Appendix I: Mahila Samakhya Program Structural Hierarchy

Literacy camps, vocational trainings, Sanghas (village- Literacy centers at MSK school for women and level collectives) the village level girls in Karwi, Chitrakoot district, Uttar Pradesh

Sahyogini (supervisor of cluster of ten villages)

District Resource District Implementation Groups (NGOs, Unit (DIU) (coordinators, training groups) consultants, support staff)

State MS Society State Office State Resource Group Executive Committee (with (project director, (NGOs, resource Government of India, consultants, institutions) State Government, support staff) women activists)

National Resource Group (NRG) (guidance, support, policy)

National Office (project director, consultants, support staff) Notes

Introduction

1. James Ferguson, The Anti-Politics Machine: Development, Depoliticization, and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 17. 2. Ibid. 3. Ibid. 4. Ibid., 18. 5. Michel Foucault (1971, 1973). 6. Ferguson (1990), 18. 7. Ibid., 20. 8. Ibid., 75–89. 9. Ibid., 255–256. 10. Ibid., 275. 11. Ibid. 12. Ibid., 274. 13. Ibid., 271–273. 14. Ibid., 276. 15. Ibid. 16. Ibid., 277. 17. I am modifying Ferguson’s argument based on my experience of a government program in India. Through his experience of the Thaba Tseka government project in Lesotho, he is led to disagree with Foucault’s argument that in the conduct of “biopolitics,” the state assumes a “central, coordinating, managing” role. Instead, Ferguson argues, “growth of power does not imply any sort of efficient, centralized social engineering role” but that “power relations must be increasingly referred to through bureaucratic circuits; there is no single relationship.” I would argue, based on my experience of a government program in India, that in order to re-assume its “central, coordinating, managing role” (undermined by the new global politics of liberal- ization and by the scandals of the state in the early 1990s) state bureaucracy requires that power relations (ideological and otherwise) not be referred through its circuits, national or local. The bureaucracy in making policy- making itself public and inviting large-scale public investment in its conceptualization and its implementation was not only relocating itself as the reference point for a modality of governance, it was dispersing the modality itself. But through just such a strategy, the bureaucracy was intending to spatialize the authority of the state, its “central, managing role,” as never before. Ferguson (1990), 274. 18. Ferguson (1990), 17. 234 Notes

19. Kamala Visweswaran, Fictions of Feminist Ethnography (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994). See chapter 3, “Betrayal: An Analysis in Three Acts,” 40–59, for more discussion on “partial perspectives.” 20. Ferguson (1990), 20. 21. Ibid., 20–21. 22. Ibid., 270 or 251–277. 23. Ibid., 256. 24. Ibid., 276. 25. Ibid. 26. Ibid., 256. 27. Visweswaran, Chapter 3, “Betrayal: An Analysis in Three Acts,” in Fictions of Feminist Ethnography, 40–59. 28. Ibid., 41. 29. Ibid. 30. Elizabeth Spelman, Inessential Woman: Problem of Exclusion in Feminist Thought (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1990), 178–179. 31. Martha Nussbaum, Sex and Social Justice (London, New York, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999), 46. Here Nussbaum, borrowing the idea of citizen as free and dignified human being from John Rawls, defines “capabilities” as representative of those “activities characteristically performed by human beings that are so central that they seem definitive of the life that is truly human” (like life and bodily health). 32. Nussbaum, Sex and Social Justice (1999), 41–42. 33. Vivienne Jabri, “Feminist Ethics and Hegemonic Global Politics” (Alternatives, v. 29, n. 3, 2004), 265–284. 34. Uma Narayan, Dislocating Cultures: Identities, Traditions, and Third World Feminism (New York: Routledge Press, 1997), 122.

One “Education for Women’s Equality and Empowerment”: The Mahila Samakhya Program (MS) (1989)

1. NPE (1986, 92) item 4.1, 7. 2. Ibid., item 2.1, 4. 3. Ibid., items 2.2 and 2.3, 4. 4. Ibid., item 3.13, 7. Generally education is an item in the Concurrent list, which means it is the simultaneous responsibility of the states and of the Union government as per the Constitutional Amendment of 1976. But the NPE granted the Union government more responsibility and, therefore, the greater burden of implementing this NPE in the best way possible. 5. NPE, Part IV, 8. 6. Ibid., item 4.2, 8. 7. Ibid. 8. Ibid. 9. Ibid. Notes 235

10. Ibid., item 4.4, 8. 11. Ibid., Part VIII, item 4.5, number iv and v, 8. 12. Ibid., item 4.8, p. 10. 13. Mahila Samakhya: Genesis, item 1.1.3. 14. Genesis, section, 1.2, item 1.2.1. 15. Ibid., item 2.6, 3. 16. Ibid., item 1.2.1. The program was extended to Andhra Pradesh at the end of 1992 and to Kerala in 1998–99. In 2002, after Uttaranchal was carved out as a separate state from Uttar Pradesh, a separate program was started in Uttaranchal. From 2003 to 2004, the program covered Assam, Bihar, and Jharkhand. 17. Genesis, 4. 18. Ibid., section 2.1, item 2.1.1, 2. 19. Ibid. 20. Ibid. 21. Ibid., item 2.5, 3. 22. Ibid., 3–4. 23. Ibid., item 2.8, 4. 24. Ibid., 4. 25. Ibid., 4. 26. Ibid., 5. 27. Ibid., item 2.11, 5. 28. See website www.absss.org.in/for more details on “Gopalji’s” organization. 29. “On May 6, 1997, a new district was carved out of Banda district and was named Chhatrapati Shahuji Maharaj Nagar but was renamed as Chitrakoot on September 4, 1998.” Source: chitrakoot.nic.in/modern-history.htm. According to the Census of India, 2001, “Chitrakoot division is an admin- istrative division of U.P. state in northern India and includes the districts of Banda, Chitrakoot, Hamirpur, and Mahoba.” The Census also shows “Chitrakoot” as different from “Chitrakoot dham” [or pilgrimage site]. Chitrakoot is the district/division and Chitrakoot dham is the central train station in downtown Karwi, a town in Chitrakoot. The dham refers to the important and sacred Hindu sites located in various parts of Chitrakoot that draw their references from such Hindu mythological texts/oral traditions such as the Ramayana. Therefore, it is an important pilgrimage site for north Indian Hindus. 30. See appendix 1—project structures (district, state, and national levels) of Mahila Samakhya program. 31. Nirantar, Windows to the World: Developing a Participatory Curriculum for Rural Women (New Delhi, 1997). 32. See Sharma, chapter 6 (this book) and Nirantar, 1997. 33. Abha Bhaiya and Kalyani Menon-Sen, Knowledge Is Like Flowing Water: A Collection of Theme Papers from the Mahila Samakhya Programme (Department of Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India, New Delhi, undated), 34–35 34. Ibid. 35. Nirantar, 1997. 236 Notes

36. See Sharma, chapter 6 (this book) and Bhaiya and Menon-Sen, undated. 37. Bhaiya and Menon-Sen, 35–36. 38. See Sharma, chapter 5 (this book) 39. See Bhaiya and Menon-Sen: undated, Sharma, chapter 6 (this book). 40. See Sharma, chapter 6 (this book). 41. See Nirantar, Windows to the World, 1997. 42. Ibid. 43. See Sharma, chapter 5 (this book). 44. See Partha Chatterjee, Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993, chapters 6 and 7), 116–157. 45. See Radha Kumar, History of Doing: An Illustrated Account of Movements for Women’s Rights and Feminism in India, 1800–1990 (New Delhi: Kali for Women, 1993); and Aparna Basu, Feminism and Nationalism in India, 1917–1947, Journal of Women’s History, Volume 7, Number, 4 (Winter), 1995. 46. Radha Kumar, 1993. 47. Ibid. 48. Neema Kudwa. “Uneasy Partnerships? Government-NGO Relations in India” (Working Paper 673, June 1996), 1–45. 49. Radha Kumar, 1993. 50. Ibid. 51. Kudwa, 1996. 52. MS program document, 1988. 53. Ibid., 81. 54. Balaji Pandey, “Post-independence Educational Development among Women in India” (paper presented in the seminar on “Women in Changing Society” at the Center for Women’s Development Studies, University of Hyderabad, March, 1987), 3. 55. Pandey, 78. 56. Ibid., 95. 57. Ibid., 95, pt. 12. 58. Ibid., 96–97. 59. Ibid., 98, pts. 15 and 16. 60. Mohammed Yunus and Karl Weber, Creating a World without Poverty: Social Business and the Future of Capitalism (New York: Public Affairs, 2007), 86–90. 61. Ibid. 62. See Tazul Islam, Microcredit and Poverty Alleviation (Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publications, 2007); Shahidur Khandker, Fighting Poverty with Microcredit (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998); Aminur Rahman, Women and Microcredit in Rural Bangladesh: An Anthropological Study of the Rhetoric and Realities of Grameen Bank Lending (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1999); David Hume and Arun Thankom, Microfinance: A Reader (London, New York: Routledge, 2009); Jude L. Fernando, Microfinance: Perils and Prospects (London, New York: Routledge, 2006); Howard Jacob-Koeger, Shortchanged: Life and Debt in the Fringe Economy (San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler, 2005). Notes 237

63. See Sharma, chapter 4 (this book) for a short review of microfinance pro- cesses in Biyur village in Chitrakoot subdivision, Uttar Pradesh, 2002. 64. “The World’s Women: Progress in Statistics,” 1995. 65. See Patricia and Roger Jeffery, Population, Gender and Politics: Demographic Change in Rural India (Ca mbridge: Ca mbridge Un iversit y Press, 1997), Mon i Nag and Anrudh Jain, Female Primary Education and Fertility Reduction in India (New York: Population Council, 1995); Krishna Kumar, Political Agenda of Education: A Study of Nationalist and Colonialist Ideas (New Delhi, Newbury Park, CA: Sage University Press, 1991); Malvika Karlekar, A Slow Transition from Womanhood to Personhood: Can Education Help? (New Delhi: Center for Women’s Development Studies, 1989); Karuna Chanana, Socialisation, Women, and Education, Explorations in Gender Identity (New Delhi: Orient Longman, 1988). 66. Beijing Conference, 1995, Draft A: Introduction. 67. Background Document, World Conference on Education for All: Meeting Basic Needs, Jomtien, Thailand, March 5–9, 1990 (InterAgency Commission, UNICEF House, 3 United Nations Plaza, New York, April 1990), 1. 68. Ibid., 1–2. 69. Agenda for Action, ICPD (1994), 10. 70. Ibid., 11. 71. Section B, item O, Principles and Goals, Copenhagen Declaration on Social Development, www.visionoffice.com/socdev/wssdo-3.htm. 72. Ibid., Paragraph 7. 73. See website for more details—www.visionoffice.com/socdev/wssdo-4. htm#commitment/205 74. See website for more details—www1.umn.edu/humanrts/instree/e5dplw. htm#one. 75. Ibid. 76. See website for more details—www1.umn.edu/humanrts/instree/e5dplw. htm#1. 77. Resolution of the Government of India, No. F.1-6/90-PN, May 7, 1990. 78. Ibid. 79. Vimala Ramachandran, “Mahila Samakhya: A Personal Journey” (unpublished monograph, 1995), 4. 80. Maitreyi Das, “Women’s Development Program in Rajasthan: A Case Study in Group Formation for Women’s Development, Population and Human Resources Department” (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1992), 80–81. 81. Ibid., 82. 82. NPE (1986), Paragraph 4.2. 83. See Elizabeth Brunfiel, The Economic Anthropology of the State (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1994); Chris Shore and Susan Wright, Anthropology of Policy: Perspectives on Governance and Power (New York; Routledge, 1997); Marc Edelman and Angelique Haugerud, The Anthropology of Development and Globalization: From Classic Political Economy to Contemporary Neoliberalism (M a s s achu s e t t s , U SA a nd O x ford , England: Wiley-Blackwell, 2005); Noel Dyck and James B. Waddran, Anthropology, Public Policy, and Native Peoples in Canada (Montreal, QC; Buffalo, NY: McGill-Queens, University Press, 1993); Benoit de Estoile and 238 Notes

Frederico G. Neiburg, Empires, Nations, and Natives: Anthropology and State-Making (Durham: Duke University Press, 2005) 84. See Sharma, “Empowering Women or Institutionalizing Women’s Agency? An Ethnography of the Mahila Samakhya Education Program in India,” Austin: University of Texas at Austin, Dissertation, unpublished, 2005. 85. Nirantar, Windows to the World: Developing a Participatory Curriculum for Rural Women (New Delhi, 1997); Amartya Sen and Jean Dreze, India: Development and Participation (London, New Delhi, New York: Oxford University Press, 1991, 2002), 544. 86. Kudwa, 1996; Ramachandran, 1995. 87. See S.K. Das, Public Office, Private Interest: Bureaucracy and Corruption in India (New York; Oxford University Press, 2001); Peter Penner, Patronage Bureaucracy in North India (New Delhi: Chanakya Publications, 1986). 88. Kudwa, 1996. 89. Ibid. 90. Weiss (1986), p. 10. 91. Nirantar, 1997, Kudwa, 1996, Ramachandran, 1995. 92. Nirantar, 1997, Amartya Sen and Jean Dreze, 1991. 93. Nirantar, 1997. 94. Ibid., 1997. 95. See http://www.nirantar.net/news.htm (Khabar Lehriya won the UNESCO King Sejong Prize in 2009) and Kalpana Sharma, http://southasia.oneworld. net/Article/a-trail-blazer-by-dalit-women-scribes, April 7, 2008.

