2011 AICP Review Course HISTORY AND THEORY
February 2011
Kelly O’Brien, AICP, PP, LEED AP Professional Development Officer of Exam Prep American Planning Association – New Jersey Chapter
MAY 2011 AICP EXAM REVIEW HISTORY AND THEORY History and Theory (and Law) 15% • History of planning • Planning law • Theory of planning • Patterns of human settlement
MAY 2011 AICP EXAM REVIEW HISTORY AND THEORY Primary functions of planning • improve efficiency of outcomes • counterbalance market failures - balance public and private interests • widen the range of choice - enhance consciousness of decision making • civic engagement - expand opportunity and understanding in community
MAY 2011 AICP EXAM REVIEW HISTORY AND THEORY Professionalization of Planning 1901 NYC: “New Law” regulates tenement housing 1907 Hartford: first official & permanent local planning board 1909 – Washington DC: first planning association – National Conference on City Planning – Wisconsin: first state enabling legislation permitting cities to plan – Chicago Plan: Burnham creates first regional plan – Los Angeles: first land use zoning ordinance – Harvard School of Landscape Architecture: first course in city planning
MAY 2011 AICP EXAM REVIEW HISTORY AND THEORY Pre-modern to New Urban Form
1682 Philadelphia plan Grid system & William Penn neighborhood parks Thomas Holme 1695 Annapolis plan Radiocentric Francis Nicholson 1733 Savannah Ward park system Oglethorpe 1790 Washington Grand, whole city plan Pierre L’Enfant 1852-1870 Paris Model for “City Beautiful” Napoleon III; Haussmann 1856 Central Park First major purchase of F L Olmsted Sr parkland 1869 Riverside, IL Model curved street FL Olmsted Sr “suburb” Calvert Vaux 1880 Pullman, IL Model industrial town George Pullman
MAY 2011 AICP EXAM REVIEW HISTORY AND THEORY Philosophies and Movements
Agrarian Philosophy 1800’S
– Belief that a life rooted in agriculture is the most humanly valuable. – Reflected the largely rural settlement pattern in the country at that time. – Two major spokesmen: • Thomas Jefferson ͻ,ĞĐƚŽƌ^ƚ͘:ŽŚŶdeCrevecoeur – Characteristics • Simplicity ͻ^ĞůĨŝƐŚŶĞƐƐ • Uniformity ͻ>ĂĐŬŽĨĐůĂƐƐĚŝƐƚŝŶĐƚŝŽŶƐ • Non-restrictive and minimal ͻ&ĂŵŝůLJĂƐďĂƐŝĐƐŽĐŝĂůƵŶŝƚ government ͻ/ŵŵŽƌĂůŝƚLJŽĨĚŝƐĐŽƌĚ • Religious fundamentalism ͻ,ĂƌĚŵĂŶƵĂůǁŽƌŬĂƐŝƚƐŽǁŶ • Morality of Agricultural Property reward
MAY 2011 AICP EXAM REVIEW HISTORY AND THEORY
Philosophies and Movements Laissez Faire Philosophy
– Adam Smith – Developed through the theories of Capitalism – Out of totally unrestricted competition, all society would ultimately benefit, and the individual hardship resulting from such unrestricted competition was essential to the ultimate economic good of the state
MAY 2011 AICP EXAM REVIEW HISTORY AND THEORY Philosophies and Movements
Public Health Movement Late 1800s to 1920
– To guarantee government involvement in public health and safety of the worker – Sanitary Conditions of mid-19th Century cities • Air and Water Pollution • Cemeteries • Tenement Living
1867 San Francisco First modern land-use zoning in US (forbad slaughterhouses in geographic districts) 1867/1879 New York City First major tenement house controls
1879 Memphis 60% of city flees from yellow fever; of those who remain, 80% get sick; 25% die
MAY 2011 AICP EXAM REVIEW HISTORY AND THEORY Philosophies and Movements Parks Movement
– Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux – Design of Central Park – Horace W. S. Cleveland, Minneapolis – park system proposal 1883; – Charles Eliot & Sylvester Baxter, Boston – extensive regional park system (1891-1893 and beyond)
MAY 2011 AICP EXAM REVIEW HISTORY AND THEORY Philosophies and Movements
City Beautiful Movement 1893
• Key Actors: Burnham, Olmsted Sr., McKim, St. Gaudens, Gottlieb • Contributions of Movement: 1) Revival of city planning and its establishment as permanent part of local government 2) The quasi-independent planning commissions composed of citizens 1893 Columbian Exposition The “White City” Burnham, Olmsted Sr, 1902 McMillan Plan for Update of L’Enfant’s Plan Burnham, Washington DC Olmsted Jr 1906 San Francisco Plan First major application of City Burnham, Beautiful in US Bennett 1909 Chicago Plan First metro regional plan Burnham
MAY 2011 AICP EXAM REVIEW HISTORY AND THEORY Philosophies and Movements Garden City Movement
• An anti-urban agrarian/romantic approach to the city predicated on: 1) The sacredness of nature 2) The inherent immorality of the city 3) A return to the pre-industrial village • Key Actors: Ebenezer Howard, John Ruskin
