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SPRING 2001

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A Century of Laureates: Historian on the Nobel Prize at 100 history

A Century of Laureates: THE AT 100

Alfred Nobel

BY SUSAN LUMENELLO

Historian Irwin Abrams, Sitting in a Paris hotel in November 1895, a lonely but successful Swedish engineer puts the finishing touches on his will. Never married, Alfred PhD ’38, reflects on the Nobel had no children and few heirs. But he was rich, and he left the bulk of his fortune, nine million dollars, to endow prizes in physics, chemistry, Nobel Peace Prize at medicine, literature, and peace1.These were to represent a legacy that was, Nobel hoped, greater than the sum of his 350 patents, including the centennial mark. those for dynamite and smokeless gunpowder. A year after completing his will, Nobel died in Italy of a stroke. Five years later, on December 10, the anniversary of his death, the first Nobel Prizes were awarded.

In his famous will, Nobel set out only has spotlighted the promise if not the the most minimal guidelines for his imminence of world peace. prizes. The peace prize, he wrote, must be given to “the person who shall have The prize has also been at the center of done the most or the best work for one historian’s scholarship for nearly fraternity between nations, for the 40 years. Irwin Abrams, PhD ’38, is abolition or reduction of standing perhaps the foremost biographer of armies, and for the holding and the Nobel Peace Prize. A retired pro- promotion of peace congresses.” fessor of history at Antioch University, Abrams is currently updating his 1988 Originally, Nobel wanted the peace biographical history, The Nobel Peace prize to be given every five years and Prize and the Laureates, to be pub-

© Per Anders © Rosenkuist/Samfoto Per only for a period of 30 years, reason- lished later this year. A fifth edition of Irwin Abrams ing that if the world hadn’t become The Words of Peace, Abrams’s collec- more peaceful in that span, it surely tion of inspirational excerpts from would have reverted to barbarism. In peace laureates’ lectures, was pub- the 100 years since it was first given to lished last year. Abrams also is a con- anti-war activist Frederic Passy and tributor to the Nobel Channel Web , founder of the site and a consultant to the Nobel International Red Cross, the Nobel Museum, opening this year in Oslo. Peace Prize has failed to stop wars and quiet arms. But more often than not, it Conventional wisdom has long held that Nobel created the peace prize to 1 The in economics was first awarded in 1968.