Two “Getting There, Being There”: Using Ethnography, Investigating Ethnography in Chitrakoot and Delhi

1. Kamala Visweswaran, Fictions of Feminist Ethnography (Minneapolis: Minnesota University Press, 1994), 101–104. 2. See Lila Abu-Lughod, “Can There Be a Feminist Ethnography?,” Women and Performance: A Journal of Feminist Theory 5 (1990): 7–27; Judith Stacey, “Can There Be a Feminist Ethnography?” in Women’s Worlds: The Feminist Practice of Oral History, ed. S. Gluck and D. Patai (1991), 111–119; Kamala Visweswaran, “Defining Feminist Ethnography,” in Fictions of Feminist Ethnography, by Kamala Visweswaran (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994), 17–39. 3. For a brilliant construction and discussion of “betrayals” as an “allegory for feminist practice,” see Visweswaran “Betrayal: An Analysis in Three Acts,” in Fictions of Feminist Ethnography, 40–59. 4. Visweswaran experienced such “ethnographic paralysis” for a year or two during which time she seriously considered the possibility of never writing her ethnography—till she decided to write about the interrogation itself or the ethnographic process and all the problems and frustrations that marked it, Fictions, 47. Notes 239

5. Donna Haraway “Situated Knowledges: The Science Question in Feminism and the Privilege of Partial Perspective” (Feminist Studies 14, 3, Autumn 1988), 583. Haraway talks about positioning as “key practice in ground- ing knowledges” and, therefore, implies (us taking) “responsibility for our enabling practices,” 587. 6. Visweswaran, Fictions of Feminist Ethnography, 48. 7. Haraway, “Situated Knowledges,” 583. 8. Ibid., as quoted in Visweswaran, Fictions, 48. 9. Ibid., 584. 10. Visweswaran, 112. 11. Geertz (1979), 13. 12. Suzanne Kirshner “ ‘Then What Have I Have to Do with Thee?’: On Identity, Fieldwork, and Ethnographic Knowledge” (Cultural Anthropology, 2–2, May 1987), 218. 13. Kirsches, 219–220. 14. Kondo, 79. 15. Ibid., 78 16. Abu-Lughod (1988), 159–160. 17. Kirin Narayan, 263. 18. Kondo, 80. She says that playing the role of a “willing conspirator” leads to “fragmentation of self” (or through a complete and total identification with the other). 19. For a brilliant discussion of “hype-nation” and “hyphenated ethnography,” see Visweswaran, Chapter 7, “Identifying Ethnography,” in Fictions of Feminist Ethnography, 114–140. 20. Abu Lughod uses the term “cultural zone” in gendered terms (“Fieldwork of a Dutiful Daughter”) or that women’s cultural zone is the space called home. I am, however, using this term to refer to disaggregate/disparate spaces of culture within “a” culture and, therefore, pointing to the problem of “Culture” (as nation, bounded community). 21. Ricouer, 1981, as quoted in Kondo, 79. 22. Uma Narayan, Dislocating Cultures, 122 23. Ibid., 122. 24. Ibid., 142. 25. Ibid., 144. 26. Ibid., 144–145 27. Ibid., 132. 28. Ibid., 153. 29. Ibid., 132. 30. Ibid., 144. 31. Peggy Golde, Women in the Field (1970), 93. 32. Abu-Lughod, 143. 33. Judith Stacey, “Can There Be a Feminist Ethnography?” (1991), 114. 34. Visweswaran, “Betrayal: An Analysis in Three Acts,” in Fictions of Feminist Ethnography (1994), 40–59. 35. Vandana Shiva in “The Shape of Water,” a documentary directed by Kum Kum Bhavnani and narration by Susan Sarandon, 2007. 240 Notes

Three “When I Say We, I Don’t Mean Me”: Neoliberal Bureaucracy and Techniques of National Governance

1. Through the course of this book, I refer to my respondents not by their real names but by the initials of their first and last names. By using initials rather than names, I attempt to negotiate a possible refusal by the respondent to be that, that subject with that name, on one hand, and the possible accep- tance of that, that subject with those initials, as if secretively (I know I am that name but you, the reader, don’t), on the other hand. This is, I admit, my narrative strategy for this book precisely because I see the respondents as “characters” playing particular roles in this ethnographic performance I have set up. They are then as real as they are fictional characters. I say “fictional” because the roles these characters play and the words they utter are temporally specific. This means that in a different setting and in a different time, the same characters may not utter the same words or may revise them unrecognizably. By assigning such characters initials, I recognize that they were different characters then (2002–2003) performing a different set of roles than they might today (2010). 2. See Akhil Gupta and James Ferguson, “Spatializing States: Towards an Ethnography of Neoliberal Governmentality” (American Ethnologist v. 29, n. 4, 2002), 981–1002. 3. Gupta and Ferguson (2002), 982–983. 4. Ibid., 983–984. 5. Ibid., 985. 6. Kevin Ward and Kim England, Neoliberalization: States, Networks, Peoples (London: Wiley-Blackwell, 2007), p. 277. 7. A. Amin, “Regions Unbound: Towards a New Politics of Place,” Geografiska Anhalar, Series B 86B (1), 2004: 33–44. 8. Carey A. Watt, “Education for National Efficiency: Constructive Nationalism in North India, 1909–1916.” Modern Asian Studies 31–32 (May 1997), 339–374. 9. Watt (1997), 340. 10. Zoya Hasan, Politics of Inclusion: Castes, Minorities, and Affirmative Action (London, New York, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2009). 11. Hasan, 2009. 12. Ibid. (2009), 85–89; and Partha Chatterjee, Politic s of the Gove r n ed : Popul ar Politics in Most of the World (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004). The Second Backward Classes Commission instituted on December 20, 1978 during the regime of Janata Party. The commission headed by Bindeshwari Prasad Mandal, former chief minister of Bihar, recommended a reservation of 27 percent for OBCs, which was in addition to the 22.5 percent posts for SCs and STs already reserved in all the services and public sector under- takings (Hasan, 87). But the Congress was in power when the commission submitted its report in 1980 and refused to act on the report. Neither Indira Gandhi (till 1985) nor Rajiv Gandhi (after 1985) did anything with the Notes 241

report. It was V. P. Singh’s coalition government in 1990 that went forth and implemented the report, forever changing the social and political landscape relative to caste or as Rao says, “Mandal was the transformative motive in the new national politics of caste” (Anupama Rao, Gender and Caste, 9). Violence and self-immolation followed in its wake. The upper castes were upset over caste as the determining factor in government employment. But they were more upset with what caste-based reservations would do to the upper-caste dominance in every sector of civil society. Upper caste students in particular feared losing their entitlements, especially regarding employment (even though the total number of jobs involved were only 15,000 a year— but given that jobs in proportion to eligible graduates were few, especially in the government, such a backlash was expected). The commission report was implemented despite protests and through an executive order (rather through legislation—which requires it to be tabled and voted on to be passed or rejected). V.P. Singh called the implementation “a momentous decision of social justice” (Rochna Bajpai, Debating Difference: Minority Rights and Liberal Democracy in India, New Delhi, London: Oxford University Press, 2010). Social justice meant power sharing, not economic welfare. It meant OBCs sharing in the state power, the stronghold of upper castes, and eventu- ally succeeding in breaking the latter’s monopoly in every sector of the state. The decision then to implement the Mandal Commission report was a political one that was directed against the Congress and its upper-caste elitist leadership. So the Mandal Commission was different from the Constituent Assembly debates regarding backwardness—it was very clear on caste as the determinant of backwardness, and backwardness of individuals and groups is not just economic but born of social and political powerlessness. The commission was about giving those powerless in the caste hierarchy access of state power as never before. Empowerment of the lower castes, according to the commission, was the only way to a just society (89). 13. Indian Express, 2006. 14. See chapter 1 for a discussion of the four worldwide conferences on women and development in the 1990s that framed the woman question in terms of education and empowerment. 15. Hasan (2009), 23–37. 16. The minorities in India are granted the following rights: Article 14—equality before law; Article 15—prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth, Article 16—equality of opportunity, Article 25—freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propa- gation of religion, Article 30—right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions, to name a few, in Hasan (2009), 37. 17. Hasan (2009), 19. 18. Ibid., 25. 19. Congress leader Shiban Lal Saxena said it best in 1947: “we consider the SC’s as belonging to Hindus, they are not a minority, they have always formed part of us.” Hasan (2009), 31. 20. Partha Chatterjee, “Nationalist Resolution of the Woman Question,” 1988. 242 Notes

21. Partha Chatterjee, The Nation and its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993). 22. See Anupama Rao, “Introduction,” Gender and Caste: Issues in Contemporary Feminism, ed. Anupama Rao (New York: Zed Books, 2005). 23. The Human Rights Watch Report (1999) “Broken People: Caste Violence against India’s Untouchable,” for example, focused international and public attention on how dalit subjectivities in India have been historically shaped by institutionalized forms and practices of violence. In 2001 (August 21–Sep- tember 7) the U.N. Conference Against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia, and Related Intolerance in South Africa again foregrounded the problem of institutionalized marginalization and of state practices that continue to sustain such a condition. These conferences and reports amongst others gave cause to dalits in India to connect their political activism for social justice to the transnational discourses of human rights and in this way attempt to make the Indian state accountable for its acts of omission and commission toward dalits in India. See Anupama Rao, “Introduction,” p. 12. 24. Mary E. John as quoted in Rao (1995), 10. 25. Gupta and Ferguson, 985. 26. Chatterjee, Fragments of a Nation (1993), 154. 27. Ibid., 15. 28. World Bank Development Report (1995), 46. 29. Ibid. 30. See http://www.culturalpolicies.net/web/netherlands.php?aid=4210 for a summary of the emancipation policy. 31. Nikolas Rose, “Governing ‘Advanced’ Liberal Democracies,” in Foucault and Political Reason: Liberalism, Neoliberalism, and Rationalities of Government, Andrew Barry et al. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), 43. 32. Jamie Peck and Adam Tickell, “Neoliberalizing Spaces,” in Spaces of Neoliberalization in North America and Western Europe, eds. N. Brenner and N. Theodore (Oxford: Blackwell Press, 2002), 33–57. 33. Jamie Peck, “Neoliberalizing States: Thin Policies, Hard Outcomes,” Progress in Human Geography, 25 (3), 2001a, 446. 34. Kudwa, 1996. 35. See Larner, “Neoliberalism: Policy, Ideology, and Governmentality,” Studies in Political Economy, 63 (1), 5–26. 36. See Gordon, “Governmental Rationality: An Introduction,” In G. Burchell et al., The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 1–52. 37. Graham Burchell (1993), 270–271. 38. See Rose, “Governing ‘Advanced’ Liberal Democracies” (1996), 57. 39. Sethi (1993), 80; and S. Akbar Zaidi “NGO Failure and the Need to Bring Back the State” (Journal of International Development, Karachi, Pakistan, December 11, 1999), 259–271. 40. Gabriella Turnaturi (translated by Lydia G. Cochrane). Betrayals: The Unpredictability of Human Relation s (Chicago, London: University of Chicago Press, 2007), 16–17. Notes 243

41. Turnaturi, 11. 42. Ibid., 9. 43. See Turnaturi, 106 and Niccolo Machiavelli, Chapter viii “Of Those Who Have Attained the Position of Prince through Villainy,” in Prince and Discourses, Machiavelli (Columbus, OH: McGraw-Hill, 1950), 31–35. 44. Turnaturi, 108. 45. Ibid., 109. 46. See Rose, “Governing ‘Advanced’ Liberal Democracies” (1996), 54–57. 47. Ibid. 48. Ibid., 39. 49. Ibid. 50. Ibid., 40. 51. Ibid. 52. See Partha Chatterjee, “The Moment of Arrival: Nehru and the Passive Revolution,” in Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World: A Derivative Discourse, Partha Chatterjee (New York: United Nations University, 1986), 131–166. 53. Rose, 40. 54. Ibid. 55. Das, 2001. 56. Misra, 1996. 57. World Bank Development Report, 1995. 58. Rose, 41. 59. Rose and Miller (1992), 179. 60. Rose, 42. 61. Ibid., 40–41. 62. Ibid., 54. 63. Ibid., 57. 64. Ibid. 65. Ibid., 59. 66. Ibid. 67. Barbara Cruikshank, “Revolutions Within: Self-government and Self- esteem,” in Foucault and Political Reason: Liberalism, Neoliberalism, and Rationalities of Government, Andrew Barry et al. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), 233. 68. Rose, 59.

