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Home , Ahirwati, Aimol language, Aimol people, Amri language, Andh language, Assamese language

THE OF

BEING A :aEPRINT OF THE CHAPTER ON LANGUAGES

CONTRIBUTED BY

GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, C..., PH.., D.LITT.,

IllS MAJESTY' INDIAN CIVIL SERVICE,

TO THE REPORT ON THE OENSUS OF INDIA, 1901,

TOGETHER WITH THE

CENSUS- STATISTIOS OF .

CALCUTTA: OFFICE OF THE SUPERINTENDENT OF GOVERNMENT PRINTING, INDIA. 1903. CALcuttA: . CENTRAL PRINTING OFFICE, ~JNGS STRERT. CONTENTS.

... -INTRODUCTION . • Present Knowledge • 1 ~ The Linguistio Survey 1 Number of Languages spoken ~. 1 Ethnology and Philology 2 Tribal • • • 3 Identification and Nomenolature of Indian Languages • 3 ammgemont of Chapter • 4

THE MALAYa-POLYNESIAN FAMILY.

THE MALAY GROUP.

Selung 4 NicobaresB 5

THE INDO-CHINESE FAMILY. Early investigations 5 Latest investigations 5 Principles of classification 5 Original home . 6 Mon-Khmers 6 Tibeto-Burmans 7 Two main branches 7 'fibeto-Himalayan Branch 7 -Burmese Branch. Its probable lines of migration 7 Siamese-Chinese 7 Karen 7 Chinese 7 • 7 Summary 8 General characteristics of the Indo-Chinese languages 8 Isolating languages 8 Agglutinating languages 9 Inflecting languages ~ Expression of abstract and concrete ideas 9 Tones 10 Order of • 11

THE MON-KHME& SUB-FAMILY. In Further India 11 In A.ssam 11 In Burma 11 Connection with Munds, Nicobar, and !lalacca languages 12 Connection with • 12 Palaung a Mon- Khmer 12 Mon. 12 Palaung-Wa group 12 Khaasi 12 B2 ii CONTENTS

THE TIllETO-BuRMAN SUll-FAMILY_ < PAG. Tibeto-Himalayan and Assam-Burmese branches 13 North Assam branch 13 ~. Mutual relationship of the three branches 13

Tibeto-H imalayan BTanch.. Grouping of the languages 14 Bhatia. 14 Bhatia of or Tibeta. 14 Ladakhi 15 Champa 15 ,15 Sharpa Bhatia 15 Kagateh Dhotiii. .. 15 Denjong-ke 15 Lha-ke 15 Toto 15 Taanglo Bhatia 15 Lahuli 15 Gar! • 15 Tiniin 15 Patni 15 Kanaahi 15 Kaniiwari 15 Minchang . 15 Tibarskad • 15 15 Bhramii 15 'padhi 15 Hiiyii 15 Kiranti 15 " . Jimdar 15 Khambii 15 Yakha • 15 Gurung 15 Mangar • 15 Sunuwar • 15 Thami 16 Newari 16 Murmi 16 Manjhi 16 Limbii 16 Rong 16 Dhimiil 16

North .Assam Branch. Aka. 16 Dafla 17 Abor.Miri 17 Mishmi ' . 17 Chulika tii. . 17 Digaru ., 17 Miju 17

.Assam Burmese Br-anch • Bodo group • • 17 18 Kachari 18 Lii.lung ~~ 19 Dima-sa ]9 • 19 CONTENTS Ill''"

'." :Jliutia. 19 GarQ • 19 Riibha .0 20 Tipura. .. 20 Moran 20 ., " "aga group 20 Orography. 20 Niga.-Bodo sub-group 21 Mikir 21 Empeo 21

Kabui 0 21 Khoiriio 21 Western Niigii. sub-group 21 Angami 21 Kezhama, Sema, a.nd Rengma. 21 Central Nagii. sub-group 22 Ao 22

Lhota 0 2.2 Assiringiii. 22 Tengsa, Thakumi and Yachumi 22 Eastern Nags sub-group 22 Characteristics of the Ea:!tern • 22 Tableng and Tamlu 22 Mojung 23 Banpara and utonia 23 Mohongia 28

Namsangia 0 23 Moshiing and Shangge 0 • 23 Niigii.-Kuki sub-group. 23 Sopvoma 23 Maram 23 l'.1iyangkhil.ng 23 Kwoireng 23 Luhupalanguages. 23 Tangkhul, Phadang, and Khangoi 24 Maring 2~ Kuki-Chin group 24 24 Meithei ' .. Chin sub-group 0 25 Old Kuki languages 25 Rangkhol, Bete, H-allam, and Langrong 25 Aimol, Anal, Andro, Chiru, Hiroi-Lamgang, Kolren, Knm, and Pururo 25 Mhar 25 Chaw 25 Northern Chin 25 Thado 25 Soldii 26 Siyin 26 Ralte 26 PaiM 26 Central CAin 26 Tashon 26 Zahao • • 26 Lai 26 Lakher 26 Lushei. 26

Ngente " 26

Fannai " 26 Banjogi and Pankhu 26 Southern Chin 27 Chinme 27 Welaung 27 Chin.bok 27 Yindu. 27 iT CONTENTS

F... G. ChinbOn ..• ':.7 Khyeng 27 Khami 27 [l Characleristic!! of the uki-Chin languages 27 '1' Kachin Group • • . • • • 27 Northern Kachin or Singpho 28 Southern Kachin 28 ·Kaori 28 Kachin-Burma. Hybrids 28 Szi Lepai 28 Lashi 28 Yarn 28 Hpon 28 Maingtha 28 Other Hybrids 28 Lihsaw 28 'hu 28 Akha 29 AM 29 Li-su and Mu-. 29 Dann 29 Kadn 29 Intha 29 Burma group 29 Mrii 29 Burmese 29 Arakanese 29 Chaungtha • • • 30 Yabaing 30 Yaw 30 Tavoyer 30 30

THE SIAMESE-CHINESE SUB-FAMILY. Chinese 30 Karen 30 Bgai. , 30 Karen-ni • 30 Fwo 30 Mopgha • 30 Shangkhipo 30 Tarn. 30 Kai or Gaikho 30 Taungthu 30 Sgan 30 Maunhepaku 30 Wewa. 30 Danaw 30 Tai group 30 Siamese 31 Lao 31 Lii and Khiin • 31 Shan 31 Ahom 31 Khii.mti 31 Phii.kial 32 Nora. 32 Tai-rong 32 Aiton 32

THE DRAVIDO-MUNDA. FAMILY. Dravidian and Mundii. Sub-Families 32 The " Kolaria.n " 32 Mutual relationship of thG two sub-families • .. 32 CONTENTS v

P"-IlD eo~ecti.on with non-Indian languages 33 . Dravido-¥undii. ~race. • . 33

THE MUNDA SUB-FAMILY. Munclii. compared with other agglutinating la.nguages 33 Agglutination in Mundii. languages 340 Other characteristics of M unda languages 34 Name~ of Mundii. languages 35 Habitat of the family 35 Santali 35 Mahli 36 Karmali 36 (" K~l") 36 Kol 36 MundItri 36 Ho 36 Bhnmij 36 Tamuriii. 36 Birhor 36 Tuna 36 Korwii. 36 Singli 37 Khariii. 37 Juang 37 ABur 37 Birjiii. 37 37 Kisan 37 Gadaba and Bavaro 37 Korkii 37 Muasi 3'7 Nihii.li 37

THE DRA.VIDIAN SUB-FAMILY. Habitat 38 Characteristics 38 Relationship with non-Indian languages 39 Tamil 39 Irula, KaBuva, Yerukala 39 MalayMam 40 Yerava 40 Telugu 40 K5mtiiii, Yimadi, and Chentzu 40 Gipsy corruptions • 40 Kanarese. 41 Badaga • 41 Kurumba • 41 Kodagn • 41 Tulu 401 Kornga and Bellam. 4.1 Toda. 401 Kota 41 GOnd • .4::' Miiri and Piirji 42 Gattu 42 Koi 42 Naiki 42 K61a~.1 and Ladhiidi 42 Kandh or • 42 Kurnkh or Oraoll ~2 M~lhar 42 Ma.lto 42 Brahiii 43 Vi CONTENTS

INDO-EUROPEAN F A.MILY.

THE A.RYAN SUB-FAIULY. P~GII .'Original home 43 Oentum-and satem-speakers 43 Meaning of " " 44 Aryan wanderings 44 Indo- and Eranians . 44 Race-mixture with aborigines 44

The Eraniun Branr;h. Limits of Eranian speech 45 Persic and Medic 45 Persia 45 Old Persian 45 Middle Persian 45 Persian 45 Medic 45 East Eranian languages 46 Balaoh . 46 Makrani 46 . 46 48 Ghalohah languages 48

The Indo-Aryan Branoh. Indo-Aryan route into India 48 Seoondary route from the Pamirs 48 Non-Sanskritic Indo-Aryan languageB 49

The Non-Sanskritic Indo-Aryan Languages. Charaoteristic points 49 Shins-Khawar group 49 Shins 49 Dard 50 Khawar 50 group 50 Basbgali. 50 Wai. 50 Wasifi. Veri 50 Ashkund • 50 Kalasha-Pashai group 50 Kalasha 50 Gawar-bati 50 Pashai 50 Laghmiini 50 Dehgiini 50

The Sanskritic Indo-Aryan La»guages. The gradual immigration 51 Earliest documents 51 Evidence of dialects 51 Theory of earlier aud later migration1'l 51 Route of later immigration. 52 The "Middle-land" • 53 Inner and Outer language families 53 of the two 5:3 Phonetics • 53 53 Conjugation 53 Limits of Inner family 54 Resultant grouping of the modern Sanskritic Indo-.A.ryau 55 CONTENTS vii

P!QK DJvel0;Jment of the modern vernaculars' • u5 PriU).ary • • 56 Secondary Prakrit 56 Tertiary Pr:akrib • 56 Border-line between each stage 56 Characteristics of Prima.ry Prakrit '56 Characteristics of Secondary Prakrit 56 Characteristics of Tertiary Prakrit 56 Dialects of Secondary Prakrit 5t> stage. 56 Stage of Prakrit par fJ:tcell6no6 56 Prakrit in literature 56 Western Prakrit 57 Eastern Prakrit 57 Apabhramsa 57 Apabhrarhsa dialects 58 Classical 59 and Tadbhavas 59 Dosyas 59 Tatsamas ,and Tadbbavas in the modern vernaculars 60 Influence of Sanskrit on the modern vernaculars • 60 Influence of Dravido- 62 Influence of Indo-Chinese languages 62 Influence of Non-Indian languages 63 The North-Western group 64 Kashmiri • 64 . , PagnI, Rambani 64 Literature and . 64 Kohistani 64. Maiyan 64 Garwi and TorwaIi 65 LMn~ • • 65 HindkD • 66 Northern dialects • 66 Pothwari 66 Chibhlt!i 66 Punchi 66 Dhundi 66 Tinaoli 66 Ghebi. • 66 Awankii.ri 66 Southern dialects • 66 Miiltiim 66 Ubhechi 67 Kbetram 67 compared with Panjabi 67 Written character 67 Sindhi 67 Siraiki 67 Lari 67 Thareli 67 (Kachchhi) • 68 (Gujaratl) • 68 The Southern Group • 68 Marat'hi 68 Vocabnlary 69 Literature 69 Dialects 69 Desi f9 SaDgam~svari • 69 Biinkoti 69 Kudali • 69 Malwani • 69 Kunbiiii 69 Koli 69 viii CONTENTS

Konkani 6D Warhadi ,:0 Nagpuri • • , 70 Marheti 70 Halabi 70 (Bhatri) 70 The Eastern group 70 Oriya 70 N arne of language 71 Dialects, Bhatri n Written character • 71 COlinection with ' 71 lnHuence of other language.'! 72 Litera.ture 72 Bihari 72 Where spoken 72 N umber of speakers 73 Dialects 73 Maithili 73 Magahi • 73 Bhojpuri 73 Relationship of the three dialects to each other 74 Ethnic differences 74 Written character 75 Bengali 75 Dialects 76 Bengali pronuncia tion 77 Literature 77 Written character 78 Assamese 78 Mayang 78 Assamese compared with Bengali 78 Literaturo 78 Written character • 79 Mediate group • 79 Eastern • 79 Dialects 71) Awadhi and Bagheli 79 Chhattisgarhi 79 A elsewhere than in the Eastern Hindi tract proper 80 Speakers abroad EO Linguistio bonndaries 80 Position of Eastern Hindi with regard to languages of the Outer and of the Inner groups 80 Literature 80 Awadhi 80 Bagheli • 81 The Western group 81 West,ern Hindi 81 Bhiisha • 82 Kanauji 82 Bundeli 83 Bii.ngarii 83 Hind6stani 83 As a vernacnlar .. 83 As a and 83 84 ; 84 Dakhini 84 Hindi 84 Hindl)stani, Urdu, and Hindi 85 Literature 85 Rajasthuni 86 Dialects 86 MewiLti • 87 CONTENTS IX

PAGB Malvi 87 Rangri 87 Nimiid 87 , Jaipuri 87 Marwa:ri 87 Bagri 87 Literature 88 Characteristics of the language. 88 Written charac ter • 89 Rajasthani in other parts of India 89 The Giijars 89 Labhani 89 Gnjarati 90 Kachchbi 90 Other dialects, Patniili 90 Bhili and Khandesi 90 Siyalgiri 90 Eaori 90 Literature 91 Written character 91 Panjabi 91 The of old time 91 Dialects. 92 Standard of the Manjh 92 Malwai . 92 Dogri 92 Written character 92 Literature 92 Panjabi abroad 92 Northern group 92 92 Dialects 92 Written character 93 Central Pahari 93 Literature . 93 Eastern Pahari 93 Dialects, Dadhi • 93

OTHER LINGUISTIC FAMILIES. Semitic Family, 93 Hamitic Family, Somali 93

UNOLASSED LANGUAGES. Gipsy Dialects 93 94 Andanamese 94

VERNACULARS OF OTHER COUNTRIES.

.A SIA AND AFRICA. Eranian languages, Armenian 95 Other Asiatic Languages 95 African Languages 95

EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. European Languages 95 Conclusion 96

SUBSIDIARY TABLE.-LANGU4GES SPOKEN IN INDIA, NUMBER OF PERSONS SPEAKING EACH LANGUAGE, AND LOCALITY WHERE CHIEI!'LY SPOKEN • c CONTENTS

APPENDIX.

CENSUS TABLE X.-LANGUAGE • 1:03 PART I.-GENERAL TABLE 104 ., H.-DISTRIBUTION BY LINGUISTIC FAMILIES ", 106 lII.-TERRITORIAL DISTRIBUTION OF EACH LANGUAGE 114 " IV.-LINGUISTIC DISTRIBUTION OF EACH PROVINCE, STATE AND " AGENCY • 130

1IIAP I.-ILLUSTRATING THE LOCALITIES IN WHICH THE INDO-CHINESE LANGUAGES OF EASTERN INDIA ARE SPOKEN TO FACE PAGE 5 " Ir.-ILLUSTRATING THE LOCALITIES IN WHICH THE DRAVIDIAN AND MUNDA ARE SPOKEN 33 IlL-SHOWING THE LOCALITIES IN WHICH THE ARYAN LANGUAGES OF INDIA " ARE SPOKEN 43 THE LANGUAGES* OF INDIA:

BEING A REPRINT OF THE CHAPTER ON LANGUAGES CONTRIBUTED TO THE REPORT ON THE , 1901.

.. Never asle me what I have said or what I have written; but if you will asle me what my present opinions are, I will tell yoU."-JOHN HUNTER.

1. The words of the Father of Modern Surgery, quoted above, are Present peculiarly applicable to the subject of the present chapter. For nearly thirty knowledge. years philology has been wandering through the maze of Indian languages with uncertain steps. Eminent scholars like Oaldwell, Beames, and Hoernle suc- ceedp,d, it is true, in marking out a few broad roads; but, off the track so well laid down, a wild luxuriance of language covered with its undergrowth a vast and unknown territory,-a land of mystery in which less cautious wits played with fantastic theories about Siberio-Nubians, Kolarians, and the Lost Ten Tribes. Some eight years ago the Government of India determined to ~he Linguia­ undertake a systematic exploration of the languages spoken in Northern tlC Survey_ India. The aim of this Linguistic Survey was confined to the ascertainment of facts. The elaboration of theories formed no part of its object. For the purpose in view specimens of every form of speech spoken in every district and state in the area under survey were collected. These are now under examination, and a series of short grammars and vocabularies is being prepared from them. The survey is not yet completed. The languages of Sind, the , and of a part of the Punjab, still remain to be discussed, but the greater portion of the work has been done, and the present chapter may be considered as an abstract of its results so far as they are available. These results have been surprising, even to those were aware of the former limits of our knowledge. The facts which have come to light have ups;et several theories hitherto accepted by all scholars as certainly correct, and have, even in the short space of time during which they have been available, suggested new theories, which, as more facts appeared, have in their turn proved equally unfounded. Speculations regarding Indian languages must wait till the survey is concluded, and all the facts are presented in a convenient form. Till then, even the classification adopted in the following pages, must be taken as provisional. It represents the arrangement which at the present moment, to my mind, agrees best with the facts which have been hitherto examined, but the discovery of new facts may induce me to modify it. 2. The Census of 1901 does not cover the whole of India, and for some of Nnmber of the wildest and most polyglot tracts no language figures are available.t Even ~aok~~ges