Harvard University2 GSAS relieve his guilt over his most promi- remained skeptical. “He said to Bertha, nent invention, dynamite, used as ‘My factories may make peace before much for war and destruction as it was your congresses,’” says Abrams. “He for the road-building and construction thought technological developments projects he had intended. would make war so horrible, [that] when one army could completely oblit- Alfred Nobel was hardly guilt-ridden erate the enemy, nations would shrink over his inventions, says Abrams. from warfare.” Instead, the 87-year-old historian says that Nobel was influenced to create a But soon after his visit in peace prize by a young Austrian woman. Nobel wrote to von Suttner with the news that he had decided to fund a Baroness and prize for peace. Nobel maintained a correspondence based largely on debates about the A few years later in 1905, von Suttner most effective route to peace, a subject won the peace prize named for her says. The daughter of a diplomat, Suu von Suttner had embraced in the face friend in recognition of her work as an Kyi (pronounced Sue Chee) led the of increasing European militarism. author and as president of the Inter- National League for Democracy Party national Peace Bureau in Switzerland. even though her life had been threat- ened during the campaign. Before the MISTAKES AND SUCCESSES elections she was put under house arrest. Her party won the election, but “There are over a hundred or more Suu Kyi remains detained despite the peace prizes, but there’s nothing like efforts of many governments and a this one for humanitarian work,” delegation of Nobel peace laureates. Abrams says. “Clearly, it’s the most “When you get to ’96,” Abrams con- publicized. The winners get what tinues, “the prize definitely helped the Marion Erster Rose (the wife of 1986 people of East Timor.” The prize went peace laureate ) calls the big to Bishop Carlos Belo and José microphone—whenever they speak, Ramos-Horta, activists for East they’re listened to. The people who have Bertha von Suttner Timorese independence. “It played an been given this over all the years, by and important part in focusing world Abrams picks up the story: “In 1889, large, are worthy people. I would think attention on that little island, support- Bertha writes what was the Uncle Nobel would have to be happy.” ing the cause of independence and the Tom’s Cabin of the peace movement, Abrams acknowledges that the com- transition to the new government,” an anti-war book called Lay Down Abrams says. These recent awards Your Arms. She sends a copy to Nobel mittee has made some poor selections over the years, often defying the intent point to a broadening worldview from who [cynically] writes back to her, a committee that, as many critics have ‘Lay down your arms? What am I of Nobel’s will, which was, as Abrams says, to “reward dreamers.” Too pointed out, has tended to ignore the going to do with the powder I just struggles of non-Western nations. developed?’” often, Abrams and other critics agree, the committee has given the prize too “By and large, the committee has a But through von Suttner, Nobel late in a person’s career to make a dif- good record,” says Abrams, “but there became aware of the growing number ference, or it has made safe picks of are always political controversies.” of individuals and organizations institutions and statesmen. Nobel, Rigoberta Menchú, the laureate for working for peace. He sent money to says Abrams, intended the prize as a 1992, is a Mayan Indian who founded the Austrian Peace Society, the group sort of MacArthur “genius” grant to Revolutionary Christians in her country von Suttner and her husband had reward risk-takers immersed in the of Guatemala. “She was accused of founded, and promised her “he would struggle to end war and aggression. consorting with an armed guerrilla do something great for peace,” but faction in her country and for spreading had no firm plan. As von Suttner Abrams notes that despite its occa- sional blunders, the prize has directly falsehoods in her autobiography about wrote in her memoirs, Nobel asked her family’s victimization at the hands her to convince him that peacemakers aided various struggles for peace. “The prize for 1991 went to Aung San Suu of her government,” Abrams says. “I were as worthy of financial support as would explain these not as falsehoods, scientists and poets were. Kyi of Burma (Myanmar), and certain- ly it helped her cause, even though she but as part of her effort to give the tes- During an 1892 visit to Switzerland, was in and out of detention. The United timony of her people, adding to her Nobel met up with von Suttner, who States has adopted sanctions on Burma, own story the atrocities her people was there attending a World Peace and just the other day the [New York] lived through.” Congress. Von Suttner described the Times had an article about how the The Washington Post published an goings-on with enthusiasm, but Nobel military are finally talking with her,” he exposé of dissension within the continued on page 4 Colloquy 3 Spring 2001 The Peace Prize continued from page 3

