Visionary, Popular and Viable?

Home , Garden city movement, Letchworth

Garden Cities – Visionary, Popular and Viable?

Susan Parham, Anthony Downs and Gavin Murray with illustrations prepared by Pablo Fernandez

New Towns...... Garden Cities

Business parks...... Mixed use urban zones

Suburban sprawl...... Garden suburbs

Urban voids...... Urban repair

Motorways...... Green mobility - public transport

Zone-based planning ��Place-making

Susan Parham, Anthony Downs, and Gavin Murray with illustrations prepared by Pablo Fernandez

About the Garden Cities Perspectives series

This is the fourth of a series Through our authors’ analyses we Contents of ‘Garden City Perspectives’: intend that the Perspectives series in-depth research and policy helps to promote knowledge, Perspectives Paper Summary...... 4 papers being published under increase understanding, generate the auspices of the International conversations – and at times 1.0 Setting the scene for new Garden Cities...... 8 Garden Cities Institute (IGCI). perhaps challenge assumptions Through this series our intention – about what Garden Cities are or 2.0 Making new Garden Cities that are visionary...... 10 is to open up opportunities for might be. We want to make clear diverse viewpoints to be expressed that the views of authors in this 3.0 Making new Garden Cities economically viable...... 20 about the history, contemporary series are solely their own and do 4.0 Making new Garden Cities popular...... 29 practice and possible futures not represent any official policy for Garden Cities - and planned position of either the IGCI or its 5.0 Delivering new Garden Cities - drawing it all together...... 34 settlements more generally where host organisations. relevant. It is a chance to look References...... 36 at Garden Cities in depth with We hope you find this paper reference to the latest academic informative, stimulating, thought List of illustrations...... 36 and policy perspectives across provoking and useful. a range of themes – housing, Endnotes...... 37 place design, health, economics, accessibility, social and cultural Author Biographies...... 38 aspects, governance and more. Acknowledgements ...... 39

Cover: Through our authors’ arguments we intend that the 20th & 21st Century Perspectives series helps to promote knowledge, increase Urbanism compared understanding, generate conversations – and at times 2014 Parham, Downs, perhaps challenge assumptions – about what Garden Murray & Fernandez Cities are or might be. Perspectives Paper Summary this paper we bring a range of from the start in creating inspiring 21st CENTURY URBANISM 20th CENTURY URBANISM perspectives to the question. urban design and development In this paper we explore the These perspectives come proposals using ‘charrette’ public question: how can new Garden from urban design, planning, engagement processes, not simply Cities which are visionary, architecture, development, being asked to react to the pre- economically viable and popular community engagement determined plans of others. Rural structure Rural sprawl be delivered? We summarise our and place-making, as well as ideas here and expand on them in economics, because this is a the main body of the paper. holistic question, not a narrow, The paper updates and expands reductive or purely academic one. on a commended entry the Blue-green network Green space authors submitted for the Wolfson Our vision 2. Design for a house in Letchworth Prize on building a new garden city. Garden City By Baillie Scott - About vision we say that ‘business The International Studio, 1908 Why Garden Cities matter as usual’ or ‘technological fix’ Compact settlement Sub-Urban sprawl solutions have not got us where we As one of the great success want to be in delivering exceptional A knotty problem is where new stories in making places that new places to live and work, garden cities, garden towns, garden villages and garden work economically and are also or in contributing to prosperity Structured blocks loved by their residents, workers and growth. Garden Cities are a neighbourhoods should go. enclosing streets Unstructured block and visitors, Garden Cities seem tried and tested alternative and We offer a vision of not one but prime candidates for reappraisal. a modern Garden City vision multiple models which advance the In a context of the urgent need for will combine Ebenezer Howard’s vision – stand-alone garden cities, substantial new housing provision principles with a systematic design garden city inspired towns and High streets with small shops Shopping mall and increased economic activity to approach using masterplans, villages, garden neighbourhoods, contribute to prosperity, it is evident transect systems, pattern books and repaired garden cities on that we need a very high quality of and design guides. Our vision previously developed land. These thinking and debate about why we sees these backed by financial are permutations that reflect the Connected streets Cul-de-sacs should deliver new Garden Cities and engagement approaches that opportunities presented by the today – and how to do so. work effectively within the present spatial, economic and political planning system, and reflecting context we face. We rework unique regional and local place- Howard’s famous diagrams to Mixed use employment areas Business park making circumstances. show how this would work on the ground. The vision argued for in this Perspectives paper is about Structured urban space Sub-Urban sprawl meeting local needs and garnering local support in a 21st century context, with design that 1. Garden City Cottages, Hillshot, engages with local vernacular, and Letchworth Garden City reflects local context, traditions and materials. Our vision is of Rural structure Rural sprawl Taking a holistic view meeting the same high standard of architectural quality in housing Delivering new Garden Cities is as and place design as was achieved at the start of the 20th century much about design, place-making 3. Reworked Howard diagram and community development (see Figures One and Two). The as economic viability, and in vision is of communities involved 4 5 On viability communities and include land should be delivered. Starting this 21st CENTURY URBANISM value capture elements to process early is both an ethical and About viability we argue that varying degrees. pragmatic strategy for increasing A Garden City acording to ‘‘transect principles’’. delivering new garden cities can popularity and making sure the Natural zone offer a fresh chance to overcome We demonstrate how existing benefits outweigh the costs. the problematic conventions budget allocations, tax regimes Natural zone Rural zone and shortcomings of existing and more innovative financing We argue that there are techniques Natural landscape with development arrangements. We models can be employed to good which work to develop new some agricultural use suggest a series of specific ways effect to support new garden cities, settlements with communities, Sub-Urban zone to explore the key garden city towns, villages, and neighbourhood and we give a number of UK principle of land value capture and ‘retrofits’ of existing dysfunctional based examples from practice – Rural zone make best use of money that is places, without undermining in Scotland and in Hertfordshire Primarily agricultural with already being spent sub-optimally the need for restraint. Tapered - of using ‘charrette’ methods woodland and wetland and General Urban zone to develop new places, often of tax relief to encourage a more to successfully engage with scattered buildings indifferent quality. long-term approach among communities on new settlement developers, the possibility of design and planning, in the process In a context of public spending reanimating Enterprise Zones, the gaining their support. We reference Urban zone restraint we argue for an use of Community Infrastructure engagement work carried out in Sub-Urban zone approach that is predicated on Levy and other ways to develop Letchworth which showed how an Lawns and landscaped gardens market viability and driven by multiplier effects from garden informed ‘town debate’ connected surrounding detached single Urban core private sector players including city development are all part to predominant support for family houses landowners, champions, and of the proposed mix. We show growth, and a vote in favour by communities themselves, but how viability is further supported the town’s Governors. through appropriate governance makes best use of leverage General Urban zone Urban zone and management approaches, available through taxation and Summing up Mix of houses and small a range of ownership models other financing and ownership apartments with some and diversity in housing types instruments and models to We do not pretend that delivering commercial activity; and densities. support viability over the short and new garden cities, garden villages balance between landscape longer-term. and other forms of truly ‘garden’ and buildings On popularity settlement will be easy or entirely To support viability we propose to uncontentious. The ideas and General Urban zone make optimal use of spatial assets The advocacy of champions is arguments presented in this Urban zone we already have – redundant a necessary basis for delivering paper demonstrate that it is Commercial mixed with public land, private sector land any new garden city, town, possible to bring together vision, terraced houses, larger holdings, opportunities from village or neighbourhood, to help viability and popularity – building apartments, offices and existing and planned transport garner enthusiasm and support on time tested approaches and Sub-Urban zone civic buildings. infrastructure and energy supply – among communities, but this innovating in specific areas – and ensure these are combined to will not be enough. We advocate to offer an approach that is fit help ‘de-risk’ and develop the best very transparent engagement for fast changing 21st century Rural zone sites for new garden cities, towns, processes that put communities circumstances. New garden cities Urban core villages and neighbourhoods. at the centre of things, which start then, are not simply a pipedream, Medium to high density mixed We show how approaches before any decisions have been but in our view a realistic use buildings, entertainment, Natural zone which connect landholders and made, and avoid any backroom possibility for a more prosperous civic and cultural uses. development partners who deals being done that show and liveable future. take a long term view can offer peoples’ views don’t matter. We a workable basis for delivery. demonstrate that popularity This urban-to-rural transect hierarchy has These can generate acceptable requires working with communities appropriate building and street types for returns for both developers and to decide if, where and how a city each area along the continuum. 