chitecture to zoology.But chemistry or mathemat- in philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, experimen- ics or economics is interdisciplinary in the same tal design, chemistry, engineering, and military sci- sense; in my brief history of physics, I do not sug- ence. Galileo sensed the birth of discipline when he gest that its emergence as a discipline removes it constructed dialogues on "Two New Sciences," but from contact with everything else.On the contrary, it was not until much later that physics emerged in and paradoxically, intensive concentration on the fun- recognizable form. Even now there is some aiffi- damental laws of nature clarifies our view of the culty with its definition: there are dictionaries that whole world of reason, in a way that would be impos- describe it in negative terms only as "the study of sible otherwise. The lesson of experience, perhaps inanimate matter in which no chemical change oc- explicable in psychological terms, is that speciali- curs." There is also extraordinary variety in t he zation is essential to our progress. A sense of dis- HAFNER 137 cipline, by which I mean a devotion to a concentrated Instead, says Hutchins, we must look to the col- community of closely related ideas, is our mostpro- lege, or cluster of colleges, in which departments ductive scholarly tool. of study are never permitted to organize. The college is a small community of teachers and students, Given the truth of this principle, we might spend using their special talents to achieve clearly defined some effort on building, or perhaps simply recogniz- goals.It is possible, even necessary, in such a set- ing, a new discipline within environmental science. ting to combine a sense of discipline with the respect- I wish to call it "Ecography" a. a way of recogniz- ability of change. A new discipline, like ecography, inf. that it is new, and as a suggestion cfi ,.s basic can find a natural and immediate place; so can an old meaning. The name is unimportant, but the concep- one, like chemistry. And some disciplines c an be tion of discipline is vital. permitted to die without endangering the lives of people . Instead of listing the dozens of existing disciplines Whatever modes of reform they choose to adopt, from which ecography has grown, let us simply ask the colleges and universities of the world w ill b e about its central and deeply rooted theme. We are en- moving toward definition of this new discipline in a gaged in a study of facts and values which describe and response to a variety of forces. One is the emer- control man's interaction with his habitat.In vhat gence of ecography as an interesting and challenging respect, then, does ecography differ from human ecol- subject of study. Another is the collective voice of ogy or, for that matter, geography as it is currently thousands of students, demanding academic recogni- understood? The answer I give you is that ecology, tion of their concern. But the greatest force of all for its own scholarly purposes, must carry too great is the threat of our own destruction, which we must a burden of biology, while geography must carry too continue to face until the gap between the sciences is little.If you wish, ceology io too close to the exclu- filled.Beryl Crowe (1) says: sively natural sciences while geography is too close There has developed in the contemporary natu- to the social sciences. Thus, the role of ecography, ral sciences a recognition that there is a sub- as its name suggests, is to establish a disciplinary set of problems, such as population, atomic beachhead in what appears to be a critical no-man's war, and environmental corruption, for which land between the two cultures of science. there ZIre no technical solutions.There is also an increasing recognition among contemporary I earnestly believe that the new discipline has al- social scientists that there is a subset of prob- ready been born, but that it is a foundling, crying lems, such as population, atomic war, environ- for adoption.In view of the rapidly growing sever- mental corruption and the recovery of a livable ity of man's ecoli gical crisis, westudents and urban environment, for which there are no cur- teachers alikecannot affordto overlook the chance rent political solutions.... The common ar- that our new baby is a WunJerkind whose fu tu r e eas shared by these two subsets contain most strength depends upon our feeding him properly now. of the critical problems that threaten the very With this in mind, I propose that the colleges and existence of contemporary man, universities take action.In the case of the "multi- versities, " whose structures are rigid and jealously Professor Crowe ends his piece in pessimism, with- guarded, it is neither feasible nor necessary to build out being able to suggest any feasible way out of the interdisciplinary centers in order to provide an eco- impasse. But two important things ought not to be graphical setting. The better way is for each to or- overlooked in the analysis: the steady evolution o f ganize its Department of Ecogiiphy with the usual academic form, and the insistent voice of the stu- spectrum of people and facilities: chairman, facul- dents. "The waters are rising, " said a student at ty, budget, laboratory, undergraduate and graduate the recent Nobel Conference in Stockholm, "and we programs, and degrees.It is only through the con- have no boats. " It is our responsibility to .-nake the ventional structure, which has worked so well f o r boats possible by providing tools for so many out- other disciplines of science, that most universities stretched hands. We possess the tools, but we must can respond to the demand for professional recogni- learn to use them in new ways. tion now building up among young students and teachers.And this is certainly one way in which our en- My proposal is not put forth with the suggestion vironmental problems can be adequately studied and that it is in any way unique.I know that many simul- ultimately solved. taneous attacks will be made on the question of developing environmental science, and I suspect that more Perhaps there is a better way, open only to insti- than one of them will yield effective results. My main tutions newly forming and therefore free from prior purpose is a more general one: to urge students to- structural commitment. They can listen to Robert ward a revision and revitalization of their conception Hutchins, criticizing our universities: of science and to develop scientific expertness a s a means of balancing and substantiating their talent for Civilization and culture cannot be preserved and social and political action which they now seem most expanded without another institution that is naturally willing to exercise.I firmly believe that missing, Today we have no centers of inde- both activities must go forward together.Science pendent thought and criticism.The multiver- without a sense of social commitment will always be sity is not independent:it is the result of the a part of academic life, but it will not answer the parallelogram of forces at work in the com- gravest questions now before us. And political ac- munity.It is not engaged as an institution in tion, however wisely and humanely directed, will fail thought or criticism. ... It is compartmental- equally badly if it is uninformed by science. ized both vertically and horizontally into de - partments and divisions that are in competition REFERENCE for money and soidents. A multipurpose insti- 1.Crowe, Beryl, "Tragedy of the Commons Revis- tution can by definition have no unifying principle. ited, " Science, 166:1103, November 28, 1969. 0,.47 The forestry student faces a new era.

FORESTRY'S CHANGING ECOLOGY

Richard W. Jones

THE CHRONICLES of North America, from Through the bias of historians, the lack of func- initial settlement by Western Europeans until the tional organizations, or the charismatic leadership early 20th century, reveal that man's relationship to of early advocates, it appears that the doctrines of the forest has been primarily utilitarian. From the both preservation and conservation were initially prop- era of settlement and land clearing, through that of agated by outspokcn individuals.In today's highly, lumbering and exploitation, to the period of timber and rJrhaps overly, organized society, groups rather managementthe forest served, first as a barrier than individuals are shaping opinion for the right- and to civilization and, later, as a tappable reservior of left-wing interests of forest resources philosophy. useful raw materials to satisfy many of man's economic demands. Tnere is an increasing demand for the amenities rrovided by wild lands.Pressures exerted by urban Pushed by the puritan tradition to have dominion living and a,milability of unprecedented leisure time over the wilderness and the desire to establish an have generated within teeming millions of Americans environment more nearly like that to which they had both the desire and the means to escape from the ir been accustomed in the Old World, settlers abided by workaday routine to the "great outdoors. " Here the a frontier ethic which encouraged domination of the objectives they seek var from the purist's complete primeval forest that covered much of the continent. isolation on the one hand, to the family camper's mere It was apparent that they clearly understood man's transfer of normally experienced social relationships role as prescribed in the edict of Genesis 1:28: "... into a different ecological settingthat which is per- and subdue it and have dominion over the fish of the ceived as "the forest"on the other. sea and fowl of the air and over every living thing." Regardless of some practitioners' reluctance t o In reaction to the conquest of the wilderness, some change, tile profession of forestry has been forced to championed the cause of "preservation" during the adapt to the pulsebeat of the times and public opinion. 19th century. Among tir. leaders of the movement Increasingly, foresters are having to recognize and were Henry David Thoreau. the transcendentalist; accommodate the non-utilitarian functions of the for- Horace Greeley, the preservationist; andJolui Muir, est. environment in response to demands expressed by the rublicist.The first half of the 20th century has its usersthe electorate and stockholders. Many of seen the preservation flag waved by Aldo Leopold, these demands may seem alien to or incompatible with who pointed out the value of preserves for scientific classical forestry; nonetheless, in the context of man's study, as well as other noncommercial pursuits. His- relation to his forested environment, the allegedly tory will, no doubt, shed light on others who h av e non-utilitarian functions are perceived by many forest been individually instrumental in fostering wilder- users as utilitarian indeed. As terhnological advances ness preservation. have made possible the introduction of substitutes for tree-derived products, and changing sociological pro- Of course, the "wise use" compromise was spawn- files have pointed up the forest's uniqueness in pro- ed during the same period of time.This philosophy viding amenity values, the timber production role of proffered the notion that, through management, re- forests has in many cases become secondary to aes- newable forest resources could be conserved, that thetics or other considerations. Demand for water, is, used judiciously without exhausting them. The fish and game, recreation, and forage attests to the founding of the American Forestry Association i n importance of the non-timber resources. 1875, the Society of American Foresters in 1900, and the establishment of the U. S. Forest Service within What may be construed as a threat to many forest the Department of Agriculture in 1905 crystalized the resource managers is not so much the resource-de- development of this concept in the United States. mand mix but, rather, the changing characteristics,

The author is Assistant Professor, School of Forest Resources, University of Georgia. Athens.

r JONES 139 interests, and attitudes of the forest users, that is, those who have been largely responsible for that mix. The tradition-bound forester is trained to cope with a changing demand for forest resources. His dive' - sifted skills enable him to manipulate the natural resources produced in the forest. He can provide more and better wildlife habitat; he can build roads f or timber access in remote areas; he can constructfa- cilities for what he thinks the recreating public wants; he can insist on timber harvesting practices which improve water quality and affect its quantity and timing.In short, he is well qualified to manage the forest resources, but how well equipped is he to manage the people who use those resources?

"Forestry" has been defined as "the scientific management of forests for the continuous production of goods and services. " In lieu of this, we could just as adequately define this pursuit as "the protection, management, and utilization of forest resources. " This simpler, broadened def in ; tion is more amenable to the ensuing description which derives from Figure FIGURE 1 1,It shows how forestry is changing from a production to a consumption orientation.It depicts the dy- THE DEVELOPMENT OF FORESTRY namics of present-day emphases as compared with those formerly stressed, both at operational and policy-making levels.It reveals a new purpose for its MANAGEMENT various thrusts. Classically, management of forest resources meant manipulating or regulating their harvest and as- PROTECTION suring their replacement for a sustained yield of raw material. The timber management plan rationalized Last generation's forester was required to spend much of the decision making such that it almost seem- much of his time in fire control or other forestpro- ed that trees or other resources were being produced tection activities.These could be viewed as custo- for the sake of themselves rather than their user s. dial or remedial in nature. Little time was available Not that managed commercial timberlands went uncut- for him to combat the causes of forest destruction; on the contrary, low stumpage prices and an acceler- his efforts were geared primarily to the suppression ating demand for wood by industry effectively kept this of its effects. from happening. Outside pressurestechnological, demographic, Forest managers have long been engaged in th e economic, and political -are expandtngthe dimensions protection of renewable resources from three prin- of forestry. Land use decisions are no longer deter- cipal destructive agents: insects, disease, and fire. mined solely on the basis of the probable financial re- Protection from pests and pathogens is still largely turn on the investment, cost/benefit ratio, or other a matter of control "after the fact." Biological and justifiable tangibles. Whereas "current annual in- chemical countermeasures offer hope that entomolo- crement" may once have been, independently, a suit- gists and pathologists may tike the offensive, there- able assessment for timber regulation, external fac- by becoming involved in the prevention as w ell as tors such as the ballot box, pressure group activity, control of insect and disease infestations. and taxation policies may have far more bearingtoday on resource management decision alternatives. Land Fire, of course, is for the most part a man-caused use allocation for the optimum production of benefits phenomenon.In fact, only aboutone of each ten wild- not alwayn measurable in board feet, cords, or other fire occurrences are of natural origin. Considerably quantifiable parametersis becoming a primary d e- more effort is now being expended on the prevention terminant of resource management policy. An accu- of man-caused fires.Effective in the endeavors have rate appraisal of voting behavior is fully as important been information and education programs designed to as that of fiber yield today. Accordingly, theneedfor change people's attitudes from carelessness to aware- information from behavioral scientists cannot be over- ness, from apathy to concern, and from malice to emphasized. Sociopolitics is a very real force, and responaibility.The would-be woods burner's per- the resource manager must be attuned to its demands sonal economic stake has alsobeen emphasized. Law as well as its "modus operandi." Public opinion is enforcement has been reserved .as a last resort while a force which the forester must be able t o harness effective public relations has been recognized as the he should be molding it. best means of pr eventing unwanted f ir es.Succ essful prevention has depended upon unclogged channels of com- muntcatton, attitude modification, a favorable press, advertising, and other human-directed pursuits. UTILIZATION There is a growing realization that forest protection is for human benefits and not just from destructive Traditionally, foresters needed to be knowledge- . agents. able about the conversion of raw materials into prt- 140 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION mary, and possibly secondary, products. An under- During the 30's, 40's, and 50's the tide of pro- standing of logging and lumbering techniques by all fessional activity turned to an emphasis on technical foresters was considered essential so that the profes- aspects.Economic analysis proved important in the sional could deal effectively with loggers, pulpwood justification of land management decisions os tech- operators, and others with whom he frequently came nology made it possible to convert forest biota into in contact. forest resources.Forestry was intensified during this period, and production-oriented foresters dom- With the advent of mechanical harvesting and other inated the professional scene. technological advancements, the "how" of utilization is becoming less of the forester's concern than the The postwar era has ushered in complexities from "why." More appropriately, he deals with planning which the forest resource manager was formerly fairly and programming the entire system of harvesting op- well insulated."People problems," as they h av e erations, relatingthe flow of procedures and sequences come to be called, are mounting daily as displays of to financial considerations for the firm, aesthetic im- affluence and desires for influence are being trans- plications for the motorist, and sties appeal for t he lated into sociopolitical pressures upon the forester, consumer.Analysis geared to math economic and so- hin profession, and the environment in which he op- cial cost determination is a matter of greater appli- erates. Policy issues relating to natural beauty, open cability than engineering for the forester. spaces, wilderness preservation, property taxation, outdoor recreation, and land acquisition are but a The competitive position of wood, as against sub- few indicators attesting to man's concernfor his nat- stitute materials, is of growing importance to t he ural resource heritage. The resource manager is profession. Technological improvements in the de- caught in the middle and, logically, should be instru- velopment of substitute products are of much m or e mental in the resolution of conflicts arising from than casual interest to the forester of today. Perhaps, controversies.Insofar as they are sensitive to de- if yesterday's forest utilization specialist had been as mands of forest users, foresters should be uniquely concerned and well financed as today's, wood products equipped to assess the benefits or liabilities result- used in construction would have a better image than ing from land management decisions. they currently hold in some quarters. A much greater emphasis is upon the consumer than was in evidence Popular in the latter decades of the 19th century, a decade ago and earlier. restrictive usage of forest lands became subordinate to wise-use in this century. But current trends, such as burgeoning wilderness preservation demands, indicate that restricted use is once again in vogue. BIO-ECONOMIC TO SOCIOPOLITICAL Continued population expansion and shrinkage of the REORIENTATION; THEN WHAT? available land base could dictate a swing of the resource philosophy pendulum back toward what some A review of American forestry's annals discloses would brand "exploit7tion" before the next century several characteristics about the trails which pr o - begins. An informed majority can help policy mak- fessional foresters have trod.Not all have taken the ers stay on a rational, moderate course by muffling same path, if they had done so, it skauld not need to the din of the vocal minority, of whichever persua- be brushed out periodically. sion they may be. Undeniably, the profession's plight over the last quarter-century reflects a broadening of the base of THE RESOURCE MANAGER'S MISSION competence among resource managers. Notwith- standing the constant expressions of need for more In light of current conditions, and these are prob- specialization in applying land management skills, an ably only a foretaste of those that can be expected, even more resounding outcry for near-prophetic dis- what is the forester's reason-for-being? What is ce, nrn ent of decision impacts is beinguttered. Could his mission in the much wider culture or environ- it be that the nature of professional activities has ment he operates in today? Digested into simple .-nade a complete orbit and now approximates the one terms, it may be posited that the land manager's established during forestry's infancy? Back then the function is: "ranger" could do anything and everythinghe was a jack-of-all-trades! Judging by users' demands today, that's what he's supposed to be now. to optimize human benefits from forest re- Perhaps the professionals of 1909, 1939, and 1969 sources through... shared some common traits. They were generalists; they pi.t in long hours facing a wide variety of some- (1) comprehension of the forest environment; what similar problems.But the sources of those problems differed. The forester during the profes- (2) application of professional skills; sion's first decade had the impossible.task of running his forest on a shoestring. Time, funds, and prior- (3) interpretation of the philosophy, goals, and ities permitted his practicing only the most extensive techniques of forest resource management of forestry operations. He was often the sole custo- and science to society at large. dian of millions of acres of forest land.Resource- fully bringing practical means to bear on the problems he encountered, America's early forester made How well foresters attain these objectives will significant tangible contrmutions to the recognition reflect the extent to '"?hich they have accomplished and advancement of the profession, aibeithe imple- their missionthrough adjusting themselves to a r e - mented rather unsophisticated forestry practices. oriented profession. Environmental design art as an entre to interpretation.

VISUAL CONSERVATION

Doris M. Carter

OUR ENVIRONMENT isavisual and concrete Cities, Ville Radieuse, Broadacre City, Williamsburg, reality. It consists of nature and of man-made objects - Newtown, and Cumbernauld .Evaluate these clans in and nothing moreAs a culture, motivation, or the relation to possible use in your own environment. desire to control natural resources and technological - 5.Visual grouping patterns.Study and sketch the products, is dependent upon our level of sensory de- visual grouping patterns or the natural arrangement velopmentor, in other words, upon our quality of of organic forms. A group of snails on a rock, a group sensory- esthetics. of flowers growing, a group of cells through a micro- The need to develop a sensory awareness of the scope, a group of animals in a herd, a group of rocks environment exists at all age levels. Since our envi- washed up on a beach-can these group systems be ap- ronment is a visual phenomena, education concerning plied to town planning? ';ry to design a small town based it can be channeled directly through vision as the mode on the sketches. Can these group systems relate to pop- of communication. Educators on any level who are at- ulation problems? Does man abide by the same rules as tuned to their environment mightattemptto stimulate nature in regard to physical space needed for a good lift? visual awareness in their students by exploring the following areas: (1) the environment-past, present, 6. Organic and inorganic relationships. Analyze and future; (2) the disappearance of natural resourc- an organic object to find out its basic skeletal struc- es-flora and fauna; (3) visual noise created by pol- ture. Find a man-made object that is based on the same lutants; (4) community planning; (5) visual grouping framework. Create an object of your own based on this patterns-man and anima; (6) organic and inorganic skeletal articulation. Bring a man-made object to class. Take it outdoors and look for the same form in nature. relationships; (7) camouflague techniques; and (8) Investigate the links or archetypes existing between technological synthetics. Taking each of these areas the organic and the inorganic. For example, what is in sequence, some suggestions follow to motivate the the link between a daisy, a Rosette window, and a Fer- educator or to act as a catalyst or springboard. ris wheel? What is the link between a fossil shell, an Ionic column, and a spiral staircase? Search into th. 1. The environmentpast, present, and future. most minute organic unit of these objects and discov- Visually evaluate your local environment. Go on a er the feature that is repeated over and over again. field trip with map in hand. Using a color-key code Compare these structures to those found in ecology. as a value point system, evaluate: pedestrian annoy- Find other visual-organic relationships. ances; traffic control; recreation areas; places for people, street furniture, civic art; points of refer- 7. Camouflague techniques. Study camouflague ences; upkeep of historical buildings; and reconstruc- techniques used by insects and animals. Apply these tion areas.Create an aerial view of a self-sustain- tactics to the use of man-made objectsfor the purpose ing human environment for the year 2000 A. D. and of camouflaguing visual noise created by technology. for a given population. Use a key system to denote the various organizations employed such as residential, 8.Technological synthetics. Technology is turning educational, commercial, civic, agricultural, trans- our visual world into a phoney world. We live in a portation, industrial, and recreation. land of double-talk, of double-value standards. Even paper money has become "plastic money." Give vi- 2.The disappearance of natural resources. Find suc..1 examples of the ways in which real materials are out how various flora, fauna, and resources have dis- being substituted by the synthetic:. cr. technology. Some appeared from the American scene. Visually express, examples: real flowers-plastic flowers, real wood through a series, the process of disappearance as grain-formica, real wood-contact paper with wood- caused by man's neglect. like pattern, real Christmas trees-plastic trees. 3.Visual pollutants.In your community, take This material has been presented in a broad man- photographs of the ugliest area you can find. Choose ner, suggestive, out of focus, and unlimited in scope. a small place and take photos from all angles. In class This was done with sharp intent so that the inventive redesign that space free from visual pollution. Build educator from grade 1 to the college professor might a 3-dimensional model and display it in the community adapt the material to his own personal needs. T he to show what could be done with the tract. age of the student is insignificant; the need for curriculum material is momentous and immediate. Sal- 4. Community planning. Employing visual examples, vador Dali's "Persistance of Memory" forever r e - trace the cross-cultural development of the use of the minds us that it is truly the eleventh hour! Unless following plans: grideron, ring, radial, and organic. we educate rapidly, Dali's surrealistic landscape will Make several sketches of the plans used for Garden be our natural habitat..

The author is an Instructor in the Art Department of Worcester State College, Chandler Street, Worcester, Massachusetts, and a consultant to tie National Park Service. An instructional-prnach for ;learning and involvement.

ENVIRONMENT AND THE COLLEGE STUDENT Frank M. Corrado

SINCE MAN, as we know him, is a buying, The purpose of this article is to present aplan for selling, building, wrecking, eating, excreting, gre- a single course of instruction on environmental issuer. garious, lonely, semi-rational animal, it would fol- for students of all disct'ines.It is no substitute for low that any study so broad as to encompass man's development of Schools of Human Environment, but "environment" must be broached from many points it could serve two purposes:(1) offer an interim, of view.In other words, if we wantto study environ- experimental framework for developing a wider cur- mental problems and issues, we must look at the riculum and eventually a school o of environmental problem from a business, political, engineering, studies; (2) offer the small college an opportunity to philosophical, communication, and scientific point present a balanced course in environmental studies. of view, to name only a few. The 1-course approach to environmental issues The interdisciplinary aspects of the environmen- suggested here offers students an overview of envi- tal crisis have already become accepted in the minds ronmental problems, serves as a basis for putting of student leaders and college activist groups. They students of many disciplines on common ground, at- are approaching the crisis from many academic points tempts to show interrelationships of the problems, of view. A study by the author of 15 college environ- and not the least of all, telegraphs the message that mental groups in the Midwest in December of 1969 the university or college is keeping on top of contem- shows a wide divergence of origin: biology, engi- porary issues. The 1-course plan could also play a neering, law, urban studies, and medicine.Typical role in adult continuing education programs. groups with mass appeal were the Northwestern Stu- dents for a Better Society at Northwestern Universi- The plan presented here outlines a framework for ty and the Environmental Action for Survival (ENACT) developing a teaching outline.It also urges use of at the University of Michigan. At present, however, multiple techniques for presenting the material. The there is no truly interdisciplinary approach or 4-year Course Plan: curriculum at any American university. 1.Crisis in the EnvironmentMan and His Re- The federal government, which for years has lation to Nature funded numerous scatter-gun research projects on 2.Ecology environment problems, has only recently recognized 3.Air its shortcomings in doing this and the shortcomings 4. Land (Congestion, solid waste, open space, it has engendered on the campus. cityscape) 5.Water A r eport to the President's Environmental Quality 6.Movement Council ( 5) noted that "federal funds being expended 7.Noise atuniversities for environmental problems do not en- 8.Environmental Planning courage establishment of such programs. " The report 9.Inner-city Environments suggested that the federal government, 'through its 10.Involvement and Participation grant programs, is encouraging" paper institutes" which hardly present" a satisfactory model for inter - CRISIS IN THE ENVIRONMENT MAN AND HIS RE- disciplinar y research. " If there is any interdisciplin- LATION TO NATURE ary work going on, the report stated, it is the result of " sheer willpower on the parts of participants. " The beginning lecture is a naming session. A laun- dry list of environmental problems is exposed to give The report asked the federal government to sup- the student an idea of the extent of the crisis. During port formation of Schools of the Human Environment this session the student is presented with a picture at colleges and universities. Tho purpose of such of manat war with nature and at the same time de- schools "should be problem-focused education and pendent on nature for his existence. research directed toward peopletheir needs and desires for a satisfying life in pleasant surround- By a continuous, careful scanning of the local ings. " The report recommended that a faculty re- newspapers, it is quite possible to come up with ward structure and control over curriculum develop- many examples that will give students a feel for the ment and degrees be made part of thu program. current problems. The author has found that many students don't read pollution stories in the newspapers. The University of Michigan was recently awarded a $750,000 grant by the Rockefeller Foundation to ex- ECOLOGY pand its graduate training in erwironmentalproblems. The University said the grant would allow the school As Dr. Eraene Odum has stated (4), ecology is to coordinate its scattered efforts in this area. concerned t ith the levels of life beyond the individu- The author is Public Information Officer, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, 718 West Briar place, Chicago, Illinois.He is also an Instructor in Environmental Studies at Roosevelt University, Chicago.

152-r CORRADO 143 al organism.It itthe study of systems, relation- ically backward. Open burning, sanitary landfills, ships between producers, consumers, decomposers, and incineration are still the commonly practiced and abiotic substances. When ecology is applied to forms of disposal throughout the U.S. Nevertheless, the urban situation, the basic principles remain the the study of solid waste disposal techniques offers an same. A theoretical approach to ecology is pointless excellent means of integrating the different environ- in an environmental issues course unless each issue mental problems. Incineration often causes air pol- introduced relates to ecology and specifically human lution.Landfills often pollute groundwater supplies. ecology. Among the serious pollution issues to be pre- The major cost in solid waste disposal is transpor- sented in the Ecology portion are the damaging effects tation, another environmental issue. Abandoned ve- of pestic ides and radioactivity on the entire biosphere. hicles and litter are genuine aesthetic problems , which brings up the issue a cityscape. AIR Cityscape. Cityscape refers to the visual city. Air, like water pollution, is obviously a difficult It is the morphology of the city, the urban landscape. subject to teach to an interdisciplinary group. Even It is the architecture, the neon commercialism, the a superficial understanding requires the study of bi- billboards on the highways. Man has for too long ology, chemistry, and engineering.There is no easy viewed his environment in economic terms. The stu- way around it.Discussion of specific pollutionprob- dent must be shown the possibilities of good planning lems will require the presenting of understandable and be introduced to the character and charm of the scientific explanations.But this is not enough. The great streets and public edifices, which give the city explanation will be mealingless unless the explana- a sense of "place. " The studentmustbe made aware tion is followed up by relating the problem to the hu- of the loss of great historic buildings by the corro- man experience.Unless; the student is shown t he sive batterings of air and water pollution and of man's medical and ecological importance of clean air, clean plain neglect for the city as a distinct environment. water, and low noise levels he cannot be motivated The student must be made aware of the possibilities for involvement. Unless the student sufficiently un- that good planning offers for improving the quality of derstands the scientific principles of a pollutionprob- urban life, 2.nd for improving its cohesiveness as well. lem, he cannot become an effective activist.These three approaches to presenting environmental informs- Open Space.There is plenty of open space.But lion dove-tail one another and follow from one another. not in the cities where it should be.The continuing economic exploitation of land has been responsible Possibly the best way to tie these three approaches for the continuing low priority placed on parks a nd together is to attempt to answer a series of questions. open space in our cities.The great public p la c e s For example: are deserted. Urban man only gathers inthe market areas.Cafes piazzas, promenades in the sunset (1) What is air pollution? What are its many along the edge or in the city's center are disappear- forms? ing.In many instances they were never there.The landscape is Dickensian.It is necessary to acquaint (2) What is its history? the student with the means available for saving bits and pieces of the landscape from completely disap- (3) What is its effect on man? pearing in our cities.There are alternatives to the sprawl of the suburbs and the implosions in the city. (4) What governmental approaches are being used Both open space and cityscape have similar messages, to combat it? but open space emphasizes the need for quantitative (5) What technological answers are available? space, while cityscape emphasizes t he qualitative aspects. (6) low does air pollution relate to other envi- Congestion. The population implosion in the cen- ronmental problems? '.ral city is having dangerous environmental effects on human beings. Violence, mental illness, and sickness (7) What is the future prospect? are the effects.The question that must be answered here is what are we going to do with so many people WATER in the central cities? What are the planning alterna- The same questions applied to air pollution should tives? What happens if we continue to do nothing? also be applied when considering water pollution. MOVEMENT There are differences though.The national-s ;ate water pollution program is much further along than Transportation is the national nightmare. Cars the fight against air pollution. The technology i s are jammed daily in traffic. Mass transit is in fi- more complex because of the biochemical aspects of nancial difficulty.One-third of the city is devoted water pollution.In other words, there is more to to transportation facilities.Airports are unable to talk about at this point in time. handle increasing volume. The effects: air pollution from combustioa engines, oil spills from massive LAND tankers, and water pollutim fro m urban runoff , noise pollution from congestion, and solid waste problems There are a number of sub-categories that fall from junked autos. The student must attempt to Li a d under the general topic of land. Among the ones the solutions, but he must first understand the issue. which should be studied are: solid waste, cityscape, open space, and congestion. NOISE Solid Waste. Of the major pollution problems, Sonic booms, subways, traffic, inferior building solid waste disposal is perhaps the most technolog- codesall contribute to noise pollution. Dr. Gerald 153, 144 ENVIRONMENTALEDUCAl ON Dorman of the AMA says that noise is more than an a closer look must be taken. The closer look will in- annoyance, it can be a physical and psychological volve the student with the realities of urban pathology danger (2).The student of the environment must rein a most concrete and brutal way. alize, however, that noise is more than a medical subject.Engineers, planners, and architects must INVOLVEMENT AND PARTICIPATION become concerned. And the public must demand more research into long-term pathological effects. The Nelson-McCloskey teach-in on April 22, 1970 and the 500 plus college groups which formed ad hoc to ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING participate in it suggests that the environmental movement on American campuses is well underway. On De- The classic concept of urban planning was physi- cember 29 and 30,1969, thousands ci college students calthe city beautiful, the city functional. The con- from dozens of newly formed environmental groups par- cern for man was health. Open spaces meant health. ticipated in teach-ins sponsored by the Department of In- terior's Federal Water Pollution Control Administration. The decade of the '60's widened the horizons of planning to include social stability and development Activism has also taken other forms.Students as reasonably attainable goals. From all indications, are marching on major industrial polluters and on the '70's will focus on health concerns once again, their own statehouses.They've held mock funerals which in essence would be a return to late 19th cen- for the cLutomobile, planted trees, cleaned debris tury thinking. Environmental pollution cannot serve from rivers and creeks. Groups range from the con- as a planning consideration.It is negative.It has servative Northwestern Students for a Better Envi- technologically available answers. ronment to the radical Friends of the Earth. Planning for the '70's should be based on:(1) the Particip .tion cuts across student political, social, social-physical answers developed in the '60's; (2) racial, ethnic, religious, andvocational lines. While the total ecological realities.What I am saying is activism appears strongest in California, students thisyou can't go off on a new tangent and forget in the Midwest and East have made headlines also f o r what has gone before.Planning must now be oriented their Vietnam-like stance on environmental pollution. toward providing millions of humans a method f o r remaining in balance with the biosphere.But t he At least a third of the students who attended and planning of the '70'syou might call it environmen- critiqued the Department of Interior Chicago teach- tal planningmust incorporate and stress physical in December 29, 1969, expressed a strong desire to design and inner-city problems as well.Environ- become involved in pollution cleanup.Critiques were mental planning must cover ail bases. offered by a total of 26 of the 337 students who regis- tered for the 1-day teach-in. A 5-member Student Ii there is a bible for this new type of planning, Council on Pollution ari the Environment (SCOPE) it is Design With Nature by Ian McHarg (3). His ser- was formed to serve a,s a link between the Depart- mons emphasize the need to assign values to the air, ment of Interior and college activists. water, and land, and he preaches that we must. plan for ending the sick pathology of the inner city. Some typicalemarlcs: "There should have been more emphasis m what students can do. " "Please INNER-CITY ENVIRONMENTS put more emphasis on high school students. We can do a lot! " "I wish that a list of these (conservation) Columnist Charles Bartlett, in the Chicago Sun organizations be. mailed to us as quickly as possible Times January 12, 1970, warns that concern about so that we know who to turn to in the future." .. the environment might be used "to diminish the pub- get people involved." lic's concern with the plight of the inner cities." He feels that a Theodore Roosevelt-like approach "will What this all means is that higher education must mean more competition for tt.e attention and emotions provide students with ways of becoming actively in- of the young who have been crucial supporters of the volved in environmental issues, by presenting a cur- urban cause. " He observes that the politicians may feel riculum that stresses participation and involvement. much more secure if the issues of traffic and pollution The involvement can take a number of forms: scien- can be separated from the issues of the inner-city. tific (pollution sampling), political (presenting statements at conferences), action (cleaning up a stream, picketing, holding workshops), and technical (devel- If you were to overlay the incidence of physical oping a computer model for lake pollution) just to disease, social disease, pollution, mental disease, cite some examples. and the economic and racial composition of a major city as was done in Philadelphia by Ian McHarg, you TECHNIQUES Or INSTRUCTION would f ind that the poor , the black, and the sick inhabit the same environment. This environmental fact of life There are many ways to present material i n a has also been shown in C hicago by Pierre De Vise (1). course on environmental issues. As many ways as possible should be attempted: It might seem that a student concerned with environmental issues is being taken deeper into the heart (1) Guest LecturersIt is obvious that there are of environmental "darkness" by studying inner-city not many people who can handle all the topics p r e - environments. And it might be argued that the major sented here in depth. Guest lecturers shouldbe used environmental problems are the problems of the sub- whenever possible. One rule to remember is that urb and countryside as well.However, since the such lecturers should come from different fields . greatest concentration of environmental problems ap- For example, a scientist might be brought in for an pear to overlay on the center city, it wouldfollow that air pollution lecture, a politician for a water pollution

1 CORRADO 145 lecture, a city off ic ialfor a lecture on solid waste. A outfalls and compare your results with similar infor- novel approac h might be to f ind an industrialist who mation obtained by pollution control agencies. would be willing to explain the business point of view to the students and subject himself to some grilling. g.Describe the effects of thermal pollution on food chains. (2)Field TripsThe visual experience, that is, seeing things for yourself, is and always has been h.Cor.t.)are the background noise levels for a cross recognized as one of the best means of learning. The section of residential areas in the city. city is the laboratory for environmental problems, just as mut% as the countryside is.Almost every i.Measure air pollution at the local airport. city has a s wage treatment plant and also some method for nisposing of solid wastes. Most indus- j.Investigate and report on the environmental trial communities have an air pollution problem, and problems of a 1-mile square residential section of somebody in local or state government is working on the city. it.Visits to these places can serve as a learning experience. The traditional reference points for ecol- k.Discuss research and demonstration projects ogythe visit to the pond or forest preserve a r e underway to improve techniques of solid waste dis- normally within close reach.Also there are numer- posal. ous public meetings held quite regularly on environmental topics. Students can attend these meetings,and 1. Speculate on possible radical citizen approach- with some preparation they can participate actively. es for environmental improvement. m. Report on computer applications for highway (3) LabsThe outgrowth of a field trip could be movement control. a lab experience. Labs can be a 1-shot affair or held on a recurring basis during the course.If a class Discuss alternatives for the automobile pow- were to take a boat trio, they might also wanttotake n. some water samples and analyze them later in a lab. ered by a combustion engine. What laws are on the books in your state atthe When facilities are limited, one night mightbe set o. aside for lab work. A series of four stationson present time for preservation of open space. air, water, solid waste, and noisemight be set up p.Discuss some successful attempts used local- and manned.Students could be rotated, spending 15 ly to sway public opinion in favor of a conservation minutes at each station. project. (4) Game TheoryStudents might develop agame corresponding to a pollution abatement conference or These are but a few ideas for outside assignments city council meeting. The scenario might be a cru- for students; there are hundreds more. Original re- cial hearing and vote on pollution abatement.Stu- search and syntheses should be stressed in all cases. dents could be assigned various roles, representing business, politics, activists, etc. A SUGGESTED LIST OF REQUIRED READINGS Class Texts (5) Outside AssignmentsTwo directions might Shepard, Paul; McKinley, Daniel, (eds.), The Sub- be taken on assignments.If possible, the best ap- versive Science, Essays Toward An Ecology of Man, proach would seem to be one in which students coDp- Houghton Mifflin Company, New York, 1969. erate in a single project, like developing the overlsys for an inner-city area or investigating the political., The President's Council on Recreation and Natural economic, and social aspects of a pollution problem. Beauty, From Sea to Shining Sea, A Report on the The alternative approach is a problem-oriented one American EnvironmentOur Cultural He r i t a g e , with assignments going to students in line with their Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1968. academic pursuits. Some suggestions: Crisis in the Environment a.Learn about the workings of a local conserva- Rienow, Robert; Train, Leona, Moment in the Sun, tion group.Tell about the job they are doing. Ex- Ballantine, New York, 1969. plain how they might improve. Ecology b.Conduct a survey of air and/or water pollution Carson, Rachel, Silent Spring, Houghton Mifflin legislation introduced in your state legislature within Company, Boston, 1962. the last 2 years. Explain the factors involved inpass- ing and defeating such legislation. Commoner, Barry, Science and Survival, V ik in g Compass, paperback, New York, 1963. c.Develop a computer model for a local pollution situation and explain its workings. Storer, John, The Web of Life, Signet Science Li- brary, New York, 1963. d.Describe the state of the art in advanced waste treatment. Air e.Develop a national policy on preservingand ex- Cleaning Our Environment, The Chemical Basis for panding genetic pools for wildlife in urban areas. Action, The Subcommittee on Environmental I in - _provernent, American Chemical Society, Washing- f.Conduct your own sampling of local industrial ton, D. C., 1969.

feis 146 ENVIRONMENTALEDUCATION Air Pollution Primer, National Tuberculosis and al Geographic, 136:3, Appel, Fredric Co., Septem- Respiratory Disease Association, New York, 1969. ber 1969. National Air Pollution Control Administration: "The The Proposed Chicago Crosstown Expressway, Citizens Role in Air Pollution," 1967; "Needed: Clean Transportation Advisory Group, City of Chicago, Air"; "NAPCA, Public: Policy and Air Pollution Con- November 30, 1965. trol," June 1969; The Ambient Air, Iglauer, Edith, NewYorker reprint, April 13, 1968; Air Pollution Act, United States Department of Transportation: Public November 21,d67. Law 890670, October 15, 1966; Federal Highway Ad- ministration Publications, 1969.

Water Inner-city Environments/Environmental Planning Cleaning Our Environment, National Air Pollution McHarg, Ian L., Design With Nature, The Natural Control Administration. History Press, Garden City, New York, 1969. The Practice of Water Pollution, Federal Water Pol- Three Approaches co Environmental Resource Anal- lution Control Administration, Biology, Government ysis, The Conservation Foundation, Washington, Printing Office, Washington, D. C. , 1969. D. C., 1967. Federal Water Pollution Control Administr afloat "A Involvement and Participation Primer on Waste Tr eatment,". 1969; Showdown.. . for Water," 1968; "Water Pollution, The Blighted Great Lakes," 1968; "Lake Erie Reprt," 1968; "Heat Can Farrell, Richard J., "Let the Polluter Beware:" Hurt," 1969; Water Pollution Control Act, 1966. Standard Oil Company, Chicago, 1969. The League of Women Voters, Land and Water for Tomorrow, Training Community Leaders, A Hand- Land book, League of Women Voters Education Fun d Cleaning our Environment, National Air Pollution Washington, D. C. Control Adminidtration. CONCLUMN Lynch, Kevin, The Image of the City, MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1966. This is a concrete proposal, designed to sc;rve as a road map for college teachers and curricultunplan- Jacobs, Jane, The Death and Life of Great American ners in establishing an environmental program at the Cities, Vintage, New York, 1961. college level.It is rather broad; it tries to cover all the bases.It is not the solution or the answer to en- Whyte, William H. , The Last Landscape, Doubleday vironmental curriculum planning, but rather an ap- and Company, Garden City, New York, 1968. proach, a point of departure. The emphasis I have tried to give is on bringing Bureau of Solid Waste Management, Department of the various urban disciplines together, on bringing Health, Education, and Welfare: "Solid Wastes: A the students from different fields together.If t he I.ist of Available Liter atur et" October '68April ' 69; course achieves nothing else, it hopefully will weld a "Summaries, Solid Wastes Demonstration Grant Pro- link of communication between students in many aca jects," 1968; "Sanitary Landfill Facts," 1968; The demic fields and create a dialogue on the quality of life. Solid Waste Disposal Act, 1965; "An Interim Report, 1988 National Survey of Community Solid Waste Prac- REFERENCES tices." 1.DeVise, Pierre, Slum Medicine: Chicago' s Apartheid Health System, Community and Fami- Congestion ly Study Center, University of Chicago, Chicago, Dubos, Rene, Man Adapting, Yale University Press, 1969, 91 pp. New Haven, Connecticut, 1965. 2. Dorman, Gerald, "Welcoming Remarks" to the American Medical Association's Sixth Congress Erlich, Paul, The Population Bomb, Ballantine on Environmental Health, American MedicalAs- Books, New York, 1968. sociation, Chicago, April 28-29, 1969. Noise 3. McHarg, Ian L., Design With Nature, The Nat- ural History Press, Garden City, New York, "Noise Pollution," American Medical Association 1969, 198 pp. papers from Congress on Environmental Health, April 28-29, 1968. 4. Odum, Eugene P., Ecology, Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Chicago, 1963, 152 pp. Chermayeff, Serge; Christopher, Alexander, Com- munity and Privacy, Doubleday and Co. , New York. 5.Steinhart, John S.; C he rniack, Stacie, "The Universities and Environmental Quality, Commit- Movement ment to Problem Focused Education," Govern- ment Printing Office, Washington, D. C., Sep - "The Coming Revolution in Transportation," Nation- tember 1969, 22 pp.. An experiment in undergraauate education for environmentalpolicy formulation.

DARTMOUTH'S COLLEGE COURSET

Alvin 0. Converse, S. Lawrence Dingman, and Malcolm Lewis

WITH INCREASING demands on our re- show that in theory one of the alternatives is the best sources of land, water, and energy, problems of al- solution.Finally, the third step is to implement the location are assuming vital importance.Policies solution of the theoretical problem in the real world. must be formulated to deal with these problems In this course the students were asked to carry out which are generally complex, multidisciplinary,;Ad these steps.They were asked to dig out what they sometimes poorly defined.Traditional undergradu- felt to be significant needs from a general study of ate curricula, even in liberal arts colleges, tend to the river system. They were then asked to prepare be analytical and to focus on disciplines.They give a recommended policy or course of actiongivingjus- students insufficient background for dealing with the tification.Finally they were asked to put this rec- multidisciplinary problems that characterize real ommended course of action in a form which appeared life, where solutions require an ability to synthesize. capable of implementation. Dartmouth's College Course I"IntroductiontoPol- icy Formulation"was designed to give undergrad- We asked the student to p.y particular attentionto uates from varied academic backgrounds an oppor- the formulation of the theoretical version of the problem.It is not uncommon that heated discussion or tunity to arrive at solutions to such real problems .1 argument about particular courses of action occurs OBJECTIVES AND PHILOSOPHY before objectives are clearly defined. This seems particularly true in regard to environmental ques- The students were asked to select and study as- tions. To overcome this, the formalism of optimiza- pects of the Connecticut River Basin for the purpose tion theory was used as the vehicle for theoretical of formulating a public policy that best satisfied problem formulation. While we are quite aware of needs which they identified.The specific education- its limitations, optimization theory emphasizes the al objectives of College Course I were to:(1) give definition of objectives, identification of factors un- students an opportunity to apply their knowledge in der one's control as well as constraints, and listing a synthetic rather than an analytic or critical man- of alternative courses of action to achieve the objec- ner; (2) give students an opportunity t o disregard tives.Ideally the choices among alternatives canbe discipline boundaries and study on a need-to-know made on the basis of some quasi-objective scalar basis; and (3) provide a forum for discussion of im- criterion, such as a benefit/cost ratio, although it portant public problems. is more often a vector. A formal symbolic statement of the problem has the advantage that with each stage An itzportant aspect of such a synthetic approach in the process a participant knows exactly what has is the knowledge of the more or less formal aspects been said.Objectives can be argued, but it is use- of problem solving.It is convenient to consider three less to proceed in discussing alternative courses of phases in problem solving.First, one must study action until they are agreed upon. an existing situation and phrase what is alwaysa limited and theoretical version of the needs and c on - There is an analogy between functioning in this straintE. that are apparent. The job Ie rather diffi- way and aspects of the philosophy of pragmatism as cult, because one can overlook someaspectsof the discussed by William James.In Pragmatism (2), problem and also because it is difficult to formulate James considers the problem scene of a squirrel in a an adequate written statement of the situation.The tree and a hunter arriving. The squirrel is on the second phase of problem solving involves solving the opposite side of the tree from the hunter, and as the theoretical problem. Here one must devise alterna- hunter moves in a circle around the tree, the squir- tive policies or courses of action (and it is always rel moves so that he is always on the opposite side possible to omit various desirable alternatives) and of the tree, facing the hunter.The que stion is,

The senior author is an Associate Professor in Dartmouth's Thayer School of Engineering. Mr.Dingman is attached to Dartmouth's Public Affairs Center. Mr. Lewis is a graduate student in engineering at Dartmouth, which is in Hanover, New Hampshire. 148 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION "Does the hunter go around the squirrel?" The an- The course met en masse three times each week swer is, "yes" if by "around" one means that the for a total of 24 lecture sessions. Lectures andtheir hunter at various times occupies the circumference topics are listed in Table 1.Seven of the lectures of the circle with the squirrel near the center. How- were by off-campus speakers. ever. if "around" means that the hunter is at various times to the front, sides, and back of the squirrel, the answer is "no." If "around" is not defined, Early in the course, Professor Theriault, a spe- there is no answer, and the argument can continue cialist in human relations, conducted a session in indefinitely; if "around" is defined, the is no ques- small group dynamics. A group of eight student vol- tion (i. e., the answer is trivial).In more complex unteers were given a classic problem in management problems, of course, careful definition does not al- to discuss in front of theAss. Several observers ways automatically provide an answer. in the audience were asked (without the discussants' knowledge) to record aspects of the interactions Thus, an essential objective of our course was to among the panel members, and their observations acquaint undergraduates with this approach to policy were discussed after the panel had reached a deci- formulation, and to let them evaluate its power and sion.This experience proved to be most valuable in limitations in a fairly complex real problem of their subsequent group work. own selection. The broad topic we chose to examine was that of It was hoped that the lectureswouldpresent infor- the water and related land resources of the Connec.c- mation on many topics useful to the groups in attack- icut River Watershed. This choice was initially made ing their problems. Although it was somewhat diffi- by the instructors for the following reasons:it ful- cult to maintain continuity among the lecturers, we filled the three objectives stated above; Dartmouth did, for instance, have a former commissioner of is located on the river; the instructors all had some the Federal Power Commission and a representative knowledge and professional experience dealing with of the electric power in..nstry speak on succeeding particular problems of the watershed. As indicated days, and there were several lectures on planning in in the students' responses to questionnaires at the general and river basin planning in particular. completion of the course, this choice was fortunate.. Their principal comment was that the course was valuable because it was relevant. They were very con- Each group was required to submit aproposal out- scious of the relevance of resource managementprob- lining the tcpic it had selected by the thirdweekof the lems in general; the Connecticut River in particular 10-week course. Each proposal was reviewedby the was the subject of a current comprehensive planning instructors and discussed with the groups, with re- effort. The physical closeness of the river added vised proposals due the following week. Progress further to the pertinence of the subject.Further- reports for each group were due half way through the more, the students were very keen to vise the spe- course.Final reports were to be submitted in writ- cific area they had chosen to study and to discuss ten form and summarized in a 45-minute oral pres- the problem with the people involved. In fact, it entation before a 5-member panel, each of whom had was this aspect of their work that the students found professional experience pertinent to the general top- most attractive. ic.This panel included a lawyer, an authority on resource management and government institutions, an ecologist, an engineer, and a planner.

ORGANIZATION A final examination, directed largely at testing College Course I was offered to all upper class- the student's ability to formulate problems and eval- men and graduate students without prerequisites or uate alternatives, was also given. So me problem regard for their major subject.It satisfied no re- sets, encouraging the gathering of more information quirements for a major unless an agreement between on topics covered in lectures, were also required. the student and his major subject advisors was made. One of these involved the manipulation of a rather The course could not be used to fulfill distributive complicated computer model of a reservoir system requirements.It did, however, count in the total to produce maximum value of power produced and course requirement.Eight sophomores, 12 juniors, sold.One of the instructors developedabibliograph- 14 seniors, and four graduate students took the ic computer program using Dartmouth's BASIC time- course; majors from 12 different departments were sharing system.This was conceived to provide a representedwith 13 science majors, 11 social sci- readily available, up-to-date list of references, cat- ence majors, seven engineering students, and five aloged by topic.The list included review comments English majors. on each reference.Students could add comments, and this enabled them to take advantage of references Experience in the introductory engineering course others had found.This was one of the attempts to (See 3) indicated that the objectives of College course share the knowledge of the "experts" in the course I could best be achieved by having the students work with the other members of the class, so that infor- in groups, each group to select an a.spect of ths larg- mati...m in some depth on any topic was available to er problem as a topic.Since it was felt that the all.This approach was found to be especially use- groups should be sufficiently small to be tractable ful during the initial stages of research but less so and so that an individual's part in the group effort later on because of the time requiredtokeep,the files could be ascertained by the group and its instructor, up to date. To further facilitate the groups' opera- group size was limited to eight.For guidance and tions, a budget of $100 was provided to each group evaluation groups met each week with their advisors to cover mileage, phone calls, and reproduction ser- for about 2 hours. vices. 15 g CONVERSE, DINGMAN, and LEWIS 149 TABLE 1 LECTURERS AND TOPICS, COLLEGE COURSE I, WINTER 1969

Number Topic Lecturer Affiliation 1 IntroductionThe Vermont Yankee Problem: J. Brownell Former Assistant Attorney Problems in Policy Formulation General for Vermont

2 Problem Formulation A. 0. Converse Professor of Engineering, Dartmouth 3 Small Group Dynamics G. F. Theriault Professor of Sociology, Dartmouth

4 The Connecticut River Watershed: S. L. Dingman Lecturer in Earth Sciences, Physical Setting Tlq.rtmouth

5 History of Institutional Arrangements for H. N. Scheiber Professor of History, River Basin Management Dartmouth

6 The New England River Basin Commission Frank Gregg Commissioner, New England River Basin Commission

7,8Aquatic Ecology G. E. Likens Professor of Biology, Dartmouth

9 Human-Waste Treatment E. S. Brown Professor of Engineering, Dartmouth 10 Interstate Arrangements for River Basin F. Gutheim Consultant, Washington, D.C. Management

11 Remote Sensing as a Tool in River Basin R. B. Simpson Professor of Geography, Management Dartmouth

12 Economic Analysis L. G. Hines Professor of Economics, Dartmouth

13 The Role of the Federal Power Commission C. Ross Former Commissioner, in River Basin Management Federal Power Commission 14 The Role of The Electric Power Industry H. J. Cadwell Executive Vice-president, in the Connecticut River Basin Northeast Utilities, Inc.