Vietnam were named joint winners for NOMINATORS AND NOMINEES the Paris Peace Talks. The Communist leader declined the prize, the only time Many academics may be unaware that they have the privilege of making nominations for the honor for peace has been rejected the peace prize, says Irwin Abrams. Professors of political science, history, law, and philos- by a would-be laureate. Le Duc Tho ophy have been eligible to nominate for the peace prize since 1950.“This was decided by died in 1990. the Norwegian legislature,” Abrams says, adding that members of legislatures can also “Kissinger should not have won the nominate people. “Anybody can ask his or her congressman to nominate a person,” he prize,” says Abrams. The award was says.“That’s the way to go.” given for an armistice that was broken As both a history professor and a member of a peace prize-winning organization, Abrams by the time the award ceremony hap- is qualified to nominate. He has used this privilege to nominate former US president Jimmy pened, he says. “That’s why Le Duc Carter 11 times for his “post-presidential peacemaking” efforts in Haiti, Bosnia, and North Tho declined it. He said the United Korea. In 1994, Abrams took a break from Carter to nominate Maha Ghosanada, a States was violating [the treaty] and Buddhist monk who campaigned for peace during Cambodia’s civil war. Kissinger said the North Vietnamese were,” Abrams says. For the 2001 award, there are 132 nominees, 29 of them organizations.There were 150 different nominations last year, which is the record. The committee’s policy is to keep the names of nominees secret to prevent campaigning; leaks, however, are rife. According to various wire reports, nominees for the 2001 peace prize include Mordechai Vanunu, jailed since 1986 for revealing secrets of Israel’s nuclear program; Li Hongzhi, founder of China’s banned Falun Gong spiritual movement; and UN Secretary General . Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), the world’s governing body for soccer, was nominated by a Swedish politician for the sport’s role in uniting nations.The year’s most controversial peace prize nominee is death row inmate Stanley “Tookie” Williams, cofounder of the notorious Crips gang in Los Angeles and the convicted murderer of four people.Williams’s name was submitted by a member of the Swiss Parliament on the basis of a series of children’s books written by the inmate urging young people to avoid gang life. Others said to be on the list are Estonian President Lennart Meri, former Finnish President , and perennial nominees Bill Clinton, Pope John Paul II, and the Salvation Army. According to Agence France Presse, “People don’t realize that Kissinger the International Red Cross is also being considered for the award.That organization was tried to give the prize back,” Abrams the prize’s first recipient in 1901. continues. “He said that he was The winner of the Nobel Peace Prize will be announced in October. Last year’s winner returning the symbols of the prize, that received approximately $883,000. is the medal and the diploma, but they never reached Oslo. I don’t think that Members of the present peace prize committee are Gunnar Berge, director general of the was his fault. I think he gave them to Norwegian Petroleum Directorate; Bishop Gunnar Johan Stalsett; Hanna Kristine Kvanmo; some subordinate. Kissinger did keep Sissel Marie Ronbeck, deputy director, Directorate for Cultural Heritage; and Inger-Marie the money, but he used it to set up a Ytterhorn, senior political adviser to the Progress Party’s parliamentary group. Except for scholarship fund for orphans of the Stalsett, all members previously served in the Norwegian Storting (legislature). Committee GIs [from the Vietnam War], which I members serve a six-year term. think was a good use of it. “Looking at public opinion at all the International Committee to Ban celebrated,” he says, “but the prize prizes, there was more criticism about Landmines, which won the prize in itself was given for a peace accord that that than any other in recent times. 1997. But the award that year “helped really wasn’t much of an accord in the Prizes like that can make people bring along the Ottawa Treaty in long run.” Abrams adds that Arafat’s cynics,” Abrams acknowledges. “Mrs. record time, especially when you think work with terrorists should have dis- Lionaes (chairwoman of the Nobel of how long it takes to put together an qualified him from the start. At least committee Aase Lionaes) said the international treaty,” Abrams says. “I one member of the prize committee committee gave the prize for the effort think the prize did help the cause [of agreed with Abrams; committee mem- Kissinger and Le Duc Tho were mak- banning landmines].” ber Kare Kristiansen resigned his seat ing to bring that war to an end. They in 1994 in protest of Arafat’s selection. have always said that they were not History can also betray the intentions giving the prize just for the achieve- of the selection committee, Abrams The most controversial prize in mod- ment but for furthering the process.” says. The 1994 award went to Yasser ern times was awarded in 1973 when Arafat, , and Yitzhak then-US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger did not go to Oslo to accept Rabin for the Oslo Accords. “Rabin Kissinger, AB ’50, PhD ’54, govern- the prize or to deliver a Nobel lecture. gave his life for that and can be well ment, and Le Duc Tho of North In a letter written shortly after the