* Limits of space alone prevent me from mentioning the of the many friends who have assisted me in the prrparation of thilillhapter. I cannot, however, retrain from expressing my special obli~ations to the Rev. T. ~rahame Bailey (fo! help in rega~d to the dialects sp~ke.n i!l the hills between Murree and ~shmir), to Mr. Glut, to Mr. W. Irvme, to Dr. ~ten KODOW of ChnstllJ.Dla, to Professor E. Kuhn of MUnIch, to Sir Charles Lv all, to Pater W. Schmidt {)I Vienna (for criticisms on the section relating to Indo-Chinese IIlI'gauges), to Mr. Vincent , and to Professor Julien Vinson of Paris (for criticisms on the section relating to Dravidian langnages). Much that is of value in the following pages lowe to the kindness of these gentle­ ~en, and I take this op,P0rtUJ:ity. ~ te~deri~g them my heartiest than~s. I must also acknowledge my mdebtedness to the varlOUS PrOVInCIal ISnperlDtendents of Census Operations, who have over and over again rendered me great assistance by solving riddles which could only be explained hy skilled observers on the spot.-G. A. G. t In illustration, I may mention that this chapter was drafted about a year ago. Discoveries made since then have compelJed me to re-write large portions of it. t No langnage-census was taken of the greater part of Baluchistan; of British Afghanistan; of the , Kohistan, , -, etc.; and of certain wild hill.tracts in Burma. 2 THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA. allowing for this, no less than 147 distinct languages have been recorded as vernacular in the Indian Bmpire. They are grouped as follows :- Number of Number of lang~age8 spoken. speal!ers. A. VERNACULARS OF INDIA. Malaya-Polynesian Family­ Malay Group 2 7,831 * Indo-Chinese Family- 11,7] 2,299 Mon-Khmer Sub-family • 427,760 4 Tibeto-Burman Sub-family • 9,560,454 79 Siamese-Chinese Sub-family • 1,724,085 9 Dravido-Muuda Family­ 59,698,199 Munds Sub-family • 8,179,275 10 Dravidian Sub-family • . • 56,514,524 14 Indo-European Family, Aryan Sub-£amily­ 221,157,673 Eranian Branch • • 1,377,023t 3 Indo-Aryan Branch. 219,780,650 22 Semitic Family • 1 42,881 Hamitic "Family. . 1 5,530 Unclassed Languages • 2t 340,150 Andamallese . 1,882 Gipsy Languages 344,143 Others 125

TOTAL VERNACULARS OF INDIA • 1,*7 292,966,163 B. LANGUAGES OF OTHER ASIATIC COUNTRIES,§ AFRICA, AUSTRALIA 76,67:3 C. EUROPEAN LANGUAGES 269,997 Language not returned . 947,164 Language n.ot identified, traced, etc • 101,059

GRAND TOTAL-INDIA • 294,361,056 Of these, the Semitic and B ami tic languages are classed as vernaculars, owing to their being spoken in Aden. The rest belong to India Proper. The Indo-Chinese languages are found in the Himalayas, Burma, and N orth­ Eastern India; the Dravido-Mundii ones mainly in the south and centre of the Peninsula; and the Indo-European on the North-Western Frontier, in the Punjab, Bombay, , Assam, and the country between the State of and the Himalaya. Ethnology 3. Nowhere are there presented stronger warnings against basing ethnolo­ and Philology. gical theories upon linguistic facts than in India. The" unholy alliance" between the two sciences has long been condemned, and has now fallen into disrepute, and I have, hence, in the following pages refrained so far as was possible from discussing questions of racial origin. When I have done so, it has only been to bring forward theories regarding the origin of nationalities which have been previously suggested by professed ethnologists, and to attempt to throw light upon them when they are confirmed by philology. In one case only, is it permissible to draw inferences as to race from the facts presented by language. When we find a small tribe clinging to a dying language, surrounded by a dominant language which has superseded the neighbouring forms of speech, and which is superseding its tongue too, we are fairly entitled to assume that the dying language is the original tribal one, and that it gives a olue to the latter's racial affinities. Take as an instance the Malto spoken by the hillmen of . This language is decadent, and is surrounded by others which are superseding it. Even if we did not know it on other grounds, we should be justified in asserting that its speakers are Dravidian, because their tongue falls within that sub-family. With a dominant language the case is exactly the contrary. In India, the Indo­ Aryan languages,-the tongues of civilisation, and of the caste system with all the power and superiority which that system confers upon those who live under its sway,-are continually superseding what may, for shortness, be called the aboriginal languages such as those belonging to the Dravidian, the

>II' Elcluding Javanese and Malay. t Excluding Persian and Wakhi. 1 These are really two groups, not two languages. § Including Javanese, Malay, Persian, and Wakhi. INTRODUCTION. 3 \funda, or the Tibeto-Burman families. We cannot say that a Tibeto-Bur­ man· Koch' or a Dravidian Gond is an Indo-Aryan, because he speaks, as he oft~n does, an [ndo-Aryan language. The language of the J3rahl1is M Baluchistan is.. probably a Dravidian one, but many of the tribe speak the Branian Balochi in their own homes, and on the other side of India some of the tribe of Kharias speak a Munda language, others a Dravidian one, and others, again, the Indo-Aryan Bengali. It may be added that nowhere do we see the reverse process of a non-Aryan language superseding an Aryan one. It is even rare for one Aryan-speaking nationality to abandon its tongue in favour of another Aryan one. We continually find tracts of country on the border-land between two languages, which are inhabited by both communiti}, living side by side and each speaking its own language. In some localities, such as the District of Malda in Bengal, we actually find villages in which three languages are spoken, and in which the various tribes have evolved a kind of lingua franca to facilitate intercommunication, while each adheres to its own tongue for conversation amongst its fellows. 'rhe only exception to this general rule about the non-interchangeability of Indo-Aryan languages is caused by religion. has carried Urdu far and wide, and even in Bengal and Orissa we find Musalman natives of the country whose verna­ cular is not that of their compatriots but is an attempt (often a bad one) to reproduce the idiom of and . 4. This brings us to the question of tribal dialects, a subject that has not Tribal hitherto received the attention which it deserves. The matter is complicated Dialects. by the fact that very frequently a tribe gives its name to a language, not be- cause it is specially the language of the tribe, but because the tribe is an im­ portant one in the area in which it is spoken. Take, for example, the language which in the Census of 1891 was called "Jatki," i.e., "the language of the Jat tribe." But Jatki is not by any means the language of the Jat tribe alone. It is the language of the whole of the Western Punjab, in parts of which, it is true, Jats preponderate. The name Jatki was hence mislead- ing (the more so, because the Jats of the Eastern Punjab do not speak "Jatki.") and has been abandoned in the present Census for the more tenable "Lahnda," or "Language of the West." So again, in the hills north of Murree there are a number of dialects varying according to locality. One of the important tribes living in these hills is the Chibh, and these Chibhs every- where speak the dialeot of the place where they live. But the question-beg- ging name of "Chibhali" or" the language of the Chibhs" was invented, and employed to mean "the dialect of the hills north of MUTI'ee," whereas, there are several dialects spoken by Chibhs, and, moreover, the Chibhs are by no means the only people who speak them. Another group of tribal tongues consists of those which are here classed as Gipsy languages. They are the speeches of wandering who employ, mainly for professional purposes, dialects different from that of the tract over whioh they may possibly have wandered for generations. These tribal tongues may be real languages, such as the Aryan Labhani and the Dravidian Yerukala, or may be argots in which local words are distorted into a slang like what we find in the "Latin" patter of thieves. Finally, there is another class of tribal dialects in whioh a has migrated to a new seat, and has gradually developed a new language, based on that of its former home, but corrupted and mixed with that of the people amongst whom its new lot is cast. It is evident that if part of a Rajputana tribe migrates to a country of whioh Bundeli is the vernacular, while another wends its way to a district in which Marathi is spoken, the resultant languages spoken by the two groups of the same tribe will be very different, although both are based. on Rajasthani. Such has actually occurred in several instances in the Central PI'ovinces, and there are also in other parts of India many cases of immigrant tribes who have preserved their language in a more or less corrupted form. Perhaps the most striking example is a colony of speakers of corrupt Sindhi, who live in the upper Gangetic . 5. The identification of the boundaries of a language, or even of a language Identifica­ itself, is not always an easy matter. A.s a rule, unless they are separated by tion and] t . . f nomenC a ure great ethnIC differences, or by some natural obstacle, such as a range 0 o£ Indian mountains or a large river, Indian languages gradually merge into each other, languages. B 2 4 THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA. and are not separated bY-hard and fast boundary lines. "When such boundaries are spoken of, or are shown on a map, they must always be unJerstoud as clmventional methods of showing a state of things that does not really -e~ist. It must be remembered that on each side of the conventional line there is a border tract of greater or less extent, the language of which may be classed at will with one or other. Here we often find that two different observers report different conditions as existing in one and the same area, although both are right. For instance, the census places the north-western frontier of Bengali some twenty or thirty miles to the east of that fixed by the Linguistic Survey, and I no more maintain that the survey figures are right than that the census figures are wrong. From one point of view both are right, and from another both are wrong. It is a mere question of personal equation. Having fixed the locality of our language, it is by no means easy to get at its name. As a rule, in Northern India natives do not grasp the idea con­ noted by the word" language." They understand that connoted by "dialect" readily enough, but their minds are not trained to grasp the conception, so familiar to us, of a general term embracing a number of interconnected dialects. It is as if we in spoke of " Somel'setshire " and " Yorkshire" dialects but never used the term" ." Moreover, the average native rarely knows the name of his own dialect, though he can recognise without difficulty the dialect spoken by a stranger. A man of Oudh may be unaware that he himself speaks Awadhi, though he will say at once that A speaks Bhojpuri, and that B speaks Braj Bhashii.. Again, many dialect titles are of the nature of nicknames, such as Jangali, the language of the forest boor, or Riithi, that of the ruthless ones. Jangali, for instance, is a well-known name of the language of a certain tract in the Punjab, but when you go into the tract and ask for Jangali speakers, you are assured that it is not to be found here, but is the speech of the fellow a little further on. You go further on and gAt the same reply, the language receding like a Will-o-the-Wisp at each stage <.,: your .progress. From all this it follows that, in Northern India, the language­ names have generally been invented by the English, while the dialect-names have been obtained, not from the speakers, but from "the fellow" who is not " a little further on." General 6. In the following account of the vernacular languages of India I have arrangement arranged them in the order of antiquity, putting, so far as was possible, the of Chapter. languages which it is probable are the oldest languages of India first, and then those of later immigrants. I hence commence with the Selungs of the Mergui Archipelago, who, ethnologists believe, are perhaps the remains of the earliest inhabitants of Further India. Then the Indo-Chinese, on account of the anti­ quity of the Mon-Khmers; next the Dravido-Munda languages, as the Munda languages appear to be as old as the last-named; and lastly the Aryan forms of speech. Finally I mention a few languages which have as yet defied classifica­ tion, and the languages of countries outside India, but which are spoken there by immigrants, temporary or otherwise, and are not vernaculars of the country.

]IALAYO-POLYNESIAN F AltIILY. The lUalay Group. 7. The only representatives of this family whioh are vernaculars of British India are Selung or, as the Burmese call it, Selon, and Nicobarese. Malay and Javanese are Population Language. returningii. also reported, but they are spoken by foreigners. The Selungs are a tribe of sea-gipsies inhabiting Javanese . 1 the islands of the Mergui Archipelago and the Malay · · 2,460 adjacent parts of the Malay Peninsula. Their Seluug • · · 1,318 Nioobarese · · 6,513 -language would not present many points of interest · · did it not afford a clue to ethnologists. It is most nearly related to the Cham or Tiam spoken by the TOTAL, Malay Family 10,292 aborigines of Cambodia, and these two are the only . . languages ?f the family which belong to the main- la~d of ASIa excludmg the Malay Penmsula. In some particulars they show pomts of agreement with the language of the .Philippines, but in other respects

ILLUSTRATING THE LOCAUTIES IN WHICH THE INOO·CHINESE LAN- I GUAGES OF EASTERN INDIA ARE SPOKEN. &c ~, 1 [1tC4 =6.+ llil~ . o so LOO'

REFERENCE. I Mon.Khmer 8ub-FlIIllily Er3 i Tibeto-BllJ'JIlJlu Sub-Family I North !.!!am Un.," _ Bodo Group 0 11 ~.gi Group 0 I Run-Chin Gro.p trm Kacl>in Group and Hybrid. r:::J Burma Group and Hybrids 0 Siam ...-Cbw... Sub-Family Sinitic Group (Karen) CJ TBi Group EJ:] I HOJAI 3 SETE 6 RENGN.i. 2 SARA 4 RANGKHOL 7 KElHANA 5 JANQSHEN 8 NARAN 9 "ARIHG

~1I. 1 ,Ol".:c1tl INDO-CHINESE FAMILY. 5 they have struck out lines for themselves and must be considered to be entirely ind~p~naen£ forms ,of speech, although in later times they have been subjected ro the infh.tence"''1f Malay and of the other dialects spoken in their neighbourhoods. Their independ,mt character renders it improbable that they are importations from Malacca or the Indian Archipelago, and both their peculiar characteristic~, and the persistent traditions of the people who speak them, point to the prolJability that th~y are relics of the language of a nation which was settled in very early times on the continent of Further India. This may assist ethnologists in determining the original home of the Malay nationalities. 8. The dialects of the Nicobal's are all closely connected with Malay. They Nicobal'ese. contain few borrowed vocables, and are rich in specialised wOl' for actions ahd concrete ideas, but poor in generic and abstract terms. Their main peculiarity is the custom of employing infixes to modify the meaning of a primitive word. They have been studied since the commencement of the eighteenth century, and the Gospels have been translated into Central'Nicobarese by the Moravian Mission- aries (17fi8-1787). The best known modern authorities are the works of Man and De Roepstorff. We see, when dealing with the Mon-Khmer languages, that although they belong to a linguistic family altogether different from that under which Nicobarese must be classed, both groups of speeches, as well as the members of the Munda tongues of the continent of India, possess a common substratum which suggests interesting ethnological problems. Colonel Sir Richard Temple has written a very full account of the language in the Andaman report for this Census. He prefers to class it under the Mon- Khmer family.

TIlE INDO-CHINESE FA~IILY. 9. I suppose that no great family of speeches, not even the Indo-European,

I is spoken over so wide an extent of country-from Population Central Asia to the Malay Peninsula, and from Sub·Family. returning it Baltistan to Pekin-or by so many millions of people, as that formless, ever~moving, ant-horde of Mon·Khlller . 427,760 dialects, the Indo-Ohinese. So vast is the area Tibeto·Bnrman . 9,560,454 covered by it, and so apparently infinite is the Siamese·Cl.iuese . . 1,724,085 number of its members, that no single scholar can hope to master them in their entirety. A few of TOTAL, Indo-Chinese. 11,712,299 them, such as 'fibetan, Burmese, or Chinese, have been more or less thoroughly investigated by specialists; of others we have only a· few words" single bricks, each of which we have to take as a specimen of an entire house; while of others, again, we only know the names, or not even that. 10. The first attempts at classifying this mass of languages were made by Ear!y i';l­ Brian Houghton Hodgson, ela/rum et venera bile nomen, and his works still form vestlgatlons. the foundation of all similar undertakings. Closely following Hodgson came the enthusiastic and indefatigable Logan, to whom we are indebted for much that relates to Burma and Assam. After him we find several writers, some, like Mason, Cushing, :PQJ'bes, or Edkins, armed with a practical mastery of a portion of the field, and adding new facts to our knowledge, and others, trained philologists like Max Miiller, ]!'riedrich Miiller, or Terrien de Lacouperie, who examined the materials collected by the former, and did something towards reducing order out of chaos. Such was the condition of affairs in 1891, at the time of the last census. Since then considerable progress has been made. 11. European scholars, among whom may be mentioned Professor E. Kuhn !-ates~ of :'Munich and Professor Conrady of Leipzig, have put together a framework of ~r;:::lga­ classification which is generally accepted as correct by scholars who are in a pmdtion to judge its value. They have even succeeded in formulating phonetic laws which bridge over the difference between what are apparently the most widely separated languages, and in suggesting a most plausible theory to account for the origin of the tones which are so characteristic of these forms of speech. Their conclusions have been remarkably confirmed by the new facts lately brought to light through the publication of the Gazettee'f' of Uppe'f' Burma. 12. If there is one principle which is unwersally accepted in comparative Prineipl~s philology, it is that langua.ges must be classed according to their grammars. ~!ti~:~slfi- 6 THE LA.NGUA.GES OF INDIA. Vocabulary alone is but an untrustworthy guide. If we judged by vocabulary,· the Latinised English of Dr. Johnson would have to be recorded as -a Romance language, and Urdu as a Semitic or Eranian one, whereas everyone knows that English is really Teutonic, and Urdu Indo-Aryan. The rule ap1:llies' admirably tJ languages like Sanskrit or Latin OL' English, which have grammars, but what are we to do when we come to deal with languages which to our Aryan ideas have no grammar at nll,-forms of speech which make no distinction between , or , or verb, which have no inflexions or hardly any, and which are entirely composed of monosyllables that never ('hange their forms? Accord­ ing to the Oentury Dictionary, grammar is " a systematic account of the usages of a language, as regards especially the parts of speech it distinguishes, the forms and uses of inflected words, and the combinations of words into sentences." Hence, to answeF the above question, we must either abandon our principle or en­ large our conception of grammar by omitting the word" inflected" from the defini­ tion. We are thus thrown back upon the forms and uses of words generally; that is to say, we are compelled to lay more upon a comparison of voca­ bularies, and, as will be seen subsequently, this will really bring us back to our principle. Indo-Chinese languages, like the Buddhists who speak them, have passed through many births. They, too, are under the sway of karma. The latest investigations have shown that in former existences they were inflected, with all the familiar panoply of prefix and suffix, and that these long dead accre­ tions are still influencing each word in their vocabularies in its form, its pro­ nunciation, and even the position which it now occupies in a sentence. The history of an Indo-Chinese word may be compared to the fate of a number of exactly similar stones which a man threw into the sea at several places along the shore. One fell into a calm pool, and remained unchanged; another received a coating of mud, which, in the course of centuries, itself became a hard outer covering entirely concealing what was within; another fell among rocks in a stormy channel, and was knocked about and chipped and worn away by continual attrition till only a geologist could identify it; another was burro~ed into by the phblas till it became a caricature of its former self; another was overgrown by limpets, and then was so worn away and ill-treated by the rude waves that, like the grin of Alice's Cheshire cat, all that remained was the merest trace clinging to the shell of its whilom guest.