Four “We Have to Move from Conceptualization to Operationalization”: (Un)Easy Relationships between State and Feminism

1. Neema Kudwa (1996) uses the phrase “uneasy partnerships” with respect to state-NGO sector relations in India since 1947. I find this phrase useful for describing the state-feminism relations in India since 1947. 244 Notes

2. Radha Kumar, History of Doing: An Illustrated Account of Movements for Women’s Rights and Feminism in India (1880–1990) (London, New York: Verso, 1993), 97–114. 3. Ibid. 4. Ibid. 5. See Basu, 1990, E. John, 1999. 6. See Denise Riley, “Am I That Name?” Feminism and the Category of “Woman” in History (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988), 49. 7. Neema Kudwa, “Uneasy Partnerships? Government-NGO Relations in India” (Working Paper 673, June 1996), 1–45. 8. Graham Burchell, “Liberal Government and Techniques of Self,” in Foucault and Political Reason: Liberalism, Neoliberalism, and Rationalities of Government, Andrew Barry et al. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), 27. 9. Burchell, 27. 10. Nikolas Rose (1996) 57. 11. Rose, 58. 12. James Ferguson, The Anti-Politics Machine: “Development,” Depoliticization and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho (Minneapolis: Minnesota University Press, 1994), 275–277. 13. Rose, 59. 14. Ibid. 15. Nikolas Rose, “Governing ‘Advanced’ Liberal Democracies” (1996), 54. 16. Gopal Guru, “Dalit Women Talk Differently” (Economic and Political Weekly, October 14–21, 1995), 2548–2550. 17. Also see Anupama Rao, “Introduction,” Gender and Caste: Issues in Contemporary Feminism, New York: Zed Books (2005), for a critique of Indian feminism. 18. See Sucheta Mazumdar, “Women on the March: Right Wing Mobilization in Contemporary India,” in Feminist Review, no. 49 (1993). 19. See Aparna Basu, “Feminism and Nationalism in India, 1917–1947” (Journal of Women’s History, 7–4, Winter), 95–107. 20. Mary E. John, Discrepant Dislocations: Feminism, Theory, and Post- colonial Histories (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), 143. 21. John, 142–143. 22. James Ferguson, The Anti-Politics Machine: “Development,” Depoliticization and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho (Minneapolis: Minnesota University Press, 1994), 275–277. 23. Burchell, 29. 24. Rose, 54–55. 25. See section C: Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA) (Planning Commission Report, Delhi), 71–75, electronic version available at: http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/sereport/ser/maker/ mak_cht2c.pdf 26. Ibid. Notes 245

27. Ibid. 28. Ibid. 29. Ibid. 30. Maitreyi Das, “The Women’s Development Program in Rajasthan: A Case Study in Group Formation for Women’s Development,” Policy Research Working Papers, no. 913, Population and Human Resources Department, The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1992, 94. 31. Ibid. 32. Maya Unnithan and Kavita Srivastava, “Gender Politics, Development, and Women’s Agency in Rajasthan,” in Grillo, R.D., Stirrat, R.L. Discourses of Development: Anthropological Perspectives (Oxford, New York: Berg Publishers, 1997), 157–182. 33. Ibid. 34. Barbara Cruikshank, The Will to Empower, 49. 35. Graham Burchell, “Liberal Government and Techniques of Self” (1996), 26. 36. Ibid. 37. The total money available annually was 30 million Dutch guilders. “Together We Are Powerful” (Indo-Dutch Report on Mahila Samakhya Program, 1997), 29. 38. In “Together We Are Powerful,” pages 22–40 are devoted entirely to financial management. The section begins with the observation that “the system for preparing the financial estimates within the Mahila Samakhya program does not fully correspond to the principles of budgeting, being the translation of strategy planning into financial terms. Moreover, the budgetary control also somewhat lacks the power of feedback relevant for management actions” (33). The Report then goes on to make a set of recommendations for improved financial management of the program, such as “more clarity regarding financial roles and responsibilities at different levels” and greater “transparency of procedures and requirements regarding expenditure and release of funds.” To this end, the report sug- gests more training for all levels of the administration of the program (35). The report also recommends a “more conscious and close monitoring” of utilization of funds related to implementation of planned activities (34). The report commends the program for “standardization of financial pro- cesses” such as the accounting system that shows “systematically prepared cash books, balances, ledgers, book of vouchers, annual plans, and annual reports etc.” However, it wants to see more of such information “processed into information relevant for the sound management of the programme” (34). The report also recommends that “budget plans should be visible” and that “each participant in Mahila Samakhya should be informed about his/her responsibility within the budgetary planning” (36). The program, the report argues, needs to do more realistic planning for the next fis- cal year and in order to do so it needs to conduct an “in-depth analysis of the current status of the Mahila Samakhya Programme, its plans and its actual outcome” (36). These are just a few recommendations that the 246 Notes

report makes in this section on financial management. So the characteriza- tion of the program budget as “open-ended” is deceptive. It is accompanied by what Nikolas Rose (1996) has called “calculative regimes of accounting and financial management” where implementation of the program and its management structures are brought under intense scrutiny through such means as “budget discipline, accountancy, and audit” (54). The report then not only abides by the neoliberal diktat, it also lists means through which such a diktat might be realized by local administrators and subjects in smaller places. 39. See Bina Aggarwal, Mechanization in Indian Agriculture (New Delhi: Allied Publishers, 1983); and Structures of Patriarchy: State, Community, and Household in Modernizing Asia (London: Zed Books, 1988). 40. Kudwa, 12. 41. Ibid. 42. Kudwa, 1996; Chatterjee, 2007. 43. Kudwa, 14. 44. Ibid. 45. Ibid., 15. 46. Ibid., 15–16. 47. Rose, 42. 48. Ibid. 49. Ibid. 50. Ibid., 43. 51. Ibid. 52. Graham Burchell, “Liberal Government and Techniques of Self,” 21–22. 53. Donzelot, 1984 as quoted in Burchell (1996), 27. 54. Steven Lukes as quoted in Cruikshank (1999), 32–33. 55. Ibid. 56. The Green Revolution in India occurred in 1969. It refers to technologization of agriculture along the lines of Norma Borlaug’s (recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1970) experiments in genetic engineering of wheat and rice crops that allegedly increased production of both dramatically and in half the time it took the natural crop to grow. India undertook its own revolution to resolve the problem of food scarcity in the 1960s (see Shubhra Sharma, “Green Revolution and Women’s Participation in Agriculture,” M.Phil dissertation, JNU, 1995, unpublished). Another name for the White Revolution is “Operation Flood” whose main architect was Verghese Kurien, a scientist who modernized cooperative milk production and dis- tribution in India in the 1970s. His efforts made India the largest producer of milk in the world in the 1970s. Kurien was the managing director of Gujarat Co-operative Milk Marketing Federation Ltd. that also manages the Amul brand that in 2006–2007 had a revenue of about $1billion (see Verghese Kurien and Gouri Salvi, I Too Had a Dream (New Delhi: Roli Books, 2005), 1–264. 57. Foucault, 1989, “How Much Does It Cost Reason to Tell the Truth,” See Lotringer (1989), 233–256. 58. See Rose (1996), 47. 59. Ibid. Notes 247

Five “Empowerment Was Never Conceptualized as Entitlement”: Problems in Operationalizing a “Feminist” Program

1. Report of the Planning Commission (RPC) (1999), 71–75 (see http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/sereport/ser/maker/mak_cht2c.pdf). 2. Ibid. 3. Report of the Planning Commission (1999), 73. 4. Ibid. 5. bell hooks, Feminism Is for Everybody: Passionate Politics (Cambridge, MA: Southend Press, 2000), 20. 6. Radha Kumar, The History of Doing, 106. 7. Shulamit Reinharz, Feminist Methods in Social Science Research (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 51. 8. Georg Simmel as quoted in Shulamit Reinharz, Feminist Methods in Social Science Research (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 289. 9. Irene Dabrowski, “Developmental Job Patterns of Working-class Women” (Qualitative Sociology, 6, 1983), 29–50. 10. Laura Bohanan, a.k.a Elenore Smith Bowen, Return to Laughter: An Anthropological Novel (New York: Double Day Publishers, 1954/1964). 11. Peggy Golde, “Odyssey of Encounter,” in Women in the Field: Anthropological Experiences, Peggy Golde, ed. (Chicago: Aldine, 1970), 67–96 12. Louis Easterday, Diana Papademas, Laura Schorr, and Catherine Valentine, “The Making of a Female Researcher: Role Problems in Fieldwork” (Urban Life, 6, 1977), 333–348. 13. Biopolitics, argues Aihwa Ong in channeling Foucault, refers to a “series of regulatory controls exerted on the population and on individuals in order to harness and extract life forces,” Aihwa Ong, “Neoliberalism as Exception, Exception as Neoliberalism,” in Neoliberal as Exception: Mutations in Citizenship and Sovereignty, Aihwa Ong (North Carolina: Duke University Press, 2006), 13. 14. Shulamit Reinharz, Feminist Methods in Social Research, 1983; Karen McCarthy Brown, “On Feminist Methodology” (Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion 1, 1985), 76–79; Sheryl Ruzek, The Women’s Health Movement: Feminist Alternatives to Medical Control (New York: Praeger, 1978). 15. Judy Wajcman, Women in Control: Dilemmas of a Workers’ Co-operative (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1983), xi. 16. Reinharz, Feminist Methods in Social Science Research, 55. 17. Karen Brown, “On Feminist Methodology,” 69. 18. Judith Stacey, “Can There Be a Feminist Ethnography?” in Women’s Worlds: The Feminist Practice of Oral History, eds. S. Gluck and D. Patai (1991), 111–119. 19. Kamala Visweswaran. Fictions of Feminist Ethnography (Minneapolis, London: Minnesota University Press, 1994), 1–203. 248 Notes

20. Aihwa Ong, Neoliberalism as Exception, 13. 21. T.H Marshall as quoted in Ong, 15. 22. Kamala Visweswaran, Fictions of Feminist Ethnography, 100. 23. Ibid. 24. As quoted by Laura Nader, “From Anguish to Exultation,” 115. 25. See Visweswaran, Chapter 6, “Feminist Ethnography as Failure,” in, Fictions of Feminist Ethnography , Kamala Visweswaran (1994), 95–113 26. Linda Kent, “Fieldwork That Failed.” In Philip de Vita, The Naked Anthropologist (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Press, 1992), 23. 27. Barbara Cruikshank, “Revolutions Within: Self-government and Self- esteem,” in Foucault and Political Reason: Liberalism, Neoliberalism, and Rationalities of Government, Andrew Barry et al. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), 241. 28. De Tocqueville as quoted in Barbara Cruikshank, “Revolutions Within” (1996), 241. 29. Ibid., 242–243. 30. Nivedita Menon, “Women and Citizenship,” in Wages of Freedom: Fifty Years of Indian Nation-State, ed. Partha Chatterjee (New York, New Delhi, London: Oxford University Press, 1998), 243. 31. Ibid. 32. Radha Kumar, History of Doing (1996), 103. 33. Ibid. 34. Ibid. 35. Dana Broft et al., “Together We Are Powerful: Voices from the Mahila Sanghas,” Report of the Indo-Dutch Evaluation of the Mahila Samakhya Programme. (The Hague: July 1997), 10. 36. Ibid., 9. 37. Ibid., 22. 38. Nikolas Rose, “Governing ‘Advanced’ Liberal Democracies,” 59. 39. Barbara Cruikshank as quoted in Nikolas Rose, “Governing ‘Advanced’ Liberal Democracies” (1996), 60. 40. Monique Deveaux, “Feminism and Empowerment: A Critical Reading of Foucault.” Feminist Studies 20–22 (1994), 225. 41. As quoted in Deveaux, 231. 42. Deveaux, 232. 43. Patricia Hills Collins as quoted in Deveaux, 224. 44. Deveaux, 233. 45. As quoted in Deveaux, 224. 46. Leela Dube, “Caste and Women.” In Anupama Rao, ed. Gender and Caste: Issues in Contemporary Feminism (New York: Zed Books, 2005), 241. 47. Dube, 241. 48. See online report on swashakti program: http://vanbandhukalyanyojana. gujarat.gov.in/Swashakti%20publications/GENDER%20SWASHAKTI. pdf—pp. 4–7. 49. Ibid. 50. “National Consultation on Gender and Education Policy”: May 31–June 1, 2001—Meeting Notes, 12. Notes 249