Harvard University4 GSAS ALUMNINOTES announcement was made, he told the APPLIED SCIENCES Nobel Committee: “The people of the Judson C. French, SM ’49, reports his United States, and indeed of the whole retirement after an enjoyable career. He continues as guest researcher and world, share the hope expressed by the director emeritus of the Electronics and Nobel Peace Prize Committee that all Electrical Engineering Laboratory at the parties to this conflict will feel moral- National Institute of Standards and ly responsible for turning the cease-fire Technology (NIST). In November 2000, in Vietnam into a lasting peace for NIST honored him by awarding the first Judson C. French Award for “pioneering the suffering peoples of Indochina. development of excimer laser meas- Certainly my Government, for its part, urement services in response to urgent re- intends to continue to conduct its poli- quests from the semiconductor industry.” cies in such a way as to turn this hope into reality.” Kissinger did not reply to Gabe Spalding, PhD ’90, reports that inquiries from Colloquy. he has received both tenure and a promotion from Illinois Wesleyan depth of knowledge on race relations Others nominated that controversial University, where he is associate and colonial matters, Bunche quickly year were President Richard Nixon professor of physics. rose through the ranks of the State and President Josip Tito of Yugoslavia. Department. From there he joined the BIOCHEMISTRY AND Abrams says two members of the prize UN Secretariat, presiding over the MOLECULAR BIOLOGY committee wanted Bishop Camara of Trusteeship Division at a time when Rosalind Shorenstein, PhD ’73, has Brazil to win for 1973. “One of them one developing nation after another been elected a fellow of the American wrote an article some years later, College of Physicians-American Society was declaring its independence. But which he shouldn’t have done. They of Internal Medicine, the nation’s larg- Bunche focused on the problem over practically take an oath on the committee est medical specialty organization. partitioning in Palestine, and when Shorenstein currently serves as that they’ll never talk about their deci- fighting broke out between Israel and president of the Santa Cruz County sion-making. But he felt that the other Palestine in 1948, he was called in to Medical Society and as president of three people [on the committee] had Branch 59 of the American Medical mediate. already made up their minds and that Women’s Association. there wasn’t really room for any dis- “Bunche had the Israelis and the Arab cussion. The Norwegian people, who statesmen on the Isle of Rhodes and CHEMISTRY were also very opposed to this prize, Paul Scheuer, PhD ’50, was honored kept going back and forth between last December by the International collected money and gave a ‘people’s groups—they wouldn’t even sit in the Chemical Congress of Pacific Basin prize’ to Bishop Camara,” says Abrams. same room with each other. He kept Societies in Honolulu for his ocean going religiously until he got that research.The award commemorated the During this period, Abrams says, the th peace. The peace didn’t stay forever, 50 anniversary of Scheuer’s academic selection committee began focusing career at the University of Hawaii as well but it stayed for a number of years. It less on disarmament, which was as the start of clinical trials of Kahalalide was a marvel of mediation and arbi- Nobel’s intent, and more on rewarding F, a potential cancer treatment Scheuer tration, which he was able to accom- peacemakers in global hotspots. “The discovered in a Hawaiian marine mollusk. plish against great difficulties.” committee is being a peacemaker itself GEOLOGY in these ways,” Abrams says. This is Bunche initially declined the prize and George B.Vockroth, AM ’51, retired in not without precedent. told the Nobel committee that he was May 2000 as owner of Vantage Oil being honored simply for doing his job. Company. He continues to represent Abrams has considerably more But the committee insisted that the prize the Mississippi Geological Society as a affection for fellow Harvard alumnus, would benefit the work of the UN, and member of the Mississippi Water the 1950 peace laureate Ralph Resources Advisory Council. Bunche accepted. “He’s one of the Bunche, PhD ’34, government. “I greats,” says Abrams, who got to know think people probably don’t remember PHILOSOPHY Bunche when he visited Antioch anything about Ralph Bunche,” Barry Wellman, PhD ’69, has received University. Ralph Bunche died in 1971. Abrams says ruefully. “Here’s some- the Outstanding Contribution Award from the Canadian Sociological and body who’s the grandson of slaves, his The committee’s greatest failure, Anthropological Association for his parents die early, his grandmother Abrams says, was an award not given. work in the study of social, computer, raises him and insists that he stay In 1947, Mohandas Gandhi used the and community networks. in school when a lot of young principles of nonviolence to lead his Afro-Americans of his age were just country to independence. That same REGIONAL STUDIES–USSR not finishing high school.” year, Pakistan partitioned itself from Andrew Sorokowski, AM ’75, writes India leading to violent conflict that he has begun work as a historian for Bunche, the first black person to win the US Department of Justice. between Hindus and Muslims. the peace prize, was a professor of political science at Howard University “Gandhi was said to have supported when he left academe in the early the Indian army, but that was wrong,” 1940s to join the war effort. With his continued on page 13 CONTINUED ON PAGE 7 Colloquy 5 Spring 2001 The Peace Prize continued from page 5

THE HARVARD CONNECTION

Graduate School alumni have figured prominently in Nobel Peace Prize history: Henry Cadbury (see page 16), Ralph Bunche, and Henry Kissinger. Certainly, the most renowned peace laureate with a Harvard connection is , AB 1880, who won in 1906 for his efforts in ending the Russian-Japanese war.The peace work of two Harvard faculty members has also been recognized by the Nobel committee. In 1985, two cardiologists,American Bernard Lown of the School of Public Health and Russian Evgeny Chazov of the USSR Cardiological Institute, shared the prize on behalf of their antinuclear group, International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War (IPPNW).