Laborious and patient analysis has enabled scholars to tra I the fate of some vocables through all their different vicissitudes. For insL:ace, no two words can apparently be so different as rang and ma, both of which mean "horse," and yet we can trace the derivation of the latter from the former, although all that has remained of the original rang in the Chinese ma is the of in which the latter is pronounced! Original 13. Tradition and comparative philology agree in pointing to N orth-Western borne. , between the upper courses of the Yang-tse-kiang and of the Ho-ang-ho, as the original home of the Indo-Chinese race. * Further India and Assam have been populated by successive waves of Indo­ Chinese invaders, each advancing in turn down the courses of one or more of the principal streams, the Brahmaputra, the Chindwin, the Irrawaddy, the Salwin, the Me-nam, and the Me-khong, and driving its predecessors nearer to the sea-coast, or into the mountain fastnesses which overlook the valleys. Philo­ logy, moreover, teaches us that the earliest immigrants must have found another race already settled there, concerning whom little definite is known. It is prob­ able that its members were of the same stock as the progenitors of the great Munda race, and also of some of the tribes whioh are now found on the Australian continent. Mon­ 14. The first Indo-Chinese to invade the territory were the ancestors of Kbmexs. the Mon-Khmers, whom we now find driven to the south coast of the penin­ sula, or surviving, as Khassis, Palaungs, or Was, in the hill country further north, but who must once have occupied a large area, if not the whole, of what is now Assam and Indo-China. Anam, Cambodia, and Tenasserim are the coast strong­ holds of languages of the race at the present day, and from the last-named locality they have in comparatively recent times moved north into the lately­ formed delta of the Irrawaddy and have occupied Pegu.

• See E. Kuhn, Ueber Herkunft und Sp'l'acne der transgal'lgcticcnen 11011&ar. pp. 4 and 8. . INDO~CHINESE F A.'MILY • 7 15. The Tibeto-Bul'mans appear to have migrated in later times westwards Tibeto. from ..tb.e same original seat towards the head-waters of the Irrawaddy and tqe Burmans. Chindwin. Thence some followed the upper course of the Brahmaputra, the T . Sanp~, north tf the Himalayas, and peopled Tibet. A few of these crossed the br:~~:~~­ watm'shed and occupied the hills on the southern side of the range, where they m~t Ti?eto­ {'lnd mingled with others of the same family who had wandered along'the lower ::,:~~~yan Brahmaputra through the Assam Valley. At the great bend of the river, near the present town of , these last followed it to the south, and occupied first the , and then what is now the State of Hill Tippera. Others of Assam­ these appear to have ascended the valley of the Kapili and the neighbouring ~nrmhse streams into the hill country of North Oachar, but the mountainous tract betwee_n I:sa;~obable it and the Garo Hills, now known as the Khasi and Jaintia Hills, they failed li~eso~ to occupy, and it still remains a home of the ancient 1\fon-Khmer speech. Other mIgratIOn. members of this Tibeto-Burman borde halted at the head of the Assam Valley and turned south. They took of the N aga Hills, and became the ancestors of that confused sample-bag of tribes, whose speeches we call for convenience the Naga group. Some of these probably entered the Eastern Naga country directly, but others entered the Western Niiga country from the south via , and there are signs of this northern movement still going on even at the present day. Other members remained round the head-waters of the Irrawaddy and the Chindwin, where Kachin is now spoken, and there became a nursery for further emigrations. One of the earliest of these must have been into Manipur, where they settled, for the Meithei language there spoken shows not only points of agree- ment with that spoken at the present day in its original home, but also with those of all the other emigrants. A nother of these swarms settled in the upper basins of the Irrawaddy and the Chindwin, and gradually advanced down the courses of those streams, driving before themselves, or absorbing, or leaving untouched in the high- lands, their predecessors the Mon -Khmers. Before their language had time to materially change from the form of speech spoken in the home they had left, branches of these turned westwards and settled in the Chin Hills, south of Manipur.* There they increased and multiplied, till, driven by the pressure of population, they retraced their steps northwards in wave after wave along the hills, leaving colonies in Lushai Land, Cachar, and even amongst their cousins of Manipur and their more distant relations of the N aga Rills. Their descendants speak some thirty languages, all different yet all closely connected, and classed together with Meithei as forming the Kuki-Ohin group. 1'he main branch of the south- ward moving swarm, the ancestors of the modern Burmese, continued to follow its line of march along the rivers, till it ultimately occupied the whole of the lower country, and founded the capitals of Pagan and Prome. Finally, in quite modern times, another migration of the Kachins has pressed towards the south, and their progress has only been stopped by our occupation of Upper Burma. That there is complete historical evidence for all that precedes cannot be pretended. Much of it deals with prehistoric times. All that I have endea- voured to do is to present the opinions which I have based on a comparison of local traditions with the facts presented by ethnology and philology. It must be confessed that some of the steps have been taken with hesitation and upon doubtful ground. 16. We are treading on firmer soil when we approach the third and last great Si~meBe­ invasion, that of the speakers of the Siamese-Chinese languages, although we are Chinese. unable to fix the time and circumstances of the entry of one branch of them,-the Karens. All that we can say about the Karen language is that it is a pre- Karen. Chinese one, and that it must provisionally be clrulsed in this family, the other branches of which are the Ohinese and the Tai or Sham. With the Chinese Chineile. Tai. we have nothing to do. The Tais first appeared in histol'y in Yiin·nan, and from thence they migrated into Upper Burma. The earliest swarms .ppear to have entered that traot about two thousand years ago, and were small in number. Later and more important invasions were undoubtedly due to the pressure of the Chinese. A great wave of Tai migration desoended in the sixth century of our era from the mountains of southern Y iin-n,an into the valley of the Shweli and the adjacent regions, and tbrough it that valley became the centre

" Another possible view is that these Chin tribes bmnched off not from the Burmese invaders but from the Meitheis who had settled in thE) Manipur Valley. Linguistic ev~dence, however, points to the account given ahove II.S the most probable statement of the facts. 8 THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA. of their political power. Early in the thirteenth century their capital was fixed at the present Mung Mau. From the Shweli the Tai or Sham, or (as ,the :;Svrn;H;)Se rulled them) Shan, spread south-east over the present Shan States, north ,Into the present Khiimti region, and west of the Irrawaddy into all the~ country lying between it, the Ohindwin, and Assam. In the thirteenth centUl'y, one of their tlibes, the Ahoms, overran and conquered Assam itself, giving their name to that country. Not only does tradition assert that these Shans of Upper Burma are the oldest members of the Tai family, but they are always spoken of by the other branches as the Tai Long, or Great Tai, while these others call themselves the Tai N oi or Little 'l'. 'l'hese earliest settlers and other parties from Yun-nan gradually presserl s0uthwards, driving before them, as the Tibeto-Burmans had done in the valley of the Irrawaddy, their cousins the Mon-Khmers, but the process was a slowone. It was not until the fourteenth century of our era that the Siamese 'fai estab­ lished themselves in the great delta of the Me-nam, and formed a wedge of Tai­ speaking people between the Mon-Khmers of Tenasserim and those of Oambodia. The word" Siam" is but a corruption of "Sham." The Shans of Upper Bmma were not so fortunate. Their power reached its zenith in the closing years of the thirteenth centurYI and thereafter gradually decayed. The Siamese and Lao dependencies became a separate ldngdom under the of Ayuthia, the old capital of Siam. Wars with Burma and the Chinese were frequent, and the invasions of the latter caused great loss. The last of the Shan States, Mogaung, was conquered by the Burmese king Alom­ phra in the middle of the eighteenth century, but by the commencement of the seventeenth centmy Shan history had already merged into that of Burma, and the Shan principalities, though they were always restive and given to frequent rebellions and to intestine wars, never succeeded in throwing off the yoke of the Burmans. :SummaI'Y· 17. To sum up the history of the Indo-Chinese languages so far as it relates to India. The earliest Indo-Chinese inhabitants of Further India, including Assam, were Mon-Khmers. Subsequent invasions of Tibeto-Burmans have thrust them down to the seaboard, leaving a few waifs and strays in the highlands of their old homes. Of the Tibeto-Burman stock, one branch entered Tibet, some of whose members crossed the Himalayas, and settled on the southern slopes of that range. Others followed the course of the Brahmaputra, and even occupied the Garo Bills and Tippera. Others made their homes in the N aga Bills, the Valley of Manipur, and the head-waters of the Chindwin and Irrawaddy. From the last named region a tribe made its comse south, leaving a colony' en 'route in the Chin Hills, whence, again, a backwash has appeared in Lushai Land, Cachar, and the neighbourhood, in modern times. '1'he rest of the tribe gradually forced its way down the valley of the Irrawaddy, where it settled and founded a comparatively stable kingdom. Finally, a third swarm, the Tai, conquered the mountainous country to the east of Upper Burma, and spread north and west among, but not conquering, the Tibeto·Burman Kachins of the upper country. They also spread south, and occupied the Mon-Khmer country between them and the sea, and their most important members now occupy a strip of territory running north and south, with Burmese and, lower down, Mon speakers on their west, and Chinese and Mon-Khmer languages on their east. General. 18. Indo-Ohinese languages exhibit two of the three wen-known divisions ~I:r:f~~I~B' of speech,-the isolating, the agglutinative, and the inflected. From this Indo·Chine,e list it is not to be assumed that an isolating language is necessarily in the earliest fnf~geB. stages of its development. All Indo-Chinese languages were once agglutinative, bS:~~;~B. but some of them, Chinese for instance, are now isolating; that is to say, the old prefixes and suffixes have been worn away and have lost their significance; every word, whether it once had prefix or suffix, or both, or not, is now a monosyllable; and, if it is desired to modify it in respect to time, place, or relation, this is not done by again adding a new prefix or a new suffix, but by compounding with it, i.e., simply adding to it, some new word which has a meanin~ of its own, and is not incorporated with the main word in any way. For example, the Chinese word indicating the idea of " going " is lceu, and that .~ indicating the idea of" completion" is leaou, and if a wishes to ~ convey the idea of" he went," he says "he going completion," ta lceu leaou. Even in Chinese, some of these subsidiary words which modify the meaning of INDO-CHINESE FAMILY. 9 tke nrincipal one have lost their significance as separate vocables, and only continue.in ·existellce as prefixes 01' suffixes. This brings us to the agglutinati~g' Aggluti­ stage of language, in which sentences are built up of words united to formal n~ting parts, prefixes, suffixes, or infixes, which denote the relationship of each to the languages. other members of the phrase. The differences, in kind and degoree, between the various agglutinating languages are very great; the ranges from a scantiness hardly superior to Chinese isolation, up to an intricacy which is almost incredible. We may take the Tai language as examples of forms of speech in which the agglutinative principle is showing signs of superseding the isolating one, while in the Tibeto-Burman family it has practically done so, and but few of the suffixes are capable of being used as words with independent meanings. They are agglutinative languages almost in the full sense of the term. There is one more stage which we meet but rarely, and even then in sporadic instances, in Inflecting Indo-Chinese languages. In it the words used as affixes have not only lost languages. their original meaning, but have become so incorporated with the main word which they serve to modify, that they have become one word with it, and the two are no longer capable of identification as separate words except by a process of analysis. Moreover, the root word itself becomes liable to alteration. This stage is known as the inflectional, and Sanskrit and the other Indo-European languages offer familiar examples of it. 19. Before proceeding further, it will be useful to quote the following Expression general observations which were made by the late Professor Friedrich Muller of o£dabstractt an cencre 8 Vlenna· In. h'IS great wor k on comparat' Ive p h'l10 1 ogy :- - ideas. "The manner in which primitive conceptions are formed is of the greatest importance in influencing the further development of a language as a medium for expressing human thought. Things may be conceived in their concrete entirety, or they may be sub­ divided into their different components, which are then classified according to certain characteristics, and conceived as more abstract ideas. In the former ca~e the language does not proceed further than to intuition; in the latter it develops abstract conceptions and ideas. "The la.nguages belonging to the former class are, it is true, very picturesque and poetical, possessing an extraordinary large stock of concrete and characteristio terms for individual things; but they are quite unfitted for acting as mediums of higher thought, not being able to denote abstract ideas free from all accidental properties. This linguistic tendency, in its turn, influences the mind, so that it beoomes unable to perform the higher aots of thinking by means of abstract ideas. " There are many languages which possess words to denote the varieties of different animals, but have got no word for animal. They are able to distinguish the various modes of sitting by means of distinct picturesque terms, but the simple idea ' to sit' cannot find expres­ sion. Such languages have no proper comprehension of form, and are quite unfit for the classification and combination of ideas. The principal reason is that they do not possess particles, that is, words with a wider meaning, which support the act of thinking. like algebraic formulas. When such languages are forced into modern conceptions, as, for instance, in translating the Bible, they are at once overcome by the substance; they conceive as substance what we conceive as form. " The deficiency of such languages is, to no small extent, due to the fact that they do not possess a real verb, the whole expression starting from substantival conceptions."* All the Indo-Chinese languages once belonged to the class just described, although some of those which have developed a literature, like Chinese, Siamese, and Tibetan, have overcome the difficulty of not possessing a real verb, and are

* It would be more correct to say that these languages possess neither noun nor verb, but a "something .. which is neither noun nor verb, and which can be used £01' both. 'I'here is no word in English cnpable of denot­ ing exactly what this inderinite" something" is, and the use by Muller of terms borrowed from European grammatical terminology has misled more than one scholar. 10 THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA. now able to express abstract ideas. But most of those with which we are no}V cqp.cerned, and especially the Tibeto-Burman ones, are still in the stage ,Gf "being Olily able to easily express concrete ideas. Many of them, for instance, do not possess a general term for so simple an idea as "man," but have to use their o~n trjbal name instead. They can speak of an Englishman, a SIllgpho, a Mande or Gur6, and an Arleng 01' Mikir, but they have no word for" man" in the abstract. Again, Lushei has nine or ten words, at least, for different kinds of ants, but no word for" ant" generally. . The words denoting relationship and parts of the body are the results of an abstraction. A father in the abstract, who is not the father of any particular individual, is an idea which requires a certain amount of reflection; and such words are, accordingly, hardly ever used alone in the Tibeto-Burman languages, but are (with few exceptions) always preceded by a pronoun, or a noun in the . We find" my father," "thy ," "his hand;" but "father," "mother," and "hand" are not used by themselves. Most Tibeto-Burmans would be sadly put to it to translate literally such a sentence as "the hand possesses five fingers." The possessive pronoun of the third person occurs, of course, much more frequently than those of the first and second persons, and it has in several languages lost its proper meaning, and has become a bare meaningless prefix, used with all when they are employed in an abstract sense. I have referred to this process in some detail, as it well illustrates how, as the noed for the ·use of abstract nouns grew with the progress of civil­ isation, it has been supplied in a very simple way in a large class of languages. We have evidence of every stage of the process, and we meet instances of it in tracts so wide apart as Kush and the Chin Hills.- Similarly, the Indo-Chinese verb has grown out of a noun,-another example of the development of the abstract from the concrete. The simplest Tibeto­ Burman form of "I .go" is the concrete idea of "my going." "I went" is ~'my-going completion," and on this system has grown the entire conjugation of the neuter verb which we find in rribeto-Burman grammars. On the other hand, "I beat him" is "by-me his beating," which we at once see can represent either an active (I beat him), or a passive (he is beaten by me) expression. 1'his explains the statement we so often see that these languages possess no passive. 'I'hey have no voice at all, either active or passive, because they have no real verbs. Tones. 20. A brief notice is here demanded regarding the tones which form so charac- teristic a feature of most Indo-Chinese languages. So characteristic are they, that some writers have proposed to group all these forms of speech as "polytonic languages," a classification which is faIse, first, because some Indo-Chinese languages possess only one tone, and, secondly, because where more exist they are not an essential but an accidental characteristic of the languages. The number of tones in anyone Indo- varies from eight in Manda­ rin Chinese to two or three in Burmese and only one in Western Tibetan. A tone is a . It may be low or high in pitch, or it may be a glide from a higher to a lower note or vice versa. But a musical note is characterised not only by its pitch ;-it also varies according to the period of time during which its sound is continued. There is a great difference between a semibreve and a quaver. So, also, in tones, there is a cross-division, according as the words to which they are applied are pronounced fully or abruptly. We may quote an ·.example from English, where the" no" of peremptory refusal is spoken in the " abrupt" or " entering" tone, while the "no" of ordinary conversation is pro­ iIlounced much longer. We may, therefore, divide the tones of Indo-Chinese languages into two classes, pitch-tones and -time-tones, with the proviso that the two may be combined. Lepsius long ago suggested, and Professor Conrady has lately brilliantly proved, that these pitch-tones are due to the disappearance of prefixes. In a dissyllabic word composed of a prefix plus a root, the accent was strongly on the root. The natural tendency was for the unaccented prefix to gradually wear away, and, instead of the accent, which, as the word was now a monosyllable again could no longer exist, the pitch-tone was given to the word as a kind of compensation, indicating the fmmer existence of the disappeared

• All ag;;lutinlltive languages do not form abstract nouns in this way. For instance, in Bome Mrlanesian 6peec~es, in "hich a &imilar state of affairs exists, a special tel'mination is employed which gives II. purely abstract meanmg. MON-KHMER SUll-FAMILY•. 11

prefix. It follows that where prefixes are still used there is the less necessity ft>r tc>~s .•Thus, Chinese and Siamese, whioh have no prefixes, have many, whUe 1311rmese, which uses prefixes more freely, has only two or three. In Sle . Indo-Chinese languages of Assam and Upper Burma, which like Burmese are purely agglutinatwe languages, we notice a similar poverty of tones. We rarely hear of lllore than one or two, although it must be confessed that, owing to tile lack of trained observers on the spot, our information on the subject is scanty . • The question is different in regard to time-tones. The abruptness with which a word is pronounced strikes at once the most uneducated hearer, and in many cases the various observers have represented it very naturally by the letter k attached to the which is so pronounced. Thus, in Khassi, the word la is pronounced fully and is the particle indicating past time, while the word tlah is pronounced abruptly and indicates potentiality. The origin of this time-tone is not due to the disappearance of a prefix. The subject has not yet been thoroughly studied, but so far as the Assam-Burma languages are concerned it appears to be certainly caused by the of a hard final . We see this clearly in words like the Lushei mit, an eye, which becomes mhi in , and mih in Kachin, both with the abrupt tone. So also in many other cases. 21. The order of words is not a distinguishing feature of the Indo-Chinese Ordr of languages as a whole. There must once have been a time when this order was wore s. not fixed as it is at present. With the disappearance of prefixes and suffixes the want was felt of some method for defining the relation which each word bore to its neighbour in a sentence. This was partly done by :(1xing its position, but the different families did not all adopt the same system. The Siamese-Ohinese and the Mon-Khmer families adopted the order of subject, verb, object, with the adjective following the noun qualified, while in the Tibeto-Burman family, we have subject, object, verb, and the adjective usually, but not always, follow- ing the noun. Again, in the Tai and Mon-Khmer sub-families and in Nicobarese, the genitive case follows the noun by which it is governed, while in Tibeto­ Burman and Chinese it precedes it. This order of words is an important Cl'ite- rion in judging of the relationship of these families with other branches of human speech, such as the Dravidian or Munda ones, with which comparison has more than once been made.