1898 “Tomorrow: A Merge urban & Ebenezer Peaceful Path to agrarian Howard Real Reform” 1903-1920 Letchworth Two garden city Welwyn 1919 -1934 Welwyn projects introduces superblock
MAY 2011 AICP EXAM REVIEW HISTORY AND THEORY Philosophies and Movements Radiant City
– 1920s – LeCorbusier – Robert Moses replaces Burnham as leading American planner: “If the ends don’t justify the means, then what the hell does?” – Grew out of conception of capitalist authority and a pseudo-appreciation for workers’ individual freedoms
MAY 2011 AICP EXAM REVIEW HISTORY AND THEORY Philosophies and Movements Concentric Ring Theory
– 1925 – Ernest Burgess – Distribution of social groups within urban areas – Depicts urban land use in concentric rings • The center was the CBD • The transition zone of mixed residential and commercial uses • Low-class residential homes (inner suburbs), in later decades called inner city • Better quality middle-class homes (Outer Suburbs) • Commuters zone
MAY 2011 AICP EXAM REVIEW HISTORY AND THEORY Philosophies and Movements City Efficient Movement
– Standardization (SSZEA, SCPEA)
1913 Massachusetts: planning mandatory for local gov’ts; planning boards required 1916 New York: first comprehensive zoning ordinance
1917 American City Planning Institute established in Kansas City
1922 Standard State Enabling Act issued by US Dept of Commerce Los Angeles County establishes planning board 1925 Cincinnati: first comprehensive plan based on welfare of city as a whole 1926 Euclid vs. Ambler Realty Co: Supreme Court upholds comprehensive zoning
MAY 2011 AICP EXAM REVIEW HISTORY AND THEORY Philosophies and Movements 1928
Standard City Planning Enabling Act – issued by US Dept of Commerce 1929
– Radburn,NJ completed - innovative neighborhood design based on Howard’s theory – Harvard: Creates first school of city planning – Regional Plan of New York completed – “Regional Plan of New York and Its Environs” published 1930’s
City Humane Movement
MAY 2011 AICP EXAM REVIEW HISTORY AND THEORY Philosophies and Movements Broad Acre City
– Frank Lloyd Wright presented the idea in his book The Disappearing City in 1932. – Opposite of transit-oriented development. – All important transport is done by automobile and the pedestrian can exist safely only within the confines of the one acre (4,000 m²) plots where most of the population dwells.
MAY 2011 AICP EXAM REVIEW HISTORY AND THEORY Philosophies and Movements
Sector Theory 1939
– Homer Hoyt – Modification of the concentric zone model – Allows for an outward progression of growth – Does not make allowances for private cars that enable commuting from cheaper land outside city boundaries
MAY 2011 AICP EXAM REVIEW HISTORY AND THEORY Philosophies and Movements 1940’s City Functional Movement 1945 Multiple Nuclei Theory - Harris and Ullman 1960 – “Image of the City” by Kevin Lynch – basic elements of "imageability" • paths • edges • nodes • districts • landmarks
MAY 2011 AICP EXAM REVIEW HISTORY AND THEORY Philosophies and Movements 1962 The urban growth simulation model emerges in the Penn-Jersey Transportation Study. 1968 Pittsburg Community Redevelopment Model 1976 Growth Machine Theory - Harvey Molotch 1982 New Urbanism - Seaside, Andres Duany 1991 Edge City - Joel Garreau
MAY 2011 AICP EXAM REVIEW HISTORY AND THEORY Progressive Movement as Reform • Reaction against political and economic – influence of corporations; monopolies (Rockefeller) – influence of corrupt ward bosses (Tamany Hall) because of dispersed, decentralized power of elected officials • Loss of control of central cities by elites as democracy spread – elites moving to streetcar suburbs; dislocation of economic and political power • Emergence of corporate models of management – strong executive leadership • Rationalize and professionalize city governance – rationalize city service provision and infrastructure development – civil service – depoliticize city
MAY 2011 AICP EXAM REVIEW HISTORY AND THEORY Theories on Planning Evolution from planning as science to planning through participation Rational Planning Model • Myerson and Banfield Incremental Planning • Charles Lindblom Advocacy Planning • Sherry Arnstein, Ladder of Participation, 1969 article • Paul Davidoff
MAY 2011 AICP EXAM REVIEW HISTORY AND THEORY Planning Theories • Synoptic Rationality • Incremental • Transactive • Advocacy • Radical • Utopianism • Methodism
MAY 2011 AICP EXAM REVIEW HISTORY AND THEORY Why do we not have a unifying theory of planning?