15 Mathematics of Economic Evaluation A. 0. Converse Professor of Engineering, Dartmouth

16 State Planning D. C. Hoeh Lecturer in Social Science, Dartmouth 17 Computer Simulation 1 A. 0. Converse Professor of Engineering, Dartmouth

18 Decision Making in the Face of Uncertainty M. 0. Tribus Dean of Engineering, Dartmouth

19 Community Planning H. Kent Planning Consultant, Norwich, Vermont 20 Computer Simulation 2 A. 0. Converse Professor of Engineering, Dartmouth S. L. Dingman Lecturer in Earth Science, Dartmouth

21Connecticut River Basin Culture J. W. Fernandez Professor of Anthropology, Dartmouth

22 Tax Policy and Environmental Management G. S. Witherspoon Former Tax Commissioner, Vermont 23 Transportation Planning R. S. Stearns Professor of Engineering, Dartmouth

24 Federal Science Policy E. M. Lyons Professor of Government, Dartmouth

1 ria" -A- 150 ENVIRONMENTALEDUCATION RESULTS Problems associated with the siting of nuclear power plants in rural areas are becoming increasing- The topics selected for intensive study by t he ly important, as reactors will supply most of the fu- groups were:(1) "A Recreational and Environmen- ture electricity needs in New England. The need for tal Protection Plat, for Wilder Lake" (a portion of a comprehensive study of the economic, social, znd the Connecticut River near Hanover); (2) "A Propos- environmental impacts of such plans was recognized al flr the Restoration of Salmon and Shad into t he by the fourth group, which examined the situation in Connect' nit River System"; (3) "Aspects of Planning Vernon, Vermont, where a large nuclear plantis un- in the Ottauquechee River Valley, Vermont"; (4) The der construction. Through extensive interviews with Impact of a Nuclear Power Plant in a Rural Commu- power company officials, state and local anverrunent nity" (Vernon, Vermont); and (5) "Resource Devel- officials, private citizens, biologists, aid ot he r s, opment of an Upper Connecticut River Tributary" they detailed the impact of the plant with regard to (the Mascoma River). politics, economics, labor, planning and zoning, transportation, schools, and the environment. Prob- The study of Wilder Lake revealed a rather large lems associated with the dual role of the Atomic En- recreation potential that was largely unfulfilled, due ergy Commission as a promoter of peaceful uses of to limited public access and conflicts among various atomic energy and as a regulatory agency were rec- recreational uses. The group felt that the present ognized, as was the lack of a mechanism for effec- pollution problem in the lake would be alleviated in tively considering the environmental effects (e. g., the near future by the actions of the two bordering thermal pollution) of a nuclear plant. Specific changes states. They recommended purchase of easements in plant licensing procedures were recommended, in- by the state and the towns along the lake to provide volving the Federal Power Commission as a review- access and maintain scenic values. A series of er of these effects.The group also recommended a trails, campsites, swimming areas, and boat access plan whereby the state, rather than the town, would points was also recommended, as were regulations tax the plant and return tax monies to several towns regarding boating use, so that various recreational in the area. These monies would be returnedinpro- interests could be served without conflict. Thisplan portion to the plant's effects on each town, assuring was to be implemented by a cooperative arrangement more equitable regional balance between costs and between the siates of New Hampshire and Vermont benefits associated with the plant, and would avoid and the New England River Basins Commission. the problem of surplus tax revenues which would The second group examined the costs and benefits otherwise face the town of Vernon.Several other associated with restoring the salmon and shad sport recommendations were made, and this report inpar- and commercial fisheries of the Connecticut River. ticular received a good deal of attention from public They investigated the effects of possible constraints officials in Vermont and New Hampshire. on reintroducing these fish (dams, reverse flow s, Aspects of the management of the water and re- pollution, effects on other fish life) and decided that lated land resources of a nearby tributary of the Con- the problems associated with these could be circum- necticut River (the Mascoma River) were investigat- vented.Options associated with fishway de s i g n , ed by the fifth group.In this study, present and hatchery design, flow re-regulation, and tributaries future problems associated with flooding, water sup- suitable for breeding were investigated, as were le- ply, and pollution were examined.Industrial an d gal aspectsfunding and fishing laws. The costs and municipal pollution were recognized as major prob- benefits of restoring the fishery in successive up - lems with serious effects on the future industrial and, stream segments were calculated; a maximtun bene- particularly, recreational development of the water- fit/cost ratio of 1,44 was found for runs of 2 million shed.The group provided detailed discussions, With shad and 40,000 salmon, supported by five fishways cost analyses, of how this pollution could be abated and a salmon hatchery.Specific recommendations by various arrangements of regional treatment facil- were made for managing and financing t he recom- ities. Lack of public access to the numerous water mended policy. bodies in the basin was seen as an impediment to fu- Problems of planning in the watershed of the Ot- ture recreational use, and purchase of easements tauquechee River, a large tributary to the Connecti- and cluster zonxwere recommended as policies cut near Hanover, were examined by the third group. which would encourage the fuller use yet retain the Particular emphasis was placed on recreation an d attractive rural open-space qualities of the region. tourism, since these are the major "industries" in The instructors felt that College Course Ifulfilled this area.The present opportunities for the use of its three principal objectives very well. On the basis recreational facilities in the area were described. of the reports and final exam results, they were less Problems which are tending to limit its future rec- sure that the fundamentals of problem analysis had reational potential were identified as:(1) lack of co- been widely assimilated.However, replies by t he ordination among planning groups; (2) insufficient at- students to questionnaires indicated that learning tention to the needs of watershed residents; and (3) about problem formulation was one of the more val- rural sprawl and strip development. Recommenda- uable experiences of the course. The relevance of tions for alleviating these problems were made, in- the topics examined was considered by the students cluding formation of a powerful regional planning to be one of the outstanding course featurrand this commission with members electedby watershed res- was helped by having each group select its own topic. idents and strong ties with the state planning office, economic analysis of the recreation industry to de- Almost every student thought that the opportunity termine how and by whom money is spent and w ho to work in a group was an extremely valuable expe- benefits thereby, and a policy of cluster residential rience, and one which was largely unavailable in other and particularly commercial development off scenic courses.This response was not anticipated by the roads. instructors, and indicated that this might w ell be

18 0 CONVERSE, DINGMAN,and LEWIS 151 considered a valid objective for future courses of this and factors not under his control which we type.The opportunity to hear speakers from ouiside shall call constraints.One cannotthink about of academic life was also frequently cited as a good objectives very long before becoming interest- feature of the course. ed in philosophy.Constraints include political laws, customers, psychological limitations, There was little consistency among the responses as well as the empiricism of natural science. to the question "What were the worst features of the Controllers are just as concerned with stabil- course?" A few cited irrelevant or poor lectures, ity and feedback whether the y be servo- and some complained that some members of t he i r mechanisms or the President's Council ofEco- group were uncooperative ane did little work. There nomic Advisors. was also some dissatisfaction with the finalexam and problem sets, which several students felt interfered Unfolded in this manner, itis apparent that such with the main objectiveto analyze a problem and problems are not interdisciplinary, they are produce a report recommending a policy. Recom- just not disciplinary.Solution demands people mendations for improvement of the course in future who will follow where the problem leads. These years were also very diverse, but included making people must have access to lmowledge on a need- it longer (2 terms), using smaller groups, and elim- to-know basis rather than on an expert know- inating the pass-fail (ungraded) option so that group it-all basis.Thanks to the computer or infor- members would be more highly motivated.There mation processor, this will be possible to a was an overwhelming consensus that each group much greater extent in the future. should be free to select its own topic, but several students indicated that a list of suggested topics would be helpful. Wisdom, or the lack of it, is found in the application of knowledge.If we are to escape Franny's indictment (in Salinger's Franny and Gooey) of piling up knowledge for its own sake IMPLICATIONS FOR THE FUTURE and never mentioning wisdom, then w e must seriously consider application. It seems that College Course I clearlyfulfilled several needs one of the worst misconceptions about liberal felt by the students which we 'ot being satisfied in oth- education is that it's not to 1.7e applied. er courses.Principal among he 3e were an opportunity to direct themselves to a rep'. problem with multidisciplinary dimensions and the opportunity to work in groups, which many students recognized as frustrat- FOOTNOTE ing, yet as something they would have to do oftenafter finishing their formal education.Other coJrses 1.The idea for an undergraduate course in Policy which fulfill these goals should be highly successful Formulation (College Course I) at Dartmouth and, indeed, necessary. College originated with Professor A. 0. Con- verse of the Thayer School of Engineering. His An environmental science program is almost by interest in presenting such a course grew out definition problem-oriented, and courses of this type of a knowledge of optimization theory and an would seem to be an essestial part of suchaprogram. earlier attempt to apply some of its precepts Success in allowing students of virtually any academ- to a problem in public policythe establish- ic background to pzirticipate indicates that such a ment of state criteria for acceptable levels of course could be used early in an environmental sci- thermal alteration in the Com'ecticut River (1). ence program. In that role, it might do muchto fos- In addition, Professor Converse had been as- ter a student's interest in particular areas, which sociated with Thayer School's introductory en- he could satisfy late: in specialized courses. How- gineering course, in which students work in ever, College Cor:se I was extremely satisfying to groups toward the solution of a specific engi- junior and senior. science majors, who had a chance neering problem (3).Many of the organization- to apply some of their disciplinary knowledge to a al features of that course were adopted in Col- larger and real problem. Whether regarded as a lege Course 1. summary or introduction, such courses do in o u r opinion have real value in allowing the students an opportunity to see where individual disciplines fit together, and in providing an environment in which they can be thoughtful and creative. REFERENCES 1.Converse, A. 0., Thermal Energy Disposal Methods for the Proposed Nuclear Power Plant CONCLUDING REMARKS at Vernon, Thayer School of Engineering, Dart- mouthCollege, Hanover, New Hampshire, 1967. We close by quoting from a memo written by one of the authors on the subject of managing our tech- 2.James, William, Pragmatism, Meridian Books, nical society.It is a statement of the general phi- Inc., New York, 1955. losophy behind the course. 3.Stearns, S. R., Education Today for Environmen- Decision making or design problems involve tal Challenges Tomorrow, paper presented atthe objectives by which to measure the desirabil- American Society of Civil Engineers Annual ity of a certain course of action, factors under Meeting, (Meeting Preprint 1046), Chicago, Il- the problem solver's control (i.e., power), linois, 1969.. ,161 A university course deal'i'ng with environmental quality as an issue of public policy.

THE POLITICS OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY

John Baden

HERE is probably no public policy issue so uni- One might seriously doubt if any fully facultied per- versally and fundamentally important as the quality of son would consider these disparate possibilities of only the life support system of earth. Thus, given that the idle impo: tance. Further, since either set of possibil- impact of man upon his environment increases with his ities will fundamentally influencerelations throughout numbers and his technology, mounting attention is be- the entire society, it is clear that an investment di- ing given to the condition of man's environment and to rected toward an understanding of these potentialities its probable future. is decidedly 'worthwhile. To the critical observer it may appear that many It is equally clear that environmental problems ar e commentators on the environment use the sanctity of public problems in the broadest sense of the term. Al- their scientific- academic posts to legitimate and but- though isolation or wealth may mitigate direct environ- tress their claims of impending disaster. Catastrophic mental impact , the matrix of interdependencies Is s o pronouncements are the hallmarks of this group. Mem- complete that Eskimos have suffered excessive radia- bers claim that we will see massive famine by 1975; tion exposure while those on Park Avenue have high con- that industry is generating so much CO2 that the "green- centrations of lead in their nerve cells. When the effects house effect" will overheat the earth or, conversely, of action rebound upon third parties in this manner, pol- that so much atmospheric dust is being generated that itical action can be expected. sunlight will be blocked, giving rise to a new ice age. Concurrently they claim our production of heavy met- THE BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS als such as lead and boron and of chlorinated hydrocarbons is so excessive that the entire earth is becoming With all due respect, the reader is reminded that he toxic. For the average citizen there arc strong incen- is an animal. From this fact, several others f ollo w. tives to avoid or dismiss such predictions. First, man can exist only within certain environmental parameters. Above or below a relatively narrow range In marked contrast to the preceding claims of im- of temperatures, pressures, and atmospheric mixtures, pending disaster is the cornucopian theory of economics. man is a nonviable species. The optimistic proponents of this theory believe that man's increased ability to control nature has placed him Second, man is a participant in a dynamic system. on the threshold of utopia. From this perspective the As such he is dependent upon other members of the sys- future is indeed bright.For example, electric power tem (species of plants and animals, sunlight) for their production will double each decade, and even more contributions to the maintenance of the system. There Americans will live better electrically. Incomes will is no way man can escape this dependence. continue to rise in America, fostering the elimination of poverty. Genetic engineering and the " green revolu- Third, man has not always had an easy time of it. tion " will bring nutritional improvements to the under- From the perspective of mid-century America, t h e developed countries. Increased automation will nearly modal condition of most men in most societies through- eliminate drudgery and the accompanying leisure will out history has been one of extreme hardship, uncer- produce and enhance "culture. " Existing problems of tainty, and deprivation. Exception:. such as those f ound environment willbe solved and new ones p, ecluded by on the northwest coast of aboriginal Firth America and the same technological-int ormation advancement that on a f ew of the benign Pacific islands, v. ere primarily server, as a foundation for the impending economic prog- fortuitous. But even in those exceedingly hospitable cir- ress. There are strong incentives to believe those who cumstances, nearly half of the mature population w a s promise such a future. engaged in the protracted, hazardous activity of child

Dr. Baden is Assistant Professor of Political Science at Montana State University. He has been a Visiting Pro- fessor at Indiana University. 462 BADEN 153 bearing. Thefact that few of those born in pr imitive so- context the need for remedial public policy arises when cieties lived to see the extension of their lineage serves there exist activities or processes with a high potential as grim testimony to the tenuous relationship of man to for significant negative spillovers. his environment. The second set of problems, those resulting from Although man must acknowledge the set of interde- man's incr eased fecundity and successful nuturing, are pendencies in which he is affixed, he has the demon- the most obvious. This stress of growth is beyond the strated capacity to significantly influence the system. unguent of simple technological remedy. It is clear that Yet he tinkers with the system, consciously or other- institutional adjustments with regard to population pres- wise; if prudent, he will keep in mind that he is a frag- sures must derive from ecological considerations. ile biological organism. The third category deals with the interdependence ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT UPON SOCIETY of societies and the potential imposition of envir on- mel,tal costs. It is clear that a society can be autono- Not all men live in an identical environment. This mous, and hence independent, only to the degree that fact is reflected in differ Mg socialr esponses to differing envir onmental circumstances. As a general rule, it is self sustaining: autonomy is a function of capacity for self-sufficiency. With this in mind, consider that the the more moder nized ( or developed ) a society, the less scope of man's ecological disturbances have incr eased. obvious is the impact of the natural environment. Thus, Thus, the buffering capacity ( or remedial qualities ) of while the Kung Bushmen or tribal peoples from the in- the world's ecosystem have become more heavily taxed. terior of New Guinea must continually adjust th sir s o - As aresult of the potential for such worldwide distur- cial processes to immediate environmentalf a ;tor s; bance and man's fundamental dependencies on the envi- more highly developed societies have the potential t o ronment, the capacity for self -suff iciencyis precluded defer the reality checks imposed by natural processes. at ever broader geographic levels and ever higher lev- If the societies at both poles of development or anywhere els of political organization. As an extreme example, between are to have longrun viability, their socioeco- if a country ruins its rivers by contamination, that act, nomic activities must harmonize with the natural ener- in a sense, is an internal problem; that country must gy exchange systems in which they are inextricably en- suffer the consequences. If in the process of river flow, meshed. However arrogantly modern man approaches however, the life support 3ystem of the oceans are de- nature, there ex..streality checks that cannot be indef i- stroyed, then the original polluting acts are worldwide nitely postponed. Accepting this, it is only reasonable in scope. In the latter case, costs are visited upon all to turn to a cursory examination of modern man's cur- oxygen-using organisms. Only recently has man de- rent impact upon his environment. veloped the technical prowess that permits one society to impose environmental costs on a worldwide sc al e. SOCIETAL IMPACT UPON THE ENVIRONMENT With our current potential, an effective policy response Science, oper ationalized as technology, has enabled must be applied at ever greater levels of generality, i.e, man to significantly reduce environmental uncertainty. the jurisdictional scope must be congruent with the nat- This fact is expressed in the actuary tables of insurance ural systems affected. companies. These tables demonstrate the feasibility of altering man's circumstances in such a way as to en- Although environmental issues are highly interrel- able the modal individual to complete the life cycle as ated, it is convenient to segregate them for purposes of culturally defined in his society. study (and is necessary for purposes of analysis).There is substantial agreement that excessive human popula- Technical development, however, need not coincide tion constitutes the fundamental problem, for it exacer- with long-run improvements in man's condition. Indeed bates all others. There is, of course, considerable dis- the problems inherent to technology and the manage- agreement regarding the seriousness of population as ment of its implications are receiving increased atten- a problem. Further, some individuals, ranging from tion. " To me it seems possible that the new amount of communalistic hippies to conservative Roman Catho- technological power let loose in an overcrowded world lics, maintain that there is no morally acceptable solu- may overload any system we might devise for its control; tion to the problem of excessive human populationif the possibility of a complete and apocalyptic end of civi- such a problem should exist. Given that matters of pub- lization cannot be dismissed as a morbid fantasy. " (1) lic policy usually have an under lying moral justification, Taking cognizance of such spillovers is the core of an this normative issue, in addition to the neutral demo- ecological approach to problems of social organization graphic and resource projections, should be examined. and collective action; the recognition that events are interdependent is central to an ecological perspective. In Environmental pollution is the second topic. For the brief, this approach r ecognizes the systemic aspects of purposes at hand, pollution may be consideredtobe of seemingly isolated activities. These systematic spill- two types, natural and man-caused. The leaves of decid- overs and disruptive externalities may be subsumed un- uous trees and the needles of red cedar both pollute wa- der three headings. ter and have caused fish kills.In sharp contrast with man's sources of pollution, components of nature's pol- First are the unintended consequences of technolog- lution are naturally, as opposed to man's chemical ical advancement. For example, while American Cya- means, biodegradable and are normally f ound t n eco- nide, Inc. , by the deve:opment of numerous herbicides systems. Thus, our focus is upon man made pollution. and pesticides, has contributed to the 200 percent increase in corn production, this contribution is neither Resource depletion is the third aspect of environ- isolatable nor fully beneficial. Neither, a prudent man mental deterioration considered in this course. As a may insist, is it fully understood. The longrange impli- hunting and gathering animal, man makes minimal cations of such tinker ings with ecological systems may demands upon the inanimate resources of the earth be crucialin the strongest sense of that term. In this and has relatively small impact upon the animate. 183 154 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION When environmental exploitation is limited to hunting public in this sense, it is clearly within the scope of gov- and gathering, however, only a very low population ernmental action. This in brief is the theoretical under- density can be sustained. To maintain high populations, pinning of environmental legislation. a pattern of more pervasive and intensive resource utilization must be developed. Our current industrial GOVERNMENTAL REFORM AND ENVIRONMENTAL practices impose very high demands upon resources. QUALITY VALUES, BELIEFS, AND THE ENVIRONMENT The political system of the U. S. evolved in a wilderness context and with low population densities. Those Values have been descr ibed as the selectors and reg- who were responsiblef or establishing and embellish- ulators of behavior. Thus, if one wishes a handle for an ing our political institutions developed a framework understanding of man's orientation toward his environ- highly conducive to rapid development. In the process, ment, he will be advantaged by insight into the values of however, there was little, if any, attention given to en- the men in question. While an appreciation of prevailing vironmental externalities. The right to a high quality values fails to grant deterministic analytic leverage, environment was lacking in the Bill of Rights. At this subjective insight should be enhanced. late stage of development its inclusion would be primarily symbolic. While the environment is global in one sense, human values are global in another, and everything cannot be Most acts which diminish the quality of the environ- covered. In brief, afocus is required. Bv restricting ment ( and hence lessen the quality of a public good) are our consideration to the relatively specific topic of discrete, are specific, and leave the actor at least mo- American orientations toward wilderness, the perspec- mentarily better off. Given the latter characteristic, tive should be manageable. Hopefully, given that Amer- there is little reason to expect strictly voluntary mod- ica was approached as pristine wilderness, our view ifications in behavior to improve circumstances unless should not be myopic. the structure of incentives is changed. POLITICS, POWER, AND ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY

While in" normal " times most people believe they BASIC READINGS can avoid all but ritualized participation in politic s ,the environment, in fact, impinges upon everyone at all 1. Anderson, Walt, Politics and Environment, Good- times. In reality so does politics. To understand the year, Pacific Palisades, California, 1970. social ;orces which influence patterns of environmental exploitation, it is essential to understand the politics in- 2. The Annals 389, May 1970. volved in the allocation of exploitation rights and responsibilities. 3. Caldwell, L. K. , Environment: A Challenge for Mod- ernSociety, Natural History Pr -ss, New York, New Political power is the ability to influence the out- York, September 1970. comes of social events. It may be defined as the capacity to modify the conduct of others. Within any society there 4. Ehr enfeld, David W. , Biological Conservation,Holt are differentials in the quantity and 3COpe of power held Rinehart, and Winston, New York, 1970. by persons. Politics involves the competition for this power. All societies are stratified as to the quantity and 5. Hardin, Garrett, Population, Evolution, and Birth the type of power held by persons within them. And, in Control, Freeman and Company, San Francisco, all societies this distributizm is patterned. That pattern California, 1969. may be referred to as the government of that society (and part of it The Government of that society ).Under all 6. Nash, Roderick, Wilderness and the American Mind, governments persons enjoy certain rights and hold cer- Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut,1967. tain obligations. As with power, these rights and obligations are also differentially allocated. At this point it is 7. Watson, R. A. ; Watson, P. J. , Man and Nature: An only reasonable to ask what bear ing a sketch of political Anthropological Essay in Human Ecology, Harcourt, theory holds for the environment. Brace, and World, New York, 1969. At virtually any point in history, everyone has wanted to be better off. " Better off " has always included ma- RECOMMENDED R EADINGS terial items and has always been evaluated in a context of scarcity and competition. Further, the production of 1. Ehrlich, Paul R; Ehrlich,Anne H., Population, Re- material items always involves environmental in puts sources, EnvironmentIssues in Human Ecology, and outputs. Thus, as persons strive to become better W. H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, Cali- off, e. g. , increase their production of mouse traps, they fornia, 1970. exert an environmental influence. But the effects of this influence are not entirely absorbed by the producing unit. 2, Graham, Frank Jr., Since Silent Spring, Houghton Their production involves spillovers (or externalities ) Mifflin Company, Boston, Massachusetts, 1970. into the environment. The environment may be considered as a type of public resource. Another name for a REFERENCE public resource is " public good. " Examples of public goods include roads, the provision of law and order, 1. Price, Don K. ,"Purist and Politicians, " ad- and national defense. Thus, it is clear t h at t h e dress before the American Association for the environmental externalities (or spillovers ) from pri- Advancement of Science 1969, Science, 1 6 3 : vate production affect a public good. And, if an issue is 25-31, January 3, 1969. A novel aid to undergraduate instruction in environmental biology.

A DEMONSTRATION OF ECOSYSTEM STRESS

R. A. Co ler and H. B. Gunner

THE T OXIC effects of pollutants have hitherto Mg pollution tolerant angiosperm (2). The most been largely assessed by their impact on individual casual scrutiny of these plants dramatically reveals target species or on artifically grouped populations. a spectrum of biological interactions. The under- Little is known, however, regarding the community side of leaves and roots teem with protozoa, rotifers, dynamics precipitated by a sustained low level stress, gastrotrichs, flatworms, nematodes, and crustaceans, and the multiple ramifications it may orchestrate over all vigorously striving for living space and food (see the entire aquatic community.In effect, this arises Figure 1). from the difficulty of observing the inherently un- wieldy total ecosystem. Further, the duckweed rhizosphere provides a readily accessible ecosystem whose constituent pop- This restriction has been recently obviated, how- ulations may be maintained, observed, and sampled ever, by the authors' resort to the rhizosphere mi- without violating the integrity of their microenviron- crobiocoenosis of duckweed (Lemna minor), a float- ment (4).By housing the plants in disposable tissue- culture flasks (see Figure 2), the authors havebeen FIGURE 1 able to mount the long term runs essential for tracing the subtle population shifts characterizing chron- RHIZOSPHERE POPULATIONS ( ROTIFERS AND ic toxicity (3, 4). The optically clear chambers per- FLATWORMS) ON UNDERSIDE OF LEMNA MINOR mit microscopic examination of Lemna without its removal, thus circumventing the ecological disrup- tion inherent in handling and desiccation.

FIGURE 2 A BANK OF TISSUE-CULTURE FLASKS

The authors are associated with the EnvironmentalTechnicians Training Program, Department of Environmental Sciences, Mershale Hall, University of Massachusetts, Amherst. Dr. Coler is Director of the Program.

165 156 ENVIRONMENTALEDUCATION This paper outlines a series of laboratory exper- experience consequently, supported by appropriate iments for an undergraduate environmental biology classroom lectures, will provide: course, adapting the above research tool to demonstrate the inter- and intraspecific dynamics of com- 1. A research perspective, petition, predation, applied stress, and succession. 2.An appreciation of the physiological and eco- Preliminary: logical response to actat, and chronic toxicity,

1.Take class to organically enriched, eutrophic 3. A degree of taxonomic competence. pond to collect duckweed and observe plant in natural habitat. In these times when the thrust generated to halt the exploitation of our resources is being dissipated 2.Transfer duckweed to Hutner's Culture Media by "bandwagoneering" politicians, attempts to im- (8) (previously prepared) and aerate at an illumina- plement corrective measures seem fated to flounder tion of 75-100 footcandles. in a morass of jargon.It would appear that an educational experience providing direction and perspec- 3,Allow populations to stabilize for 7 to 10 days. tive would be of value.

4.Have class, in the interim, familiarize itself with the biology of L, minor and the r hizospher e REFERENCES phenomenon (1,7, 9771, While the references 1 is ted offer a starting point, the students should be encour- 1. Alexander, M. ,Introduction to Soil Microbiolo , aged to search the literature. John Wiley andSons, Inc., New York, 1961, 47 pp. Exercise I.Construct chambers (2/student) 2. Coler, R. A. ; Gunner, H. B."The Rhizosphere charge each with 20 cc of fresh Hutner's medium and of an Aquatic Plant (Lemna minor)," Canadian stotAt with ten uniform plants'(5). Journal of Microbiology, 15:7.378)964-966, 1969. Exercise II.Using standard taxonomic keys (6, 3. Coler, R. A. ; Gunner, H. B. , "The Response or 10), instruct students to familiarize themselves with a Specialized Aquatic Ecosystem, the Duckweed dominant rhizosphere populations.Depending on stu- Rhizosphere, to Selected Environmental Influenc- dent competence, limit the inventory to protista o r es," Water Research, in press, 1970. metazoa, and the identifications to order or to family level designations.Each student must record identi- 4. Coler, R. A. ; Gunner, H. B. ,"Laboratory Meas- fications and copulation densities every day upon his ure of an Ecosystem Response to a Su stain ed instrtntor's preliminary confirmation of identifications. Stress," Applied Microbiology, in press, 1970. The instructor will compile a checklist, distribute 5. Coler, R. A.; Gunner, H. B."Pesticide-induced it among the class, and designate which flasks willbe Population Changes in an Aquatic Rhizosphere," controls, which will be experimentals, and which will Bacteriological Proceedings, p. 18, 1970. be discarded because of atypical community composition.For each concentration there should beat least 6. Edmondson, W.T.(ed.), Fresh-Water Biology, one replicate. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1959, 1248 pp. Exercise III.Expose rhizosphere biota to a s e- 1. Hillman, W. S. , "The Lemnaceae, or Duckweeds. lected stress (oil, pesticides, detergents, etc.) grad- A Review of the Descriptive and Experimental Lit- uating the concentrations at intervals of ten from (for erature, " Botanical Review, 27:221-287, 1961. example) 1 ppm. to 100 ppm. (3,4).Tally resident biota every other day the first week, and once a week 8. Hutner, S. H., "Comparative Physiology of Heter- thereafter. otrophic Growth in Plants, " in Loomis, W. E. (ed. ), Growth and Differentiation in Plants, Iowa State Exercise IV.After 2 or 3 months collate accumu- College Press, Ames, 1953. lated data with each student tabulating, graphing, and summarizing his results. A discussion shouldfollow 9. Katznelson, IL , "Nature and Importance of the in which the biological response to the poison is re- Rhizosphere," in Baker, K. F. ; Snyder, W. C. viewed. The basis for grading will reflect his ability (eds.), Ecology of Soil-borne Plant Pathogens, to accumulate, interpret, and present meaning- University of California Press, Berkeley, pp. 187- ful. data. 209, 1965. Because the instructor can exercise many options, 10. Pennak, R. W. , Fresh-water Invertebrates of the the laboratories may be readily tailored to the in- UnitedStates,Ronald press Co., New York, 1953, terests and potential of each student. The laboratory 769 pp.. The story of unique developments ut The University of Wisconsin Green Bay.

A WHOLE UNIVERSITY GOES ENVIRONMENTAL

Edward W. Weidner

WE ARE in the midst of an ecological crisis. ments of our existence, except perhaps in a techno- City and countryside are spoiled.Air andwater are logical sense.But we zx e rediscovering that appli- polluted.Everywhere we look, man's abuse of his cation of the old truths to therealities of our environ- environment is evident. The accelerating public mental situation may quite literally be the pr ice of our awareness of this crisis is all to the good. Without survival. such awareness there would be no hope of mobilizing the great concentrations of resources and manpower To turn from general philosophy to specific ex- that are going to be required to save us from world- ample, consider what we are trying to do at the Uni- wide environmentacalamity. versity of Wisconsin-Green Bay (UWGB). Our mission is to create a new kind of educational institution, Few if any of us, however, can have any accurate a university designed specifically to respond to the concept of the effort, the ingenuity, the determina- needs of an era which has as its dominant concernthe tion, and the cost that will be required to translate Preservation and improveme-It of environmental qual- this awareness into 'ffective action in support of en- ity for all men. vironmental quality. The reason is that we are dealing with a situation that requires us to abandon or UWGB may be the only university in the country to substantially modify certain attitudes and beliefs that be planned from its inception as an institution con- have been a part of our conventional wisdom for gen- sciously focusing in all of its parts on problems of erations, even for centuries. To mention a single the environment. Although our academic plan with its and extremely troublesome example, there is the pervasive ecological emphasis became operative only problem of population control. Ito ramifications reach last fall, its formulation began 3 years earlier, long into every area of our lives, including the most per- before the public at large had awakened to the seri- sonal.If basic changes in our individual and societal ousness of the ecological crisis.This fact is citedto attitudes in this area are to be made, we face an ed- emphasize that our plan is not a patchwork strategy ucational task that dwarf's anything we have accom- thrown together in hasty response to a popular outcry plished in the past. The size of the task is amplified for "doing something about the environment." Natu- by the limited time we have to accomplish it. rally we welcome the outcry and the concern that motivates it, but, had it nut occurred at this particular While population control may be the single most time, we would still have been embarked on precise- difficult problem we must face in the immediate fu- ly the course we are now following. ture, there are others not far behind it in magnitude and complexity. Some problems, such as war and Obviously there was a certain amount of foresight poverty, are very old, and may not at first glance involved in our planning, but it was foresight for which appear to be environmentally relevant.But we are no single individual or small group of individuals can beginning to see such social phenomena in a new con- take credit.Our plan, which is still evolving, rep- text, as contributing to and being affected by ecolog- resents the collective contribution of hundr gds of per- ical factors.Conceivably, this new way of viewing sons, including not only educators and scholars from old problems could lead us to solutions not apparent throughout the country, but many of the business and before.For one thing, the ecological view does em- Professional men, political leaders, and other citi- phasize the inescapable relatedness to all of us witht zens of Wisconsin and its neighboring states-and, of each other and of man and his works as a whole with course, our students as well.Full credit must go, the biophysical environment that produces and sus- also, to former University of Wisconsin President tains life.In this statement, obviously, there are Fred Harvey Harrington and his staff at Madison, to echoes of the great religious and philosophical con- the Board of Regents of TheUniversity of Wisconsin, cepts that: form the heart of our cultural heritage. to the state's Coordinating Council for Higher Educa- We are not discovering new truths about the require- tion, and to the Legislature, for their c o Ile ctive

Dr. Weidner is Chancellor of The University of Wisconsin -Green Bay.

167 158 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION willingness to consider, approve, and fund a new in- involved for virtually all faculty members, most of stitution that departs radically from the established whom have themselves been trained rigorously within patterns of public higher education. particular disciplines and have become accustomed to functioning within traditional departments. We be- Om s is a university with all its curriculums de- lieve that this relearning process can best be carried signed 'to encourage preserving and enhancing en- out in a new institution that has deliberately structur- vironmental quality and ecological balance." Our ed itself along lines that encourage the intermingling objective is not to train narrow specialists, but to of disciplines within relatively broad environmental extend a broad general education focused on environ- problem areas. At UWGB disciplines and professions mental quality to all students, regardless of th e ir are secondaryecological problems are primary. In fields of specialization or their professions. To at- faculty hiring and faculty organization, there is little tain this end, certain requisites are evident. concern with the field of a professor's PhD. There is much concern with the kinds of ecological prob- First, fundamental to our program at UWGB is the lems on which he wishes to focus, along with stu- conviction that our mission can be accomplished only dents and members of the community.Both the pri- in concert with the people of our region as they act mary mode of faculty organization and the primary through their business and industrial enterprises, contours of a :itudent's program are determined along professional organizations, and governmental and pan-disciplinary and ecological problem lines. voluntary agencies. We have already established a variety of community advisory committees that reg- At UWGB a student selects an environmental prob- ularly provide counsel and stimulation for our sever- lem that forms the center of his intellectual interests. al colleges and campuses and for the university as a It may be a problem of the biophysical environment whole. The commun.., joins us on the campus and such as environmental control in regard to air, wa- we of the campus join the rest of the community off ter, land, natural resources, or environmental en- the campus in mutual learning experiences. gineering; it may be a problem associated with the social environment such as urban decay, regional Second, environmental problems do not recognize planning, or the modernity process; it mFy be a fo- political boundaries. Most such problems may be locus on population dynamics, nutrition, and the r e cal in origin, but they affect entire regions that are source-population ratio, or the effect of environment defined in part by natural features and in part by man- on human development; and it may be an emphasis made features. Our region is the Upper Great Lakes on human identity and its many diverse aspects as area. We see ourselves as being in a position to play human beings are propelled into communication and a unique role in focusing the attention and the efforts of action. If none of the formally stated ecological prob- students, professors, and other citizens on environ- lems satisfystudent, he is invited to formulate his mental problems that are regional, and even extra-re- own environmental problem on which to concentrate. gional, in extent. In developing this regional role, we could be establishing a prototype for other institutions. The environmental problem then becomes the central point of relevance for the student's problem. He Third, the ecological crisis is not one that hass chooses courses in the various disciplines and the been brought on primarily by lack of scientific and various professions that contribute to thinking, prob- technological knowledge. The crisis is rooted in at- lem-solving, and decision-making in regard to the titudes that have allowed all of us, in our birs+ness, particular environmental problem. Thus chemistry, industrial, domestic, and recreational activities, to art, secondary school teaching, and psychology all do things that have had a cumulative and massive de- of a sudden come alive.They are means to asocial grading effect on our environment. The great need end. They relate one to another, as well as to the is for a new set of attitudes that will enable us coup- environmental problem. The world outside theuni- eratively to apply to the improvement of the environ- versity is just as relevant to a student's learning ob- ment the scientific and technological knowledge that jectives as the world of books and classroom mate- is available to us.This is the objective of the gen- rials inside the university.Choices of off-campus eral education element of our university work. experiences and on-campus community lecturers are consequently made with this test of relevance in mind. Fourth, there is widespreadrecognitibn today that The theme of man and his environment must not the traditional organization of educational institutions become just a fad, not just a fancy "add-on" to per- into narrow disciplinary departments is not well suit- mit a university to appear contemporary or to assist ed for mounting an educational effort directed to the it in attracting outside funds.Rather, this theme solution of environmental problems. Is immuch easier, must take its place as a fundamental aspect of the however, to recognize these organizational defects curriculum of every university that seriously con- than to change them. There is a relearning process cerns itself with the future of mankind.p

168 A pioneer college instrumentality for environmental ,teaching, research, and extension.

THE WILLIAMS CENTER FOR ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Andrew J. W. Scheffey

THE CENTER for Environmental Studies was matchi 1g grant under Title I of the Higher Education established at Williams College in October 1967 as Facilities At of 1965 to expand the pilot program of an interdepartmental research and educational f a- continuing e lunation sponsored by the Berkshire Panel cility with three central objectives: for the Public Environment.Additional funds are now being sought to sustain this phase of the Center's off- To provide a f ocal point f or undergraduate teach- campus activity. ing and faculty research in the environmental field. ACTIVITIES To relate the academic resources of Williams Substantial progress has been made toward each College to planning and development needs of sur- of the three program areas identified above: envi- rounding regions. ronmental education at the undergraduate level; environmental research and education focused on prob- To build a body of factual knowledge and profes- lems of the surrounding region; hinterland study and sional understanding of environmental issues devel- analysis. oping in the metropolitan hinterland regions of the Nation-those areas extending 50 to 150 miles beyond Undergraduate Education major urban concentrations, now experiencing profound changes in land use, population distribution, In February 1970 faculty approval was received for and institutional relationships. a coordinate program of environmental studies at Wil- liams College, to become operative in 1970-71. Under STRUCTURE AND ADMINISTRATION this new program, students majoring in regular departmental disciplines will have the option of select- Since its inception, the Center has operated un- ing environmental studies as afield of special emphasi. der policy guidance provided by the Provost's Coor- The program is structured around a core of six courses. dinating Committee for Environmental Studies.In Three newly-designed courses in introductory ecology, addition to the Provost of the College, this commit- economics, and planning will be required of all stu- tee includes department heads representing each of dents.Non-science majors will elect one additional the three major Divisions of the College, the Director course dealing with either the geological or physical of the Center, and several Faculty Associates of the science aspects of environment, while science ma- Center. The present Director of the Center holds a jors will elect a comparable course dealing with en- joint appointment in the Departments of PoliticalSci- vironmental issues within the framework of one of the ence and Economics. The Assistant Director holds social sciences. an appointment in Political Science, andfaculty members from the Departments of Economics, Biology, These four courses will be pr er equ 'site \ to a and Art have part-time appointments as Faculty As- junior-level seminar coordinated through the Cen- sociates of the Center. These positions are funded ter and conducted jointly by faculty representatives in part through the Center's budget, and this pattern from the departments of biology, economics, polit- will be expanded in the future to include additional ical science, art, and psychology.Entitled Per - departmental representation. spectives on Environmental Analysis, the seminar will approach the topic of environment as an area of One full-time Research Associate is attached to synthesis, examining the contributions and limita- the Center staff, with major responsibility for ad- tions of various modes of analysis.During the se- ministration of the Berkshire Panel for the Public nior year each student will elect one additional course Environment.Consultants have been engaged from in his own department directly related to his partic- time to time for special projects. ular interests in environmental studies. Allstudents will then participate in a senior-level seminar, En- FUNDING vironmental Planning and Policy, focusing on current In November 1967 the Center received an 18 -month planning and decision-making alternatives at the re- planning grant from the Rockefeller Foundation to as- gional, national, and international levels. sist in formulating long-term program goals and in The coordinate program in environmental studies defining research and educational projects. A subse- is not designed to train specialists, or even to pro- quent Rockefeller Foundation grant of $200,000 in 1969 vide pre-professional education.It's purpose is to will permit fuller development of these activities over give each student a common basis of understanding the next 3-5 years.Williams College provides sup- for perceiving environmental issues, and for appre- port for staff, secretarial services, and officefacil- ciating the interrelationships among different envi- ities.In October 1968 the Center received a $75,000 ronmentally-related discf panes and professions. The

Dr. Scheffey is Director of theCenter for EnvironmentalStudies, Williams College, Williamstown, Massachusetts.

169' 160 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION flexibility inherent in the program will enable each diversify its membership, and to involve greater citi- individual to follow his own interests through addi- zen participation in policy formulation through a re- tional elective courses, and through the Winter Study structuring of the Steering Committee. The source Program, a month of independent student research of financing to date has kept the Panel in close linkage and field study offered between semesters. with the Williams Center.Outside funding, both public and private, would help to widen the base of public The coordinate program will be directed by an Ad- support, and to integrate the Panel concept morefully visory Committee attached to the Center and c o n - into the Berkshire environment. sisting of student and faculty representatives. Ad- ditional opportunities for relating this program t o Hinterland Research special interests of individuals, including participa- The countryside research interests of the Williams tion in research projects of the Center, will become Center reflect its geographical location. Northwestern available in the future. An experimental "Williams Massachusetts, like much of New England, is exper- in the City" course, involving a semester and sum- iencing the environmental pressures and trends taking mer-long off-campus period of study, will provide shape in metropolitan hinterland areas throughout the another educational opportunity:(or exploring related Nation. Therefore we have looked upon Berkshire environmental interests.Library resources and County not only as a region toward which the College reference files are being established to support these has a compelling corporate responsibility, but as a programs. laboratoryfor education, teaching, and research. Var- The Berkshire Panel ious activities have been initiated in recognition of these needs and opportunities. In the spring of 1968 the Centc.i., working with the Office of the County Commissioners, took steps to In October 1968 the Center sponsored a major re- establish the Berkshire Pane:for the Put lic Environ- gional conference on The Corporation and the Environ- ment, an environmental research and educational ment, designed to highlight ways in which corporate venture sponsored cooperatively with three county- decisions are affecting the landscape of New England. wide organizations: the Berkshire Development Com- The conference was sponsored in cooperation with the mission, the Berkshire Regional Planning Commis- New England Governor's Conference, the New England sion, and the Berkshire Natural Resources Council. River Basins Commission, and the New England Re- For 2 years the Panel has functioned as a forum for gional Commission. It was attended by corporate ex- discussion and analysis of selecl:ed planning and de- ecutives, government officials, professional planners, velopment issues affecting the quality of environment emironmentalists, and academic representatives. A in Berkshire County. report published by the Center summarizes the conclusions of the conference and its recommendations An original membership of 40 citizens has r e - for followup activity. These recommendations are cently been expanded to 75, representing a spread of now being considered by the Center. interests and professional areas: utilities, housing development, banking, industry and trade, preser- 0A proposal for a Williams College Summer Insti- vation and conservation, governmental agencies, and tute on the Countryside has been drawn up and circu- private landowners.Policies are established by a lated for comment and criticism.This would involve steering committee representing agency, governmen- a consortium of academic institutions in this country, tal, and private interests. The Panel has operated Canada, and Europe, and would provide a formal ed- largely through 1-day seminars based upon bac k - ucational opportunity for planners in private practice ground papers and research reports prepared by Cen- and with public planning agencies. ter associates and task force groups appointed f or special projects.Various environmental issues have A preliminary consideration is being given to the been selected by the Panel for consideration: o pen format and funding of a graduate- level liberal arts pr o- land taxation policies; highway planning procedures; gram designed for senior government officials seeking solid waste disposal; vacation home development; wa- broadened understanding of environmental policy and ter resource planning; conservation education; public planning issues, especially those of a non-urban na- attitudes toward the environment. An 18-month Title ture. I matching grant of $75,000 has enabled the Panel to A study is being made of the feasibility of a quasi- expand its research program in cooperation with fac- public development corporation capable of assembl- ulty members from Williams College, North Adams ing small tracts of property for development under State College, and Berkshire Community College. strict environmental standards, planned in coopera- The Panel concept is still in a formative stage. Al- tion with regional planning authorities, private finan- though it has functioned essentially in an education& cial interests, and academic consulting teams. capacity, stimulating communication and r eg ional awareness among diverse and frequently conflicting The Center is cooperating with the New England environmental interests, some of its membership be- Center for Continuing Education and the Conserva- lieves that it should pursue a more activistrole. This tion Foundation in a comprehensive survey of envi- could mean developing the Panel as a sounding board ronmental programs in New England colleges and for development proposals and planning alternatives; universities, particularly those geared to problems as an instrument for regional policy review and co- of the rural or hinterland landscape. ordination; as a legislative watchdog; as a model for In the Fall of 1970 the Center for Environmental a new f orm of r egional environmental authority. While Studies and the Center for Development Econom- the Berkshire Panel has been a pilot operation, most ics at Williams College cosponsored a working con- would agree that it is fulfilling an important need with- ference, Economic Development and Environmental in the region.Efforts are now being made to provide Problems, dealing explicitly with the ecological im- greater outreach thr oughout the county, to broaden and plications of international development. Preparing teachers to deal with environmental factors.

OUTDOOR EDUCATION, DAYTON STYLE

Simon J. Chavez

' AMERICANS seem to go from one massive cussions, reports, poems, letters, or committee movement to another. Today the call to action is meetings. Any behavioral modification that will re- environmental factors. As is usual with any crisis, sult from this approach is dubious. !here is a demand that something must immediately done to repair overnight those conditions that have What is needed is a closer association with reality - the reality that cannot be found inside the school building. deteriorated for decades. Education must make room f or outdoor education. Those who have worked for conservation are ob- This calls for provisions for children to learn from viously elated with this sudden awakening. Imme- reality itself.It calls for a system of learning that diate action is called for. Yet there should be a is basal on experience, on inquiry, on discovery, and realization that scotch tape or bailing wire is inade- on analysis.It is a system that involves the whole quate to correct the problem.Pollution is too com- child; his affective, physical, cognitive, and aesthet- plex to be solved by incantations or governmental ic naturP.It calls for teaching outdoors. edicts.Pollution has been an element in the Amer- ican way of life. To reverse this tr end requires How do you teach outdoors? How do you maintain modification in our way of living, in our way of think- discipline? How do you pr escribe what the child needs ing, in our sense of values. to repeat in order to pass a test? How do you make sure he covers the right things? These questionsre- This is a problem for education.It is a problem veal the need for proparation since a teacher is likely that requires observation, diagnosis, interpretation, to need help to teach outdoors.It is doubtful that he experimentation, and evaluation.It requires pro- received such help in preservice preparation. grams in the slow and tedious process of modification of behavior.It requires that individuals give To provide this type of preparation an exploratory reflective thought to redefining who they are and how program was conducted in the 1969-70 school year they became the type of person they are. by the University of Dayton and the Outdoor Education Center of Antioch College in Yellow Springs. A total The problem of environmental factors is not one of 20 elementary education students volunteered for in which the environment is a problem. On the con- this program. They spent 5 weeks of their ctudent- trary, it is the person that has become a problem to teaching experience at the Outdoor Education Center. the environment, and consequently a problem to him- The success of their involvement is best reflected in self.It is essential that the learner be helped to see the fact that there were six volunteers in September. what effect he has on the environment that surrounds The number soared to 13 for the term beginning in him and to understand his role in the balance of nature. January.Surprisingly, none of the volunteers deserted on that first morning in January when the ther m om- But education is not presently equipped to deal eter skidded to 9 below with a chill factor of 35 below. with this problem. School has become an escape fr om In all fairness to the women's liberation movement, reality.Because of increasing industrialization, the it must be stated that all of the first 20 volunteers experiences offered by the school have become more were women. vicarious and more abztract. More of the child' s time is devoted to verbalism, the talking, reading, These students devoted the entire semester to stu- or listening experiences that for the child exist only dent teaching.The first 5 weeks were spent at Glen Helen Outdoor Education Center, and the remaining 10 in books.It must also be noted that their teachers are prepared to deal only with these verbalistic types weeks were spent in a classroom in the city of Dayton. of verbalization.If this is the way they are prepared, we can consequently expect that the problem of en- The first week at Glen Helen was devoted to in- vironmental pollution will be handled through d is - service education. The director of the center, Harry

Dr. Chavez is Chairman, Department of Elementary Education, Schoolof Education, University of Dayton, Ohio. l'1L 162 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

Feldman; the educational leader, Steve Kress; and exile food for hawks, owls, and foxes.They Login the staff of teacher-naturalists introduced the stu- to examine the effects of detergents and wastes in dents to the world of outdoor science and inquiry. In the river. You can sense their beginning recognition each of the succeeding weeks the student teachers as- of the interdependence of plants and animals. You sumed increasing responsibility for teaching some of begin to see in their eyes an emerging respect f or the elementary school pupils. the sanctity of life. It should be pointed out, by way of clarification, As the children work and live together, changes that Glen Helen is a 1,000-acre tract of landthat has in their social behavior become evident. The pr reverted to its primitive stage. The center, be- gram facilitates sharing of hunches, suggestions for quethed to Antioch College, by a donor, is dedicated to procedures, and pooling of findings and interpretations. use as a land laboratory. Each week a group of approx- Inquiries that begin outdoors are extended to searches imately 60 childrenfron: one of the nearby s c hoo Is in books back at the lodge, all in order to share findings comes to live and learn at the center. There is a diff - with the group. Even the teacher is perceived in a new er ent group eachweek, rain or shine, fort h e entire light.For example, one group was heard to observe, school year. Usually there are two classes of sixth "I didn't know our teacher could smile." graders, each accompanied by their homeroom teacher. This is the sating that awaited the student-teach- At the center the children are divided into groups ers. Each one joined a group with a teacher-natural- of 10 or less for small group instruction. Each small ist.Since the children changed every week, the stu- group is assigned to one of the teacher-naturalists. dent-teacher was ably: to try out different techniques, Instruction begins with teacher-pupil planning, as to notice their effectiveness, and to make refinements each group decides what is to be done to explore the with the next group. A common remark was, "If I topic chosen. The is a wide range of choices deal- made a mistake with one group, I could change f or ing with different biotic communities, geologicalfac- the next group and nobody remembered how I had tors, balance of nature, social factors, and astronomy. `goofed' before," Having made their plans, the groups proceed to Another significant advantage felt by the student- different parts of the Glen for unstructured inquiry. teachers was the freedom of social interaction.In It could be the pine forest, thicket, deciduous forest, the free unstructured atmosphere, they got to know meadow, pond, river bank, cascades, or the old In- each child by noon of the first day. And they knew dian mound. In any case, children are given the op- each one as a person! portunity to experience, sense, and inquire.f he teacher-naturalist is trained to encourage question- The student-teachers were unanimous in evaluating, hypothesizing, verifying.He is by no means a ing the outdoor education experience as invaluable in walking encyclopedia that answers pupils' questions. initiating them into teaching.When they reported to On the contrary, he 7111 usually answer a question the city classroom, they brought withthem knowledge by asking another question, forcing the pupil to probe and skills in science that had immediate application. further, to make "hunches." These skills provided them with a status that was far above that of "student-teacher." In most instances, An example of this is the study of soil.Teacher- they were able to apply the same techniques of in- pupil planning begins when the teacher asks what is quiry that they had used at Glen Helen. soil? Is all earth soil? Are there differences in soil? How can we discover differences? Armed withdbde Another outstanding benefit that the student-teach- cups, the group proceeds to various locations where ers enjoyed was the opportunity to associate and work comparisons are made, by feeling, smelling, seeing, with students and graduates of other colleges. and even tasting.It includes observing and making hunches about the relationships of soil to plants and The group of universit: students that were in this animals.It becomes an experience in "reading" re- program are among the most dedicated to the study ality, discovering its nature, and in making inter - of environmental factors. They have acquired the pr etations. attitudes, insights, and inquiry skills that are needed to deal with environmental problems scientifically. The b.e.havior of the pupils changes noticeably from In addition, they have gained the competence to alert day to day. They become more scientific by being school youngsters to study the problems and to gain scientific.Their sense perception sharpens as they a desirable outlook for their environment. The par- detect the distinctive sounds of the forest, chatter- ticipating students felt that this w as an answer to ing of the squirrel, warning sound of t he different their demand for relevance in their education.All of birds, distant call of the turtle dove or hooting of a sudden, they were dealing with reality. They could an owl. They begin to notice the change of the land see and feel behavioral modification. It wasfar more from meadow to thicket to forest. They study the than making a poster or carrying a banner .They evidence of the web of life as they see the plants be- were involved in the very basic elements of a1 if e come food for mice and rabbits, which in turn be- problem..