The UOll-Iihmer Sub-Family. 22. This family (often called the Mon-Anam), of which but few speakers were ~nlnrther n a. - recorded at the Oensus of 1891, now demands fuller Population treatment, both on account of the increased number Language. returning it. of people who have been discovered to speak some form or other of it, and on account of its importance Mon . 174,510 for the purposes of ethnological enquiry. Thanks Palaung 67,7fi6 to the labours of Professor E. Kuhn, we know that Wa 7.667 Khassi . . . 177,821 the Khassi of Central Assam, which has hitherto been looked upon as an isolated form of speech, TOTAL, Mon-Khmer Sub·Family. . 427,760 belongs to it. Mon of Pegu, the Khmer of Cam- bodia, the Anamese of Cochin China, and numerous other dialects spoken along the lower and middle course of the Me-khong are also members. Closely connected with these last are the Palaung and Wa, with other minor dialects spoken in Upper Burma to the north-west of . Almost everywhere it presents the same appearance, that of a once powerful and widely-extended language which has been superseded, 01' is in course of supersession, by others. In Assam the super- In A8SIlUl. seders have been the Tibeto-Burman tongues, which, in their turn, are being gradually ousted by the Aryan Assamese. Only in the strongholds of the Khasi and Jaintia Hills has an island of Mon-Khmer speech survived. In Burma, In Burma. Karen and Burmese, belonging to two widely different stems of the same Indo­ Ohinese family, have driven 1\1 on or 'l'alaing down to the seaboard province of Pegu, only Palaung remaining as a waif in Loi Long, the State of "the Great :Mountain," and its near relation the Wa in the hill country between the Salwin and the Me-khong. The speech is fairly preserved in the inhospitable hills along t~e course of the Me-khol1g, till we arrive at Cambodia where, in the c 2 12 THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA.

form of Khmer, it still s"p..rvives as an acknowledged national tongue. Siamese has driven it from Siam, and, in Cochin China, we see the Anamese in the ~ctud cO'ltrse of supersession by Chinese. • ~'. Connexion • 23. The resemblances between the Mon-Khmer vocabularies and those', on ;i.th bMund~ the one hand, of the Munda languages, and, on the other hand, <# Nicobar and the M~l~c~~' an Mttlacca dialects, have often been pointed out. These are so remarkable and of Ian gURges. such frequent occurrence that a connexion between all these tongues cannot be doubted. At the same time the structures of the two speeches differ in import­ ant particulars. The Mon-Khmer languages are monosyllabic. The others are l)olysyllabic. The order of words in a sentence is different, and, as the order of words follows the order of the thoughts of the speakers, it follows that Mon­ Khmer people think in an order of ideas different from that of the others. It is not, therefore, safe to assume a common origin for these two sets of languages. It is certain, however, that there is at the bottom of all of them a common sub­ over which there have settled layers of the speeches of other peoples, differing in different localities. This substratum was firmly enough established to prevent its being entirely hidden by them, and frequent undeniable traces of it are still discernible in languages spoken in Nearer and Further India. It is possible, too, that Anamese itself represents a reversed condition of affairs, and that it does not properly belong to the Mon-Khmer family, but fell under its influence in later times, just as it is now falling under that of Chinese. The Munda languages at the present day stretch right across' the centre of continental India, from on the east to Nimar on the west, and we have seen that it is probable that the Mon-Khmer languages once covered the greater'part of Further India and of the present province of Assam. What the substratum was which was common to the two families of speech we are not yet in a position to' say. It may have been Mon-Khmer, or it may have been M unda, or, again, it may have been a language different from both. Recent researches, in which Professor ThO'msen, of Copenhagen, has taken a leading part, tend to' show that it is the second alternative which is more probably the true one, and that a form of speech from which the present Munda languages are descended has once been spoken, whether contemporaneously or at different times we cannot say, dver the greater part of the Indian continent, over Connexion Further India, and even over the Archipelago and in Australia. We cannot, ;'~~a~us, in the present state of our knowledge, 'tell whether this common language arrived in Further India from the north, or whether it arrived by sea and gradually worked upwards. It is, however, worth noting that the same tradition as to the advent of a prince from across the is current in Anam and Cambodia as well as in Pegu. Palaung Objections have been raised to the inclusion of Palaung and its a Mon· Khmer dialects in this family, on the ground that it has little resemblance to the dil'Iect. Mon of Pegu. No one ever said it had; but the Mon-Khmer family is a large one, and includes several subordinate groups of tongues, to one of which belongs Mon, while Palaung and the others belong to an entirely different one. Mon. 24. The languages of this family which are spoken in British India are the Mon or Talaing; Palaung, Wa, and their cognate dialects; and Khas~i. Mon is now only spoken in Pegu and the other coast districts round the Gulf of Martaban. During the later, days of Burmese rule its use was proscribed, but since then it has shown distinct signs of revival. It belongs to the same group of the languages of the family as Anamese, together with a number of other petty dialects spoken in Anam. It is curious that two such widely separated languages should be so closely connected. Between them lie, not only Siamese, but the cognate though very different Khmer dialects of Cambodia. Palaung·Wa 25. Palaung and Wa are the chief representatives of several dialects spoken group. on the upper middle course of the Me-khong, principally on its right bank. They are the only important members in British territory, though a few strag- glers speaking Khamu, Lemet, En, Riang, and other less known dialects are also found. Possibly Danaw, which is usually, and in this chapter, considered to be a corrupt form of Karen, also belongs to this group. Khassi. 26. Khassi, with its three dialects of Synteng, Lyngngam, and War, in addi­ tion to the standard form of speech, is another island of Mon-Khmer speech left untouched in the Khasi and J aintia Hills, in the midst of an ocean of 'l'ibeto- 'I.'IBETO-nURMAN sun-FAMILY. 13

~urman lang:uages. Logan w~s the first to suggest,· and Professor Kuhn has ~nce cpnchuuvely shown, th~t It and the Mon languages belong to a common stock. :The resemblances III the vocabularies of Khassi and of the dialects of the Palaung-Wa group settle the question. But the resemblance is not only one of voc@Jbulary. The construction of the Mon and of the Khassi sentence is the same. The various component parts are put in the same order. The. order o~ th~ught is th~ same. . Khassi forms a sepamte bmnch of the sub­ fall1lly to WhICh It belongs, III that It employs the so-called articles which are . wanting in the other memb~rs of the family, and has grammatical ge~der. Here we m~t leave the n:atter Ill. the hands of ethnologists. It will be interesting to see If any conneXlOn of trIbal customs can be tmced, and if the Mons or Palaungs.st~ll retain surviyals of the matriarchal state of society which ~ so charactel'lstIc of the KhassIs. The Palaungs, at any rate trace their oriO'in to a princess, and not to a prince. '0

Tibeto-Burman Sub-Family. 27. We have already seen how the great Tibeto-Burman family first of all split into two branches, one entering Tibet along the Population course of the Sanpo, as the upper waters of the Bl'IlDCh. returning it. Brahmaputra are named, and the other remaining on the south side of the Himalayas to populate Tibeto-Himalayan 425,814 Assam and Burma. So early an ethnical division North Assam • 41,731 Assam-Burmese. 9,092,909 naturally leads us to expect a corresponding divi­ sion of languages, and such indeed is partly the TOTAL, Tibeto-Bur-I case. Philologists have hitherto divided the 'l'ibeto­ m~n. f:ub·]<'amily. 9,560,454 Burman family of languages into two main branches, the 'l'ibeto-Himalayan and the Assam-Burmese. Tibeto.HilllA­ To these must be added a third, miscellaneous. group, which we may call, for layan and the sake of convenience, the .N orth Assam branch. ~he languages which form ~!~=~e this last are spoken on the southern face of the HImalayas extending from branches Towang eastwards. They occupy an intermediate philological position between r°rthh Assam the other two branches, and are spoken by tribes whose ancestors appear to have rane . migrated thither independently, and at different times, from the original home of the Tibeto-Burman race. 28. This division of the Tibeto-Burman languages is not, however, nearly so Mutual reo simple as it seems. The examination of all the Tibeto-Burman languages by lationshipof the Linguistic Survey is not yet finished. Pending its completion I have not t~~:~r:: ventured to disturb the conventional arrangement into two main branches, . except by adding the third, intermediate, North Assam branch, which was rendered necessary ·by the facts of the case. 'J.1his arrangement is a convenient one, and has geographical and ethnical bases for which a good deal can be said. Moreover, any revised classification would require reconsideration on the com- pletion of the Linguistic Survey. I may, however, give the following more detailed provisional classification of the 'Iibeto-Hurman languages as a whole, to illustrate what at the present time I believe to be their mutual relationship. It must be understood that it is the conventional, and not the following, arrange- ment which is adhered to in these pages. It appears from such a detailed examination of the Tibeto-Burman lan­ guages (mainly those of Assam and Burma) as we have been able to make that they fall into two main branches, one including not onl? the 'fibeto-Himalayan languages, but also those falling undeI' the Bodo, 1\ aga, and Kachin groups of the Assam-Burmese languages. The other branch is composed of the Kuki­ Chin and Burmese groups of the Assam-Burmese languages. The first branch falls into two sub-branches, consisting on the one side of the 'l'ibeto-Himalayan languages, and, on the other side, of the Bodo, Naga, and Kachin languages. Between these two sub-branches lies the group of North Assam languages, which is related to both. On the other hand, the Kachin group is not only related to the Tibeto-Himalayan branch, but also shows points of contact with the Kuki Chin languages, so that (although more closely related to'l'ibeto-Hima­ layan) it is an intermediate group between the two branches. This is what we should expect from the ethnic history of its speakers, for the Kachins still occupy what was approximately the original home of the Tibeto-Bul'man race before the 14 TIlE LANGUAGES OF INDIA.

parting of the ways occurred. '}'he mutual relationship of all these languages m?, be graphically represented by the following table:-

ORIGINAL TIBETO·BuRMAN LANGUAGE. I

! I Tibeto­ Bodo Niigit Kachin = Kuki-Chin Burma ,,,gr'"Himalayan grdup. group. group. group. group. -.-, North Assam group.

TIBETO-HIMALAYAN BRANCH. 29. The members of the Tibeto-Himalayan branch of the Tibeto·Burman 'languages with which the Census of India has to (jrouping of de·al are mainly those of which the speakers have Population the Language. languages. returnillg it. crossed the watershed of the Himalaya, and have settled on the southern slopes of that range. 'l'hese BhOtia 235,399 la~gu~g~s have as yet hardly ?een touched by the Lahuli · · 9,513 LmgIDstlC Survey, and pendmg the collection and Kanawari ·• · 19,525 Kiimi · · 11 arrangement of further materials, the merest sketch Bhriimii 15 must suffice. I shall not attempt to group them PadM · · 268 on philological principles, but give the arrange­ Hayii ·- ·. · 114 Kiri\nti (Khambii) (3)954 ment based on purely geographical considerations, (Yiikha). · 1,366 which has hitherto been customary. (Others) • · · 64 Gurung · · 7,481 39. The main language is that,which Europeans Mangar · · · 18,476 call Tibetan, its speakers Pho-ke, and natives of Sunuwiir · · · 5,265 Bhotili. 'i'hami · · · 319 India Bhatia. A language so well known requires Newiki · · 7,873 but a ShOl't notice on the present occasion, the more Murrni · 32,167 so because it can hardly be called a vernacular of any l\lanjhi · · · 902 LimbU · · 23,200 1arge tract in British India. The name "Tibetan" Rong · · · 19,291 does not exactly connote all the forms of speech · · 611 Dhimitl · · which are included in "Bhatia," and the latter is TOTAL, Tibeto·Hima· the more accurate name. U Tibetan" only refers Iayan Ianguaged · 425,814 to the language of Tibet, including . But the language of which the 'Tibetan of Lhasa is the standard extends over a wider area than this. It is spoken in parts of , in Bhotan, and by the ruling tribes of . These are all called Bhatia, but are not (according to the accepted meanin~ of the word) Tibetan. '1'0 save confusion it is therefore best to speak of one

Population I :Bhatia language, of which Tibetan, or Bhatia of Dialect. returning it. Tibet; BaIti, or Bhatia of Baltistan; Ladakhi, or Bhatia of Ladakh; Sharpa, or Bhatia of East Nepal; Tibetan 14,812 Denjong-ke, or Bhatia of Sikkim; the Bhatia of the Balt! · · 130,678 Tsang district of Tibet; and Lho-ke, or Bhotii1 of ·Ladakhi · · ~O 'Sharpa • · 4,407 , are those dialects (amongst many others) Denjong·ke · 8,825 with which the Census of . more imme­ LhO-ke . · · 40,765 35,822 diately concerned. Tibetan is formd in the State Bhatia of Others · · Tibet or · · of Sikkim and in the neighbouring Himalaya as a Tibet:.t.n. TOTAL, Bhotiii · 235,399 language of immigrants. It is also spoken in and Garhwal (the Hil]J.alayan districts of the United Provinces), and in the State bearing the latter name. In these last localities it is reported under various titles, such as Rankas, Huniya, Jad, or even J angali. In other cases the names are simply indicative of the locality where the speakers were found, such as Byangsi, spoken in Patti Byangs of Almora. Immediately to the north of the State of Garhwal lie :lwar and Spiti. The former has a language of its own, Kanawari, which will shortly be referred to, but it also includes some fifteen hundred speakers of a tongue called Badkat, Nyamkat, or Sangyas, which is said to be a form of Tibetan. TIBETO-BURMAN SUB-FAMILY. 15

So also are the dialects of Spiti or Piti and th~t of the neighbouring tah~ml.. 'Iliese names exhaust the forms which, so far as our information goes at present,: the Bhlitia of Tibet takes in British territory. Ladakhi is w~ll Ladakhi. known, thanks to the labours of the Moravian Missionaries at and other scholars. We ha"Ve a grammar by the Rev. A. H. Francke, and a diction- ary by Captain Ramsay, besides numerous detacherl papers in the journ~ls of various learned societies and in the Indian Antiquary. It differs from the standard dialect principally in its want of the. tones which are a characteristio of Eastern Tibetan, and in a more arohaio pronunoiation. Champa, spoken by a nomad tribe of Ladakh, may be provisionally classed Champa. as a sub-dialect of Ladakhi. Of Balti we have only somy short vocabu.- Biiltl. laries, which are sufficient to show that the archaic character of the pro­ nunciation is retained here still more than in Ladakh. The word slUf'r means" east," and Sharpa Bhotia is that spoken in North-East N~pal. Little Sh~~~ is known about it, but, according- to Mr. Sandberg, it differs but slightly from B!~otIa. Denjong--ke. A sub-variety of it is known as Kagateh Bhotia.. ~h~tii~h Dfmjong-ke, or Sikkim Bhotia, is the language of the predominant tribes Denjong·ke. of that State. These are descendants of Tibetans who began to overrun Sikkim about 350 years ago, and they now form the ruling raoe. They came from Tsang in Tibet, and their language has since developed on lines of its own. We have a g-rammar of it prepared by the Rev. Graham Sandberg. The Tibetans call Sikkim "Denjong," and Bhatan "Lho." 'rhe Bhatia of BhMan is therefore called Lho-ke. It is often called Bhotani, and it is found not only Lho·ke. in the State from which it takes its name, but also in . The little known Toto, heard in the Buxa sub-division of J alpaiguri, is probably a form To~o. _ of Lho-ke. Tsanglo Bhatia, spoken on the Assam frontier, is said to be another ~j~~fi() form. of the same dialect. . 31. Returning to the extreme west, we find Lahuli spoken in Lahaul and Lahuli. in the adjoining State of Chamba. It has three dialects; 'Ciz., Gari or Baniin, ~ii~i,_l'iniin, Tinun, and Patni or Manchat. To these may be added Kanashi or Malani, K~;~;hi. spoken in an isolated village in Kulu. The other three are all spoken in Lahaul. How far Lahuli is to be considered as a separate language, and not merely as an additional form of Bhotia, I am not at present able to say. As its name implies, Kanawari is the language of Kanawar in the Bashahr Kaniiwari. State of the Punjab. It is a language whioh has many remarkable character- istics that deserve closer study, and so far as the researches of the Linguistio Survey have gone, it seems probable that it will be found to be one of the Kiranti g'roup to be mentioned later. It has two dialects, Minchang or - ~inchang, hesti, spoken in Lower, and Tibarskad in Upper Kanawar. The}ormer is said Tlbarskad. to be mixed with the Indo-Aryan Western Pahari. 32. Kami and Bhramu are two dialects of Western Nepal, of which a few ~:n:i,_ speakers have turned up in the Census Returns of British India. Except for ramu. vocabularies by Hodgson, nothing is known about them. Padhi, Pahri, or Padhi. Pahi has its home in the hills of Central N epa!. B ayu or Vayu is spoken by a tribe inhabiting the basin of the Kosi, east H~Yii. _ of Nepal Proper, and has been fully described by Hodgson. '1'he Kiranti KlrantI. group of languages was also first brought to lig4t by that eminent scholar. Under that name he included no less than sixteen different forms of speech. According to native authorities, the name is at the present day strictly speak- ing applied to the languages spoken by the l1iiis, i.e" by the Jimdars and Yakhas who inhabit the portion of the present which lies between the Tambor River on the east and the Dud Kosi on the west. For census purposes, Jimdar has been treated as a syn~nym of Khambu, as is the Jimdiir,_ common opinion, but the country of the true Khambus, the Khambuan, lies ~::,~u, to the north-east of the Kiranti tract, on the southern spurs of the Himalayas. Pending the completion of the Linguistic Survey, the only important languages which I have definitely classed as Kiri"mti are therefore Khambu (including Jim.dar) and Yakha, although, no doubt, others belong to the same group. Among these are probably Limbu, and perhaps, as already stated, Kaniiwari. "Gurung and Man gar, " says Mr. Gait, "are spoken by the well-known tribes Gurun;-, of the same- names who form the backbone of our regiments. They sMangs_:.un1l.war. and the Sunuwars have their home in the basin of the Gandak, to the north- west of Nepal Proper, but they have spread eastwarcl~ and are now to be found 16 THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA.