6 7 1.0 Setting the scene for new engagement and place-making, On viability Charrettes are design based Our intention is to help inform Garden Cities as well as economics, because engagement process about the design and planning work, this as a holistic question, not a About viability we argue that future of a place or even a whole engagement with communities, Why garden cities matter narrow, reductive one. Rather than delivering new Garden Cities can city or region. Their usefulness is and teaching and research, as providing an academic essay on offer a fresh chance to overcome reflected in their increasing use well as supporting new garden the merits of garden cities and in the UK including at a strategic cities in practice. As one of the great success the problematic conventions barriers to their delivery, in this county-wide level such as in The stories in making places that work and shortcomings of existing Perspectives paper we have tried Hertfordshire Guide to Growth of economically and are also loved by development arrangements. We very hard to stick to the point – to 2008 and in reviewing progress their residents, workers and visitors, suggest a series of specific ways as clearly as possible answer through the Hertfordshire Guide to garden cities have recently been to make best use of money that is the question: Growth - Five Years On of 2014. It prime candidates for reappraisal. already being spent sub-optimally is reflected in more locally focused In a context of the urgent need for to develop new places, often of “How would you deliver a new examples such as the Old Hatfield substantial new housing provision, indifferent quality. We argue for Garden City which is visionary, Charrette and the Symondshyde increased economic activity to an approach that is driven by economically viable, and popular?” and Stanboroughbury charrette, contribute to prosperity and critical private sector players including where pre-charrette and post- issues in relation to sustainable landowners, investors, champions, charrette papers explain the place-making, it is evident that Our vision and communities themselves, process and masterplanning ideas we need a very high quality of but makes best use of leverage developed through community thinking and debate about why About vision we say that ‘business available through taxation, and engagement. Its helpfulness is also we should deliver new garden as usual’ or ‘technological fix’ other financing and ownership demonstrated in the recent city- cities today – and how to do so. solutions such as those now instruments and models, to wide charrette processes for a new For us, then, this Perspectives mooted for so-called ‘smart cities’ support viability over the short and London Plan.1 Paper offers an extremely timely have not got us where we want longer-term. chance to combine both academic to be in delivering exceptional Equally important to our approach and ‘real world’ experience and new places to live and work, or On popularity is making connections between expertise, and bring this to bear on in contributing to prosperity and these vital areas. Our short section how garden cities, towns, villages growth. A modern garden city About popularity we emphasise ‘Delivering Garden Cities – drawing and both new and ‘retrofitted’ vision will combine Howard’s that advocacy of champions will it all together’ therefore focuses neighbourhoods can be principles with a systematic be a necessary basis for delivering on the critical points from each created today. design, financial and engagement any new garden city to help garner approach that works effectively enthusiasm and support among of these areas. It also includes examples of cross-cutting aspects Taking a holistic view within the present planning system local communities, but this alone and reflects unique regional and will not be enough. We advocate where we think important delivery local place-making circumstances. opportunities for new garden cities In our view those working in very transparent engagement We offer not one but three models and other forms of garden city built environment disciplines are processes that put communities which advance the vision – the inspired settlements are to strong candidates to answer the at the centre of things, which start stand-alone garden city, new be found. question of how to build visionary, before any decisions have been garden city inspired towns, villages popular and viable settlements made, and avoid any backroom and neighbourhoods, and repaired successfully today. To make places deals being done that show A good process garden cities on previously which are visionary, viable and people’s views don’t matter. We developed land – permutations popular – which Ebenezer Howard demonstrate that popularity Exploring the question of how that reflect the opportunities and his colleagues achieved at the requires working with communities to make garden cities that are presented by the spatial, economic beginning of the 20th century – we to develop new settlements, visionary, viable and popular has and political context we face. must bring a range of perspectives and we give a number of United given us the chance to develop to the question from urban Kingdom based examples of using what we think are new insights, design, planning, architecture, ‘charrette’ methods to successfully connections and synergies to add development, community do so. into discussion about developing new garden cities today. 8 9 2.0 Making new Garden (but we accept not all) smaller Developing any sizeable “On October 11 last year the process (briefly mentioned above as at Chapelton of Elsick and in Cities that are visionary extensions to cities and towns. community has its challenges, but first biogas from the Poundbury and described in detail in Section an example from Hertfordshire There are, of course, challenges there are also several examples anaerobic digester was injected Four) with the local community (shown in Image Six).3 What constitutes Garden that need to be addressed, not of successful privately financed, into the National Grid. The plant, and other stakeholders, which is least funding, opposition from market driven developments adjacent to the housing and an the prerequisite for a successful Cities for the 21st Century? Historical design context and public interest groups and loss of that are being built in the integral part of the development development. As a result the architectural style agricultural land. United Kingdom today under plan as a whole, takes local slurry, design solution for each site will be The critical need to increase the the present planning system food and farm waste and converts unique; reflecting the local context, supply of housing in the United Ebenezer Howard’s diagrams from Despite these difficulties, which and notwithstanding austere it into enough clean gas to traditions and materials. Kingdom regardless of quality his Tomorrow: A Peaceful Path we address in other sections of economic conditions. Poundbury supply the entire settlement. It is is resulting in a rush by local to Real Reform (1898) brilliantly this paper, we feel it is possible carbon-neutral, visually sensitive It may sound self-evident, but to authorities to approve a rash of summarize his concept of ‘the to deliver garden cities and other and commercially viable, and it garner sufficient public support, comparatively small suburban joyous union of town and country’. types of garden city inspired is no surprise, given the history any future garden cities have to residential extensions. Even if While his guiding principles are settlements using a combination of Poundbury, that the prince’s inspire the community of those some of these are now being of elements: Ebenezer Howard’s biogas operation is the first such already living and working in the badged as ‘garden’ settlements of design principles, a systematic commercial plant in the UK.” area in which they are planned, various kinds that is often more design approach, managed and again we look at this in image than reality. As a result of effectively using masterplans, more depth in Section Four. In this quick fix solution – in various Addressing Local Needs design codes and pattern books, our view this is best achieved by ways adopted since the 1950s – through Architecture and with 21st century communications, 5. Housing at Roussillon Park researching specific local needs many of our existing towns and Place Design energy, water, waste and transport designed by Ben Pentreath and ensuring the majority of cities now have blighted suburban infrastructures, but working within the community benefit. Local edges that are poorly integrated Views about what constitutes the present planning system. in Dorset, started in 1998, is now involvement is critical, with an with the original settlement’s core the ‘perfect’ garden city or other well established, and Chapelton ongoing engagement process that 6. Pattern Book, Gascoyne Cecil and sprawl into the countryside forms of garden settlement for Often the nature of the of Elsick near Aberdeen2, which addresses all the specific design (see Figure Four). As we discuss in the 21st century will vary from architecture has been the sticking began to be designed only a few issues that are important to the detail later in the paper, some of person to person and community well over a century old, they are point but this does not have years ago, is now on site, with the existing communities and allows these places themselves now need to community. Most assume the still highly relevant today. Howard’s to be the case. Together these first houses being built in 2014. It them the chance to help develop ‘retrofitting’. This means remaking solution will be similar to the primary aspiration, to improve elements can provide eclectic seems more than coincidence that and shape that design rather than their physical fabric from the scale architecture of the Arts and Crafts the quality of life for all residents, stylistic approaches to building there are several identical factors simply react to it. of individual houses to broader inspired Letchworth, Welwyn was provided by a balance design within broader urbanist at work at each of these sites: an area renewal – because of their Garden City and Hampstead between town and country rather principles. In this way a mixed-use interested landowner with a clear, As a result future garden city, poor quality housing and place Garden Suburb (we showcased than a blurring together of these development with good manners long term, legacy driven vision; garden town, garden village design. This is a big ‘place making’ these in Images One and Two). categories when designing and in architecture emerges which can a committed leadership team; and ‘garden’ inspired retrofitting task for society that could be done planning settlements. deal with the pressures of the 21st strong and ongoing community solutions for neighbourhoods in some cases according to garden As a result some may see the idea century (see Image Five). Solutions engagement; and pragmatic will differ greatly from place to city principles. of garden cities as an imposition Howard’s diagrams and writing that address the local vernacular, target driven programming of place. These will be tailored to of historic, outdated ideology encapsulate a basis for a that engage with and inspire local development phases. regional and local issues and The garden city model by and design; others as a positive successful community and show populations; are based on low needs. Instead of getting bogged contrast to conventional return to traditional values and the spatial, social and economic carbon producing approaches; Looking at specific aspects of down in the often divisive issue of approaches provides a tried place-making solutions. In our interplay required between town, offer good, affordable infrastructure such place design, there are good architectural style, the focus will and tested alternative solution view it is neither of these. Instead, country, residents and commerce and energy arrangements; and examples to reflect on in the area be less on ‘architectural dressing’ which offers many benefits: a the design approach we propose to design a thriving mixed-use build in or make use of existing of low carbon production. As and more on design fundamentals. large masterplanned, mixed addresses local needs and city. This principle is still relevant effective transport systems, can the noted housing architect Ben These include built form massing, use development that is viable, produces a design solution that and the basis for successful and be developed quickly to address Pentreath (2013) has pointed out, mix of tenures, and existing site sustainable, aims to enhance engages with the local vernacular. sustainable garden cities for the the present housing demand, but Poundbury has developed very features as the key drivers of the st quality of life and avoid the Such an approach achieves a 21 century. 4. ‘Business as usual’ new housing also support economic growth and good low carbon energy and design. These can be supported dormitory approach of many consensus through a charrette in the United Kingdom social vibrancy. waste solutions: through codes and pattern books

