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Doctoral Thesis (Tokyo University of Foreign Studies) 博士学位論文（東京外国語大学） Doctoral Thesis (Tokyo University of Foreign Studies) 氏 名 レークヴィッグ グンナール 学位の種類 博士（学術） 学位記番号 博甲第 222 号 学位授与の日付 2017 年 1 月 18 日 学位授与大学 東京外国語大学 博士学位論文題目 北欧的平和均衡 紛争構造の変換のための ア咚ローチ、解決手法とその原理 Name Rekvig, Gunnar Name of Degree Doctor of Philosophy (Humanities) Degree Number Ko-no. 222 Date 18 January 2017 Grantor Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, JAPAN Title of Doctoral The Nordic Peace Thesis Approaches, Solutions, and Principles of Conflict Transformation The Nordic Peace Approaches, Solutions, and Principles of Conflict Transformation Gunnar Rekvig PhD Dissertation Tokyo University of Foreign Studies The Nordic Peace Approaches, Solutions, and Principles of Conflict Transformation 北欧的平和均衡 紛争構造の変換のための アプローチ、解決手法とその原理 Gunnar Rekvig PhD Dissertation Tokyo University of Foreign Studies Main Supervisor: Professor Kenji Isezaki Supervisor: Professor Chikako Nakayama Supervisor: Professor Minoru Iwasaki University of Tromsø – The Arctic University of Norway Supervisor: Professor Nils Vidar Vambheim September 2016 The Nordic Peace Abstract This thesis examines the history of the Nordic Peace hermeneutically. In order to do this, the foundation of the peace, its principles, will be abstracted from the ad hoc solutions to regional conflicts between Nordic countries. These solutions ultimately transformed a region of conflict or negative peace, to a zone of positive peace. The thesis will answer the following questions: 1) How have the solutions that underlie the Nordic Peace transcended causes for conflict? And 2) are there universal potentials in the Nordic solutions? This will be elucidated through an in depth analysis of three historical cases that would shape and transform the region after 1814, the year marking the onset of the Nordic Peace and its subsequent paradigm shift. These three cases will be comprised of: 1) The Union of Norway and Sweden. The unification of Norway and Sweden was forced on Norway as the Napoleonic Wars were ending. The union would however be one of internal conflict with several contentions, which finality saw the peaceful dissolution of the union by Norway seceding from Sweden. 2) The Schleswig-Holstein Issue. A conflict over the ownership of the twin duchies of Schleswig and Holstein between Denmark and Germany culminated with the Danish loss of the duchies after two wars. This created an irredentist conflict as the Danes of Schleswig now inhabited Germany. A solution would come in the aftermath of the First World War with a plebiscite that resulted with the border between Denmark and Germany being redrawn, which compounded the irredentist problem by establishing two minorities in the border area, one Danish and the other German. Ultimately, the irredentist conflict would be solved by comprehensive minority rights. 3) The Åland Islands problem. Finland and Sweden would enter a conflict over the ownership of the Åland Islands when Finland gained independence from Russia. The Ålanders, being Swedish used their self- determination to try to cede from Finland, while Finland argued its territorial integrity was inviolable. The conflict would be solved by the League of Nations that ruled the Åland Islands were Finnish, granted the Ålanders autonomy under Finland. The laws were agreed upon by Finland and Sweden. Furthermore, as the Åland Islands are of a militarily-strategic importance and been part of several regional wars, the islands were demilitarized and neutralized. A further four cases that are part of the continuum of this peace, will be highlighted in order to show the emergence of a pattern being formed and II The Nordic Peace later maintained; a pattern showing a preference for peaceful resolution to conflict. The four additional cases are: 1) Denmark and Norway over the East Greenland dispute; 2) Denmark and Iceland over Iceland’s peaceful secession and independence from Denmark; 3) Norway and Russia and the delimitation of the boundary in the Barents Sea; and 4) Canada and Denmark with the ongoing territorial dispute over Hans Island. This in turn shows how pragmatic solutions to conflicts, transformed the region to a zone of sustainable peace. The overarching principles that underpin the region’s peace will be extracted from the solutions to complex conflicts in which 1) irreconcilable principles such as self-determination and territorial integrity are reconciled, and as such 2) are transcended. This has led to the establishment of a sustainable security community in the Nordic Region. As a contrast to the Nordic Region, Japan and the Northeast Asian Region will be used as the conflicts there are structurally similar conflict to those that the Nordic Region transcended. The conflicts will comprise: 1) the territorial dispute between China