Phosphorus Recovery and Recycling – Closing the Loop
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Chem Soc Rev View Article Online TUTORIAL REVIEW View Journal | View Issue Phosphorus recovery and recycling – closing the loop† Cite this: Chem. Soc. Rev.,2021, 50,87 Andrew R. Jupp, ‡*ab Steven Beijer,‡a Ganesha C. Narain,a Willem Schipperc and J. Chris Slootweg *a There is a clear and pressing need to better manage our planet’s resources. Phosphorus is a crucial element for life, but the natural phosphorus cycle has been perturbed to such an extent that humanity faces two dovetailing problems: the dwindling supply of phosphate rock as a resource, and the overabundance of phosphate in water systems leading to eutrophication. This Tutorial Review will explore the current routes to industrial phosphorus compounds, and innovative academic routes towards accessing these same products in a more sustainable manner. It will then describe the many Received 4th September 2020 ways that useful phosphate can be recovered from waste streams, and how it can be recycled and used DOI: 10.1039/d0cs01150a as a resource for new products. Finally, we will briefly discuss the barriers that have thus far prevented Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 3.0 Unported Licence. the widespread adoption of these technologies, and how we can close the loop to establish a modern rsc.li/chem-soc-rev phosphorus cycle. Key learning points (1) Why is phosphorus important and how has the natural phosphorus cycle been disrupted? (2) How are phosphorus-containing compounds currently synthesized? (3) Can these same products be accessed in more environmentally friendly and sustainable ways? (4) How can phosphorus be recovered and recycled? This article is licensed under a (5) What barriers need to be overcome to re-establish the phosphorus cycle? Open Access Article. Published on 19 November 2020. Downloaded 9/25/2021 8:07:52 PM. Introduction weapon in warfare, both as an incendiary agent and for creating smoke screens. Despite these nefarious uses, phosphorus is 2019 marked the 350th anniversary of the discovery of one of also an element that is essential to all known forms of life. the periodic table’s most beguiling and multifaceted elements. Phosphorus is most commonly found in nature in its highest Phosphorus was first discovered in 1669 by Hennig Brand, an oxidation state (+5). Phosphorus is required for the formation alchemist from Hamburg, who heated the malodorous residues of nucleotides, which comprise DNA and RNA molecules, and is of urine with sand and coal in a quest for the ‘‘philosopher’s a crucial component of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which is stone’’.1,2 The substance he isolated gave off a pale green glow, the primary energy carrier in cells. Furthermore, phospholipid and he thus named it phosphorus, from the Greek for light- bilayers are found in the membranes of cells, and calcium bearer. We now know that Brand had isolated white phos- phosphate is the primary component of mammalian bones and phorus, an elemental allotrope that consists of discrete P4 teeth. The essential nature of phosphorus combined with its tetrahedra. White phosphorus was originally (and misguidedly) relatively low abundance compared to other essential nutrients sold as a medicine for a wide range of ailments, but the has led to the element being dubbed ‘‘life’s bottleneck’’ by Isaac 3 pyrophoric nature of P4 resulted in its subsequent use as a Asimov. The natural phosphorus cycle, which has been established a Van ‘t Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box over geological timescales, first involves the weathering of 94157, 1090 GD Amsterdam, The Netherlands. E-mail: [email protected] phosphorus-containing minerals into soil and streams. From b School of Chemistry, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, here it is taken up by microbes and plants, and subsequently by UK. E-mail: [email protected] c Willem Schipper Consulting, Oude Vlissingseweg 4, 4336 AD, The Netherlands animals that eat the plants, and used to promote growth. The † Electronic supplementary information (ESI) available. See DOI: 10.1039/d0cs01150a phosphorus returns to the soil via excretion from animals ‡ These two authors contributed equally. during their lifetime, and by decomposition of plants and This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2021 Chem. Soc. Rev.,2021,50,87--101 | 87 View Article Online Tutorial Review Chem Soc Rev animals after death, where it can be taken up again by living shown historical ebbs and flows,4 but given the long timelines creatures. This part of the process, the phosphate being taken involved nature has always managed to redress this balance. up by animal and plant life and subsequently returned to the This natural equilibrium has been