10 11 Garden city designers and including for housing, energy, 1. The proposals must be Architecturally inspiring with emphasis on those which architects, Barry Parker and transport, air quality, waste, water inspirational and proposed by a are locally available Raymond Unwin, were committed and flooding among others. strong leadership team. New development proposals to the Arts and Crafts movement, 2. There must be a strong vision invariably result in a fair degree • Good design standards as can be seen at the completed As we argue above, design following ongoing community of cynicism which is a reflection reflected in design codes and settlement at Letchworth Garden solutions should vary depending engagement. of the poor standard of many pattern books City and at a smaller scale at upon regional and local needs residential developments over the 3. There must be land value capture Hampstead Garden Suburb. Their and will take on regional traditions past sixty years. To be popular, Inspiring architecture is very for the benefit of the community. very practical view of town and and context. The house designs new garden cities need to be not subjective and a broad range country resulted in mixed use, for Knockroon in south-west 4. Community ownership of land just exemplary in a spatial design of design solutions is to be 8. Knockroon town extension planned, walkable communities. Scotland for example (see Figure and long term stewardship of assets. sense but get the process of expected and welcomed. Design Eight) are very different from 5. Mixed tenure homes that are developing that design right. We should address different regional These communities were focused those at Poundbury in Dorset in affordable for all the community. say more in Section Four about traditions and contexts. As a on town centres with well-defined the south west of the UK, but each how designers and developers result new garden cities and other Reflecting 21st 6. A strong local jobs offer in the civic spaces, and provided housing relates strongly to local vernacular must engage thoroughly with forms of garden settlements will Garden City itself, with a variety of for a wide range of incomes traditions in their own area. What century criteria communities through charrette require analysis and a survey of employment opportunities within and households. The Arts and they share is making a positive processes which both capture their local exemplars. This will allow for th easy commuting distance. Crafts influence on the crafting, contribution to creating liveable Over the 20 century there imaginations and develop designs replicating their form, proportions careful detailing and choice of streets and areas. We believe has been massive urbanisation, 7. High-quality imaginative design which provide for their needs. But and materials, and should provide local materials for many of these one of the great strengths of the different and more varied modes (including homes with gardens), we also need to set principles for the ideal basis for integrating the houses in Letchworth and the garden city model in design terms of public and personal transport combining the very best of town good design to inspire, and we list best local elements into a design. neo-Georgian influence in Welwyn is its flexibility to respond to these and improved communications. and country living to create healthy elements here we think are critical: This is not to say there is no room Garden City4 are clearly evident altered circumstances. As a result there are new pressures homes in vibrant communities. for focal points or features to on both town and country, which and remain very popular today This does not undercut the 8. Generous green space linked • A carefully thought out town provide contrast, but the desire for result in the context of the (see Figure Seven below). universal strengths of places that to the wider natural environment, plan, including public civic architects to always provide unique debate rather than Ebenezer focus on public space and on including a mix of public and private space and streets as places design solutions regardless of the Howard’s principles having to shift. streets that has been underlined by networks of well-managed, high- based upon features on surrounding context only results Successful garden cities and other a range of recent work such as that quality gardens, tree-lined streets the land in a confusing and clashing street 5 ‘garden’ settlements, fit for the 21st of Create Streets. and open spaces. scene. And some things should not century must meet twelve criteria • Similarly proportioned be debatable – Lifetime Homes which have been usefully set out 9. Opportunities for residents to 6 buildings which are human- standards , and space standards by the Town and Country Planning grow their own food, including scale and future proofed, with like those pioneered by Parker and Association (TCPA). In relation to generous allotments. a maximum of five storeys to Unwin, and later by Tudor Walters, getting design right, we still think 10. Access to strong local cultural, avoid expensive, difficult-to- should be an essential part of 7. Welwyn Garden City Centre these are critical to any successful recreational and shopping facilities maintain technical solutions any design. Post War delivery of garden cities in future in walkable neighbourhoods. and are worth restating (see box). 11. Integrated and accessible • Design integrity to reflect As noted earlier, architectural style In our view Howard’s principles still transport systems – with a local vernacular is often the most contentious issue provide an appropriate framework series of settlements linked by among architects themselves for designing new garden cities rapid transport. • Building life cycle and rather than with local communities and other types of garden sustainability to achieve low who predominantly express a 12. Provide a full range of settlements, while we should take carbon buildings and places preference for design solutions a more eclectic view of the detailed employment opportunities which use traditional architecture (as set out in Howard’s vision of the 7 designs that might be right for • Carefully orientated and and detailing. We should therefore ‘Social City’). each settlement. We need to be detailed buildings avoid confusing architectural open to a range of detailed design (Source: The TCPA, May, 2012). with community preferences and solutions to meet 21st century • A limited palette of materials deliver garden city design which place-making requirements, is both highly popular and robust. 12 13 Unique site-specific solutions (we discuss the elements this Whereas a development plan This urbanism could be analysed In Chapelton, the masterplanners should result from the design covers a bit later in the paper) sets out the scale and type as natural transects are analysed. have been very clear about what engagement process, and generate – to ensure that density and of development, and the key To systemize the analysis and the Pattern Book does, stating that: not only regional variations but other place-shaping elements principles of character for a coding of traditional patterns, a “Taking the varied needs of the design that suits local people and are appropriate to location region, a masterplan is generally prototypical American rural-to- different user groups into account, places (see Figure Nine). within the settlement employed where there is a greater urban transect has been divided 10. The transect as used for the Pattern Book will accomplish degree of certainty regarding the into six Transect Zones, or T-zones, shaping Tornagrain New Town the following: 3. A place-specific pattern book development of a specific site, and for application on zoning maps. in Scotland – to ensure the details of is linked to social and economic Standards were written for the first • Provide a framework that design at area and individual analysis and a delivery strategy. transect-based codes, eventually ensures that the town is building level are coherent and Although a masterplan may to become the SmartCode, which We also advocate the use of developed in accordance beautiful, by offering examples specify more detailed governing was released in 2003 by Duany pattern books as an aid for with the principles of the relevant to the location principles such as building heights, Plater-Zyberk & Company.” individual architects and house masterplan and in line spaces, movement, landscape type builders to help make sure overall with the vision which has 4. Place-specific design codes and predominant uses, it does not The transect has been masterplanning intentions are been established by Elsick necessarily preclude a degree of reflected in good design of specific 9. New infill housing in Old Hatfield – to set out the appropriate described as Development Company flexibility in designs within buildings and places. Thus for the as an example of locally responsive proportions, materials palette the plan.” 8 Chapelton of Elsick masterplan design with technical innovations and other design elements for “An analytical system that • Guide housebuilders and for a new settlement in Scotland, for energy design coherence. conceptualizes mutually others involved in the We also suggest the use of reinforcing elements, creating a Pattern Book was developed physical construction of Just to ‘unpack’ these ideas a ‘transect’ based design approaches a series of specific natural which was designed to “govern the Chapelton by providing Elements of good little we provide some details to place-making. These are well habitats and/or urban lifestyle development of the first phase of detailed specifications for each place-making about each element, starting used in the United States and settings. The Transect integrates Chapelton of Elsick and ensure development parcel with masterplanning. A Scottish better known there than in the environmental methodology for that the new town is built in line The planning system is often Government (Planning Advice United Kingdom. The Center habitat assessment with zoning with the aspirations of the Elsick • Give certainty to the local cited as a block on development Note 83, 2008: npr) definition of for Applied Transect Studies9 methodology for community Development Company.” 11 planning authority and local and an impediment to good masterplanning offers a useful describes a transect in the design. The professional boundary population over the nature of design outcomes but we believe insight into what a masterplan following way between the natural and man- The Pattern Book instructions development which will occur st that garden cities for the 21 does: “In broad terms, a masterplan made disappears, enabling “articulate the principles of the at Chapelton and the specific century can provide inspiring comprises three dimensional “A transect is a cut or path through environmentalists to assess the Chapelton masterplan and provide delivery model spaces by a number of means images and text describing how part of the environment showing design of the human habitat detailed guidance on the street, within the existing planning an area will be developed. Its a range of different habitats. and the urbanists to support the block and house designs within • Protect against any system. The easiest, most reliable scope can range from strategic Biologists and ecologists use viability of nature. This urban- Chapelton’s first phase. Materials unacceptable development and most robust solution is to planning at a regional scale to transects to study the many to-rural transect hierarchy has provided include block plans, which does not adhere to the accept the following structural small scale groups of buildings. symbiotic elements that contribute appropriate building and architectural plans, diagrams and overriding principles of the ‘framing’ elements within which Most commonly, it is a plan that to habitats where certain plants street types for each area along regulations, all of which correlate masterplan.” (Chapelton of considerable design freedom is describes and maps an overall and animals thrive. Human the continuum.” 10 with the Chapelton masterplan and Elsick Pattern Book, undated). possible. The basic framework development concept, including beings also thrive in different its neighbourhood structure…by elements in our view are: present and future land use, urban habitats. Some people prefer We visualize in the following managing the scale, configuration The fourth element of this set design and landscaping, built urban centers and would suffer in diagram (see Figure Ten) how and design of buildings within of design tools is the Design 1. A well-considered Masterplan form, infrastructure, circulation a rural place, while others thrive transect based design ideas would Chapelton’s first neighbourhood, Code or Guide which can be – to define compact, mixed and service provision. It is based in the rural or sub-urban zones. be applied in relation to shaping this Pattern Book will ensure comprehensive, or deal with use, fine grained, human upon an understanding of place Before the automobile, American garden cities. the harmonious relationship specific elements in design scaled, walkable and transport and it is intended to provide a development patterns were between the town’s buildings and conservation terms. The focused design proposals at structured approach to creating a walkable, and transects within and public spaces and enable Commission for Architecture and settlement level clear and consistent framework for towns and city neighbourhoods the development of an exemplar the Built Environment (CABE, development. revealed areas that were less public realm.” (Chapelton of Elsick 2011: npr) has described a design 2. A ‘transect’ based system urban and more urban in character. Pattern Book, undated). code as “a type of detailed design 14 15 guidance that is particularly useful as despoiling the landscape favourable alternative to the usual or seeking planning permission. hamlets to cities. We envisage for complex scenarios involving and would make use of existing suburban residential and business garden city repair could occur multiple parties in long-term transport infrastructure (extant, park additions to the area around Among the former is at a number of scales from development. A code can be a planned or reinstated) to reinforce Aberdeen which contribute to masterplanning work done individual brownfields (former way of simplifying the complex a transport oriented development sprawl. The local authority and for a proposed sustainable industrial) and greyfields (former and often elongated processes approach (Dittmar & Ohland, residential community hope it new Neighbourhood called retail and similar) sites to whole associated with new development 2003). provides all the housing allocation Stanboroughbury, on the north neighbourhoods and even to give more certainty to all those needed which in turn will alleviate western edge of Hatfield and a new entire settlements. involved and help to make high The Hertfordshire Guide to concern by local towns and village garden village, Symondshyde17, to 11. Gascoyne Cecil Design Guide quality places. Code preparation Growth (2008: 18) says about about further residential extensions be located somewhat further out For example, certain post war New for Shopfronts, Blinds and Signs, can allow organisations and local Transport-Oriented Developments till 2023 and possibly beyond. from the edge of the town. The Towns, as well as being extremely Old Hatfield communities to work together (commonly shortened to T.O.D.s) Symondshyde Garden Village expensive to build and maintain, more effectively, helping to build that these “are located within (2) New garden towns, villages is proposed on land owned by have suffered significant problems consensus about what kind of Where would these walking distance of rail stations or and neighbourhoods – The garden Gascoyne Cecil Estates and with low quality, energy hungry 12 place everyone wants to create.” Garden Cities go? bus stops. Catering to both those town, village and neighbourhood CEMEX who commissioned housing stock, poor space shaping who work in the vicinity and those models both provide the urban designers Duany Plater- and in the north of England, low As CABE goes on to explain, The question seems to us to who commute, T.O.D.s can lessen opportunity to tap into existing Zyberk & Company to generate demand. There could be scope to “Design codes vary mainly be about not just how garden the general dependence on cars… infrastructure while providing a preliminary masterplan. The consider staged redevelopment to according to their level of cities and other kinds of ‘garden’ Because these sites offer the ideal walkable, mixed-use developments masterplan was then further garden city principles, at the level prescription (what they fix and settlements can be designed and location for housing, they may that reflect garden city principles. developed through a public of the building, block, area and what they leave flexible) and the built but where they should be justify the demolition of existing Poundbury on the edge of process including a charrette (see town. In so doing we would want to scale at which they operate. They located. It seems likely in these underutilised structures, even if it Dorchester might be thought to fit Figure Twelve). The aspiration is for maintain their relative affordability can, effectively, set out ‘rules for egalitarian times, that the firestorm will add to the expense into the neighbourhood scale of the new area to be a mixed-use, and avoid the ‘tabula rasa’ assembly’ of a place. They are the of protest that would result from of development.” a new garden settlement type. It pedestrian-friendly community approach used in the ‘Pathfinder’ instructions that tell you how to truly garden city scaled proposals may be that in locations where a that will be a model both locally renewal scheme demolitions that assemble the different parts of in the south east of England would The intention would be to make stand-alone garden city is not the and nationally. worsened blight effects and are the plan. Preparing a code well is render it politically impossible to such garden city settlements right option for political or other now widely understood across the about finding a balance between achieve in a workable timescale. economic and social attractors, reasons, garden neighbourhood political spectrum as a 18 technical specificity and a succinct New garden towns, garden villages, just as Howard conceived in his inspired town extensions and/ terrible mistake. description of what is required. and garden neighbourhoods, and proposal for the original garden or a number of garden village Some of the best, most effective repairing existing settlements city, which was predicated on settlements at a small scale can