51. “Rapid ethnography” has the same “data collection aims and methods” as a classic ethnography but operates under time constraints in the cor- porate world. Rapid ethnography is not about “go there, stay there, long enough to be a competent witness to and participant in a culture,” but about “breaking up into smaller pieces” “a long-term engagement” with the field and its constituents. So a rapid ethnography is “not seen as a substitute for long-term engagement” with the field but to use incoming, short-term data to make confident projections about the field. Rapid ethnography, unlike classic ethnography, “needs team-involvement, including multi-disciplinary specialists and ‘insiders,’ ” even though the method of data collection in ethnography—open-ending interviewing and participant observation—remains intact. See Edward Leibow, “Rapid Ethnography in Evaluation.” Power Point Presentation, Summer Evaluation Institute (June 2008), 7–8. See http://www.eval.org/SummerInstitute08/08SIHandouts/ Uploaded/aea08.si.liebow1.pdf 52. I spent a day in Biyur village, Chitrakoot district, Uttar Pradesh, in order to observe a meeting, an evaluation meeting, between the NGO workers and the SHG women (2003). Following are some of my detailed impressions drawn from the questionnaires, completed on behalf of the women in Biyur by the NGO workers based in Karwi and my field-level observations. 1. Women are not able calculate the interest on loans. 2. Women have some idea of individual savings, but not of the group savings 3. The process of lending is not clear nor is the questions as to when people take loans, if at all. 4. The mediator does not know how to mediate or how to understand the problems that arise from the collective regarding bachat (savings). Tensions persist regarding the feasibility and effectiveness of savings. Some want to end the scheme because they do not see any fayadaa (profit/ benefit) in it. In addition, they do not see the possibility of a secure future in saving money every month. Others want to continue with it for unspec- ified and unforeseen needs that may arise. 5. It is assumed that women know the rules of bachat, yet they also claim to have forgotten them. Group leadership is relegated to going to the bank for bachat. Members also are concerned with the details of their bachat. 6. The role of each member is not clear. They do not want to be involved beyond the point of saving and depositing their amounts. 7. The dependency relationship with the local NGO is highlighted. A dependency relationship here means that, to solve problems of recording the meetings, disputes over savings and over how much money is given away for karz (loan/debt), or even to improve the dynamics between group members, the local NGO is seen as key. The group’s own thinking on the nature of the group dynamics and on improving it is interrupted by knowing that this job is the local NGO’s, not theirs. This “comfort zone” then removes members from a sense of ownership about the group. 8. Sometimes there is punishment prescribed for not returning the karz on time, although the nature or extent of the punishment is not clear. Another striking revelation in the questionnaires is the response to the 250 Notes

question “what are the different tarikaas [ways] to return the karz (loan/ debt)?” In some places, the responses are listed as “selling the house, things in the house, khetii [agricultural land], or son’s expected savings on his return.” Reviewers seemed taken aback by these responses when they were asked to comment. Their explanation was that such situations have not arisen and such possibilities only exist as such. But again, there is a need to examine why such possibilities are entertained, what their consequences, if realized, may be on women and their families, and why (if at all) such possibilities run counter to the idea of bachat and its cel- ebration as an empowering tool. 9. Mobility regarding the bachat is restricted to the core members and leaders. This may easily be their role, not the other members’ to perform, but we also need to understand the reasons that members give for not accom- panying the leaders to the bank, even if just to see where the bank is and understand its various procedures. For example, if one of the reasons for women not going to the bank is that they do not get permission to do so from their family, then one needs not only to examine the familial resistance to such mobility but also identify instances where women do not customarily ask for permission to work, such as in the case of getting wood or taking the animals for chara (fodder). Such instances may then provide ideas for how group ownership can be experienced. In Biyur, for example, the women linked education to women’s mobility, using the reviewers as the classic examples. “See, you are educated and therefore can come and go everywhere without hesitation. We do not have that luxury.” This equation also seems to conflate knowing (the world) and decision making (about mobility through and between different social spaces and norms). But this was not paid heed to by the NGO and the reviewers. 10. Among the reviewers, literacy is not considered critical to leadership. The argument is that, in groups headed by MSK girls and women, leadership in terms of vision for the group and taking up village-level issues is lacking. As such, education is not equal to leadership. But then the opposite is also not visible in Biyur. Illiterate women, who predominate in the collectives also have not shown remarkable leadership in creating and sustaining their groups. 11. In the group in Biyur, there appears to be confusion about terms such as fayadaa (profit) and “meeting.” One woman said that, through bachat, she had hoped to get a free rickshaa or even a tempo (a three-wheeler). Another woman said that the idea of a free rickshaa was replaced by the assertion that bachat money could be used to buy a rickshaa and then the money is returned at a lesser rate of interest than that initially set by the moneylender. The other assumed fayadaa of doing bachat seemed like an incentive provided by the local NGO. Some women had thought that they would get a tankii (water tank or reservoir) if they adopted the bachat scheme and, since then, have wondered why the tankii has not yet been built. While the reviewers corrected this assumption as merely an assumption, it still warrants the question of why the idea of laabh or fayadaa has been external to the idea and essence of the group and its bachat Notes 251

activities. Do the group members not understand the consequences of the bachat or even the possibilities it provides to increase economic well-being? Why, in the case of one woman member in Biyur, is laabh a counterfactual or why would the fayadaa of bachat ultimately be not in the economic activities it generates, but in the fact that women had finally saved money in the bank and had passbooks to prove this? 12. The reviewers seemed a little unclear about how they were progressing with bachat in their field, previously occupied by swa-shakti, a self-help scheme of the government of India. They seemed to see their model as different from the swa-shakti model, primarily in terms of their model as non-governmental. Yet what constitutes the difference in terms of the components of the model was not made clear in the conversation. If this is a lack of clarity, then this needs to be corrected before evaluations are used to promote certain groups, and not others, or even before talks of federating the groups are operationalized. 53. Barbara Cruikshank, The Will to Empower (1999). 54. Vivienne Jabri. “Feminist Ethics and Hegemonic Global Politics” (Alternatives, v. 29, n. 3, 2004), 265–284.

Six “Empowerment Should Be Collective”: Four “Truth-Tales”

1. Suketu Mehta, Maximum City: Bombay Lost and Found (2004), 473. 2. Barbara Cruikshank (1999) identifies as citizen subject one who is formally free but whose freedom is a condition of the operationalizing of power. I extend this definition to say that power in its operationalization modifies, even denies, this subject’s newfound freedom to act as a citizen, to articulate her thoughts against the dominant political discourse of rules of subjectification or who can be a subject and how must subjects act, behave, and speak. I contend that an erstwhile subject is a subject twice over of power in the case of MS or never a citizen. (The Will to Empower, 22) 3. bell hooks, Feminism Is for Everybody: Passionate Politics (Cambridge, MA: Southend Press, 2000). 4. This is the title of a collection of stories by women writers of India, edited by Kali for Women (1996). These are “truth-tales” because “each story is strongly individual” and each individual character in the “fictive stories” tell real-life stories of women “individually responding to common predica- ments” and defining themselves precisely in this way. I find the title and this explanation appropriate for my ethnography. 5. Julie Stephens, “Feminist Fictions: A Critique of the Category ‘Non-Western Woman’ in Feminist Writings on India,” in Subaltern Studies No. ,6 Writings on South Asian History and Society, ed. Ranjit Guha (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1989), 112 and 118. 6. I borrow this articulation from Majid Siddiqui in “The Subaltern Speaks: A Review of Viramma,” Viramma: Life of a Dalit by Viramma By Josiane Racine and Jean-Luc Racine (New Delhi: Verso, 1997). 252 Notes

7. Many Bollywood films through the 1970s and the 1980s played and replayed the “return of the prodigal son,” one whose return to the nation or family writ large erases the trauma and betrayal of his exit. His return is celebrated for this means he remains faithful to the nation and to its projects. He only returns because the nation is calling and he answers such a call. My father has often explained his two reasons for returning from a “great” job and a “great” lifestyle in Germany in the late 1960s: his ailing mother and “mother” India who needed engineer sons like him to carry out the promises of a modernizing, newly independent nation-state. 8. See Partha Chatterjee, “The Nationalist Resolution of the Woman Question,” Occasional Paper, no. 94, Center for Studies in Social Sciences, Calcutta, 1988. 9. Manish Jain, “Making Citizen(s) and/of the Nation Through the Curriculum” (Department of Education, University of Delhi, Unpublished Paper), 15. 10. Ibid. 11. Ibid. 12. Ibid., 18. 13. NCERT, “National Curricular Framework for Elementary and Secondary Education,” Delhi (2000), Chapter VIII, 12. 14. Ibid. 15. Ibid. 16. Jain, 34. 17. Ibid., 40–41. 18. Ibid., 14. 19. The 1980s marked the scandal of the state that ranged from charges of high-level corruption, curbing the freedom of the press, curbing rights of minority women through legislative acts, fueling community-based religious tensions through appeasement of a dominant community, a crippling balance of payment crisis, and most of all the absence of an ally in the Soviet Union that disbanded into its constituent republics in 1989. All this and more contributed to the collapse of the majority government in 1989 and new elections brought in an era of coalition governments at the center. Partha Chatterjee, ed. Wages of Freedom: Fifty Years of Indian Nation-State (New York, New Delhi, London: Oxford University Press 1998). 241–291; and Atul Kohli, Democracy and Development: Essay in State, Society, and Economy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009). 20. Jain, 15. 21. Ibid. 22. Ibid. 23. Ibid., 16. 24. See Bina Aggarwal, “Mechanization of Farm Operations: Choices and Implications, Study-based in Punjab,” Ph.D. Thesis, University of Delhi, 1977. 25. Ibid. 26. Jain, 15. 27. Abha Bhaiya and Kalyani Menon Sen, Knowledge Is Like Flowing Water: A Collection of Theme Papers from the Mahila Samakhya Programme (Delhi: Department of Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India, undated), 4. Notes 253

28. Ibid., 31. 29. Ibid. 30. Ibid., 32. 31. Ibid., 41. 32. Ibid., 50. 33. Ibid., 41. 34. Broft, Dana et al., “Together We Are Powerful: Voices from the Mahila Sanghas.” Report of the Indo-Dutch Evaluation of the Mahila Samakhya Programme (The Hague: July 1997), 13. 35. Ibid. 36. Ibid., 14. 37. Ibid. 38. Ibid. 39. “Mahila Samakhya U.P—Our Achievements” (2001), 9 40. Ibid., 1. 41. Aparna Basu, “Feminism and Nationalism in India, 1917–1947” Journal( of Women’s History, 7–4, Winter), 95. 42. Abha Bhaiya and Kalyani Menon-Sen, 32. 43. Julie Stephens, “Feminist Fictions,” 113. 44. Ibid., 114. 45. Monique Deveaux, “Feminism and Empowerment: A Critical Reading of Foucault.” Feminist Studies 20–22 (1994), 232. 46. Audre Lorde, The Uses of the Erotic: The Erotic as Power , Kr. Printers, 2000. 47. Patricia Hill Collins as quoted in Deveaux, 243. 48. hooks, 159. 49. Roy Bhaskar, 1979, as quoted in Maureen Cain, “Foucault, Feminism, and Feeling: What Foucault Can and Cannot Contribute to Feminist Epistemology,” in Up Against Foucault: Explorations of Some Tensions between Foucault and Feminism, ed. Caroline Ramazanoglu (New York: Routledge Press, 1993), 73–98. 50. Anaimuthu (1974) as quoted in V. Geetha, 184–188. 51. Ibid. 52. V. Geetha, 199. 53. Fatima Mernissi, Dreams of Trespass: Tales of a Harem Girlhood (Cambridge, MA: Perseus Books, 1994), 64. 54. See Suzanne Williams, Janet Seed, and Adelina Mwau, Oxfam Gender Training Manual, Oxford: Oxfam, 3–10. Also see, UNICEF, “Gender Equality and Empowerment of Women and Girls: A Policy Review, UNICEF Programme Committee” (1994). 55. Ibid. 56. Ibid., 146. 57. Ibid., 149, 153. 58. Ibid., 56. 59. J. Miller, “The Pathos of Novelty: Hannah Arendt’s Image of Freedom in the Modern World,” in Hannah Arendt and the Recovery of the Public World, ed. M. Hill (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1979). 60. Ibid., 215 and 51. 254 Notes