all over Nepal, and even in Darjeeling and Sikkim. The Gurungs, who ip W'1stern Nepal are Buddhists, following the Lamas of Tibet, show more-ril.ark~d affinities to Tibetan in their vocabulary than do most of the other Nepal tribes. They are now abandoning for , and at the same time are giving up their tribal language in favour of Khas ...... The Mangars are much 'Ih3mi. more faithful to their mother tongue ...... The Sunuwars and Thamis have also, as a rule, preserved their own lang-uage. Thami is sometimes supposed to be l'iewiiri. identical wit.h Sunuwar, but this is a mistake." N ewari was the ancient state language of Nepal before the overthrow of the N ewar dynasty in 1769. As Mr. Gait points out, "Newar" and" Nepal" are only different forms of the salPe word, and N ewari is not now a tribal language, but is that of a nation, i.e., of the subjects of the old Newar kingdom. It is the vernacular of Central and Eastern Nepal. Hodgson is the only English authority who has ~iven it any study, but it has received considerable attention from scholars in Germany Murmi. and Russia, who have published a grammar and a dictionary. The M urmis of Eastern Nepal, Darjeeling, and Sikkim, are also knmvn as Tamang Bh6tias, and are said by tradition to have immigrated from Tibet. For this reason their language has often been classed as one of the forms of Bhatia, but, accord­ ing to Mr. Gait, without valid reason. Its vocabulary much more closely Miinjhi. resembles Gurung than it does Tibetan. Manjhi is said to be the name of. two fishing tribes of Nepal, of whom nine hundred have been found in Sikkim, Limbii. Darjeeling, and . The Limbu country proper, or Limbiian, is in Nepal, east of the Kiranti tJ,'act, and south-east of the Khambu one. In l3ritish terlitory Limbus are found in the three localities just mentioned. According to Hodgson it is difficult to assign their language to any known origin. They are said to have a written character of their own. N early all these are, so far as British territory is concerned, either found in Darjeeling- and its neighbourhood, or are the vernaculars of members of our Gurkha regiments. Rong. 33. Leaving the languages whose home is in the present State of Nepal, we come to Lepcha, or, as its speakers call it, Rong.· It is the language of the Lepchas of Sikkim and Darjeeling, and has a written cha~cter of its own invented by one of the Sikkim kings in the seventeenth century. It has a litera­ ture, and portions of the Scriptures have been translated into it. A grammar . and dictionary have been published. Lastly, we find Dhimiil spoken by a few members of the tribe of the same name in the Darjeeling . It has hitherto been wrongly classed as a member of the Bodo Group of the Assam­ l3urmese sub-family, but there can be no doubt that it should properly be considered as belonging to the same group as the other Nepal Tibeto-Burman languages. We have a full grammar and vocabulary of this language by Hodgson. NORTH ASSAM BRANCH. 34. In describing the progress of the migrations of the Tibeto-Burman tribes, I have stated that, after the Tibetan branch had entered Tibet along the course of the Sanpo, some of its members crossed the Himalayas and appeared on the southern slopes of that range. Of these, the most eastern are the inhabitants of l3hutan and Towang. East of them, extending from Towang up to and beyond the extreme easte11ll corner of Assam, the hills to the north of the Brahmaputra are occupied by four tribes, the correct classification of whose languages is a matter of considerable doubt. These are, in order, going from west to east, the Akas, Angkas, or Hrusso; the Dafias; the Abor­ Miris; and the Mishmis. The Akas or Angkas, as Lauguage. Population I returning it. I they are called by their neighbours, or Hrussos, as they call themselves, dwell in the bills north of 11 ka 26 Darrang, in a corner between Towang and Assam. D aBii. 805 I Very little is known about their language. Robinson A bor·Miri 40,829 Mishmi . 71 gave a short vocabulary in 1841, Hesselmeyer a I fuller one in 1868, and Mr. J. D. Anderson another TOi'AL, North Assam in 1896. The :first differs altogether from the two Bl·anch . . 41,731 I latter, and closely agrees with Dafla. The Aka 6f Hesselmeyer and Anderson is a Tibeto-Burman lan­ guage, but, so far as I can make out from the materials available, differs widely TI:BETO-:BURMAN SU:B-FAMILY. 17 from the speech of any other tribe of the family with which I am acquainted.' ~ven the numerals and the pronouns have special forms. Some of its words, howevell, show pQints of agreement with Dafia. There are very few of -3he tribe or-of the Daflii,s in British territory proper. East of the Alms lie the Daflas, Dafiil. east of them the ¥iris, and east of them, on both sides of the Dihang River, the Abors. The Miris and the Abors speak the same language, with only diaIeciic differences, and it is closely connected with Daflii. We know a good deal about A~or-Miri and Dafla. Robinson gave us grammars and vocabularies of both in .Abor-Miri ... the middle of the last century, and, to omit mention of less important notices, in later times, Mr. Needham has given us a grammar of the former, and Mr. Hamilton one of the latter. I have stated above that Dafla and Aka have some common vocables (they do not appear to be borrowed words), and it has b@en reported by one observer that Abor shows points of affinity to the nearest of the Mishmi languages. 35. The Mishmis, who inhabit the hills north of , are divided into four Mishmi. tribes, speaking three distinct, but probably connected, languages. The most western tribes are the Midu (? Nedu) or Chulikata, (hair-cropped) Mishmis, who Chulikatii.. occupy the valley of the Dihang River with the adjoining hills, and, to their east, the Mithun or Bebejiya (outcast) Mishmis. These speak practically the same language, but ,about that language we know hardly anything. We have only an imperfect vocabulary collected by Sir George Campbell. Even the indefati- gable Robinson failed to get speoimens of it. All that he can say is " they speak a language peculiar to themselves, yet bearing some affinity to that spoken by their neighbours the Abors and Miris." East of the Bebejiyas lie the Taying or Digiiru Mishmis, beyond the Digaru River. The Miju Mishmis are still Digaru. further east, towards the Lama Valley of Dzayul, a sub-prefecture of Lhassa. Miju. Robinson has given us grammars and vocabularies of both these, and Mr. N eed- ham has also written a Digaru vocabulary. The two languages are very different. So far as the means at our disposal permit us to draw conclusions, it seems most probable that these four tribes belong neither to the ~ribeto- Himalayan nor to the Assam-Burmese branch of the Tibeto-Burman languages. They seem to be the descendants of clans which, when the parting of the ways between the two branches took place, accompanied neither, but made their own way at differ­ ent periods into the hills overlooking the Assam Valley from the north.

ASSA.M-BURMESE BRANCH. 36. The probable race history of the tribes which speak the forms of speech belonging to the Assam-Burmese branch of the PopnlntioD Group. Tibeto-Burman languages has been glanced at in roturning it. the preceding pages, and more details will be given later on. This branch is further divided into the 13odo. 596,411 following groups :-the Bodo, the Naga, the Kachin, Niigii. · 247,780 Kachin · 125.775 the Kuki-Chin, and the Burma. Of these, the Kuki·Chin.· · 624,149 Bodo and Naga groups are most nearly oonnected Burma. · · 7,4.98,794 with the Tibeto-Himalayan languages, while the TUTAL, Assam·Bur- Kuki-Chin and Burma groups form a sub-group meso Branch 9,092,909 having somewhat independent oharacteristics. Between these two sub-groups, but most closely connected with the former, lies the Kachin group_ 37. '1'he group of tribes known as Bodo forms the most numerous and import .. Bodo Group. ant section of the non-Aryan tribes of the Province . Population Language. returning it. of Assam. Linguistic evidence shows that at one time they extended over the whole of the present province west of Manipur and the N aga Hills, ex- Bodo. 239,458 LBlung · 0 414 cepting only the Khasi and Jaintia Hills, which are D1ma-sa 1!i,9401 , 1 inhabited by people speaking another language akin Chutia. 2,364 to the Mon-Khmer dialects of Indo-China. To the Garii. 185,940 I Rabhit · 20,243 , north of the Khasi Bills they occupied the whole, Tipurii. · 111,974 " or nearly the whole of the . Moran 78 · · · 1 To the west they made the Garo Hills their own. TOTAL, Bodo group · 596,411 I To the south they extended over the plains of Cachar . and, further, over the present state of Hill Tippera .

II Sir George Campbell also printed an .Aka vocabulary in 1B74, which is a.gain different. I) 18 TIlE LANGUAGES OF INDIA:

On the east their sph~e of influence was bounded by Manipur and the wild tr~bes of the N aga Hills. .Between the latter and the a:g. im'po.rtan/.i tnue of them were settled III the hills of North CachaI'. One branch of the family, popularly known as the Koch, extended their power to far widei' limits, and overran the whole of Northern Bengal, at least as far west, as Purnea. ,... During the course of centuries the members of the ~odo family have suffered much from external pressure. From the east came the Ahoms, who occu­ pied the Brahmaputra Valley, and ruled it for centuries till we annexed it,. so that, in that neighbourhood, we only know of powerful Koch kingdoms in West­ ern Assam and in' Cooch, or Koch, . To the east the Bodo tribes sank into insignificance, and their members can now only be identified in commnni­ tie1; of a few hundred souls each, except where the mountainous nature of their homes has enabled them to maintain their independence. '1.1he Bodo country was also invaded from the south, and this within the last two centuries. :Pressed forward by their co-tribesmen beyond them, Kuki hordes left the Lushai and Chin Hills and migrated north, settling in Manipur, the Cachar Plains, and more especially in the hill country of North Cachar, where the popUlation is now a mixed one, partly Bodo and partly Kuki. But the most important invasion was that of Aryan culture from the west. With its language it has occupied the plains of Dacca, , and Cachar, so that the Bodos of the Garo Hills are now separated from their kinsmen of Bill Tippera by a wide tract filled with a population speaking an Aryan language. So, too, with the valley of the Brahmaputra. It is almost completely Aryanised, and the old Bodo languages are gradually dying out. The ancient kingdom of Cooch Bihar claims Bengali as its language, the old forms of speech surviving in only a few isolated tracts. In Kamrup and , the former head-quarters of the kingdom of , the speakers of the Aryan Assamese and Bengali are counted by hundreds, while those of Bodo are counted by tens. The very name Koch has lost its original meaning, and has now come to signify a Bodo who ·has become so far Hinduised that he has abandoned his proper tongue and is particular as to what he eats. Nay, many of those Bodos who still adhere to their old form of speech are trilingual. Numbers of them can speak Assamese, and in addition to this they commonly employ, not only their own pure racy agglutinative tongue, but a curious compound mongrel made up of a Bodo vocabulary expressed in the altogether alien~idiom of Assamese. KiH'h 38. I have said above that the word" Koch" has lost its original meaning, Language. and now signifies a Hinduised Eodo. There is, however, in the Madhupur Jungle on the borders of Dacca and , in the Garo Hills, and the neighbouring districts of the Assam Valley, a body of people, known as Pani, i.e., little, Koch, which still speaks a language of the Bodo group. It is doubtful, however, if they are Koches at all. Ac­ Speakers of • Koch.' cording to some authorities they are Garos who have never got beyond an imperfect stage of con­ Popul.tlon District. Ireiu:rning it. version to Hinduism, involving merely the abstinence from beef. It has been conjectured that Dacca . . 10,131 they assumed this name of "little" or "inferior" l\Jymensingh · 2,490 Garo Hills · 3,423 Koches by way of propitiating the thoroughly Elsewhere 320 Hinduised Koch power which was predominant on · their borders. If the specimens of their language TOTAL, • Koch' · [ 16,364 which I have seen are correct, it is a mongrel Garo largely mixed with Assamese, and is the only form of speech known by the name of Koch at the present day.* Kaehiiri. 39. The true Koches are, at any rate, now represented by the Kacharis, who inhabit N owgong, Kamrup, Goalpara, Cooch Bihar, and the neighbouring country. Towards the east of this tract they call themselves Bara, usually mis­ pronounced" Bodo," and have given their name to the whole group of languages of which their tongue is a member. Towards the west they are called Meches, but everywhere the speech is the same, with few 10l!al peculiarities. Their language is a fairly rich one, and is remarkable for the great ease with which roots can be compounded together, so as to express the most complex idea in a single" portmanteau" word. For instance, the sentence "go, and take, and

oil< See, however, the remarks on p"ge 335 of Mr. Gait's Bengal report. TIBETO-BURMAN SUB-FAMILY. 19

~ee, and observe carefully" is indicated by a single word in KachaTi. Of all the languages of the group it is the lnost phonetically developed, and here ~d there shows isolated signs of the commencement of that true which is strange to most agglutinative languages. Another interesting fact is that in it we see going on before our eyes that process of phonetic attrition which, in all the languages of the family, has turned dissyllables into monosyllables, and has created that characteristic isolated appearance of all the Indo-Ohinese tongues. To take an example the word sa means person, and the word fi is a causal prefix. Hence the compound ft-sa means "a made person," i.e., Ita child,'~ for the Tibeto-Burman mind cannot grasp ,the abstract idea which we conn"ote by the word'" child," .and can only think of a child in reference to its father, the person who made it. But here accent comes in. It is put on the second word of the compound, so that the i offi is hardly audible, and we get ,!i-sa. 'This accounts for the origin of the word for "child" in cognate languages. It is always a monosyllable, fsa, bsii, or something of that sort. We should never have known the real meaning of this monosyllable had we not Kacharl for our guide. Nay, Kachari itself makes secondary monosyllables in this way. :Por instance, ran means" to be dry" butfran, which we now know to be contracted from ji-ran, means "to make dry." 40. Closely connected with Kachari is the Lalung spoken in South-West Liilung. Nowgong and the neighbourhood. It forms a link between it and Dima-sa. DimA-sii. This last is the Bodo language spoken in the hill country of North Oachar. The name of the locality where it is spoken' has led to its being called "Hills Kachari," which has the disadvantage of inducing the belief that it and the "Plains Kachari "of Kamrup, are different dialects of the same language. * Really these two are not so closely connected as French .and Spanish. They both belong to the same linguistic group, and 'both, no doubt, have a common anoestor, but, at the present day, they are quite distinct forms of speech, and it is best to call Hills Kachari by the title which its

Population speakers give to themselves, Dima-sa. It has a Dialect. "returnIng It. dialect of its own spoken in South Nowgong called Rajai. Going still further up rthe Assam Valley, Hoja.i. Standard Dimn-sii 19.776 we find the most eastern of the Bodo languages, Hiijai . . 164 the Chutia, which is fast dying out. It is spoken Chutia. TOT..lL, Dimii-sii . 19,IJ40 ~ only by a few Deoris, who form the priestly caste I I 'of the ·Chutia tribe. 'l'hey have preserved, in the midst of a number of alien races, the language, religion, and customs which they brought about a hundred years ago from the country east of Sadiya, and which, we may presume, have descended to them wiJih comparatively little 'change from a period arnterior to the Ahom invasion of Assam. Their present seats are on the Island in Sibsagar, and on the Dikrang River in . ,Of the languages of the Bodo g.roup, it appears to have preserved the oldest characteristics, and to most nearly approach the original form of speech from which they are all derived. It and Kacharl represent the two extremes, the least developed and the most .developed of the group. Like the latter, it exhibits the remarkable facility for forming 'com­ pound verbs to which attention has already been drawn. This is probably a characteristio of all the dialects of the Bodo group, but these two are the only ones which have been studied in a thorough manner. . 41. Returning to Western Assam, we have next to consider 'Gal'o, or as its Garo. speakers call it, Mande Kusik, the language of men. Its proper home is the Garo Hills, but its speakers have overflowed into the p1ains at their feet, and have even crossed the Brahmaputra into Cooch Bihar and Jalpaiguri. Garo, in its standard dialect, the Achik, has received some literary cultivation at the hands of the local missionaries, and, besides possessing a version of the Bible, has a printed dictionary, school books, religious works, and a monthly magazine which is now in the twenty-second year of its existence. It has a number of

.. The Dimii-sii of North eachar and the 'Bodo of Kamrup formed one nationalitv till about 1640 A.D .• when the Ahoms conquered the former, who at the time oC"upied the Dh\nsiri 'Valley as far as the Brahmaputra, wilh lJimiipur for their capital. They then retreated to the North Cachar Hills. The iliffert'ntia­ tion between Dimii-sii and Standard Bodo has therefore probably ta.ken place since that date. Up to that time there had beeD free communication between the two orallche8. D2 20 THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA.