codes are very short” (ibid). in ways sympathetic to these drawing people voluntarily to it offer significant advantages and principles, is however eminently because of both its exemplary provide meaningful numbers These are used very successfully possible. As we have seen recently, liveability and their poor existing of new houses and economic in practice (see Figure Eleven) and garden villages have indeed been conditions. This is not simply a opportunities. in new garden cities design codes the focus of government attention speculative suggestion. There are 12 Stanboroughbury and would provide guidance at a range and support.13 We therefore less densely populated parts of The possibilities for new garden Symondshyde Post-Charrette Paper of scales so that the different parts suggest that three garden city the United Kingdom that have villages have been widely 14 of the place – its houses, gardens, models we argue for here be recently approved, and benignly discussed recently and as noted 15 streets, neighbourhoods and considered for delivery, depending welcomed, a large, new mixed- above government is supportive. (3) Repairing existing places to town centres, for instance, all fit on spatial, political and economic use, walkable community. The In a recent article a co-author of garden city principles – As shown together well. circumstances. These are: previously discussed development this paper suggested that some in The Hertfordshire Guide to at Chapelton of Elsick near garden villages might be located Growth (2008), which we noted (1) Stand-alone garden cities – We Aberdeen is designed and under on revived rail lines closed during above and discuss further in 16 envisage new stand-alone garden construction and on completion the Beeching era. Similarly, in Section Four, garden city principles cities as having most chance of and will provide 4045 units and relation to garden towns and can be employed in the renewal political viability if sited in areas around 50000sqft of commercial neighbourhoods, a number of such and repair of previously developed where they would not be perceived space. It is seen locally as a more proposals are currently proposed land in all sorts of contexts from 16 17 We suggest that depending on local and regional needs, the market economy and local vernacular, all three models are viable, practical solutions that can be tailored to local requirements, site conditions and locations. In Figure Thirteen we list some of the advantages and disadvantages of each, reflecting and building on scenarios explored through the Hertfordshire Guide to Growth (2008). All meet the primary principles developed by Howard of keeping the local community of country and town, residential and commerce in equilibrium to produce a successful and popular community. In this way the vision of combining the advantages of “the most energetic and active town life, with all the beauty and delight of the country” (Howard, 1898) can again be achieved.