61. Arendt in Hill (1979), 310. 62. Ian Hunter, “Assembling the School,” in Foucault and Political Reason (1996), 158. 63. Ibid.. 64. Ibid. 65. Ibid., 159. 66. Ibid. 67. Ibid. 68. Barbara Cruikshank, “Revolutions Within” (1996), 234. 69. Foucault as quoted in Cruikshank, 234. 70. Cruikshank, 235. 71. Meena Alexander, ed. Truth Tales: Contemporary Tales from Women Writers in India, Delhi: Kali for Women (1986) 12. 72. Nikolas Rose, “Governing ‘Advanced’ Liberal Democracies,” in Foucault and Political Reason (1996), 57. 73. Ibid. 74. Ibid., 58. 75. Ibid., 59. 76. Ibid., 49. 77. Srilata Batliwala, “Taking Power out of Empowerment: An Experiential Account,” 2007, 9. 78. Ibid., 9. 79. Ibid. 80. Ibid. 81. Ibid. 82. Ibid. 83. Zoya Hasan, Politics of Inclusion (2009), 31. 84. See Ghose et al., “How Gujarat Genocide Affected Minority Women: Survivors Speak,” Fact finding by a Woman’s Panel, 2002. See digital version on, http://www.islamicawakening.com/viewarticle.php?articleID=923. 85. Ibid. Bibliography

Abu-Lughod, Lila. “Writing against Culture.” In Recapturing Anthropology: Working in the Present, edited by Richard G. Fox, 137–162. Santa Fe, CA: School of American Research Press, 1991. ———. “Fieldwork of a Dutiful Daughter.” In Arab Women in the Field, edited by S. Altorki and C. Fawzi El-Solh, 139–161. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1988. ———. “Can There Be a Feminist Ethnography?” Women and Performance: A Journal of Feminist Theory 5 (1990): 7–27. ———. Writing Women’s Worlds: Bedouin Stories. Berkeley: University of California Press. 1992. ———. “The Romance of Resistance: Tracing Transformations of Power through Bedouin Women.” American Ethnologist 17, 1 (1990): 41–55. Agar, Michael H. The Professional Stranger: An Informal Introduction to Ethnography. Boston: Academic Press. 1996. 1–251. Aggarwal, Bina. Mechanization in Indian Agriculture. New Delhi: Allied Publishers, 1983. ———. Structures of Patriarchy: State, Community, and Household in Modernizing Asia. London: Zed Books, 1988. Aggarwal, P. Exposing Bureaucracy: An Anatomy of the Bureaucrat. New Delhi: Manas Publications, 2002. Alexander, Meena. Truth Tales: Contemporary Tales from Women Writers of India. New Delhi: Kali for Women, 1986. Amin, A. “Regions Abound: Towards a New Politics of the Place.” Geografiska Anhalar, Series B 86 B (1) (2004): 33–44. Anonymous. “National Consultation on Education for All.” New Delhi: National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration and Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. December 23, 2002. ———. “National Consultation on Gender and Education Policy.” New Delhi: Minutes of the Meeting, May 31–June 1, 2001. ———. “The Dakar Framework for Action Education for All: Meeting Our Collective Commitments Text Adopted by the World Education Forum.” Dakar, Senegal: April 26–28, 2000. Arendt, Hannah. Between Past and Future: Six Exercises in Politics Thought . London: Faber and Faber, 1961. Bajpai, Rochana. Debating Difference: Minority Rights and Liberal Democracy in India. New Delhi, London, New York: Oxford University Press, 2010. Bandyopadhyay, R. “Education for an Enlightened Society: A Review.” Economic and Political Weekly (February 16, 1991): 359–371. Basu, Aparna. “Feminism and Nationalism in India, 1917–1947.” Journal of Women’s History (7–4) winter 1995: 95–107. ———. “Women’s Education in India: Achievements and Challenges.” In From Independence towards Freedom: Indian Women Since 1947, edited by Bharati 256 Bibliography

Ray and Aparna Basu, 135–157. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 2006) Bhaiya, Abha and Kalyani Menon-Sen (eds.). Knowledge Is Like Flowing Water: A Collection of Theme Papers from the Mahila Samakhya Programme. New Delhi: Department of Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India, undated. Bhog, Dipta. “Education? Dream On, Women.” The Indian Express, May 10, 2003. Brennar, Neil and Nik Theodore. Spaces of Neoliberalism. Urban Restructuring in North America and Western Europe. London: Wiley-Blackwell, 2003. Bohanan, Laura a.k.a Elenore Smith Bowen, Return to Laughter: An Anthropological Novel. New York: Double Day Publishers. 1964. Bourdieu, Pierre. “Utopia of Endless Exploration: The Essence of Neoliberalism,” Le Monde Diplomatique, December (1998). Broft, Dana, Leela Gulati, Vasanth Kannabiran, and Claudine Helleman. “Together We Are Powerful: Voices from the Mahila Sanghas.” Report of the Indo-Dutch Evaluation of the Mahila Samakhya Programme. The Hague: July 1997. Brown, Karen McCarthy. “On Feminist Methodology,” Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion 1 (1985): 76–79. Brunfiel, Elizabeth. The Economic Anthropology of the State . Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1994. Burchell, Graham. “Liberal Government and Techniques of Self.” In Foucault and Political Reason: Liberalism, Neoliberalism, and Rationalities of Government, edited by Andrew Barry, Thomas Osborne and Nikolas Rose, 19–36. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996. Cain, Maureen. “Foucault, Feminism and Feeling: What Foucault Can and Cannot Contribute to Feminist Epistemology,” In Up Against Foucault: Explorations of Some Tensions between Foucault and Feminism, edited by Caroline Ramazanoglu, 73–98. New York: Routledge Press, 1993. Cesara, Manda. Reflections of a Woman Anthropologist: No Hiding Place, New York: Academic Press, 1982. Chanana, Karuna. Socialisation, Women, and Education: Explorations in Gender Identity. New Delhi: Orient-Longman, 1988. Chatterjee, Partha. “The Moment of Manoeuvre: Gandhi and the Critique of Civil Society.” In Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World: A Derivative Discourse, by Partha Chatterjee, 85–131. New York: United Nations University, 1986. ———. “The Moment of Arrival: Nehru and the Passive Revolution.” In Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World: A Derivative Discourse, by Partha Chatterjee, 131–166. New York: United Nations University, 1986. ———. “The Nation and Its Women: The Paradox of the Women’s Question.” In The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories, by Partha Chatterjee, 116–134. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993. ———. “The Nationalist Resolution of the Woman Question,” Occasional Paper, no. 94, Calcutta: Center for Studies in Social Sciences, 1988. ———. Politics of the Governed: Popular Politics in Most of the World. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2009. Bibliography 257

Cruikshank, Barbara. The Will to Empower: Democratic Citizens and Other Subjects. Ithaca, London: Cornell University Press, 1999. ———. “Revolutions Within: Self-government and Self-esteem.” In Foucault and Political Reason: Liberalism, Neoliberalism, and Rationalities of Government, edited by Andrew Barry, Thomas Osborne and Nikolas Rose, 231–252. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996. Dabrowski, Irene. “Developmental Job Patterns of Working-class Women,” Qualitative Sociology, 6 (1983): 29–50. Das, Maitreyi. “The Women’s Development Program in Rajasthan: A Case Study in Group Formation for Women’s Development,” Policy Research Working Papers, no. 913, Population and Human Resources Department. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1992/94. Das, S.K. Public Office, Private Interest: Bureaucracy and Corruption in India. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986. De Estoile, Benoit and Frederico G. Neiberg. Empires, Nations, and Natives: Anthropology and State-Making. Durham: Duke University Press, 2005. Deveaux, Monique. “Feminism and Empowerment: A Critical Reading of Foucault.” Feminist Studies 20, 2 (1994): 223–247. Dhareshwar, Vivek. “Our Time: History, Sovereignty and Politics.” Economic and Political Weekly (1995): 317–324. Dickson, John. The Government of India Under Bureaucracy. New Delhi: General Books, 2009. Dietrich, Gabriele. “Dalit Movements and Women’s Movements.” In Reflections on the Women’s Movement: Religion, Ecology, Development, by Gabriele Dietrich, 73–93. New Delhi: Horizon India, 1992. Dube, Leela. “Caste and Women.” In Gender and Caste: Issues in Contemporary Feminism, edited by Anupama Rao, 223–245. New York: Zed Books, 2005. Dwyer, Kevin. “On the Dialogic of Fieldwork.” Dialectical Anthropology, 2, 1 (January 1997): 143–151. Dyck, Noel and James B. Waddran. Anthropology, Public Policy, and Native Peoples in Canada. Montreal, Buffalo: McGill-Queens University Press, 1993. Edelman, Marc and Angelique Haugerud. The Anthropology of Development and Globalization: From Classic Political Economy to Contemporary Neoliberalism. London: Wiley-Blackwell, 2005. England, Kim and Kevin Ward. “Introduction: Reading Neoliberalization.” In Neoliberalization: States, Networks, Peoples , edited by Kim England and Kevin Ward, 2–22. London: Blackwell, 2007. ———. “Neoliberalizing the Grassroots? Microfinance and the Politics of Development in Nepal.” In Neoliberalization: States, Networks, Peoples, edited by Kim England and Kevin Ward, 24–51. London: Blackwell, 2007. Ferguson, James. The Anti-Politics Machine: “Development,” Depoliticization and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho. Minneapolis: Minnesota University Press, 1994. Ferguson, James and Gupta, Akhil. “Spatializing States: Towards an Ethnography of Neoliberal Governmentality.” American Ethnologist 29 (4) (2002): 981–1002. Fernando, Jude L. Microfinance: Perils and Prospects. London, New York: Routledge Press, 2006. 258 Bibliography

Fernea, Elizabeth. Guests of the Sheikh: An Ethnography of an Iraqi Village. New York: Doubleday, 1965. Foucault, Michel. “Governmentality.” In The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality, edited by Graham Burchell, Colin Gordon, and Peter Miller, 87–104. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991. National Consultation on Gender and Education Policy: Minutes of the Meeting. New Delhi: May 31–June 1, 2001. Gandhi, Nandita, Nandita Shah. Issues at Stake: Theory and Practice in Contemporary Women’s Movement in India. New Delhi: South Asia Books, 1992. Geertz, Clifford. Interpretation of Cultures. New York: Basic Books, 1973. Golde, Peggy. “Odyssey of Encounter,” In Women in the Field: Anthropological Experiences, edited by Peggy Golde, 67–96. Chicago: Aldine, 1970. Ghose, Malini, Farah Naqvi, Sheeba George, Mari Thekaekara, Syeda Hameed, and Ruth Manorama. “How the Gujarat Genocide Affected Minority Women: Survivors Speak,” A Fact-Finding Panel Report, New Delhi, 2002. Guha, Ranajit and Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty (eds.). Selected Subaltern Studies. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1988. Guru, Gopal. “Dalit Women Talk Differently.” Economic and Political Weekly. October 14–21, 1995: (2548–2550). Hameed, Syeda Saiyidain. “Windows of Opportunity.” Communalism Combat (May 2001) (cover story). Haraway, Donna. “ ‘Situated Knowledges’: The Science Question in Feminism and the Privilege of Partial Perspective.” Feminist Studies 14 (1988): 575–599. Hasan, Zoya. Politics of Inclusion: Castes, Minorities, and Affirmative Action. London, New York, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2009. hooks, bell. Feminism Is for Everybody: Passionate Politics. New York: Southend Press, 2000. Humen, David and Arun Thankom. Microfinance: A Reader. London, New York: Routledge Press, 2009. Islam, Tazul. Microcredit and Poverty Alleviation. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publications, 2007. Jabri, Vivienne. “Feminist Ethics and Hegemonic Global Politics.” Alternatives, v. 29, n. 3 (2004): 265–284. Jacob-Koeger, Howard. Shortchanged: Life and Debt in the Fringe Economy. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler, 2005. Jain, Manish. “Making Citizen(s) and/of the Nation Through the Curriculum.” Department of Education. New Delhi: University of Delhi (Unpublished, Undated). Jeffery, Patricia and Roger Jeffery. Pop ul ation , Ge n d e r an d Politic s: De mog raphic Change in Rural India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. John, Mary E. Discrepant Dislocations: Feminism, Theory, and Post-colonial Histories. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996. Karlekar, Malvika. A Slow Transition from Womanhood to Personhood: Can Education Help? New Delhi: Center for Women’s Development Studies, 1989. Kearney, M. “The Local and the Global: The Anthropology of Globalization and Transnationalism.” Annual Review of Anthropology, 24 (1995): 547–565. Bibliography 259