172 Translating legislationintoactiononthelane.

REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION CENTERS

TheEditor

THE APPEARANCE in the halls of Congress open space acquisition, wildlife conservation, high- of various bills providing for federal finding for en- way beautification, urban sprawl, and so on.But vironmental education affords an opportunity for the substantial areas of our choicest landscapes contin- development of new concepts and new facilities aim- ue to approach a state of perturbation which will be ed at inculcating that mass conservation literacy nec- difficult if not impossible to correct at reasonable essary to energize the public and private quest for cost and within reasonable time limits. ecological survival. We are figuratively and literally sick and tired of One such approach would establish on appropriate what Eric Sevareid has called "t he mis-develop- university campuses Environmental Education Cen- ment of America," a degradation of our environ- ters that will focus on the problem of translating re- ment that diminishes daily the quality of the human source management policies and plans into action on experience: water pollution; air pollution; soilero- the landscape through (a) the collo tion of information sion; forest, range, and wetland deterioration; wan- about, and the preparation of practical materials on, ing wildlife; urban sprawl; preempted open spaces; restoring the quality of the environment, (b) infor- vanishing wilderness; landscapes scarred by high- mal instruction and technical assistance carried out ways, litter, noise, and blighta not-so-quiet cri- directly to local governments, regional instrumen- sis of decreasing beauty and increasing contamina- talities, and citizen groups, (c) the refresher edu- tion that threatens not only the pursuit of happiness cation of key practitioners brought back to the campus but life itself. for work in natural resource policy implementation, and (d) research in adult education theory and p:ac- To do something about environmental quality con- tice. Growing national programs of environmental servation, redevelopment, and maintenance requir- management depend increasingly on state and local es a sense of husbar.dry, a sense of responsibility initiative and responsibility."The problem of the on the part of every American citizenthat man-land states" as Life magazine said in a recent editorial, ethic or "ecological conscience" about which Aldo "is not lack of power or opportunity or even solely Leopold bespoke.It is unthinking people who pollute of money; it is a shortage of competent public ser- the environment; it is thinking people who can effect vants. " The proposed Environmental Education Cen- a "new conservation": in the words of former Pres- ters would tackle the problem directly by upgrading ident Johnson, to restore as well as to protect, to such key community leaders as planners, lawyers, bring beauty to the cities as well as to keep it in the resource specialists, adult educators, communica- countryside, to handle the waste products of tech- tors, teachers, and public administrators, and by nology as well as the waste of natural resources, to reinforcing them with improved educational materials halt the massive deterioration in the American en- and professional consultation.The Centers would vironment, to husband those resources and ameni- also be concerned with adult-education-and-commu- ties which are inextricably linked not only to economic nications research. prosperity but to the inner prosperity of the human spirit. THE PROBLEM THE LIMITING FACTOR The degradation of our surroundings and the resulting need to protect and enhance the quality of our What is the bottleneck? Why do we continue to environment is increasingly entering the conscious- have serious trouble translating federal intentions ness of Americans.Legislative bodies at all levels and state plans into timely, sound action on the land? of government, public agencies, and private groups One answer would certainly seem to be that it is only are seeking to halt pervasive pollutions brought about at the local and regional level that public policies by multiplying man and disappearing land. New fed- can be translated into public and private practices, eral and state agencies have come into existence, and and it is at the intrastate level where the forces of significant federal and state funds have been made wise resource management continue to be ill-equip- available for attacks on water pollution, air pollution, ped to deal with the forces of exploitation. The

Prof, Schoenfeld is Chairman, The Center for Environmental Communication and Education Studies, Director of Summer Sessions, and Professor of Journalism and Wildlife Ecology, The University of Wisconsin, Madison. 164 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION inefficiency with which public agencies and private in biology, design, soils, economics,, geology, en- citizens go about performing the socially essential gineering, ecology, sociology, public administra- tasks of environmental housekeeping stem largely tion, journalism, education, law, and otherwi- from the fact that the technical and organizational ronmental disciplines applicable to land-use issues. skills available to the land conserver o r rational Their extension function would be the collection and planner are normally inferior to those available to collation of what is known, whathasbeen done, what the land exploiter. is being done, and what might be done; the preparation of educational materials, utilizing a variety of While we do not, of course, yet understand all the media; and the dissemination of information and scientific facts and societal values attendant to en- technical counsel to local governments and citizen vironmental quality control, what we do know is not groups through institutes, audio and visual media, being applied on a scale commensurate with the pres- and consultation. The team will be encouraged to ent pace of environmental pollution.At the local and work with maximum speed and practicality, yet with regional level, where most of the decisions affecting intellectual breadth so that the environmental care- the quality of the environment are made, we must ad- takers on the receiving end develop a sound view of dress ourselves firmly to laying a basis for action by the interrelatedness of decisions affecting the envi- elucidating the choices in land and water use, relat- ronment and of the immense complexity of human ing them to general values and social objectives, in- needs that must be reconciled and met. stilling in people a desire for constructive change, and providing practical guidelines that encompass in- At the same time, the Center would provide fel- tegrated rather than unilateral approaches. lowships for practicing change agents to come to the campus for a year of study focused on the practical AN APPROACH problems faced by those trying to plan, acquire, maintain, and manage lands and waters for public The urgency of need will not be met through edu- purpose.These professionals would take regular cational processes of normal pace an d dispersion. courses and special interdisciplinary seminars, and What is needed now, and for some time to come, is would also perform research duties in the Center. a steady stream of specific skills and resources rifl- Appropriate degrees could be awarded to qualified ed to the local and regional firing line. We need lo- personnel. cal leaders equipped with an understanding of the interrelationships involved between their callings and A PROGRAM total environmental management, and with a knowledge of the "tools of the trade" in energizing la nd The specific program of a Center would be or- and water use controls. ganized under the following major thrusts: To begin to develop and equip a cadre of local re- 1.Development of Educational Materials. source management leaders, it will be helpful to con- Assembling available knowledge and know - centrate on Mose individuals at the local and regional how, feeding in the latest knowledge, and level who typically do or can play the role of "change preparing manuals, brochures, film strips, agents" in conservation.Four such categories of case studies, technical guidelines, articles, key personnel can be identified: (a) layers, (b) plan- slides, syllabi, and other communications ners and administrators, (c ) field resource techni- devices. cians, and (d) communicators and educators. 2.Informal Education and Technical Services There is an acute shortage of competent person- in the Field. nel with legal skills related to land and water use. Local and regional conferences and institutes, There is an acute shortage of planners and admin- cadres of consultants, use of the mass media, istrators with a grasp of natural resource policy im- short courses, public forums, study by mail. plementation.There is an acute shortage of fie Id biologists, foresters, hydrologists, park managers, 3.Resident Instruction. ag,Icultural agents, and so on with other than a nar- Refresher postgraduate education on campus row approach to the ecological and economic resourc- of selected environmental management prac- es over which they preside. And there is an acute titioners. shortage of mediz communicators, educators, and public relations men equipped to interpret resource 4.Research. problems in such a way as to achieve consensus rath- Such studies as: What is the nature of leader than conflict. ership in conservation, the nature of the conservationist, the nature of those w ho To train all such change agents and to equip them vandalize the environment? What is the key and their clientele with effective education-for-ac- that makes individuals feel and act as they tion materials and services would be a role of the do vis=a-vis the environment? the spark? Environmental Education Centers. The Centers would the environment? What is the force which also perform related research focused on improving motivates individuals? How best can w e their concepts and techniques. employ what modes and methods of adult education, formal and informal? How can A PLAN we enhance the role of such mass media as press, radio, television, bulletins, and Initially an Environmental Education Center would displays? assemble from the university and elsewhere as necessary a staff representing overall competence i n 5.Demonstration Sites and Model Programs. environmental problems, to include people trained In this role each regional Center would EDITOR 165 serve the surrounding area as inter- collecting, collating, and disseminating practical pretive and teaching facilities. guidelines to community organization and action in resource conservation. Each Center would also All aspects of the program would be mutually sup- bring to the campus for a year of advanced study porting.For example, as a part of their education- and practical work promising "change agents" from al regimen the environmental management fellows community and regional levels in such specialities as would be expected to assist in t he preparation o f law, planning, nubliz administration, resource man- utilitarian manuals and guides to community action; agement, education, and communications.Further, in turn, the university specialists going afield as en- each Center would engage in research in adult educa- vironmental management consultants would be ex- tion and communications as they relate to the quest pected to feed back to the instructional program for environmental quality. the dimensions of practical problems and emerging solutions. Both would engage in relate d research. IN SUMMARY Under emerging federal funding, then, what might A RATIONALE be envisaged is a series of University Environmental Education Centers that will focus an interdisciplinary Today issues of natural resource policy range thrust on educational research and the training of re- from the more traditional concern of resource scar- searchers, on professional management education of city to questions of preserving and enhancing the several types, on citizenship education, and on ex- qualitative aspects of life.Conflicts among compet- tension counseling and servicesin the classic man- ing resource demands are frequent and intense, and ner of the land-grant college. Whether we should en-- the choice of alternatives involves legal, economic, template such a Center in each state is a question social, administrative, technological, aesthetic, ec- fraught with academic, fiscal, and political consider- ological, and ethical considerations which must b e ations.Certainly we will need upwards of a score if encompassed in the decision-making process. At the we are to generate sufficient varied skills and resourc- local and regional level, where conservation problems es.Each Center need pot be identical.It would be find their ultimate focus, there is a great need for well if each reflected the ).articular strengths a n d leaders who can deal effectively and creatively with slants of its institution and the needs of its region. policy issues in all of their complexity, who are familiar with the tools of the trade in land and water use control, and who are reasonably adept at the en- Within the flexibility assured by installing Envi- gineering of public consent for translating plans into ronmental Quality Education Centers at universities action.While there is always the danger of super- which differ somewhat in ethos and structure, it will ficiality masquerading under the title of breadth, the be important that certain national priorities be achieved. essential role of this "change agent" at the local Among the key determinants of success in environ- level cannot be denied in the presence of massive ex- mental education, it is essential that each Center be tension of federal and state policy into new areas of multidisciplinary in its posture and multi-process in environmental planning and management. The im- its programs; unilateral approaches to environmen- plications for the nation's institutions of higher learn- tal management have caused many of our present ing are obvious.They must supply the technical as- problems. sistance andtrained personnel with which to overcome the current conservation gapoccurringbetween gross policies, no matter how enlightened, and timely ac- By multi-process, we mean a university program tion on the ground. concerned with the production of new knowledge and new knowledge-seekers, of more and better resource managers, of citizenship ei...teation, and of technical Those contending for environmental quality need counseling and services. What do we mean by multi- data to show that economically we can afford suc h disciplinary? We mean we are concerned with the surroundings and that biologically we cannot afford total environment of man: its social, cultural, eco- anything less.That information needs to be made nomic, and esthetic, as well as its physical and bio- applicable and available in localities where the prob- logical, aspects. To seek environmental quality re- lems exist and where the issues are fought. We have quires both an understanding of human needs and the need of not just more research but of bringing exist- needs of a healthy natural environment.The devel- ing techniques and existing skills to the service of opment and management of environmental quality re- communities on the front lines.Local leadership quires contributions by all the arts, sciences, a n d needs a point of focus for coordinated action.Lo- professions. The end is to bring conflicting forces cal leadership needs a fund of counsel a nd special into functional relationships in an order in which hu- talents on which to draw, in.luding the effective stim- man impact does not needlessly destroy environmen- ulus that would come from knowing the experience of tal quality and where environmental quality contribut- other leaders in other communities who have m e t es to more fruitful human life, liberty, and the pursuit and overcome some o; the common problems.Lo- of happiness. While we recognize the essential im- cal leadership needs a' infusion of new talent. portance of strengthening existing disciplines., the essential nature of environmental education looks toward research, teaching, and extension configura- The proposed Environmental Education Centers tions that transcend traditional lines of endeavor and would put together interdisciplinary teams of experts are concerned with the wholeness of the relationship in environmental management and charge them with between man and his surroundings.

4P.5 zeal zeal:041 Adageptato'teed V 9'eeed awe 9aetenv

I S THE OUTOFDOORS the optimum setting for environmental education? Many of us assume so, but I Gerald Schneider presented a different point of view at a recent conference on Man and Naturtein the City:"The naturalist may try to project his values on the urban child only to find those values rejectedbecause the child lacks the experiences on which to base transcendental values. " Certainly, in a heaving and tossing, lavender-plumbing world, some may very well seriously question, I suppose, the relevancy oft he outofdoors. Faced with an "environmental crisis" in every headline, can we continue to practice in good heart such cherished diversions as bird-watching and bass fishing? Do the voice of a meadowlark or the tug of a trout impart any message worthy of the hour? Are we simply engaged in a heedless escape from stress? Or is there in fact some significant meaning hidden in a summer day afield? I personally believe there are at least three valid reasons for the pursuit of outdoor experiences even in the face of the population-pollution syndrome. One is simply that outdoor recreation is indeed a re-creating experience. We have always felt instinctively that we need "fresh air," literally andfiguratively. Thatthe human animal demands an occasionalchange of pace and change of scene there is increasing scientific evidence. Arnold Toynbee has documented the phenomenon of withdrawal and return that has enriched the course of history. Bio- chemists have discovered alternating cycles of activity and quiescence in cellular affairs that are to b e denied only at the risk of health.Psychiatrists are using outdoor activities to calm and cure their patients. The teacher need make no apologies, then, if he takes to field and stream now and then. Hereturns abetter man, and his students with him. Exposure to the outofdoors can take on an inspirational dimension as well. Just as there are no atheists in foxholes, so are there no pessimists on spring hikes or fall drives. The resurrection of the April earth or the fire-dance of autumn impart a compelling recognition that change is a law of nature. True, a carpet of shooting stars, a congregation of warblers, a big moon over Blue Mound, even all of them together speak in a very still, small voice.What, indeed, is a June sunset in a day of space ships? And yet don't we really need, today as seldom before, something of the serenity and detachment that the outofdoors has to offer? We can use this intimation of eternity to route our jitters and clear our vision. But the real ecological justification for an occasional retreat to woods and waters is the opportunity it provides to acquire a perception of the oneness of our world. To partake of the natural processesby whichthe land and the living things upon it have achieved their characteristic forms and by which they maintain their existence, to become aware of the incredible intricacies of plant and animal communities, to sense the intrinsic beauty and the creeping degradation of the organism called Americato do these things is to learn the great less on : that there are no country problems that are not city problems, no problems of the inner core that are not problems of the open spaces, no local problems that are not world problems, no world problems that are not local problems, no problems of poverty that are not problems of affluence, no problems of crime in the streets that ar e not problems of conduct in the home; that insects, birds, fish, mammals, water, soil, wilderness, trees, plants, man, Washington, Vietnam, Harlem, and Weyewega are all part of the same schemea sort of intricately woven fabric.Snip one thread and the entire cloth begins to unravel; stitch up one tear and you begin to r e pair the whole. Joseph Wood 'Crutch said it so well: We need some contact with the thing we spring from. We need nature at least as a part of the context of our lives. Wielout nature we renounce an important part of our heritage. On some summer vacation or country weekend, we realize that what we are experiencing is more than merely arelief from the pressures of city life: that we have not merely escaped from somethingbut also into something; that we have joined the greatest of all communities, which is not that of man alone but of everything which shares with us the great adventure of being alive. I am not so naive as to suggest that every lathe operator with a spinning rod is a potential Thoreau, that every member of the Audubon Society is an Aldo Leopold in disguise, or that every delegate to a state conservation congress is lhomespun Albert Schweitzer. But I do proceed here on the assumption that exposure to the outofdoors, however casual or however intense, directly or vicariously, can be a door way to the ecological understanding of our utter interdependence with our environment and with life everywhere, to the development of a culture that will secure the future of an environment fit for life and fit for living, and to an appreciation of those American amenities that are inexorably linked not only to economic prosperitybut to the inner prosperity of the human spirit. How to bring about the same engendering of a broad ecological conscience haw, wide open spaces is one of the more intriguing aspects of environmental education.In this chapter we read of new learning experiences being developed in city jungles as well as in bucolic settings.

176 An assessmentof interpretive programs.

FULL DISCLOSURE IN ENVIRONMENTAL USE

Michael F. Brewer

THE NATURAL environment embraces us all. Casual observation suggests that the public a t Each of us is a component part of it; yet in our pro- large is indeed more sensitive to and informed about prietary aspirations each one of us often claims the environmental problems than in previous time s. environment for himself.These claims frequently Earlier concerns with natural resources manage- clash, as the use to which one individual puts his en- ment frequently were tied to particular types of environment creates a nuisance or becomes preemptive vironmental usewith emphasis upon i t s potential to another potential user.Because of these common contribution to national or regional economic growth. claims to the environment, and because in the long Questions about the adequacy of raw materials en- run the environment supports a 11 of mankind, i t s dowments, and potential bottlenecks to economic management is everybody's business.Privacy, se- growth which a "deficient" environment might pose crecy, and exclusiveness play little role in this the- have in the past been accorded highnational priority. atre of human endeavor, notwithstanding the heavy Contemporary concern now focuses upon issues of reliance placed on them for other types of manage- environmental preservation and restoration.Thus ment activiti s. one now finds problems of environmental pollution cited more frequently and vehemently than problems This public character of the environment poses associated with the adequacy of the environment to problems but also creates opportunities for manage- sustain economic growth. ment. Traditional notions of "efficient resource use" assume that individuals can acquire some degree of exclusive claims to resources (defensible underlaw), I believe this shift in outlook toward environmen- which provides adequate security to the entrepreneur tal matters has coupled with it significant overtones to elicit from him commitments of capital and labor. relating to strategies for public action.Our earlier This tradition and the legal fictions involved in mod- concerns with environmental issues frequently were ern concepts of property often are not in accord with debated and discussed by "experts" who, the gener- the inherent "public-ness" of our natural environment. al public assumed without serious question, were At an operational level, the public dimension of able to speak with authority about environmental de- the environment means that a viable management pro- ficiencies and their implications to society and its gram cannot proceed until it can muster broad public economy. Our contemporary concern with environ- support.It also means that governmental agencies mental quality opens the field to everybody. Con- with environmental management responsibilities can sensus on the social objectives f or environmental be forced to consider new management options if they management must emerge from debate by an inform- enjoy broad grass root support.This is especially ed public.To be sure technical information of a true when such support is institutionalized; and pri- rather complex nature still must be dealt with, but vate citizens are rapidly learning the proceduresfor dealt with now in ways in which the public at large institutionalization. can understand and through processes in which the public at large can participate.The recent effort to All of this suggests that the citizenry at large understand and pose solutions to chemical contami- plays an integral role in managing the environment, nation of the environment through organizations such and accordingly must be informed about its problems. as the Environmental Defense Fund, provides an il- It must perceive not only opportunities for the envi- lustration of such public participation. The now pop- ronment to contribute to human welfare, but a ls o ular topics of the "new conservation"-10ich places must clarify for itself social objectives for environ- primary emphasis on environmental quality noses mental use aid understand the consequences of man's major challenges to the processes of public eat.za- activities on the environment in light of those objectives. tion, information, and communication. Dr. Brewer is Vice President, Resources for the Future, Inc. , Washington, D.C.This paper i s a transcript of his remarks to the Institute in Communications for Environmental Management, The University of Wis- consin, Madison, August 6, 1969. 177 168 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION NEED FOR AND NATURE OF INTERPRETATION have been established, is it possible to assess various alternatives for purposive management on a compa- Rational assessment and critical choice on the rable basis.Finally, desired alternatives provide a part of today's public is often conspicuous by its ab- rallying point for public support and become candi- sence.These are emotional times for the citizens dates for action by governmental bodies.This entire of our country.Today's stage holds a new cast of chain of events, however, depends upon an effective characters who assemble and articulate their views job having been done in what we have defined as S. n - and emotions through eafferent and very formidable terpretationthat is, identifying problems, analyzing techniques of group organization and confrontations. them, and communicating the results to the relevant Their script reflects the veiled prospects of annihi- public. lation inherent in our technology, along with uninhib- ited demands for individual fulfillment. It is hardly CRITERIA FOR AN INTERPRETIVE PROGRAM surprising that the public at large (which I take to have an over-30 outlook on things) is confused, often gull- The job of interpretation requires an array of skills ible, and frequently disorganized in its thinking about in the form of staff and vehicles so the staff can com- the major challenges of our times. municate with the public.All of this costs money This economic reality forces us to ask whether the I think this is true for questions involving the qual- dollars involved in interpretive activities are efficiently ity of the environment along with other items on the utilized.If the benefits secured are less than t h e national agenda. Our perceptions tend to be domi- costs incurred, we are confronted with a net loss. nated by limited amounts of information, often con- veyed amid high emotion. Our concern lurches from To be more specific, as assessment of interpre- the excitement of sensing a problem's importance to tive programs must ascertain the following: the self- satisfaction of becoming advocates for par- 1,whether the interpretative effort has an appro- ticular programs of change, without the intellectual priate problem focus; exe...cise of exploring the problem's dimensions and 2.whether the program involves the correct mix identifying an array of possible solutions. This cha- of skills to efficiently carry out the full range otic way in which the average citizen finds himself of interpretive activities; and involved with many public matters may yield useful 3.whether the level of interpretive program (the therapeutic fallout, but I doubt that it is the most ef- aggregate amount of dollars spent) is appro- fective way of helping our society get on with the task priate. of moderating its affairs so that our natural environment can continue to yield a satisfying existence for FOCAL POINTS FOR INTERPRETIVE PROGRAMS its human inhabitants. Upon what aspects of the environment should in The concept of interpretation can help bring order terpretation focus? One way to respond to this ques- out of this chaos.Let's dwell for a moment on the tion is to indicate types of environmental problems meaning V the term. As I use it in these remarks, for which there is a need for interpretation.I would "interpretation" signifies three different things: (1) suggest that problems characterized by confusion or the identification of activities and processes which conflict regarding environmental quality objectives significantly affect the environment;(2) obtaining merit high priority for interpretation.This is a po- and analyzing information about these to ascertain tentially powerful way to clarify the spectrum of pos- cause-and-effect relationships which either degra- sible objectives to narrow the range of disagreement date or enhance environmental quality; and (3)com- by providing the public a common basis of fact in terms municating this information to the public and present- of which perception of the environment can be clari- ing a set of alternative actions which can modify those fied and goals can thereby be seen with greater pre- processes or their enviromental consequences. cision.As indicated above, the political process still may have to be relied upon to precipitate explicit man- Interpretation thus plays a basic role in coming to agement targets, but this process is greatly enhanced grips with environmental quality problems, although by removing spurious contentions and providing fac- it in itself cannot do the entire job. It stresses prob- tual information. lem identification, diagnosis, and the presentation of alternatives for improving the situation.It does not In actuality, the interpretative focus of a public agen- include an evaluation of these alternatives and the cy will not be without constraint.Individual agencies selection from among them of the particular course will require that the environmental problems their in- of action to be pursued. This must be accomplished terpretive programs address are consistent with their through activities, organizations, and techniques for overall mission.In illuminating these problems with reaching consensus that lie outside the domain of in- fact, and presenting alternative possibilities for action, terpretation. a reasonably full range of options should be identified. Too frequently in the past interpretive programs of Clearly any resolution of environmental difficulties public agencies have been little more than public re- involves ascertaining, measuring* and c o m pa r in g lations efforts designed to secure public support for values that may be entailed in the several manage- particular action programs. ment options available.Modification of existing environmental ,se may entail positive values to on e I would like to consider for a moment three gener- group and mgative values to another.Under these al categories of environmental problems, each of which circumstances it is necessary to obtain some read- I bLiieve is important and deserves attention so me ing of how these disparate values relate to each other. place within our interpretive effort. The first of these When the market fails to embrace these trade-offs, relates to the management of waste materials which as often is the case, it must be done throughtrans- are generated by production and consumption activi- actions of a "political" nature. Only when netvaluefi ties.These waste materials give rise to the familiar

178-c BREWER 169 pollution problems which have med national at- mental problems mentioned above entails rather dif- tention in recent years.The is needs to under- ferent issues and must deal with different types of stand that while waste materials are inevitably gen- information, we can generalize in some degree about erated by production and consumption activities, w e the type of interpretive skills which are required. have the technical capacity to reduce the net amounts First of all, there must be access to individuals well generated from particular activities, to alter the form grounded in the empirical nature of the human activ- in which waste materials are introduced to the envi- ities and processes which have substantial environ- ronment (liquid, gaseous, solid form ), to shift t he mental effects. This is critical ift he basic cause- location and timing of waste material discharge, and and-effect relationships are to be uncovered, and to alter the environment in ways that increase its as- especially if alternatives to the present practices are similative capacity.Thus, although waste materials to be identified. necessarily are a part of social and economic enterprise, we have a variety of mechanisms through which Next, there must be so me analytical capability we can manage these wastes.These management op- within the interpretation unit.Special information tions should be explored in defining and diagnosing a must be collected and analyzed in order to ascertain particular local pollution problem. Basically these the nature of environmental effects that ensue from are management problems. and the types of informa- present practices, and to analyze the extent of those tion and analysis whici relate to them-and whic h consequences, their susceptibility to c hang e, and eventually must be communicated to the public-are their relative significance. reasonably straightforward. Finally, one must nave in the interpretive program A second set of environmental problems w h ic h individuals who are capable of discerning the kinds needs to be illuminated through interpretive efforts of values that are relevant in assessing alternative peg tains to the patterns in which we occupy our nat- ways of interacting with the environment, as well as ural environment. Or the one hand excessive concen- individuals skilled in the techniques which c an be tration of production consumption activities produces employed to reveal those values. As indicatedear- problems of pollution, whereas a more dispersed pat- lier, the market mechanism frequently does not pro- tern may avoid them.Uncontrolled growth of urban vide reliable indicators of important values that ul- areas creates visual blight and economic loss through timately will decide the way we go .7bc.i.it managing irrational and haphazard patterns of land development. our environment.Under these circumstances, there On the other hand, residents in sparsely populated ar- must be skill and sensitivity on the part of the inter- eas-especially those rural areas which are losing pretive program in using group meetings, debates, population -often are provided public services through and public confrontation so that these values are in- a large number of small local communities which are deed revealed. hard pressed fiscally and often outmoded technically. The result is frequently inefficient (economics of scale This may seem like a tall order to an agency re- are not realized) and frequently causes environmen- cruiter who is anxious to establish an interpretive tal degradation by deficient sewer services, antiquat- program.Indeed, it is a tall order. However, we ed water systems, etc.The cause-and-effect rela- cannot get by with mediocrity if we are to effectively tionships involved in these problems are not quite so mobilize an informed public to actions which can es- familiar, nor are the various ways in which we may tablish and maintain a high quality environment f o r cope with them.Ultimately we must cope with them. ourselves and our descendants. Communities may find if awkward and difficult to pose questions relating to their maximum size, and indi- IS THE LEVEL OF PUBLIC INVESTMENT IN viduals accustomed to a local town or village may find INTERPRETATION ADEQUATE? the prospects of its elimination extraordinarily uncom- I have not made any tabulation of the investment fortable.Nevertheless, these are questions thatcall by local, state, and federal agencies in interpretive for public debate, and the values entailed in alternative programs. Clearly the total-whatever iti s-h a s lines of action need to be established. been growing over recent years.My personal judg- The third category of environmental problems re- ment is that probably the social returns to such in- lates to environmental preservation. How do we assess vestment still warrant additional expenditures for the scarcity and social value of scenic amenities, of interpretive efforts. rare species of wildlife, and of wild areas which are not scarred by access roads, and by the same token, are Although I cannot cite the marginal productivity not readily available to a general population which ap- of interpretative efforts, there are several trends pears less and less ambulatory? For this type of prob- which suggest to me that increased budgets are war- lem, the interpretive job is one of sensitizing the public ranted.One of these is the increasingfrequency with to the existence of amenities of Various sorts, and pro- which planning efforts are confronted with problems viding information on how amenities afford meaningful involving disparate goals and conflicting values. For insights into the physical and life processes of natural these types of problems, objectives must be consid- history and into human history. Amenities are valuable ered as "variables" rather than given or fixed. They to man both in terms of services they provide, such as become established, and often subsequently t r a n s- recreation, and also in terms of what we can learn from formed, through social learning.Interpretation can them as natural laboratories or historical benchmarks. be taken to signify this very process. Thus, the very Let's move on from questions of focus and consider nature of environmental problems which our affluent what combination of interpretive skills are required. society will increasingly confront -those involving conflicting values-suggests that interpretive efforts WHAT COMBINATION OF INTERPRETIVE SKILLS likewise will be increasingly needed. ARE REQUIRED? Although each of the three categories of environ- One may ask, however, whether this is an

179 170 ENVIRONMENTALEDUCATION appropriate activity for a public entity.Mightn't it out adverse environmental consequences and the probe done within the private sector? I would agree that grams we must initiate in order to prevent them. when the problem is likely to call for public redress, This still leaves the rather knotty question of when interpretation is an appropriate public activity. is an interpretive program too large? I frankly think there is no very precise gauge by which one can The basis for this contention lies in a rationale answer this question, and my only caveat would be similar to that which argues that pollution problems to examine the interpretive activity and see whether resulting from private production activities should it is efficiently organized and adequately staffed in be the responsibility of the private producers; that terms of the several criteria suggested above. they should bear the costs of preventing environmental degradation; and that these costs appropriately CONCLUSIONS represent costs of "doing business" and should b e reflected in product prices.By parallel reasoning, As Proust noted, there is nothing more terrifying I would argue that public agencies undertaking envi- than ignorance in action.There are few things more ronmental activities should be held responsible f or expensive to society at large than ingorance in envi- identifying to the public their consequencessome of ronmental action. We must understand the conse- which may well be negative.Thus, ifan agency's quences of our acts, and figure out ways in which budget must be extended in order to cover interpre- those which are adverse to the environment can be tive activities necessary to discuss the environmen- reduced or eliminated. The role of interpretation is tal consequences of its line activities, this increment critical if we are to e2.pand ignorance into knowledge. to the agency budget should be considered its cost of The job is a serious me, and a sophisticated one. No "doing business. " longer can the interpretive program simply be addressed to extending the enjoyment of a park visitor, I recognize that this may appear to be opening the nor can we tolerate " interpretive" programs which door for fattened budgetsan eventuality which many in reality are little more than promotional efforts to economists are loath to endorse. To those of the gain public support for an agency's mainline activi- brotherhood who take this view, I would argue that ties.Public agencies have a responsibility to serve public projects which affect the environment are not the public through education and promoting those typ- completely described untilthey contain measures that es of dialogues and organizational arrangements which will assure maintenance of a reasonable quality envi- can reveal social preferences and values that pertain ronment. If we do not have an adequate interpretive to the environment.These values change as our program, we may indeed fund public agency activities circumstances change: as a society becomes affluent, which will require excessively expensive corrective it places different values on different environmental measures later on in the game. attributes; as a society becomes mobile, it places new values on remote aspects of the environment Let me reinforce this point by an analogy. A pro- an urban society places high values on amenities that ject for interbasin water transfer may lead to a de- may have been of little importance to a rural society. terioration of water quality within the service area In short, our environmental values do change as the which subsequently requires a major drainage canal. structure of our society changes and the technology Unless the need for the canal is seen at the outset, through which it interacts with its environment is ex- when the interbasin transfer is under public debate, panded. Just as we must recognize that the natural we are likely to get trapped into approving an incom- environment is indeed our fundamental public re- plete projectnamely just the interbasin delivery sys- source, we must find common cause in deciphering tem on the strength of benefits produced, and subse- social preferences and true values to serve as guides quently find ourselves confronted with a follow-o n as we interact with it.This is the task which envi- investment which, if considered originally may have ronmental interpretation programs must ultimately made the venture clearly undesirable.In the same address.If we fail in this effort, the quality of our fashion, I believe our interpretive programs can help environment will deteriorate and will not be able to us perceive the full dimensions of certain public ac- support the life of variety, enrichment, and dignity tivities that impinge upon the environment by pointing to which all mankind aspires..

180 "The uniqueness of all interpretation is that things are made meaningful;here is a scarce commodity in our modern world of menthe meaningful."

INTERPRETATION-SOMETHING NEW

R. Yorke Edwards

SOME AGENCIES managing wild lands have been All the while nearby park interpretation programs communicating with the public for half a century and are groaning under the load of too many people. Their have perfected impressively effective techniques. conducted walks are so crowded that the naturalists The U.S. National Park Service and now a host of cannot keep in touch with their audiences, and most smaller park organizations reach millions of people people cannot see what is being talked about. Camp- annually with attractive methods for helping people fire talks have standing room only.Nature centers understand the landscape. An important feature are jammed like sale day in a department store. The about these programs is that they take place right public thirst for new experiences involving new in- outdoors on the land and that the message is about some- formation is proven by these conditions. I must a d d thing real and right there as you stand in the landscape, that you do not have to be a park naturalist long to and not abot something unreal o r imagined. We need learn that interpretation actually does what it is de- r....ore of this waproach. People are beginning to think signed to do. Its message reaches people. Results that nature and its preservation, its use, its conserva- are easily seen in any good program that has been tion, its man, popular aspects live only in slick maga- operating for a few years. zines, inbooks, a.ndon picture screens. They know this really is not so, but they behave as if it were, and North Americans are wasteful of the land and its this is as bad as believing it.Public ignorance and product s.Visitors from Europe and Asia are as- the lack of public involvement is a major land-use tounded at our partial uses of resources. The recre- crisisfacing land managers today. We simply must ation resource is no exception. A hugely increased get more people understanding their surroundings, number of people could use the recreation lands used and as a result, people able to comprehend land-use now, and used properly there could be more enjoyment problems. to the individual, less wrecking of the resource base, It would be beyond the scope of this paper to dwell and large reductions of maintenance costs. o n the problems, aside from the recreation ones, that our soaring numbers of citified citizens, out of Interpretation holds the key to this better use of touch with the countryside, are going to cause in all our recreation lands, and better use is a partial so- resource management.Let me say, however, that lution to the coming crisis. We note that other re- these investors, these consumers, these voters, can source fields are beginning to talk of better use too. be terrifyingly ignorant of national needs. A well-known example concerns the water resources of the United States,Here Stewart Udall has pointed I am going to devote some time to the need for in- out that there is really no shortage there; the problem forming people as a major contribution toward alle- is one of improper use creating an apparent shortage. viating the recreation crisis. Interpretation is a ponderous term with, as yet, The difficulty seems to be people, and people no popular synonym, but do not let the word mislead would be no problem if they did the right things. The you.Interpretation deals with people's knowledge, interpretation method that has evolved in our parks, and their attitudes, and their enthusiasms. It attracts and which is now sweeping through our museums, is them with its helpful, entertaining approach. The the surest, most effective method known for informing star that it reaches for is to inspire people.It is people about the outdoors andfor doing it so people not just education.It is not just an information ser- enjoy it.Much of North American man it seems, vice.It is not just demonstrations, or showmanship, roams our highways every summerseeking new ex- or a guiding service, or an outlet for propaganda. periences, and some of us wonder how to reach him. It is all of these things at once.Its aim is to send

Mr. Edwards is Staff Specialist, Canadian Wildlife Service, Ottawa, Ontario. Thisstatement is excerpted from his paper on "The Future of Recreation on Wild Lands" which appeared in the June,1968, Forestry Chronicle.

181 172 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION people forth inspired by new understanding, and en- Park interpretation is widespread today, andre- thused about more involvement with the facinating new quires little modification to interpret the otheruses world revealed to them. Interpretation, when well of land. In interpreting recreation use, orrange done, has the light touch.It cannot afford to be pon- management, or forestry, or any other land use, the derous, and anyway the realm of the ponderous is great strength of park interpretation remains intact, already crowded in the communications field.Inter- and that strength is the strength of truth,Our lives pretation sows seeds, skillfully chosen, imaginative- have become full of fakespictures, substitutes for ly treated, thatwill grow into inspiration, revelation, the real thing, ever. real things that have been put involvement, and in some cases a new We-long pas- into meaningless situations.interpretation operates sion. And itworks, not always, but often enough to on the spot with real things that are in meaningful be imp Dssive. It works often enough that staff mem- surroundings,.This is the strength of nature inter- bers working in good interpretation programs are pretation, and this is why inspiration and revelation usually fulfilled types with well-groomed egos. can so of ten be its result, and this is why a life touched by interpretation may never be quite the same again because of the new interest that makes it fuller, Interpretation has the solutions to most of recre- and happier. ation's challenges through the next three decades. Land use, as well as the land itself, is open to We need a populace more interested and informed interpretation.There is a meaningful story in the on the natural things that together form the wild land- worn out vegetation of an overused campground, or scape.Interpretation is highly successful at doing in the soil erosion caused by human activity, or in this. the too many people jamming a beach. Theseare ecological situations that can be made fascinating, revealing, an d meaningful.I can think of nothing We need a populace that understands land us e easier to interpret than a managed forest, whether problems so itwill support measures to preserve its recreation is involved or no t, with itsbeautiful- resources while using them intelligently.Interpre- ly rounded picture of land, plants, animals, andman tation does this, properly, for it begins with building in harmonious interrelationships. interest and respect in the fundamental parts of the landscape. The uniqueness of all interpretation, anywhere,is that things are made meaningful. People thirst for mean- We need a populace that does not spread its gar- ingful things in their lives. Interpretation caters to this bage across the land while avoiding paths and hacking need. If we do not use it la"ishly to help solve ourrecre- at the vegetation as if no other man would pass that ation problems, and our other land use problems too,we way.Interpretation by creating delight and under- deserve to be swamped by the tide. standing, creates respect. We could use more of it in our time. Interpretation is not just a good cure, it isso far about the only cure available to us.Most other meas- We need a populace with vandalism scarce, and ures are merely treatments of symptoms. strongly regarded as a crime against society.Inter- pretation builds public opinion by creating involvement, When we are dealing with the ills of public wealth, and it does this by opening the minds of people to under- diseases cured are surely preferable to symptoms standing leading to appreciation and respect. maskedespecially when the cure is cheaper.

:182 Land:The unwrittentextbook.

NATURE CENTER PURPOSES AND VALUES

ByronL.Ashbaugh

OVER THE past 3 decades concern with the munity purpose but will also stimulate interest and impact of people on the land has increased dramatically. support for similar facilities in other regions. New programs have been undertaken to protect natural resources or to correct resource misuse. Today with A first-rate land base is paramount in any outdoor the push of population growth and technological advance, interpretation program. A good piece of character- the crucial question is no longer simply, " What is man istic geography cannot be chosen too carefully.Site doing to his environment?" but also " What is the pre- selection should: sent environment doing to man himself?" provide good land and not leftover space that The quality of the environment and the relation- cannot be used for anything else ship of life to it will play major roles in determining the future of society.Surely the cost of a deterio- consider size as an important characteristic rating environment will be measured in terms of the larger the area, the better it will serve the physical and mental decay and social maladjustments. community. Wher e possible, a buffer zone should be obtained around the key site.The Conservation means not only the protection and smaller the area, the tighter the human u se management of natural resources but also the main- controls; similarly, the more sensitive the nat- tenance of life-supporting qualities and sanity in the ural resources present, the more intensive the human environment. Air and water pollution, silta- controls. tion, blemished landscapes, noise, and meaningless urban sprawl, all are disturbing signs of our times. PURPOSE OF A NATURE CENTER Thus, if solutions are to come, regional and urban The basic purpose of a nature center is to provide planning, wise land and water use, effective zoning, an area of undeveloped land where facilities and - ar- protection of open space and scenic beauty, control vices make possible outdoor programs in nature and of population diversity and density, all should be in environmental education. The land should be a spa- the modern citizen's thoughts and plans. cious piece of terrain with varied geological features and the flora and fauna which are indigenous. A na- But it is not enough to be merely interested in problems of environmental well-being. Citizen action is ture center and its program provide: needed. How can this be done? Education provides part Education: the communication of information about of the answer. An informed and concer ned citizenry is our natural environment by skilled teachers and lead- the key to effective action. The challenge is clear: in- ers through personal experience with nature. As John terpretive and educational programs must be advanced Burroughs rime said, " It is not so much what we see in to effect a greater understanding of our environmental nature but how we interpret what we see. " problems and what must be done to correct them. A nature center program opens windows to the outdoor world: Research: the search for information about our interprets, inspires, motivates. When citizen action environment through organized scientific observa- calls for more and better outdoor interpretive programs tion and experimentation. more and better outdoor educational facilities and activities, then and only then will the integrity of the nat- Conservation: the practical application of infor- ural environment be assured. The need f or outdoor in- mation about natural resources in an attempt to dis- terpretive programs, nature centers,laboratories, cover the wisest ways to manage the human environ- and oil tdoor tr aining for teachers and youth leaders is ment for the long-term benefit of people. urgent. Culture: a place to bring about human enlighten- Due to the size of this challenge the needfor lead- ment and refinement through esthetic experiences. ership is great.Each nature center to be opened Such experiences stimulate thought, in turn stimu- should be innovative, exemplary, and demonstrative lating creative expression.This is equally true for for its region. A well-planned and carefully-developed the resident as it is for the tourist Who wants to see nature center will not only serve a very useful com- what any locality has to offer. The author is Chief, Outdoor Education Services, Genesee County Parks and Recreation Commission, Flint, Michigan. This paper was pr es ented to the Michigan Division of the Women's National Farm and Garden Association in June 1970.

183 174 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION A nature center is designed to serve everyone in as are the museum and the public library.In this a community. It seeks to acquaint young children role the nature center can have a positive impact on with the mysteries and wonders of nature, a task many facets of commun'ty life.But perhaps nowhere that is becoming more difficult with the relentless is its impact more vital than in the wo rk of the schools. destruction of native habitats.It affords teenagers In terms of the school mission, the nature center an opportunity to engage in wholesome activities that may be thought of as a teaching laboratory. Like any are both constructive and educational.It also pro- other kind of laboratory, it is provided to teach those vides a training ground for youths who wish to be - concepts which it can deal with more effectively than come scientists.The land can be a significant out- the indoor classroom. The role of the nature center door laboratory for college students.Adults can is defined by the fact that certain subject matters can utilize the center facilities and resources for serious be more effectively taught in the natural environment study and the pursuit of hobby interests. A nature cen- than in the regular classroom. The key to effective- ter is also a place where a man can take his family for a ness of the nature center as a teaching laboratory is walk to see a meadow, a swamp, a stand of native trees, the natural setting it provides. Here childr en can en- or to explore the shores of a secluded. lake. gage in firsthand discovery and exploration. Here, For all people the nature center can aid in main- all the eager, inquiring senses of youth can be applieci taining a sense of balance in life, particularly in an in direct experience with the natural environment. age when many sound values are being eroded by the The use of the nature center begins with explicit impact of material comforts, the complexities, objectives and a carefully delineated reaching plan. strains, and dangers of a rapidly changing world. A In the classroom the students are prepared for the nature center program can be a stimulating and pleas- outdoor experience and introduced to the concepts to ant activity for young children, a coordinated and be taught.Then the experience moves out-of-doors complementary cog in the wheels of organized edu- where the individual child can be brought into direct cation, a refuge from the clattering confusion of me- and meaningful contact with these new concepts. The chanical existence in everyday life.For some, the class returns from the outdoors to the classroom for study of nature has emotional and esthetic values an evaluation of their experience and expansion of the for others it has scientific importance. For all it newly mastered ideas.In this fashionthe outdoor ex- can reveal a broader, more interesting world. perience grows out of the classroom and, having taken advantage of the outdoor laboratory, leads back Many educators have pointed out the values of a to the classroom again.It is thus an integral part continuing contact with nature for students.Here is what two authorities have said: of the school curriculum. NATURE CENTER ROLE FOR PARKS We have failed to develop the understanding of the in- People will not safeguard what they do not know, terrelatedness and the interdependence of all things let alone what they do not understand. They will not in their envi:onment. We have spent hours in the protect and treat kindly what they do not appreciate. schoolroom with books, but we have spent very little A nature center is designed to help park visitors un- of our school time to show them where ... things, a- derstand and appreciate the natural environment, to bout which they read, really are, and where and how help them become good stewards of public lands and they fit in the program of living. - F. J. Schmeeckle all related natural resources. A well-planned nature Authors of textbooks pass on second-hand informa- center pragram will keep people from destroying the tion they have found by observation and discovery. very open space and natural resources they hope to It is always the person who sees, discovers, or ex- preserve and enjoy. Mr. Walter A. Tucker, director- plores a situation who gets the most out of it. This, secretary, Columbus Metropolitan ParkSystem, Co- in short, is the v''.ote theses of outdoor education. lumbus, Ohio, has commented on the values of edr- Such learning is faster, is more deeply appreciated, cational programs in parks as follows: and is retained longer. -L. B. Sharp The success of interpretive programs in our parks is reflected by increased public partici- The 1967 annual report to the President by the pation. The benefits are evident inthe improved Citizens Advisory Committee on Recreation and Nat- public behavior as shown by the orderliness of ural Beauty strongly emphasized the need for envi- visitors, the absence of litter, and freedom ronmental education.This top-level advisory com- from willful destruction of property. mittee states that: We believe that interpretive programs more There is a risk that lessons learned so far in this than justify the expense involved. We are con- century will be lost and that tomorrow's adults will vinced that our park nature program more have to learn all over again the har d way. To pre- than pays its way on a dollar and cents basis. vent this, it is imperative that environmental educa- The keys to effectiveness in a nature center are tion be made a basic component of... school programs. careful planning, training of youth leaders and teach- We also believe that no book, indoor laboratory, or ers for the effective and best use of park land, and audio-visual production can ever replace the land the assistance of specialized naturalist-interpreters. as a teaching vehicle for environmental education. The needs of park usersand the needs of other fac- This concisely states the need for nature centers ets of the communitywill be best served if,in the as educational facilities where environmental educa- initial phases of implementation, care is taken to in- tion uses the land for learning. volve all segments of the community in the process of planning the nature center services. Through such NATURE CENTER ROLE FOR SCHOOLS a procedure the nature center will be individualized to the unique needs of its community and will thus be A nature center is a community institution, just solidly grounded to reach its full potential.