In the next section we explore the economic viability requirements for this delicate balancing act.

13. Diagram of three garden settlement options - Source: Parham, Downs, Murray and Fernandez, 2014

Text adapted and illustrations sourced from the Hertfordshire Guide to Growth (2008).

18 19 3.0 Making new Garden agricultural land. New garden cities range of cultural and social welfare to the standards set out in the Partners and stakeholders Cities economically viable have the potential to both sharpen institutions” (Schuyler, 2002: 6). Gascoyne Cecil Estate Design and potentially overcome points of Code and building on urban village Third, it may seem self-evident Why current approaches conflict in financial as well as social Land availability concepts developed at the 2008 but is worth restating that future and political arenas. Hertfordshire Charrette in which are insufficient garden cities and other forms Second, the availability of land houses, shops, offices and parks of garden settlement will rely are integrated within a community on a number of partners and Many of the issues which the Why economic viability is is of primary consideration in framework. The land has now been stakeholders in order to ensure garden city movement has so critical – and how to establishing any new garden city. adopted for development, and the successful delivery. In a similar way sought to address since the support it While the landowner might take site will represent the first major that the landowner will require a early 20th century, arise from the a variety of forms, the returns on extension of Hatfield in the twenty- return, so too will other partners. shortcomings of typical, volume Notwithstanding these present offer must be sufficient to enable first century.19 housing developments. Issues of conflicts, economic viability is at the present owner to consider inadequate and poorly designed the very core of the successful withdrawing the land from its Market viability At Symondshyde Garden Village and planned housing supply are establishment of future garden current use (e.g. agriculture) and the existing green features such related to the level of speculation cities. What makes this so making it available for construction Given these points, and mindful as hedge rows, field boundaries, in land and short-term attitudes very important? of the new settlement. There are that all parties involved in the mature trees and footpaths provide towards the built environment. In a number of examples where venture will be predominantly the green framework for the new many cases development is seen an enlightened landowner has relying upon private finance, the Public spending restraint village’s design. It is nestled into as a purely financial matter – and been critical to the development model will need to be capable of of a new settlement as in the a green hollow making it largely just about housing, not about First of all, the constraints on demonstrating sufficient viability previously referenced Chapelton invisible to other local settlements, making places. the public purse are such that it as to satisfy the requirements of Elsick. Similarly in the while a green buffer reinforces is highly unlikely Government of private lenders. That means proposed Stanboroughbury its separation from existing New Garden Cities as a will ever engage in a large-scale baseline viability must be defined Garden Neighbourhood and settlements (Stanboroughbury state sponsored programme as a demonstrable level of fresh opportunity Symondshyde Garden Village, and Symondshyde Post Charrette of garden city construction return which can be sustained both on the north-west edge of Paper, 2016: 13). The proposals employing a land value capture over a period of years and Looking to deliver new garden Hatfield in Hertfordshire, new include a primary school, village model, Government does have a which is sufficient to attract key cities provides a fresh opportunity communities would be designed to retirement community and space role to play (see below) and this stakeholders’ engagement with the to revisit our current patterns of follow Hertfordshire’s garden city for civic and community buildings, can take the form of assisting in project. values about design, and build planning tradition. with a village street for a cafe, up a new outlook on making areas which are beyond the scope small shops and a pub (op cit) It stands to reason that market places fit for the future. Currently, of private developers and which (see Figure Fourteen). The village At the new neighbourhood of viability will also be a key factor planners, politicians, developers are already part of Government’s design also includes allotments for Stanboroughbury for example, it in deciding the location of future and householders frequently responsibilities for provision health and community interaction is proposed that the settlement garden cities, towns, villages, find themselves defending of public goods like transport reasons. Access proposals should include approximately and neighbourhoods retrofitted contradictory standpoints: infrastructure. If new garden cities include an improved exiting lane, 2,500-2,700 housing units, places to garden city principles. affordability or quality; protecting are to be built then it is essential and walking and cycling links to with the site developed at Put another way, these new places agriculture or creating places to that they be able to withstand Hatfield a kilometre away. approximately 25 units/ha. Of can only be successful if there is live. Building new garden cities and normal market forces. Ebenezer these houses, 30-35% will be sufficient demand from occupiers other kinds of garden settlements Howard understood this point very affordable, including units for – commercial, residential and provides an opportunity to well, proposing that “in future years rental and shared ownership. All institutional. If insufficient demand challenge a whole series of revenue obtained from higher of these houses are designed to for housing and employment established conventions that rents [would] benefit the entire sit within three pedestrian-friendly exists, then the rate of construction development is necessarily of poor community rather than a handful neighbourhoods, featuring shops, is likely to remain low, house quality, reflects low architectural of individual landowners: the offices, parks and a school. The prices and rental levels will be and design aspirations, and income would amortise the money architecture will follow precedents 14. Symondshyde Garden similarly depressed, and constitutes unacceptable sprawl borrowed to start the garden city in Hertfordshire and the wider Village visualisation employers may struggle to attract into highly-valued landscapes and and eventually subsidise a whole region, and will most likely adhere a suitable workforce. 20 21 Location, location, location… to work together to make this Government does have policy, ‘Pink Planning’ makes similar More broadly, Garden Cities a population of around 4500- happen. fiscal and other economic suggestions.21 can already be demonstrably 5000. Already, however, it is How can such viability be ensured mechanisms it can use to shown to deliver substantial and providing employment for some in practice? For us there are As we know, Government is support a new garden city without Providing publically held land ongoing benefits. At Letchworth, 1,660 people in 140 businesses. some obvious lessons to draw already thinking about and making undercutting its preferred low for example, the value that the With the establishment of distinct from this analysis. One is about major investments to support our borrowing, small government Government agencies could town’s governors accumulate neighbourhood centres, walkable location. While it might seem future economy such as major approach overall. The current tax further support the delivery of through ownership of land and and pedestrian friendly street logical to place new garden cities new rail connections, and our system is already used to support new garden cities, towns, villages, buildings provides rental income patterns, traffic and parking in locations which are presently view is that the formation of new economic activity, and Government neighbourhoods and retrofits which is poured back into the City provision that does not dominate sparsely populated, this may public transport interchanges or might consider a form of tapered through the provision of land. and provides a range of services public space, and a mix of uses prove difficult to market and thus railheads for industry would very tax relief to encourage developers Many Government agencies hold and infrastructure support to its and housing tenures, Poundbury 22 demonstrate sufficient levels much support the attractiveness to increase the rate of house significant tracts of land and these residents. arguably represents the most of return for future success. We and sustainability of a new garden building and to retain a medium holdings should be assessed consistent and subtly designed believe our ‘three variants’ model city location. As noted above, re- to long-term interest in the for their suitability as sites for a Economic multiplier effects urbanist development in the will ensure a better spatial and opening Beeching lines might offer development by way of rental new garden city. The Ministry of United Kingdom. The scheme has financing fit. some garden town and village or shared equity schemes. Any Defence holds many thousands of As we set out earlier in this now reached a mature phase with opportunities. initiative of this kind would push acres, some of which are surplus paper we see the delivery of any the building of the South West Making use of transport developers to reconsider their to its requirements (See Figure new Garden Cities as requiring Quadrant and the advanced status existing short-term, sales-based of the new retail and commercial infrastructure A point about finance Fifteen as an example). Certain predominantly private sector economic and financing model and publically owned sites are already and community led initiatives. centrepiece of the development, focus upon sustaining value for Queen Mother Square (see Figure The availability of good transport Another point is about finance. well served by road or railheads It is worth reflecting on the the future. This might encourage Sixteen below). infrastructure will be critical in Although, as we have argued, and arguably offer much of the economics and financing of greater consideration of design deciding where new garden cities Government is extremely unlikely baseline infrastructure required for existing Garden Cities, and much and construction quality while also might be located, as we discussed to be able or willing to finance establishing a garden city. more recent developments in engendering developments with a in Section Two in regard to wholesale construction of garden keeping with their principles, as sense of place – something that ‘transport oriented development’. cities, garden towns garden we referenced in our section on is extremely important when it However major transport villages or neighbourhood urban Vision. The original Garden Cities comes to ensuring popularity. infrastructure investments are extensions and retrofits, it can of Letchworth and Welwyn, and likely to be difficult for developers. assist in matters which are likely to more recent successful urban It follows that locations which be outside the sphere of influence Using what has been shown extensions including Poundbury are close to existing public or commercial operations of to work on the edge of Dorchester, and transport infrastructure, hubs the developers of any future Newquay in Cornwall, continue to 16. Queen Mother Square, Poundbury and interchanges, or which might garden city. The funding being We think it is worth looking at attract international interest and be easily linked to them, such poured into garden city and town financing techniques which have generate many tours and visits As a new settlement model as, for example, reinstatement developments at Ebbsfleet and previously worked effectively, as from architects and town planners Poundbury is much better in terms of former rail links, should be Bicester, as well as into supporting well as at new instruments. For as well as academics and house of economic vibrancy and wealth strongly supported as potential garden villages is an indication example, Government might builders. generation than the housing sites through Government’s of that willingness. Here we are further encourage the construction 15. Redundant MOD land at ‘pods’ that have blighted parts of infrastructure investment which not talking about Government of garden cities through the Deenthorpe in Northamptonshire To take the example of the UK. Even at this small scale, will be taking place in any propping up otherwise unviable establishment of Development Poundbury, this Duchy of Cornwall Poundbury is already calculated to case through the UK’s national schemes or increasing spending. or Enterprise Zones similar to development as an urban have contributed over £330million infrastructure plan20. This goes We see this help taking a number those which were successfully Government involvement should extension to Dorchester has been in demand for goods and services beyond cost alone. In our view of forms which are already employed during the 1980s. not be seen purely as a cost to masterplanned by Leon Krier. It is to the local economy and will Government also has the capacity being provided within existing These were used, for example, to the taxpayer. For example, rather relatively small by the standards have contributed £500 million by to facilitate the crucial partnership budget allocations, and reflecting encourage the regeneration of than representing a public liability, of a Garden city, with 2250 homes 2025. An economic assessment of working between all the agencies the mainstream, legitimate London Docklands and Trafford release of land from Government (a substantial proportion of which Poundbury undertaken by Dorset and organisations that would need responsibilities of Government in Park, Manchester. Keith Boyfield agencies would generate useful are social housing sprinkled the national interest. and Daniel Greenberg’s work on capital receipts for the Exchequer. through the development) and County Council concluded that the 22 23 construction activity that had taken by these principles, can therefore city land value capture model. in Northamptonshire (see Figure tax and agricultural property relief. an ‘either/or’ proposition. Often place in Poundbury since 1994, form the basis for some likely Landowners must therefore be Fifteen) and at Long Marston in In certain cases this would provide unpopular, high rise development when the development began, has markets for such services (Parham, capable of taking a longer view and Stratford-upon-Avon. additional funding for reinvestment is not required to achieve high created the equivalent of 1,877 2013). be comfortable with the concepts in maintaining existing heritage densities. By building in narrow person-years in employment of a lower, albeit sustainable and Large corporates – business assets. human scaled streets, compact and 1049 business years of Land availability ongoing return, combined with park owners and other big mixed use, and tight housing work for firms including the self- and stewardship – a desire to champion a higher firms including retailers, also If the owner has sufficient blocks, but housing of exceptional 23 quality sustainable development employed. That assessment did development partners retain extensive, but sometimes capital for investment then it will beauty, quality and energy frugality, not cover the activity generated by that will leave a positive legacy redundant land holdings. This be possible to fund the initial this garden city inspired area has people working in Poundbury now, for the future – as occurred mismatch is made clear in masterplanning, the passage substantially increased the yield As noted above, the availability so is a significant under calculation when land was acquired to relatively recent data. As Graham through planning and the potential from land over that of conventional of land is the most critical of economic benefits. develop Letchworth (Ward, 2016). Ruddick noted in The Daily establishment of the site, as in the subdivisions and managed to component for the construction Landowners might take a variety of Telegraph (7 December 2013), innovative and very successful achieve a price premium. The of future garden cities. As in forms but the following examples “Out-of-town supermarkets still Poundbury model (Pentreath, development has both enhanced International profile and the case of previous exemplars, suggest the kinds of owners who account for most new grocery 2013). This work in itself will land values and improved its its benefits prospective garden cities will we envisage from past experience space earmarked for the UK. So realise a substantial uplift in value sustainability as a walkable require the input of land from are most likely to be able to take while town centre sites, proposed, as has been seen in the premium place focused on local living and New garden cities have the supportive landowners (or groups this view. approved or being built, account for commanded by Poundbury’s working, in part by increasing potential to attract similar levels of landowners). We see this 8.5m sq ft, the pipeline of out-of- housing stock. Not only has the densities in a way that works for of international acclaim and to as perhaps one of the critical Landed