Kent, Linda L. “Field Work That Failed.” In The Naked Anthropologist, edited by Philip de Vita, 17–25. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Press, 1992. Khandker, Shahidur. Fighting Poverty with Microcredit. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Kirschner, Suzanne R. “ ‘Then What Have I have to Do with Thee?’: On Identity, Fieldwork, and Ethnographic Knowledge.” Cultural Anthropology, 2, 2 (May 1987): 211–234. Kohli, Atul. Democracy and Development: Essay in State, Society, and Economy. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009. Kondo, Dorinne. “Dissolution and Reconstitution of Self: Implications for Anthropological Epistemology.” Cultural Anthropology 1 (1986): 74–96. Kowski, Francis Bart. Travelers, Immigrants, Inmates: Essays in Estrangement. London, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995. Kudwa, Neema. “Uneasy Partnerships? Government-NGO Relations in India.” Working Paper 673 (June 1996): 1–45. Kumar, Krishna. Political Agenda of Education: A Study of Nationalist and Colonialist Ideas. New Delhi, Newbury Park, CA: Sage University Press, 1991. Kumar, Nita. Friends, Brothers, Informants: Fieldwork Memoirs of Banaras. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1992. Kumar, Radha. History of Doing: An Illustrated Account of Movements for Women’s Rights and Feminism in India (1880–1990). London, New York: Verso, 1993. Latour, Bruno. We Have Never Been Modern. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993. ———. “The Powers of Association,” In Power, Action, and Belief: A New Sociology of Knowledge, edited by J. law, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1987. Leibow, Edward. “Rapid Ethnography in Evaluation.” Power Point Presentation, Summer Evaluation Institute, June 2008. Towards Equality: Report of the Committee on the Status of Women. New Delhi: Government of India, 1974. Lind, Amy. “Neoliberal Encounters: State Restructuring and the Institutionalization of Women’s Struggles for Survival.” In Gendered Paradoxes: Women’s Movements, State Restructuring, and Global Development in Equador , edited by Amy Lind, 69–92. Pennsylvania: Penn State Press, 2005. Ludden, David. “India’s Development Regime.” In Colonialism and Culture, edited by Nicholas Dirks, 247–288. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1992. Machiavelli, N. Prince and Discourses. McGray Hill Publications, 1950. Mahila Samakhya. “Uttar-Pradesh Mahila Niti.” Lucknow, UP: Mahila Samakhya, 2001. Majone, G. Evidence, Argument, and Persuasion in Policy Process. London: Yale University Press, 1989. Marcus, George E. “Ethnography in/of the World System: The Emergence of Multi-site Ethnography.” Annual Review of Anthropology 24 (1995): 95–117. Marcus, George E. and David Cushman. “Ethnographies as Texts,” Annual Review of Anthropology (1982): 25–61. 260 Bibliography

Frances Mascia-Lees, Patricia Sharpe, and Colleen Ballerino Cohen. “The Post- modernist Turn in Anthropology: Cautions from a Feminist Perspective.” Signs 15, 1 (Autumn 1989): 7–33. Mazumdar, Sucheta. “Women on the March: Right Wing Mobilization in Contemporary India,” Feminist Review (Feminist Politics: Colonial and Postcolonial Worlds), no. 49 (1993). Mazumdar, Vina and Agnihotri, Indu. “The Women’s Movement in India: Emergence of a New Perspective.” I n From Independence towards Freedom: Indian Women Since 1947 , edited by Bharati Ray and Aparna Basu, 221–238. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Menon, Nivedita. “Women and Citizenship.” In Wages of Freedom: Fifty Years of Indian Nation-State, edited by Partha Chatterjee, 241–291. New York, New Delhi, London: Oxford University Press, 1998. Mernissi, Fatima. Dreams of Trespass: Tales of a Harem Girlhood. Reading, MA: Perseus Books, 1994. Miller, J. “The Pathos of Novelty: Hannah Arendt’s Image of Freedom in the Modern World.” In Hannah Arendt and the Recovery of the Public World, edited by M. Hill, New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1979. Misra, B.B. History of Bureaucracy in India: 1947–1976. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986. Moon, Meenakshi. “We Too Have Made History.” Communalism Combat (May 2001) (cover story). Nader, Laura. “From Anguish to Exultation,” In Women in the Field, edited by Peggy Golde, 97–118. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970. Easterday, Louis, Diana Papademas, Laura Schorr, and Catherine Valentine. “The Making of a Female Researcher: Role Problems in Fieldwork,” Urban Life, 6: (1977): 333–348. Nag, Moni and Anrudh Jain. Female Primary Education and Fertility Reduction in India. New York: Population Council, 1995. Narayan, Kirin. “How Native Is the Native Anthropologist,” In Feminist Political Theory: A Reader, edited by Reina Lewis and Sara Mills, 285–305. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2002. Narayan, Uma. Dislocating Cultures: Identities, Traditions, and the Third World Feminism. New York, London: Routledge Press, 1997. Nigam, Aditya. “In Search of a Bourgeoisie: Dalit Politics Enters a New Phase.” Economic and Political Weekly (March 30, 2002): 1190–1193. Nirantar. Windows to the World: Developing a Participatory Curriculum for Rural Women. New Delhi, 1997. Nussbaum, Martha. Sex and Social Justice. London, New York, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999. Omvedt, Gail. “The Downtrodden among the Downtrodden: An Interview with a Dalit Agricultural Labourer.” In Gender and Caste, edited by Anupama Rao, 310–324. New York: Zed Books, 2007. Ong, Aihwa. “Graduated Sovereignty in South-East Asia.” Theory, Culture, and Society 17, 4 (2000): 55–75. ———. “Neoliberalism as Exception, Exception as Neoliberalism.” In Neoliberalism as Exception: Mutations in Citizenship and Sovereignty, by Aihwa Ong, 1–27. North Carolina: Duke University Press, 2006. Bibliography 261

Pandian, M.S.S. “On a Dalit Woman’s Testimonio.” Seminar 471 (1998): 53–56. Pandey, Balaji. “Post-independence Educational Development amongst Women in India,” Paper presented in the seminar on Women in Changing Society at the Center for Women’s Development Studies, University of Hyderabad, March 1987. Peck, Jamie and Adam Ticknell. “Neoliberalizing Spaces.” In Spaces of Neoliberalization, edited by Neil Brennar and Nik Theodore, 33–79. London: Wiley-Blackwell, 2003. Penner, Peter. Patronage Bureaucracy in North India. New Delhi: Chanakya Publications, 1986. Peters, Michael A. “Foucault, Neoliberalism and the Governance of Welfare.” In Post-structuralism, Marxism, and Neoliberalism: Between Theory and Politics, edited by Michael A. Peters, 73–95. New York: Rowman and Littlefield, 2001. ———. “D eleu z e’s ‘ S o cie t ie s of C ont rol’: From Dis cipl i n a r y Ped agog y to Per p e t u a l Training in the Knowledge Economy.” In Post-structuralism, Marxism, and Neoliberalism: Between Theory and Politics, edited by Michael A. Peters, 97–111. New York: Rowman and Littlefield, 2001. Rabinow, Paul. Reflections on Fieldwork in Morocco. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977. Raybeck, Douglas. “Getting below the Surface.” In The Naked Anthropologist, edited by Philip de Vita, 3–16. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Press, 1992. Rege, Sharmila. “A Dalit Feminist Standpoint.” Seminar 471 (November 1998): 47–52. Rehman, Aminur. Women and Microcredit in Rural Bangladesh: An Anthropological Study of the Rhetoric and Realities of Grameen Bank Lending . Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1999. Reinharz, Shulamit. Feminist Methods in Social Science Research. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989. ———. “Feminist Ethnography.” In Feminist Methods in Social Science Research by Shulamit Reinharz, 46–75. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992. Riley, Denise. “Am I That Name?” Feminism and the Category of ‘woman’ in History. Minneapolis: Minnesota University Press, 1988. Rose, Nikolas. “Governing ‘Advanced’ Liberal Democracies.” In Foucault and Political Reason: Liberalism, Neoliberalism, and Rationalities of Government, edited by Andrew Barry, Thomas Osborne and Nikolas Rose, 37–64. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996. Ruzek, Sheryl. The Women’s Health Movement: Feminist Alternatives to Medical Control, New York: Praeger, 1978. Scott, David. “Colonial Governmentality.” In Refashioning Futures: Criticism after Postcoloniality, by David Scott, 23–52. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999. Sen, Amartya and Jean Dreze. India: Development and Participation. London, New Delhi, New York: Oxford University Press, 1991/2002. Shinde, Tarabai (translated from Marathi by Maya Pandit). “Stri Purush Tulna” In Women Writing in India, 600 B.C. to Present, edited by Susie Tharu and K. Lalitha, 221–235. New York: Feminist Press, 1991. 262 Bibliography

Shore, Chris and Susan Wright. Anthropology of Policy: Perspectives on Governance and Power. New York: Routledge Press, 1997. Siddiqi, Majid H. “The Subaltern Speaks: A Review of Viramma.” In Gender and Caste, edited by Anupama Rao, 136–140. New York: Zed Books, 2007. Silverstein, Cory. “Beyond Selves and Others: Embodying and Enacting Meta- narratives with a Difference.” In Feminist Fields: Ethnographic Insights, edited by Rai Bridgman, 70–85. New York: Broadview Press, 1999. Spelman, Elizabeth. Inessential Woman: Problem of Exclusion in Feminist Thought. Boston: Beacon Press, 1990. Stacey, Judith. “Can There Be a Feminist Ethnography?” In Women’s Worlds: The Feminist Practice of Oral History, edited by S. Gluck and D. Patai, 111–119. New York, London: Routledge Press, 1991. Stephens, Julie. “Feminist Fictions: A Critique of the Category of ‘Non-Western’ Woman in Feminist Writings on India.” In Subaltern Studies, No. VI, edited by Ranjit Guha, 92–125. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1989. Strathern, Marilyn. “An Awkward Relationship: The Case of Feminism and Anthropology.” Signs 12 (1987): 276–294. Tharu, Susie. “The Impossible Subject.” In Gender and Caste: Issues in Contemporary Feminism, edited by Anupama Rao, 261–275. New York: Zed Books, 2005. Thorat, Vimal. “Dalit Women Have Been Left Behind by the Dalit Movement and the Women’s Movement.” Communalism Combat (May 2001) (cover story). Tong, Rosemarie. Feminist Thought: A More Comprehensive Introduction. Boulder: Westview Press, 2009 (Third Edition). Turnaturi, Gabriella (translated by Lydia G. Cochrane). Betrayals: The Unpredictability of Human Relations. Chicago, London: University of Chicago Press, 2007. UNICEF. “Gender Equality and Empowerment of Women and Girls: A Policy Review” UNICEF Programme Committee, 1994. Unnithan, Maya and Srivastava, Kavita. “Gender Politics, Development, and Women’s Agency in Rajasthan,” In Discourses of Development: Anthropological Perspectives, edited by R. D. Grillo and R. L. Stirrit Oxford, 157–182. New York: Berg Publishers, 1997. Vasavi, A.R. and Catherine P. Kingfisher. “Poor Women as Economic Agents: The Neo-liberal State and Gender in India and the US.” Indian Journal of Gender Studies, 10, 1 (2003): 1–23. Visweswaran, Kamala. Fictions of Feminist Ethnography. Minneapolis, London: Minnesota University Press, 1994. Wajcman, Judy. Women in Control: Dilemmas of a Workers’ Co-operative. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1983. Wacquant, Loic and Pierre Bourdieu. Invitation to Reflexive Ethnography. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992. Watt, Carey A. “Education for National Efficiency: Constructive Nationalism in North India, 1909–1916.” Modern Asian Studies 31, 2 (May 1997). 339–374. Williams, Suzanne, Janet Seed and Adelina Mwau. Oxfam Gender Training Manual. Oxford: Oxfam, 2000. Bibliography 263