dialects which bear a strong resemblance to each other, though to a foreigneu­ leaj\'ning to converse with the natives the differences are striking eno'ugh: That known as A..tong or Kuchu presents the greatest variations. r Gar6s from other parts of the Garo Hills can make themselves fairly well understood wherever th~ go exoept in the A..tong country. It is spoken in the 'lower Someswari Valley which lies south-east of the Garo Hills, and in the north-east of the district of Mymensingh. It appears to approach most nearly the O1jginallanguage from which the various dialects are derived, for we meet typical Atong peculiarities in the most widely separated places where Gar6, in a more or less corrupt form, is Riibhi. spoken. A language closely connected with Gar6 is Rabha, which has most speakers in the district of Goalpara. It is dying out. Rabha appears to be a Hindu name for the tribe, and many men so called are pure Kachuris. At one time they formed the fighting clan of the Bodo family, and members of it joined the three Assam regiments before they took to recruiting . Tipura. 42. The remaining important language of the Bodo group is Tipura. Its home is the State of Hill Tippera and the adjoining portion of the Hill Tracts, but speakers of it are also found in Dacca, Sylhet, and CachaI'. The people call it Mrung. It shows points of connection with both Dima-sa and Gar6, and generally has all the characteristics of the group in which it is included. An interesting point is that its word for" man" is barak, which is almost identical with the name Bara by which the Kacharis of Kamrup and the neighbourhood call themselves. Moran. 43. To complete the survey of this group, 'we may mention Moran, a language_which is practically extinct; The Morans were the first ~ribe conq uered by the Ahoms when they entered Assam from over the PatkOl. They were employed by their vanquishers as carriers of firewood, and are still found in· Sibsagar and Lakhimpur. Their language belonged to the Bodo group, but they have nearly all abandoned it in favour of Assamese. N iigii Group. 44. While the number of speakers of languages belonging to the'Naga group is less than half that of those whose mother speech is Bodo, the number of Naga languages is more than four times as many. The extraordinary diversities of . speech, differences of language, not merely of dialect, Sub-group. I Population. which characterise the hill country between the Patkoi range on the east, the Jaintia Hills on the Naga·Bodo 90,228 west, the Brahmaputra Valley on the north, and Western . · · 40,868 Manipur on the south, render it one of the most Celltral . · · 46,168 Eastern · 1,895 interesting fields for investigation by the philologist. Orography. Unclassed • · · 69,641 The Assam Valley proper is bounded on the south · by ranges of hills separating it from Sylhet and TOTAL, Niiga group . 247,780 CachaI'. At its western end these are comparatively low, and under the name of the Garo Hills are in- habited by a people speaking a language belonging to the Bodo group. As wetgo east they become the Khasi and J aintia Hills, with summits rising more than six thousand feet above the level of the sea. Then we have a drop into the valleys of the Kapili and Dhansiri, a country of low hills forming the sub-division of North CachaI'. Further east, the general level of the tract rapidly rises up to Patkoi, including the south of the N owgong, Sibsagar, and Lakhimpur districts, the whole of the NagaHills and the north of Manipur. Here we have a confused mass of mountains some of them rising to nine or ten thousand feet, which, as we go eastwards, become ranges running north and south, connected with the Himalaya through the Patkoi and the hills beyond, and extending southwards, through Manipur and the Lushai Hills, until they terminate in the sea at Cape Negrais. It is .jn this country, between North Cachar and the Patkoi, that the Naga languages are mainly spoken. The inhospitable nature of the land aoo the ferocity of the inhabitants have combined to foster this diversity of speech. Where communication is so difficult intercourse with neighbouring tribes is rare, and, in former times, when heads were collected as eagerly as philatelists collect stamps and no girl would marry a young fellow who could not display an adequate store of specimens, if intercourse did take place, the conversation was sure to be more or less one-sided. Under such circumstances, monosyllabic languages, such as the Niiga ones, with no literature, with a floating pronunciation, and with a number of loosely used prefixes and suffixes to supply the ordinary needs of grammar, are bound to change very rapidly, and TIBETO-BURMAN SUB-FAMILY. 21 ,quite independently of each other. Cases are on record in which members of a tribe .:whO have emigrated but a comparatively short distance have developed a language unintelligible to the inhabitants of the parent village in a couple of generations. .. 45. Between the Bodo and the Naga languages, there is an intermediate Nilgil.~do group belonging in the main to the latter, but possess- Sub·group. • ing distinct points of contact with the former. Of Langaage. Population returning iI. these the principal speech is Mikir, the head· quarters Mikir. of which are now in the hills that bear the same Mikir . . 83,620 name in the Nowgong district of Assam, and which Empeo . 6,604 Kabui · 4 is also spoken in slightly varying dialectic forms Khoiriio · ... in South Kamrup, the Khasi and Jaintia Hills, · North Cachar, and the N aga Rills. Small colonies TOUL, Niiga·Bodo group 90,228 of the tribe are also found elsewhere, and it cannot be doubted that in former times the Mikirs occupied a comparatively large tract of country in the lower hills and adjoining lowlands of the central portion of the range stretching from the Garo Hills to the Patkoi. Their language has received some attention from the missionaries who are settled among them. We have a vocabulary and some short pamphlets written in it, and a grammatical sketch has lately been prepared by Sir Charles Lyall. Empeo or Kachcha Naga is spoken in North Cachar and Empeo. the western N aga Bills. It is another of these intermediate languages, and shows points of connection not only with Bodo, but also with Kuki forms of speech. It is, however, in the main Niiga. Kabui or Kapwi and Khoirao belong KabuL to North M ani pur. They were not separately enumerated at -the census, and are contained in the large figure shown above as "unclassed." They are both related to Empeo. Kabui is also found in the hills of East Cachar. We have vocabularies of it and Empeo, and a grammar of the latter by Mr. Soppitt, but till the inquiries of the Linguistic Survey were started, nothing was known about Rhoirao. The Survey will supply grammars of all these intermediate speeches. Khoirilo. In it they are classed as together forming the Ntiga-Bodo Sub-group of the N aga languages. 46. Turning to the Naga languages proper, we find them falling naturally into three sub-groups, a western, a central, and an eastern. Of the western languages the most import- Weatern ·Langnage. Population I returning It. ant is Angami, with its two dialects, Tengima and Na):ii Sub· I Chakroma, and numerous sub-dialects, of which the r:;r~i. Angllmi • 27,865 principal are Dzuna, Rehena, and Nali. A good Kezhnmil • 1,546 deal is known about Tengima. Commencing in Rengma • 0,617 belLa 5,830 the year 1850, Hodgson, Brown, Stewart, and Butler have all given us vocabularies, and the TOTAL, Western Niig!!. Sub·gronp • 4.0,858 descriptions of the tribe by the last two are classics. We have a grammar written by Mr. McOabe in the year 1887, and finally the accounts of the language and of the habits and customs of the tribe supplied by Mr. A. W. Davis, for the Assam Census Report of 1891, are too well known to students of these subjects to require more than a reference. To the east of the Angamis are the Kezhamas, to "\yhose north again lie the barbarous and savage Sernas. North of Kez~limli, the Angamis and west of the Semas are the Rengmas. Until the commence~ ~ee~;~~:d ment of the Linguistic Survey nothing whatever was known about the Kezhama language, and we had only short and incomplete lists of a few words each in Serna and Rengma. Grammars and vocabularies of all will now shortly become available. It may be added that some thirty years ago, a number of Rengmas were driven out of their proper home by the constant attacks of neighbouring tribes, and settled on a range of hills lying between the Mikir Hills in the Nowgong district and the forests of the Dhansiri. This portion of the tribe has lost most of its savage customs, and has to some extent taken to the habits of the people of the l)lains, while the others retain their primitive simplicity. All these languages belong to the Vi7 estern Naga sub-group. The most characteristic feature which distinguishes them from the members of the Central sub-group is, that the ne~ative particle follows the word which it negatives, whereas in the Central sub-group it precedes it. 22 THE LANGUA.GES OF INDIA..

Central Niigil. 47. The prinoipal me~bers of the Central sub-group of the Naga languagee Sub-group_ are A.o and Lh6ta. Assiringia, Tengsa," Thukumi, 'Popnlation and Yaohumi are minor ones. We have e:A:cellent Ao. LlWguage. returning it. grammars and vooabularies of both .Ao and Lh6ta c' prepared by local missionaries. The former is well AD 28.135 known and has often been written about, but the LhOtii ·'. 16,962 Assiringili . · ... literature concerning it is not always easy to fi:p.d, Teogsii. • ... as it has been described under at least nine different Thukumi · 26 names. It has two well marked dialects, Chungli Yachllmi · · 35 · and'Mongsen, and is spoken in the north-east of the Lbota. Tout, Central Naga N aga Hills district. Lh6ta is spoken south of Ao 8ub-gtou'P' • 45,158 about the centre of the same district, where it abuts on Sibsagar. Its speakers ,are usually called Lh6tii or Ts6ntsu, but they call themselves Kyon, while they are known to the Assamese by the name of Miklai. It ha's no marked dialectic Assiringiii.. variations. As~iringia is spoken in an isolated Dialect. Population returu.iug it. Tel1g~ii" village in the Ao country, and Tengsa, Thukumi, Thukumi aud and Yachumi by tribes outside the settled British Yachumi. Chungli 17,623 territory beyond the Dikhu. Very little is known .!Y.Longseu · · 10,512 about them, but short vocabularies enable us to class them as connected with A.o and Lhota. TOTJ.L, Ao •• · 28,135

Eastern '4/8. In the Eastern Naga sub-group are included the languages of all the Nl\gR Sub· tribes found in the tract lying east of the.Ao country, gruup. extending to the Kachin country on the east and Population Lallguage. returnlug it. bounded on the south by the Patkoi range. Within these limits there are many different tribes, some of Tableng 198 them consisting of only a few villages, and all, or Tamlu · · · 1,5M nearly all, speaking languages unintelligible the one Mojung · · · ,152 to 'the other. Within twenty miles of country five Banpul'ii · · · ... Mutoniii · ... or six dialects are often to be found. '1he informa­ Mohongiii • · ... tion whioh we possess regarding the languages Namsangiii · · · ... spoken in this area is very scanty, but, so far as our Moshiing . · ... ~hii.ngge · ... knowledge ,extends at present, a considerable affinity TOTAL, Eittitern Nago. appears to exist amongst them. There is also a gronp 1;895 great resemblance in the manners and customs of · · the N agas of this tract; they nearly all expose their dead upon bamboo platforms, leaving the body to rot there, the skull being preserved in the bone-house, which is to be found in nearly every village. In several of the tribes the women are perfectly naked, in others the men. Characteris- 49. 'lhe most impor'tant general point about these Eastern Naga forms of t~C8 of the __ speech is, that they form a group of transition languages bridging over the gulf fa~~:!.aga bet~ee~ the oth~r N aga tongues and Kachin or .Si~gph6,. the great lan~ua~e WhICh hes to theIr east and south. Another pecuharIty whrch deserves notICe IS, that at lea:st four languages of the sub-group, Tableng, Tamlu, MOjuIlg, and N amsangia, appear to have an organic conjugation of the verb. Each tense seems to change according to the person of the subject, a state of affairs quite foreign to 'the other Naga languages and to Singph6, and almost foreign to the 13odo group. The Namsangia verb (while not changing for number) has its three persons for each tense, just like Assamese or Bengali. Tableng and 50. Taking these Eastern N aga languages from west to east, the first we meet Tamlu.- are Tableng and Tamlu. A rough estimate shows that these are spoken each by about 2,500 persons, naked savages who reside (sometimes both in the same village) in the hills on both sides of the Dikhu River, before it enters the valley of the Brahmaputra. Like so many of these Tibeto-Burman tribes they call themselves simply by their word for" man,"-Kata. Tableng and Tamlu are the names given to them by the English after the villages in which they live. ThflY call their own languages Angwangku and Cbingmegnu respectively. Politically, their hauitat is in the extreme north-east of the Naga Hills district. Beyond the Dikhu River. outside settled British territory, we find a language TIBETO·BURMAN SUB-FAMILY. 23

called by the Aos Mojung, and ~y its ~peakers, who m;e estimated to be about Mojung. ~,500 in number, Chang. 'l'he Aos call all trans-Dikhu Nagas "Miri," and hence the Mojungs are often alluded to by that name, which should be avoidBd, as leading to confusion with the altogether different M iris of the upper waters of the Subansiri. " Nearly connected with Mojung is the Banpara, with one Banpa~it and. dialect called Mutonia, which is spoken by the tribes in western and centi'al MutOnl8.. Sibsagar to the east of the Tableng. We have only a few lists of words of this la~guage and its dialect. At the eastern extremity of the same district lie the Mohongias, also called Borduariiis and Paniduariiis. Brown, writing in the :\1ohongiii. year 1851, says that their language is the same as Namsangia, but this is not NamsangiA. borne out by the only specimen of their language in existence-the first 10 numerals published by Peal in ]872. Crossing the Sibsagar frontier, we :lind the N iigiis of Lakhimpur, usually known by the name of N amsangiiis, but also called Jaipuria Nagas after the name of the village through which they mostly descend to the plains. We know more about their language than we do about any others of the eastern sub-group, for Robinson published a grammar and vocabulary of it in the year 1849. Owen, Hodgson, Brown, Peal, Sir George Campbell, and Butler have also given us more or less extended lists of words. Since then nothing has been done regarding them. Indeed at the present day local Europeans seem to know much less about the languages of the Naga tribes of Sibsagar and Lakhimpur than did their predecessors of a generation ago. Even the Linguistic Survey has failed to obtain any additional information concel'lling them. The list of eastern Naga languages is completed by a reference to Moshang and Shangge, the languages of two tribes in the wild !\1oshll.ng and. country south of the Patkoi. Mr. Needham has given us short vocabu- Shi!.ngg~. laries of them, and that is all that we know on the subject. Further to the east and south we have the great Kachin countllJ, the mnin language of whioh is Kachin or Singpho. It forms a link between the Niiga a.nd Tibetan lan- guages on the one side and Burmese on the other, and also leads, .through the Meithei of Manipur, from Naga and Tibetan into the Kuki-Chin group. 51. There is, ho wever, another chain of connection between N aga and K uki, Niiga-K' uki the Naga-Kuki sub-group of languages, whioh Suo-group. exactly corresponds to the Naga·Bodo sub-group, Language. Popuhtion returning it. leading from N aga into Bodo. South of the Angami country lie the hills of North Manipur, and here, ~opvomii. Not separately mixed with the Kuki languages proper which are Maram. _ enumerated. Miyangkhiing . Contained in spoken in that State, we find several distinctly Kwoireng the heading Naga ones. The first is Sopvoma, used by the Sopvomii. Luhiipii. " U nclassed . Niigiis of the country round Mao on the Manipur Maring Niiga lan- : guages. N aga Bills frontier, about 20 miles south of " I Kohima. It is the language of this sub-group which most nearly approaches the true western Naga speech, its closest relation being Kezhama. South of the Maos lie the Marams, inhabiting one large village. 'Ihe two tribes claim to have a Maram. common origin, but are perpetually at feud with each other. Both Brown and McCulloch have given us vocabularies of their language, which are sufficient to show that it is different from, but akin to, Sopvoma. In connection with Maram, we may mention Miyangkhang, classetl by Vamant with it and Miyiing­ Sopvoma. Nothing more is known about it. Here, also, we may insert K woireng k!titn.g. or Liyang, of which we have vocabularies by Brown and McCulloch. The trib~ Kwolreng. which speaks it inhabits the country north of Manipur lying between the Kachcha and the Kabui Nagiis, as far as the Angamis, from whom they have suffered much. They are a considerable body of people, possessed of much energy, which develops itself in trade with the Angamis and our frontier district.s. Their language appears to be an intermediate one between the Naga-Bodo and Naga-Kuki sub-groups. '1'he forms taken by its pronouns agree best with the latter, and so it is mentioned here, though the geo. graphical position of its speakers would incline one to put it with' the former set of languages. The large and important tribe of the Luhupas or Luhiipii Luppas, occupies the north-east of Manipur. They are distinguished froI1!.languages. other tribes by (amongst other customs) the Zuhup or curious helmet of cane which they wear when going into battle. The number of languages spoken byl them is said to be very great, almost every village in the interior having its 24 THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA.

Tiingkhul, separate dialect. We m~y select three as typical-Tang'Khul, Phadiing, and Phaditng, and Kbangoi. Brown has given three short vocabularies of rriingkhuJ, and th0 Khangoi. Lk.1guistic Survey has succeeded in obtaining sufficient speciI!1ens to cOmpile a short grammar and vocabulary. The head-quarters of the tribe are at Ukrul, about 40 miles to the north-east of Manipur town, and the s3j.me distance to the so?lth-east of the Mao tract. McCullooh has given us vocabularies of Phadan~ and Khangoi. The former closely agrees with Tangkhul, while Khangoi has 11aring. much more of a Kuki complexion. The latter leads us to Maring, spoken by a Niigii tribe inhabiting a few small villages in the Hirok range of hills whioh separates Manipur from Upper Burma. There is also a small colony of them in the Manipur Valley about 25 miles south of the capital of the State. It has tWI.) djalects, viz., Khoibu and Maring, which are closely related to each other. It is the one of the Naga-Kuki languages which most nearly approaches the K uki-Chin group. r_t'he pronoun of the first person is the same as in K uki. 130th Brown and McCullooh have given us Maring vocabularies, and the Linguistic Survey has succeeded in collecting sufficient materials to compile a short~mmar of the language. ·Chin l.QVThe territory inhabited by the Kuki-Ohin tribes extends from the Naga Group. Hills CachaI', and East Sylhet on the north, down to the Sandoway district of Bur~a in the south; from the Myittha River in the east, nearly to the Bay of Bengal in the west. It is almost entirely filled up by hills and mountain ridges, separated by deep valleys. We find the tribes also in the Valley of Manipllr and in Population Sub-group. I returning it. small settlements in the CachaI' plains and Sylhet. Both the names " Kuki " and "Chin" have been given to them by their neighbours:---" Kuki" Meithei . 272,997 Old Kllki • · 8.8440 is an Assamese or Bengali term applied generally Northern Chin · 3,470 to all the hill tribes of this race in their vici­ Central Chin · · 76,031 Southern Chin · 27,162 nity, while Chin or Khyeng is a Burmese word · · 235,645 Unspeoified · · used to denote those living in the country between TOTAL, Kuki·Chin Burma and Assam. Neither of these terms is em­ group · 624,149 ployed by the tribes themselvp.s. The denomination · " Kuki-Chin" for this group of people and for the group of languages which they speak is therefore a purely conventional one, there being no indigenous general name for all of them as a whole. 'l'he tribal languages fall into two main sub-groups, which we may conveniently call the" Meithei " and the" Chin." We have already seen how it is probable that this stock migrated from the north or north'east into th..e.. Manipur Valley and there settled, while another branch of the same stock proceeded further south and filled the Lushai and Chin Hills. Assuming that Meithel. this represents the true facts of the national movement, Meithei represents the­ language of the original settlers in Manipur, and Chin that of the southern migration. In these southern seats ~he language rapi~ly developed, partly by its own natural growth and partly owmg to contact WIth the Burmese. The development of Meithei, the language of the Manipuris, has, on the other hand, been slow and Language. Population • ddt '1'h M . . ~ I Teturning it. m epen en . e am purls are mentioned in the ------! Shan chronicles so early as A.D. 777, and probabl Meithei. .1· 272,997 ?wing t? the fact that it has ~n later times developed ======~ mto a lIterary language, theIr form of speech gives . the impression of possessing a peculiarly archaic character. Although they have become thoroughly Hinduised, they have not adopted any Aryan tongue; Meithei is the of the State, which all other tribes have to use in dealing with their rulers. Our information re­ garding it is not very satisfactory. Vi! e do not know if there are any dialects and even the literary language has not been fully dealt with. It is not improb: able that further inquiries will show that the apparent gulf between Meithei and the other Kuki-Chin languagf's is filled up by intermediate forms of speech. and tbis much seems certain, that it has preserved many traces of a morJ ancient stage of phonetic development, and hence sometimes agrees more closely with Burmese, and even with r_t'ibetan, than with the Kuki-Chin languages proper. On the other hand, in certain respects it shows points of common origin with the Naga languages, and especially with Kachin, being a TIBETO-BURMAN SUB-FAMILY. 25 connecting link between them and the southern, 'hlore developed, forms of speech., • 53. 'The Chin sub-group contains over thirty distinct languages, which may Chin Sub­ again be sub-divided into Northern Chin, Central Chin, Old Kuki, and Southern g?oup. Chin. Owing to the tendency to employ the generic term" Kuki" or ,. Chin" to denote a specific language, the census figures for these languages are worth very little. No less than 235,000 people have been returned as speaking unspecified Kuki-Chin languages, while the total number of persons shown as speaking definite languages is only about half that number. The Old Kuki languages are Old KulU most nearly connected with the Central Chin ones, but, for historical reasons, it languages. will be most convenient to consider them first. 'l'hey are thirteen in number, and are spoken by several tribes now living in Manipur, Cacllar (especially the northern sub-division), Sylhet, and Hill Tippera, who migrated to their present settlements early in .the nineteenth century from their original homes in and about Lushai Land. Only one tribe, the Mhar, remained in its original seat, and their language is at the present day much mixed with Lushei. II 'Ihis migt':;!.c tion was indirectly due to the pressure exercised by the Lushais. These pressed the Thados from the south, who in their turn pressed the Old Kukis northwards into their present homes. 'l'he 'l'hados now occupied the old home of the Old K uk is, but the irresistible progress of the Lusbais northwards still continued, and the Thados followed those whom they had dispossessed into almost the same localities; and, as their arrival was later, they and their fellows became popularly known as New Kukis, the earlier immigrants being known as Old Kukis. " Old Ruki" connotes a distinct group of cognate tribes and languages, and the name may be preserved as a convenient designation, but" New Kuki " connotes only one tribe, the Thados, out of five closely connected ones, the rest of whom still live in the Lushai and Chin Rills. It is, therefore, best to abandon the term "New Kuki," and to call the whole group of five by the name of "Northern Chins." The Lushais now occupy the old seat of the Old Kukis, and of, subse­ quently, the Thados." After dispossessing the latter, they still attempted their progress north, and it was this which first brought them into hostile contact with the British power. We have thus seen that there was a reflex wave of migration of the Chin tribes, so that we find Manipur inhabited, not only by speakers of the early l\leithei, but also by numbers of tribes whose native languages, onoe the same as an old form of that speech, have developed independently, and, owing to the want of a literature, much faster in a country far to the south. It is much as if we were to find a colony of Roumanians settled in central Italy. 54. The principal Old Kuki languages are Rangkh61 and the closely-con- Ritngkhol nected Bete, spoken in Hill Tippera and N orth ~achar, Ramim, spoken in Sylhet and Bete. and Hill Tippera, and Langrong, al~o spoken i~ the lat~er S~at.e. We have a ~!;t~~ cI~_ grammar of Rangkh61 by Mr. SOPPItt, but, tIll the LmgmstlC Survey, very gnages. little has been known about the others. No less than eight languages are spoken by small Old Kuki colo~es in t~e Sta;te of ¥a~:dpur. _These ar~ Aimol, l\Ianipur Anal, Andro, Chlru, HIrOl-Lamgang, Kolren, Kom, languages.