estates – as we have town stores is 39.47m sq ft.” Again housing for sale in Poundbury residents, economically, spatially provide employment and training elements in making garden seen, new settlements such as it may be that such retailers could achieved a premium in the regional and in a design quality sense. opportunities to all of those cities viable at least in the short that currently being delivered by become involved in consortia to housing market and continued involved in the creation of the to medium term. Many of the the Duke of Fife in Scotland, and deliver garden cities and other to appreciate in value, but as Ben new settlement, as well as then mechanisms listed by the TCPA Longer term, that developed by the Duchy of types of garden settlements on or Pentreath (2013) notes, most providing very desirable settings (2012) in relation to de-risking residual interests Cornwall at Poundbury and now incorporating their sites. unusually the Guinness Estate for high levels of economic activity development are considered at Newquay, have been able to use social housing is also appreciating. into the future. Quite apart from necessary because land is such a Economic viability needs to be existing land holdings to deliver the economic benefits accruing in difficult and expensive commodity Achieving acceptable returns considered as about longer term, garden city inspired towns and An ability to sell or lease ‘serviced new settlements themselves, the to acquire. If we could ‘cut to the residual interests, not just short urban extensions. plots’ where key infrastructure expertise acquired in developing chase’ on the land availability side A landowner’s decision to make term profits. As noted earlier, a has been provided can reduce the such Garden Cities will provide as has been done at Chapelton their land available rests upon the new garden city will require a Government agencies – a number risk to the builder and remove the valuable knowledge as the basis in Scotland it may be that such ability to achieve an acceptable landowner to make land available of Government agencies and usual barriers of entry to small and for high value products and mechanisms would be rendered level of return through land sales on the basis that they are content semi-governmental organisations medium sized builders. Serviced services related to development, largely unnecessary. to developers and to receive with the level of return offered engagement, design and including health authorities are sustained income over a period plots invariably provide a greater by the new use. Return will vary redeveloping former hospitals return to the landowner compared governance processes The long-term nature of garden of years from retained or residual in form – from receipts received and other facilities. These offer to bare land transactions. among others. cities means that it is unlikely that interests. There are a number of where land is sold (either freehold substantial landholdings which projects can pay inflated sums models by which a landowner can or on long leaseholds). Under a could be appropriate sites for new This should benefit private for ‘marriage value’ if would-be unlock his or her landholding and Development densities lease, the ground landlord can look garden cities, towns and villages. companies in development, deliverers are trying to assemble deliver a development. The long forward to a dependable stream The Ministry of Defence is making building, architecture, planning, multiple plots. Nor will delivery be term nature of landed estates can Increased development densities of rental income and to get the use of former airbases and other and other forms of consultancy, viable if it has to support the level create severe challenges at times can also increase economic improvements when the lease’s redundant sites. For instance, the as well as enhancing the capacity of land prices typically paid for of succession from one generation viability but have often been term comes to an end. former Defence Evaluation and of academic institutions, and will conventional, speculative, short- to the next. Opportunities exist for presented as a trade off against Research Agency (DERA) site at be capable of export to other term developments. This would government to incentivise such social and environmental quality Alternatively, the landowner may Longcross in Surrey will become nations re-engaging with garden also undermine the possibility release of land for construction or between low rise and high rise retain an element of property a new garden village, while two city principles. The extensive global for any land stewardship along of new garden cities through development. The example of interest within a garden city and further such villages will be located reach of garden city principles, the lines of the original garden amendments to the regulation of Poundbury again demonstrates from which they might derive as well as developments inspired on former airfields: at Deenthorpe succession planning, inheritance that this does not have to be rental income. Finally they may 24 25 retain certain other residual restoration of worked sites may The self-funding charitable addition to TCPA legislation and villages. We see this being develop houses, which would interests. These might include provide income, which can be used organisation model is justified. configured as follows: be owned by the company or its open space, ducting within streets to offset or pump prime the cost corporate association, rather than (for use by telecoms or utilities) of initial phases of infrastructure The first model is that established In operating the Scheme the Trust Freehold – a sufficient number of by individuals. Dividends paid or the right to receive ongoing and construction. at Letchworth and which is charges its basic costs across properties will need to be sold to would give tenants a stake in the income from covenants. Where sustained through the work of all the 3,500 odd properties, maintain adequate cash flow for potential success of the venture. insufficient capital is available, the The right governance and Letchworth Garden City Heritage levies specific charges for semi- developers and provide an initial landowner might find a suitable management models Foundation. This is a self-funding private spaces to those properties basis for financial return to Housing mix and mixed use joint venture partner, but the same charitable organisation which which have use of them, and the landowner. ongoing income opportunities Economic viability will also rely re-invests its commercial income charges applications fees for the Mixed housing should ensure would apply. on getting governance and from rents and property for the alteration of property according Shared ownership – ever that affordable housing is largely management models right. The long-term benefit of communities to a standard fee scale. It seems increasing house prices are indistinguishable from private As we discuss in the next section, success of any new garden cities within Letchworth Garden City fair and reasonable that the making it more difficult for people housing and is interspersed with developers should be attracted to will depend to a very great degree while maintaining Ebenezer residents, who benefit most from to find a route on to the housing other tenures. This can remove the concept of a garden city due to upon an ability to maintain a Howard’s original ethos. the work of the Trust in protecting ladder. Shared ownership will allow the stigma traditionally attached the ability to engage in and market coherent vision, share both that the character of their settlement, people, who might otherwise be to certain forms of rental property a popular concept. vision and its economic benefits The Scheme of should meet that cost and that excluded, to participate in home and help support a more cohesive it should not fall on ratepayers ownership, through a shareholding with residents, and ensure good Management model community. Such benefits will Infrastructure costs standards of maintenance for or taxpayers. That said, there is in their property. The residual reduce the high costs of anti- a potential wider public good in element may be held by either a social behaviour often found within both buildings and landscapes. The second model is a Scheme of the work that these Management developer or as route whereby the unmixed areas of social housing. A key element in the creation of Letchworth Garden City Heritage Management similar to that used Trusts can do. Hampstead Garden landowner can retain a long-term Poundbury’s example is instructive any future garden cities will be Foundation has shown convincingly at Hampstead Garden Suburb. Suburb has succeeded in recent interest in the development. both in relation to its fine-grained infrastructure costs. These will over the long term that this is The Scheme makes freeholders’ years as an exemplar for posterity mixing of its tenures, including clearly be site specific and may something of a virtuous circle. contributions to the Trust’s costs and not simply a wonderful Private rental – private rental 35% social housing, and because in themselves play a significant mandatory. The Trust thus has a environment for its current properties might be offered its Guinness Trust housing is so part in the location of future As our previous section reliable source of income and uses residents. through a combination of buy- popular and well looked after that garden cities. The strongest demonstrates, a great vision that to maintain an exceptionally to-let or properties held by the it is the largest scheme that does possible locations will be those is central to success; but new high quality urban environment developer or landowner. not require an on-site manager which offer opportunities to Cities or other retrofitted garden that in turn helps reinforce the (Pentreath, 2013). undertake some initial construction based settlements need to get economic vibrancy of the area. whereby an income stream can the economics right for this Social housing – affordable be established from initial phases housing including that provided We believe that housing to be maintained. One of the The Trust operates under several of development. This income can by social landlords will be an associations and new garden challenges of sustaining a garden sets of complex governing then be re-invested in subsequent essential ingredient in ensuring cities and other forms of garden city vision therefore has always mechanisms related to its many infrastructure development. 17. Hampstead Garden Suburb a well-rounded social mix in the settlements could prove mutually been to ensure a viable economic responsibilities: it is a landlord, Trust Structure population and ensuring a range of beneficial to each other. With model by which settlements the operator of the Scheme tenures to all income groups. average grants for affordable Income opportunities can be governed, managed and of Management, a charity and Ownership models housing falling, and a sector that maintained for future generations. as a private company limited Co-finance and co-operative already has borrowing facilities of Any new garden cities will also There is little to suggest this will be by guarantee has its own We envisage that new garden self-build – the co-partnership £69 billion against an asset base – have the capacity to generate any different in future years. memorandum and articles of cities and other forms of garden movement was a key part of the mostly existing affordable homes – specific income opportunities association. The Trust’s control settlements will need to rely on a early garden city movement, and worth just £44 billion, associations related to the particular site There are two notable examples or is exercised mainly through the variety of ownership models that we consider that a modern day face a further increase in their chosen. Certain sites might models which we think are worth Scheme of Management. For allow a diversity of households re-interpretation of this model leverage. Many associations are offer other income generating considering for any future garden special, fragile areas like this, to enjoy the benefits of locating could assist in the delivery of thus setting out plans to become opportunities before establishing cities. It should be emphasised that subject to great pressures for here, while generating sufficient future garden cities. Under this increasingly commercial in order the construction programme. For these models are not unique and change, the ‘belt and braces’ income to help sustain the garden model, tenants would purchase to cross-subsidise the construction example, mineral extraction or several variations exist upon approach of the Scheme in these themes. cities, towns, neighbourhoods shares in a company formed to of affordable homes with private 26 27 sales. This funding arrangement a sympathetic local authority is 4.0 Making new Starting early – an ethical you – especially in relation to could provide a key element likely to recognise this long-term Cities popular and a pragmatic strategy garnering support. We think these of a delivery model for garden economic perspective and thus methods work at both the strategic cities, tying financial viability very financially support the development Advocates and champions – Ideally, therefore, local residents level – where people get together positively to delivering many wider of a new city in this way. to work through requirements for necessary but not sufficient and communities should be social and community benefits. involved and engaged from the garden city place-making for the As can be seen, opportunities to future – and in relation to specific It may seem facile to say that very beginning of thinking about Clearly, housing associations can support economic viability connect proposals for garden city inspired critical to the development of new new garden cities. There is no only be one part of the overall to all sorts of aspects of delivering towns and villages on the ground. garden cities will be the advocacy point just telling people about funding equation. Other sources new garden cities.. But necessary of particular individuals and what has already been decided of finance will (and must) include as all these elements are, they are organisations. Garden cities will – where a city should go or what About charrettes banks, insurance and pension not enough to make any new cities need inspiring individuals who can it should be like – because that funds, sovereign wealth funds a workable proposition. Perhaps champion their development with is sure to cause a backlash and Each of the examples we and other private funds. The most crucial of all is to answer the local residents and communities make it very difficult to get any mention here used variations of critical element is for lenders question about popularity - and in and garner local support for any proposals through. Our experience what are known as ‘charrette’ to be prepared to engage in a the next section we explore how we new city or other form of garden tells us that both ethically and techniques (Condon, 2008). longer-term model that offers think that should be approached. settlement in their area. However, pragmatically, planning for These are sometimes described lower, albeit reliable and steady, as has been seen in a range of new garden cities should be an as just a glorified form of planning returns compared to the more examples relating to proposed open process with no ‘a priori’ workshop but actually they are highly speculative and crash prone new sustainable developments, assumptions: one of deciding with a process of engagement with models of construction which have this is not so easy in practice. local residents and communities in people about development and proved less resilient. The need for strong political and the first instance if a garden city is place design (see Figure Twelve). cultural support is clear and we a good idea locally before moving The Community envisage that nationally recognised on to where, when or how it might The charrette starts with mapping Infrastructure Levy (CIL) figures with strong constituencies be built. stakeholders and collecting will be central to the process of baseline evidence, includes Present constraints on public making new garden cities go from an intensive workshop, often finance mean that Local vision into a reality. But individual over a number of days, and Government increasingly looks to leadership, however inspired, is not usually produces a range of developers to fund infrastructure or going to be enough. documentation agreed by all community related improvements the participants such as master plans and design codes which will through the imposition of the Making engagement central Community Infrastructure Levy guide any future development. to the process (CIL) or traditional Section 106 Although these techniques have payments. In recognising many of 18 Stakeholder engagement process been used more in America than We advocate very transparent the wider objectives of the garden in action here, they are gaining traction engagement processes that put city and some of the sustainable as our examples show and as is communities at the centre of things, funding models, our view is that recognised by the mention of both which start before any decisions Techniques which work Authorities should be prepared to early engagement and design have been made, and avoid any forego CIL or S106 payments in codes in the National Planning backroom deals being done which Fortunately there are techniques order that the development is not Policy Framework. To paraphrase, show people’s