184 Meeting the need of the city child for environmental education.

TOWARD AN URBAN ECOLOGICAL STRUCTURE

Thomas J.Rillo

THROUGHOUT the time line of his develop- Usually a body of water such as a lake, river, or ment man has been attempting to comprehend the ocean was selected because of the accessibility of vastness and complexity of the world he lives in. In food and also because it provided a mode of travel. contemporary times man's problem still remains the As increased leisure time became prevalentthe prox- same. How can he assimilate with understandingall Unity near water also provided a site for recreation. of the aspects of his external environment, all of the events that take place in that environment and hisre- For amultitude of reasons there was a strong cen- lationship to them? tripetal movement to the cities.The urban environment became the center of commerce and industrial- Perhaps the most simplified way is to view the ization. The pagan concept of exploitation of the land external surroundings through direct experience and and moving on to new fertile soils was continued into then it may be probable that man can begin to under- the early and middle Christian eras of time. How- stand and plan for a more hospitable world. Educa- ever, the structure of the family unit changed when tion can and should assume responsibility for the the inheritance of all land was passed on to the eld- provision of those environmental experiences that it est son and the younger males received very little is best qualified for. Environmental education is then or none at all.This change in social patterns caused defined as that part of the total educational process Western society to take a new look at the agricultural which attempts to convey those values, concepts,and structure.In addition, rural folk became tired of the knowledges associated with the external environment. rigorous routine of a primitive agricultural life and It concerns itself with the development of an enlight- this provided another motive for the migration to ur- ened citizenry, both existential and potential, which ban centers. because of involvement in an experiential program will be able to make wise and judicious decisions with The new world offered different opportunities to reference to environmental problems and situations. those not first born andto other relatives. The words of Horace Greeley were sung long before he actually IN THE BEGINNING lived and phrased them. This was demonstrated from the very earliest days of the colonial settlements. Mankind is a species known to science as Homo The cry echoed, "go 'vest young man" for opportu- sapiens. Man stands on two feet and as a species nities. The land for taking changed the social struc- has the unique ability to look at himself objectively. ture into equality in lieu of autocratic rulers, and The basic human nature of man is civilized and bar- town councils became the governing bodies of these new baric, generous and greedy, courteous and cruel, small settlements. courageous and cowardly, hardworking and lazy, sensible and stupid.But mankind exists and as a social In a relatively short period of time the American animal represents one of nature's most recent ex- industrial revolution came into being and became the periments. catalyst for a large migratory movement to the u r - banized areas. Great changes happenedto the Amer- Looking back with pride at his evolution he was ican modus vivendi. astonished at the rapid rate his ancient predecessors overcame their vulnerability through the abilityto in- Until a few decades ago America was still a rural vent and use tools. He then proceeded to build the land with an endless span of open space, deep rivers, beginnings of civilization in less time than it took his of limitless fresh water, and air swept clean by the earliest predecessors to invent the stone ax. This flow of westerly winds. In the early part of this scene new civilization ultimately required habitation in large a frontier wife washed clothes with lye soap rendertd groups for security reasons. Thus the encampment, from hog fat and wood ashes. When the w as hi n g the village, and finally the town were born. chores were done she simply cast the water out the

Dr. Rillo is Professor of Outdoor Education, Glassboro State College, New Jersey. 176 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION door where it sank into the roil.If the soil nutrients has ever emanated from a pessimistic viewpoint. were impaired it did not matter for it was soon reju- What is needed is an enlightened citizenry equipped venated by the droppings of foraging farm animals. with an adequate framework of reference sufficient There were few cases ofwater contaminationbecause enough to motivate participation in action programs sun, fresh air, and some bacteria were enough to leading to the alleviation or modification of our en- decompose the human sewage. Animal manure was vironmental problems. spread on the fields as fertilizers and any other accumulated material waste was simply placed i n a The development of this enlightened and informed gully or ditch and became an erosion control. citizenry is represented by two approaches. One approach is immediate action so vitally needed in con- There were no tin containers ni great quantity temportry society.This avenue would concern it- since the farm wife did her own canning. There were self with those individuals who constitute our adult no plastic containers, dispojsable bottles, cellophane population and would concentrate its program of in- wrappings, or aluminum foil, for individual packaging formation dissemination through all the medias of of food Products was not yet a supermarket fetish. communication including newspapers, radio, televi- Woodsmoke coming from a house chimney was only sion, and film;.It would also avail itself to confer- prevalent to any great degree during the cold months ences, workshops, forums, conservation commis- and did not represent a threat to the biosphere. sions, legislative involvement, community planning boards, local, state, and federal involvement and THE PENDULUM SWINGS support. Immediate results are going to mean vast amounts of monetary support. The profit motive of The situation changed as the years passed. Small many enterprises is going to have to be challenged towns became bigger and the problem of what to do by the powerful impact of pressure groups who are with waste products became bigger.There were able to underwrite their activities for as long as it more people and this represented increased human takes to effect change. These activities will involve and material waste. Inventive engineers created the many groups and the problem of coorcination w ill central sewer system which drained into a river where represent one of the largest hurdles to h.. encountered. moving water, sunlight, oxygen, and bacteria. could break down the contamination. The smellandpollut- The second approach is o7 longer range inperspec- ants of smoke from the city dump was an accented tive.It involves the'children and youth of our nation. thing and served as a directional indicator .for -11 The largest segment of our population in one place at residential and commercial development to move in one given time is he private and public school group. the opposite direction. Of this specific population, the largest segment concentrated in more lir.ited areas a:e those who attend Life killing chemicals moving into a river because schools in urban areas.It is recominzricied that an the symbol of prosperity which meant more jobs and experiential program in environmental education be more money for more people. Housewives co uld provided for students rather than a program of indoc- hurry to the city's stores to buy more and more ma- trination via the lecture method.This experience terial things which in itself became another hallmark program should be related to the subjects students of prosperity.The waste from this activity contin- study in their regular school curriculum. ued to grow and become a serious problem. Basic concepts and understandings of the environ- As young men and women moved to the city they ment should not only be an integral partof every sub- served their urban bondage until accumulated afflu- ject matter area at each grade level, but should also ency enabled them to move out into the cleaner sub- spiral upward through the grades. A concept or ba- urban countryside, Now the suburban areas are be- sic understanding can be introduced at the primary coming sicker with many of the same problems which level and continue upward through the grades attain- plagued the city.In some areas of the country there ing sophistication and refinement with each succeed- is limited direction in which to run from the rivers ing step. The program of environmental experiences man has converted to sewers, the land he has satu- need not mean the allocation of more time, space, rated with material waste, the air he has polluted and equipment. with smoke as well as poisonous gases from the automobile. CASES IN POINT Because of this movemt; t to the urban areas for An example of integration with the existing broad greater prosperity the city and town are rapidly be- curriculum is illustrated by the following example. coming unileasant places to live and the land, water, A sixth grade class is studying mathematics, social and aerial wastes are accumulating faster than they studies, science, language arts, and health as part can be removed. of their everyday routine. A concern for the pollutants in the environment is motivated as a socinl THE HERE AND THE NOW problem by the teacher in a social studies class, It emanates from a discussion of lioN people choose an The biggest problem with man's environment is area to live and work. the fact that too many of his kind live in too limited an area at the same time. This statement may be An introduction to the environmental conditions self-evident and contradictory to people who have hostile to man's continued existence arises.Read- worked hard to solve some ct the prevailing environ- ing the literatur. In magazines and newspapers, mental problems., An indivinual can grow very pes- viewing' filmstrips and television broadcasts, the simistic about the situation and although apparently class is motivated to participate in some type of ac- justified in some situations, it is not the condition tion research. The class decides to investigate the which will instigate change.Nothing constructive pollutant contributions to the atmosphere by jet

1,.6 RILLO 177 aircraft.They learn that one jet aircraft emits 88 dissipation of the dust particles at succeeding dis- poundsof pollutants per take-off.The class decides tances from the source.They decide to replicate that a field trip to the local city jetport is imperative. this experiment by utilizing microscope slides covered with a petroleum grease substance and attached Upon arrival at the airport they proceed to count to the line with clothes pins.Additional information the number of planes taking off each hour. The stu- is then added to the data previously obtained and the dents multiply the average of planes taking off per class next concerns itself with dissemination of the hour by the poundage of pollutants emitted by on e data. plane. They next multiply the number of hours that the airport is operative by the average number of jet The above described activities as well as many aircraft taking off per hour by the poundage of pol- more can contribute a great deal to the development lutants per plane.The total figure is astonishing to of an environmental awareness ...for these same the students.The data is so astronom4.,:al in propo:..- students will become adult citizens.They will sel- tion that the class decides th continue ti.eir investi- dom view the environment with apathy because their gations and disseminate their information. experiences were direct, firsthand, and their active involvement precipitated retention.It is this reten- The mathematics class is utilized for the d at a tion of concepts and values that conservation and en- treatment and analysis. The science class is uti- vironmental educators are concerned about with ref- lized in developing equipment for collecting and mea- erence to attitudinal changes.This in itself is suring pollutants at the jetport.The language a r ts motivation enough for firsthand investigation of the class becomes the center for written material con- environmental urban climate.It is a learning cli- cerning the students' findings and is submitted fo r mate that should be a part of the indoor-outdoor- publication. Oral presentations are prepared by the indoor approach to environmental understanding. students for delivery on local radio and television stations.The art class becomes the scene for the There are many opportunities at various grade preparation of an exhibit illustrating die pollution of levels for environmental explorations of the city en- jet aircraft with suggested proposals for its modifi- vironment. Through the eyes of the ecologist, man cation or removal. The class decides that it wi 11 in an agricultural and/or urban setting is always continue its investigation of pollutants in the atmo- viewed as a part of the total ecosystem. Any imbal- sphere when they learn that one automobile em i ts ance or disturbance in the supportive ecosystem can 500 pounds of pollutants per year.Plans are formu- cause serious setbacks and deterioration or demise lated for the col,"nction of field trips, similar to the if adaptation is not fast enough or (foes not occur at all. jetport trip, to E. ategic intersections in the city. URBAN MAN'S NEED FOR ENVIRONMENTAL A secondary school biology class in a city is stud- PERCEPTION ying ecology. They have explorea vacant lots, side- walks, railroad track right of ways, roadsides, and A beautiful and delightful city environment is not the city park as part of their field experience. The commonplace and some individuals would say an im- teacher suggests that they might try to do an ecolog- possible thing to achieve.Not many American cities ical study of an abandoned apartment building.They larger than 10,000 inhabitants are of consistent fine decide that they will embark on a study of the habita- quality, although a few have somepleasant fragment- tion of a deserted city apartment house for evidence ed features.Very few Americans can ascertain what of life other than that of man. it means to live in such an environment. They a r e cognizant of the ugliness of the environment in which The ecological investigation entails the construct- they live, and they can verbalize about the dirt , ing and setting of coffee-can live traps for rodents. smoke, congestion, chaotic conditions, and even the Sweet traps are then placed throughout the building monotonous routine of daily living.Seldom are cit- and baited with honey or sugared water for the study izens aware of the potential value of harmonious sur- of existing insect life.Scat boards ars, n1 aced roundings. throughout the building for the determinat.,,a of ro- dent populations by analysis of the incidence of drop- The late Aldo Leopold, (1887-1948) Professor of pings on each board. Peanut butter is placed =each Game Management, University of Wisconsin, has de- of the boards as an attraction for various types of fined conservation as being, "harmony between man rodents and small mammals. and land" (1 ).This simple definition has been ad- r. hered to by some architects, planners, conserva- 7:he class was able to identify several ecological tionists, and others who are concerned with environ- niclies complete with all sources of food supply to mental problems. each niche. The class also explored the immediate exterior environment of the old building including the Most Americans lack basic knowledge of what a rooftops.The interdependency of living thin gs is high quality environment can mean in terms of daily firmly established despite the apparent lifeless look enjoyment or as a continuous framework of reference of the old building. for their lives.The use of this knowledge can produce deeper insights iato the meaningfulness and rich- An elementary class is also interested in air pol- ness of the exciting journey of life.The ability to lution.They decide to conduct their investigation structure or identify the environment is common with kites in order to ascertain gypsum dust parti- among those animals who are capable of agile move- cles saturating the air in their neighborhood.T he ment. Many kinds of perceptions are utilized: the students utilize gauze material covered with a grease senses of touch, smell, hearing, sight, gravity, and substance and attach the gauze strip to each kite. balance, the visual sensations of color ,shape , The kites are then flown from variouF positions in rhythm, and motion are all biological techniques of the neighborhood in order to ascertaii. the amount of orientation to the environment. 187 178 ENVMONMENTAL EDUCATION Social scientists, ecologists, anthropologists, allelled. He has destroyed many times without the philosophers, and other disciplinarians have ob- knowledge or ability to foresee the consequences of served the ability of the general body sensorium to his acts.With long traditions of these attitudes, he organize from simple to complex patterns. The prc- never felt his responsibility for these consequences. fessional literature emanating from the activities of Early man was forced to improve his perception of the above-mentioned professional people indicated the environment by adapting to the immediate landthat this organization is basic to the efficiency and scape. He made minor changes in this environment survival of mankind. with primitive edifices, religious and trail cairns, but significant modifications were not within his frame A keen perception of one's environment can givv of reference. Only those civilizations wi;o have mas- the individual the element of choice and a poitit of tered some technology and science can change or mod- parture for the acquisition of additional informatioi ify their environment on a large scale. A clear and distinct perception of both the interna: and external environments is thus an essential ingre The rehabilitation or remolding of the large scale dient for the total growth of an individual.It can al- environment has been only recently made possible so establish a degree of emotional security and the and consequently the techniques and modus operandi individual can begin to perceive a harmonious rela- involved in creating environmental awareness a r e tionship between himself and the immediate external new. The need for an infcrmed and aware citizenry surroundings. A distinctive and identifiable percep- is now. Our present youth and the next several gen- tion can also serve to vitalize the potential of life as erations must act as a guiding force for the world the gap between man and the external environment that they want to live in successfully.They have to narrows. enter the present and future world as educated citizenry capable of mak,g global, intelligent, univer- The need for environmental education for the ur- sal decisions. ban scene is very apparent.The environment when perceived through the various academic vehicles can It is not the intention of this paper to infer a re- give distinction and relationships and the observer turn to a primeval nature system which is no longer can with his ability of adaptation and in keeping with available even if we desired it.What is inferred is his aspirations begin to select, organize, and support that parallel to the natural ecological scene we must with greater meaning that which he perceives. As a create a new system, that of an urban ecological major manipulator of his external environment man structure. must maintain his constant interest in qualitative changes and to continued existence. The need for environmental education for the meg- alopolite is an integral part of the total struggle for Man has had no constraints either moral, philo- survival. We can survive if as a species our pan- sophical, or other. 'se except those which physically ning is in complete balance and harmony with those limited his freedom to exploit, manage, or conserve ecological conditions that sustain life.It is that vi- his environment. This freedom has meant latitude talit is that simple. to progress but at the same time has also provided the freedom to retrogress. REFERENCE Mankind now has the opportunities and abilities to achieve a maximum-yield environment and human 1.Leopold, Aldo, A Sand County Almanac, Oxford life or to destroy both in a manner previously unpar- Press, New York, 1966, p. 222. Isthenaturaliseaslave and aserftohisownvalue system?

WHITHER URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION?

BarbaraJ. Reid

ENVIRONMENTALLY, the cities of North New York City alone 65 percent of all Black People America may be the products of man's worst failure and Puerto Ricans drop out of high school (3).In to date in dealing with his surroundings.In terms some school districts in Chicago the rate is the same, of both natural resources and the quality of life, our if not worse.This amounts to about one thcwsand stu- cities are deteriorating.Seventy percent of Amer- dentr a month (3).Children in metropolitan areas icans now live in metropolitan areas, and it is esti- are not all deprived economically and socially, bu t mated that 90 percent will do so in 20 years. many if not most are deprived educationally in th e sense that they are not aware of the basic ecological The overpowering results of man's technology are relationships of the world around them. They are not polluting the air through the factory, the automobile, in most cases aware of nature in the wilderness sense and the private furnace; and polluting the streams to or of the ecology of the cityboth in terms of people such an extent that during last year's drought in North- and nature.Tha traditional educational curricula of eastern America the residents of New York City the U.S. does not include questions that deal with the could not drink the water of the mighty Hudson which environmentman's relationship to it and the results flows next to it. In 1967,i en million families in Amer- of the relationship in the past.Because of the failure ica were estimated to be living in deteriorated o r of the urban schools in many of the most rudimentary substandard housing (4).Urban sprawl continues cc.:cerns, educational innovation is becoming a con- unabated with little or no attempt at city or regional cern for most. urban educators. This innovation i s planning. Our population growth is taking place at taking place in terms of curriculum, educational tech- the fastest rate in those urban areas that can least niques, teacher training classroom organization, and afford it.Transportation systems are clogged by a restructuring of the schools it; relation to parents commuters, and freeways through the cities contin- and to other community organizations across abroad ue to be built without considerations of either their spectrum. effect upon the residents of the area or the land itself. It is iv ped that the growing student and citizen en- Growth rates that are projected by planners, etc. vironmental action will encourage the development of are taken as fact, and systems are designed to ac- environmental education on the part of students, teach- commodate such growth in population, automobiles, ers, and all citizens.Future international conferenc- housing needs, and other areas without ever ques- es such as the 1972 United Nations Conference on the tioning the assumption that such growth may not be Environment will also provide forums for educational desired. For example, it is no surprise to those concerns.It is hoped that those involved in educa- within the city that the transportation systems are tional innovation and those concerned with environ incredibly clogged at the present time.Yet, we con- mental education can come together to forge a new tinue to build functional an,' aesthetically displeas- program for the urban child. ing freeways to accommodate even more traffic jams. This does not hay: ts occur, and citizens are begin- It is often assumed that taking the city child out of ning to realize this.In sum, the most basic que s- the city and into nature will suffice. The following tions about the use of natural and man-made resourc- comment by Gerald Schneider of the Audubon Natur al- es are not being asked on a broad scale. 1 ist Society of Washington, D. C., gives a different point of view: Educationally, the inner city can also be deemed a failure in many ways. The urban deprived are of The strength and the backbone of the conser- course the most obvious example of this failure. In vation movement and love of nature have come

Miss Reid has serve with the Conservation Foundation and with Environmental Action, Inc. , Washington, D.C. This article is adapted from a paper appt axing in the Winter 1969 Commission on Education Newsletter of the International Union for Conservation of Ny.ture and Natural Resources. 18w' 180 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION from naturalists, and still do.But the in terms not of primeval wilderness, but of its rela- naturalist, to paraphrase the philosopher tion to civilized life (1). Aesthetics become extremely Rousseau, may be a slave and a serf to important in a man-made environment. Nature left his own pretensions, unable to separate to its own devices may be aesthetically satisfying, that which is his value from that which but the same can scarcely be said of the cities. may be someone else's value. As such, he may try to project his values on the FOOTNOTES urban child and find his values rejected because the child lacks the experience 1.For a good discussion of this see Marine, Gene, to base nature values on (2). America the Raped, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1969. The question must be asked whether an urban child, in learning about trees and the natural food chain, 2.For a good discussion of the new biological and takes this knowledge back into the city as something anthropological discoveries and its justifica- relevant for his everyday life of concrete, ghetto (or tion of the sense of continuity see Ardrey, Ro- suburbia), air pollution, over-crowding, and muse- bert, The Territorial Imperative Dell Pub- um-proz:ALet.: open space. lishing Company, New York, 1966. The answer maybe to focus the attention of t he city child on his most common experienceneighbor- hood planning in the city, waste disposal, water supply, man's growth within the city, and how the city REFERENCES came to exist in the r st place. A sense of partnership with the world of nature and human beings that 1. Dubos, Rene, So Human an Animal, Charles surrounds the city child may have to be established Schribner New ?ark, 1968. before he can feel a partnership with nature "o ut there." Partnership can be defined in many ways, 2. Conference, Man and Nature in the City, Bureau but it may be that a sense of continuity with the de- of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, U.S. Depart- velopment of both man and the structures he has crement of the Interior, Government Printing Of- ated is more specific. 2For he city is a man-made fice, Washington, D.C. ,1969, p. 68. environment and it may be preferable to deal with the resource base on which it depends and the func- 3 New York Times, December 29, 1968, page Ell. tionally pleasing improvements that can be made in terms of the city itself."Since nature as it exists 4. Schussheim, Morton J., Toward a New Housing now is largely a creation of man, and in turn shapes Policy, Committee for Economic Development him and his societies, its quality must be evaluated Supplementary Paper No.29, 1969, p. 9.

190 Taking,a"man-centered" approachtoconservationcommunications.

THE NATIONAL PARK SYSTEM

AND ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

Boyd Evison

THE NATIONAL Park System embraces an tered areas, designated primarily for day use in in- array of natural and cultural treasures which are, terpreting the areas through the on-going educational for the most part, exemplars of environmental qual- programs of nearby schools.Through experiences ity.They are outstanding bases on which to build a and materials developed specifically for each ESA, communications effort aimed at engendering in Amer- we try to reveal the story of man's personal, inex- icans the understanding of, and respect for, envi- tricable involvement with every aspect of his eavi- ronmental interrelationships on which the quality of ronment. The NEED materials should provide e x - human life depends. An American public possessing cellent base materials for these programs; but no that understanding and respect is unlikely to continue group's participation will be contingent on their adop- the incremental process of befouling and shredding tion of NEED. Application of the ESA approach t o those resource complexes which affordus sustenance education beyond the National Park System is to be and options for diverse pleasurable experience. So encouraged through the NEEL (National Environmen- the National Park Service is necessarily in the ental Education Landmarks) program. NEEL areas vironmental education "business"both in defense would enjoy s:ates on a National Registry by virtue of of the resources for which it is directly responsible the programs conducted on them, rather than on the and in the valid interest of using hose resources to basis of outstanding physical resources. convey the broader message of environmental quality as an essential worthwhile life. NEED, NEEL, and ESA are aimed a tprest' of through high school youngsters in and beyond the parks. In its environmental education efforts, the Service To date, most of the Service's efforts at adult educa- is taking the "man-centered" approach to communi- tion have been incidental to the conveyance of infor- cations.Unlike the more common resource-center- mation through 'he mass media, and interpretation ed approach, with its emplu- ss on taxonomy, soil prograr,s in and near the parks.The urgency of en- profiles, and tree rings, this one puts man in t he vironmental problems indicates a need for greater ef- middlewhere, in fact, he instinctively "k nows" fort in supporting the development of ,r,vironmental himself to be.The key lies in attention to the inev- literacy among adult Americans. We expect soon to itable question, "So, what does it mean to me7" The be producing environmental communications "pack- NEED, ESA, and NEEL programs are addressed to ages" which will respond effectively to that need, for that question. use in interpretive programs and through the mass media.The Division of Environmental Project s, Harpers Ferry Center, is planning and developing NEED (National Environmental Education De - those communications packages, in cooperation with velopment) seeks o foster an appreciative and crit- the Divisions of Audiovisual Arts, Interpretive Plan- ical environmental awareness among Americans ning, Museums, and Publications, and with the assis- through an understanding of the natural and cultural tance of other units in, and outside of, the National interactions illustrated in the areas administered by Park Service. the Service.It is a curriculum-integrated program built around specially developed teaching materials An Environmental Education Task Force, estab- and experiences. We are producing materials and lished in January, has evaluated existing environmen- ideas that will help teachers make ecological prin- tal education programs and policies of the National ciples a central part of what they teach, whether the Park Service and recommended modifications and in- "subject" is math, history, art, music, science, novations to insure an effective environmental educa- or social studies. tion effort ;..y the Service. At the same time. the Task Force has continued to work on the development of the ESA's (Environmental Study Areas) are natural programs now in progress. Briefly summarized, the and cultural "laboratories" within Service-adminis- status of those programs is listed on the next page.

Mr. Evim, a Consulting Editor of this journal, is Chief, Division of Environmental Affairs, The Nationrd Park Service, Harpers Ferry, West Virginia.

191 182 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION NEED. Materials for use with fifth or sixth graders before, during, and after 1-week camp experiences in the outdoors are now in final revision.Over a 2-year period, these have been tested, revised, retested, and further revised.About 11,000 students have used them, in the testing process, which has been conducted primarily by Educational Consulting Service.Mario Menesini, Director of ECS, has guided the development of these materials. A committee of National Eaucation Association leaders, representing a wide assortment of disciplines and geographic regions, has evaluatedthe ma. trials. Third-fourth and seventh-eighth grade materials, for use with 1-day (or shorter) excursions near the schools, have gone through their first large-scale testing in twelve schools across the country. Negotiations are now under way with several prospective developers and publishers for revision of the third- through eighth-grade materials, development of the balance of the kindergarten through twelfth- grade package, and final publication and dissemination.This work will be done through the use of funds provided by the National Park Foundation the non-profit organization whose financial support has brought NEED to its present status. A modified version of the current fifth/sixth grade materials is to be published on an interim basis, for use starting with the fall term of 1970. ESA. ESA sites have now been stablished in sixty-three areas of the National Park System; twenty- ihmore are plat-hied for estabtshment in 1970. The NEEL program will encourage local programs of environmental education, and help make such land- mark areas available for use as outdoor classrooms.The ESA and NEED materials will give guidance and support to many of those who will want to establish NEEL's. The means by which the NEEL's may be identified, encouraged, and monitored, will be recommended by the Environmental Education Tast Force. ECS has produced a manual to guide teachers and service personnel in setting up ESA and NEEL activities.This is a "how-to" manual, covering the logistics and the myriad details thr,L should not be overlooked in making an ESA program function effectively.The NEA has reviewed the manual and plans to modify and publish it by early summer, in cooperation with the National Park Service and 'he National Recreation and Parks Association. W.th specific area manuals and the NEED materials, interpreters, and teachers will then have the kind of tangible support that it takes to make them comfortable w it h school groups in an outdoor "classroom."

19?, Some educational impacts of outdoor education on school grounds.

OUTDOOR LEARNING LABORATORIES

NormanF. Marsh

SOMEDAY, at some school, somebody is go- imaginative, less progressive, and less visionary ing to come up with a communique that herein the associates. out of doorsis an unique opportunity to make awor- thy contribution to education.Here, in a naturalset- The rebel recognizes and accepts the differences ting, the child's mind can be unshackled from the as well as the similarities he encot, .Lers, realizing bonds of enforced conformity. Emergent therefrom that both contribute to change. will be not only new learnings but especially a fresh new approach to other learnings which will be pro- In outdoor education, teacher and pupil have a cessed by the child and the teacher working and ex- chance to reorient themselves by direct experiences periencing together. inter relating the natural and man-m ade environments. Thus each person can "find himself" and realize his As we broaden the opportunities to exploreto own value and place in the scheme of things. This rediscover and investigate, to question, hypothesize gaining of personal identity can well led to one's and put to the test, we hicrease the likelihood that adapting to his changing environment in a more .3ro- creativity will be nurtured, resourcefulness encour- ductive and humanistic manner. aged, and ingenuity accepted and praised. The creating, developing, and utilization of these Outdoor education on school grounds could well outdoor learning laboratories are often excellent ex- be a major breakthrough in education curricula amples of community action. The pooling of school breaking through the artificial barriers so many ed- and community resources unifies and adds purpose ucators have erected or perpetual ed in uncasing the and vitality to the programsa "we-ness" that many learners' minds. schools are losing. Boys and girls at schools with outdoor learning When, "What book is he in?" and "What page is sites will for many years to come experience untold he on?" seem to be the predominating criteria f or and unforeseen invol.vements that sharpen their pow- determining a child's learning and progress, then ers of observation and deepen their understandings this pressure for mass conformity dulls the curios- of the real, live, ongoing lessons continuously pre- ity, stifles the initiative, and results in the "lock- sented by nature.It could well be that these kinds step" methods of the mediocre indoctrinators. of experiences may turn out to be the most cherished If history teaches us anythina, it is that the great- and longest remembered of their school experiences. est advancements in music, a.t, science, technol- It is always a distinct pleasure to associate with ogy, an industry have not r,,sulted from everybody persons who make possible school outdoor learning thinking, saying, planning, Jid doing tilt+ same thing laboratories.In the years to come it can be said at the same time. The coMdrmists andlock-steppers that here, in these green oases, some adults cared merely solidify the gains of the rebelsuntil new enough to see that going to school really meant some- processes and approaches are again presented for thing ... a chance to adjust and grow mentally and spir- mankind's next forward step. itually while serving apprenticeships in the educational institutions of the times. Throughout history it has been the rebel, the non- conformist, who has had the initiative, the inquisi- In leaving things better than we found them may- tiveness, the feeling for something different who has be we partially justify our existence on earth and can broken through the barriers imposed upon him by less reasonably expect an extension of time.

Mr. Marsh is the author or Outdoor Education on Your School Grounds. He is a classroom teacher in Sacra- mento and part-time consultant for planning school arboreta in northern California. 193:! Nature Centers can help urban dwellers develop a conservation conscience.

NATURE CENTERS-

ONE APPROACH TO URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

JosephJ.Shomon

ONE HEARS a great deal today about our de- richest source for it lies in the Creator's earth. If teriorating environment and our need for more en- we wish to go a step further and make it a geo- biotic vironmental education.There is much talk of ethic (land-life ethic ), then we must go not only developing a conservation consciencea conserva- the land but also it: Here I am firmly convinc- tion ethic, if you please. It is good talk and we need ed that when a man gets close to nature, he gets close more of it. to Cod, or, the Cosmic Creator; and when one gets cic,Lie to Divine Providence, he surely approaches the But the practical question arises: How do y o u life of Divine Right. devskip a conservation conscience? How does an individua3, for example, or group or even a nation, Through these philosophic aye:tones we are re- develop an ethic, or, li you prefer, a philosophy? minded that it was St. Bernard who said, "You will These are questions not too easy to answer. How- find something far greater in the woods than you will ever, I believe that common sense gives us a clue find in books.Stones and trees will teach you that that an ethic is an attitu ie and as such is really a which you will never learn from masters. " Here is belief and beliefs transmi themselves into behavior. profound wisdom and I dare say that much of it is ap- An attitude or belief is something a person acquires plicable to modern life. or builds up, something one learns. A dolphin in an aquarium or a man in a pluralistic society i s not Today our affluence is turning our good or earth born to behave in a certain manner. Disciplinedbe- into alarming "effluence. " More and more man is havior must be learned. divorcing himself from the naturalistic world and, in many incredible ways, waging actual hostility toward It seems to me that if we in America are to have it.Instead of seeking to restore a healthy balance a conservation ethic (and we surely need one in our between man and nature, the tenden,.y nowadays is country and in the rest of the world), then correct toward a greater rift. behavioral patterns must be learned and practiced by all men, everywhere; they must be learned. And Outside of preventing a holocaustic nuclear war just as a teacher learns a profession by practice and containing our very numbers, the greatest chal- teaching or a plumber learns his trade in appren- lenge facing us today is making our world more hab- ticeship plumbing, so too the average man, woman, itablemore habitable for man and all other living and child can learn a conservation discipline. things that share this planet with us. One can, cl course, gain knowledge from books How can we make our planet more habitable? Sure- but better judgment tells us that ptr son. lized expe- ly the answer lies not in more runaway science and rience is still the best teacher. Knowledge of phi- technology or in escaping to new planets. Nor does losophy can be obtained by reading the writings of the mere pursuit of political systems offer much hope, great philosophers but the development of a philos- or the passage of more unenforceable laws. And ophy, which is something else, must arise out of the money alone cannot do it.Neither can manpower a- synthesis of experience. lone. What rational choice then do we have? If we want a land ethic, alone, then surely t he The answer, if there i s one ,I perceive, must Dr. Shaman is director of the Nature Center Planning Division, National Audubon Society, 1130 F if th Avenue, New York, New York 10028.

1941 SHOMON 185

The new Aullwood Nature Center at Dayton, 0:io. somehow, in some way, arise out of the spirit of the nature center idea is such a wholly worthy con- man and out of a developing awareness of his right- cept.If as the individual goes through 1 if a he is ful role on earth. And this can come only through able to receive training and guidance and education the proper disciplining of man's actions and through in nature appreciation in the normal sense, then well such long, well-established formats as careful up- and good.However, if this is not possible, then the bringing and sound education. next best thing might be to have special nature centers developed where attitudes of stewardship toward What seems most needed in the world today is a land and its life can be stressed and learned.Per- new perspective of man's relationship to his envi- haps in this way much of the present-day divorce- ronmentan emerging land-life awareness of man's ment of man from nature can be stopped and the place on earth and h is responsibilities toward it. unfortunate trend reversed. Man as an hid"-ral aswell as a group species must accept a st( aship role or earth, working fo; its Awareness and appreciation seem basic to a con- betterment, improved h; bitation, or he will liot servation philosophy.If we want a habitable wcrld, have it for long. A rock Ca mossbed not fit to sup- we first must learn to appreciate what a habitable port a lichen in an air polluted megalopolis may soon environment is like, what the dangers to it are, and not be fit for the germination of a tree seedling, and what action is needed by all of us to make the change an ever larger ecosystem not fit for certain forms for the better. of life may eventually not be fit for man. The answer again comes back to awareness. The nature center concept is aimed at the urban dweller and hopes to do just this.It is in a sense a The quality of awareness in man obviously is a new approach to the development of environmental developmental trait, and t he power of awareness awareness for millions of urban people everywhere. like perception, we are told, lies dormant in the individual.It must be awakened to be useful. Com- mon sense tells us again that the development of a- A nature center, it should be explained, is an ar- wareness must start with the young. An inf ant soon ea of undeveloped land (at least 50 acres) within a leans the danger of fire. A child of loving but dis- city or town or near it with the facilities and servic- cipline-minded parents soon becomes aware of right es planned to conduct community outdoor programs or wrong.In a similar way the growing child c a n in natural sciences, nature appreciation, and conser- be made aware of things in nature, or,if we so vation education.In essence, it is an outdoor focal choose, we can neglect the child and allow this a- point, a facility, an institution, where community wareness to be stifled.Moreover, with regard to citizens (especially the young) can enjoy a segment nature and the child today, the more a child is of the natural world and learn about the inter; elation - moved from natural things, the more he needs thi.n. ship of living and non-living things, including rian's City children and adults need this exposure to nature place in the ecological community. Thus the nature particularly nowadays or they may easily become so center can become a viable tool for the development desensitized to natural living things as not to know of environmental awareness and perhaps; lead to the one tree from another or one bird from file next, and development of a land-life ethic.Surely, It offers may take the attitude of "couldn't care less." But us a hope and seems worth trying.But like all new let's not fool ourselves.Country people need this ideas, the process of get.ing full acceptance of this exposure to nature, too.All mankind needs it. concept has not quite arrived, although nature centers are now developing rapidly in many areas of the These are among some of the valid reasons why United States and Canada. 195' 186 THE JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

HISTCRY This is especially true in the South, Southwest, and Rocky Mountain states. The nature centers movement began somewhat ob- scurely after World War II.No one knows for sure 3.There is a dire need for the setting up of where the firs.; nature center began. Stamford, Con- standards in nature center development and pro- necticut, and Eear Mountain Park, New York, led off gramming.It is in this area ofplanning and in the late forties with some good nature center fa- guidance where the Nature Center Planning Di- cilities in outdoor interpretive education. Pe o pl e vision is trying to be of service. like William Carr, Dan Beard, and Freeman Tilden were in the forefront of the outdoor interpretive 4.And finally, there is today too much worship movement. of bignessstructures and machinesand gadgetry and not enough on effective personnel.There The National Audubon Society began its interest must be a swing toward the more simple approach- in nature education back in the thirties. Lithe fifties es to development and programs, and to more it started a number of successful nature centers personalized operations. where nature education and ecological conservation were stressed.Centers were developed at Greer.- Most needed in nature centers development is wich and Sharon, Connecticut; El Monte, Callfr rnia; surTort for the value of master teacher-naturalists. and Dayton, Ohio.Also at the Aullwood Au.lubon The best results in programming being obtained to- Center, near Dayton, the Society developed a 120 - day point to personalized activities rather than to acre popular children's farm. During the past dec- elaborate buildings, exhibits, and expensive diora- ade , close to a half - million young people have received mas.It seems a little ironic that it is easy to get instruction and no small measure of inspiration at support for structures and so hard to get authoriza- these Audubon facilities. tion for needed and talented personnel.Also we seem to have money for equipment but very littlefor However, the Society had long realized that it personnel to perform good maintenance.These could not do the entire job of nature E ducation alone weaknesses must be corrected. and so in 1961 it launched a new and vigorous program of stimulating interest in community nature centers. REQUIREMENTS FOR A NATURE CENTER It merged with the relatively new Nature Centersfor Young America, Inc. to throw new and combined To get a cummunity nature center established is weight behind this programa nationwide effort of no an easy or simple thing thing to do. Some real encouraging communities (government agencies and effort must go into it. Severalconditions or require- private groups) to set up nature centers of their own. ments are needed if a center is to become a reality: And so the broad effort went ahead.For several years the program was nip aid tuck, but then the ef- 1.There must be local interest and leadership. fort began paying off.Nature centers began emerging everywhere. Today the Society's Nature Center 2.There must be land available. Planning Division, although less than a decade old, can point with pride to the planning help given over 3.There must be a good plan and asound organ- 100 separate communities in more than 25 states and ization structure behind the plan. provinces.In this effort local communities as well as government agencies have set aside more than 4.There must be funds. 100,000 acres of natural land for interpretive education and have spent in capital outlay alone (land, 5.There must be implementation. building, and equipment ) more than $30,000,000. The value of this nationwide program in arousing a Each of these merits brief treatment. nationwide ecological consciousness is :)eginning to show and the future impact on growing numbers of Generating interest and finding dynamio leader- urban people is bound to be great indeed. ship at the local level are key factors in getting things moving in any community.Experience has THE PICTURE TODAY shown that where private citizens and government groups are sufficiently Mare of local conservation The broad picture with Audubon centers and na- Problems and are already organized in groups f or ture centers in general today is this: possible actio.t, the chances cgetting something going are excellent.In other words, community readi- 1.The National Audubon Society is not in a po- ness for a nature center is absolutely essential if a sition to establish any more new nature centers project is to succeed. Here is where national and of its own, unless the conditions are so unusual state agencies and private conservation groups can and the site so unique and fully endowed that an help so much by providing the necessary communi- exceptl.on to an established policy can be made. cations and cmiservation education leadership that What the Society is more interested in is support lies at the be of any good action pi ,gram. for the concept and the successful development of local community nature centers everywhere. To spark a commurity into action, some one or two individuals must .ecome the prime movers. The 2.Support for community nature centers is grow- Kalamazoo Nature Center, the Lynchburg Walton ing but many conservationists and community Conservation Park, the Carver Park Nature Center leaders still need to give strong backing tc the outside of Minneapolis, are but a few examples of concept. Great gaps remain in geographic areas successful conservation education projects pushed where there are no nature centers whatsoever. through by one or two leaders.The point is, first SHOMON 187

A naturalist orients a school group before starting down a nature trail at the Cincinnati Nature Center. create the interest, then find the leaders, and then ject to a community, a plan must be available; it must wade into battle. then be presented to an action group for support and approval.Nature centers which are foundering to- AVAILABILITY OF LAND dayand there are somecan put the blame on poor Second in importance to local interest and leader- planning or hardly any planning at all; also on struc- ship is availability of natural land for a nature cen- turai and personnel weaknesses in their organization. ter.As cities expand and engulf the countryside, as Those that are sucLccdMgand there are many..ave roads, highways, and subdivisions take over, choice carefully planned and organized their efforts. natural areas for nature centers become available less Where a center is planned by a private group, it and less. This points up the need for long-range plan- is necessary to form a legal organization and gain ning 'n urban development, for zoning, and the setting tax-exempt status.Usually an organization must aside of open space-parklands and other recreation- have an educational program under way for at least al areas, outdoor areas, and nature centers. a year before the tax exemption is granted. Lands for nature centers can be acquired in sev- FINANCES eral ways:1. gift;2.outright purchase; 3. condemnation and purchase; 4. easement; 5. lease. At The subject of financing is complex and the sit- the present time some federal aid is available to lo- uations so varied that no attempt can be made to go cal and state governing bodies wishing to acquire land into details here.It must suffice to say thata good for open space. This is handled by the Federal Housing nature cent r, like any other worthwhile fac i I it y and Urban Development Administration, Washington, costs money, and adequate financing must befaced D.C. Applications for grants, amounting up to 30 squarely and boldly by the sponsoring organization. percent of the appraised value of the land, should be Initial capital expenditures may range from$50,000 sent to the regional office of HUD. Not to be over- or $75,000 f or a small center to as much as looked, too, are some state aid monies to communi- $l, 000,000 for a large one.Similarly, annual op- ties for N.rk lands and open space handled by the erating expenses may range from $25, 000 f cr a Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, Washinf_r,'...m, modest center to $200, 000 for a sizeable facility. Available open spacq and natural tends near most To date nature center projects have been financ- cities are getting so critical today that unless comed in three general ways: munities move quickly, both the available landand its price may be such that a nature center may be out of 1.All private funds. the question. As an example, some 10 years ago sites for schools in Long Island and New Jersey could 2.Combination of private and public funds. have been bought for as little as a few thousand dollars an acre.Now prices in at least two areas have 3.All public funds. shot up to $75,000 and $35, 000 an acre, respectively. S ime of the more successful private community PLANS AND ORGANIZATION nature centers, other than the four operated by the National Audubon Society, are located at Stamford, No nature center can enjoy success without good Connecticut; Kalamazoo and Dryden, Michigan; Cin- planning and effective organization.To sell a pro- cinnati, Ohio; and Peoria, Illinois, to name a few.

1:9 7 188 THE JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION Some typical center run by government agencies vigor, rugged individualism, the pioneering spirit, are Rock Creek Park Nature Center, Washington, and love of land and nature seep out ofour people, D.C.; Brookside Nature Center, Wheaton, Mary- America will be dead. land; Carver Park Nature Center, nearlEnneapolis, The countdown is near zero, the hour c lo se to Minnesota, and tile Rogers Conservation Education midnight.If all conservation-dedicated groups-lo- Center, Sherhourne, New York. cal, state, national, government, and privatewill close ranks and meet the challenge that faces us in IMPLEMENTATION resource use education, particularly in our growing The final phase of nature center development is urban social order, we will have developed the kind full-scale program implementation.This stage is of conservation conscience we nee d and justifi- reached when the center has a full complement of ably deserve. trained people and is open all year around. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY To help communities get over some of the hurdles mentioned above, the Nature Center Planning Ashbaugh, Byron L. Planning a Nature Center (Na- Division, National Audubon Society, has prepared tional Audubon Society, 1963). a series of how-to-do guidebooks which are avail- Ashbaugh, Byron L.i 11 u st r a ted by Robert F. able to grues and individuals at cost.In addition, Holmes, Trail Planning and Layout (National Au- the Divisior, has available a staff of trained special- dubon Society, 1965). ists to give communities actual planning expertise. A new concept, like that of a nature center, al- Shomon, Joseph J. A Nature Center for Your Com- ways requires a period of pioneering and trial and muni. (National Audubon Society, 1962). error before a breakthrough is possible. A re al breakthrough is possible if all conservationists and Shomon, Joseph J.Manual of Outdocr Conservation educators will put their shoulders to the wheel and Education (National Audubon Society, 1964). help back this mcvement. When 2,000 community nature centers across America w ill have become Shomon, Joseph J. , editor.Manual of Outdoor In- established, think what the effect could be in terms terpretation (National Audubon Society, 1968). of moral and spiritual re-creation? Think of what the effect could be in terms of nature awareness, Shomon, Joseph J. , Ashbaugh, Byron L.Tolman, personal self-reliance, discipline, and individual C. D. , sketebee by Ned Smith, diagrams by Robert responsibility? F. Holmes. Wildlife Habitat Improvement (Na- This we know: all that is great in science, all tional Audubon Society, 1966). that is good in technology, all that is noble in literature, music, philosophy, and religion has come a- Tilden, Freeman. Interpreting Our Her At age bout by the individual's striving to realize himself (North Carolina, University of North Carolina and his worth.If personal responsibility, courage, Press, Chapel Hill, 1957).

194 How to use an outdoor learning laboratory.

THE ECOLOGICAL STUDY PLOT

GordonJ.Swearingen

CONSERVATION Education is not another sub- plot would lead students from collection of plant ject or separate area of study, but rather a program specimens to projects in determining effects of plant designed to enrich, vitalize, and complement the con- competition for survival, effects on forest influences, tent of existing school curriculum.In conservation effects of soil erosion on plant life, and the interde- education, pupil experiences should in "olve learning pendence between plant and animal life-how each sus- more about the environment in which we live and how tains the other. A study of wildlife resources on the man can properly use and live in his environment. An plot would involve evaluating the habitat available for effective approach to injecting this into the curricu- different species, carrying cc_pucity of the land, evi- lum is the use of an outdoor classroom, orif you dence of overuse or under -use of the food, and spe- willan ecological study plot. cies counts.Students should be lead to search f or and observe all available evidence of the food chain A designated area ofland, 1 or 2 acres in size, phenomenon, as well as the naturally provided de and including as many of the natural resources as pos-, fense mechanisms employed by plants and animals. sible, would provide students with firsthand observa- They should interpret how these factors contribute tions and direct learning experiences relative to en- to maintaining the balance of nature and to the natu- vironmental study. Use of such a plot could rang e ral principle of survival of the fittest. from a single field trip to a resident outdoor living experience.It is usable at any grade level. Each student should maintain a plot-study notebook consisting of problems and activities in e a Seldom would school ownership of the designated resource study area, .so designed that the student area be necessary.In some instances, the school must actually do the projects and experiments to com- ground itself offers possibiltdes, and many public plete the notebook. The objective of each plot-study parks contain a suitable area.In other situations, session is to lead the students to their own observa- privately owned woodlands or land areas may be used tions and conclusions through actual involvement with the owner's consent. with the natural environment.If this is achieved, there is a minimum of telling and a maximum of par- Preferably, tha ecological study plot would include ticipation. a live stream or water frontage where students would measure stream flow, test water, collect and identi- The cx.tdoor learning experience provided by an fy aquatic life, and study the dependence of adjacent ecological study plot can be bath challenging and mo- plant and animal life upon the stream. Students would tivating.Each student is involved in conducting in- also determine the depth, structure, texture, and vestigations and experiments and recording his find- chemical composition of the soil, recording this in- ings.Students are also provided opportunities to formation together with samples of each layer or ho- make practical application of many classroom learn- rizon of the soil. They could also determine water ings in science, mathematics, social sciences, and holding capacities, erodibility factors, and soil- plant emotive arts. More importantly, each student is relationships. lead to a better under stc.nding of his own relationship to the ecosystem of which he is a part, and how this A study of the plant community in the designated ecosystem is effected by Its environment.

The author is a conservationist, Arkansas Soil and Conservation Commission, Little Rock. Stepping-stonestoanenvironmentalethic.

NEW INTERPRETIVE METHODS AND TECHNIQUES

ByronL.Ashbaugh

NEWS REPORTS of the day confirm that most VISITOR GOALS of us face an environment that is becoming increasingly crowded, noisy, poisoned, soiled, trashy, and The approach to follow in outdoor interpretation ugly.Evidence points to the way people conduct their must be focused on people. The program should help lives and pursue their jobs as the major cause of the each visitor to see himself as part of his surround- dangerous and unsatisfactory condition of our su r - ings and to recognize his importance and individual roundings.In fact, many authorities have concluded responsibilities.The whole interpretive offering that man himself is a planetary disease, and unless should be centered on people and where they live. The there is a reversal cf trends in natural resource use program aided by the resources of park lands should be and environmental care, human beings will indeed designed to provide ay. ide variety of opportunities for have to be considered as a threatened species.It inspiration, knowledge, and skills so as to assist each seems strikingly clear that we have failed to convince visitor with the following general goals: people that as individuals they must take strong, personal action to achieve a pleasant and life- supporting Appreciation for the immediate surroundings. place in which to live. An understanding of his place in the broad environmental picture. Activities in which he can participate to keep The persistent problem before us is one of how to his community attractive and the environment reach people so as to influe.:ce the way they treat net- life supporting. ural resources and their environment. What people do today and %ow they live are patterns that will be An innovative interpretive program should be a change seen in resource use and environmental control in the agent for park visitors and cause them to move to- future.To create environmental-mindedness, it is ward the following specific achievements: necessary to stress personal experiences and develop perception through all the senses.This is not just a matter of perceiving things that are pleasant Realization that man is destroying the environ- but the survival of the human race. ment that supports him. Improved learning through use of real objects and demonstrations. Today, ever-expanding populations, natural re- el Appreciation of natural beauty. sources depletion and mismanagement, environmen- A chance to compare the park with his neigh- tal pollution, droughts, floods, shrinking open space, borhood. dust storms, construction of huge and not necessarily An opportunity to contrast a park vista with the useful projects, Al are matters of whichour citizens Monday-at-work scene. must have informed opinions. The basis for s uc h An understanding of the nesd to preserve ade- opinions can be built by our interpretive programs quate open space in the community. through an understanding of fundamental ecological Understanding of natural resources and their principles illnerated in the familiar cohtext of one's preservation. surroundings. A person can learn to appreciate and Awareness of man's history on park lands. know the ecological setting in which he lives through Development of an environmental conscience direct, firsthand experiences in a living environment. or ethic. It is our challenge to find creative and innovative in- A personal commitment to a strong individual terpretive facilities and effective methods of teach- effort to oppose vigorously through political ing so as to actually involve our citizens, be they and legal means the pollution of air, land, and old or young, water.

Mr. Ashbaugh is Chief, Outdoor Education Services, Genesee County Parks and Recreation Commission, Flint, Michigan. This paper was presented at the 1970 Great Lakes Park Training Institute, Pokagon Park, Indiana.

2 0 0) ASHBAUGH 191 Training as professional or lay managers of at Flint, Michigan. The tract which is 355 acres iii ex- the environment. tent and one mile from the eastern edge of the city Enjoyment of being outdoors. has been divided into four areas io facilitate planning Finding solitude which enhances the human spirit. and development to meet community needs: ° Nature Preserve205 acres. Arboretem100 acres. VISITOR PERCEPTION Special Education Area-27 acres. Land Laboratory13 acres. In planning and operating an interpretive program we should remember that park visitors have at least six senses: hearing, seeing, touching, tasting, smell- The Nature Preserve will be used year around for ing, and muscular tension. Educational research has environmental education and research by schools, col- shown that efficiency of learning varies directly with leges, and the general public through use of trails, the number of these senses that are exercised in an trail-side exhibits, demonstrations, observation points, interpretive situation. When we have something to labels, and other devices. Some facilities plannedfor interpret, we usually speak and expect others to lis- the preserve are: ten, hear, and understand. We are using mostly one sensehearing. Even for this category, we are in- Run-off pond. Ground water ponds. clined not to allow the sounds of nature to "speak" Woodland pond. Perched marsh. for themselves.But consider for a mo,nent how the Stump fence. ° Old country lane. other senses can contribute to firsthand experiences, Hedgerows. ° Observation blinds. and relate their use to some commonplace, every- Weather station. 4 Bluebird trail. day actionsprobably without conscious effort to the Wild meadow trail. ° Mowed meadow. visitor.For example: Foot bridges. Elevated walkway. Soil pits. Council rings. seeingas in perceiving the colors and design Springs. Brush piles for wildlife. in a flower or rainbow. Upland hardwoods. e Bottomland hardwoods. touchingas in deciding on the difference be- Pine plantations. Oxbow ponds. tween the "feel" of a block of ice and a piece Restored tall-grass prairie. of stone, or the difference between the bark of Michigan shrub and tree trail. birch and oak. Overlooks at edge of flood plain, tasting.as in finding the flavor of maple syrup Spruce and white birch plantations. or a persimmon. smellingas in identifying peppermint, spear- mint, pennyroyal, or catnip. The Arboretum will be a living collection of plants muscular tensionas in determining how diffi- :made up largely of trees and shrubs grown for study cult it is to break a hickory stick. and popular interest.The Arboretum at For-Mar will feature the following: Shrubs, trees, and woody vines native to Michigan. COMMUNITY AREAS Landscaped-demonstration lawns. Groupings of miniature evergreens. There are usually areas available in a community Flowering shrubs. that will lend themselves to innovative interpretive techniques. A few of these are: The Special Education Area will be land and facil- Mill pond.sometimes with the old mill. ities for visually, mentally, and physically handicap- e Cemeteryhas significant information for his- ped persons and those in special education classes of torical interpretation and research. schools or institutions.Facilities i:lanned for the ar- Power line right-of-wayelectric companies ea are: will often permit the use of space under power lines for trails, wildlife food plantings, soil Touch and see trail. and water demonstrations. Trimmed tree trunk, placed on ground. Abandoned railroad right-of-waynothing bet- Herb garden. ter for cross countrybicycling and hiking trails. Shelter with fireplace. Old canalcan be restored for canoeing a nd Windmill. paddle boating. Towpaths are ideal for trails. Garden. Natural areas - owners are ofte n willing to per- Bee tree. mit access for controlled use as school labora- Aromatic shrubs and trees. tory or research areas. Water supply and power reservoirs are commonly used for interpretation and recreation. The Land Laboratory is conceived as an are a to be used by school children for first-hand, experiences related to working with soil and measuring land as well ZONING as activities dealing with geology and wood study. Features to be included are: We should zone sufficient acreage within our parks for exclusive educational and cultural use such as the Garden plots. Genesee County Parks and Recreation Commission has Shrub and tree nursery. done at the For-Mar Nature Preserve and Arboretum Land measurement Laboratory (a square-acre lawn).