Population t and Piirum. Mhar is still spoken in Lushai Land, Mhiir. Language. returning it. I the tribe having accepted the Lushai domination; ~------I and finally, far to the south, on the banks of the Rii.ngkhill • 4,766 " Koladyne, we find Chaw spoken by the descendants Chaw. Halliim 3,693 , Andro 11 of some Old Kuki slaves who were offered to a local Mhiir 169 ' pagoda by a pious queen of some three cen­ Chaw 215 , turies ago. Separate figures for only a few of the I speakers of these Old Kuki languages are available. 'rhe rest fall under the head of "Kuki-Chin, Unspecified." 55. The Northern Chin group of languages includes Thado, Sairang, Sokte, Northern Siyin, Ralte, and Paite. The Thados, who include Chin:- - d h t' I' d Thado. I the J angsh ens, an w 0 are some Imes, as exp aine Language. r~fJ;:!;~~ioiL above, called New Kukis, formerly lived in the Lushai and Chin Hills, where they had established Thiido 3,399 themselves after having expelled the Old Kuki Sairling 71 Rangkhol and Bete tribes. They were themselves gradually ousted by the Lushais from the former tract, a~ settled down in Cachar and the N aga E 26 THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA.

Hills some time betweell"the years 1840 and 1850. About the same time th~ T4iidos of the Ohin Bills were conquered by the Soktes and were driven north into the southern hills of Manipur, where they are now found and are locally known as Khongzais. There are at present only six Thado villages lett in the· Chin Hills. The 71 Sairangs are also found in the Naga Hills, but no doubt a nllmber of them also exist in Oachar, who have escaped separate enumeration. Sokte. The Sokte tribe, which includes the Soktes proper and the Kamhows (or, as the n Burmese call them_, Kanhows) occupy the northernmost part of the Chin Hills, Siyin. and the Siyins, the hills immediately to their east, round Fort White. The Bitlte. Rftltes are principally found in the western parts of the Lushai Hills, but in modern times bodies of them have settled in Oachar, both in the plains and in Paite. the hills. The Paites are scattered all over the Lushai Hills, a few being found in almost every village. They have accepted the Dulien domination, but have retained their own language, which, however, like Rftlte, is 'much mixed with ~ushei. As in the case of Old Kuki, most of the speakers of the languages of this sub-group, must be sought for under the general head of "Kuki-Chin, unspecified. " Central 56. The Oentral Ohin languages are Tash6n or Shunkla, Lai, with its dialect Chin :- Lakher, Lushei, with its dialect Ngente, Banjog'i, and Pankhu. They are all closely connected with the L8Dgnnge. Population returning it. northern sub-group, but have a still greater affinity to the Old Kuki forms of speech. The Tash6ns, Zahao 3,216 who call themselves Shunklas, dwell in the country Lushei 72,142 south of that inhabited by the Siyins and Soktes. Banjogi 5liO Pankhu 113 To their west lie the Lushai Hills, and to their south the Lai country. They form a powerful tribe, and their country is the most thickly populated in the Ohin Hills. There are probably several dialects of their language. We know at least one called Yahow or Zahao. The Lais inhabit the middle portion of the Ohin Hills, their name being said to mean "central." The Burmese call them "Baungshe," from their fashion of wearing a knot of hair over the forehead. Dialects of Lai are spoken by the surrounding tribes, and nearly all of them also understand the standard form of that speech. This is also the case with the Tash6ns, so that Lai is an important language for the purposes of administration, Lakher. and has been illustrated in a grammar prepared by Major Newland. Lakher, a dialect of Lai, is spoken in the south of the Lushai Hills. Its speakers are called Zao by the Ohins. They are an offshoot of the Tlantlang Lais, whom the Bl~itish first met on the Arakan and Ohittagong~ frontier, under the name of Shendoos.

Lushei. 57. As Lai bids fair to become the lingua franca of the Ohin Hills, so Lushei has become that of the Lushai Hills. This tract has been the scene of various migrations, new tribes at different times pushing the former inhabitants west­ wards and northwa:r:ds .•\ The Lushais, who are now the prevailing race, seem to have begun to move forwards from the south-east about the year 1810, Between 1840 and 1850, they obtained final possession of the N orth Lusha~ Hills, having pressed the former possessors, the 'l'hildos, before them into Cachar. In 1849, they made a raid on a 'l'hado village in that district, and for the first time came into contact with us and found their northward progress finally stopped~t Our subsequent relations with them are a matter of history. Their name is commonly spelt "Lushai," but the proper mode, which is employed when speaking of their language, is "Lushei." They usually call themselves "Dulien" and their language "Dulien long." The latter has several dialects, Ngente. of which the best known is N gente, spoken in parts of the South Lushai Hills, in the villages round Demagiri, and in some of the Western Howlong villages. Fannai. Another is }i'annai, spoken between the eastern border of the South Lushai Hills, and the Koladyne. Standard Lushei is comparatively well known. Several grammars have been written of it, the most important being that of missionaries, Messrs. Lorrain and Savidge, which is accompanied by a very full 'Ran.iogi and dictionary. Banj6gi &nd Pankhu are two unimportant languages spoken in the Pankbu. Ohittagong Hill Tracts. Lushei is the only language of this group for which separate figures, which are fairly accurate, are available. TI'BETO·BURMAN S'UB-FAMILY, 27

58. The languages classed as Southern Ohin do not, save in two instances, Southern ~ fall within the soope of the Linguistic Survey .,pf Chin. . o India, which does not extend to the Province of Language. I ~opu[ation. Bur;na. Very little is known about them, and of ______some we have nothing but meagre vocabularies. As Yindu 43 elsewhere in this group separate figures are rarely Shi:i 414 available. The following may, with some confi­ Khit@i 25,863 Anu 775 dence, be classed as belonging to the sub-group,­ That 67 Chinme, Welaung, Chinbok, Yindu, Chinbi'm, Khyang or Sh6, and Khami. '1'0 these may possibly be added the languages of some southern tribes, such as Anu, Kun. Pallaing, and Sak or That, which are mentioned in Census Reports and Gazetteers, but about whose languages I can find no information. Daingnet which is generally mentioned with these turns out to be really a corrupt form of ~engali. rIhe Chinmes, :vho inhabit the Chillme. sources of the eastern Mon, are saId to be a connecting hnk between the Lais and the Chinboks. '1'he Welaung Chins inhabit the villages at the Welaung. head'waters of the Myittha River, and are bounded on the north by the Lais, and on the south by the Chinb6ks. The Chinboks live in the hills Chinb6k. from the Maw River down to the Sawchaung. rIheyare bounded on tbe north by the Lais and the Welaungs, on the east by the Burmans, on the west by the tribes of the Arakan Yomas, and on the south by the Yindu Chins. The Yindus are found in the valleys of the Salinchaung and the northern end of the Yindu. Mon Valley. The Chinbons inhabit the southern end of the M6nchaung and Chinb6n. stretch across the Arakan Yomas into the valley of the Pichaung. The Khyengs or Khyangs occupy the country on both sides of the Arakan Y~Khyeng. They are also found in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. This language ha!H'OOeived some attention, and we have grammars and vocabularies by Major Fryer and Mr. Houghton, besides word lists by other writers. They are partially ci vilized, and are hence sometimes known as the" Tame Chins." They call themselves "Sh6." ']'he Khamis, or as the Burmese nickname them "Khweymis," "dogs' Khllmi. tails," are found in the Chittagong Hill Tracts and along the River Koladyne in Arakan. They used to live in the Chin Hills, and only came to their present seats in the middle of the nineteenth century. We have several vocabularies of their language, and a short grammar published in 1866 by the Rev. L. Stilson. 59. This is not the place in which to explain the main points of differentia- ~h.aracter. tion which characterise the Kuki·Chin languages, but I may draw attention to Kh~~.~h~he one peculiarity which admirably illustrates the nature of the Tibeto-Burman la:g~age~~ construction. It is a well· kn own fact that none of these languages has developed a proper verb. The words which perform the functions of verbs are, in reality, verbal nouns denoting an action. They are therefore inflected like_ nouns, and the various tenses are formed by adding post-positions, or are compounds, the last part of which has the meaning of finishing, beginning, ctc. This is pecu- liarly evident in the Chin languages. In most of them the verbs are never conceived in the abstract, but are always put in relation to some noun as the subject. This is effected in exactly the same way as with ordinary nouns, viz., by prefixing the possessive pronouns, so that the expression" my going" is used instead of " I go." Thus, in Lushei, when we want to say" I am" we say kii ni, literally "my being;" and when we want to say" art," we say i ni, "thy being." 60. The Kachins, who are also called in Burma Chingpaw, and in Assam Kachin Singpho, i.e., "a man of the Kachin tribe," and Group. hence" a man" generally, inhabit the great tract Province. Population. of country including the upper waters of the I Chindwin and of the Irrawaddy, which lies to the Asmm . 1.770 east of Assam, and to the north, north-cast, and hurma · 65.570 north-west of Upper Burma. During the last TOTAL. -Kachin 67,340 fifty years they have spread a long way to the Add Kaohin·BurmB· south into the Northern Shan States and the Hybrids 1,456 districts of Bhamo and . They would Other Hybrids · 66,979 probably have extended much further, if we had TOTAL, Rachin group 125,775 not annexed Upper Burma, when we did; and indeed at the present moment there are isolated E2 28 THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA. Kachin villages far down in the Southern Shan States and even beyond the Salwiv. Rirer. Colonies of them appeal' to have entered Assam where they aTe known as Singphos, about a hundred years ago. At any rate, their language shows that they must have come into that country after long contact wirth the Burmans. Philology and the traditions of their race alike point to the head-waters of the IITa­ w~ddy as their original home, from which they have gradually extended, mainly along the river courses, ousting their immigrant predecessors, the Burmese and the Shans. The language of the Kachins varies greatly over the large tract of country which they occupy. Theyare essentially a people of the hills, and almost every hill has got its peculiar form of speech. We may, however, divide Northern all the dialects into three classes-the Northern, the Kaori, and the Southern Kachill. Karchin. The Northern dialect, which we know best in the form in which it is ~outhern Kachin. spoken by the Singph6s of Assam, has been described in the grammatical sketches Ka.ol'i. of Logan, Major (afterwards Brigadier-General) Macgregor, and Mr. Needham. Southern Kachin, which is that spoken in the Bhalllo district, is illus­ trated by those of Messrs. Hertz and Hanson, while the Kaori dialect, which is the language of the Kaori Lepais, who inhabit the hills to the east and south-east of .Hhamo, forms the basis of that written,_ by Dr. Cushing. As regards the mutual relationship between Kachin and the other Tibeto-Burman languages, it may be said to occupy a somewhat independent position. In it comes close to Tibetan; on the other hand, it is also intimately related to the Naga and Kuki-Chin languages, and to Burmese. Among the Naga languages, it shows the nearest affinities to those which form the Eastern sub-group. Of the Kuki-Chin languages, it shows remarkable points of resemblance to Meithei. Its relationship to Burmese has never been disputed. The inquiries made during the progress of the Linguistic Survey thus show that Kachin, without necessarily being a transition language, forms a connecting link between Tibetan on the one hand, and Naga, Meithei, and Burmese on the other. Kachin· 61. Between Kachin and Burmese there are a number of transition tongues, Burma some of them, no doubt, mere hybrids, about which little is at present known, Hybrids. and of which a bare enumeration must suffice. Nearly all of them are nearer to Burmese than to Kachin. The Lepais are the largest and most important of· the Kachin tribes. Most of them speak the ordinary Kachin, and one of their Szi 756 septs has already been mentioned as using the Kaori • dialect. The Asi or Szi Lepais, a half-breed sept whose head-quarters are in the hills neal' Mogaung, however, use one of these Lasbi 84 mongrel Kachin-Burmese forms of speech. Amongst them live the Lashis or Lechis, a hybrid race, speaking an allied hybrid tongue. Another closely connected dialect is that of Marn 151 the Marus, who, so far as known teITitory is con­ cerned, frequent the borderland of Burma and China, particularly to the north-east of Talawgyi. The Hpons, who have been described as "a mere sort of dish-clout, full of tmces H pon (not returned). , oftheirneighbollrs," appear to dwell only in the upper defile of the Irrawaddy between Bhamo and Sinbo and another valley in the neighbourhood. Finally, with this set of hybrid languages, we may refer to the tongue of the people commonly known in Burma M' b 465 as the Maingthas. They have many other names, amgt a • •• such as Achang. Ngachang, Ho Hsa, La Hsa, Paran, Taren, and Tareng. The Kachins claim them as cousins, but their language seems principally to be a mixture of Burmese and Shan, although in some' respects it strongly resembles Lashi. They are found on the west border of the Chinese State of Shanta and in Khamti Long. Othrr 62. In this connection, and before dealing with the Burmese group, we may Hybrid~. mention here a few other apparently hybrid languages, which, while not closely related to Kachin, seem, so far as the meagre materials available show, to be L'b 1605 connected with Burmese. The :first is the dialect 1 saw. • • ., of the Lihsaws 01' Yawyins, who are found chiefly in the neighbourhood of Sadon and scattered in small villages at high altitudes throughout the .lS orthern Shan States and Mong M it. Practically the same as I,a'l:u 16732 it is the language'spoken by the La'hus, whom we ., sometimes find referred to as Mu Hso, Loheirh, Law'he, M yen or K wi. Theil' principal seat, 80 far as is known, is in the TIBETO-BURMAN SUB-FAMILY. 29