and Japan over the Pinnacle Islands; 2) the territorial dispute between Japan and South Korea over the Liancourt Rocks; 3) the territorial dispute between Japan and Russia over the Kuril Islands; and 4) the regional conflict over the history of the Second World War. Therefore, as the Northeast Asian conflicts have not been solved, they will be compared with the those of the Nordic Region. The Nordic Peace is best described as resultant to conflicts producing win/win solutions that ultimately benefit all. As such they are the antithesis to zero-sum solutions, which seems to be the preferred patter in Northeast Asia. Even in the conflicts that were sent to arbitration, amicable results were either attained or the supranational decision was deferred to and accepted without animosity. III The Nordic Peace 1 論文の和文要旨 この論文は「ノルディック・ピース（北欧的平和均衡）」の歴史と現状を解 釈学の手法で分析する。その平和均衡の源泉と原理を、北欧諸国間に起きた 個々の紛争とその処理の歴史的経緯から導き出す。それらの原理が、北欧を 紛争対立もしく消極的平和地域から積極的平和地帯へと変化させたものと定 義する。 この論文は以下の問題意識を掲げる。 １）北欧の歴史的な紛争処理はどのように対立要因を平和均衡へと変換させ てきたか。そして２）その北欧的紛争処理に普遍的な可能性はあるか。 これらの問いに答えるため、平和均衡に向かう試みが北欧的紛争処理として 初めて認知され、そして「北欧」の地理的概念が確立した１８１４年以降に 起こった３つの歴史的事例を分析する。それらは、１）ノルウェーとスウェ ーデンの連合化。これはナポレオン戦争の結果ノルウェーに強制され、以後 紛争の原因になっていたが、最終的にスウェーデンからの分離独立が平和裡 に達成された。２）シュレースヴィヒ＝ホルシュタイン問題。これは、デン マークとドイツの国境に位置する２つの公領の併合を巡る２つの戦争であり、 第一次世界大戦後、住民投票によって解決され、双方の領域にマイノリティ ーとしての民族の生存権が確保され解決した例である。３）オーランド諸島 問題。フィンランドがロシアから独立した１９１８年、この領有権を巡って スウェーデンと対立。この問題は、国際連盟の仲裁によって解決されたばか りでなく、関連国全てにとって軍事的重要拠点であった同諸島が完全に非武 装化そして中立化された。 さらにこの論文は、北欧的紛争処理が、平和均衡に向けた一つのパターンと して連続的に認識されたその他４事例を分析する。それらは対立よりも平和 的解決策を希求する外交文化の出現が、その地域に安定をもたらすことを証 明する。１）デンマークとノルウェー間の東グリーンランド問題。２）アイ スランドのデンマークからの平和的分離独立。３）ノルウェーとロシア間の バレンツ海における領海線の平和的確定。４）カナダとノルウェー間のハン ス島の領有権問題。 これらのケースは対立要因への実践的な解決策となり、この地域を持続的平 和地帯へと変換させた。 1 Japanese Abstract IV The Nordic Peace この地域の平和を実証する包括的な原理性は、通常、激しく相反する２つの 原理：「民族自決権」と「領土的一体性」を和解させ変節させた事実に存在 する。これが北欧地域を持続的安全保障共同体の確立へと導いた。 日本と北東アジア地域には、北欧地域が乗り越えてきた対立構造に類似した ものが存在する。それらは、１）日中間の尖閣諸島問題、２）日韓の竹島問 題、３）日露の北方領土問題、４）第二次世界大戦の戦争責任を巡る歴史解 釈問題、である。これら北東アジアの対立は平和均衡に至っていないので、 北欧地域のそれと対比させることは学術的に意義がある。 北欧的平和均衡は、紛争当事者に双方両得の解決策を生み出す最適な帰結と して位置付けられる。これは北東アジアが好むゼロサム解決策とは対象的で ある。仲裁に委ねられ解決策は達成されなかったケースでも、国家を超え醸 成された平和的均衡が、ゼロサムを好む各国の政局と敵意の醸成を抑制し、 結果、平和裡の解決に導いた。 V The Nordic Peace Acknowledgements I would like to extend my deepest gratitude to my main academic supervisor, Professor Kenji Isezaki, and my supervisors, Professors Chikako Nakayama and Minoru Iwasaki, as well as to Tokyo University of Foreign Studies for giving me the opportunity for making this study possible. I would furthermore like to give my most sincere acknowledgments and thanks to my external supervisor Professor Nils Vidar Vambheim at the University of Tromsø, and to Dr. Desmond J Molloy at the Nippon Foundation, in addition to Ms. Rie Ishida and everyone else who helped me in this writing process for your criticisms, suggestions, and perhaps most importantly, inspiration. I wish to give credit due to Clive Archer and Pertti Joenniemi and the contributors to their book, The Nordic Peace, which bears the same name as my dissertation (excluding the subtitle). This significant work was instrumental for me in embarking on this project. I am most indebted and grateful to my mother, Bjørg S Rekvig, and father, Dr. Ole Petter Rekvig, for their unabating and resolute support throughout this undertaking. And finally, for encouragement and unwavering patience, I offer my deepest appreciation, thanks, and recognition to my wife, Minako Kikkawa, and to our son, Arn Kikkawa Rekvig, for his remarkable ability to make a bad day not only good, but great. I am most obliged to you all. VI The Nordic Peace For the current state of knowledge remains vague when history is not considered, just as history remains vague without substantive knowledge of the current state. 2 - Ludwik Fleck 2 L. Fleck et al., Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact (University of Chicago Press, 2012). 54 VII The Nordic Peace Table of Contents 1! Introduction 1! 1.1! The Nordic Region as a Zone of Positive Peace 2! 1.2! Structure of the Thesis 4! 1.3! Research Questions and Methodology 12! 1.4! Objectives of the Thesis 14! 2! The Nordic Security Community 17! 2.1! Zones of peace 18! 2.2! Security Community 19! 2.3! Consensus based Political Organization 22! 3! The Nordic Peace: Current State and a Belligerent Background 24! 3.1! Interconnectivity and Language 25! 3.2! Indigenous People and Minorities 26! 3.3! The Nordic Council 29! 3.4! Peace of Kiel – The end of Intra-Nordic Wars and the start of the Nordic Peace 31! 3.5! Background of the Peace of Kiel and the Kalmar Union 32! 3.6! Napoleonic Wars 34! 4! Case One: Norway-Sweden – Unification, Union, Disunion, and the legacy of the Peace of Kiel 1814-1905 42! 4.1! A push for independence 47! 4.2! 1814-1905 Norway-Sweden: Union and Democratization
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