Women’s Development—A Policy-Frame for Rajasthan. New Delhi: Government of India Report (May 1984). Yunus, Mohammed and Karl Weber. Creating a World without Poverty: Social Business and the Future of Capitalism. New York: Public Affairs, 2007. Zaidi, Akbar. “NGO Failure and the Need to Bring Back the State.” Journal of International Development 11 (1999): 259–271. Zelliot, Eleanor. “Dr. Ambedkar and the Empowerment of Women.” In Gender and Caste: Issues in Contemporary Feminism, edited by Anupama Rao, 204–217. New York: Zed Books, 2005. Index

aatmsaath (freedom), 208–11, 215–21 Basic Education Project with World as impractical, 217–21 Bank aid (Uttar Pradesh) as reformative, 215–16 (1991), 35 AB (character) (education secretary), Basmati rice (Indian), 71 75, 78, 83, 86, 89, 93, 107, Batliwala, Srilata, 224–9 116–18, 132, 135, 137, 143, 186 BDO (officer-in-charge), 160, 164–5 ABSSS. See Akhil Bharatiya Samaj Bedouin dialect, 67 Sewa Sansthan Behn, Ila, 92 Abu-Lughod, Lila, 55–6, 67 betrayal, 9, 11–18, 65–73, 77–83, accountability, 11–18 96–105, 112, 182–4 acts of imagination, 13 and development, 11–18 acts of perception, 13 and ethnography, 11–12, 65–73, 112 Akhil Bharatiya Samaj Sewa as feminist technique, 18 Sansthan (ABSSS), 22–3, 118, and MS program, 9, 11–12 143 and political rule, 77–83 Alexandar, Meena, 219 refusing to, 71–3 American identity, 55–6, 61–2, and shaming, 18, 182–4 67–8, 89 and state power, 10–13 Anan, Kofi, ix as tool of governance, 96–105 Andhra Pradesh Primary Education Bharatiya Janata Party, 143 Project (1986), 35 Bhatt, Ela R., 30, 118 anthropologists, 1–7, 67–73 Bhitakhera Case, 205–7 “anti-politics machine,” 10–11, 103 Bihar Education Project with anti-price movement (1970s), UNICEF (1990), 35 162–3, 228 Bohannon, Laura, 158 anti-rape movements, 114 Bollywood films, 252n7 Arab Americans, 67 Brown, Karen, 157 Arendt, Hannah, 206–7 Building Village-level Sanghas: AT Kearney, 121 Phase I, 24–6 Austin, TX, USA, 72–3 Bundeli language, 27, 50, 57, 154 bureaucracy, 8–13, 16–17, 75–9 Babri Masjid in Ayodhya (Uttar See also neoliberal bureaucracy Pradesh), 23, 143 Bush, George W., 62 Banda district (Uttar Pradesh), 8–9, “buzzwords,” 225, 229 11, 15–16, 22–7, 37–41, 100, 117–22, 126, 131, 142, 144, caste, 6, 15–16, 20, 22–4, 26, 28, 151–2, 166–7, 176–9, 181, 186, 32, 35, 39, 41, 44–5, 53–4, 193, 195, 211, 219, 235n29 57–8, 76, 79–82, 105, 108–9, See also MS-Banda/Chitrakoot 114–16, 124–6, 130–1, 136, 268 Index failure—Continued critiques of policy, 116–35 evaluating, 116–18 and governance, 119–20, 129–30, and expertise, 159 138–42 and feminism, 114–15, 150–1 and national debts, 131 and freedom, 210 overview of, 107–16 and “instrument-effect,” 10 and political rule, 80–3 and MS program, 8–12, 77, and product-technology, 123–9 110–11, 148–51 and social consultancy, 120–2 and operationalization, 174–80 feminist ethics, 156–7 and planning, 1–4 feminist expertise, 14, 17, 41, 100, of programs, 8–11, 116, 150–1 110–13, 120–1, 128, 134–7, and rebirth, 226 139–42, 148–60, 163–5, and subjects, 7–8 167–9, 172, 174–9, 192, 224 as a technique of power, 10–11 feminist insider critique, 116–31 and technology, 125 and Banda, 120 of welfare state, 102, 108 and consultancy, 120–3 family responsibility, 222–4 and “failures,” 116–18 feminism and governance, 119–20, 129–30 and acts of imagination, 13 versus outsider, 49–50 and critiques, 116–35 and writing, 118–19 and empowerment. See See also product-technology empowerment, and feminism feminist outsider critique, 132–5 and ethics, 156–7 and governance, 132–5 and ethnography. See policy as distilling a movement, ethnography, and feminism 132 and experience, 200–1 versus insider, 49–50 and expertise. See feminist feminist programs, 16–17, 147–80 expertise and consent, 155 Indian, 108–9, 114–15, 143–5 and empathy, 151–9 institutionalized, 145–6 and ethnography, 151–3 and the mind, 201–3 feminist ethics, 156–7 and neoliberalism. See feminist “trickster,” 157–9 neoliberalism and hierarchy, 153–5 programs of. See feminist and immersion, 155 programs and movement, 160–5 and the state. See feminism and and negotiation, 165–74 the state and operationalizing, 174–80 and the “trickster,” 157–9 overview of, 147–51 and “woman condition,” 14 feminist “trickster,” 157–9 feminism and the state, 80–3, Ferguson, James, 1–4, 10, 75, 77, 107–46 87, 111, 233n17 and AB, 135–8 “Fieldwork of a Dutiful Daughter” and Banda, 120 (1988) (Abu-Lughod), 55–6, 67 and client, consultant, customer first-generation rights, 14 relationship, 122–3 Foreign Contributions Regulation confessions, 142–6 Act (FCRA), 133 266 Index caste—Continued Council for Advancement of 143–5, 148–9, 164, 167, People’s Action and Rural 169–74, 182–3, 185–6, 188, Technology (CAPART), 134 193, 196, 198, 200, 204, 208, courage, 24, 201, 206, 211–15, 221 227–9, 242n23 Cruikshank, Barbara, 161, 220, See also “low-caste women” 251n2 change, as strategic, 196–7 “customer-consumers,” 121–3, characters, 240n1 125–7, 130–1 See also AB; Learner K; MK; SB; SJ; VR Dabrowski, Irene (1983), 153 “cheap governance,” 129–30 “dalit,” 22, 79–83, 114, 171–4, Cheney, Dick, 62 204, 242n23 Chitrakoot, Uttar Pradesh, 1, 8, 11, Das, Maitreyi, 36 15–17, 22–3, 25, 37, 41, 43–73, Delhi, India, 1, 15, 22, 27, 37, 77, 83, 97, 107, 110–11, 113, 39–41, 43–73, 85–6, 91, 107, 147, 150–2, 156–60, 163, 166, 118, 120, 128, 139, 143–5, 147, 170, 174, 177–8, 187, 200, 151, 160, 166, 170, 178, 204, 207, 210–11, 213–14, 234n31 222, 231, 235n29 democracy, 18, 19, 99, 104, 116, See also MS-Banda/Chitrakoot 126–9, 135, 137–8, 142, 156–7, citizen subject, 251n2 160–3, 169, 171, 175, 184, 189, client-consultant relationship, 121, 130 192, 211 client-customer, 17, 150 democratic citizenship, 160–2 Clifford, James, 13 Department of Women and Child collective empowerment, 194–207 Welfare, 84–5 collectives, 8, 15, 21, 24, 29–32, 36, Deveaux, Monique, 173, 202 41, 63, 75, 84, 99, 101–2, development 108–10, 114, 117, 120, 123, and betrayal, 11–13, 77–83 130–2, 135, 137, 145–6, 162, discourse. See development 165, 172, 177, 181–8, 191–2, discourse 194–203, 205–7 and failure, 226 Collins, Patricia Hill, 173, 202 hierarchy, 6 colonialism, 28, 33, 65, 78, 80, 82, “intimacy” of, 83 90, 100–1, 112, 133, 139–40, and poverty, 10 161–2, 188–90, 192, 224 and state power, 10–13, 77–83, community rights, 162–3 226 Congress Party, 80–1, 133, 240n12, and women, 135–6 241n19 development discourse, 1–7, 77–82 consent, 1, 11, 36, 66, 87, 95, and intentionality, 2–7, 77 126–7, 155, 157, 179, 223 and “middle” agents, 1 Constitution of India, 82, 158, and planning, 1–4 161–2, 227, 234n4, 241n16 See also intentionality Copenhagen Declaration on Social Development of Women and Child Development (1995), 34 in Rural Areas (DWCRA), 21, corruption, 17, 76–7, 102, 148–50, 116–17, 123–5, 140, 147–50 175–6 Devi, Bhanwari, 124 Index 267 didis (sisters), 8, 49–50, 54, 58, 107, language, 224–5 153–4, 164, 212–16 and listening. See listening and sleeping, 49–50 and literacy, 6–7 and water, 54 and MS program, 8–9 dignity, 34, 120, 123, 126–7, 165, and neoliberalism, 225 178, 197 and power, 170–4 discourse, 2–4 rights approach, 14 “distantiated alienation,” 73 as “structures of feelings,” 201–3 district implementation unit (DIU), truth tales. See “Truth-Tales” 27, 36, 231 “enterprise culture,” 121 District Primary Education Program entitlement, 147, 157, 160–1, 165 (DPEP), 120 ethics, feminist, 156–7 Dreams of Trespass (Mernissi), 203 ethnography drinking water, 25, 52–4, 120, 123 and “accountable positioning,” Dube, Leela, 173 44–5 author position on, 37–9 Easterday, Louis, 154 and belonging, 46, 54–9 education, 19–23, 32–7, 176–80, and betrayal, 11–12, 65–73, 112 186–9 and empathy. See empathy abandoning, 176–80 and ethics, 65–7 as empowering, 21, 33–5 exercises, 46–7 for equality, 19–20 and familiarity, 50–4 international conferences on, 32–5 and feminism, 43–4, 112–35, 151–3 managing and funding, 21–3 and fieldwork, 43–6 national policies, 33–5 and forgetting, 70 new national initiatives in, 35 and homework, 45–7, 54–69 problem of, 188–9 insider versus outsider, 49–50 research on, 32–7 and NGOs, 59–67 and utilitarianism, 186–8 and note-taking, 69–71 educational research, 32–7 “rapid,” 178, 249n51 “Education for Equality,” 19–20 sites and subjects of, 39–41 empathy, 17, 43, 54, 57, 141, 150–9, and suffering, 46, 67–73, 238n4 168, 176, 222–3 and travel, 46–9 empowerment and trust, 65–7 capabilities approach to, 14 and writing, 67–70, 238n4 as collective, 194–207 exclusion, 142–5 is economic, 31–2 expertise, 2, 6, 14, 17, 25–6, 39, 41, and education, 21, 33–5 76–9, 83, 86–8, 94–5, 99–105, and entitlement, 147, 157, 160–1, 108, 110 165 See also feminist expertise ethics of, 13 as exclusionary, 142–4 failure, 1–4, 7–12, 77, 93, 102, 108, and feminism, 13–14, 18–19, 110–11, 114–18, 125, 148–51, 198–202, 225–6 159, 174–80, 183, 189, 193, goes back and forth, 208–12 199, 209–10, 226–7 history of term, 13 and bureaucracy, 93 Index 269