views don’t matter. in practice that show how good, overburdened by statutory costs. the charrette has been described Our view is that the process of open engagement processes can Instead garden cities should be in the following way in The Town garnering local support needs to be help with increasing popularity – encouraged to provide their own Paper (npr): given as much, if not more, attention showing residents how the benefits infrastructure and a wide range of as ensuring the exceptional quality of a new City would outweigh community facilities. A factor in of the garden city proposals in civic the costs – and we want to share determining viability then will be design or economic terms. some examples of these with giving preference to sites where 28 29 A charrette is an intensive everyone agrees with each other Lord Salisbury, sponsored a A review of its findings in The these engagement principles take an active role in determining planning and design session but will not be much good on the county wide ‘strategic level’ Hertfordshire Guide to Growth – and techniques through the how the benefits of a new city in where local communities, difficult issues where peoples’ charrette using these techniques. Five Years On (Parham and Hulme, development of ‘local place the area would exceed the costs. designers and others different economic interests are The Hertfordshire charrette 2014) found that certain structural plans’.26 collaborate on a vision for at stake. But our experience is was guided by the architect and things have changed in the way A relevant Letchworth development. It provides a that it is exactly these contentious master planner Andres Duany that the county is developed. Among these charrettes was a case study forum for ideas and offers the aspects that charrettes are so and involved a wide range of However, engagement with process for Chapelton of Elsick, unique advantage of giving good at handling because they stakeholders with interests in the planners, developers, politicians, ten miles south of Aberdeen, Another relevant recent immediate feedback to the are organised to encourage the future of the county. The charrette designers and community where an intensive series of engagement process worth designers. More importantly, intensive, informed participation workshop offered Hertfordshire members in the county suggests public charrettes, presentations mentioning in relation to the it allows everyone who of everyone who has an interest residents and professionals that the original judgment still and exhibitions was employed, popularity question relates to participates to be a mutual in the future of a proposal (such the opportunity to work directly holds about a standalone garden to deliver Scotland’s largest new situations where a new ‘garden’ author of the plan. as for a garden city as examples with a design team developing city being the most optimal town. There is a real pressure in neighbourhood is proposed. This below demonstrate). That includes sustainable growth strategies. development scenario (op cit); Aberdeenshire, both for residential example focused on the possibility the developers, business interests, demonstrating that the charrette How charrettes deal with and commercial space, and speed of extending Letchworth, the politicians and civil servants, process was an effective way to conflicting interests of delivery was a key driver. The UK’s first garden city, through interested residents, and activists define the best strategic options process started in 2010 with the substantial new housing and who often otherwise take an for growth for the future. It is important to be clear that the first charrette – working with related mixed-use development. adversarial position about any charrette process has engagement the existing planning system, it development. employed a masterplan, pattern at its heart and this in turn is Charrettes ‘on the ground’ In late 2013, the Letchworth book and design code. Within critical in positively managing and in Scotland Garden City Heritage Foundation three years of its inception it began working through conflicting views Some charrette specifics undertook a two-week open delivering a substantial number and perspectives. As the Town 19 The Hertfordshire Guide to When it comes to work ‘on the consultation and exhibition as part of houses within a ‘garden city Paper (npr) explains: Because, ultimately, the purpose Growth as a strategic charrette ground’, a range of projects are of a Town Debate with Letchworth sympathetic’ design and services of the charrette is to give all the example underway at a very practical level, residents on the question - including a shop and nursery. Through brainstorming and participants enough information focused on the development Should more homes be built in design activity, many goals to make good decisions about of new towns in Scotland, Letchworth? It was made quite That process produced the are accomplished during the new development, the specifics sympathetic to garden city Lead by the site’s landowner, clear that the question about new excellent Hertfordshire Guide to charrette. First, everyone who of the process really matter. At principles. One of the most the then Earl of Southesk (now homes was an open one and that Growth (2008) which focused on has a stake in the project any charrette everyone involved interesting lessons from this work Duke of Fife), the local residents the Board of Governors had not six general ‘Scenarios’ by which develops a vested interest in helps place designs to go through has been that the advocacy of and neighbouring towns actively made up their minds whether the county might grow in the years the ultimate vision. Second, the feedback loops from broad landowners wanting to create new participated, and alternative to approve new development until 2021, and concluded that the design team works together proposals to an agreed plan. And settlements has been absolutely outreach initiatives were also before consulting with the local best option for future development to produce a set of finished this is not about settling for the critical to success, while the coordinated through local schools community. in the county would be to build documents that address all lowest common denominator – support of local and national and community groups. As a new stand-alone garden city. on other sites the landowner’s aspects of design. w, since but about creating and agreeing government has also been The Heritage Foundation actively As the Guide to Growth (2008: personal involvement throughout the input of all the players is the best design, planning and influential in making a positive sought views in a variety of ways 24) noted: “A stand-alone garden was seen as a positive element gathered at one event, it is economic outcome for making case for stand-alone new towns through the town debate over two city is the only type of Scenario possible to avoid the prolonged a new place – informed by good reflecting garden city principles, in the process and was perceived which could accommodate the discussions that typically delay evidence and acknowledging which local communities and as a quality control mechanism entirety of the housing allocation conventional planning projects. the validity of bringing different residents can understand and setting it apart from other and the necessary amenities. Finally, the finished result is perspectives to the process. appreciate. Some of these commercial developments. The development would require produced more efficiently and lessons have been captured in a large, well-drained, relatively cost-effectively because the This isn’t just a theory or an publications about The Scottish The charrette process offered an uninhabited area of Green Belt, with process is collaborative. academic exercise. It has been Sustainable Communities extremely open and transparent shown to work in practice. Nine the potential for, or a pre-existing, Initiative (2010).25 That work has process by which residents could railway station. There is at least one not only be persuaded about the It might sound as though this years ago the University of since led to more widespread 20 Letchworth Town Debate Report such site available in the county.” 24 kind of process will work when Hertfordshire and its Chancellor, adoption and mainstreaming of merits of new development but 30 31 weeks, and provided very detailed and others might feel they were from landowners (as in Scotland), In the next and final section of this information explaining different worse off as a result, if, say, views those involved in governance (as paper we review and summarise aspects. These included the were compromised, services were at Letchworth), and those with a the critical points about making town’s garden city development used by more people, or local strong vision for the future in civic new garden cities that are principles, reasons for posing the roads became busier. But there design terms (such as through the visionary, economically viable question about new homes, the are some techniques including the charrette for The Herts Guide and popular. timeline of planning work to date purely financial that could make to Growth). on these issues, and exploration the prospect of a new city more of implications for existing palatable. “For example, long-term Open engagement – engaging residents and town infrastructure, residents could be offered three with local communities and services and finances of any times the value of their home if residents before decisions are decision to build more houses. they chose to sell out; or residents made to ensure that engagement 673 people from Letchworth could be offered options over the is a completely open, transparent visited the Exhibition, with 157 shares in the developing body so and educative process on all sides. filling out sometimes very detailed that they had an ongoing stake Using techniques like charrettes comments cards, or made their in its success.” (Wolfson Prize will be critical to work towards comments by letter, email, through Prospectus, 2013). the best holistic design, planning, Facebook or on the Heritage economic and social outcomes Foundation’s website. The TCPA (2012), too, has shown – not the lowest common very useful, proven techniques denominator that will always As documented in the Letchworth for returning value to community be opposed. Town Debate Consultation Report members from the creation and (Parham, 2013), the Town’s Board growth of garden cities, while in Being fair – recognising that of Governors was thoroughly earlier sections of this paper we outcomes will be uneven briefed about the process and cited a number of more innovative means that financial and other range of views expressed, and in ideas we think could be equally mechanisms need to be built in an example of direct democracy useful as part of an array of to the process to acknowledge in action, then voted on whether rewarding and compensatory and compensate those who would or not to develop over 1,000 new mechanisms. In our view, these can otherwise lose out through new homes, with the majority in favour play a valuable role in increasing development and to reward those of new housing development. Of popularity by showing that as far who ‘sign up’. particular interest in relation to as possible the approach is based the question of garnering local on being fair and can offer very Learning from experience – support, it was clear that there was specific benefits to individuals. analysing both successes and more support than otherwise for failures can teach us a lot about new homes to be built in the town, Creating more benefits than what innovations and more and that the process of engaging costs: four critical elements time-tested elements work and openly without a preordained view what don’t. So it is important about the way forward had been Given these experiences we would to document this and get that critical in making this process a distil down four critical things we knowledge out to others who success. think are required to help persuade can benefit from it – as in The people that benefits outweigh Hertfordshire Guide to Growth Winners and losers? costs and to help make proposals (2008), the Scottish Charrette popular rather than the reverse. Series Report (2010) and the Of course the opportunities and These are: Letchworth Town Debate impacts from developing a stand- Report (2013). alone garden city would be uneven Inspired advocacy – experience – some people would benefit to date suggests this has come 32 33 5.0 Delivering new Garden To be viable we say that the by Design (EbDs) processes called ‘SUDs’ that conserve water Cities - drawing it all together best strategy to deliver new which have been pioneered by and protect from flooding. garden cities is to challenge the Prince’s Foundation. Our Making new garden cities matters the shortcomings of existing experience in new settlement We know that big ideas that are because in a context of the urgent development arrangements planning and design in England, technologically driven have a need to create new areas to live where this will be effective. Equally Wales and Scotland demonstrates surface glamour but we don’t and work we must do so in ways we propose to make intelligent that they work to help make places think they will work by themselves that support prosperity, are loved use of strengths we already both popular and extremely well to deliver new garden cities in a by their residents, and are broadly have, deploying existing funds, designed. And finally, we point realistic timeframe or budget – or seen by the entire community infrastructure and assets wisely out how excellent engagement create places people love. We as a positive addition to the – to develop the right location in process can help make for fairer take a less ideological view. We United Kingdom’s landscape. market and spatial terms. outcomes where there are many have to work from where we are, This paper offers a holistic view more winners than losers – not where we would like to be. that describes how to deliver new In a delivery approach led by and those who suffer impacts We strongly believe that we can garden cities and other forms of private sector players, including are acknowledged and fairly work within the systems we have garden settlement through creative landowners, investors, champions recompensed. – financial, regulatory, planning, rigour in design, place-making and and communities themselves, we spatial, technical and social – to community development as well show ways to make best use of It is very clear that these elements shape them toward delivery of new as clever economics. the opportunities offered through are closely crosscutting. For garden cities. Existing examples taxation, and other financing instance, new garden cities which shown here demonstrate that. Our vision is about going beyond and ownership instruments and have a vision which strikes a chord ‘business as usual’ mind-sets or models, to support new garden with people – of a walkable, mixed- In conclusion we believe that new ‘technological fix’ approaches, cities that work ‘on the ground’. use, human-scaled place with garden cities, towns, villages and and instead combines Howard’s beautiful, well priced housing and other forms of ‘garden’ settlements excellent garden city principles To increase popularity we argue excellent local work opportunities are both an exciting and a with more innovative elements that strong and inspiring advocates – will be much more viable if necessary prospect for creating that reflect 21st century needs – in and champions will be necessary those who buy in as homeowners new living and working areas transport, energy, communications, but not sufficient in themselves or institutional investors can see which celebrate our rich heritage environmental protection, to ensure new garden cities are a that values will appreciate – as and offer an exemplary model for economic growth, culture and popular idea and reality. Instead we they have at Poundbury. That in prosperous living in future. social life. say that engagement with people turn will make the new garden who have an interest in any new cities more popular; setting up a A new garden city vision requires garden city – local communities positive feedback loop of benefit inspiring architecture and design and also wider communities of to all. Similarly if infrastructure and to create great urbanism but at the interest – needs to start very early services are properly developed (or heart its design is not about style in the process. This is both an reused or reanimated as we have but based on robust, time-tested ethical and a pragmatic strategy suggested), this will make places principles and techniques including because good engagement makes that are at once more viable and master-planning, the use of transect development processes faster, not more popular. approaches, pattern books and slower. Communities need to be design codes to make a great involved in deciding if a garden city People will be attracted to a place. We offer three ‘variants’ that should be built before moving on garden city that offers good maximise location choice and asset to where, when and how it should schools, excellent transport use – a stand-alone garden city, be built. links, affordable low carbon town or village; a ‘repaired’ garden energy, great communications, settlement; and neighbourhoods We argue for using charrette and environmentally conscious for edge of town extensions or processes or ones that are similar systems such as Sustainable retrofitting existing areas. in principle such as Enquiry Urban Drainage systems – so- 34 35 References Endnotes