2 Otli 192 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION Rock hounds havena plot for supplies of gravel and be created and those concerned stand to lose the very rocks, mineral specimens, geology wall; a place things they hope to maintain. to select and prepare rock samples for a collection. Wood yardan area in which to study tree, stump, Constructive and wise use of the environment becom- and log sections; to see a cord of wood; to compare es a way of life through the building of attitudes in rough-cut with finished lumber; to use a cross-cut the hearts and minds of people. These attitudes are saw to cut a section from a log; to move a log with action tendencies within each person that determine a cant hook or peavey; to see forest-fire and grass- what he will do under certain circumstances. The fire fighting tools. building of an environmental ethic is like following a Observation mound. flagstone path where the stepping-stones are delineated as follows: ENVIRONMENTAL ATTITUDES Knowledge "acquaintance with facts, truths, People are not born with attitudes.Correct atti- principles" tudes toward the environment and natural resources ° Understanding "being thoroughly familiar with, in genera/ are created over a person's lifetime. An apprehend clearly the character or nature of" outdoor center can be a significant place where prop- Interest Pfeeling of one whose attention is par- er attitudes toward one's surroundings and those ticularly engaged by something" things which sustain a person are built.Unless we Appreciation."act of estimating the qualities shape good attitudes, especially in young people, all of things and giving them their true value" of the current talk about the environment will be mean- Respect. ."esteem felt or shown" ingless.The shaping of proper attitudes into an en- Reverence"a feeling of profound respect min- vironmental ethic might well be the greatest value of gled with awe and affection" outdoor educa,lon.Unless people have the right un- ResponsibilityPthe state of being accountable derstanding and appreciation for the environment and for something within one's power" open space, the will to protect and use wisely cannot Action "something done, a deed"

204 A regional approach to environmental educationin New York.

PROJECT R.A.C.E.

JerryPasser

THE MAJOR challenge to any regional program, night program is not restricted to area groups. For regardless of the type, is that it be designed for max- anyone, who is interested in this type of experience, imum participation by numerous individuals and groups a packet of materials describing the program is avail- representing a variety of interests and age levels. able from the Project R. A, C. E, office. project R. A. C. E., a Federally-funded Title III conservation program sponsored by the IlionSchool Din- trict, has met this challenge successfully. Snowshoeing, introduced by R. A. C. E., has become an extremely popular wintertime activity with area Now beginning its third year of operation, R. A. C. E. teachers and students.Following a classroom dis- has instituted innovative activities for young folks in cussion on the history of snowshoeing, the construc- nearly 60 school districts and 20 parochial schools. tion, and scientific principles involved in their us e, The counties served by Project R. A. C. E. include the snowshoes are distributed to the students for an Chenango, Madison, Herkimer, and Oneida. exhilarating outdoor experience. School yards, near- A key to the success of the program has been the by parks, and other snow-covered areas are used. continuing cooperation between R. A. C. E. and t h e Resulting from the experience are letters, poems, State Department of Environmental Conservation. drawings, and follow-up field trips to arras that have The Department's new Rogers Conservation Educa- been surveyed and catalogued by Projezt R. A. C. E. tionCenter at Sherburne (The Conservationist April - staff. Last winter over 200 children a week were par- May 1963) is an invaluable asset to conservation ed- ticipating in this activity. Thus, conservation and en- ucation efforts both locally and statewide. vironmental education can be introduced in the winter. Through a unique facet of the R. A. C. E. funding NEW COURSES agreement, monies were made available for theren- New courses in "Backyard Eco:lgy and SchoolSite ovation of a large building at the Rogers Center site. Utilization" and "Environmental EaucationA Multi- The building (formerly a brooding house for pheas- discipline Approach" have been in.roducedby R. A. C. E. ants), has been converted into a modern dormitory These courses, conducted each semester in area facility that will accommodate 60 students and at least, schools, are made possible with the cooperation of six adults. The building is complete with kitchen, such agencies as the Soil Conservation Service, Co- dining room, separate sleeping quarters for boy and operative Extension-4-H, New York State Department girl students and their adult chaperones. A nurse's of Environmental Conservation, State Education De- office and nature/craft room on the upper floor are partment, State Outdoor Education Association, area also available to visiting groups. colleges, and a host of others. SCHOOL GROUPS USE ROGERS CENTER Workshops are frequently conducted for teachers Many school districts, encouraged by the enthu- using local sites that appear in the "Environmental siasm of their teachers, are now utilizing the dor- Resource and Study Area Catalog," completed by Dick mitory during the school year. Overnight visitations ICaskoun of the Project R. A. C. E. staff. For each work- are arranged through R. A. C. E. and Rogers Center shop a special booklet is prepared and used throughout staff. Due to the recent installation of a heating sys- the lesson. A teacher u sing the booklet, is then able to tem, the dormitory has become available for year return to the site with her class on a spa-guided ba- around visitations and is being used regularly during sis. The value of this plan lies in the at that as a the winter months. direct result, demands upon the staff decrease at areas visited. Thus, the visiting teacher of ten receives Use of the dormitory and participation in the over- greater cooperation and latitude with respect to the

Mr. Passer was Director of Project R. A. C. E. and is now Assistant Director of Conservation Education for the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation at Albany. This report first appeared in the June- July 1970 issue of The Conservationist. 194 ENVIRONMENTALEDUCATION hours that she may visit the site with her class. Sam- this library a 16mm. color and sound f ilm of the 1969 ple workshop booklets are available from R. A. C, E. Summer Resident Program held at Rogers Center. Noted wildlife photographer Ear! Hill iker of Rochester and Bob Summertime is a busy time, too, as 240 eager young- elthaum with the staff of The Conservationist have pr e- sters will participate in a resident environmental edu- pared the f which tells the story of a typical week at cation program at Rogers Center. Each week for4 the Center as experienced by the youngsters. Additional weeks, 60 children arrive at the Center bright and early copies of the film will be available from the film library Monday morning to begin 4 full days of new and exciting of the New YorkState Department of Environmental Con- experiences in the out-of-doors. Again, cooperation is servation. the key to success as the staff of R. A, C. E. and the staff of the Rogers Center work together in the week- long pro- Project R. A. C. E., after funding for a third and fi- gram. The entire summer program is funded by nal year under Title III, must be continued through the III, E. S. E. A,and there are no costs to the par .. sponsor ship of local educational institutions. Presenta- pants. Interestingly, the most common problem e n - tions are frequently made to area teachers and adminis- countered each week is blisters on children's feet. trators asweli asthel3oards of Cooperative Educational During the past 2 year. R. A. C, E. has built an im- Services of the region to discuss this question. Hopeful- pressive audio- visual library with nearly 70 titles. ly, when Federal funding terminates on February 28, Films, film strips, study pr ints, and records help 1971, definite arrangements will have been made to con- teachers reduce the level of abstraction when discuss- tinue the project. At a time when environmental educa- ing environmental problems or unique structural adap- tion has become so vitally important, Project R. A. C. E. tations of certain forms of life,Soon, we will add to seems to be filling the bill.

204' The regional effects of a college environmental education program.

ANTIOCH'S GLEN HELEN

Kenneth W.Hunt

SINCE19 4 6 ,Antioch College has been en- Forests and Land Laboratories developed in Ohio. gaged in environmental education through the activities Of course the School Forest in Glen Helen is not the conducted in its naturereserve, Glen Helen. I report whole reason for all this, but we know it has helped. here what these activities have been, and will suggest how they may have influenced environmental relation- OUTDOOR EDUCATION CONFERENCE ships in southwestern Ohio. In May 1949, an enthusiastic group of students organized a weekend Outdoor Education Conference for Glen Helen is adjacent to Yellow Springs in the up- teachers and youtu leaders in southwestern Ohio. This per Little Miami Valley. It has 1,000 acres of which has become an annual event, and altogether over 1, 000 about one-quarter are of old-growth forest, relatively persons have attended the 20 conferences to date. These undisturbed, where one can glimpse the biota as it orig- people have carried back 'a their communities the re- inally existed in soethwes ter n Ohio. Other parts of Glen sult of their discussions and experiences about nature Helen areformer farm fields, and pastures where the interpretation, conservation, and environmental prob- process of biotic succession can be observed or manip- lems. ulated. In some 170 acres we have prevented the process of succession by continuing farming operations, thus TRAILSIDE MUSEUM keeping some options open for the future.Recently 10 acres were subtracted from the farm and seeded In 1951 we built the Trailside Museum, to serve as to an experimental prairie, and anotn er 15 acres are the gateway to the Glen. The students who work here being converted to a wildlife study area for our Out- create seasonal exhibits to show visitors what to look door Education Center. Following is a chronological for, and to male clear the responsibility of every visi- review of the environmental services of Glen Helen, tor: that he must in no way deplete the biota or the beau- with comments about possible regional effects. ty of a natural area; that the only way we can each hope to share these scarce remnants is to be scrupulous NATURE TRAILS about this. Local children attend Junior Naturalists clubs here. School buses come daily during spring Since 1946 trails in Glen Helen have been open to the and fall fcr field trips guided by our students. A va- public. A census taken over the 2-month period of April riety of activities are scheduledfrom evening shows May 1967 showed over17,000 visits. Over two-thirds to a maple syrup breakfast. of our visitors came from outside Antioch College and Yellow Springs. It is likely that many of these people Nature Centers were new when we built the Trail- would welcome more open space resources for their own side Museum. We were preceded in southwestern Ohio communities. by the Burnett Woods Museum in Cincinnati and were par elleled by the development of the prasent Dayton Mu- YELLOW SPRINGS SCHOOL FOREST seum of Natural History. We are indebted to both of these f or ideas and inspiration. In 1956 the National Au- In 194.' we arranged for the Yellow Springs High dubon Society asked if it would seem competitive if they School to have theuse of 100 acres of former farm land set up a Nature Center at Aullwood. Itold them weneed- in Glen Helen as a School Forest. The school began an ed it twat each Nature Center would stimulate more. annual program of Christmas tree plantings. This led The newest now is the Cincinnati Natur.? Center. Not to the popular Christmas Tree Festival, when families that we can say who caused itbut for years some of select and cut their own trees and pay the school. This the sponsors of the Cincinnati Nature Center have was the first School Forest to be recognized and was been visiting the facilities of their predecessors! awarded a sign by the Ohio Forestry Association in OUTDOOR EDUCATION CENTER 1949. On several occasions workshops for teachers were sponsored here. Now there are about 110 School It is good if children can spend a few hours in the

Mr. Hunt is Director of Glen Helen, Antioch College,Yellow Springs, Ohio.

205: 196 ENVIRONMENTALEDUCATION

woods, but it is better if they can come for a few days. educational effect on the general publi Today w e After years of struggling for ways and means, in 1956 have a strong measure of citizen and voter suppnrt. we finally built the Outdoor Education Center in Glen Helen. This is aresidentialfac ility for school classes, Glen Helen's struggle began in September 1953, teacher education, workshops, and conferences. It re- when a highway representative informed us of a plan to ceives around 2, 000 school childr en annually from Cin- relocate U. S. 68 through a portion of Glen Helen, includ- cinnati and Columbus and points between. In addition, ing the Yellow Springs School Forest. The Glen's Advi- many church and other yorth groups schedule weekend sory Council, a statewide group of conservationists and retreats and workshops here. Our staff conducts a educators, oaid we should fight. And we did. We appeal- thorough-going program of environmental education for ed to all the schools and organizations that had used tile the childr en. The conferences that have been scheduled Outdoor Education Center, to all the visitors that had here include the Outdoor Science Section of the Ohio Ed- signed the Trailside guest register, to all the people that ucation Association, the Nature School of the Ohio Asso- had attended our conferences, and to biological, conser- ciation of Garden Clubs, the Intercollegiate Outdoor Ed- vation, and nature societies. Final** Gov. O'Neill, and ucation Conference, and many others. In the summers then his successor, Gov. DiSalle, each wrote assur- it has hosted the Ohio Conservation Lab anc Miami-- ance that another route would be found. Antioch Outdoor Education Workshop for Teachers. Nor was this our only struggle. Over lapping this, The real payoff comes when some of the teachers in 195 i and 1960 we had to contend with engineer ing r ec- and some of the schools that have used our Outdoor Ed- ommendations that a sewer trunk line and disposal plant ucation Center create outdoor schools of their own. Sev- be located in the forested valley of the Glen. Finally an eral suburl. an Cincinnati schools, which used to come ali3rnative location was found outside. to Glen He:..m, now oper ate their own program at Camp Kern. The Centerville Board of Education has designed THE GLEN HELEN ASSOCIATION rind built outdoor education facilities on their own property. The Tr i-Distr ict schools, north of Columbus, do These successes were hard-won, but they accom- school camping at the 4-H Camp Ohio. Both Centerville plished a great amount of publicity and education about andTri-District teachers had attended Glen Helen work- the values of natural areas. Moreover, they leftus with shops. a large and enthusiastic body of supporters, who in 1960 organized themselves into the Glen Helen Association. The credit for this vigorous growth of our outdoor The purposes of the Association are to protect Glen education service for schools belongs to Mrs. Jean San- Helen, to promote the idea of community natural areas, ford Replinger, who developed and directed the Center and to generally advance ecological education. It raises for 10 year s until her marriage . funds to strengthen the educational services in Glen Helen, and it sponsors an annual public lecture which RIDING CENTRE has featured such conservationists as KarlMaslow- ski, Stanley Cain, Harry Caudill, and Charles Mohr. In 1957, 80 acres of forwer farm land in Glen Helen were leased for a program of horseback training called THE COUNTRY COMMON the Riding Centre, and a bridle trail was routed through a second-growth region of the Glen. Now there are thr ee We are fortunate that adjac ent to Glen Helen is John riding academies in the vicinity of Yellow Springs, and Bryan State Park. Together we preserve 1800 acres in the Village's Open Space Plan envisions bridle paths the upper Little Miami Valley, and this has attracted ringing the town. other outdoor agencies to our region. Within the park now are a 4-H camp and a State or phan's home camp. The 1.1GHTING OF ENCROACHMENT THREATS Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts bought land for camps adjacent to the Park. The Nature Conservancy raised the During 1958 and 1959 Glen Helen was more severely money to buy Clifton Gorge and then ga"e that splendid tested than at any other time to date. Land that is under- scenic and scientific preserve to the State. The Village developed is vulnerable to engineering projects, such of Yellow Springs has acquired land north and south as highway's, utilities, municipal services, or dams. of Glen Helen as increments toward a future green The nearer the land is to an undistuebed natural condi- belt encircling the community. All these open space tion the more vulnerable it becomes. On the economist's landowners have since 1962 been associated as a Com- totem pole of " the highest and best use, " the wilderness mittee for a Country Common, committed to the pur- occupies the very bottom. Ten years ago the fact that bi- pose of doubling the permanent open sy)ace reserve ologists rated such resources as the most valuable of all from what they started with, and of cooperating to was generally regarded as ludicrous. Today we are in a help each other achieve the best protection and the significantly better position. New rules by the Federal best use of this beautiful region. A recent film pro- Highway Administration require State Highway Depart- duced by the U. S. Department of Housing and Urban ments to allow citizens to partinipate more fully in the Development includes the Country Commons as one process of choosing highway locations. Furthermore, of the methods of saving open space before urbanization the highway departments must maintain a list upon which takes over. any public agency or advisory group may enroll to receive notification of new projects proposed. GATHERING MOMENTUM This altered bureaucratic attitude has been forced Tospeak of a" trigger factor" that may be altering by public pressure. The pressure has mounted as a environmental relationships in southwestern Ohio is a result of struggles all across the country against the rather ambitious metaphor. It suggests an explosive powers of the economic-engineering complex. These impact. These various endeavor s at environmental ed- s'ruggles have made news, and have had a powerful ucation which I have been reporting have seemed to us 206' HUNT 197

at Antioch to be painfully slow i7 their development and A s I have said, this has been achieved, and so have 12 always short of the mark. Yet as we review them we find other such projects across Ohio. But the Ohio Chapter a cumulative effect and agat her ing momentum. I expect has created more than nature r eser ves. It has created that others who have been engaged in environmental ed- public understanding such that legislation is now enacted ucation have noted similar encouraging evidence. What to create a National Areas System to be administrated is more, our several efforts have reinforced each other by the State of Ohio. and tended to merge. One final example in testimony of this gather ing When Jean Sanford was str uggling to attract teach- momentum is the announcement by the Ohio Department ers to her Miami-Antioch Outdoor Education Workshop, most teachers saw more future in taking summer tt es- of Natural R ,sources of its plan to designate the Little skins in chemistry or math. Now Jean's successor, J. Miami as a scenicriver. Many conservation interests have cooperated through Littl e Miami, Inc. , to support Douglas Dickinson, is again arranging instruction for this purpose. I think this means that two very significant teachers in outdoor education, through the auspices of principles are becoming recognized. One is aesthetic: the Dayton Miami Valley Consortium of Colleges. Al- that government has a responsibility to safeguard im- ready the response is most encouraging. The education- portant scenic resources; the other is practical: that al climatn is chd nging. flood plains are excellent and low-cost sties for nature and recreation, and on the other hand are dan- in 1962 thefledgling Association of Interpretive Nat- gerous and extravagantly costly sites for development, uralists held one of their first meetings at our Outdoor after all ti c expenses of protection are reckoned. Education Center , with 98 persons attending. Lastyear this organization returned to Ohio for a national meeting at Hueston Woods, with a registration of 350. We have made environmental education our business in Glen Helen, and are greatly relieved to re- In 1959 the young Ohio Chapter of the Natur e Con- alize that at ?ong last we are but one of many centers servancy undertook the effort to pr eserve Clifton Gorge. of environmental education.

207 .4novel Montana venture in environmental education.

THE FALLS CREEK PROJECT

fvleridanBennett

THE FALLS Creek (Montana) Project is an at- needs new model,. f or reversing this processfor re- tempt to create new concepts and methods:or environ- integrating living and learning so as to create an eco- mF,tal education. Like many another new venture today, logical conscience in man. it is an alternative to the existing education system. Its threefold objective is to challenge students to discover On top of the foregoing challenges to education is the themselves, to create an ecological conscience in them, f act that in our co':atry the most vital environmental de- and to build skills for action. cisions are being made increasingly 14 city people. It is terrifying to realize that town row's stewards of the By the end of 1970, the Project's first year, it had environment in the United States ( and therefore the involved high school students and teachers from all parts world, since we grandiosely out-consutne and out-pol- of the United States. In environments ranging from the lute our nearest competitors ) will have little native ex- pristine Bob Marshall Wilderness in Montana to the in- perience of the whole ring of life, of which we humans ner-city ghetto,. participants learn to measure and un- are only one highly vulnerable part. derstand specific environmental conditions and to become skilled in presenting the evidence to other people. A city politician with whom I once discussed zoning They also move directly into exploration of the conflicts believed that he should work to make his city into a c ol- between their own attitudes and the needs of a healthy en- lection of special -use areas (banks here, low-income vironment. The Falls Creek Project also trains its par- housing there, rich people on the hill, and so forth). I ticipants to create a human community in order to inau- was arguing for a revision of zoning practices s o the gurate action. Under the sponsorship of the Falls Creek system of rewards and punishment would create max- Environmental Education Foundation, the Project sees imum diyersity in all areas of the city. " You mean, " itself not only as a way to change behavior and attitudes in students, but also a kind of research and development he stammered, shocked, "you'd leta $10,000 houst.. for the public schools. built next to my $40, 000 one? Never This same penchant for creating monocultur es has NEEDED: LIVING WITH LEARNING resulted in clear-cut forests, King Cotton, and sugar cane coloniesand much human misery and destruction Man's stewardship over the environment ( which we of life. In short, the muchtouted crisis of relevance in must accept as our only real choice in 1970) has increas- education appears to be in part, at least, a lack of envi- ingly produced unif ormity rather than diversity. Mono- ronmental concern in our formal learning systems.Thus, cultures, including the educational monoculture of the hicking the war habit and rewriting corporate tax law Dick and Jane reader, have become the standard. Thus, are just as much environmental concerns a s saving when the concept "environment " penetrates the educa- grizzly bears and cleaning up the Mississippi. Clearly, tional system, it becomes "conservation" and then, to we need to discover that" the environment" begins with- frequently, it is made an elective course and f orgotten in un, not at the edge of the forest. altogether along with a lot of other nice, nostalgic things like Latin and good manners in children. Eduac- It goes without saying that traditional education has tion, which tends to hallow the past at the expense of ad- failed to create an ecological conscience inWesternman; apting to survival needs, has failed to create in us an however, some non-school structur es of traditional ed- awareness of our vulnerability in the ecosystem. Where ucation ( such as boy scouts, church, student conserva- once suchvulnerability was well understood, modern tion, role- modeling, and exhortation by parents ) can man has become easy prey to schooling which separa- be changed to accomodate the new need.Likewise, higher tes intellect from value, thinking fr om feeling, living education, and particularly research, are very slowly from learning, and work from study. Education badly being chatigeo make the fruits of cerebration avail-

Meridan Bennett, of Missoula, Montana, writes and lectures on social change. He is a memberof the I3oard of Directors of the Falls Creek Project, and is the author with David Hapgood, of Agents of Change. BENNETT 199 able to the task of survival. Thar e is an Immense need, where conflict lies. In the fourth week the group moves however, for people who know how to make the needed down through the Columbia River drainage to the urban changes within traditional structures. centers of Portland and Seattle, where students conduct action research to determine what people thizk about Lack of emotional content in education has caused their own problems and what steps they are going to take a rapid explosion of new learning methods: the old-fash- t o solve them. After this intensive urban plunge, the ioned student bull session became a T-group, which students return to the Swan River valley for the final spawned encounters, sensitivity training, and" feelie " 4 days of the program to reexamine their own atti- groups. Today even staid corporations nervously esper- tudes toward the environment, and to plan an action pro- iment with OD (organization development) methods, in- gram for themselves once they get back to their home cluding ways to make their executives more sensitive to communities. They are helped by a communications each other. However, from these innovations, the moral seminar to find alternative ways of presenting them- responsibility to actconscienceseldom springs di selves to parents, teachers, and fr ienda. rectly forth to aid the badly beleagr ered environment. Finally, somewhere at theroot of the relevance cri- Out of the tensionof making groupdecisions (i n sis in education is that disturbing, unmanageable grounds volving both students and staff) on how to meet the chal- well from the young (and the poor and the ethnic minor- lenge of the foregoing structure, a community begins to ities ) demanding participation in running their own af- form, The new community must meet outside challenges fairs. Self determination, it is called, a concept absurd- as wellhovins- to do with acceptance by the people who ly contradictory yetfundamental to the life process. The live in ;.he Swan Valley. In this process of building a so- professionals are inclined to say, " You can't put the in- cial group, outsiders a' e welcome provided they are mates in charge of the asylum. Leave running the willing to be participants as well as observers. Thus, schools to people who know how. " The clients of the sys- everyone begins to assume responsibility for both suc- tem, however, are pointing the linger backat the educa- cesses and failur es. The process is made intentional by tors and saying, " It'sy_ou who are crazy" periodic encounters involving both stall and students. THE ALTERNATIVE As this is written clay one cycle of the environmental awareness program has been completed. Already, how- On the theory that the best portion of education is ever, it is evident ti lot stunents ar e capable of r ising to nothing more than some planned experiences, the Falls a high level of concern for their actions in a community Creek Project set about devising as many such experi- of r eligious, rural r eople who have little experience of ences as it could, leaving it to the people involved t o ethnic minorities andurban behavior. The group which choose. Out of a number or programs being projected has justfinished voluntarily cleaned itself of drugs. The for the next 5 years by the Falls Creek Environment- action came shortly after the staff described how the al Education Foundation, the one getting the most at- whole future of the project would be endangered by drug tention in the first year was a basic environmental use, awareness program, a 41 week course being offered twice during the summer to high school age stu- Other programs are planned by the Falls Creek Proj- dents. ect: an 8-week action learning experience in ongoing action projects (open to graduates of the environmental Each environmental awareness program takes fif- awareness program ); 2 to 3 day seminars to be incor- teen students fromall over the country. It starts witha porated in regular school curriculum presenting con- mixture of hikes and rap sessions. The staff presents cepts of wildlife and human ecology. There will also be the students with a statement of the project's purposes wilderness survival courses, an oceanographic project, and asks them to become a responsible community ded- an Indian reservation project, and travel projects de- icated to achieving that purpose. At the same time,the signed to build environmental awareness in such diverse goals of the students themselves are discovered, often locations as Alaska, Africa, and the prairies of the American west, confrontingthose of the project, in an intensiveencoun- ter training session, called attitudinalskilis training. The Falls Creek Projectwaa devised and put together by Geoffrey Foote, a wildlife researcher and former The place is the Swan River Valley of western Mon- high school teacher, his wife, Kathie, Todd Schlapf er, tana. Most of the students have never been on the edge of an ecology student, Penny Thompson, a skilled group wilderness before. Basic needc of plants and animals trainer, and a some -'hat heterodoxboard of directors ( including the students) come to the forefront quickly: (scientists, professional people, educators, and busi- air, water, food, shelter, space, reproduction, sex. nessmen) who put themselves through many of the steps They soon discover that fundamentalto becoming aware described above before students were selected for the of me's self and one's environs is the ability to perceive: first cycle. touch, taste, see, or hear, or some combination of these. Studying deer and birds and plants, and themselves a s PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER well, helps them come to value a wide variety of perceptual aids, which they learn to use. The second week they The funding program of the Project ( entirely non- ar e of f ered Increasingly far-ranging experiences during governmental so far ) is aimed at making the various ac- which they can discover the natural lows that limit or per- tivities of the Foundation open to any student or teacher petuate natural biotic communities as well as their own. who qualifies, regardless of ability to pay. During the The third week sees participants pushing outward into next 2 years 560 students and teachers will attend the settled ruralar eas to discover how the same natural laws programs, according to present plans. Of this number, influence larger human populations; at the sometime, 60 will have completed the basic 41 week environ- judicial law is contrasted with nr r:ural law to illuminate mental awareness program. 200 ENVIRONMENTALEDUCATION The Project's staff and directors have concentrated 1.Th, growth of a communications network on eight regions of the United Staten for initial selection among former participants relating to environ- of students; the purpose of or o ad geographical mental concerns; rep: es entation is consistent with the principle of diversity. Students from north, south, east, and west from 2.The involvement of ex-students in inducting the urban ghettoes and the golden ghettoes in the suburbs, and pre-training the following year's candidates high achievers and drop-outswer e chosen to attend. for the environmental awareness program; S election for the first year was done by interview alone, with a personal fact sheet being kept on each potential 3.Increased involvement of students' families participant but no formal application blank or letter of and friends in environmental concerns ( in chh- recommendation. The directors of the Foundation f elt e r words, creating, not breaking communi- that diversity of outlook and skills would be a crvcialf ac- cations links ); tor In creating e learning environment in which participants take responsibility for teaching each other as well 4.Participation of ex-students in running the as for learning. Staff and board members did all the Falls Creek Project or in creating and op- selection interviews. They also presented information - erating new environmental education centers; a'_ programs in different parts of the country to explain the project. Beyond this contact, it is expected that the 5.Involvement of ex-students in further ecolog- nucleus of students who have been through the first sum- ical action. mer's awareness program will create an" induction" system to help select the second year's participants Staff output will also be measured in several spe- a process which will develop and teat, over the course of cific ways: a whole school year, students' motivation in advance of their involvement with Falls Creek. I.The extent to which a community grows close- There is another dimension to the Falls Creek Proj- ly tied to a purpose, as against the mere cre- ect: a component designed to mesh this alternative edation of an environmental Alice's ucational experiment with the public schools. Whenever Restaurant; a staff or board member travels to a locality to interview studentR he deliberately searches out as many teachers and school administrators as he can, putting them on the 2. Case studies of staff interaction with other follow-up list and taking seriously any expression of teachers in the field; inter est on their part. At the same time parents alai friends of aspirants are urged to get together not only to 3. Evaluations of participants passing through the support the Project but also, along with their children environmental awareness program, and the and the schools, to create environmental action projects staff's ability to create new educational expe- in their own community (or to strengthen already exist- riences; ing ones). For example, several variants of the Falls Creek Project are air:lady being planned in communi- 4. The depth of staff involvement with supporters ties from which students have been selected. T hus, of the Project in the various areas cf the coun- plugged into the system, and riding the cr est of the entry from which students originate; vironmental crusades popularity, the Falls Creek Proj- ect has already been able to create some joining of 1, ter- 5. The extent to which staff challenges new groups ests between old and young, between school and commu- and individuals to examine the Falls Creek nity. Project's concept of personal involvement in environmental issues. MONITORING THE PROJECT The question of the Project's growtt rifts not yet By involving state and federal school officials, a s been tackled. Right now there is a strong feeling that well as by seeking a heavy proportion of private funding, a pilot program ought not to put the pilot ashore too the Project has got a tot of people looking over its shoul- soonthat crash-basis expansion too frequently does der besides the local residents of the Swan Valley. It is just that:, crash. At present the Project is looking for actively seeking interested participant-observers. close personal involvement among participants and a proliferation of the concepts in regional centers rath- The Project intends to measure its progress by fre- er than at Falls Creek. It All be very important to quent staff-student evaluations to determine what hap- keep track of such alternative education: will it starve pened, what went wrong, how the participants felt about for funds and dieor worse, get fat and fuse into a the experience. In addition, the following types of on- new bureaucratic empire? Will it wither away once going research will keep tabs un certain measures of its value has been transferred to other schools, or change in students: to the people themselves?

2 49, ridat Edeecareao kyr 5e069ecat ,plc

HE WORD ecatagy has been lying in the dictionary for some 100 years, but it has been only recently I that the term has begun to flit about in everybody's vocabulary, like a bat emerging suddenly from a cave into bright sunlight.Just exactly what does the word mean?What 1.6 ecology? What does it do? T.qhat can I do with it? Is it one of those complex things that only a scientist can really understand and employ, or is it come- thing within the ken of the average person ? Well, there are all sorts of approaches to ecology, because ecology is a very r ich word; that is, we can put it to many uses. Like the celebrated committee ^f blind men examining an e ephant, we can come up with all sorts of answers to our questions about ecology. From one point of view, we can define ecology scientifically as "the study of the interrelations of organisms and their environments. " This is the classic way the term is used in college catalogs, to distinguish ecology from other basic divisions of biology like physiology, embryology, and so on. In this regard, it may be helpful for us to rote that ecology is a word we derived from the Greek root "oikos," meaning "house. " So ecology is concerned literally with "houses," or more broadly, "surroundings," as opposed to cells or organs or individual organisms themselves. Perhaps the best synonym for this sense of the term ecology is: "the science of community," Odum says. Viewed a little more broadly, ecology is not simply the study o6 something; it iz that thing.In other words, the word refers in a grander sense to the makeup and operations of the living world, to "the structure and function of nature," including man himself. Or we can use the term to refer to a property of a piece of nature, like a lake or a covey of quail.By this we mean the whole complex of lii trig conditions of a body of water or a group of birds.So sce can speak of "the ecology" of a park, or a walleytd pike, and so on.It used to be that we applied this ecology concept only to living organisms in "nature. " In more recent years, we use e the term in connection with any structure or organization.So we can speak of the ecology of a suburb, or of a labor union, or of the conservation movement itself-meaning, still, the Aetation.ship between an "organism" and its environment. And thus, we come to the more philosophical meaning of ecology.In its broadest sense it is a way o6 tootling at VIA:no-a viewpoint that sees not the things themselves so much as their connections with other things. So it is a concern with processes-with the myriad of mechanisms that make up the web of life of whatever it is we are looking at.In other words, in an ecological look at an oak woodlot, for example, we concentrate on the spaces betocen the trees, spaces that are actually filled with all sorts of mechanical and chemical operations, or processes. What is more, in this eyeball shift from thing to iwameas, we recognize that the human observer himself is an integral part of the picture.So ecology really becomes a way of looking at "things" from the inside out, rather than from the outside in. Who, then, is an ecologist? Well, obviously, a modern ecologist can be a scientist, although not all scientists are ecologists by any means, not even all those who carry "ecology cards." Some " ecological" pundits are so concerned with bits and pieces of nature that they literally do not see the forest for the trees. Other professors of ecology, on the other hand, are today's leading representatives of real ecological thinking.But so are some politicians and some English professors-those who see that everything is connected to everything else. Prehistoric man was a superb ecologist. He could not run fast enough to escape his enemies; if caught, his teeth and claws were small protection.So he had to become a student of his relationship to the veldt. Peer- ing from his hiding place in the bushes around a clearing or from the opening of his cave, his science was the practical kind.His laboratory was the place he lived; the success of his observations could be measured by the fact that he made it through the night-or didn't.So, today, an ecologist can be simply arvhody who appreciates the 2-way-street relations with his environment and with all of life everywhere. He is the hunter who knows that you look for whitetails not on a prairie but along the edge of a forest.He is the fisherman who understands why DDT sprayed on a carrot patch can affect the eating quality of lake trout caught miles away. She is the housewife who sees the co.c.aection between her automobile engine and air pollution. We give this sense of interlocking community the term ccotogicat awaaene46 -an awareness that the community to which each of us belongs includes soil, waters, plants, animals-and people. Then, if we h av e an ecotogieat cone once as well as ecological awareness, we know that an action is /tight only if ittendstoprotect

2 202 the "health" of our man-land community; that is, its integrity, stability, and beautyand we ac t accordingly, regardless of what may be momentarily convenient or profitable.So what we used to call "conservation" b e - comes appUed ccotogythe ethics that should govern the relations between humans and the living landscape, the "resistance movement" that challenges anybody's right to pollute or over-populate the environment. In a nutshell, then, while there are a number of approaches to the use of the term.ccotogy, when we"take all the feathers off of it," as the saying goes, ecology is a way of looking at our world that says to us: "I ama part of my environment, and my environment is a par: of me." Out of such ABC's of ecology has come a new set of tenets or beliefs, held increasingly by t he youth of the country particularly. Grady Clay calls these new principles ecn-togic. They canbe summarized as follows:

1.Everything is connected to everything else.War in Indochina is a part of the Indiana ecosystem.

2.The earth is a delicate, closed life-support system that c annot tolerate unlimited gr owth and its wastes. Nothing can expand forever, and nothing ever really goes away. 3.All environments have a carrying capacity, a ceiling which, like bank credit, cannot b e exc eeded without dire penalty. 4. Some environments are inviolable and must not be altered by man.

5.The quality of life is more crucial than thequantity of things produced.The question is how we survive, not mere survival. 6.For the environment to survive, society as a whole must adopt constraints thay may seem radical. We have met the enemy and he is us. In short, growing numbers of Americans now see their environment as a limited resource. They know that all environment is subject to man's influence, as well as the other way around. They see all land, water, and air as invested with the public interest. They believe the quality of the environment should no longer be left to whomever happens to own a piece of it.They are determined to have an increasing voice in decisions about their environment. And that voice will become increasingly strident. This is the ultimate in ecologythe tra:Islation of esthetic feelings and scientific knowledge into political actionace-tactics.It is this dimension of education-for-action that so distinguishes environmental education, particularly at the level of adult education. We conclude this book with a look at emerging principles and experimental approaches in adult education for environmental action. "Itiscorrecttogiveadulteducationthe firstpriority."

INFORMED FORCES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY

Frederick Sargent H

THERE HAS been much recent attention given alterations.Because biological productivity could to the fact that man's behavior and h t s behavioral be enhanced in managed ecosystems by fertilizers products have given rise to a deterioration in the and biocides, their application was expanded. Then quality of the environment. As a consequence man's it became clear that excessive use of fertilizers con- perception of the resourcns of his environment has tributed to eutrophication, and that biocides had ef- begun to changs. is coming to realize that he faces fects on the biosphere far beyond their point a crisis of unprecedented dimensions, unprecedented of application. for that crisis threatens the very survival of the human species. In view of this greater ecological sen- These uses of the resources of the environment sitivity, Theobold (6) emphasizes, "it is no longer had not been planned as part of a soundly based pro- sufficient to argue that a person 'meant well' when his gram of resource management. They were under- intervention in a personal or social or ecological situ- taken by particular groups whose concerns and goals ation worsened rather than improved the atty.:anon. To- were immediate and parochial.When it became day it is necessary to possess information, knowledge clear that such schemes were leading to a depletion and w idsom before acquiring the right to interfere. " of resources and a deterioration of the environment, there arose the need for a strategy to conserve re- INADVERTENT DETERIORATION sources and restore the quality of environment. That the quality of the environment is deteriorat- CONSCIOUS INTERVENTION ing, few would dispute.This environmental condition has been created by man. He brought t t about When it was realized that the need for important before he fully realized the implications of his im- resources such as water would exceed the naturally pact.Those changeshe called them inadvertent available supply, it occurred to 'some that by con- seem to have been motivated by a religious viewpoint scious intervention in environmental processes, they which held that the bountifulness of the environment might be manipulated in Increase their yield for the was for him to draw upon and to utilize in any way welfare of man. The quest for water, for example, he desired (7).That the bountifulness of the envi- has motivated man to explore the feasibility of ex- ronment was exhaustible or that biological produc- tracting fresh water from the sea and to seek ways tivity might be disrupted does not seem to have been of modifying the weather.Modest success has a serious consideration.Ratner suddenly it became spurred him to undertake more ambitious experi- evident to him that his actions were deleterious. He ments. Plans to modify the weather, however, are discovered, for example, that there was insufficient being formulated at a time when it is becoming ev- water to fulfill the diverse and heavy demands plac- ident that atmospheric pollution from technological ed upon it by industrial processes, power generating wastes has set in motion alterations of weather the facilities, sanitary systems, irrigation, and human consequences of which can now only be dimly per- requirements. Chemical Pollution, thermal pollut ion, ceived (3). That man plans to engineer his envi- and eutrophication suddenly loomed as problems of ronment makes all the more compelling the need staggering proportions.The alternative use of the for a long range strategy for managing its resources. atmosphere for waste disposal led to air pollution and showed him that vast as the earth's air r. sourc- Whether we deal with restoring the quality of en- es were they were limited and subject to measurable vironment or with engineering the environment, the

An MD, Dr. Sargent is Dean; Profensor of Human Ecology, College of Environmental Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Green Bay, Green Bay, Wisconsin. He is a Fellow, American Public HealthAssociation, and a Fel- low, Royal Society of Health. This paper first appeared in the mimeographed Proceedings of a Conference on Wormed Forces for Environmental Quality, Green Bay, Wisconsin, March 28-29, 1988. 204 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

fundamental issue for a strategy of resources man- grams of environmental regulation by man. agement is environmental quality criteria.These criteria must be framed within the context of an ac- Consider for a moment some of the problems ceptable set of concepts about t/-e environment and of this ecological crisis in the context of t he con- the relations of organisms to that environment. For cept of fitness of the ecosystem. these reasons the criteria must be developed in e- cological perspective. ADAPTIVE CAPACITY OF ORGANISMS ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS First, there is the problem of orgaLismic a- daptation. The adaptive capacity of organisms must In the course of evolution an inseparable bondde- be judged in perspective of a geologic time scale. veloped between organisms and environment. A s Phenotypic plasticity, within limits set by the geno- the environment changed, the organisms adjusted type, of course, proviles for adjustments to more and adapted. This bond is conceptualized in the term rapid changes. However, the adaptive capacity is ecosystem. This system exhibits metabolism and past oriented and does not assure success in novel regulation.The metabolism of the ecosystem a p- environments. In the case of man, there is some pears as complex transactional flows of materials evidence that he can adapt to environments never such as water, carbon, nitrogen, and so on from before experienced. For example, the Bantu mine gold the environment through an hierarchy of organisms at 12,000feet below the surface where the prevailing and back to the environment. The energy that driv- temperatures are 32 -34° C and the atmosphere is al- es this system is solar energy captured in photosyn- most saturated with water vapor. There is also some thesis in the green plants. By these metabolic flows evidence of human adaptation to air pollutants, no- the organisms condition their environment and con- tably carbon monoxide.Evidence such as this tinually recyLle detritus deriving from excreta and suggests that man may be able to endure some en- dead bodies.:or example, atmospheric carbon di- vironmental deterioration. The perplexing question, oxide is maintained through lt...mnsumption in pho- however, `Ls one of time. The changer that he is tosynthesis. Atmospheric oxyg e n is maintained now effecting are proceeding at such a pace that ac- through its release in photosynthesis.Regulation commodation to therd may not be within his norm in the ecosystem is exhibited in the control of pop- of reaction.To this question we simply do not know ulation and in the interactions among organisms and the answer.In an evolutionary sense, selection among species. serves as an adaptive mechanism, but now there is no time for selection to act.Thus we must probe The organisms of the ecosystem are eatable of deeper into the range of man's adaptive capacity. making adaptations to environments. Across the long span of geological time, these plants and ani- Within the biosphere there are some curious mals have experienced wide environmental changes. problems that arise from differential adaptability The particular organismic composition of this sys- of organisms within a food chain (4).Several spe- tem has varied from epoch to epoch, and the organ- cies of important fodder plants have made a success- isms that have survived down to the present represent ful adaptation to high concentrations of fluoride in organisms that have made successful adaptations. the soil.The fluoride is bound in these plants as It must be emphasized that these adaptations are monofluoroacetate. When these plants are consum- past-oriented. They reflect the evolutionary exper- ed by cattle, death rapidly follows. The monofluoro- ience of the species. They provide no assurance acetate blocks the Kreb's cycle and large amounts that novel and suddenly different environments will of fluorocitrate rapidly accumulate. Citrate intox- be successfully accommodated. ication is the cause of death.The accumulation of citrate under these circumstances has been called The dependence of environment on organism, the the "lethal synthesis." The ecological implications dependence of organism upon environment; the ca- of this differential adaptability within the biosphere pability of organismic adaptation to environmental are clear. Such facts must be carefully noted in change, all constitute fitness of the ecosystem (5). evaluating the dimensions and consequenceE, of en- By this concept we mean that organisms are fit for vironmental deterioration. their environment and that environment is fit for sup- portingorganisms. There is a uniqueness about this ESSENTIAL LINKS IN ECOSYSTEM fitness. It was f irst lucidly described by L.J. Hender- son in his classical Fitness of the Environment. Second, there is the question of essential lints in the transactional metabolic flows of the ecosys- ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY CRITERIA tem. The fitness of the ecosystem stems from the continuing flow of materials from environment as These concepts provide useful bases for the for- detritus. Energy captured in photosynthesis drives mulation of environmental quality criteria.In the the entire system. Continuing receipt of this ener- first place, there is need to evaluate the magnitude gy by the green plant is essential for the operation of the deterioration for the complex transactional of the system for energy is finally dissipated as flows in the ecosystem, and the consequences of this heat.The deterioration of the environment from deterioration for human welfare. In the second place, air pollution has set in motion atmospheric altera- there i s need to develop quantitative knowledge tions that threaten to disrupt this flow of energy about the dynamics of the ecosystem, to guide man's (4).Man's detritus has begun to accumulate fast- drive to engineer an environment that will fulfill his er than it can be recycled.The concentration of needs and requirements. The criteria would consti- particulates and aerosols in the air is mounting. At tute baselines for comprehensive ecological analyses lower levels of the troposphere these derive from and investigations and guidelines for rational pro- industrial and automotive wastes. At upper levels 214 SARGENT 205 they derive from jet airplanes. Atmospheric tur- AN EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM IN ENVIRONMENTAL bidity is increasing.Haziness, cloudiness, and SCIENCES contrails evolving into cirrus clouds provide visible evidence of this trend. The consequence may be a What we have been discussing is the need to for- general atmospheric coolirg due to increasing re- mulate a strategy for resource management. This flection of solar energy.If these trends continue, strategy involved developing a deeper understanding there may be a critical reduction in energy input to of the qualities of the environment so that it may con- the ecosystem. What constitutes a "critical reduc- tinue to provide for human needs and requirements, tion" is not known. developing quantitative knowledge of the transactions of the ecosystem so that the system may be modeled Another constituent of this atmospheric detritus and the consequences of particular manipulations an- complicates the ecological evaluation of the current ticipated before they are attempted, and developing condition of the environment. Atmospheric carbon rational policies for utilizing the natural biological dioxide is increasing.By virtue of its greenhouse productivity for human welfare.The formulation of effect, the carbon dioxide may cause the tempera- such strategy requires a consortium of university, ture of the atmosphere to rise.If the present dis- industry, government, and public.The formulation charges of carbon dioxide released from the of a strategy for resource management is a central cousuription of fossil fuels continue, some authori- objective of the program of the College of Environ- ties pedict that by the year 2000 the mean global mental Sciences, UW-Green Bay. temperature will have risen 3-9° C. Such a heating would have widespread terrestrial effects. For exam- In implementing this objective the faculty of this ple, one can foresee melting of glaciers, rising lev- College will engage in education, in research, and els of the oceans, and inundation of cities. in service to the community in the field of the environmental sciences.It is the service aspects of the To evaluate the consequences of the deterioration College program that I wish to emphasize here. of the environment one must quantify the transac tional flows in the ecosystem and identify the essen- The deterioration of the environment is but one tial transactional links.Certainly the green plant symptom of the ecological crisis.This crisis has is one such important link. While the direct effect global dimensions.It is not a local problem; it con- of environmental pollution on human health is a mat- cerns all men. Indeed, the human species is the ter of great concern, we cannot overlook the indirect population at risk in this crisis. Consequently all effects.i'o fulfill his nutritional needs and require- men must be made to understand the problems and ments, man depends upon the biological productivity the implications of non-solution. The ecological a- of the ecosystem.If this productivity is disrupted, wareness and perception of man must be sharpened man may suffer more indirectly than directly. For and the ecological comprehension deepened. Nowa- this reason environmental quality criteria must be days there is too much public indifference and apathy formulated for all organisms of the biosphere, not on these matters.The problems do not seem to have just man. local implications; the problems are those of someone else. Why don't "they" do something about the MULTIPLE USES OF THE LANDSCAPE problems" Hera "they" usually refers to some governmental agency, sciercific experts, industry, and Third, there is the problem of multiple uses of the lwe.It is my considered opinion that these prob- the landscape. There is a finite landscape, and the lemsa ill not be solved until all of us become involved, impact of human activities has been flit on most of each in our own way, each having some understand- it.To fulfill his needs and requirements he has in- ing of the nature of the crisis.It is for re,sons such creasingly bulldozed, stripped, and plowed the land. as these that I suggest the solution of these problems To set up communication networks, he has crossed involves a consortium. The implication, of course, the land with highways and railroads. To provide in implementing their solution may well mean a rath- for recreation he has invaded what wild areas r e - er considerable change in our way of life,I suggest, main. His impact has caused tin. extinction of many however, that there is no ready alternative. species and has led to the confinement of other species to smaller and smaller natural areas.The What can a partnership between the university and movement of species from one wild area to another the community accomplish in this context? Several has been increasingly impeded by barriers the recommendations were made by Working Group VI farm, city, highway. The net result has been to fez' "A New Agenda for the Church in Mission" (I). reduce the space occupied by wild genes and to block the flow of wild genes. When viewed in terms of the "Furnish trained ecologists to interpret field bi- narrow food base that man now has in the form of ology and ecology to interested citizens, such as va- domesticated plants and animals, this trend has cationing families at appropriate locations."To serious implications. A reserve of wild genes is a implement this recommendation demonstration units precious resource.It is a source of genes to invig- might be developed and moved amongthe recreation- orate domesticates.It Is a source of entirely nzAv al areas of northeastern Wisconsin. These units domesticates that may someday be needed by man. could serve to expand the ecological awareness of The minimum space required to maintain wild gene vacationers by showing them just how man's impact pools is not known. The impact of the landscape was acting on an area apparently far removed from barriers on the flow of wild genes to not known. In- plates where environmental deterioration was most deed the ecological impact of multiple uses of the publicized.For example, how many vacationers re- landscape is not known. The study of what Odum alize that their outboard motors are most inefficient? calls landscape ecology thus becomes an imoortant Some 10-30 percent of the gasoline these motors con- focus for the environmental sciences. sume passes directly into the lake or stream to 21 206 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION pollute the water with raw gasoline. problem and then taking decisive steps that will maximize the well being and minimize the hazardsto the "Urge mass media to introduce conservation survival of human populations.Because the prob- conscience and land ethics in their programs and lems of the deteriorating environment are global hertising." As a public service the mass media rather than local, they mustbe perceived and under- devote space and time to ecological problems, but stood by all people and the people must agree to be the space and time are neither adequate nor prime. involved in the decision-making process. Because To be effective the presentations must be timely, the problems are complex their solutionwill involve continuing, and show evidence of progress at the a working consortium of government, industry, uni- level of the community. veristy, and public. The solution cannotbe areturn to an earlier stage of human history.The direction "Offer short courses and clinics on ecology to of time's arrow is irreversible.The solutions conventions of service clubs, churches, banks, and would seem to lie rather in improrLagthe efficiency insurance companies, city and county managers, of use of energy, in learning ways to more complete- and political leaders." Through these short cours- ly recycle wastes into the dynamics and adaptability es and clinics the ecological awareness of local of the ecosystem so that realistic goals can be setfor leaders could be increased. The pay-off would be regulating the quality of the environment. Man in- more ecologically rational urb...rt planning and leg- deed now holds his destiny in his own hands. What- islative action. ever the strategy he adopts, there will be profound changes in his way of life. These action programs for education aim at the adults of the community. Although the important role of the younger members must not be overlooked, the Pmphasis on adult education is appropriate. REFERENCES The pace of environmental deterioration is accelerating.There is an urgency to initiate remedial programs. The decisions made in the next two or three 1. Hall, C. P. , Human Valrics and Advancing Tech- decades may well spell man's destiny.For the s e nology (New York: Friendship Press, 1967). decisions to be rational and successfu:, it is, therefore, correct to give adult education the first priority. 2.Henderson, L. J. ,The Fitness of the Environ- The Working Group, however, made tio recom- ment (Boston: Beacon Press, Inc., 1958). mendations about educational programs for young people.In spite of the urgency of the present ecological crisis, I think that it is important that eco- 3.Sargent, F. II, "A Dangerous Game: Taming the logical concepts and experience be introduced into Weather," Bulletin, American Meteorological the programs of the local grade and high schools. Society, 48:452-458, 1967a. Here the objective should not be to begin teaching ecologists. Rather it should aim to enhance awareness and understanding of these young people regard- 4.Sargent, F. II, "Adaptive Strategy for Air Pol- ing the concept of the ecosystem and the meaning of lution," Bio Science, 17:691-697, 1967b. natural resources and their usefulness of human welfare.They should come to appreciate the variety of landscapes and the diversity of their uses, the sig- 5.Sargent, F. 11 and Barr, D. M., "Health and nificance of their preservation, and the consequenc- Fitness of the Ecosystem," in The Environ- es of their misuse.I am pleased to note that the ment and Man (Hartford, Connecticut: Trav- Board of Education of Green Bay has just such a plan elers ResearchCenter, Inc. , 1065), pp. 28-46. in mind. We at the University intend to work closely with teachers in the schools carrying out their plan. 6.Theobald, R. "Compassion or Destruction: Our Immediate Choice," in Human Values and Ad- EPILOGUE vancing Technology, compiled by C. P. Hall, 1967. Man is the agent of this ecological crisis. Be- cause of it he is at risk. He must develop a strategy for coping with the crisis. The strategy involves 7.White, L. Jr. , "The Historical Roots of Ecolo- first recognizing the nature and dimensions of the gical Crisis," Science 155:1203-1207, 1967.