• Goals and objectives, as well as means to achieve them, are often uncertain
– “wicked problems” – concerned primarily with public issues • broadly defined groups/clients • diverse interests • planners rarely make decisions but rather advise those who do • results of most planning activity is discernable only 5 to 20 years after the decision
– feedback and corrective actions are difficult
MAY 2011 AICP EXAM REVIEW HISTORY AND THEORY People Know the “Fathers” Father of Regional Planning Patrick Geddes Father of Zoning Edward Bassett Father of City Planning Daniel Burnham Father of Modern Ecology Ian McHarg Father of Modern Housing Code Lawrence Veiller Father of Advocacy Planning Paul Davidoff
MAY 2011 AICP EXAM REVIEW HISTORY AND THEORY People Memorize people who made important contributions to planning
• Lawrence Veiller • Patrick Geddes • Jane Jacobs • Robert Moses • Frank Lloyd Wright • Clarence Perry • Lawrence Haworth • Lewis Mumford • T.J. Kent • Paul Davidoff • Alan Altshuler • Saul Alinsky
• Sherry Arnstein • Jacob Riis
MAY 2011 AICP EXAM REVIEW HISTORY AND THEORY
People
• Charles Lindblom • Robert Lang • Walter Christaller • Alfred Bettman • Ernest Burgess • Catherine Bauer • Homer Hoyt • Rexford Tugwell • LeCorbusier • James Rouse • Andres Duany
MAY 2011 AICP EXAM REVIEW HISTORY AND THEORY Places Memorize facts that have influenced current planning and development decisions such as:
– First National Park, Yellowstone 1872 – First National Wildlife Refuge, in Florida 1903 – First historic preservation commission, New Orleans 1921 – First off-street parking regulations, Columbus, OH 1923 – First limited access highway, Bronx River Parkway, 1926
MAY 2011 AICP EXAM REVIEW HISTORY AND THEORY Planning Firsts
Public Water System ………………………………….Philadelphia Planning Commission ………………………………..Hartford, Connecticut Regional Planning Commission ………………….Los Angeles Zoning Ordinance ………………………………………New York City National Conference on Planning ………………Washington D.C. Planned Suburban Community ………………….Riverside, IL Historic Preservation Ordinance ………………..Charleston, SC Urban growth boundary ……………………..…….Kentucky
(continued list online)
MAY 2011 AICP EXAM REVIEW HISTORY AND THEORY Acts Environmental Legislation • 1969 NEPA • 1970 Clean Air Act • 1972 Clean Water Act • 1972 Coastal Zone Management Act • 1973 Endangered Species Act • 1980 Superfund Act
MAY 2011 AICP EXAM REVIEW HISTORY AND THEORY Other need to know items…
• Erie Canal was completed in 1825 • First US city with a subway was Boston in 1897 • Washington D.C. was part of the City Beautiful Movement • Jean Gottmann termed the word Megalopolis • Union Pacific and Central Pacific joined at Promontory Point, Utah to form the transcontinental railroad in 1869 • ACIP and ASPO joined in 1978 to form the APA • Zip Code stands for Zone Improvement Plan Code • First historic preservation commission was formed in Vieux Carre, New Orleans, LA • First historic preservation ordinance enacted in Charleston, SC • First department store was located in Salt Lake City, UT
MAY 2011 AICP EXAM REVIEW HISTORY AND THEORY Other need to know items…
• Largest concrete structure in the US was built in 1941 and is the Grand Coulee Dam
• First urban growth boundary established in the US in Lexington, KY in 1958
• First state to institute statewide zoning was Hawaii in 1961
• 43,560 square feet in 1 acre
• 5,280 linear feet in 1 mile
• 2.47 acres in 1 hectacre
• 640 acres in 1 square mile
MAY 2011 AICP EXAM REVIEW HISTORY AND THEORY