1 Condon, Patrick (2008). Design Charrettes for Sustainable Communities http://www.rudi.net/pages/18797 http://www.newlondonarchitecture.org/docs/nla_insight_report_web_final.pdf

Dittmar, H., & Ohland, G. (Eds.). (2003) The new transit town: best practices in transit-oriented development. Island Press. 2 See http://chapeltonofelsick.com/

Duany, Andres (2008). ‘The Hertfordshire Guide to Growth’, Hatfield, University of Hertfordshire Press https://www.herts.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/10289/herts-charrette-guide-to- 3 http://chapeltonofelsick.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/LargeFiles/PatternBook.zip

growth_02-12-2008.pdf 4 See https://content.historicengland.org.uk/images-books/publications/english-garden-cities-introduction/english-garden-cities.pdf/ Gascoyne Cecil Estates (undated). Symondshyde and Stanboroughbury pre-charrette paper http://www.gascoynececil.com/downloads/ 5 http://www.createstreets.com/ Gascoyne Cecil Estates (undated). Symondshyde and Stanboroughbury post-charrette paper 6 http://www.lifetimehomes.org.uk/ Gascoyne Cecil (undated) Old Hatfield Charrette http://www.gascoynececil.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Old-HatfieldCharretteL.pdf 7 ‘Kerb appeal: the external appearance and site layout of new houses’, Popular Housing Forum, 1998 Parham, Susan (2013). Shaping sustainable urbanism: are Garden Cities the answer? http://www.uh-sustainable.co.uk/docs/Shaping_sustainable_urbanism.pdf 8 http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2008/11/10114526/2 Parham, Susan (2013). Letchworth Town Debate Consultation Report Letchworth Garden City Heritage Foundation. 9 https://transect.org/transect.html Parham, Susan and Hulme, James (2014). ‘The Hertfordshire Guide to Growth – Five Years On’, Hatfield, University of Hertfordshire Press http://www.uh-sustainable.co.uk/docs/ 10 http://www.newurbanism.org/newurbanism/principles.html) HertsGTG_5yearson_aw4_complete_highres.pdf 11 Copies of the Pattern Book can be downloaded from http://chapeltonofelsick.com/resources/ Parham, Susan & Boyfield, Keith (2016). Garden Cities - Why Not? Letchworth. International Garden Cities Institute.

12 Pentreath, Ben (2013). ‘How the Poundbury project became a model for innovation’, Financial Times, November 1, 2013. Further details can be found at http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20110118095356/http:/www.cabe.org.uk/masterplans/preparing-a-design-code

13 Schuyler (2002: 6). “Introduction” in Parsons and Schuyler. (Eds.) (2002) From Garden Cities to Green Cities Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. https://www.gov.uk/government/news/first-ever-garden-villages-named-with-government-support

The Scottish Sustainable Communities Initiative Charrette Series Report (2010). http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/Doc/260590/0105938.pdf 14 https://policyexchange.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/garden-villages.pdf

The TCPA (2012) Creating Garden Cities and Suburbs Today: Policies, Practices, Partnerships and Model Approaches – A Report of the Garden Cities and Suburbs Expert Group 15 http://www.governmentbusiness.co.uk/news/03012017/dclg-backs-garden-villages-housing-expansion

Ward, Stephen (2016) The Peaceful Path. University of Hertfordshire Press 16 http://www.gardencitiesinstitute.com/think-piece/why-are-garden-villages-in-the-news

17 http://www.gascoynececil.com/symondshyde/ List of illustrations 18 See for example https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2010/nov/19/slum-clearance-housing-failed and http://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/pathfinder- demolitions-are-monstrous-l7v0ff5h68g

19 http://environmentjournal.online/articles/green-garden-village/ Figure One: Garden City Cottages, Hillshot, Letchworth Garden City (Source: By Ruth Sharville, CC BY-SA 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=13680490)

20 Figure Two: Design for a house in Letchworth Garden City By Baillie Scott (https://archive.org/stream/internationalstu10newy08#page/134/mode/1up), Public Domain, https://commons. https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/national-infrastructure-plan

wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=38953555) 21 http://www.cps.org.uk/publications/reports/pink-planning-diluting-the-red-tape/ Figure Three: Reworked Howard diagram (Source: Parham, Downs, Murray and Fernandez, 2014) 22 http://www.letchworth.com/heritage-foundation/about-us Figure Four: ‘Business as usual’ new housing in the United Kingdom (Source: Urban Realm.Com, https://www.urbanrealm.com/news/4984/University_of_Dundee_launch_suburban_housing_ 23 design_study.html https://www.princeofwales.gov.uk/sites/default/files/documents/Poundbury%20Media%20Pack%20Update%20Feb%202012.pdf

Figure Five: Housing at Roussillon Park designed by Ben Pentreath and Associates (Source: Hertfordshire Guide to Growth - Five Years On, Parham and Hulme, 2014; image courtesy of Ben 24 The Guide can be downloaded from https://www.herts.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/10289/herts-charrette-guide-to-growth_02-12-2008.pdf Pentreath and Associates) 25 A report into this Charrette series can be viewed at http://www.gov.scot/Publications/2011/03/16100049/0 Figure Six: Pattern Book, Gascoyne Cecil (Source: Gascoyne Cecil Estate) 26 See http://www.gov.scot/Publications/2017/01/3486/5 Figure Seven: Welwyn Garden City Centre Post War (Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3APost_War_Planning_and_Reconstruction_in_Britain-_Welwyn_Garden_City_the_ Model_New_Town_D14962.jpg) Figure Eight: Knockroon town extension (Source: Image by Richard Ivey, courtesy of The Prince’s Foundation) Figure Nine: New infill housing in Old Hatfield (Source: Gascoyne Cecil Estates) Figure Ten: The transect as used for shaping Tornagrain New Town in Scotland (Source: Wolfson prize entry, Parham, Downs, Murray and Fernandez; image by Turnberry Consulting) Figure Eleven: Gascoyne Cecil Design Guide for Shopfronts, Blinds and Signs, Old Hatfield (Source: Gascoyne Cecil Estates) Figure Twelve: Stanboroughbury and Symondshyde Post-Charrette Paper (Source: Gascoyne Cecil Estates) Figure Thirteen: Diagram of three garden settlement options (Source: Parham, Downs, Murray & Fernandez, 2014; based on visualisation in The Hertfordshire Guide to Growth, 2008) Figure Fourteen: Symondshyde Garden Village visualisation (Source: image with permission of Gascoyne Cecil) Figure Fifteen: Redundant MOD land at Deenthorpe in Northamptonshire (Source: By British Government [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons) Figure Sixteen: Queen Mother Square, Poundbury (Source: Hertfordshire Guide to Growth - Five Years On, Parham and Hulme, 2014; image courtesy Duchy of Cornwall) Figure Seventeen: Hampstead Garden Suburb Trust Structure (Source: Parham, Downs, Murray & Fernandez, 2014) Figure Eighteen: Stakeholder engagement process in action (Source: Parham and Hulme, Hertfordshire Guide to Growth - Five Years On, 2014; image from workshop in Dacorum, University of Hertfordshire, 2008) Figure Nineteen: The Hertfordshire Guide to Growth as a strategic charrette example (Source: University of Hertfordshire) Figure Twenty: Letchworth Town Debate Report (Source: Parham, 2013)

36 37 About the authors Acknowledgements

Co-author, Susan Parham is Head of Urbanism and Planning at the This Perspectives paper is based on the entry by Susan Parham, Anthony University of Hertfordshire and Academic Director of the International Downs, and Gavin Murray, with illustrations prepared by Pablo Fernandez, Garden Cities Institute. for the 2014 Wolfson Economics Prize, which asked entrants to answer the question about how they would make a garden city today. Co-author, Anthony Downs is Director of Planning and Development at Gascoyne Holdings Limited. Our entry was commended by the Prize judges and we believe that it contains a range of useful material that suits the aims of the Garden City Co-author, Gavin Murray is a founder and director of the architectural Perspectives series. In the paper therefore we review that entry to explore practice, Brooks Murray, founded in 1993. the ‘visionary’, ‘popular’ and ‘viable’ aspects of garden cities.

Pablo Fernandez, who drew up the diagrams in this paper, is an Associate We hope that our suggestions will help in creating new garden city at Brooks Murray. settlements today.

We would like to acknowledge the very kind assistance of Mr. Josh Tidy and Mr. David Ames of Letchworth Garden City Heritage Foundation who have provided an enormous amount of help to bring this paper to fruition.

We would also like to acknowledge the sources for all the visual material cited in this paper and thank all whose images we have included to help illustrate this Perspectives research paper.

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