21 "A force for worldwide environmental improvement."

A CROSS-CULTURAL ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION MODEL

Noel P. Ralston and Ivan R. Martin

RAPIDLY SHRINKING distances between Obviously, the splintering off of one genuinely con- inhabitants of space ship "Earth" preclude our plan- cerned group, then another, is an effective deterrent ning for long-run environmental improvement as one to the unity necessary for effective action.Thorn is nation.Planning must include methods for develop- only one way to promote unity and, through unity, ob- ing worldwide unity of thought in regard to the impor- tain an improved environment. This is through unity tance and problems of maintaining a satisfactory hab- of thought. Each segment of our system must recog- itat. A modular-type educational program devised nize the sincerity of purpose and the problems of the and developed by American scientists and educators, other. but adaptable to all cultures and comprehension levels, can be a strong force for worldwide environmental improvement. The effectiveness of this approach was de m o n- strated recently when an irate Chicago citizen heat- ENVIRONMENTAL IMPROVEMENT IN THE edly took the editor of a forest industry magazine to LONG RUN task for his position pertaining to the redwoods. The People throughout the world are exhibiting grati- editor accumulated a wealth of factual information fying concern over environmental quality.The U. S. from highly regarded authorities in ecology, forest Department of Agriculture has planned and held management, and conservation and presented them learned discussions by and between recognized ex- methodically and logically to the Chicago preserva- perts in ecology, government: lconomics, planning, tionist who, basically a logical person, then viewed law, education, and other discipline s. UNESCO the situation with more light and less heat.Large sponsors similar functions in recognition of world- scale application of the person-to-person education- wide aspects of problems pertaining to influences on al process is not, of course, feasible. More rapid the biosphere. Many other equally important se s - diffusion processes must be adopted.Without wide- sions have stressed the immediate need for actionto spread general appreciation of the problems accom- reduce the eroding of man's physiological and psy- panying environmental improvement, we will continue chological stature which results from his fouling of in a series of impasses while our environment dete- his environment. riorates. There is normal and expected resistance to such By standing apart and viewing the diversity of at- proposals for change.This comes primarily from titudes of the people involved, it is obvious that the the proponents of the status quo who fear the obvious complexity of their relationships at their present lev- inzreased dollar cost.This is understandable. To els of ecological knowledge exceeds the complexity overcome this resistance in the past, some ecolo- of ecological relationships themselves. How t hen gists, conservationists, and preservationists joined can we achieve unity of purpose toward a better en- together in the standard theme of "What is a dollar vironment? The only avenue open to us is worldwide for industry compared to a diseased lung or, indeed, appreciation of the ecological system and man's po- to a human life?" This labeled industry people a s sition as an increasingly influential component. A profit mongers (or worse) and tendedto alienate them wavering step in this direction would include mutual from the environmental improvement camp. appreciation of each other's problems that arise as we progress. The theory, for example, that in- Recently, there is evidence of divisiveness ap- creased product prices will reimburse industry for pearing among those historically working together. expensive smoke abatement installations is obvious- The trained ecologists and conservationists (and we ly not sound if that industry is competing for world include "wise use" in our definition of conservation) markets. Perhaps competing industries in other are often accused of "infidelity to the cause" by the countries are not concerned about air pollution, yet preservationists. they are selling to the American who refuses to pay

Dr. Ralston 1. Deputy Director of Science and Education, United States Department of Agriculture. Mr. Martin is Coordinator, Natural Resources Programs, Federal Extension Service, U. S. Department ofAgriculture. 208 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION the higher local price he has helped create. When situations. Tc maximize the fill and drill, it is es- the smoke maker and the smoke breather can under- sential that we create experiences which willprovide stand and calmly discuss each other's problems, inductive mechanisms for utilization and instrumen- progress begins, and we have taken a step toward tation of systems. People can then use these to build understanding the worldwide nature of the problem. a sequential matrix for their advancement and prog- But this step only underlines the potential good that ress. can result from a broader understanding of the interrelationship of all of the components and inhabitants Cardinal to education's three basics are four func- of the biosphere. tional processes to improve the mental powers of people.They are (1) absorptivethe ability to ob- A carefully designed groundwork of factual eco- serve and apply, (2) retentivethe ability to memo- logical information available to age groupsfrom pre- rize and recall, (3) reasoningthe abilitytoanalyze, school through postdoctoral levels or the equivalent compare, and judge, (4) creativethe ability to vis- can significantly increase the general level of know- ualize, foresee, and generate ideas.Educational ex- ledge pertaining to this complexbut easily understood periences which proceed in sequence through allfour subject.Understaading can replace differences and of these stages of mental growth can lead man toward establish alliances between groups now holding op- wise use of the resources of his total ecological sys- posing positions. tem. He will recbgnize the need for equilibrium With this thought uppermost, a generalized model within and between the competitive-complementary (See Figure 1) is offered which sets forththe overall cycles of nature. concept of the natural resources of the biosphere. Broad applicability of the model can be maximized The model can be used to systematize and rational- by modification of the characteristics on the abscis- ize thinking about man's fundamental requirements sa to make them apply to the cultural, educational, and necessities.Man is the hope for fostering a and economic levels of the involved country, state, complementary balance within the total ecological parish, or other geographic or political subdivision. system. This requires the following: This model presents a matrix with the ordinate reflecting the classical organization of study of our 1.Analysis of Each CountryLocal educational natural elements and ecology.It ranges from the leaders must make a thorough analysis of their very general and simple at the top, to the very spe- culture, value systems, etc., and specific educa- cific and complex at the bottom. On the abscissa is tional systems.This latter system represents a general breakout of peoplecultural levels, age the point of entrance with highest potential f o r of people (the life cycle), and the three significant gaining the understanding so much desired. way* of reaching people of allages and stagesintheir respective cultures. Contacting and influencing the 2.Cost Benefit AnalrsesThe components of minds of people occurs to a great degree through the each country's socia' and political systems must formal educational system, the informal educational be determined. Appropriate information about system, and general information. rational use and conservation of natural resources can be introduced at that point within each of these The intersection of each point on the ordinate and abscissa represents specific interplays and interac- systems that will result in the highest degree of tions of people in their natural environment. To fa- understanding and wise use. This is required to cilitate their phenotypic response, education is the provide the best return from the re sources invested. process. "module" or "block" of information re- 3.Getting Attention of Key Decision Makers lating to ecology and to our obvious environmental The society of each country is a large-scale or- improvement needs can be designed complete vrith ganization. The three basic elements for growth teaching aids, materials, and homework, (or mass of an area can be identified and developed. These media materials) to appeal to and be understood by three elements are (i) the people who benefit from people in their natural environment in any age group the utilization of the knowledge taught, (ii) t he or comprehension level. To be effective, each mod- people in the organizations who are working with ule must be developed by professionals infields with the specific areas of knowledge, researching and strong ecology links in collaboration with educators teaching them, and (iii) key governmental officials knowledgeable ia methods effective at a predeter- at all levels.All three should be made aware of mined level. Also, to be effective, careful deter- the basic idea that wise use of natural resources mination of use of the correct modules must be made will permit people to devote their energies tobet- by competent local educators or officials. Each ter endeavors. Key decision makers will quickly module can then contribute, along with reading, 'cit- realize that such a shift will help their people live ing, and 'rithmatic, toward strengthening the total a fuller life with greater appreciation of nature, knowledge level of the individual. more enjoyment from recreation, and more satis- Let us see how this system is based on fundamen- fying use of leisure. time.These, in turn, can retal educational processes. The three basic processes sult in fewer frustrations and a reduction in the of education, or Improvement of mentalandphysical number of dissidents and revolutionariescondi- powers, is to "fill," "drill," and "build." T he tions sought by local power structures. minds of people must be filled with information, 4.Use of Accepted ChannelsSpecific modules facts, etc. They must have the opportunity for re- of educational materials can be developed and in- peated practice, utilizing such information and facts troduced, into all phases of the educationalsystem, in order to get them set in their minds. Then they as well as the general information system.It can utilize this knowledge in various conditions and would not be feasible to substitute natuzal resources

211Ft- FIGURE 1. GENERALIZED MODEL OF THE OVERALL CONCEPT OF NATURAL RESOURCES OF THE BIOSPHERE ILLUSTRATION OF MODEL FOR ADAPTATION ILLUSTRATION OF POSSIBLE MODEL TO A COUNTRY'S SITUATION TROPICAL* TE1VIPENAT5 LID* 2a.LUILLAJ.FULdb FOR U. S. A. I" J /UM, Effective in Train- .,..,.5 to-ab0*a Effective- in Train- 5 (GI Effective Methods .5719 a60* Effective MethodsfiComprehension "517s.-F-' ahi): Level ingPeople and Influencing .. -4,;" ingPeople and Influencing .il -a-. -4 $.. -4 I.. ° a $.. 44 i"C I.. M 0Es4 awb .;-i 4.1 0t,, i"5Iej M18E f,ti .t.ri o,%) E '5 f., "I-,-.3 o?, to 4.ii N.o a2 ._, 0{11C3a te A Simple relationships and X 0X CO-ill ...t0 0 X g., X X0 U3-0 ,..tn. t3 X N 0Xt U3 .34C14ti, 0 X /4 0 X COCl.ti, X /4 CB NaturalElementary Resource Specifics Apprecia- per-tablingLand,needs ofAir, to plants interdependency Water and animals: JuniorIntermediatePrimaryPreschool High and X X X XX XX X X XX X X X X X X X ED SpecificsConservation and Planningand wise useneedstion and practices UniversityHighSchool School XX X X X X X XX X X X - XX X X X F Specifics and Planning needsConservation and practices and wise use GraduateOtherOther . X ------X X X X X X X X X XX X ------4' G More Specifics succw.3sSubstituteConservationBroader Planningunder here thosethe local conditions. conditions or hurdles (literate-nonliterate, ethnic, cultural PostOther PhD X X X X religious,X etc.) and "X' the blocks offering the best opportunities for X X X X X X X ** "ProgramHENSIONEXAMPLES Aides" refersLEVELS* OF OFFERINGSto sub-professionals, BASEDvillages, ON localleaders,communities, COMPRE- and etc. others , with who local could, groups, through schools, special and clubs.training, assist professional personnel by working in B. Eggs hatch so we can have more eggs, CO2C.:xygen- cycles, water cycles, plants need nutrients forvious controls; air, water, field and visasplants, land pollutants animals, and need hab- A. Simplified interdependency necessarytionshipsfulness,milkuing foreffect contin- existenceand pride asofeggs, examplesactions inand helpful accomplishment, enjoyment. and of bugs ecologicalreactions , of relationships.)consideration, children's rela- cleanliness, Wherehelp- we ge t C. Organized Clean-Up Fix-Up, identificationoftrees,formation.Enfilterwe supply woods, ob-"Dick to Field usefish, and themtrips Jane"and wildlife.tofor with see food conservationerosion, and feed, farm etc.in- s, D. Introductorynetics,tors,itats, land-fills.needs, Sociology, Geology, relationships, Anthropology, Biology, sewers, Meterology, Government, incinera- Ge- (Continued on next page. ) 210 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION (Figure 1 Continued) and methods can be developed for enhancing t he Water Run-off Control, Feed Conversion Ratios, importance of environmental improvement in the Nitiogen Cycles. minds of students in each of the grades or levels E.Microbiology, Organic and Quantitative Chemis- of the higher education system.This can include try, production efficiency of soils, climate con- college, university, and postdoctoral levels. trol.Sociology, Demography, Appreciation of contribution of other related disciplines such as 7.Informal Educational ProgramsThere is a Landscape Architecture and Engineering. definite and growing universal need for an informal educational system (continuing education, F.Continue specifics and add relationships i.e., adult education, extension, etc.) which relates Riparian rights, macro - system's, social action to the formal educational system, to all levels of processes. government, and to the people in their respective communities. Environmental appreciation can be G.Socioeconomic relationships, rt:Itural resource an important part of such systemsprssently in use planning, city planning (open space, transporta- and others as they develop. tion, crowding effects), city and rural zoning 8.General InformationThe mass media (news- principles, politics of river basin development, papers, periodicals, books, radio, television, and appreciation of contribution of all related etc.) can most effectively bring to the attention of disciplines. the people of a country the elements of their en- * From Figure 1. viron,fient and the total ecological system in such a way that they can see the need for wise use of natural resources. General information programs are extremely valuable in creating the corporate subject matter for such basics as langua3e and image and motivating people.These can be so de- mathematics, but ecological relationships can be signed that people may not even be aware thatthey used as examples in teaching the basics. Many of are being educated in wise natural resource use. the simple stories for children can relate to fundamental ecological relationships.This same 9.The Corporate Image and Wise Natural Re- process should continue throughout the total range source UseCompetitive-complementary cycles of experiences of young people in informal and exist among the components of the total ecologi- general educational programs. cal system. The existence of these cycles must be foremost in the minds of our people. Man is 5.Research and EducationProfessionals i n destructive when he devises resources which up- ecology and related fields can develop organiza- set the balance of natural resources. Converse- tional arrangements promoting close liaison and ly, man-made resources can help maintain the rapport between the research and educational staff equilibrium which must exist to support man and in ecology and the research and educational staff his society. in education. Such a relationship can be most effective in developing appropriate materials and Our forward thinking ecologists, along with con- techniques for teaching ecology to each age level. cerned educators, can join in developing a powerful force for environmental improvement. The broadly outlined system described here invites further de - 6.Formal Educational Pro ramsIn line with velopment, modification or replacement by a better items 4 and 5, appropriate ecational materials system.

220 "There is need for recognizing the nature and dimensions of the problem and developing new approaches toit. "

CONSERVATION THROUGH ADULT EDUCATION

CharlesA. Dambach

ALTHOUGH W E have developed many mech- The universities, I believe, can make a spec i al anisms such as the free press, conferences, work- contribution in this area.Several have in post-grad- shops, town meetings, meetings of organizations, uate programs, as td there have been a number of public hearings, and the courts for resolving con- special resource institutes or seminars offered. flicts, it is apparent that many conservation prob- There is need for the resource agencies, organiza- lems are not resolved by these means. There is, I tions, and interested foundations to get together with believe, need for improvement of all of these mech- the univers!ties to e stablish a basis for filling this need. anisms and for development of nonpartisan referral systems to which the interested citizen can turn. I want to emphasize that while resolution of con- The report prepared by a group of scholars on the servation conflicts through adult education generally Rampart Darn controversy at the request of a con- seems to be in a confused state, there are excellent sortium of conservation organizations is an example. materials and excellent programs. There is need for In this instance, 15 organizations acting through the recognizing the nature and dimensions of the problem Natural Resources Council of America contributed and developing new approaches to it.Forces compet- funds to conduct the study.Although all of them ing for public favor in conservation matters are not are primarily concerned with wildlife and aesthetic likely to alter their approaches.Thus, we need to resources, there appear to have been no restraints develop better mechanisms whereby the biases a r e placed upon the investigators.There are other ex- identified and the basic concepts and facts inv-Ived amples. The study and report of t he League of are made clear. Scientists and educators in speaking Women Voters on Lake Erie and the Citizens Poto- out on conservation issues through their professional mac Planning Guide prepared by the Conservation journals, through the mass media, and through par- Found; lion are objective guides to resolving c on ticipation in formalized adult education programs can servation conflicts. contribute significantly to the solutions because of the public respect they enjoy. They need W be encouraged I believe that scientists and the educational institu- in this effort through support from sources not com- tions they represent can make a nctable contribution mitted to any resource bias.Support from similar by offering their services it. orgarrzing and conduct- sources is needed to enable unfettered adult education ing educational programs for adults whichkeepthern groups dedicated to examination of conservation con- informed before controversy sets in, to offer unbi- flicts to enlarge their efforts.Internal policing of ased information when it is needed, and to referee what goes out to the public from "conservation organ- conservation conflicts when appropriate. izations, " government agencies, and private business, through impartial review by competent scientists, Increased opportunity for conducting adult educa- would be helpful.Finally, mass media, particularly tion programs for communities, at least on an ex - public television, promise.,mechanism through perimental basis, is now possible under Title I of which conservation issues can be presented gener- the Adult Education Act. Through t he medium of ally with a minimum of bias o r with a balance be- television, there is the opportunity of extending a- tween biases. dult education from the classroom to the parlors of the nation. There are few clear-cut conflicts in conservation.Resolution of these conflicts thus necessarily I believe there is a special need for formal adult involves carefully considered value judgments. There education programs in which professionals in disci- is an obligation by all concerned to give t he public plines which impinge on resource planning and man- decision-maker such judgments.I believe w e will agement may learn enough about related fields that come nearest to that goal if everyone concerned with better understanding will result and new insights will education at all levels strives for the development of be gained into the multidisciplinary character of re- a national philosophy which in the words of Irving K. source problem-solving. The biologists, the econo- Fox, "feels an inhibition against damaging our phys- mists, the engineers, the geographers, and others ical and biological environment and a responsibility concerned are too often at odds on these matters. for leaving it better than when he arrived. "

Professor Dambach is Director of the School of Natural Resources, the ONio State University, Columbus. These remarks are takenfrom a longer paper by the same name which appeared in tile September, 1968, BioScience. 221 "The weak linkin.ourresource management effortisthe information function."

NEEDED: CITIZEN CONSERVATIONISTS

Durward L.Allen

AS PROPRIETORS of North America, we I suppose the only reasonable answer is this: We have custody of a great freehold. How we handle it are after the best possible living standard for every will identify us in times ahead.Probably the most individual.Such a statement identifies a worthy goal exacting demands on our skill and conscience are in but does not define it.How could anyone describe an dealing with replaceable natural assets, those that idealized life pattern for the future?This involves can be improved in use through biological process- personal attitudes, and for each of us standards are essoils, waters, forests, ranges, wildlife, an d likely to change with time.For my part, I cannot ac- scenic beauties. cept a common viewpoint: I doubt that the output and consumption of material goods is a satisfactory meas- Historically, the management of renewable r e - ure of living standard.It is a part of our well-being, sources has been a threshold of frustration and de- but there probably are more fundamental things. Surely, lay.Accomplishments, often good in themselves, good health is the greatest beneficence that modern fitted only by chance into any reliable outlook f or science has to offer.No doubt a quality existence in- tomorrow. There has seemed to be no plan at work, cludes being well fed, well clothed, and well housed; nor even a comforting philosophy. 1.--t space and pleasant surroundings must also be high on the list.In social terms, we take for granted all Despite the difficulties, we must invoke what fore- the freedoms that are a part of human dignity. Free- sight we can in resource use, and in terms of major dom from work is not one of these. issues I think we have much to work with. Our context is the field of human, or resource, ecology. Resource problems are Characteristically a na- This is a developing scientific discipline concerned tional concern. At local level they frequenti; are with relationships of humanity to the total environ- obscured and fragmented by provincial attitudes and ment.Characteristically, it involves synthesis and politics.It seems right to expect of any government generalization.Inevitably it includes conceptualtri- that it consider responsibly the needs of the whole al and error. public and use our unmatched technology to plan a- head for human welfare. Surely a century hence is The ecologist is aware of his limitations, but he not beyond our limits of responsibility. is learning to distinguishrightsfromwronga. I suspect he knows considerably more now than anyone Assuming that there is a science of environmentcan apply.If this is true, then a weak link in our al relationships, how does it go about its problem resource management effort is the information func- solving? Probably you could not get the same answer tion that should be telling the customers what they from any two people. However, I thinkthere are basic need to know. Information people strive with great aspects of the population-resources equation on which diligence to sell the conservation idea.But it prob- many thoughtful persons could agree: ably is good for anyone to have an occasional review of premises and a more critical focus on the issues. First, we are dealing with a strictly limited quantity, the finite earth, its space and raw materials. To put first things first, what is the objective of our concern with the resource environment? What To this we apply our atom-age culture, a variable do we want for mankind now and in the future? of bewildering complexity that includes our industry,

Dr. Allen is Professor of Wildlife Ecology, Department of Forestry and Conservation, Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana.He was recently awarded the Wildlife Society's Aldo Leopold Medal for outstanding service in the cause of conservation.Thia statement is excerpted from his "Natural Resources and the Cult of Expansion" which appeared in the December-January, 1968, The New York State Conservationist. 222 ALLEN 213 science, and all we do to make resources useful. looking upon the stork as a bird of good omen." Another variable is the number of people who di- It goes almost without saying that the best any- vide the benefits, today's steeply ascending curve of one can possibly do in damping the population boom population. will not be soon enough.Meantime a line is to be held; there is a program of quality control to be ap- Finally, a living standard is resolved from rela- plied with judgment and courage to the human envi- tionships of the other three.The concept can be ronment.In North America we have great posses- represented in this way: sions that will cost us little to keep but much to lose.

Resources X CultureLiving Standard The most perishable amenities of this world are Population its open spaces and quietudes, its greenery, pure waters, natural rivers, wetlands, wildlife, and choice scenery, its dwindling modicum of true wil- It is common knowledge that over half the earth's derness.Substantially, these are what President inhabitants are perpetually hungry, and that on this Johnson has characterized as "natural beauty." Na- continent we have the highest living standard of any tionally they are the out-of-doors we use for recre- major area. The relationships I have cited are ination.Locally they may be the charm of the pleasant herent in some calculations by sociologist Philip M. countryside or well-groomed city. Hauser, of the University of Chicago. Hauser states that all the goods and services now available in the Since pioneer times this landscaping has graced world would support about half a billion people at our our inherited estate as a luxury we could afford. Its level of living.Yet the total population of this planet dollar value is difficult to pin down. It is vulnerable now numbers 3. 5 billions! to attrition by piecemeal decisions, which assume that a little more of one thing or a little less on an- Since the resource professional is trying to raise other won't really matter. living standards, and since he is working with an earth whose space and raw materials are fixed, it be- This public attitude is an honest one. Our lead- hooves him to consider how many people he is trying ership in resource affairs is largely a thin line of to serve. He must be concerned with what is happen- mercenaries, where there should be backing in depth ing to human numbers. by citizen volunteers.Most of today's universities are centers of technology, rather than philosophical thought. The vast majority of young people go through school with no exposure to the biological re- It is unthinkable that we should fail to cope with alities of human existence or the natural world. They the population problem in decades ahead. Our only assume the duties of citizenship with little under - approach is through the birth rateit must be dras- standing or feel for the order among living things tically reduced over most of the world, as we con- a necessary basis for workable attitudes toward tinue to promote good health and prolong life among human and resource husbandry. all peoples. There is reassuring evidence that once a high level of education and material prosperity is Holding or salvaging the most fragile values in attained, a lowered birth rate will tend to be main- our environment has become an emergency issue tained.Hence, such accomplishments will be, in a first in time because the headlong impetus of our measure, self-perpetuating. makework enterprise has no built-in controls.Our history and success have fostered a certain a r r o- Today's challeige is to make known at home and gance toward the native wilderness of our homeland. abroad the overr .ding urgency of what must be done. North Americans are commonly so bemused with A few far-sighted people have fought on tills frontfor the charm of bringing straight lines and square cor- several decades. They deserve an uprising of sup- ners to the chaos of natureour bulldozerkampf port that can originate only in North America. that they have no idea where it should stop. Among choices to be made, it seems essential to dissipate If a downward trend in population could be achiev- our wasteful momentum in doing more of everything ed, the imperative demands of our proliferating e- we know how to do, useful or not.In the resolution conomy should ease.This need not be a disaster in of values, man's mastery of the earth will pay him any sense. Economists are becoming increasingly greatest tribute when he achieves the forbearance to interested in the mechanisms that such a situation leave some of it alone. would involve. Economist-demographer Joseph J. Spengler of Duke University points out that favorable economic trends are not dependent on steadily increasing numbers of people.In effect, a limited popula- The way is opening ahead, but the vast bulk of tion could stimulate demands for goods and services humanity is not informed.In fact, on this continent almost indefinitely through better living.Spengler the best educated people in the world are bumbling ended an address to the Industrial Conference Board ahead under an expanding economy slogan that still in New York this way: largely ignores space values, fails to distinguishbe- tween quantity and quality, and regards overflowing "In the future, economic growth will depend main- masses of human beings as a consumer base essen- ly upon invention, innovation, technical progress.... tial to "prosperity." We still have the hang-on at- Population growth will probably play an even smaller titude toward land that the "highest use" for any role than I have assigned it in earlier discussion. It acre is to make it yield dollar tribute in the form is high time, therefore, that businessmen cease of something that can be used up and rep lac e d.

223 214 THE JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

This is our wastrel era, which people of the fu- the frantic demands of the population emergency are ture are unlikely to admire. On a different plane, abated. and under a different rationale, it is as much a me- first, dollars-for-today program as was that of the As a general guideline, if we are able to muster exploiters of the late 19th century. We have conned the control to preserve and improve in reasonable ourselves into a state of mind whereby it is popular degree the esthetic features and recreational open to dignify the "user" and deride the "preservation- space of this continent, it is likely that many other ist." It seems a doubtful hazard that too much of aspects of the resource management program will anything is going to be preserved; many things could fall into place. As a critical reality, any major ac- over-used. complishment of this kind will require support by millions of informed citizens; and on that score, the difficulties are increasing. We have a vital problem cf communication. Pen- ple must be kept in touch with the out-of-doors and conscious of their privileges as owners of it.Our Inevitably we come back to the proposition that up-to-date conservation story tells of human numbers, in man's future there is to be an ecosystem whose quality living, quantities of resources.It describes basic relationships will resemble those in the na- how we monitor our status and progress by careful tural world.In our world too, the healthy develop- inspection of our range. The story will have to be ments will be toward stabilitya state in which input told by spokesmen who know whereof they speak.I equals output.It is evident thatwe are going to have have no doubt that all of us who take on this critical population control.The question is how soon, and information joban be most effective if we hold our- how much we will have left to work with when it be- selves keenly aware of a fateful missionthat the comes effective.Our science can rise to its poten- message concerns the greatest challenge which man- tial as the boon and salvation of mankind only when kind has yet had to deal,

2 2 4 Some citizens may be a lot smarter than we think.

EVALUATING A UNIVERSITY EXTENSION CONSERVATIONPROGRAM Bruce T. Wilkins and Richard J. McNeil A C HAN GE in behavior is a major goal of edu- TABLE 2 cation.Such change will occur only after an individ- PERCENT OF RESPONDENTS IN DESIGNATED ual or group gains new knowledge relating iu this be- OCCUPATIONAL CLASSES havior.Cooperative Extension educational programs are largely fir ectedtoward changing people's behavior BuffaloRochester Total in a given situation.Recognizing this as the primary goal, it seems valid to determine if the knowledge of Occupational Class (N=79) (N=30) (N=109) participants in Cooperative Extension programs increases, and, if so, to what degree. Professional, technical, or kindred workers 34 47 36 To help answer these questions, New York's Co- operative Extension educational programs on wildlife Craftsmen, foremen, and management were evaluated. Pre- and posttests kindred workers 18 10 15 were administered to persons at three educational meetings, portions of a series held in March and Operative and kindred April 1966 (see Table 1). workers 15 0 11

The meetings in Rochester and Buffalo were part 10 7 9 of a series developed for per sons owning land in nearby Retired or student counties for recreational purposes. Each of the pro- Housewives 4 13 6 grams in the Binghamton series had relevance to developing lands for wildlife.In this series the Pretest Clerical and kindred was administeredpriorto the first lesson and the post- workers 5 7 6 test was taken at the concluding session, 7 weeks later. MET HODS Sales workers 6 3 6 A pretest and identical posttest consisting of 25 true Managers, officials, or and false questions were taken by those at the Rochester 6 3 6 and Binghamton meetings.At Buffalo, some of the proprietors group received the pretest, the remainder thepost- Farmers 1 7 3 test(four took both).Buffalo and Rochester respondents also provided information on personal charac- Service workers 1 3 2 teristics. Total 100 100 100 The content of the tests included material on wildlife resources and a section on personal characteristics of the respondents. percentages being "craftsmen, foremen, and kindred CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS (Buffalo and workers," or "operative and kindred workers" (see Rochester ) Table 2). Occupation Cooperative Extension Membership Attendees responding were largely "professional," In New York, membership can be taken out in Co, or "tech-nical or kindred workers," with substantial operative Extension Associations at a fee of $5. 00 or

TABLE 1 MEETINGS AT WHICH TESTS WERE ADMINISTERED, 1966 Length of wild- Number of Length of life portion of Interval between Location participants total program program pre- and posttest Rochester 35 11- hours x 4 weeks 11 hours 14 hours Buffalo 89 11 hours x 3 weeks 30 minutes 11 hours Binghamton 28 '2 hours x twice weekly most 3 weeks x 3 weeks

Drs. Wilkins and McNeil are Assistant Professors in the Department of Conservation, New York State College of Agriculture, Cornell University, Fernow Hall, Ithaca, New York. 22. 216 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION TABLE 3 owning land, most owned under 100 acres. The mean acreage owned by Buffalo attendees was smaller (but PERCENT OF RESPONDENTS OWNING not significantly at the .025 level)than that owned by SPECIFIED ACREAGE the Rochester attendees (see Table 3). Length of Ownership Buffalo Rochester Total Acres owned (N=84) (N=35) (N=119) Almost half of attendees had owned their landless than 5 yearsmost had owned the property for less 0 r 14 9 than 10 years. 1 - 24 29 9 24 Interest in Wildlife 25 - 49 11 3 8 50 - 99 20 28 23 Interest in game for hunting was greater among 100 - 149 17 20 18 the Rochester group (see Table 5). We know no rea- 150 - 199 5 9 6 son for this difference.One might have anticipated 200 and over 11 17 12 the reverse situation, as professional, technical, and Total 100 100 100 kindred workers tend toward lower participation rates in hunting than do craftsmen or operatives (1:38). The Mean aereb 111 95 greater interest in viewing wildlife among the Buffalo ;coup was accompanied by a greater likelihood of having a structure on the property (Buffalo 80%, TABLE 4 Rochester 43% ). PERCENT OF RESPONDEES BY YEARS OWNING A GIVEN PARCEL OF LAND Management Practices for Wildlife

Buffalo Rochester A higher proportion of the Rochester group had Years of Ownership (N=74) (N=28) carried out certain practices which may increase wildlife populations (see Table 6). Less than one 0 11 Achievement on Tests 1 - 1. 9 11 17 2 - 4. 9 35 28 The average score in Rochester and Binghamton 5 - 9. 9 14 14 was significantly higher on the posttest than on the 10 - 14.9 19 4 pretest; in Buffalo no change was noted. The changes 15 - 19.9 5 14 in mean scores are shown in Table 7. 20- 29.9 14 4 30 - 39. 9 3 4 In each of the three sessions certain topics upon 40 or more 0 4 which test questions were based were not covered 101 100 during the meetings. Dropping these questions (2 in the case of Binghamton, 6 at Rochester, and 11 at Buffalo) resulted in the scores noted in Table 8. TABLE 5 Performance on Test Items REASONS FOR INTEREST IN GAME ANIMALS The proportions responding correctly to individ- Percent Indicating Interest ual questions in the tests are shownin Table 9. Three Buffalo Rochester questions (Questions 11.16, and 20) were answered Interest (N=81) (N=30) correctly before any teaching was done by over 90 percent of those responding. This was true for each Viewing 68 56 meeting. An additional eight questions were cor- Hunting 48 56 rectly answered by over 80 percent prior to teach- Other 6 0 ing (Questions 3, 5, 9, 10, 13, 17, 20, and 25). Only two questions (4 and 19) were answered incorrectly TABLE 6 by more than half of those taking the pretest (except PERCENT OF RESPONDENTS WHO HAD CARRIED at Buffalo, where 54 percent responded correctly to OUT A SPECIFIED PRACTICE Question 4).

Buffalo Rochester Summing the pretests and posttests from the three Practice (N=76) meetings indicated significant knowledge gains (.025 (N=27) level) for eight questions (Questions 1, 2,4, 5, 10, Planted Trees 76 89 17, 24, and 25).This gain held true at each of the Planted Shrubs 45 59 three meetings. A significant loss of knowledge was Planted Crops 19 41 indicated for Questions 7 and 14.This too was con- Stocked Game 9 4 sistent at each of the three meetings. It is difficult to explain the apparent decrease in less.In both counties most people in attendance were understanding for the two questions. We believe that not Cooperative Extension members. More of the in both cases the concept was fairly complex but was Rochester attendees were members (47%) than those only cursorily discussed at the various meetings. at the Buffalo meeting (18%). Attendees may have gained only enough knowledge to Land Ownership recognize the concepts but not to evaluate details of the questions, thus incorrectly marking "T" f or Those attending the Buffalo and Rochester meet- questions whose wording required an "F" answer. ings typically (over 85%) owned some land. Of those If the questions had been worded so as to require a 226 WILICINS and McNEIL 217 TABLE 7 SCORES ON PRETESTS AND POSTTESTS Maximum possible Percent County score Pretest Posttest Increase Buffalo 25 19.6 (n=35) 19.6 (n=58) 0 Rochester 25 18.8 (n=34) 21.3 (n=29) 13* Binghamton 25 18.4 (n=28) 20. 7 (n=27) 12** *Statistically significant at .025 level using one-tail test. **Statistically significant at .005 level using one-tail test. "T" answer, we might have seen a measurable in- Attendees gained knowledge from these meetings. crease in understanding. The speakers presenting material could have assumed a higher beginning level of knowledge. Future DISCUSSION meetings should reflect this through increased depth The Buffalo and Rochester meetings reflect the of coverage and more sophisticated discussion. wide variations existing today between Extension The very small increase in score for the Buffalo audiences and also indicate certainsimilarities. audience suggests that 30 minutes is about the min- Professional workers were most common and few imum length of time which should be scheduled for farmers were present.Extension membership was presenting materials of this sort. A failure to re- not usual although more common among Rochester tain knowledge should be guarded against, possibly attendees.Leaders in Rochester had held meetings of interest to this audience in prior years, and doubt- through distribution of printed material. less more of their residents could identify values in These audiences clearly were not the traditional belonging to Cooperative Extension.Persons at the farmer audiences of Agricultural Extension pr o - meetings were not normally "new" owner s,but grams. Information on plantings for wildlife, in- many had held their land for less than 5 years. cluding techniques, would doubtless be well receiv- Planting of either crops or shrubs for wildlife had ed.Actions appropriate for the early stages in been undertaken by roughly one-half of those attend- planning and developing a r"ral property would ap- ing the Buffalo and Rochester meetings. The higher peal to a high proportion of future audiences. interest in hunting by Rochester attendees was matched by greater activity in plantings favorable to game The participants reacted favorably to being test- animals, particularly planting of crops. ed.None objected to the time spent, and many found the experience interesting.Since no names The portions of the three meetings at which test- were requested, the respondents did not feel threat- ed information was presented varied from 30 min- ened by the possibility of achieving low scores. utes within a larger meeting to a 6-evening, 12-hour course. The test results were useful in determining levels of knowledge of this type of audience and, there- In all meetings a high proportion of the audience fore, in designing appropriate materials for future selected correct answers to most questions before presentations.In addition, the results gave a good the meeting started.This indicated a higher level indication of the effectiveness of teaching of various of knowledge by attendees than we hadanticipated. aspects of the subjects considered. This simple All groups indicated in posttest an increased knowl- and effective tool should be used more frequently edge in areas to which they were exposed,butthose for planning and evaluation of environmental educa- receiving the most information (Binghamton) did not tional programs. display the greatest proportionate increase in test scores.It is believed this is partially a reflection REFERENCES of the greater time lapse between presentation and 1. "Outdoor Recreation Resources Review C o m - posttesting in that instance but may also be due to mission, National Recreation Survey," ORRRC the higher initial level of knowledge of the Bingham- Study Report No. 19, Washington, D. C., 1962, ton audience. 394 pp. TABLE 8 MEAN SCORE OF PRETEST AND POSTTEST INCLUDING ONLY QUESTIONS COVERED TO SOME DEGREE IN LESSONS Maximum possible Percent Location score Pretest Posttest Increase Buffalo 14 11.8 (n=35) 12. 7 (n=58) 8* Rochester 19 13.9 (n=34) 16.3 (n=29) 17** Binghamton 23 17.3 (n=28) 19. 5 (n=27) 13*** *Statistically significant at .01 level using one-tail test. **Statistically significant at .005 level using one-tail test. ***Statistically significant at .025 level using one-tail test.

227 213 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION TABLE 9 PERCENT OF ATTENDEES GIVING CORRECT RESPONSES (AVERAGE. OF ALL THREE MEETINGS) Percent Correct Correct Pretest Posttest Question Number Answer (N=97) (N=114)

1.Ecology expresses the idea of an interdependent group of organisms living in the same environment. T 79 93*

2.Ecological principles may safely be ignored when solving renewable resource problems. F 73 59*

3.The process whereby different plant species replace each other in 4:1 area until a stable stage exists is called plant succession. T 88 91

4.It is the final stages of this process which are preferred by our most popular forms of wildlife. F 39 73*

5.The stable stage of plant growth which finally drminates an area is called climax vegetation. T 84 97*

6.All energy pyramids owe their existence to the presence of green plants. T 71 78

7.In the energy flow of the food chain, a pound of clover becomes a pound of rabbit which, in turn, becomes a pound of fox. 1 76 56*

8.Prey species have a higher reproductive rate than their predators. T 63 60

9.In conservation, "carrying capacity" refers to the number of pounds of game the average hunter kills. F 86 92 10. Stocking more squirrels will permanently increase the carrying capacity of a woods for squirrels. F 87 97* `\11. The area within which an animal lives and moves is properly called that animal's home range. T 97 97

12.Sustained yield is the maximum number of animals that can be harvested from a given area for a long period of time. T 79 80 \ 13.Wildlife numbers are increased by providing more vegetative "edges." T 89 94 14. A renewat\ je\ resource is one that willnever wear out; willcontinue forever. F 61 43* 15.Wildlife is mO7 productive on land that has rich soil. T 59 66 16.In our State, wild .: \nim als such as rabbits and grouse belong to the landowner. F 96 97 12 Annual stocking of ga.7 is usually not needed in good wildlife areas. T 84 97* 18.All organisms have the :oacity to increase their numbers beyond the point where their environmnit can support them. T 77 85

19.Fire is generally detrimental to deer habitat. F 31 31

20.Good deer habitat includes much brishland, with a mixture of forest, grassland, and other vegetative type):, T 98 100

21.In the usage of a wildlife technician, "wadlife" is defined as the higher, or vertebrate, animals. T 61 63 22.Virtually everything done positively for game M.imals\ benefits other wildlife, too. ,\ T 90 95 23.Planting wildlife shrubs always results in more pheamits. F 66 68

24.Annual stocking of game is usually the cheapest way to gixxi hunting. F 76 92*

25. Game populations are best increased by management of vegelion. T 86 97*

2 2 8." Effective presentation of range ecology to the layman.

A SELF-GUIDING COMMUNITIES APPROACH

LeonardR. Askham

I WILL NOT insult your intelligence by As the program progressed the children began to quoting abstracts of current education theory.If feel more at home in the woods and were able tc ex- you are interested in education, you probably know ert more of their Individual characteristics. Som e the basics better than I.Instead, I will show you, adapted faster than others and some learned faster through my experiences, a better way of develop- than others, but several things became clear. The ing self-guiding nature trails. children had to have a goal, a central theme, a sys- THE EDGE OF THE CONCRETE tematic association, and a transition for learning to take place. When you design a self-guidingnature trail, you must keep two things in mind. The first is that a nature-trail-user is there to learn; nothing more and The goal or objective was important because the nothing less.You are not concerned about what mo- children had to know what they were going to do for tivated him to participate; that is the psychologist's the day. They had to have a theme or "big idea" to bag.All you have to remember is that people learn guide them because taking a walk and looking at plants because they like to learn.The second thing to keep was not good enough. The theme or "big idea" had in mind is that most of the tr ail-user s are urban orien- to be tied with an association that the children could tated recreationists whose lifestyle is firmly fixed to understand; an association with which they were fa- the television set and the automobile. For this millal..The most successful association that Ifound recreationist, the edge of the concrete signifies the was a community. The children live in a community, edge of the wilderness. have a community of friends, and the community controls their lives.By starting out each session with THE CHILDREN'S RECREATION SCHOOL this community approach, more progress was made than without it.For example, the children know how Over the last 2 years, I have been directing a na- many people live in their house or apartment building. ture study program for the University of California's They know how many houses or buildings there are in Children's Recreation School. Three hundred chil- their block.With a few well-placed questions, the dren attend three, 1-hour activities eachmorningfor children soon develop a concept that the ,people in 5 weeks. All of these children come from upper, mid- their house are a family, that the families living in dle-class families.In addition to these 300 middle- the apartment building are a community, that this class children, 40 ghetto children are sponsored by apartment is part of a large community of apartments the University so that they may participate in thepro- and families. From here, the transition t o biotic gram.Unlike the middle-class children, these chil- families, communities, communitis within com- dren are so poor that we must find them swimming munities, and finally, an ecosystem is not difficult. suits, shoes, and even a sweater on cold mornings. A tree easily becomes an apartment full of living I make this distinction clear so that there will be no families of birds, animals, and insects. A creekbe- mistake in your mind when I make the next statement; comes a moving highway of 'if e. there were no differences in the children's reactions on their first nature walk. As far as the children All of the children exhibited the same 1 ear ning were concerned, they were in a wilderness. T he progress. When shown a new tree, they had to touch only tie these children had with the real world was and smell it; they had to tell each other about it. One their guide, who represented a figure of authority tree was not enough. The children had to find anoth- and a symbol of security. er tree just like the one they were just shown to see

The author is Education Coordinator for the Botanical Gardens and a graduate student in conservation ed7iFilia, The University of California, Berkeley. 220 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION if all of the trees with the same name looked al i k e, and we are evaluating our education programs as we Next, several different trees were found and the go.Each of our tours is tape recorded so that we process of observing, communicating, and compar- can evaluate the program's progress. A small tape ing repeated until they had enough information to recorder, carried over the shoulder of the guide, organize the different trees into groups or families. causes little comment from either children or adults. Sometimes the children would experiment by trying These tapes enable us to review each session f or to see if they -,ould match trees and leaves together. unanswered questions, repetitive .questions or The childrer.'s favorite questions were "Why does background comments missed or overlooked by the this tree grow here? " and "What good is it?" And guide during the tour.Soon, most of the bugs will always, we tried to find ways in which the informa- be worked out of these tours and self-guiding trails tion given could be applied to their everyday lives. put in their place.Audio tapes will be placed in permanent cabinets.Each tape or "mini-lecture" RESULTS OF THE CHILDREN'S SCHOOL will last less than 5 minutes and be written to elicit a behavioral response from the user.From these Out of these 2 years of work and reflection, five responses, we will be able to effectively eval- things are apparent to me: (1) that all of these chil- uate each station along the trail. dren showed the same, edge-of-concrete skepticism of the wJods when the program began, (2) that all Other research on learning behavior in the Gar- of these children needed a single idea or theme for den indicates that people read very little and their learning to take place, (3) that all of these children attention spans are not great.Long complicated ex- went through the same learning stages; observing, planations are only given a cursory glance. Scien- mmunicating, comparing, organizing, ex per i - tific names have no relevance to the layman and menting, inferring, and applying, (4) that learning are easily forgotten. The average time spent was faster when two or more previously-known facts on any display in the Garden is 3 minutes, and dur- were associated, and (5) that each child wanted to ing that time, the individual stops at four specific know how he was doing. points. This means that he, or she, spends an average of three-fourth's of a minute looking at the THE UNIVERSITY BOTANICAL GARDEN simple explanation of a plant or group of plants. The knowledge gained working with these chil- If you are building or designing a self-guiding dren has been beneficial in developing new education nature study program, you can probably expect the programs for the University of California's Botani- same results. Not more than 3 minutes w ill be cal Garden in Berkeley. The Garden's emphasis has s pent at each station along the trail.Most of the recently changed from one of pure research to one of information will not be read by the user. Scientific research and education.The Botanical Garden is no names will be forgotten, and the lait par t of the longer a museum but a teaching tool and outdoor lab- trail will be rapidly finished. oratory for teacher and student. For the local school child, the Garden has become an extension A NEW SET OF GUIDELINES of the classroom. Out of this research I propose a new s et of Drcp in tours are developed for childr en and adults, guidelines for designing and building self-guiding who do not live close enough to the Garden for weekly nature study programs.I propose that when you or monthly visits. The tours last 1 hour and cover build, you use the following procedure: less than a quarter mile. Only a fraction of theGar- (1) Start with a community relationship that den can be seen during this time, so tours are di- everyone knows. vided into sections ur areas; the California section, the Australian section, the African section, etc. By (2) Develop a central theme around this knowing that the tours are divided into sections, the relationship. teacher can choose the section which best fits into (3) Associate each station of the trail with the the class sequence. This type of program enables theme and the commuillt7 relationship. the teacher to prepare the children before the Gar- den visit and gives her some idea what she can talk (4) Tell the user at the start of the trailw hat about after thc. isit.Each visit is tailored to fitthe. he will be able to do after he uses the trail. needs of the class. Each tour has a themea simple theme which all (5) Use no more than six stations along can understand. r ring the tour, only four topics, the trail. related to the central theme, are discussed.In the California section of the Garden the theme is plant (6) Make your explanations short and simple. communities. The four topics might include thered- (7) Encourage the user to become involved by wood grove, the successional growth in ponds, t he using his senses (touch, smell, taste, sight, uses for food and medicine by the Indians, and the hearing ). uses animals find for plants.Each topic is present- _.ci the same way for children and adults by systemat- (8) Evaluate the trails effectiveness through ically combining known relationships to form a new the users performances, idea. (9) Do not let your nature trail become a museum piece. BOTANICAL GARDEN EVALUATION A nature trail is for the user. Why else would An important part of any program is evaluation, you build it?

2 8 0 The natural history of the Susquehanna Environmental Education Association.

A NATURE CORPS FOR PUBLIC ACTION

Nancy Ayers

ARE YOU aware that many conservation mat- The first project was to find out what wasand ters to be considered by the United States Congress was notbeing done about conservation in the area. come before the Committees on Interior and Insular For the purpose of this report, "area" refers pri- Affairs in the Senate and the House o f Representa- marily to Broome County because SEE activities and tives, chaired b y Senator Henry M. Jackson and membership have focused there, but it should be noted Representative Sidney L. McFarland? that the name " Susquehanna Conservation Coun- cil" was deliberately chosen to avoid a strictly local Can you name the local, state, -, i federal rep- connotation.It was felt that the natural boundaries resentatives from your district? a. are their of a regional watershed were more appropriateto the positions on conservation issues?le they know issues confronting a conservation organization. where you stand? Have you recognized that laws "Council" was used to indicate the goal of bringing are as basic to conservation as education? together local conservationists for better understanding and reinforcement ot activities. No conservationist worthy of the name can ignore these and similar questionsbut how do youfind the So, for a year we talked and talked and talked. answers? The following account is a condensed his- We learned about the related federal, state, and tory of the Susquehanna Conservation Council as it local agencies, and what they said their programs evolved into a citizena' volunteer corps to publicize and responsibilities were. We sought out legislators ecological and environmental problems in this cor- and got acquainted with what they were doing. We ner of New York and to encourage cooperative solu- listened to preservationists, isolationists, recrea- tions in the public's bee+ interestand ultimately to tionists, sportsmen, scientists, teachers, adn inis- change its name to the Susquehanna Environmental trators, the Chamber of Commerce, and the news Education, as its comes of age on its fourth birth- mediamany of whom had a singular point of view. day. We sifted through this mountain of conflicting opinion and prejudice, and concluded that something was It was curiosity that got Vie Council started. And still missing. stubbornness and sheer oieriness that kept it going, in spite of being categorfzed as do- go oders an d Since we believed that the conservation needs in rabble-rousers amid the perennial confusion about both the fields of education and legislation were nei- the definition and goals of conservation. SEE began ther clear ror realized locally, SEE adopted bylaws its fifth year of operation in February 1970 proud to February 8, 1966, for these specific purposes. To have overcome some of its growing pains and pleased encourage maximum participation, membership fees over the increased awareness of the importance of were set modestly at $5Single, $10Donor, $25 or conservation in our daily lives and in planningfor the moreBenefactor, and $1-Student. future. Another year was spent in more research, dis- Who are we? Originally, a small group of sci- cussion, and groundwork. With very few members ence teachers, college professors, youth leaders, ( 37) and very little income ($347 ), SEE comentrated garden clubbers, and concerned citizens who were on issues directly connected with local conserva- called together by the Garden Center of the Rober- tion problems. Our attempt to for m a coalition with r e- son Center for the Arts and Sciences in Bingha.mtcn, lated groups was unsuccessful.It remains uncomfort- New York. The initial meeting in 1964 introduced ably true that some avowed conservationists have tun- the idea of a nature center for outdoor education in nel vision in their fields of special interest, despite their Broome County and raised the question of identify- technological proficiency. So we began thinking about ing the county's conservation needs. changing our name to better identify our pur pose.