Mohandas Gandhi The prize had an immediate impact on the once-marginalized group. Says Lown, a profes- sor emeritus of cardiology, “When Chazov and I launched the IPPNW in 1981, we expect- says Abrams. Gandhi admitted that he ed a far warmer reception than we encountered. After an initial burst of publicity at the had supported his country’s fight time of the first IPPNW Congress in Virginia, there was a uniform silence in the West and “against injustice,” but asserted that paradoxically we continued to receive a good deal of favorable publicity in the Soviet he found no place for himself in what Union and among its satellites.This reinforced a stereotypic image that the doctors were he saw as a new militaristic India. “All naive dupes of the KGB or worse. We faced a constant barrage of criticism for not the same the committee decided to addressing human rights issues in the USSR, but we were exclusively a global antinuclear wait [to honor Gandhi] ‘until the dust organization. In this hostile climate, the Nobel Prize came at a most auspicious moment settled,’” Abrams says. “The next for our movement. Our message was widely communicated as a result.Though negative year, Gandhi was assassinated.” publicity also multiplied, nevertheless, the sincerity, passion, and commitment of physicians There was talk among committee in IPPNW was reinforced. We had no mission other than assuring human survival, threat- members of giving the award to ened as it was by the worst conceivable catastrophe. As a (1981) New York Times editorial Gandhi posthumously, but that idea phrased it, ‘The doctor’s warning that it can never be war like other wars is a grim was rejected as contradictory to reminder of the price of failure.’ Another element is that we went from starting line, so Nobel’s intentions of recognizing to speak, to a Nobel recognition in four and a half years—from no membership to a actively engaged peacemakers. Oyvind worldwide constituency of 200,000 physicians.” Tonnesson, writing for the Nobel John Holdren, a professor in Harvard’s Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences and Foundation, posits that the committee at the Kennedy School of Government, was executive director of the Pugwash had no sense of how prize money Conferences when the arms control group shared the 1995 Nobel Peace Prize with would be dispersed—Gandhi had no scientist , founder of the conferences. heirs or inheriting foundation. No prize was given in 1948. “The Nobel committee issued a statement explaining that there was no living person worthy of the prize that year,” Abrams says. The historian’s greatest overall com- plaint with the committee’s selections is that they honor statesmen. In some cases, elected politicians may have been chosen merely to improve or ease relations between Norway and power- ful countries. Abrams believes this was Henry Cadbury John Holdren the case in 1906, when Theodore Bernard Lown Roosevelt, AB 1880, was awarded the prize. “Statesmen do something by dint of their office, and it’s something Nobel lecture, “Roosevelt said that to peace,” Abrams continues. “Or that they’re paid to do anyway—to any country that is going to be worth [French minister Léon] Bourgeois and keep the peace,” Abrams says. A anything has to fight and be warlike. It [British foreign secretary Arthur] Quaker pacifist, Abrams objects more was a most unpeaceful speech. Henderson, who made lifetime efforts for years before receiving the prize. specifically to statesmen recognized “The statesmen laureates I approve of for a single act of reconciliation rather most are the ones like [German Prime “Take the last prize to Kim Dae-jung,” than for efforts in an ongoing struggle. Minister] and [former says Abrams of the South Korean pres- “Roosevelt really deserves credit for president of Costa Rica] Oscar Arias, ident, the 2000 peace laureate. “His helping end the war between Russia who went on peacemaking after they meeting at the summit with the other and Japan,” Abrams says, but in his left office, showing their commitment Kim (Kim Jong-il) of North Korea was