Foucault, Michel, 2, 14, 100, 141, hegemony, 11–13, 17–18, 44, 90, 172, 211, 225, 233n17 92, 94, 122, 135, 184, 226 Fourth World Conference on hierarchy, 153–5 Women (Beijing, China) (1995), Hill, Octavia, 127 34–5 Hindi, 27, 47, 57, 85, 154 Hindu fundamentalism, 23, 115 Gandhi, Indira, 133 Hindu nationalism, 62, 143, 227–9 Gandhi, Mohandas, 61 Hindu religion, 235n29 Gandhi, Rajiv, 134, 139, 240n12 Hindus, 79, 81, 131, 143–5, 227–8, Gandhian Civil Disobedience 241n19 Movement (1942), 28 the home, 202, 239n20 Geertz, Clifford, 54 homework, 15–16, 43–7, 54–69 Global Feminisms Collective (GFC), and belonging, 54–9 63 exercises, 46–7 globalization, x, 11, 38, 71, 77 and fieldwork, 43–6 global knowledge economy, 189–94 and NGO, 59–67 global-local, 5–7, 77–8 types of, 15–16 Golde, Peggy, 67, 153 and writing, 67–9 Gopalji (Gaya Prasad Gopal), 22 Human Rights Watch Report Gordon, Colin, 78, 94 (1999), 242n23 governance, 119–20, 129–30, Hunter, Ian, 209, 219 132–5, 138–42 budgeting, 119–20 identity, 28, 46, 55–60, 67–70, as cheap, 129–30 79–82, 114, 143, 151, 159, knowing how to, 132–5 172, 174, 185, 189, 191, as maintenance, 138 239n18 and middleman, 168–9 illhaam (enlightenment), 85, 88 as natak, 139–42 illiteracy, 11, 25, 30, 76, 82, 87, as publicity, 138–9 149, 160, 166, 203 responsible, 99 imagination, 13, 77, 95, 98, 103, techniques of, 136–7 207, 225–30 and transparency, 137–8 Indian feminism, 108–9, 114–15, Government of India, 22, 75, 86, 143–5 89, 93, 116, 146, 231, individual rights, 162–3 252n19 “insider,” 41, 46, 49–50, 53, 55–8, Grameen Bank (Bangladesh), 31 60–73, 116–31, 249n51 Green Revolution in India (1969), and ethnography, 46 246n56 on policy, 116–31 Gujarat, 20, 35, 118–19, 127, 144, versus outsider, 41, 49–50, 55–8, 228, 246n56 68–73 Gupta, Akhil, 75, 87 “instrument-effect,” 10 Integrated Rural Development Handpump Training and Social program (IRDP), 123 Change: Phase II, 6, 26–7, intentionality, 2–7, 10 40–1, 53–4 embodied, 4–5 Haraway, Donna, 43–4, 239n5 examining, 2–4 270 Index intentionality—Continued 160, 164–8, 175–9, 203, 219, global and local, 6–7 231 and plans, 10 camps, 25, 41 as plural, 5 “math literacy,” 130 International Conference on statistics on, 29–30, 35, 37–8 Population and Development strategy, 6–7 (Cairo, Egypt) (1994), 33–4 See also illiteracy International Monetary Fund local intentionalities, 5–6 (IMF), 79, 89 Lorde, Audre, 202 Interpretation of Culture (Geertz), “low-caste women,” 15–16, 22–3, 54 26, 32, 41, 53, 76, 79, 108–9, “investigator-anthropologist,” 7–8 115–16, 125–6, 130–1, 136, 143–5, 148, 167, 170–3, 193, Jabri, Vivienne, 14 196, 198 Jagori (Delhi-based NGO), 85, 118 Jain, Manish, 193–4 Machiavelli, Niccolo, 98 Jain, Sharda, 165 Mahakaushal Express, 47, 49 Jaipur, Rajasthan, India, 39, 71–3 mahasanghas (federations), 8, 197 Jal Nigam (water board) (Karwi, mahila kuteer (huts for women), Chitrakoot), 25–7, 160, 165–6 119 Japaneseness, 55 Mahila Samakhya (MS) program John, Mary E., 115 (1989), 1–3, 8–9, 11, 19–41, 84–96, 231 Karnataka, 20, 35, 92, 118, 127 and bureaucracy, 8–9 kar sewaks (Hindu and development discourse, 1–3 fundamentalists), 23 and education, 19–23, 32–7 Kent, Linda, 159 “Education for Equality,” 19–20 Kerala, 127, 235n16 and “failure,” 11 Khabar Lehriya (KL) (newspaper), funding, 21–3, 88–92 41, 46, 48–9 helming, 85–8 Kirschner, Suzanne, 54–5 locating, 84–5 Kohli, Atul, 104 managing, 21–3, 92–6 kol caste, 22, 26, 41, 198 and neoliberal bureaucracy, See also “low-caste women” 84–96 Kondo, Dorinne, 55–7, 68 shutting down of, 8–9 Krishnamurthy, Kavita, 165 structural hierarchy flowchart, 231 Kudwa, Neema, 243n1 See also MS-Banda/Chitrakoot; Women’s Development Larner, W., 94 Program “learned helplessness,” 104, 111, MS-Banda/Chitrakoot, 23–7, 37–9, 169, 220 47–9 Learner K (character), 222–3 Building Village-level Sanghas: listening, 9, 13, 50, 146, 184, Phase I, 24–6 216–18, 222–3, 225–9 coming to, 37–9 literacy, 6–7, 21, 25–41, 76, 82, 87, District Implementation Unit 109, 117, 125, 130–1, 140, 149, (DIU), 27 Index 271

Handpump Training and Social in the Informal Sector” report Change: Phase II, 26–7 (1988) (Shramshakti Report), Mahila Shikshan Kendra: The 29–30 School for Women and Girls: national debt, 29, 95, 102, 131, 133–4 Phase III, 27 National Policy on Education organizational structure of, 23–4 (NPE), 19–23, 30, 37, 118, 139, three phases of, 24–7 186, 234n4 train to, 47–9 and “Education for Equality,” See also Banda district 19–20 MS Program structural hierarchy negotiation, 165–74 flowchart, 231 Nehru, Jawaharlal, 101–2, 104, Mahila Shikshan Kendra (MSK), 109, 115–16, 144, 193 8–9, 15, 25–7, 36–7, 41, 50–2, neoliberal bureaucracy, 16–17, 96–7, 174, 211–14, 221–2, 231 75–105 Majone, G., 78 and betrayal as tool, 96–105 Mandal Commission, 80–1, 240n12 and the collective, 84–5 Marshall, T. H., 158 and “depressed classes,” 77–8 Marxism, 71, 90, 195, 227 and MS Program, 84–96 Mernissi, Fatima, 203 and “woman question,” 81–2 methodology, 15–16, 37–41, 68–73 neoliberalism, ix–x, 13–16, 76–7, micro-credit, 176–80 83, 92–4, 105, 108–13, 121, microfinance, 31–2, 176–80, 224 134–5, 142, 209, 225–30 Microfinance Paradigm, 31–2 and bureaucracy. See neoliberal middle class, 39, 108–9, 115, 127, bureaucracy 143–5, 149, 152, 162–3, 174, and empowerment, 225 177, 185, 191, 225, 228–9 and “enterprise culture,” 121 MK (character) (former coordinator and feminism, 225–30 for MS Banda), 117, 147, 151, and neoliberalization, 13, 77, 94 158, 165, 174, 178, 213 Netherlands, 20, 22, 27, 35, 40, Monsanto, 71 88–92, 116–17, 119, 128–9, movements 197, 245n37 and feminist programs, 160–5 non-government organizations policy as distilling, 132 (NGOs), 29–30, 59 or subjectification, 163–5 field of work versus field-level women’s. See women’s movements work, 59 Mumbai, 39–40, 86, 116, 182, 185 women’s (1980–1990), 29–30 Muslim genocide (2002), 23, 143, NORETT, 88 228 Norway, 90–1 Muslims, 23, 67, 81, 112, 131, Nussbaum, Martha, 14, 234n31 143–5, 227–8 Ong, Aihwa, 157, 247n13 Narayan, Uma, 60–4 operationalization, 14, 17, 65, narrative strategies, 184–6 107–8, 112, 117, 125, 132, natak (public performance), 139–42 147–51, 160–2, 174–80, 220–1 “National Commission on Self- and conceptualization, 147–51 employed Women and Women of democratic citizenship, 160–2 272 Index the “other,” 54–5, 62–4, 115, 146, of younger family members, 223 228 See also self-responsibility other backward classes (OBCs), 80, responsibilization, 45, 83, 105, 108, 240n12 113, 131, 165–6, 168, 189, 222–4 partition of India (1947), 81 Rose, Nikolas, 94–5, 100, 136 Peck, Jamie, 93 Roy, Bunker, 134, 182 Periyar, 203, 215 phadmunshi (price manager), 169– “saheli” (a female friend), 8, 27, 41, 73 50, 52, 164, 186, 200, 207, phases of MS-Banda, 24–7 212–19, 222, 228 planning, 1–4, 10 Saheli A, 97, 200, 212–13, 228 poverty, 10, 17, 21, 23, 29–31, 34, Saheli M, 213–14, 217 39–40, 57, 64, 79, 81–3, 85, Saheli P, 214–15, 217, 219 87–8, 93, 96, 102, 104–5, sahyogini (village-level program 108–9, 115–16, 123, 125–7, supervisor), 8, 23–4, 41, 107, 130–1, 136, 140, 142–3, 146– 110, 143–4, 174, 181, 186, 195, 54, 158, 163, 165, 167–8, 170, 204, 207–11, 214–15, 219, 176–9, 183, 188, 192–3, 198, 228–9, 231 218, 225–30 sakhi (village-level activists), 8, See also “low-caste women” 23–4, 36, 107, 110, 174 Prince and Discourses (1950) sanghas (village-level women’s (Machiavelli), 98 groups), 21, 23–6, 36, 145, product-technology (education), 2, 165, 168, 175, 177–8, 186, 197, 123–31, 134, 136 229, 231 “Programme of Action” (POA), 20, sanitation, 123 23 sari (salwar-kurta), 153–4, 211–12 program supervisor. See sahyogini sarkarii (governmentalized), 9, 96–7 Saxena, Shiban Lal, 241n19 Rajasthan Lok Jumbish Project SB (character) (program developers), (1992), 35 85, 116–17 Rajasthan Shiksha Karmi Project scheduled castes and tribes (SC/ST), (1987), 35 20 rape, 108, 114, 124, 217 second-generation rights, 14 “rapid ethnography,” 178, 249n51 Self-employed Women’s Association Rawls, John, 234n31 (SEWA), 29–30, 32 recalcitrant subjects, 6–7 self-employment, 29–30, 32, 36, refraction, 3, 12 123, 191 responsibility, 30, 45, 83, 105, 108, self-responsibility, 45, 105, 108, 113, 131, 165–6, 168, 189, 165, 226 222–6 self-responsibilization, 45, 105, 108, of family, 30, 222–3 131, 165, 189 of husband, 223–4 See also responsibility of older family members, 30, Seventh Five-Year Plan, 134 222–3 Shahada movement (1970s), 162–3 for self. See self-responsibility shaming technique, 18, 182–4 Index 273 shikshika (teacher), 8–9 Tata Institute of Social Sciences Shiva, Vandana, 62 (TISS), 116 Shramshakti Report (1988), 29–30 technology, 2, 14–15, 39, 96, 99, silver jewelry, 51–2 108, 110–13, 122–36, 141–3, Simmel, Georg (1858–1918), 152 146, 151, 155–9, 164–5, 168, Singh, V. P., 240n12 174–80, 188–92, 211, “situated knowledge,” 44 219–30 SJ (character) (feminist academic feminist, 39 and NGO owner), 84, 107, of governance, 15, 111, 122 132, 136–7, 139, 141, 182, and human capacity, 14 185–9, 191–5, 198–9, 201, technologization, 96 203–5, 207–8, 212, 215, of transformation, 227–30 219–21 See also product-technology social affectivity, 167–8 Tendu Patta Issue, 169–70 social consultancy, 120–2 Theba Tseka development project socialism, 19, 101–2, 115, 193 (Lesotho), 3 social transformation, 195–6, 199, Third World subject, 15, 29, 44–6, 201, 224–5, 228 59–65, 70–3, 90–1 Society for the Promotion of Area Tocqueville, Alexis de, 161–2 Resource Centers (SPARC), “Towards Equality: Report of the 39–40, 86, 116 Committee on Status of Soviet Union (USSR), 90 Women” report (1974), 29 Spelman, Elizabeth, 13 translation, 7 Spier, Leslie, 159 travel stories, 46–9 Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty, 14 treason, 98–9 Stacey, Judith, 68, 157 “trickster,” feminist, 157–9 state “Truth-Tales,” 203–24, 251n4 and betrayal, 11–18 “Truth-Tale” I, 203–7 and feminism. See feminism and “Truth-Tale” II, 207–12 the state “Truth-Tale” III, 212–21 and institution, 5 “Truth-Tale” IV, 221–4 and intentionality, 2–7 Turnaturi, Gabrielle, 98 and planning, 1–4 and verticality, 75–6 UNICEF. See United Nations subject-citizen, 80–2, 88, 113–14, Children’s Fund 162 United Nations Children’s Fund subjectification, 144–5, 163–5 (UNICEF), 33, 35, 88, 124, subjects, 7–9, 225–7 165–6 and citizens. See subject-citizen United Nations Development listening to, 9, 225–7 Programme (UNDP), 92 multiple, 7–9 United Nations Human Rights Swashakti (self-empowerment) Declaration, 14 program, 177 United States Agency for Sweden, 35, 88, 90–1 International Development Swedish International Development (USAID), 88–91 Agency (SIDA), 35 Urdu language, 47 274 Index

Uttar Pradesh, ix, 9, 11, 15, 20, “whiteness,” 70 22–3, 35, 39, 41, 44, 92, 97, “woman,” as a category, 28, 82, 107, 118, 122, 127, 147, 151, 162, 172–3, 219, 228 173–4, 193, 204, 207, 210–14, “woman condition,” 14 222, 231 “woman question,” 16, 28–30, See also Banda district; 81–3, 115, 241n14 Chitrakoot Women’s Development Program (WDP) (1986), 36–7, 71, 84, “verticality,” 75–6 88, 116–17, 123–5, 132, village-level program supervisor. 135–6, 229 See sahyogini women’s movements, 16, 28–30, 38, village-level women’s groups. See 108–9, 114–15, 160–3, 193, sanghas 197, 225, 228 Visweswaran, Kamala, 13, 43–4, Women’s Studies Centre (WSC) in 157–8 Jaipur, Rajasthan, 229 VR (character) (program World Bank, 5, 33, 35, 79, 88–91, consultant), 22, 85, 92, 107, 95, 120, 177 120, 127, 143–5, 147 World Bank Development Report (1995), 88 Wajcman, Judy, 156 World Conference on Education for welfare state, 17, 34, 83–5, 96, All (Jomtien, Thailand) (1989), 102–4, 108–13, 130, 150–1, 33 169, 219–20, 240n12 World on Wednesdays (WOW), 61, 63 the West, 14, 23, 56, 60–4, 67–70, 73, 90, 139, 161, 186, 189, 209 Yunus, Mohammad, 31