Mrs. (Joseph G. ) Ayers is Executive Director of the Susquehanna Environmental Education Association ( SEE ),and a member of the New York State Special Commission on Conservation Education. 2317,;. 222 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION The next year SEE picked up a few more mem- to do with that accomplishment, SEE again sent out bers and a few more dollars (nearly all from mem- a legislative questionnaire that fall.Because of re- bership dues), and went on to the complicated busi- districting, all Supervisors were facing the polls with ness of trying to stimulate community action through 35 candidates in the race. SEE was still askingabout a public information program. Here again, we ran a county conservation education center for outdoor into trouble. How can you possibly be an unbiased studies, but had added several more controversial pressure group with a membership of diverse inter- issues to the list.These included the suggestion that ests and abilities? Even if you resolve the d" .culty if Congress does not designate the Susquehanna and of consensus, how do you succeed in getting informa- Chenango as scenic rivers, Broome County should tion to the voter, legislator, public official, educator? do so for its own benefit. SEE also proposed county zoning for flood plains, scenic easements, open space, Publicitythat was the next lesson. We went to and park lands, and water and sewage districts; and the news people and asked for their ground r ule s . an annual tree planting program along county roads We learned their methods, their deadlines, their in- to restore, replace, or improve existing plant mate- terests, and their names, and did our best to coop- rial.Twenty-two candidates responded, and the an- erate with them. We didn't necessarily always agree swers were more thoughtful than the year be f o re. with their advice, but generally we took it.There is This was interpreted as an encouraging signthat these a very important reason for this.Editors and re- proposals would be carefully considered. porters have the last word on what is presented in the news media. Understanding and working with In its short, precarious existence SEE has also them candidly is the only practical way of gettirgyour succeeded in having a number of its suggestions in message across to the mass audience.It takes great the educational field accepted. Under Title IlIof the patienceon all sidesto achieve success with pub- Elementary and Secondary Education Actof 1965, the lic information, but it is an absolute imperative if a Upper Susquehanna Regional Supplementary Educa- national ecological conscience is ever to be developed. tional Service Center (serving 9 New York State counties) added a conservation film library, a pro- Broome County is fortunate to have two dailynews- gram on the wildflowers of the State with slides and papers, four television stations, and four radio sta- script, an unique series of nature trail markers de- tions, because it is a mish-mash of overlapping po- veloped to arouse the students' curiosityand most litical subdivisions including one city, two villages, exciting of alla Sciencemobile, a specially designed 16 towns, 19 school districts, one university, on e and equipped Mobile Field Laboratory for teaching community college, and approximately 225,000 peo- conservation and natural history. ple at the latest tabulation. Not all of them were wildly enthusiastic about conservation nor our desire The Sciencemobile is a Volkswagen van with built- to publicize the related issues. in shelves, carrier rack, and boxed units for specific study purposes.It is equipped with all necessary For example, you may think what you are doing materials for a class of 30 students, ranging from is a big deal, but who else cares about anotherboard waders, collecting jars, and butterfly nets, to bin- meeting, another lecture, another film? What they oculars, microscopes, and identification guide s. were telling us was to make some hard news andpeo- Through the Title III office at Roberson Center, the ple will listen."Hard" news is not necessarily con- Sciencemobile is available to any teacher in the par- tro7ersial, but it is current and directly affects the ticipating school districts.In-service classes have community. When you tie conservation to a local is- been offered to acquaint teachers with the equipment, sue, it gives it a clearer frame of reference, and then and a detailed teaching guide is in preparation. One you have really got something going for you. Pro- of the most successful users of the Mobile Lab has vided, of course, you make certain that all media been the Johnson City School District under the i r are properly and regularly informed, and reminded Science Coordinator, Terrence T. McCormick( A zon tactfully but repeatedly on each issue you raise. Road, Johnson City, New York 13790). Never take anything for granted. In cooperation with the Title III office, SEE com- Utilizing this approach, SEE sent a legislative piled a Selected Conservation Bibliography for Broome questionnaire to all the county supervisory candidates County which was made available to teachers, con - in 1967. They were asked if they endorsed acquisi- servationists, and other interested individuals.It tion of a fifth county park site, a county nature cen- included a county map with a list of suggested field ter, a natural resources survey, a county conserva- trip sites to stimulate outdoor studies. tion commission, and continued roadside spraying of herbicides for weed control. A majority of the 33 Another continuing advisory project is the devel- candidates for the 19 supervisory positions favored opment of the two courtyards at the Endwell Junior the first four items and opposed the last one. De- High School.For 3 years a student committee has tailed results of their answers were widely pub 1 i - been planning, working, and paying for landscaping cized prior to the election. When the new board took the main courtyard. The youngsters have faced such office in January 1968, SEE kept in touch and kept difficulties as what to do about a dead dogwood tree asking questions.The following April, the Board of which was to have been the center of attraction, and Supervisors passed enabling legislation (Local Law where to put 300 spring-flowering bulbs when an acute Number 4 of 1968) establishing the Broome County drainage problem was discovered in November. They Conservation Commission of nine members ( believed had better luck with previous plantings of rhododen- to be the first such county commission in the State) dron, azalea, mahonia, and viburnum, and are using to serve as an advisory committee to the Board on the courtyard for band concerts, art shows, and sim- natural resources and environmental management. ilar activities. A weather station is being considered, and it is hoped that the other courtyard can be d e - Since we like to think we may have had something veloped as an outdoor laboratory emphasizing native

232 AYERS 223 plant material. Now there is talk about developing tation to the entire County Legislature in October a nature trail on a nearby creek bank.This time it which is another example of evolving from one meth- is the principal's idea! od to another, because the ends justify changing the means as often as necessary. It may be a cliche, but one thing does lead to another.At the Maine-Endwell Senior High School in While the above project was going on, mostly be- the same district, there have been more field trips hind the scenes, SEE was conducting a related cam- last year ( ranging from the sewage. treatment plant paign for a 17-mile linear park along the Susquehanna to an isolated bog); there was an experimental con- River throughout Broome County. Actually that was servation course presented to local level students; a bit of a trick because we didn't expect a public park and there were 50 student volunteers who helped of that dimension, but our primary objective was to nearby homeowners clean up and seed the banks of generate controversy on the subject and to make con- Patterson Creek. Motivated by the Teach-In and servation benefits visible to the general public. What Earth Day, some 15 students have formed a Conser- they don't see as a direct benefit, they are not likely vation Club to learn more about the problems an d to understand or support. A riverbank par k would find out what they can do. come within a mile and a half of 80 percent of the country's population f or hi king ,fishing, boating, Also under educational activities, a committee of swimming, biking, picnicking, and just plain resting. SEE board members and consultants prepared abroad If anything will ever catalyze interest, this should be proposal for the development of conservation educa- itand finally, there is tangible r e sp on se. The tion and nature study sites on a countywide basis for County has authorized studies for both anlaterpretive the consideration of the County Conservation C o m - Nature Study Center and a Riverbank Improvement mission. The purpose is to seek an integrate d effort Program, and the current budget carries allocations by the County Legislature, the Board of Cooperative to implement the projects. Educational Sezvices, Broome Community College, and other educational institutions to share the respon- Following its earlier opposition to the indiscrim- sibility for meeting these needs. The county has inate use of herbicides for weed control, SEE went centrally-located land which could be designated for on record in May 1969 opposing further use of DDT educational purposes. The Parks Department initi- and related toxic chemicals u nti 1 conclusive data ated an interpretive nature program last summer. show that there will not be harmful effects on man BOCES has the .Mobile Field Laboratory. Broome and his environment.Letters expressing this posi- Tech has related facilities and staff.Nobody has a tion were s'mt to the New York State Health Commis- program coordinator to bring the components together. sioner, the New York State Conservation Commis- sioner, the Broome County Legislature, and the This led to the SEE "Leadership Live-In" at the County Conservation Commission.Subsequently, the Rogers Conservation Education Center in Sherburne County Executive declared a moratorium on herbici- last year.With the joint cooperation of the New York dal spraying for 1 year and instructed the county at- State Conservation Department through John A. Weeks, torney to determine the County's legal ability to re- director of the center, and Project R. A. C E. (Re- strict the use of DDT.County agencies have now gional Approach in Conservation Education, 113 W. discontinued using both. When chlordane was sug- Liberty Street, Rome, New York 13440) directed by gested as an alternative pesticide, we went to press Jerry E. Passer in the Title M Program of thelllion with toxicity and persistence figures. School District, SEE attempted to show Broome County leaders conservation education in action. A These illustrations show the major areas of SEE small but responsive group of 35 people visited the activities. We experimented with various otherpro- center, most of them for the first time. The theme jects, but these emerged as the most necessary and of the conference was "Community Action for Con- the most effective. We certainly didn't win them all, servation Education," with the first panel discussion but our problems are better described as slowdowns based on "What and Why?" and the second on "Who or retrenchments rather than losses. By our defini- and Where?" (The resource book used for the dis- tion we never had anything to lose! cussions was Community Action for Natural Beauty which is available from the Superintendent of Docu- Since SEE is primarily an advisory roup, mea- ments in Washington, D. C. 20402, 40 cents each. ) surements are difficult, but in 1968 membership and income doubled (125 people and $800).Last year Preceeding this meeting, a group of Hillcrest El- and this, we are holding steady. Obviously the As- ementary School sixth-graders from the Chenango sociation is small, and its working membership is Valley School District took an overnight field trip to even smaller.Its success has been made possible the Rogers Center. The first student group to use by the generous cooperation of many expert consul- the dormitory facilities developed by Project tants. Except for policy changes, the business of R. A. C. E. at the Center, the youngsters planned the the Association is conducted by the Executive Board entire trip, including their meals and the itinerary. which includes a president, vice-president, secre- Their enthusiastic response was reported to the SEE tary, treasurer, executive director, director for con- conference by one of their teachers. servation education, director for public action, and chairman of the scientific advisory committee. Sub- Though only one legislator of the many invited ac- committees are appointed only as needed for special cepted, the group represented a broad cross-section projects. As pointed out earlier, it became increas- of the community, and out of it developed a cadre of ingly apparent that our name didn't clearly define our people and pictures to recreate the experience f o r purpose. Despite some qualms about side effects key legislators and educators at follow-up meetings the change has been accomplished with relative ease locally. Two such meetings were held with county and general acceptance, even to the point of attracting legislative committees in July, followed by a presen- some new members. 233, 224 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION Doubtless there are still some who consider all a State Department of Environmental Conservation. conservationists as "nature fakers" and "whistle They are good examples of the enlightened legisla- tooters, " but we are sufficiently alarmed by Dr. tion SFE advocates. On the national level pending Paul R Ehrlich's Population Bomb and Dr. Barry bills were also evaluated, and of the five issues SEE Commoner's Science and Survival to believe that we supported last September, four are now reinforced must take organized action. We'must recognize al- by law (Environmental Quality Act, Endangered Spe- so that we cannot all operate on the same scale of cies, Water Quality Improvement, and Population magnitude as the Colorado Open Space Councilor the Growth Commission). The fifth category which was Citizens Committee W Save Cayuga Lake. Any size concerned with pesticides has not fared so well and group is valuable if it is active, flexible, and objective. is among those now being reviewed for a cur re nt Federal Legislative Report. Copies will be available Education is one key; public information is the from the Association at 616 Pheasant Lane, Endwell, other with enlightened legislation as the goalas New York 13760. exemplified by the national activities of the Friends of the Earth. Two of the bills supported by SEE were All of these things are important in theconserva- passed in New York last yearThese were the Tem- tion "package," and we must redouble our efforts to porary State Commission on Youth Education in Con-. sell it.Just because some joker said the missing servation and an amendment to Article 14 of the State link between pithecanthropus man and civilizedman Constitution, known as the Conservation Bill of is us, we don't have to let it be true.Getting started Rights.This year the Commission has been extend- is the hardest partbut we know it can be done. ed and a major new program authorized to establish How about you?

23,1- Theinsidestory of twonationalpublic opinionpollsonenvironmentalissues.

THE ENVIRONMENT: WHO CARES? WHY? SO WHAT?

Ed Chaney

IN RECENT years conservationists, environ- environmental destruction picked up steam. mentalirts, ecologists, and others have basked in the attention of the mass media. Environmental is- DDT advocates were still saying they were for sues moved off the sport pages and for thefirst time people and against cabbage worms. The Federal commanded more space than the bowling s co r e s. grants-in-aid plan to assist municipalities in con- Huntley-Brinkley aired the plight of the Everglades. structing waste treatment plants fell flat on its face. Co:servation was in at long last. The utility industry had virtually won by default their design to give the country hot running streams de- Everybody was for it.Politicians stumped on it. spite reasonable alternatives. Every year air pol- And when the band wagon came by, industry, govern- lution continued to kill scores of people, jeopardize ment, and every conceivable organization jumped on it. the health of millions more, and cause billions of dollars in property damage while industry busily As the resulting barrage of newscasts, press re- shelled out $35 million a year to fight air pollution leases, speeches, industry advertising, and televi- control and preventative restrictions. sion spectaculars began to flood the public with the nation's environmental crises, the longtime conser- In spite of the obvious burgeoning public concern, vationists began to savor the delicious taste of success. still far less than 1 percent of t he Federal budget was going to programs even remotely related to en- It mattered little whether the mass media's e n - vironmental cleanup, and yet these were among the chantment with environmental issues was the cause first to feel the bite of the economy ax. or the effect of growing public concern.To many, if not the majority of conservationists, this was the According to the script, the unprecedented ex- fruit of their labors.Get the message to the public posure in the mass media and growing ranks of or- and in the American tradition the good of all would ganized conservationists were manifestations of triumph over the greed of few. Mankind before money. burgeoning public concern. But the growing conser- Voice of the people and all that.The squeaky wheel vation crises and legislative sloth were all too fa- gets the legislative grease. And the United States miliar trademarks of public indifference. would be off toward developing a rational environmental ethic. Faced with this incongruous backdrop, the Nation- al Wildlife Federation planned two national public A series of sweeping conservation victories in- opinion polls to plumb the public's attitudes about cluding the Land and Water Conservation Fund Act, the environment.The first was conducted by t he the Water Quality Act of 1965, and a Redwoods Na- Gallup Organization during the last ten days of Jan- tional Park lent credence to the euphoria of a national uary, 1969.The second during the first eight days conservation renaissance.It was a sobering scene, of the following July by that other organizationwhich however, when working conservationists began to in- shall remain anonymous pending possible litigation dulge in rudimentary mental gymnastics and found over use of its name. environmental degradation had actually accelerated while they were under the influence. Li general, the Gallup pollsters found more than 85 percent of the public was concerned with the cur- The polluters and their pollutants were more soph- rent state of the environment. About half (51%) of isticated, but more rapacious than ever.Under the those interviewed were "deeply concerned" about watchful eyes of self interests, much beneficial state the environmental effects of air pollution, water and Federal legislation turned out to be a veneer de- pollution, soil erosion, andwildlife destruction. An- signed to take the heat off while the Juggernaut o f other 35 percent said they were "somewhat

Mr. Chaney is Director of Information, The National Wildlife Federation, Washington, D.C. 226 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION concerned, " and 12 percent were "not very con - When the public was asked if programs for i m - cerned. " prove ment of the natural environment receive to o little, too much, or just the right amount o attention When asked how much they would be willing to and financial support from the government, more pay in additional taxes earmarked to improve the than half ( 52%) said too little; 5 percent too much; natural surroundings, almost three out of four indi- 22 percent the right amount; and a significant 21 per- cated they would be willing to pay something. And cent were "not sure. " this included approximately 63 percent of those with annual family incomes under $5,000.Fifty-one per- Asked to evaluate the environmental effects of DDT cent were willing to pay $10 or less; 18 percent $50; and other "long-lasting" pesticides, 45 percent said 4 percent $100; 9 percent none; and 18 percent "didn't they have had a bad effect; 9 percent a good effect; know" if they would be willing to pay or not. 23 percent not much effect; and 23 percentwere "not sure." Even though the chemical industry is working When shown a list and asked to identify what they hard to foment fear of urban control over agriculture, thought to be the most pressing environmental prob- 40 percent of the people in rural areas say DDT and lem, air pollution (36%) and water pollution (32%) other persistent chemicals have had bad effects on the were ranked problems one and two with pesticides environment. Only 9 percent felt they've had an over- (7%), preservation of open green space (6%), wild- all good effect. life preservation (5%), soil erosion (4%), a n d "don't knows" (10%), bringing up the rear. Nearly one-third (29%) reported that air and water pollution have affected the personal enjoyment of Control of auto exhaust and chemical and indus- their surroundings and their lives. A big 68 percent trial wastes were major remedial measures offered said they had not, and 3 percent were "not sure. for air pollution.Stopping industrial pollution, e n- forcing present laws, and passing new legislation Asked if they would be willing to accept a $200 per were the primary opinions offered to correct water year increase in their families' total living expenses pollution. to finance environmental cleanup, only 22 percent answered affirmatively, while 65 percent rejected the Wildlife preservation was considered to be the proposition. Willingness to pay increased in propor- most pressing environmental problem by only 5per- tion to decreasing amounts: 32 percent would pa y cent of those interviewed.This in spite of the fact $100; 42 percent would pay $50; and 55 percent would that over the years wildlife has probably been the pay $20, 35 percent would not, and 10 percent were subject of more sustained so-called conservation ed- "not sure. " At VO, a regional comparison shows ucation effort than other environmental issue. To Westerners (63 o) and Midwesterners (65%) more wildlife managers, interesting is hardly the word to amenable than Easterners (57%) and Southerners (39%). describe the public's opinion of what can be done to correct the problem: enforce game laws 40 percent; A second, more specific alternative was offered to reduce hunting 25 percent; establish wildlife reserv- test the public's willingness to pay for environmental es, parks 20 percent; controlair andwater pollution rehabilitation. An overwhelming 77 percent said they 7 percent; other answers 9 percent; "don't know" 16 would not be willing to pay a $2 monthly increase in percent.(Total exceeds 100% due to multiple their electric bill to stop air and water pollution from response.) electric power plants. When the price dropped to $1 per month, the majority (62%) still rejected the in- When asked if they thought it would eventually be crease. But if the electric companies only had to in- necessary to limit human population to maintain our crease monthly bills by $.25 to stop polluting, 61per- present standard of living, 44 percent said it would cent of the public would be willing to pay, 30 percent be necessary; 43 percent said it wouldn't; an d ,13 would not, and 9 percent are "not sure. " percent "didn't know. " Attitudes toward current Federal Budget priorities Ironically, with approximately 70 percent of the were measured in two ways. A portion of the people population living on 1 percent of the land within the interviewed were shown a list of current budget expen- metropolitan environs, only 6 percent inclicated they ditures expressed as a percentage of the total, i. e. , found the large city the most pleasant place to live. National Defense 44 percent, Space Program 3 per- Rural area (30%), small city (25%), anti the sub- cen,NaturalResources 1 percent, etc.They were urbs (18%) were the top three in order of preference. asked, "Considering priorities, would you like to see more or less of the Federal money go into each of A full 75 percent of those interviewed said they these purposes?" were in favor of setting aside more public land for conservation purposes such as national parks, wild- The remaining portion of the sample were asked the life refuges, bird sanctuaries, etc; 19 percent said same question, but without benefit of the information "no" and 6 percent "didn't know. as to what percentage of the current Federal Budget goes to each major category. Poll number 2, like the Gallup survey, was designed to probe general environmental attitudes in In general, the majority of both those with and with- addition to zeroing in on specific issues. Some near out information would like to see less Federal money repetitionwasbuilt in for comparative purposes. De- spent on international affairs, th^ space program, and sign of the two surveys was virtually identical except national defense. A majority would like to see more that Gallup pollsters interviewed only those over 21 money go into education, naturalresources, veteran's years of age while the subsequent survey included benefits, and housing and community development. It the 16-20 age group. was a draw between increasing or decreasing spending 23G CHANEY 227 for commerce and transportation, labor and welfare, conservationists in the face of accelerating envi- and agriculture. Specifically, supplying information ronmental degradation.However, this logically on current budget allocations increased support for spawns a question equally significant for analysis added natural resource expenditures from 62 percent and evaluation: To what may we attribute the obvi- (without information) to 68 percent. Percentage sup- .ous public concern for the environment? port for increased natural resource expenditures ranked second only to education (78%) It would be conveniently self-serving for the conservation education community to claim a modest bit Although data on various subgroups in the two of credit.Too convenient.For despite increasing categories must be handled cautiously because the academic concern for environmental issues, toof.aw subgroups are small and in this case from only por- students on the whole have any exposure to ecology tions of the total sample, the affluent (78%), college in their regular curricula.Too many of those f e w educated (77%), and those under 30 (16-20 75%and are blessed with stuffed animal displays disguised as 21-29 81%) obviously strongly favor increased na- conservation education while air pollution annually tural resource spending. kills scores of Americans and jeopardizes the health of millions more. Too many young minds are busied Finally, each person was asked, "More specifi- with taxonomic exercises while health officials warn cally now, environmental cleanup could be accom- that 25 percent of the American public now drinks plished without added taxes or costs to consumers water that doesn't measure up to admittedly inade- if priorities in Federal spending were changed.In quate Public Health Service standards. which, if any, of these areas would you be infavor of reducing Federal spending, in order to increase It appears far more credible that the increasing spending on improvement of the natural environment?" severity of environmental degradation and the unprecedented enchantment of the mass media with en- An overwhelming 97 percent of those with infor- vironmental issues is responsible for alerting th e mation on the Federal Budget favored reducing spend- majority of the public to environmental problems and ing in one or more areas to free money for improv- the need for remedial measures. ing the natural environment.Only one percent less (96%) of those without information supported real- Ironically, a great many conservationists, envi- location in favor of natural resources. ronmentalists, ecologists, and others have held that Overall_, national defense (51%), the space pro- herein lay the coup de grace for environmental in- gram (44%), and international affairs (42%) were sanity.Once the general public got religion:Zap! the prime targets of those "with information" for Pow: Out water pollution:Out air pollution!In budget reductions to increase environmental spend- ecological horse - sense!But it obviously hasn't ing. A full 71 percent of the college educated would worked out that way.The country is still losing the take money from the defense budget, and the under- battle against environ. 3ntal degradation in spite of 30 generation leaned heavily on reducing defense and the public's demonstrated desire to the contrary, and international affairs expenditures. only a fool or a polluter would suggest this country is incapable of solving these problems if given the The pollsters of Survey number 2 observed the data proper priority. are consistent in showing the affluent, educated, suburban, younger adult, and late adolescent segments So now what? More of the same?Poll number of the public to be greatest proponents of environ- one said 85 percent of the public was concerned a- mental cleanup, which is consistent with the Gallup bout the condition of the natural environment an d findings.Conversely, some combination of apathy, three out of four were willing to pay more taxes ear- low expectation levels, the presence of more obvi- marked to do something about it.Poll number two ous problems, ignorance of the extent of environ- said an overwhelming 97 percent of the public favors mental problems and how they affect the quality of reallocating present Federal expenditures to free life, produce an apparent low level of environmental more money for environmental cleanup. Would it concern among city dwellers and those within the really make any difference if it were 100 percent? low income and educational levels. In time, the mass media will inevitably lose its Obviously, data from the two polls, individually enchantment with environmental issues.Although or in tandem, shouldn't be viewed as anything more ecological curricula aren't likely to attain the schol- than advertised: surveys of public opinion. And con- astic prominence of music appreciation, library sci- sidering the volatile nature of the animal, not the ence or ROTC, thanidully, more and more students definitive word on the public's environmental atti- are being exposed to some academic renditions of tudes. But even though the interpretations will likely environmental issues, vary in direct proportion to who's behind the type- writer, it is abundantly clear the bulk of theAmeri- Perhaps today's disenchanted youth will be tomor- can public is concerned about the condition of the nat- row's disenchanted voters with a more intense, or ural environment and wants to do something about it. at least more effective, environmental concern than the generation now in power.Perhaps t hat' s the Certainly that is a significant, affirmative an- ultimate answer as its commonly held to be. Let's swer to a question increasingly posed by working hope we can wait that long.. Examiningtheingredients of effective group pressure for environmental reform.

GUIDELINES FOR CITIZEN ACTION

CharlesH. W.Foster

MY DESIGNATED subject is citizen action. of a social responsibility.The conservation move- This seems particularly appropriate for a forum of ment is still largely white and upper middle class in conservation leaders; for once national policies have character.In a real sense, conservation needs to been determined and science and technology geared find ways of converting itself from an elegant luxury for application, something must arise to make events to an urgent necessity. happen.I contend that citizen action is the essential and often missing ingredient. In terms of mechanisms for action, one must examine both the numbers of organizations dedicated in my experience, there are three prime ingredi- to conservation objectives, and the quality of their ents of citizen action: one, a receptive and substan- efforts in this regard.Statistical information on cit- tial constituency; two, the organization of this con- izen action is sketchy at best, but from the several stituency into effective mechanisms for action; and sources at handnamely the Conservation Yearbooks three, the application of these actions in informed published by Erle Kaufman of the Society of Ameri- and credible ways. can Foresters, the annual Conservation Directories of the National Wildlife Federation, and the reports In terms of constituency, America is clearly rid- of the conservation services division of The Conser- ing the crest of a widespread popular movement of vation Foundationthe following estimates c an be environmental concern. The symptoms are rvery- made. where: increased television and radio coverage, feature articles in newspapers and magazines, even At least 500 state, regional, and national non- more simplesocial conversation about conserva- governmental conservation organizations are no w tion.For those of us accustomed to adversity over firmly established throughout the United States. These the years, this ground swell of popularity is heady are identifiable in various ways: by the level at which news indeed. they operate, by the character of the organizations themselves, by the nature of their participants, and For example, in a recent Gallup Poll conducted by the particular spheres of interest they advocate. for the National Wildlife Federation, four out of every Conservatively, at least five million Americans are five persons interviewed were deeply concerned over card-carrying conservationist?, half of whom prob- the growing degradation of their environment. Three ably live in the 11 northeastern states. out of four expressed willingness to do something about these problems, even if it meant up to $10 more In general, most conservation organizations co- per person per year in taxes. Almost all of tho s e alesce around a small group of individuals who are interviewed were dissatisfied with the present allo- dedicated to a particular and often narrow objective. cations of federal dollars. A clear majority were Over time, however, a certain maturation takes dissatisfied with the allocations to natural resource place. The organization tends to grow conservative areas. Astonishingly, of the large number of Amer- and even complacent, particularly if it has already icans who appeared willing to work personally for en- earned substantial public acclaim for it s program. vironmental causes few seemed to know how to go It can become over-institutionalized, unresponsive about doing it.The challenge to this audience is, I to current need, and thereby difficult to identify with think, obvious. until captured by new leadership or confronted with a new imperative for action. Widespread though our environmental constituency appears to be, there are some obvious weak spots . Despite the limitations of some organizations, how- For example, industries and corporations have been ever, there are usually ample mechanisms for action generally slow to jeopardize a balance sheet in favor in most states. In fact, proliferation of organizations,

Dr. Foster is a Harvard University Fellow.This paper war's first presented at a special public seminar on environmental issues at Cornell University.

238 FOSTER 229 and subsequent duplication, overlap and even compe- Unless I am mistaken. New York has given only tition among programs, is a familiar headache to many, l i p service to the conservation commission idea in this audience.Yet, a major portion of the vitality This has been a serious error, in my judgment.I of the conservation movement lies in its very diver- commend to your attention Dr. Andrew Scheffey's sity, hence my advocacy of new mechanisms to bring new book on the subject, just publisned by The Con- together organizations on problems in common with- servation Foundation, which appraises the relative out loss of individual identity. merits of the movement in the seven states where commissions are now authorized. The chronic impoverishment of most conservation M second suggestion relates to New York's imag- organizations, however, can lead them down a par- inativr efforts in regional and local planning. One ticularly dangerous path, that of sheer emotional re- other promising possibility appears to have been over- sponse.Regrettably, the shrill causes are still the loo:.ed, howeverbetter utilization of the soil and ones most likely to bring in the resources so desper- water conservation district machinery. The districts ately needed. Perhaps the most perplexing problem are, of course, legal political subdivisions of state of all in citizen action is this matter of gaining the government enjoying many of their powers and r e - necessary support for an organization dedicated to sponsibilities.Firmly grounded in land use objec- responsible and credible action. tives, and with ready access to a wide va r ie ty of This introduces my third ingredient of citizen ac- technical services, the districts could and should be tion, credibility.Here is where conservationists are doing much more in the broad field of environmental often in serious trouble, even to the point of posinga quality. serious threat to their new and vital public constitu- Not long ago, Massachusetts and Florida foresaw ency.For example, preservation of resources, only the possibilities inherent in a broadening of district one part of the more substantial goal of wise resource responsibilities beyond merely soil and water. In use, tends to characterize our ranks in the public Massachusetts, for example, re-designated conser- eye and, in fact, often over-dominates citizen action vation districts are now empowered to undertake any efforts.The "crack of doom" environmental com- project in the natural resources field, thus serving mentators make good headlines but usually imprac- as the counterpart of the municipal conservation com- tical allies on the actual conservation battleground. missions at the regional level. Unable ( or unwilling) as we are to turn back the clock on present and future material needs, we must some- The new device known as a federal-interstate how redirect our efforts toward proper use e of re- agency, as exemplified by the regional economic or sources such that a high standard of living is main- river basin commission. may constitute a third ex- tained with minimal loss o f environmental values. ample of the kind of innovative machinery w e This will require both a new willingness to compro- These are joint planning and action agencies in which mise, and the equivalent shrewd, hard-headed bar- the federal government and the effected states enjoy gaining capabilities our adversaries now possess. co-equal decision-making powers. The collective resources of several levels of government are thus fo- So much, then, for the philosophical side of citi- cused on a problem area without loss of individual zen action.Let me turn next to some of the promis- prerogatives.If this principle works for economic ing avenues f or action at the present time in the development and water resources planning, why not northeast.Here are a few that have impressed me similar approaches in such fields as recreation and with their potential. open space, wood utilization and forestry, o r fish, wildlife, and marine resources? Or a similar mix It seems high time to encourage the demise of our of state and local governments to deal with intrastate traditional provincialism.Political boundaries grow regional problems? more obsolete each day in the face of mankind's mobility and economic prosperity.Innovative machine- Assuming that suitable types of machinery are es- ry is sorely needed, in my judgement, to preserve tablished at various levels of government and within the good parts of our region's long heritage of self - numerous fields of specialty, the problem btcomes reliance, yet enable it to address itself effectively one of harnessing all these capabilities within some to problems shared in common. sort of functional system. From this growing need for greater efficiency has evolved the concept of regional services centers to perform fact-researching The New England-inspired niunicipal conservation and interlinking functions for nongovernmental orga- commission movement strikes me as one model worth nizations, and to serve as an effective bridge between emulating, for it aims at a common failing of conserva- environmental interest groups and a region's business tion, the tendency to pass a problem off on too high a lev- and political leadership.Small and selectively el of government. With more than 10 years of experience staffed, these centers are designed to work behind under our belts, the following can now be safely said the scenes and help bring about more responsiblepol- about these municipal conservation agencies. icies and programs without themselves bec o m in g frontline action agencies. First, commissions have been remarkably successful at harnessing a sizable and previously under- Although relatively n e w , the two principal mod- utilized civic resource for environmental action. Sec- els in existence, the Potomac Basin Center and the ond, the commissions have been significantly effective Rocky Mountain Center o n Environment, are already both as innovative action instruments, and as environ- showing gr e at promise. A Similar New England Nat- mental quality checks and balances at the local level. ural Resources Center has matured( to the point of Finally, a strong commission movement helps insure a provisional office in Boston. In my judgment, New broader conservation efforts by serving as a powerful York would be well advised to follow these de- lobby for needed actions on a statewide basis. velopments closely. 239 230 ENVIRONMENTALEDUCATION Now, as we all know, environmental irate rest tion of the land-grant institution and to bridge the of- groups have gained sufficient muscle in many places ten painful gap between the academician and the pub- to virtually derail any development proposal. Under lic administrator.Scientists should be encouraged such circumstances, the burden of responsible action to accept appointments on public policy or regulatory is heavy indeed.If confrontation and subsequent pa- agenciesin essense, to infiltrate from within rath- ralysis of action are not to become the environmental er than criticize from without.Ties of this nature watchword of the 1970's. then we must evolve some can provide stronger links with the locus of real alternative courses between fruitless conflict and decision-making, permit better use of research and senseless capitulation. extension capabilities, and inject relevant case materials into undergraduate and graduate programs. In this regard, I am enormously intriguedwith the concept of an environmental mediation service, And so, what emerges iron: this random collec- which could moderate disputes and steer a middle tion of observations? Simply this.There is no easy .course toward constructive compromise.Judging road to effective citizen action. However, we do have from the labor relations experience, third party mean urgent cause; there ale tools and techniques fit- diation is cheap, relativly painless, and remarkably ted for the tasks, and willing hands are available to successful.Such functions could be added to an ex- carry them to completion.In short, let us get on isting federal, state, or municipal mediation service with the job no matter how imperfect it may be. ( all three types exist in New York State) or could be provided as a public service by some iesponsible Some years ago, we attempted to spell out for our non-governmental entity. fledgling Massachusetts conservation commissions a few pr ocedur al guidelines for successful citizen ac- Finally, if any of these new opproaches :are to tion.In retrospect, they seem worthr epeating today. come into being, shouldn't the universities play a key role in their planning and execution? The an- The first is, be preparedhave the proper facts swer is plainly yes, but only if substantial reforms at hand and your homework done before tackling an are accomplished beforehand on the campus. From issue.Second, be right in the conclusions you draw. my limited experience with such institutions,f ew There is never any substitute for being right'.Third, are really equipped as yet to deal with problems of b e practical in the course of action you advocate, a broad, environmental nature. Cramped curricula, mindful of the positions of others and the likelihood stratified departmental structures, and jealously- that your cause will be accepted.Finally, be wise guarded field of specialty offer severe handicaps in time. Knowing when to espouse an issue is often to the approach that seems most needed at this time. the real key to credibility and future success. In this connection, I am a strong believer in the In my judgment, citizen action is what will make establishment of academic environmental or natural environmental quality a reality and not just a figure resource centers where experts from several disci- of speech.If this forum, this university, and the plines can combine forces on a given problem. Use- groups represented in this audience somehow merge ful extensions of this principle are represented b y their individual interests in common cause, begin to the cooperative wildlife research units and water r-- take actions in a responsible manner, and seek in- sources centers which not only coordinate on-campus novative ways of harnessing the great tide 3f public capabilities, but also interlink the institution with opinion, I can guarantee that the results will not be federal and state resource agencies. Every effort perfect, but the rewards will more than jus- needs to be made to overcome the traditional isola- tify your efforts.

240 Increasingcitizenawarenessthroughcorrespondence.

AN INDEPENDENT STUDYCOURSE IN WATER RESOURCES

PaulF.NowaK

THE ADULT segment of our population has, wishes to participate such as working citizens.It can cover the distances which e4ist inrural area s, for a variety of reasons, been deprived of environ- and it can overcome the difficulties and the dangers mental education.Many of the critical problems It gives the student the which now confront the environment of our society of urban transportation. it is either were not considered significant or did not exist chance to determine his own time schedule, and when the bulk of today's adults were involvedin for- easily administered through existing extension organ- mal education programs. Even youth and the young izations. adults of today, due to the lack of environmental ed- Correspondence is not a new educational technique. ucation programs, are receiving only a haphazard However, it has been used very little in the fieldsof smattering of educational experiences dealing with conservation and environmental studies, even though environmental issues.Most citizens have to rely participants who complete correspondence studies do upon a mixture of random formal educationalexper- iences, self-education, and incidental information as well or better than classroom students. from the news media in order to understand current The environmental conservation course andthe environmental problems. These methods havefailed water resources experimental segment of the course to fill the growing educational deficiency which ex- were designed to exploit the potential forindependent ists and are compounding the apathy and frustration study which is possible through correspondence. which, unfortunately, have been characteristic of Course materials were designed to utilize the partic- citizen attitudes toward environmental problems. It ipant's local community as a laboratory and to let him is clearly evident that for both the present and t he choose the problem areas on which he would like to foreseeable future, due to the educational void which concentrate. exists, adult programs will have a viable place in the spectrum of environmental education. It was anticipated that by involving the participants with local, relevant, and real environmental problems, In response to this need for adult environmental it would be possible to help citizens gain theknowl- education, Dr. William B. Stapp formed a group at edge of why they should be aware of an d concerned the University of Michigan to develop an independent with environmental issues.Hopefully, this would study course in environmental conservation through to chang- correspondence. A water resources course was cre- start the sequence of events which could lead ated as an experimental segment of this total pr o - ed citizen behavior. We need citizens who are will- concepts ing to be involved in influencing both public and private gram and was developed from the innovated decisions which affect our environment because citi- whic h for med the philosophic basis of the total course. zens ultimately are responsible eitherdirectly by their The experimental materials were used by a variety actions or indirectly throughtheir representative gov- of individuals so that the innovated concepts upon ernments for the quality or our environment.Educa- which it is based could be evaluated. The individuals tion has the responsibility of providing citizenswith who were involved in the experimental procedures the understandings, the skills, and t heinformation were identified by the same means whichwill be relied upon in identifying students for the total course. they need in order to effectively express their environmental concerns. The innovative techniques used are aimed pr i - EXPERIMENTAL WATER RESOURCE PROGRAM marily toward helping the students develop unaware- ness and an understanding of theenvironmental prob- The experimental water resource program, lems which exist in their local community and region therefore, was developed to evaluate theinnovated and an understanding of how citizens can participate conservation in helping to find solutions to these problems. Inde- concepts upon which the environmental course is based by measuring thechanges which oc- pendent study through correspondence was chosenbe- materi- cause it can disseminate materials toanybody w ho curred in individuals using the experimental

Dr. Nowak is Chairman, Department of Conservation and Outdoor Education,Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois. 241 232 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION 87 als.The evaluation was also aimed at determining gram which related to the entire environmental eon- the characteristics of the population interested in this se: vation course. type of program, as well as their acceptance of the types of materials used. In order to carry out this The personal data indicated some of the important study, both course materials and evaluation materi- characteristics of the participants.The ages ranged als were created. from 13 to 73, with 83 percent between 21 and 50. The average age was 38.8. This was important because it The course materials consisted of a text and a indicated that busy, active individuals were interest- series of activities.The text was built upon a ser- ed in this type of program. There was an even split ies of basic understandings which were defined as the between males and females and, educationally, 82 per- minimal amount of knowledge necessary for effective cent had completed at least a college degree.The citizen action.These understandings were used to participants were employed in a wide range of occu- reduce the substantial amount of material dealing pations such as housewives, teachers, engineers, col- with most environmental subjects such as water. lege instructors, planners, researchers, students, real When completed and organized, they became at once estate brokers, secretaries, librarians, governmen- both the basis and the outline for the text. Also in- tal officials, and others. The income level wasevenly cluded as integral components of the text were aglos- spread from $5,000 to $20,000 with 14 percent having sary and an annotated bibliography. The glossary a family income of over $20,000. Of the participants provided a compact source for word definitions, even 79 percent were married, and 52 percent lived in ur- though all technical words or phrases were defined ban residential areas, while 36 percent lived in sub- as they were introduced in the text.Due to it:, var- urban areas.Forty-three percent found out about ied experiences of the students, no general back- the experimental course through the newspaper, 36 ground level of information was assumed and the text percent through club bulletins or club newsletters, was written to stand on its own. The annotated bibli- and 17 percent by word of mouth.The course w a s ography was included to help the student move f u r- taken by 72 percent because of a personal interest in ther into areas of particular interest. The books and conservation, while 27 percent took it, in part,f or pamphlets suggested were those which should be occupational reasons. rer lily available in most local communities. Using the test instrument created for evaluating The series of activities for each segment of the the experimental materials, the participants showed course were of four kinds: one, the text related ques- a 44.6 percent increase in their general knowledge of tions weredesigned to help the student give more water resources and a 35percent increase in their consideration to the important aspects of the text; knowledge of local community water resources. The two, the survey activities were designed to guide the participants increased 60percent in their ability to participant in looking at his local community and identify sources of information about water resources; evaluating some of its environmental characteristics 78 percent in their ability to identify public agencies (there are one or more survey activities for eac h concerned with water resources; and 187 percent in segment of the course); three, the interview activity their ability to identify private organizations concern- was organized by the participant to help him collect ed with water resom ces. information about a local environmental problem of his selection relative to the local area being studied:, The opinion questionnaire provided some very help- and four, a synthesis activity was used to draw to ful data about length, completeness, style, and diffi- gether information the student had collected about culty, which was extremely helpful in revising the text the problem chosen for the interview activity, there- and in providing guidelinesf or the development of other by giving him a chance to express proposed solutions units. It also showed that 56 percent of the participants and his concerns. found the text interesting and 35 percent found it very interesting; 57percent likedthenctivi tie s quite well The student was required to do the first two ac- and 38 percent liked them very well. The participants, tivities for every segment of the course; however, for the most part, found the experimental water re- he did the third and fourth activities for only a small source course increased their interest, concern, gen- number of selected segments which were of partic- eral knowledge, and specific local knowledge of water ular interest to him. resources. The programwasconsidered tobe good by 31 percent while 61 percentfelt it was very good. EVALUATION MATERIALS The evaluation materials consisted of a personal It seems evident from this study that environmen- data sheet, a pretest, a posttest, and an op:nion ques- tal education programs for adults are needed and tionnaire. The personal data sheet was designed to wanted.It also shows that correspondence is an ac- evaluate the personal characteristics of the :..tiivid- ceptable means for disseminating adult educational uals interested in this type of educational program. materials, even to busy and influential citizens, and The pretest and posttest were basically similar in- that independent study can, in reality, make environ- struments designed to evaluate the change in the par- mental conservation more relevant and meaningful. ticipants' basic understanding of water resources in There are, of course, any number of ways of improv- general and local water resources i n particular. ing the techniques and the materials used. Many im- They also identified the change in the participants' provements have already been incorporated.Ift h e knowledge of local citizen groups and governmental materials are to remain viable, this must become a agencies involved with water resourcesand in their continuous process.Perhaps the most exciting pros- ability to identify locally available sources of infor- pect for this entire project is that it will act as a model mation about water resources. An opinion question- upon which a whole series of independent study courses naire was used to evaluate the participants' feelings in environmental education, as well as a wide range of about the various aspects of the experimental pro- other subject matter areas, can be based.

242 "Weldingdiverseorganizations and viewpointsintoan effective force for aqualityenvironment. "

CONSERVATION SYNERGISM:

NEW DYNAMICS FOR EFFECTIVE ACTION

RogerP.Hansen

ROW DOES one overcome the enormous odds and decided to form a united conservation movement in favor of the polluters, the despoilers, the uglifi- the Colorado Open Space Coordinating Council, now ers of our land? How does one make his neighbors known as "COSC." concerned, his legislature listen? How can conservation-minded citizens be an effective force in t he It wasn't easy. There were fears of takeover, wor- real social revolution that is occurring in America ry about organization autonomy, disagreement over todaya revolution that centers on a quality of life who could speak for whom. Finally, in April, 1965, versus a quantity of existence? How can conserva- by-laws were adopted and articles of incorporation tion organizations take advantage of a conservation filed. COSC organizers were all too aware that they climate more favorable than at any time in our his- were a minority group of "outsiders" in a cattle-bar- tory? on climate, aligned before the bao,ions of mining, grazing, timbering, oil, gas, and :rater development A major reason for the failures of conservation- interests.The initial participating organizations in istsin terms of influencing social decision-making COSC numbered only six; Influence potential seemed has been their historical inability to weld themselves about equal to a tumbleweed blowing in the wind. into an effective rorce, ready for battle on the great environmental issues of the day. Instead there are Today, COSC serves as a coordinating "umbrella" dozens of diverse groups, each hawking its particu- for 26 organizations representing some 30,000 citi- lar brand of conservation elixir.Meanwhile, back zens in Colorado and the Rocky Mountain area c on- at the state or national capitol, a united and disciplined cerned about the quality of their environment. Nearly army of resource commodity groups, commerical in- all the major conservation groups in Colorado are terests, and power-hungry bureaucracies grinds mer- members of the Council and are represented on the cilessly forward, ignoring ecological principles that Board of Directors. The whole spectrum of conser- may determine our survival as a species. vation, outdoor recreation, and environmental co n cern runs through COSC activities.It is particularly HISTORY OF COSC significant that a birth control agency, Planned Par- enthood of Colorado, is represented on the Board, for Until a few years ago Colorado conservationists no resource problem is more fundamentril than the were no different from their "soul" brothers else- human population crisis. where. Bird-watchers screamed at hunters; back- packers battled car-campers. Arguments rage d COMPOSITION AND PURPOSE over whether a trail should be wide enough for man, horse, or jeepor whether there should be any trail The purpose of COSC is "to provide an effective at all. and continuing coordinating structure in working for the conservation (preservation and wise use) and ap- But in September, 1964, some 200 Colorado fish- preciation of scenic, historic, open space, wildlife, ermen, back-packers, botany experts, park promot- wilderness, and outdoor recreational resources as ers, outdoor educators, and pollution abaters m e t related to the total environment, through a program

Mr. Hansen, a lawyer and recreation planner, is ExecntiveDirector of the Colorado Open Space Foundation and the new Rocky Mountain Center on Environment, Denver.This article is excerpted from a speech and a longer paper, "How Coloradoans Win Conservation Battles," which appeared in Catalyst, Vol. II, No. 4.

243 234 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION of coordinated action, for the cultural, education, substitute for action by either individuals or their physical, health, spiritual, and economic benefit organizations; instead, it gives both a greater di- of our citizens and our visitors. mension for effectiveness.

METHOD OF OPERATION 4.COSC relies on informality and total citizen involvement to get a job done. Conservationists from other areas ..tre often skep- tical about the ability of COSC to weld greatly diverse COSC policy provides opportunity for every con- organizations and viewpoints into an effective force servationist to become as deeply involved as he de- for a quality environment. They ask these questions: sires.This does not exclude those who maybe among How is coordination accomplished? What happens the so-called "opposition." For example, highway when organizations fail to agree? How do s ma 11 officials attend meetings of the COSC Roads Commit- groups keep from being swallowed up? How is Coun- tee, which resoundingly defeated a proposal to route cil action communicated so as to influence the de- Interstate 70 through Colorado's Gore Range-Eagle cision-making process? Nest Primitive Area.Industry representatives are not barred from water quality meetings. Anbody who Here are the key COSC guidelines: wants to work can.

1.C)rganizations coordinate interests and efforts 5.COSC makes a continuing effort to keep channels on particular conservation issues by pooling time, of communication open with major agencies and in- talents, and energies on COSC committees, some- terest groups. times called "workshops." In October, 1966, COSC-CACI Intercom was or- Members of COSC committees may come from ganized to establish regular dialogue with the Colo- 5, 10, or 20 different organizations.Currently, rado Association of Commerce and Industry.That there are 11 such committees or workshops. They such "natural enemies" as conservationists and are devoted to: clean air, water quality, water re- business leaders would actually sit down with each sources, political education, legislative action, out- other and talk was almost unheard of.It was assum- door education, public land law review, roads and ed that the chasm of misunderstanding would remain highways, wilderness, and wildlife.These co m- bottomless. COSC was accused by some of a "sell- mittees do not supplant or duplicate committees of out" to big business. organizations within COSC; rather, they serve as a coordinating device. Other inter-communications committees have since been established with the mining industry, the 2.Each COSC organization, workshop or committee timber industry, the U.S. Forest Service, theNation- serves as a specialist in some area of environmental Park Service, the Army Corps of Engineers, the al expertise:the Wilderness Workshop in wilder- Bureau of Land Management, and several state re- ness; the Colorado Mountain Club on the National source agencies.Representatives of state and fed- Trails System; the Sierra Club o n national parks eral resource agencies sit on the COSC Board of and monuments; the Colorado Wildlife Federation Directors in a non-voting capacity. on wildlife management problems.In turn the com- TIlE COSC PHILOSOPHY mittees, drawing from a "talent pool" of 26 organizations, are able to provide expert leadership on The term "conservation" seems adaptable to al- almost all issues. most any resource philosophy. To a powerful West - ern Congressman, "conservation means wise use, and 3.COSC may be used as a coordinating device for wise use means conservation." To most Western re- any number of organizations which want to act in source user groups-timber, grazing, mining-conser- concert on a given issue. Neither a "majority rule" vation means "multiple use" of land resources and "the nor a "unanimous opinion" is necessary. greatest good for the greatest number." Conservation has been so victimized by clever sloganeering that a There is one key to COSC successflexibility of whole new te.rminclogy embracing environmental qual- action. COSC can speak for any number of organi- ity concepts must be invented. zations on any given issue.The privilege of asso- In many ways, Colorado conservationists have re- ciating with C OS C i s not used as a device for defined conservationif not by word, by deed. Per- whipping organizations into adopting some "straight haps this redefinition process can best be expressed conservation line. " Obviously all 26 organizations by relating certain touchstones of the COSC philoso- are not going to take a single position on every is- phy of conservation effectiveness: sue, even though this might be desirable. To date there has not been a "minority report" within COSC, A) A belief that responsible conservationists should although this is theoretically possible and anticipated be concerned and involved with the total environment. in the by-laws. The COSC system of coordinated action has worked on nearly 200 issues. Most conservation groups seem organized to "save" a particular bird, tree, park, o r swamp. Further, and most important, no action taken by While such specialized organizations make a great COSC as a council of organizations precludes any or contribution, it is very easy, in concentrating on a all of the same organizations from taking independ- single problem, to lane sight of the broad ecological ent action on the caame issue.In fa t, Colorado con- picture and fail to rei.ze that all issues are part of servationists are constantly urged to act at t hr ee a total environmental ethic.The intricate relation- levels: (1) as individuals; (2) through their organ- ships between seemingly isolated problems such as izations; (3) through COSC. Thus COFC is not a bird habitat, pesticides, water quality, urban design,

244 HANSEN 235 and wilderness preservation can easily escape us. It is frequently noted by conservation opponents Conservationists are not always aware that the total that they are "against" rather than "for." While environment is a complicated tapestry; that when a this is often an exercise in semantics,i tresults single thread is pulled the whole business starts to frequently from the failure of conservationists to of- unravel. fer valid alternatives to environmental destruction. Take the extraction of minerals, for example. In Only as the environmentally aware become truly Colorado, conservationists don't oppose mining per se; ecological in their thinking will they be able to work they work with the mining industry to seek alterna- effectively on one part of the total problem without tives to mining methods that desecrate the landscapa, sacrificing the whole. By the same token, ecologi- destroy wildlife habitat, and pollute streams. cal thinking melts away the jealousies and petty .ompetitions that arise between conservation organ- There are, of course, points of principle past izations. which COSC will not retreat and on which they can never compromise.The integrity of the national B) A conviction that conservationists will become park systemconstantly threatened with dams, res- influential in the great social decision-making pro- ervoirs and highwaysis a prime example. cesses that count only if they are informed and responsible. There is not space available to record the hu n- Conservationists are often attacked for being ill- dreds of activities in which COSC has become engaged informed, failing to do their homework, or acting in order to maintain and enhance a quality environ- for emotional reasons. Unfortunately, these charges ment.Its efforts have been recognized by many or- are sometimes true. ganizations, including the National Wildlife Federation, the Sears Roebuck Foundation, the City and County It often seems that the only argument needed to of Denver, Holiday Magazine, Field and Stream; and drain a swamp, flood a river valley, slash a free- the American Association for Conservation Informa- way through parklands, or strip the earth bare for tion.Perhaps its greatest honor is that citizen con- wood products is that such steps are "necessary for servationists in numerous states are following the economic development." This is usually accepted COSC lead in building effective coordinating struc- as a truth so self-evident that no further investiga- tures.The Wyoming Outdoor Coordinating Council, tion is needed.So, for now, conservationists must Nevada Open Spaces Council, Utah Open Space Coun- bear the greater burden of proof if they would chal- cil, Idaho Environmental Council, California Planning lenge the conventional wisdom.Their viewpoints, and Conservation League, Washington Environmental their arguments, even their philosophy must be re- Council, and Virginia Conservation Council are a few searched, documented, and organized with ne a r- of the new statewide councils which are patterned, at faultless logic.They must enlist economists, least in part, after COSC. sociologists, architects, engineers, ecologists, and business leaders on research teams. A responsible, interdisciplinary approach is essential. Now a unique regional environmental effort is also starting in Colorado. The Rocky Mountain Center on C) A belief that intensive communications with ma- Environment was established in August, 1968, with jor segments of society are indispensable if the con- assistance from the Conservation Foundation and the servation philosophy is to prevail. Ford Foundation to provide education, coordination, publications, information, research, and field serv- The many COSC communications committees ices for efforts to improve the environment in eight with industry, government agencies, and interest Rocky Mountain StatesNew Mexico, Arizona, Ne- groups have been mentioned.To further advance vada, Utah, Matto, Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado. this dialogue, Colorado Conservationists have, for Alan H. Morgan, Executive Director of the Massachu- the past two summers, cosponsored with the Thorne setts Audubon Society, heads a similar organization Ecological Foundation at Aspen, Colorado, a nation- in Bostonthe New England Conservation Service al Seminar on Environmental Arts and Science s. Center. The main purpose: "To offer an intensive exploration of ecological principles for leaders in business, industry, government, politics, education, religion, A Los Angeles business executive recently said: the professions, the arts, and the communication "Conservationists are the wave of the future. They field." are going to win!I don't see how anybody can avoid getting on their bandwagon." Conservationists will D) A belief that conservationists have a responsi- win a quality environment only if the wheels on bility to offer positive programs; particularly, to the bandwagon are well-oiled and rolling in discover alternative ways 01 doing things. the same direction.