continued on page 16 Colloquy 13 Spring 2001 The Prize: A Century of Laureates Feedback,Without the Static continued from page 13 continued from page 9 a great achievement in moving toward Prize-winning dissertation was on the their development. All of us like that reconciliation between the two peace movement (“A History of aspect of it.” Koreas.” But, Abrams goes on, if the European Peace Societies, 1867– peace prize had been given to 1899”). But he has a personal connec- Dae-jung “only for that one act of the tion to the prize beyond scholarship. LAUNCHING PAD reconciliation that would be a ques- Before joining the faculty at Antioch, tionable one for me. But this is a man Christina Davis, a government student Abrams worked during and after who has worked for peace his whole from Washington, will graduate this World War II with the American life. He’s been beaten, put in jail, given June. She has received five offers to Friends Service Committee (AFSC), a death sentence. When he was in teach and has accepted a position at the Quaker organization known for its Japan in exile, he was kidnapped and Princeton as an assistant professor of global humanitarian work. In 1947, almost killed. He’s gone through all international relations. Davis credits the Friends, as the Quakers call them- that for years out of his deep faith as a research workshops with helping her selves, along with their British coun- Catholic. So, I think that whatever to develop her dissertation and to pre- terparts, won the Nobel Peace Prize happens in Korea, even if the North pare for the academic job market. for aiding war refugees in Eastern stays a Stalinist, authoritarian state, if Europe, Germany, and Austria, and “In my third year, the International there is no reconciliation, still I think for helping to rebuild war-torn Political Economy Workshop provided that somebody like Kim Dae-jung can nations. Accepting the award for the a forum for presenting early ideas as I stand next to somebody like Mother American contingent was a GSAS developed my dissertation prospectus Teresa and the others in the pantheon alumnus, AFSC Chairman Henry and, in my fifth year, I presented draft of peace. That’s a good prize.” Cadbury, PhD ’14, the classics, a pro- chapters to the Positive Political fessor of divinity and director of the Economy Workshop,” she says. “I Andover-Harvard Theological Library. learned to take criticism and use it in a FINDING HEROES constructive way to improve my Of course, a hundred years of peace work.” Davis’s dissertation is “Beyond Abrams began his work as a historian prizes have not prevented a hundred Food Fights: How International of the Nobel Peace Prize to bring the years of wars, large and small. Institutions Promote Agricultural heroic lives and work of so many “Intellectually, I guess I shouldn’t be Trade Liberalization.” remarkable individuals to the atten- optimistic at all,” Abrams says. “I tion of young people. A man of deep don’t think we’re going to achieve Practicing before one’s peers and advi- religious faith, Abrams’s personal peace in this poor world of ours, but I sors is more nerve-wracking than the heroes among the peace laureates are think that conflicts can be resolved.” If real job talk, Davis notes. “I found that those who maintained their own faith, Nobel were alive today, Abrams suspects in the seven job talks I presented dur- “religious or humanitarian,” against that he would have a bittersweet take ing interviews, many of the same ques- great obstacles. He points to Jane on his peace legacy, gratified that the tions that arose in the practice talk Addams, who was branded a traitor prize has perhaps abated aggression came up again,” she says. “Even while by the United States for protesting and conflict over the years, but pained I could not solve all of the problems in World War I, and , to see there is still reason to give it. my research, it helped that I could con- a German journalist who spoke out fidently discuss the problems and wasn’t against Nazism even as he was shunt- CO2 taken by surprise when questions arose.” ed from one concentration camp to continued from page 14 An estimated one thousand students another. Addams won the peace prize When my optimism in mankind’s abilities to have “graduated” from the research in 1931, Ossietzky in 1935. “The lau- address looming global warming falters, I can workshops over the years. The pilot reates I most prize are ones who have always look to the lessons I have learned from program is now a tradition, part of gone on working for peace after win- my own research into the most dramatic cli- the graduate school experience, and ning the prize, like [Albert] Schweitzer mate changes in Earth’s history. During the the place where scholarship meets and Pauling,” he says. Neoproterozoic era, some 1,000–550 million community. Abrams has met and interviewed a years ago, the climate bounced back and forth number of peace laureates, including between extreme greenhouse conditions, Brandt, Arias, nuclear disarmament incomparable to any in recent history, and ice advocate (the only per- ages so frigid that the entire surface of the son to receive two Nobel prizes—for Earth might have frozen over. In comparison, peace in 1962, for chemistry in 1954), the present climate change is so small we civil rights leader Martin Luther King would not even detect it in the ancient geo- Jr., Argentine human rights activist logical record. Adding time to the equation Adolfo Perez Esquivel, Swedish diplo- further lightens the picture; the Earth will mat , author Elie Wiesel, most certainly recover, and the vicissitudes of and anti-landmines campaigner Jody long-term climate change will obscure the Williams. Even Abrams’s Sumner present man-made blip in global warming.

Harvard University16 GSAS