severely impacted by soil, can be repeated numerous times. Over time, some phos- human activity.5 Deforestation, and the associated soil loss, phorus is lost to waterways and eventually the sea, where over has led to more rapid loss of phosphate from the ground into long periods of time it is reincorporated in sedimentary rock. surface waters. Furthermore, phosphate-based fertilizers have Like most natural cycles, the phosphorus cycle has not neces- been required to feed an ever-growing global population, and sarily remained completely constant over time; studies have this has required extensive mining of phosphate rock (PR); Andrew Jupp obtained his PhD Steven Beijer obtained his BSc in from the University of Oxford chemistry at Utrecht University (2012–2016) under the super- and his MSc at the University of vision of Prof. Jose Goicoechea. Amsterdam with an emphasis on He worked on phosphorus analo- energy and sustainability. His gues of the cyanate anion and master’s thesis on valorizing phos- urea, for which he was awarded phate from waste streams was the Reaxys PhD Prize in Hong awarded the Unilever Research Kong in 2015. He subsequently Prize 2019. He is currently a PhD carried out a Banting Post- candidate under the supervision doctoral Fellowship with Prof. of Assoc. Prof. Chris Slootweg. Doug Stephan at the University His research focuses on the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 3.0 Unported Licence. Andrew R. Jupp of Toronto (2016–2018), working Steven Beijer sustainable use of phosphorus, on the synthesis and reactivity of positioning him at the inter- main-group Lewis acids and bases, and the functionalisation of section of developing novel recycling methodologies and exploring carbon dioxide. In 2018, he became an NWO VENI laureate at the their potential for large-scale implementation. University of Amsterdam, working with Assoc. Prof. Chris Slootweg on the formation of main-group radicals. In 2020, he launched his independent career as a Birmingham Fellow at the University of Birmingham (UK), working on small-molecule activation and This article is licensed under a molecular photo-switches. Ganesha (Nesha) Narain obtained Willem Schipper received his MSc Open Access Article. Published on 19 November 2020. Downloaded 9/25/2021 8:07:52 PM. his Master’s degree in Chemistry in 1989 and his PhD in 1993, at from the University of Amsterdam Utrecht University in physical and the Vrije Universiteit chemistry under the supervision Amsterdam. He worked on of Prof. G. Blasse. He subse- phosphorus recovery and quently joined Hoechst Holland, recycling and molecular sensing. which later became Thermphos His focus has been sustainability, International, as chemist sup- circular economy and renewable porting the industrial production energy. He obtained his of white phosphorus and Bachelor’s degree in Chemical phosphates. As Senior Chemist, Engineering from the University he pioneered the use of secondary Ganesha C. Narain of Twente focusing on material Willem Schipper raw materials, such as sewage engineering and a research into sludge ash and meat and bone photocatalytic water splitting. Nesha is currently pursuing a career meal ash, for the production of white phosphorus. As Innovation as a strategy consultant. He remains a sustainability enthusiast Manager he explored the direct functionalisation of white and keeps aiming for societal impact. phosphorus to obtain various phosphorus containing chemicals, bypassing the existing derivatives routes, and developed the synthesis and chemistry of phosphorus trioxide. Since 2013 he works as independent consultant to the industry and the scientific world, focusing on recycling, phosphorus chemistry, and process development. 88 | Chem. Soc. Rev.,2021,50,87--101 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2021 View Article Online Chem Soc Rev Tutorial Review approximately 20 Mt P is annually extracted from the earth.6 This is problematic because PR is a finite and dwindling resource. Furthermore, it is not equally distributed around the globe, with three quarters of the supply found in Morocco and Western Sahara, and other significant quantities in China, the USA and Russia. This asymmetric distribution of such an essential resource, combined with its economic volatility (the price of phosphorus briefly increased eightfold in 2008) could lead to sensitive food security situations and future political tensions.7 An accurate value of total useful reserves of PR is hard to predict, since this is highly dependent on the price. When the price increases, currently uneconomic reserves may become economically viable. Furthermore, when there is scar- city, the incentive to search for new reserves is higher. Due to this uncertainty, the estimates for depletion of PR reserves range from 40 to 400 years.8 The increased amount