245. The future depends on the slping of attitudes, beliefs, and values through education."

ENVIRONMENT AND THE SHAPING OF CIVILIZATION

Lynton K. Caldwell

CAN WE really elect to have a high-quality en- cates.In the broadest sense, the issue is what kind vironment? Does the structure of American soci- of civilization the process of education will produce. ety pluralistic, democratic, historically biased in favor of an "everyman's laissez-faire"permit the Within this broader context of educational policy shaping of its environment in any way other than by an increased and, in some measure, new focus on en- combat ana compromise? The question is not wheth- vironmental relationships and policies will be neces- er conflict of interests in the environment canbe elim- sary. This basically ecological aspect of research inated. There is no prospect, in a finite world, that and teaching has long been neglected to our detriment they will be. A second practical question is how to and to our increasing peril.Recent moves to estab- raise the levels of information and social concern at lish centers or institutes for environmental studies which the process of bargaining and accommodation in numbers of colleges and universities indicate in- occurs. To improve the human environment, both tention to remedy the neglect. Through the organi- man and politics must be improved. Men make pol- zation of new courses of study and the reorganization itics; political institutions influence human behavior; of old ones, higher education is better equipping to- and behavior is heavily influenced by attitudes, be- day's youths to perceive and to assess the meaning liefs, and values.Purposeful shaping of the environ- of environmental change.Only a beginning has been ment involves the purposeful shaping of outlooks on made and much more needs to be done.It is e spe- life.The quality of the future environment depends, cially important that basic environmental concepts be therefore, upon the shaping of attitudes, beliefs, and built into secondary education where they have here- values through present education. tofore generally been lacking. Education is more than schooling, but it is through formal systematic mass Some aspects of human conduct are expressions education that the greatest single impact on attitudes, of psychophysical nature. As a civilizing animal it beliefs, and values can be made. is natural for man to substitute reason and culture for subrational drives, but rational behavior m a y In a techno-scientific age there is no end to the serve irrational motives.It is, therefore, impor- need for learning.Planned, systematic education tant to our welfare to understand the nature and ef- now continues through adult life and is increasingly fect of physiologically conditioned behavior. If man civic as well as vocational in character.With t he is a territorial animal, and if he displaces onto the displacement of traditional culture by techno-science, environment aggression generated in his social rela- we are confronted with the necessity of working to tionships, knowledge concerning these circumstances obtain our civilization. We can no longer merely in- could greatly assist developmrnt of feasible strategies herit it.To preserve the culture of the past, wheth- for effective environmental policy. Yet not all men er in art, ethics, historic sites, landscapes, or so- nor all societies project destructive impulses against cialinstitutions, requires unremitting effort.It also the environment. The improvement of man can pro- requires reappraisal; for not all we inherit is neces- ceed through education, in the broad sense, while ef- sarily good. forts are made also to improve the psychophysical endowment of the human species. In the new world struggling to be born it is we who must struggle. The disintegration of traditional cul- What are the implications for an educational pro- ture is a grim and tragic process. We see its conse- cess that will help build better environmental rela- quences in starkest relief in catastrophes that have tionships in the future? The structuring of the entire befallen the ancient civilization of China.Fortunate- process of formal education around man-environment ly for us of the Western World, the concepts of self- relationships is not necessarily indicated. Many of actualization and of the evolution of man and society the attitudes, beliefs, and values that would improve are embodied in our culture.Yet, although these in- prospects for better environments in the future a re ternalized concepts may have helped to spare us the equally suitable to help society to setgoals and estab- misfortunes of China, they have not helped us to be lish priorities for the future. Education limitedto in- self-actualizing in all respects. Why have they not formation is of little help.The question becomes one been more effective in guiding public effort toward of what attitudes, beliefs, and values the system in cul- better environmental decisions? The explanation

Dr. Caldwell is Professor of Government at Indiana University, Bloomington. This paper is excerpted from his "Epilogue" to Congress and the Environment, edited by Richard A. Cooley and Geoffrey Wandesforde-Smith, University of Washington Press, 1970. 246 CALDWELL 237 lies perhaps in the complexity of our culture and in first, an uncritical bias for growth; second, techno- the particular ways in which these concepts are ex- economic determinism; third, cultural relativism; pressed in our society.More certainly, our educa- and, fourth, self-centered individualismthe " ev- tional system has not equipped people to make well- eryman's laissez-faire." considered environmental choices. These attitudes share certain negative character- We are not yet able to explain why some societies istics significant for the environment-shaping pro- adept ecologically valid goals and p ractice s and others cess.None of them imply or require self-restraint do not.Simplified explanations are likely to be wrong, or control, none suggest individual or collective ac- but it is possible to draw certain general conclusions countability, none concede the existence of criteria from the courses that contrasting cultures have taken, for evaluating the use of the environment that a r e without fully understanding the causal factors.For independent of individual interest or preference. All example, although no simple explanation seems ade- of these attitudes suggest resist ince to any general quate in account for the decline of Chinese civiliza- pattern of environmental development in society or tion, the inadvertent overstressing of the environ- to any meaningful standards of environmental quali- ment by sheer numbers of people seems to have been ty, per se.They do not preclude the imposition of a critical factor.The ethos of China, less complex social control where a clear and present danger to and more dogmatic than the ideologies of the West, individual well-being can be proved. But they severe- was more congenial to harmony with nature. Ye t ly retard the establishment of general principles of neither philosophy, bureaucracy, nor science e n - ecological policy upon which more specific standards abled China to avoid the environmental impoverish- can be based. More critical attention to their effects ment that followed a slowly increasing but unremit- Is therefore needed. ting pressure of man on the land. In the West, science and technology enabled society to achieve a more productive and better balanced relationship to the nat- The "growthmanship" attitude is deeply embedded ural world even though, paradoxically, the aominant in American culture.Whether our naticnial obsession attitudes toward nature tended as much toward hos- with quantitative growth can be transformed into qual- tility as toward harmony. Industrialization and the itative growth, or growth within a self-renewing or colonization of the Americas relieved in Europe the an internally dynamic homeostatic system is conjec- inordinate stress of man on his envircnrnentthat ac- tural.The most problematic growth of all is that of companied the decline of Chinese civilization.But we have no assurance that the combination of culture numbers of people.In America there are grounds and technology that, with obvious exceptions, ha s for cautious optimism that the national enthusiasm worked well for the West will continue to do so in the for numbers may someday be displaced by a con- techno-scientific society of the future. cern for the quality of human life generally. Techno-economic determinism, or the "you can't Two obvious aspects of the historical threshold stop progress" attitude, is still firmly ascendant in over w lich all society is now passing are exponen- American lifedespite critical attack from both sci- tial increases of people and of power. The danger ence and aesthetics.Supersonic transport and air- in destructive or misguided attitudes toward nature ports unlimited are only current examples of a na- has become greater today because of t he greater tional tendency.It is curious that people vigilantly means to translate attitudes into action.Guided ig- jealous of their rights in relation to government will norance in the form of dogma appears to have been permit their privacy, convenience, and even health a factor in the decline of old China; unguided knowl- to be jeopardized by costly and unnecessary techno- edge in the form of technocratic optimism appears logical innovation that yields little, if any ,social to have been the characteristic danger to the West. benefit.More strange is the tendency of science- Today, the establishment of guidelines for knowledge oriented, rational people to accept the metaphysical f. in the application of science and technology to the hu- dogma of technological inevitability. It is, as we have man environment is a task of urgent importance ev- emphasized, a contradiction to the tacit belief of erywhere. The task is urgent because until it is ac- Americans in the self-actualization of the humanper- complished there will be no adequate basis in theory sonality.It is an example of compartmentalized or principle upon which to base public and interna- thinking against which education has not yet provided tional policies for the custody, care, and develop- sufficient protection. ment of the human environment. Cultural relativism has permeated the social sci- In America, we have no corpus of ecological doc- ences and has strongly influenced ethical and reli- trine in our public life comparable to that which now gious thought.The value of a demonstrably valid set influences or governs our economic decisions. Our of ecological principles by which public policy could public life is shaped by particular interpretations, or be guided would be very great.It co ul d provide a misinterpretations, of self-actualization and freedom common ground for greater consensus. But it would to change that tend to contradict the concepts that they encounter objections from those who hold tha.. science are presumed to exemplify. These misinterpreta- has nothing to do with values, and that one man's val- tions although deeply rooted in American society are ues are as good as another's. Ow slowness in ex- neither uniquely nor necessarily American. The y ploring the biosocial interface in science has kept us may be changed, and they must be changed, if the from providing an adequate and conweing answer to shaping of American civilization is to enlarge t he arguments over relativity or priority anong values public happiness and welfare. Among the attitudes in the environment.Political accommodatiln among that misinterpret the meaning of human freedom the conflicting interests therefore tends to occur at too following are especially familiar and especially harm- low a conceptual level to give adequate weight to sci- ful to the quality of civilization and its environment; entific knowledge or ecological wisdom.

2 238 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION The laissez-faire attitude toward the rights ei in- Communication across occupational lines becomes dividuals in relation to the environment has suffered difficult, and no common set of assumptions or val- some attrition through public action on behalf of pub- ues provides a meeting groundfor differing interests. lic health and safety.Land-use planning and zoning, The openness of modern society is deceptive. Freed and emerging pollution control legislation, further from barriers of class and caste, it is more subtly constrain individual behavior in relation to the envi- fragmented by techno- scientific specialization and by ronment. We are beginning to lay a foundation for a the progressive isolation of the traditional culture legal doctrine, of public rights in the environment, as from techno- scienca. distinguished from the specific and discrete prohibi- tions that have hitherto characterized our environ- Here perhaps lies the answer to the question of mental policy. Yet at the local level of government why contemporary Western techno-scientific society and throughout large areas of the country where pres- has not dealt more effectively with its environmental sure on the environment has not been felt acutely, the problems. Means and ends are separated.T he right to exploit the environment for personal advan- wholeness of man and of society requires a synthesis tage is still very broadly construed.Here again cul- or integration in orientation toward the world and life ture shapes environmental attitudes. The psychology that conventional education has not provided.Thus, of the frontiersman is still vigorous and when rein- as we earlier observed, contradictory tendencies of forced by techno-scientific capability can be a very modern American society are built into its social potent force, usually in ways harmful to environmen- system. And it is this schizoid tendency that most tal quality. of all makes it difficult for the United States of Amer- ica to develop a guiding set of environmental policies A characteristic common to all of these foregoing or to employ more than a fraction of the potential attitudes is that each of them is highly dysfunctional power of science and technology on behalf of human to the effective public control of applied science o r welfare. technology.They derive from viewpoints formed mostly in the prescientific world, although cultural Science has placed in the hands of man knowledge relativism reflects to some degree an inclination to and power that makes him responsible for his future; be scientific.Relativistic thinking that dismisses it has not given him the moral compulsion to act re- weight of evidence and insists upon incontrovertible sponsibly.The substantive values that science and proof of the validity of one environmental attitude as technology serve are articulated in the humanities, against another has abandoned science for a philo- but are seldom amenable to scientific verification. sophical fetish.In actuality these attitudes do not a is at this interface between science andthe human- appear as clear-cut or consistent categories of be- ities that environmental policy, if made, is made. lief or behavior. They are interwoven in the fabric And it is at this interface also that higher education of our social, political, and economic life, and this can contribute to resolving what some observers have is why it becomes so difficult to change them.It is called our environmental crisis. why environment shaping becomes culture shaping, and why attack upon the environmental abuses of our How this task can be accomplished in the colleges industrial society readily becomes an attack upon and universities is yet to be discovered, and it must certain aspects of the structure of the society itself. also be acknowledged that education alone will no t solve our problems. There is no master blueprint These remarks began with an allusion to the con- equally applicable to all institutions or to all aspects cept of two worldsthe franiliar but no longer viable of the educational task. But these elements in that past and the future which, more than a transition from task are universal: first, it is primarily one of syn- the past, appears to bring a change of state in the hu- thesisits basic data will be derived largely from man condition.Related to this concept is that of two the established disciplines that individually are un- cultures, popularized by C. P. Snow. Each of these able to bring together knowledge relevant to environ- concepts is expressive of the change that science has mental policy in a comprehensive or coherent sys- brought into the world.Both imply discontinuities in tem; second, its concern is not merely with the culture: chronological, intellectual, and emotional. appearance of things, but with the purpose, quality, and worth of man-environment relationships; third, The truth of these interpretations of present his- it reinforces rather than dilutes efforts in the sepa- tory is perhaps more poetic than rigorously factual, rate sciences and humanities because it establishes more qualitative than quantitatively demonstrable. or clarifies their relevance to life; fourth and final- A truth may be substantial without being universal. ly, it emphasizes a truth thatis too often forgotten And it seems true that the means to shape the envi- that through education the civilization of the future ronment of civilized societies belong largely to sci- is shaped. ence; whereas the purposes of men, the standards of beauty, order, aesthetic satisfaction, welfare, Past generations of Americans, and men general- and even of some aspects of health belong to the ly, have understood education as preparation for life. humanities.This separation between the custodians It is that, but that is its s matte r dimension.Its of means and ends in our society creates weakness larger dimension and equally important task is to and discontinuity at the point of social decision.It shape life as well as to help prepare for it.In some is in the process of public policy making that the re- degree education has always done this, butoften with- spr-ctive contributions of the "two culture s " are out conscious effort or intention.If man is to be the needed to form a mutually comprehensible and co - master of his own ingenuity, and not its victim, he herent unity. will have to find better ways to relate means to ends, and to evaluate the ends that science makes available The size and complexity of modern society require to him.In summation, the major task of education specialization.In the absence of integrative forces, and politics is to shape a world in which preparation occupational differences tend to fractionalize society. for life is worthwhile.

248 Ispublicgvironmental awarenessapassing fad ora permanent fixture?

AFTER THE TEACH-INS WHAT?

The Editor

W HEN THE very first settlers came to the re- cies, their tough hides protecting them from annual gion around the tip of Lake Michigan in the early 1800's, fires of covert carelessness and overt retribution. the found much of the land covered with "oak open- Now, with breathtaking scope and velocity, the scene ings,or savanna-a striking combination of scatter- has changed. The oak openings of conservation today ed, mature trees amid prairie patches, the whole are thick with saplings. And these saplings are a array appearing, in the eyes of one early observer, different species, springing from submerged roots, "like so many old orchards" (22). displaying a distinctive foliage.This much we can see. What lies ahead is problematic. Will the black The trees were principally bur oaks, their char- oak environmentalists grow straight and tall to form acteristic thick bark protecting them uniquely from a dominant forest, shading out the bur oak veterans? the fires that raged over the prairies eachyear. When It may indeed be that the militant ecology movement the fires were stopped by the settlers, a rapid change is leading squarely to a broad rearrangement Dibasic took place in the oak openings: they became filled with social and economic institutions, as Pekkanen writes dense stands of oak saplings. But surprisingly, the (33).Clark, on the other hand, says environmental- new oaks were not burs; they were largely blacks. ism offers nothing really new, and that we had better Frequently a pure stand of black oak would spring up get back to fundamentals (10).So, will the new co- amid widely spaced bur oaks even though there might horts succumb to renewed fires of convention, leav- not be any mature blacks for miles around. So me ing only the old, gnarled sentinels of concern? Or early observers attributed this black oak irruption could we see emerge a unique community of symbiotic to a mass seeding of the openings by flocks of pas- relationships between old and new, exhibiting hetero- senger pigeons. Each bird was presumed to h av e sis-hybrid vigor. carried a single black oak acorn across the prairies to the bur oak grove and dropped it, in concert with If those of us in environmental communications and his fellows. We now understand that no such charm- education are to continue to contribute effectively to ing an explanation is necessary. The black oaks had the emergence of abroadecological conscience , it will been there all the time, growing as brush or grubs be helpful if we speculate sensibly about possible an- among the prairie grasses, suppressed by annualfir- swers to such questions as I have posed. But before es. When the fires stopped, the black oak developed we can do so, we must ask several more. What char- swiftly into tall, mature trees, gradually shading out acterizes the "new conservation"? Who is the "new many of the open-grown bur oak veterans (11).To- conservationist"? Whet was responsible for his ir- day a prairie grove with an intact ground layer i s ruption? And then, finally, where are we all going? the rarest plant community in the Midwest, yet there THE NEW CONSERVATION are more oak forests than there were in 1800. I cite this bit of ecological history because it may In another paper (42) I have gone to some lengths help us to understand, I believe, what is happening, to delineate the differences between the old "conser- and what may happen, in the area of what has been vation" and the new "environmentalism." While some called conservation information and education(I&E ). differences may be more apparent than real, others are quite distinctive.They may be summarized as Since the 1900's the American conservation land- follows: scape has resembled a savanna. Here and there on a broad prairie of indifference you couldidentify scat- In terms of its scope, the new environmentalism tered bur oak individuals, organizations, and agen- attempts to be all-encompassing. Whereas yesterday

Professor Schoenfeld's article is based on addresses to the Wisconsin Governor's Conference on Environmental Education, Wausau, Wisconsin, February 25, 1970, and to the 35th North American Wildlife and Natural Resourc- es Conference, Chicago, Illinois, March 25, 1970.

249 240 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION we tended to treat soil conservation, water conser- comes, of course, in pellage of many colors, and it vation, forest conservation, wildlife conservation, will take years of sociological research before we and so on, as separate units, today we try to under- can arrange him by phylum and genus.But on th e stand and explain the ecologicalunity of all man-land basis of subjective analysis it seems to me that we relationships.In terms of its focus, then, the new can take note of at least three types. environmentalism is man-centered.That is, our primary concern has shif ted from the survival of rem- First, there is the old conservationist who hass nant redwoods and raptors to the survival of nothing acquired an awareness of the global nature of what less than the Ionian species itself.At the same time once seemed a parochial problem, an understanding we are not so much concerned about quantities of nat- of some new points of entre toward constructive ac- ural resources as we are about the quality of human tion, and a vastly heightened sense of urgency. He experience."Conservation used to be merely a hob- is the erstwhile County Conservation League member by practiced above the 10, 000 -foot level by a few ec- who has shifted his emphasis from prairie chickens centrics, " Bylin has said."Today it has become a to air pollution.He is the Sierra Clubber who hass universal synonym for human survival" (6). added "human survival" to his agenda.He is the Park Service specialist who is trying to take his parks In terms of its locus, while the old conservation to the people instead of vice versa. Witness the words conjured up images of open country, the new envi- ei the National Wildlife Federation: "Conservation is ronmentalism incorporates the pressing problems no longer just the story of vanishing wildlife and van- of the city.In terms of its emotional underpinnings, ishing wilderness areas. There is a new urgency in the new environmentalism is based more on fear for the word today.Suddenly, as we stop and lookat our man's tomorrow than on a love for nature's yester- total environment, it has taken on the meaning of hu- day.Thus today's "preservationist" is not a lover man survival" (47).Yet by no means have all old of wilderness; he is one who fears the four horse- conservationists boarded wholeheartedly the ecologi- men of "conquest, slaughter, famine, and death. cal express.After all, like bur oaks, they have sur- In terms of its political alliances, the old conserva- vived by resisting the fires of their surroundings, and tion was linked to such orthodox causes as depres- they see the present situation as but another momen- sion pump-priming, national defense, and outdoor tary diversion. We can expect to see them dotting the recreation; the new environmentalism, on the other landscape indefinitely, lending perspective if not punch. hand, encompasses the hitherto unmentionable demands of the neo-Malthusians for population control. The second distinct type of new conservationist is a "she. " But she is not the proverbial "little old It is in itsbasic cultural orientation, however, that lady in tennis shoes" who has graced the ranks of the the new environmentalism differs most strikingly bird watchers. She is the sharp young housewife whose from its antecedent, conservation.The latter, in automated kitchen has rendered her under-enloyed, the words of one patron saint, stood clearly for eco- and who, in looking around for new worlds to conquer, nomic development for the infinite goodness of Ameri- has discovered the environment and it s problems. can "progress" (36). But environmentalism reflects Through such local fire brigades asCapital Com- a growing suspicion that bigger is not necessarily munity Citizens and such national organizations as the better, slower can b3 faster, and less can be more. League of Women Voters she is lying down in front of As Pelt has written recently, "more and more peo- bulldozers, accosting legislatorsin their lairs, baiting ple actively seek to conserve a tree, a lake, a view. conservation bureaus, plumping for bond issues, and More people question the Biblical injunction to be in general raiSing polite hell in the best traditions of fruitful and multiply. More people question the old American Populism. American faith in growth and expansion, and suggest that maybe what we don't need is another factory in Perhaps the truest type of new conservationist is town.More middle-aged people have begun to sense the committed college student who is making his pres- the validity in the young who scorn the plastic life" ence felt through such activities as a national campus (34).Upon viewing a new smokestack, millions of environmental teach-in.He is indeed a new breed in Americans used to see a sign of progress; now they several respects. As a matter of fact, he is several see a sign of pollution.The mammoth motor car breeds. At the far left is the true radical who sees used to be a symbol of affluence;now it is a symbol environmental degradation as the Achilles heel of cap- of effluence. italism, and hence is riding conservation as his current hobby-horse toward revolution.For this "Mao- If anything surely marks this revolutionary nature now" clique, the mouthy revolutionaries who profess of both the rise and rationale of the new environmen- to see some social Nirvana beckoning at the end of a talism, it would be the recent words of a Republican trail of brutal confrontation, real conservation is the President of the United States, telling us that "wealth least of their concerns (29). At the opposite end of and happiness are not the same thing," that now i s the spectrum is the professional student in one of the the time to "make our peace with nature," and that resource management fields who is doing what comes we must "measure success or failure by new crite- naturally to him, in orthodox ways yet with early verve ria" (32).Not even F.D. R. would have said that and elan.They are saying to their elders, in effect: If it all sounds suspiciously like echoes of Thoreau "It is you and your system that have brought aboutthe and Leopold, it only suggests that the black oaks were environmental mess which is making muchof the world indeed here all the time, waiting only for a favorable unlivable. Now, before it is too late, let us have a concatenation of events to vault the philosophies of a say about the profession and the planet that we are to Walden or Sand County muse into a State of the Union inherit" (7).It is the students occupying the great middle ground of the movement who are unique. They address. represent everything from art to zoology. They come THE NEW CONSERVATIONIST from Boswash and Grover's Corners. They have long Now, who is the "new conservationist"? He and short hair, full pocketbooks and lean.Their folk

250 EDITOR 241 heroes may be George Wallace or Bertrand Russell. A brief examination of these factors at work in the They may know everything or nothing about the hy- America of the latter 1960's may illuminate the ori- drologic cycle.Yet they have certain attributes in gins and development of our new ecological conscience. common: a neo-Transcendental feeling for the man- land community, a revulsion for the excesses of a The American people in 1970 are simply ready for technological society, a suspicion of the Establish- the conservation message in a way they have never ment, a sense of so little time, and a consumingde- been before (40).They have been on a decade-long sire to act, now, and the devil take anybody who doesn't. emotional binge that has left them both frustrated and As a Washington observer reports: "No group is pent up: multiple assassinations, civil rights con- more concerned, or more disgusted, about the grow- frontations, campus unrest, Vietnam, cost of living, ing destruction of the American environment than the crime in the streets-as F. Scott Fitzgerald once de- young.First, they haven't been around long enough scribed a somewhat similar era, "all gods are dead, to become accomplices in the pollution violence, as- all wars fought, all faiths in man shaken." Little suming they might want to.Second, the young are wonder that Americans are turning to their original more concerned about saving the environment because font of solace, inspiration, and challenge-to nature, they will be the worst casualties if it is not saved. its ways and wise use.Countless individual leanings Although many student environmental activists are toward environmental concerns have been reinforced using little more than the scream method, others by the sense of community growing out of a timely are digging in for a long seige by finding out about Gallup poll, which indicated that conservation now is the economics, the technology, and the politics of everybody's "thing" (8).Another key social force environmental problems" (28).The young e c o- is that ever-growing army of the young: "Modern activist, in sum, is the same disenchanted Ameri- technological society postpones the age of work and can who came over in steerage, who pushed into the responsibility. Many of the young must be trained West. He is the same American who took of with through high school, university, graduate school, and a song for Bull Run, BelleauWoods, and Buna. Now apprenticeship.In the meantime, the student can af- the environment is his onlyfrontier left, and theeco- ford the luxury of a strictly ethicalview of the world war the only one he wants to fight.He insists on do- uncluttered by those compromises and deals that are ing his own thing.He is willing to cooperatewith the the glue of any society" (24). And in this long mean- old-line conservation organizations, but he lives in time, the student moralist is having a profound im- fear of being coopted by them-that and the fear that pact on politicsand on pollution abatement. a fatal public paralysis will render his cause impo- Yesterday's environmental degradation was usu- tent.He may call his mission impossible, but he ally over the hill and far away-in somebody else's still has an innate faith in the future, if only we act dust bowl, somebody else's Echo Canyon, somebody in time. else's boundary water canoe area, somebody else's In essence, the practitioners of the old conserva- forest.But the place of today's environmental deg- tion have been exponents of the art of the possible. radation is where we live-in the foul air, rancid wa- The new recruits see environmentalism as the sci- ter, and clogged arteries of our cities.Millions can ence of the impossible. see, smell, taste, and hear the problem now: "The environment may well be the gut issue that can unify THE NEW ENVIRONMENT a polarized nation in the 1970's.It may also divide Now, what has triggered today's mass irruption people who are appalled by the mess from those who of the new conservationist? Historians, withthe per- have adapted to it.No one knows how many Ameri- spective of 50 years, have never been able to agree cans have lost all feeling for nature and the quality on the factors responsible for the so-called "first of life.Even so, the issue now attracts young and wave" of conservation at the turn of the century. old, farmers, city dwellers, and suburban housewiv- Hays (19) says conservation had its origin in a con- es, scientists, industrialists, and blue-collar work- cern for scientific management and efficiency among ers.They know pollution well.It is as close as the a relatively small group of planners and technicians. water tap, the car-clogged streets and junk-filled Bates (3), on the other hand, argues that the move- landscape-their country's visible decay" (45:56). ment was a grass-roots upswelling of many passion- ate people versus the special interests of the day. Continuing along the Gaus outline, the physical From current experience, perhaps we can see that technology of the 60's has been responsible for our both of these explanations have their points. current state of mind in a striking way.It has vault- ed us to the moon, and thus has given us renewedfaith Unquestionably today's environmentalism has its in our capacity to conquer, but from our new vantage roots in the labors of a handful of leaders: particu- point in the cosmos we have also been struck as nev- larly ecologists turned writers like Leopold, Carson, er before by the fragile, finite character of Spaceship Darling, Commoner, Allen, Dasmann, and Ehrlich; Earth.By invading one frontier we have rediscover- and politicians turned ecologists like Udall, Nelson, ed another, the state of harmony between man and Muskie, andJackson. Unquestionably, too, the move- land.So we are appalled that the combined government is taking on all the dimensions of a somewhat mental expenditure at all levels on natural resources, spontaneous general revolution in thinking, if not in including agriculture, amounted to less than $7 bil- action.in this transmutation of environmentalism lion last year, while we spent $9.7 billion for tobac- from a learned cult to everybody's cause, many fac- co, $1.5.5 billion for liquor, and $5 billion for c o s- tors have surely been significant. metics (10. We are particularly appalled because the technological eye of the decade-the TV camera- Gaus (16) once pinpointed the critical elements has brought environmental degradation right into our in the ecology of any institution or movement as living rooms with stark realism. Along with scenes "people, place, physical technology, social technol- from Selma and Saigon, we have squirmed at scenes ogy, wishesand ideas, catastrophe, andPersonality." from Santa Barbara and Sanguine.

251 242 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION Developments in the social technology of the 60's continental disasters.Yet this is just the point. To- have likewise played a part in the rise of eco-aware- day's catastrophe is not a single clap of thunder; it ness and eco-action.The voice of the mass media is a pervasive drizzle, and thus all the more far- has become increasingly dominated by a coterie of reaching. There is literally no dry spot.Millions magazine editors and TV commentators, so when can sense that swelling population, rampant technol- these gatekeepers of communications have seized on ogy, and fragile biosphere are on a collision course, pollution as the big story, the snowball effect has threatening the quality of the human experience if been dramatic.Not in our wildest dreams as con- not the very survival of man. servation I &E people have we thought that Time, Life, Newsweek, Look, Fortune, and Sports Illus- No single personality dominates the ecology of en- trat,:d would ever devote simultaneous issues to vironmentalism as T. R. and F. D. R. dominated the ecology, yet that is exactly what happened earlier first two waves of conservation.President Nixon has this year, accompanied by electronic voices like tried to preempt the movement, but it is doubtful that those of Walter Cronkite, Eric Sevareid, John Chan- he will be able tc make his image stick. Nor will any cellor, David Brinkley, and Ed Newman, not to men- one scientist or interpreter likely run away with the tion Arthur Godfrey, Eddie Albert, Johnny Carson, show.Rather, the new conservation is characteriz- and Pete Seeger. ed by the diversity of its exponents and troopers. It is, in itself, a complex ecosystem, and this speaks (What got the media onto the population-pollution well for its stability and longevity. "Few of the (con- story so compellingly? It is probably not without servationist) troops know who their generals are, or significance that the big media messages in this even their sergeants" (26). Perhaps one day a Bill country originate from our two most populated and Mauldin will capture in cartoons the personality of polluted places-New York and Los Angeles.) this new-style World War III, and it will not be aPat- ton, but the peace-time equivalent of G. I. Joe. The media calls to reveille might still have met with no response were there not throughout the land Out of the changing people, p la c e s, technology, a spirit of rank-and-file activism, particularly o n aspirations, conflicts, and personages of America the part of the young. Whether you call this spirit at the turn of the decade has come a new spirit and a new "participatory democracy" or a throw-back a new agenda.The spirit is an embryo ecological to the Boston Tea Party, the result is the same- conscience.. The agenda is clean air, clean water, a confidence in the tactics of confrontation. Amer- open space, zero population increase-an illusive yet icans have witnessed the subtle yet sure effects of essential entente between modern man and the on ly civil rights marches and peace moratoria, they have home he has.In short, we sense that "we have mort- seen the results of brass-knuckles conservation as gaged the old homestead and nature is liable to fore- practiced by the Environmental Defense Fund, they c lose '' (39 ). Or we may sense that "the real specter have watched a David like Ralph Nader take on t he that pollution casts over man's future is not, perhaps, 'iath auto industry; and now they are ready to prac- the extinction of Homo sapiens but his mutation into tice the same guerrilla warfare on a broad scale for some human equivalent of the carp now lurking in a cause that is easily identified with all the better Lake Erie's fetid depths, living off poison" (31). Du- angels. bos speculates that man can indeed adapt to most anything, even the dirt, pollution, and noise of the city In their wishes and ideas, all the greatecological And that, he says, would be the real tragedy, worse philosophers have always expressed frankly the be- than extinction-a progressive degradation of thequal- lief that true conservation would require a profound ity of the human animal (1i). change in American values.But nobody really listened. We went right on basing our practices o n TURMOIL AND TRENDS economics at the expense of the esthetic and the ethical.Now, however, the youth of America are Will we make it? What will our prairie grove look beginning to get the real message that was there all like 30 years from now? Will the black oaks of the the time.It fits right in with their basic anti-ma- new environmentalism be the dominant species, the terialism, anyway. Probably nothing so accounts for old burs rotting and fracturing in the shade? It could the current popularity of conservation on our cam- happen. After all, the veteran resource management puses as this marriage of orthodox ecological doc- agencies and organizations are not particularly eco- trine with the innate iconoclasm of the young.In en- logicll in their orientations. On the contrary, they vironmentalism there is no generation gap: "It is tend to espouse unilateral programs an d cultivate possible that ecologists can eventually stir enough special-interest clientele.For example, the Soil people to an emotion as old as man-exaltation. Ecol- Conservation Service supports the drainage of the ogy, the subversive science, enriches man's percep- same wetlands the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wild- tions, his vision, his concept of reality.In nature, life seeks to preserve, the Corps of Engineers would many may find the model they need to cherish" (45:63). innundate a national park without batting an eye, the Forest Service has never been much of a custodian Social scientists are saying that only once before ce wilderness, the Bureau of Outdoor Recreation al- in recent American history has there been so pro- ready represents yesterday's patrician focus, an d found and rapid a change in American public opinion "the farm-subsidy program encourages the misuse as the rise of eco-understanding. That was the flip- of toxic chemicals, one-crop farming that destroys flop from isolationism to interventionism occasioned ecological diversity, and mechanization that drives by Pearl Harbor.So it is all the more striking that jobless rural laborers into packed cities" (45:63). the emergence of ecology as everybody's "bag" has If these agencies and their publics are so inflexible not been triggered by a single catastrophe. We have as to resist coordination, they may well wither. In- had, in recent months, our Everglades, our Storm deed, the white light of publicity we have all caused Kings, and our Alaskas, but these have not been to fall on conservation can hasten the demise of the

252 EDITOR 243 organization that temporizes in adjusting to changing spent all their time worrying about ecology, fewer times, changing priorities, and changing auaiances. woods and waters would have been saved in recent As Pitzer says, "We can make no greater mistake years. If the new conservation is to succeed, it will than to shrug off the ideas of the young as foolish and be through the mainstream of going groups, he says, impractical.It will be at our peril that we encour- yet groups that grasp the technical and radical rules age them to point the way to a better world, only to of the new ballgame (26). We must seek a conser- tell them later that nothing can be done about it. Con- vation movement old enough to have traditions an d versely, youthful idealism and energy represent a young enough to transcend them. potent force for good. if only we can give it productive In this regard it is particularly intriguing to see and creative outlets. We must be willing to change" the hesitant yet healthy emergence of an eco-industry. (37). We are beginning to hear of "ecological stocks" pac- On the other hand, our prairie grove of the year ing the New York exchange.If Americans can learn 2000 may be punctuated only by the old bur oaks. to make as much money out of environmental husbandry It could happen. The new environmentalism could as we have out of environmental exploitation, the prob- turn out to be only a passing fad, like hula-hoops. lem will be solved with some dispatch.It will be par- Americans are given to ::witching issues in mid-stream. ticularly important that the private sector lend a mas- Whatever happened to ',Trilled Nations Day? Some are sive hand, because environmental reclamation is not already saying that while "theconservation and prop- a nice, neat governmental package like a Manhattan er use of natural resources may be a fundamental project or a lunar landing.It is more like the De- problem, that should not divert the nation's attention pression or World War II in its breadth and diversity. from the problems of social justice and racial equal- True, "attacking environmental ailments has a special ity" (45:8). Writes Beyers, "I particularly note a appealfor Americans; in large part they are technical growing resentment among blacks that environmen- and mechanistic problems that involve processes, tal interests may represent a white 'cop out' from flows, things, and theAmerican genius seems to run pressing issues of race and poverty" (5). that way" (45:7).So a typical American responseto a series of crises in a given field hasbeen to smother Or perhaps the sonorous voices of gloom and doom it with money and expect solutions to appear prompt- will render us absolutely insensitive to any possibil- ly."But environmental-quality problems do not lend ities for progress. The fallout scare of the 50's pro- themselves to this kind of approach. There is no sin- duced precious few underground shelters. You al- gle goal toward which technology, economics, and ready hear the complaint: "We have read the management can marshal their forces.Environmen- statistics of degradation, and heard them, and flinch- tal pollution and degradation appear in many forms ed at them, and even wearied of them; statistics that and many places, and successful programs of preven- boggle the mind, and that are repeated like clockwork tion and amelioration will be difficult and many-sided. every year, inching higher and higher. It takes some- The complex scientific-engineering-economic-politi- thing really different -like a river so filthy it actually cal-management-educational programs for cleaning catches fire-to engage our jaded attention" (1). The up the air, the water, and the landscape will have to Jeremiahs of the movement could indeed have such be tailored to meet different situations in various re- a narcotic effect on public oolnion that masses of gions of the country, in various industries, and in var- Americans will "tune out." Taffler has already writ- ious social conditions" (13). Furthermore, "prac- ten of the danger of "future shock" which forces us tical ways to resolve the obvious conf-,ct of economy to crawl into our shells in utter despair (46). and environment are far from clear for afr ee society. There is real danger that the current emphasis on the The new recruits may also juot plain run out of importance of ecological balance will obscure the im- gas "when the bandwagon stops coasting and has to portance of economic balance." Certainly we cannot be dragged up the hills" (9). Or they may climb off go back to some Medieval womb. We must startwith "when the limits of present ecological expertise be- what we have and work forward. come apparent" (21). One way to make the economic system accountable There is another danger: If the eco-activists on for the damage it does to the environment is to work college campuses become dominated by neo-Fascist the costs of avoiding environmental damage right into hooligans, irreparable damage will be done to the the pricing system. As higher prices then begin to new environmentalism. Riots will repel, not attract, show up for goods whose manufacture damages the support. The single thing more dangerous to man environment, the mass re-examination of values nec- than environmental pollution could be the growing essary to the beginnings of broad environmentalism clamor over the issue, according to Theobald.In- may begin to take hold (2).In a real sense the rev- tense efforts to change the established social order olution in the way we view things may already b hap- could produce a reactionary backlash that would pit pening. That is, we may already be seeing a mutation man against man in a most unecologicalfashion (44). of our bur and black oaks, so to speak. For a partic- Hopefully there can be a third broad possibility ularly perceptive analysis of this new "counter-cul- a welding of old and new. In manycases today, what ture," I quote from Edward Kern in a recent issue was once a natural prairie grove is dominated neither of Life: by bur oaks or blacks butby thrifty white oaks. These white oaks exhibit some resistance to fire as well as Gradually but imperceptibly, the ties that held a tolerance of shade. Perhaps we will likewise see people to the old ways of thinking are loosening emerge a lay ecologist with all the lore and savvy of and new ties are being formed to a new outlook. the old-line conservationist and all the heightened It is often said that we are in the midst of a so- idealism and sense of mission of the new environ- cial revolution. The truth, probably, is both mentalist. We need both, as Margolis has pointed out. something less and something considerably more. If the traditional conservation organizations had just There is a social revolution, which seems only

253. 244 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION to have begun; but there is also something ecologic filter when making important policy deci- more profound-a revolution of conscious- sions" (30). ness. Conceivably it could alter the whole aspect of America and produce a new spe- Can industry and government move beyond mere cies of American.If it does, this would tokenism in their response to environmental degra- not necessarily doom the existing structure dation, with imaginative programs that demonstrate of institutions or the present forms of po- the relevancy of capitalism and democracy to gut is- litical life.The impersonal pressures of sues? advancing technology are certain to have a great effect on these, and trends point to The political and economic conflicts growing out larger and more complex organizations in of militant ecology will be enormous, Gerlach pre- the future rather than to the simplicities of dicts: "The question is whether or notthose respon- the counter-cultural commune. But organ- sible for damaging the environment will be wise enough izations, from one standpoint, are social and adaptable enough to see what is being demanded vessels which are designed to contain hu- of them and accommodate to it.The key to holding manity. What matters most is the quality us together is how business and political leadership of human consciousness that is poured into responds. Confrontation is unavoidable because the them, and time may prove that it is possible, environmental problem does not lend itself to token- after all, to pour new wine into old bottles (23). ism-too many people are aware; too much is seen; the crisis is too great.The strongest argument for optimism is that the leaders of the movement are the THE BIG TEST educated people who know where the levers of power are and who are willing to use them short of taking In summary, what is really on trial in the tension to the streets" (17). zone of the '70's is not a movement.It is the processes of American education, American democracy, Can our society create a new consumerism that and American culture. demands less goods and gadgets, and more capacity to preserve, EL_.otest, and defend our natural heritage? Can education go beyond a mere imparting of ec- The answers to most population-pollution prob- ological facts to inculcate a will and a way for the lems can only be found in trade-offs.If something individual and collective solution of environmental undesirable is to go, something desirable may have problems? to go as well.You can't air-condition your home, for example, unless somebody is burning fossil or One difficulty in changing attitudes toward envi- nuclear fuel to produce electricity.It is the making ronmental exploitation is that attitudes toward the of sophisticated choices, then, the rendering of subtle environment are tied to overriding values which are value judgments, that is the essence of conservation highly resistant to change. There are many basic today. Our first task is a good old American goal values in Western culture that support environmen- to restore more freedom of choice. The consumer tal destruction-the Abrahamic concept of land, for who wants to conserve must be given the chance to example.But there are also basic values which conserve-in the marketplace, in his home, at th e support environmental conservation-the survival in- ballot-box.And then we in positions of leadership stinct, for instance (38). We need not be discour- will be increasingly put to the test of outlining the aged. When threatened, man is capable of almost options in an unemotional, objective, self-disciplined anything.Today, nothing less than our survival is manner."If expertise comes wrapped in pretentious- at stake. The pro,:lam is getting enough people to ness, over-emotion, and intellectual dishonesty, we realize this blunt truth while there is still time to only add moral insult to environmental injury" (43). act (25).Yet fear will not be enough as along-term motivating factor. We need love: "The one thing The United States simply must start inventing gen- needed to recover and preserve the American envi- uine "political, economic, and intellectual processes ronment is a reverence for earthpaying fair homage that will give us, as a society and as individuals, more to the soil, the winds, the waters, and honoring the real choice about how we live" (4). These are not very spirit of their places" (27). Whatever the the words of a Berkeley fanatic; they are the words theme, the practitioners of conservation information of Fortune magazine. We must, in short, begin to and education have one easy test of their solvency engage, once and for all, in ecological thinking.As today:If they are not drawing fire from the flanks, someone has said, we cannot ever do only one thing. what they are putting out is not getting to the heart When we try to pick out anything by itself, we find it of the problem. There is simply no easy compro- inexorably connected to something else.And we can- mise between the old economics and the new ecology not do everything all at once. We must rid ourselv- (41).All this suggests to us purveyors of ecologi- es of the mentality of the 30-second commercial and cal information and education that if we are indeed the 30-minute comedy.Environmental housekeeping to be "in tune with the dynamics of the age," which is a never-ending serial. J. A. R. Pimlott once described as the essence of Put another way, what is really at stake in the public relations (35), then we had better desistfrom '70's is US. We must demand of ourselves the same merely husbanding our particular organizations and high quality we demand of the environment. agencies. We must "get with" producing an enlightened citizenry that will, in the words of the author What is necessary is an unflagging respect for the of the Environmental Quality Education Act, under- world, and for man. For dissent and diversity. For stand "man's unquestioned interdependence with those natural amenities that husband the prosperity nature," appreciate that "scientific advance is not of the human spirit.For those human institutions always synonymous with progress," and "use an that protect freedom of choice.If we simply regret

254 EDITOR 245 what we have done, we must regret that we are men. 13. Fisher, Joseph L., "Lookine, Ahead to the 1970's," It is only by accepting ourselves for what we are, the Annual Report, Resources for the Future, Inc., worst of us and the best of us, that we can hold any Washington, D. C. ,1969, p.4. hope for the future (20). 14. Fortune (special issue on "The Environment: To paraphrase John Gardner: A National Mission for the Seventies"), Feb- ruary 1970, editorial, p. 93. We will not find our way out of our present troubles until a large number of Americans acknowledge their 15. Gardner, John, quoted in Saul Pett, "Som6thinv's own special contribution.The path to recovery will Rotten in the U. S. ," Wisconsin State Jour n al, call for courage and stamina.Our salvation will not Madison, February 15, 1970, p. 4. be handed to us. If we are lucky we will have a chance to earn it.Many things are wrong. Many thing s 15. Gaus, John, Reflections in Public AdmListration, must be done.There is no middle state for the University of .;labama Press, University, Ala- spirit.It rises to high levelp of discipline and de- bama, 1947. p. 6. cent;; and purposeor it sags and rots.We must call for the best or live with the worst (15). 17. Gerlach, Luther, quoted by John Pekkanen in "When People Begin Making Sacrifices, You'll See More Militancy," Life, January 30,1970, p. 30. 18.Hartzog, George B., National Park Service, Washington, D.C., December 1969, mimeograph, REFERENCES P. 6. 19. Hays, Samuel P., Conservation and the Gospelof Efficiency, Harvard University Press, Cam 1.Allen, James E., Jr., "Education for Survival," bridge, Massachusetts, 1959. U.S. Office of Education, Washington, D.C., January 13, 1970, mimeograph, p. 3. 20. Hochbaum, Albert, quoted in Susan Flatter, 'Deer Management: Ecology and 'politics, " unpublish- 2. Anderson, David C., "Policy Riddle: Ecology Versus the Economy," Wall Street Journal, Feb- ed PhD thesis, Stanford University, January 1970. ruary 2, 1970, p. 8. 21. Housman, William, The Environment Monthly, February 1970, p. 1. 3. Bates, J. Leonard, "Fulfilling American De- mocracy," Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 22.Hoyt, J. W., "Natural Resources of Wisconsin," 44:29-57. Transactions of the Wisconsin State Agricultural 4. Bowne, William, "Our New Awareness of the Society, 6:46-49, 1960. Great Web," Fortune, February 1970, p. 199. 23. Kern, Edward, "Can It Happen Here?" Life, 5. Byers, Bob, Stanford University New Service, October 17, 1969, pp. 67-78. personal correspondence from author's files, February 24, 1970. 24. Knebel, Fletcher, "Why We Need New Politi- cians." Look January 13, 1970, p.74. 6. Bylin, James E., "Conservation Gains Political 25,Look, November 4, 1969, editorial: "Agendafor Weight," Wall Street Journal November 26, Survival," (special issue on "Americathe Beau- 1969, p. 8. tiful?"). Cahn, Robert, "Youth Takes Over at National Environmental Conference," Christian Science 26.Margolis, John, "Our Country 'Tis of Thee, Monitor, December 4, 1969, p. 10. Land of Ecology," Esquire, March 1970, p. 124. 8. Chaney, Ed. "The Environment: Who Cares? 27.McCarthy, Colman, "Needed: A Reverence for Why? So What?" Environmental Education, the Earth, " Capital Times, Madison, Wiscon- Spring 1970, pp. 80-82. sin, February 23, 1970, p. 34.

9. Chaney, Ed, "Oh, Those Precious Bodily Fluids," 28. McCarthy, Colman, "Students Digging in f or Conservation News, February 1, 1970, p. 3. Ecology Fight," Washington Post, January 26, 1970, p. 16. 10. Clark, Wilson B. , "The Environmental Educa- 29. Milwaukee Journal, editorial, Milwaukee, Wis- tion Banner." Environmental Education, Fall consin, October 6, 1969, p. 16. 1969, p.7. 11. Curtis, John T. , The Vegetation of Wisconsin, 30. Nelson, Gaylord, "The New Conservation, " Con- The University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, gressional Record, January 21, 1970. p. S28,. 1959, pp. 334-337. 31. Newsweek, editorial; "Needed: A Rebirth of Com- 12. Dubos, Rene, "We Can't Buy Our Way Out," munity," January 26, 1970, p. 47, (special is- Psychology Today, March 1970, p. 20. sue on "The Ravaged Environment").

255 246 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION 32. Nixon, Richard, quoted in Time February 2, stead," Sports Illustrated, February 2, 1970, 1970, p.7. p. 51, (special issue: "The Last ChanceNow"). 33. Pekkanen, John P. , "A Cause Becomes a Mass 40. Schoenfeld, Clay, "Educating the Public in Nat- Movement," Life January 30, 1970, p.3 0 ural Resources, " Journal of Soil and Water Con- (special issue: "Ecology Becomes Everybody's servation, November-December 1968, p. 124. Issue"). 41. Schoenfeld, Clay, "Toward A National Strategy 34. Pett, Saul, "Something's Rotten in the U.S. ," for Environmental Education," The Journal of Wisconsin State Journal, Madison, (Associated Educational Research, 64:3, September 1970. Press), February 15, 1970, p. 4. 35. Pimlott, J. A.R., quoted in Clarence A. Schoen- 42. Schoenfeld, Clay, "What's New About Environ- feld, Publicity Media and Methods, Macmillan, mental Education?" Environmental Education, New York, 1963, p. 325. Fall 1969, p. 7.

36.Pinchot, Gifford, The Fight for Conservation, 43. Scientific Research, editorial: "A Matter of Re- Harcourt Brace, Garden City, New York, 1910, straint," September 1, 1969, p.4. p. 42. 44. Theobald, Robert, "Clamor Perils Pollution 37.Pitzer, Kenneth S. , "Closing the Generation War," Milwaukee Journal, Milwaukee, Wis- Gap," Stanford University News Service, Stan- consin, February 11, 1970, p. 3. ford, California, January 26, 1970, p.1. 45. Time, February 2, 1970, pp. 7,8,56,63, (spe- 38. Pyron, Bernard, "Toward an Increase in Eco- cial issue: "The EmergingSciei ce of Survival"). logical Awareness," Center for Environmental Communications and Education Studies," The 46. Toffler. Alvin, "Future Shock," Playboy, Feb- University of Wisconsin, Madison, mimeograph, ruary 1970, p. 94. February 20, 1970, p.10. 47.Zinn, Donald J. , At War With Waste, National 39. Ritchie-Calder, Lord ,Mortgaging the Old Home- Wildlife Federation, Washington, L. C. ,p. 1..

256