~ountry north of Mong Lem between the Salwin and the Me-khong. There are also coi{)ni6"'S of them scattered through the Shan States of Kengtung a~d Akh' • "11'"5 Kengcheng. 'rbe Akhas are probably the most a • • ."\... ,I numerous and widely distributed of the hill tribes of Kengtung. Their language appears to be connected with J~a'hu and Lihsaw. but the resemblance is not very close. Very similar to it is that spoken by the Ak" 1162 Ak6, who also dwell in the same State, and we have o· ., short vocabularies of the languages of two trans- frontier tribes, the Li-sus and the Mu-sus, which seem to belong to this little Li'8U and sub-group. The Danus are an important tribe which inhabit the border line ~U'8U. between the Shans and the Burmans, and are a hybrid of the two nations, th~ir anu. present speech being a form of Burmese with a great admixture of foreign words. Their language is to be distinguished from that of the Danaws, which seems to be connected with Karen, or, possibly, with Palaung and Wa. No Kadu 163 speakers of Danu have been returned. Another • ,00 tribe of balf-breeds is the Kadus, who are mainly a mixture of Burman and Shan, like the Danus, but also show traces of Chin and, perhaps, Kacbin blood. If they ever had a language of their own, it is now extinct, or bas been so much modified by all its neighbours, as to be Intha 5 little better than a kind of Yiddish. Intha, spoken • ,851 round Fort Stedman in the Southern Shan States nnd Karen'ni, is a Burmese largely diluted with Shan. Its speakers are said to have come from 'l'avoy. It is spoken by 5,851 persons, and these figures form part of the total given in the tables for Burmese. 63. We are now led naturally to the Burma group of the Tibeto-Burman Burma. languages. In dealing with the general question of Group. the distribution of these forms of speech, I have Population Language. retuluingit. explained how it is most probable that the Kuki- Chins and the ancestors of the present Burmese left Mri:l. 23,898 their original seat on the upper waters of the Burmese. • 7,474,896 Chindwin and of the Irrawaddy as one horde. The TOTA.L, Burma group 17',498,794 Kuki-Ohins separated from the others, and left the Burmans to continue their way southwards. We have to record another language which also probably left the main stock after the Ohins, but before the had fully developed,-that of the Mrus. Mrii is a puzzling language in many particulars. Mrn. In the main, it follows the phonetic system of Burmese, and yet it sometimes differs from it in essential points. We find in it forms which are paralleled not only (and most frequently) by those whioh we meet in Kuki-Chin, but even by the construction of Bodo and Naga forms of speech. Unfortunately, the mate­ rials available for studying Mrii are most incomplete, ::md, till more are available, it is best to class it provisionally as an independent form of what is now the Burmese language. This explains its apparent peculiarities, and is at the same time consonant with the traditions of the tribe, whose members maintain that they came into their present seats in the hill tracts of Chittagong and Arakan before the other Burmese-speaking inhabitants. 64. The majority of the dialects belonging to the Burma group proper are almost unknown, exoept, in some cases, to local officials. The only one whioh has been widely studied is the olassical language of Burmese literature as it is Burma e spoken by educated Burmese. The written language is the same everywhere in 5 • the tract where it is the standard, but the local pronunoiation varies greatly. Our information on this latter point is, however, almost entirely limited to the dialect spoken in Arakan. The Arakanese branched Arakanese • 383,400 off from the main Burmese stock at an early date, and have had relatively little intercourse with them since that period, communi­ cation having been barred by an intermediate mountainous tract of country. 'J'heir language bas therefore developed upon lines of its own, and in many respects it differs widely from the standard form of speech. It is well known that the orthodox pronunciation. of the latter is extremely dissimilar from that indi­ cated by the written language. In other words, the development of the spoken language has proceeded more rapidly than that of the written one, and the latter represents the older form. One of the proofs of this is that the pronunciation of Arakanese frequently agrees with that of Burmese as written, and not as it is 30 THE LA.NGUA.GES OF INDIA. spoken. Arakanese is not only spoken in Arakan but also in Chittagong and 13ackergunge, where its speakers are known as Maghs and their l,anglJ,age as Maghi. The Burmans of Pegu call the Arakanese Rakhaing-tha, i.e., ", so?-s of Rakhaing (Arakan)." The only other speakers of Burmese out of Burma Itself are scattered in small colonies in different parts of India or :ill the Andamans, mddt of them being prisoners, political or criminal. 65. Other dialects of Burmese are-Chaungtha, Yabaing, Tavoyer, and _ Taungyo. The first, spoken by the ., sons of the Chauugtba 1,3uO river," is heard in Akhyab and the Arakan Hill Yabaing. Tracts. It is said to be a form of Arakanese. The Yabaings, who are settled on bot\l sides of the Pegu Roma, are said to speak Burmese with a strong Arakanese Yaw. accent. We have no figures for this dialect. The inhabitants of the Yaw Valley in Pakokku are said to have a dialect of their own, but their language Tavoyer. appears in the census tables as ordinary Burmese. The inhabitants of Tavoy maintain that they are descendants of Arakanese colonists, and their language is said to contain many Arakanese provincialisms. In the census returns it appears like Yaw, as standard Burmese. Taungyo Taungyo 10,543 is spoken hy the tribe of that name in Myelat.

Tho Siamese-Chinese Sub-Family.

Chinese. 66. This sub-family consists of two groups, the Sinitic (including Karen), and the Tai. Chinese is not a vernacular of British

Population \ India, although natives of the Flowery Land are Group. returning it. found in nearly every large city as merchants, --- leather-workers, carpenters, cane-workers, and Sinitic 938,388 the like. In Rangoon and Upper Burma, there Tai . · · 836,210 · · · are considerable communities of them, but all TOTAL, Siamese· are temporary immigrants, who are either mer­ Chinese Sub-family 1,774,598 chants that have come by sea, or else people from Yiin-nan. Karen. Karen is a group of dialects, not of lan­ Population Langnage. I returning it. guages, for it includes only one language-Karen­ spoken by the members of that tribe scattered Chinese · · 50,513 over south Burma and the neighbouring portion Karen · · 887,875 of Siam. The generally accepted theory regarding TOTAT" Sinitic group 938,388 the language is, that it is connected with Chinese, but not descended from it, and that the people are pre-Chinese. Where much is still doubtful, it is hardly necessary to state that they have been identified by some with the lost 'ren Tribes, and it is not actually impossible that they may have obtained certain of their traditions from early Jewish colonists in Northern China. From there they appear to have first emigrated to the neighbourhood of Ava, whence, about. the fifth or sixth century, they came down southward and spread over the hills between the Irrawaddy, the Salwin, and the Me-nam as far as the seaboard. The language has three main dialects, the Bwe or Bgai of the north, and the Pwo and the Sgau of the south. A variety of Bgai is the Karen-ni or Red Karen, of Karen-ill in Upper Burma. Varieties of Pwo are Mopgha, Shangkhipo, Taru, Kai or Gaikho, and Taungthu, while under Sgau are included Maunhepaku and Wewa. The language of the Danaws (to be distinguished from the Danus) is apparently connected with Taungthu unless Mr. Lowis is right in classing it with Palaung and Wa, which belong to the Mon-Khmer sub-family.

Tai Group. 67. The Tai race, in its different branches, is beyond all question the most widely spread of any in the Indo-Chinese Peninsula, and it is certainly the most numerous. Its members are to be found from Assam to far into the Chinese province of Kwang-si, and from Bangkok to the interior of Yiin-nan. The history of its migration from Yiin-nan into Southern Indo-China has been' already briefly described. It remains to consider the various forms of speech used by the nations of which it is composed. 68. The Tai group consists of two languages, Siamese and Shim. They have SlAMEHE-CHINESE SUB-FAMILY. 31 however, no less than seven different written oharacters, and there are numerous dialects. ,]he Language. Population , ' returning it. Siamese character, which was invented in the year Sjamese. , 1125, is altogether different from the others. The Siamese . . 19,536 language, so far as British India is concerned,., is Shiin proper . 816,674 spoken principally in the Tavoy, Amherst, and TOTA.L, Tai group . 836,210 Mergui districts of Bmma. Lao, which is a dialect Lao. of Siamese, has an alphabet derived from that of Mon, and closely related to it are the ~t.. . ~~'r~8 of Lii and Khiin, dialects which are intermediate Lii andKhiin. un • •• , between Siamese and Shan, and whioh are spo~en just north of the Siamese frontier in two of our Shan States. Shan 753262 Shan proper is spoken all over the Shan States, Shan. , both British and Chinese, and as far north as Mogaung. It has a northern, a southern, and a Chinese dialect, the last having a slightly different character, which, like all the other Shan alphabets, is borrowed from the Bmmese. The word' Shan' is the Bmmese pronunciation of 'Sham', which is the correct form. It probably re-appears in the final of ' Assam.' 69. In the year 1228, just about the time when Kublai was establish- Ahorn. ing himself in China, a Shan tribe, the Ahoms, entered the country now called Assam, where they settled themselves, and to which they ultimately gave their name. They gradually established their power, which reached its culminat- ing point in their victory over the Kacharis of Dimapm in 1540. This made them masters of the whole of the Assam Valley, and they continued to rule their territories with vigour and success up to the end of the seventeenth century, when they became infected with Hinduism. They lost their pride of race, their habits changed, and" instead of being like , but mighty Kshattriyas, they became, like Briihmans, powerful in talk alone." They gradually declined in strength, and Assam, after being first conquered by the Burmese, was finally annexed by the British in 1824. So completely Hinduised did they become before their final fall, that their language has been dead for centuries, and is now known to only a few priests who have remained faithful to their old traditions. It possessed an important historicalliteratme which is being investigated by the Assam Government. Ahom is an old form of the language which ultimately became Shan, and it is of great importance for the study of the mutual relationship of the various Indo-Chinese languages. It is curious that, in spite of their long domination, the Ahoms have left so few traces of their influence on the languages of the Assam Valley. They appear to have been throughout comparatively few in number, and, as their rule extended over various tribes speaking different forms of speech, the necessit! of a lingua franca soon became apparent. This could only have been either Ahom or Assamese. The latter, being an Aryan language, possessed the greater vitality, and its use was no doubt encouraged by the Hindu priests who acquired influence over the ruling race. That influence alone would not have been sufficient, for we see how in Manipur, where Hinduism was enthusiastically accepted, the people have still retained their own language, although the Brahmans have had to invent a written character in which to record it. Although the Ahoms have left so few traces on the language of Assam, they have, however, made their mark upon its literature. One of the few Ahom words used at the present day is buranji, "the store of instruction for the ignorant," which they called history, and it is to them that Assam owes that historical sense which created the series of' chronicles, still called by the old foreign name, that are the pride of its literature. From Assam to is a long cry, and yet between these two countries, so far as we know at present, no deliberate original work of history has ever been written by an Indian in an Indian language which did not owe its inception to the influence or example of the Mughul writers of Delhi and Agra. 70. When Mogaung was captured by Alomphra, a number of Shans migrated north, and settled here and there in the country round the upper courses of the Ohindwin and the Irrawaddy. Their principal settlement was high up on the latter river in the country known as Khamti Long or Great Khamti·land. Khiirnti. 32 THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA, 'rhence some of them wera invited by their kinsmen, the Ah~ms, and settled in _ Eastern Assam, where they ultimately 9ust~d theil' - Dialoct. r;t:~~~!Oit. former ·hosts. They have developed a slightly Khiimti 1,4.90'" varying dialect of Shan, and have an alphabet of Philkial, Phakial 289 their own. Since then small num~ers of other Shan Nora, Tai­ Nr;:a 122 rong,<;md 'lai-rong • tribes have migrated into Assam, who are known as Aiton., Aiton 1,669 Phakials, N oras, Tai-rongs (locally called Turungs), TOTAL, Shan dialects and Aitons. The last-named still speak Burm,ese of Assam 3,362 Shan, and use that alphabet. The Tai-rongs were enslaved by the Kachins en route, and all, or nearly all, _of_ them now speak Singpho. A few of them, together with the N oras and Ptakmls, speak a Shan dialect differing little, if at all, from Khamti.

THE DR.t\VIDO-UUNDA FA~IILY. Dravidian 71. This family falls into two connected sub-families, the 'Dravidian and the and Munda Sub-families. ======~P:=:=.'I=n.=71 Munda. The Dravidian sub-family is well known. The name Sab·family. ret:r~J~OI~1 Of late years the Munda sub-family has been called "Kolllrian." Mun~it. • • • _3,179,275 the" Kolarian," the name being used both for the DravidIan. .' • 06,514,624 languages and for the tribes which speak them. TOTAL, DravIdo- • • Mundii Family • 59,693,799 Mr. RIsley has proved the non-existenoe of any such distinct race of men, the so-called" Kolarians U being simply members of the great Dravidian family, and modern researches have oon­ firmed this view, if confirmation was necessary, by maintaining a relationship be­ tween the" Kolarian " and the . The name" Kolarian " itself is objeotionable. It was suggested first in the year 1866, although another name was already in the field, under the impression that the Kols, one of the ,principal of these tribes, were somehow connected with Colar in Southern India, a thing which has yet to be proved; a-nd it has the grave disadvantage of suggesting to everyone who is not a specialist that it has something to do with" Aryan" ; that, in fact, the speakers of these languages are a mixture of K6]s and Aryans,which, of OOUL'Se, is far from the truth. 'l'he" Kolarian " languages were long before this recognised as a distinct group by the late Professor Max Muller in his Letter on the Turanian Languages, which was published in the year 1853. He then gave them the name of the" Munda" family, after one of their principalforms.t That name ihould have been allowed to stand until it was shown to be unsuitable. I therefore adhere to it myself, in preference to the altogether fantastio "Kolarian " or the other name suggested by some eminent scholars in -" Khervarian,''' ~uth~l re~a- 72. That a relationship exists between the Munda and the Dravidian lan­ th~'l~w:; 8~b- guages has of late years been accepted by many scholars, and, pending the com-· familie.. pletion of the Linguistic Survey, it is unnecessary to labour at the subject here. It will suffice to show the broad points of agreement and of disagreement between the two families or sub-families. The deolension of nouns is very similar in both, and they both agree in having two genders, one fot' animate and the other for inanimate things, although Dravidian goes further in classing irrational beings as inanimate. Some of the pronouns are very similar, and both agree in having two forms each of the plural of the first personal pronoun. Many of the suffixes used in the conjugation of the verbs closely agree; both use the relative instead of a relative pronoun, and each has a true oausal form of the verb. Both are polysyllabio and agglutinative, and both use the same order of words. The vocabularies show many important points of agreement. On the other hand, Munda languages possess letters which are unknown in Dravidian; they count by twenties, while Dravidian languages count by tens; they have a dual, which Dravidian has not; but they have no negative voice, which Dravidian has. On the whole, the type of the Munda languages, viewed morphologically, is older than that of the Dravidian ones, They apply the agglutinative system more completely and regularly, and show much less tendency towards euphonio change.~

«< rhe Khamti figures are included in those given above for Shan. The others are not. t. Logan, writing about the same time, or perhaps II ye~r or two earlier, in the Jo.urnal qf tke- Indian .A"ck~pel(Jgo, classed the Mundit lang-uages as North DraVIdIan, and treated them as formmg a separate group which he named' KG}.' This name mi~ht be used instead of ' .Mundii " but till :iir George Campbell's time the latter was, I thiuk, the name most generally used. t Since the above remarks wer~ passed for tho press, the Linguistic Survey has reached the Mundii languag&i. ll'he result of the comparative examination of these forms of speech, which is now being made for the fir~t time. will probably show that the and Dravidian Languages have not II common origin. The question is. however, still sub"judicI,

llNIIDllA 1 ILLUSTRATING THE LOCALITIES IN WHICH THE DRAVIDIAN & MUNDA 'LANGUAGES '(' OF INDIA ARE SPOKEN !ic:l1.l1noh_112MiI.~, 12,11;,,1211 100 5G 0 100 t=.p'

I R B A N

'-1 r 1-1 /s E A No, I-r-______-,

I I REFERENCES '10 FIGS. 2 r-----,---,---1 3 LANGUAGES. No. DIALEUls,

5 OND 14 Ko],mi 6 kANARESE 15 Ladhadi 7 ADABA 16 Bhoi 8 IAVARA 17 Tuna 9 WRWA 18 Nihili 10 , URUKH 19 MIIDSi lIARIA 20 Mundari 11 SUR 21 Bilhol 12 13 !ALTO 22 Kodagu UANU 23 M,hili ODA 24 Birji& OTA 25lrula - }lLAYALA!! 26 Kasuva I 27 Badaga 28 Kurumba 29 Marl I ~ N D _-L- T' ol~o - THE MUNDA SUB-FAMILY. 33

73. Experts ai-e divided as to how the Dravido-Mundas entered India. ConnectioD Some maintain that the Dravidians came from the north-west, and, with regard i~~~a~OD' to philology, poillt to coincidences occurring in the Scythian tablet of Darius languages. Hystaspes at Behistiin and in some of the Dravidian languages, and also to the~ existence of a Dr-avidian language, Bl'ahiii, in Baluchistan. In regard to the former, it may be remarked that the points of disagreement are at least as important as those of agreement, and as for the latter, it proves nothing. 13rahiii may just as well be an advance guard from the south-east as a rear- guard from the north-west. Another theory, which has not received much acceptance of late, is that the Mundiis entered India from the north-east. Finally, there is a contention, which agrees best with the facts of philology, that all the Dravido-Mundas came from the south. In dealing with the lIon- Khmer languages, I have fully discussed the remarkable points of continuity between them and those of the Munda family, and late researches show equally st!'iking instances of agreement between both .the Munda and Dravidian languages on the one side, and those of the aborigines of Australia on the other. The question is, however, one for ethnologists and not for philologists to settle. It may be added that efforts have of late been made to show a connection 'between the Chin languages and Tamil. That there are coincidences of voca- bulary cannot be denied, but they must be accidental. It is impossible to postulate a close connection from such coincidences between two families of languages so entirely different in structure. Tibeto-Burman languages are radically monosyllabic, and Dravidian ones are not. 74. It cannot be doubted that languages .belonging to the Dravido-Munda Dravi~o. group were once spread much mor~ widely over Northern India than we now :Munda race. find them. Aryan civilization and influence have been too much for them. Even at the present day we see the absorption of aboriginal tribes by the Aryans going on before our eyes, and the first thing to yield seems to be the language. There are now many Dravido-Munda tribes, which have not yet been received into the fold of the Aryan caste system, but whose members speak a broken patois of the nearest Aryan languagt1, and have forgotten everything but a few words of their own proper speech. This has given rise to not a little confusion in linguistic researches. For instance, there are Gonds who speak their own Dravidian language, and there are Gonds who speak a broken Aryan one, but in both cases the dialects which they use are called by the same name-" Gondi." There are thus two Gondi languages, one an Aryan, and the other a Dravidian one. So also in the case of other tribes, and the common nomenclature based on tribal names has greatly complicated linguistic inquiries. There is even an instance on record in which some members of a Munda tribe, the Kharias, have abandoned their ancestral language in favour of that of their Dravidian neigh- bours; while, on the other hand, a number of Dravidian Oraons 'have aban- doned their own tongues for Mundari, thus in both cases making confusion worse confounded. In the Deccan, which has been most preserved from Aryan influences, the Dravidians have kept their,languages very fairly, but in Northern India, the only Munda and Dravidian languages which have survived are those spoken in the hill country little accessible to Aryan culture and influence.

TIle l.1Iundll. Sub-Family. 75. As explained above, the Munda, sometimes called the Kolarian, Sub- Munda family is probably the older branch of the Dravido- :~P~~~~r Populntion Munda languages. It exhibits the charactmistics agglutinating Language. returniDgit. of an agglutinative tongue to an extraordinarily IlLnguages. ------1----11 complete degree. The only other form of speech Santali 1,790,521 with which I can compare it in this respect is libl • 948,687 Korll'fi 16,442 Turki. What Professor Max MillIeI' has said about Kharia 101,986 that language applies with equal force to Santali., Juiing 10,853 Asur 4,872 the typical form of Munda speech. Kbra 23,873 "It is a real pleasure to read a Turkish grammar, Gadabit 37,230 even though one may have no use to acquire Savara 157,136 Kbl'ku 87,675 it practically. The ingenious ways in which TOTAL, Munda Sub·'--- the numerous grammatical forms are brought family • .1 3,179,275 out, the regularity which pervades the system of declension and conjugation, the transparency 34 THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA. and intelligibility of the whole structure, must strike all who have a sense of that wonderful power of the human mind which has displayed itself in language.. . . We have before us a language of perfectly transpar­ ent structure, and a grammar the inner workings of which we car:. study, as if watching the building of cells in a crystal bcchi,e. An eminent orientalist remarked: ' We might imagine Turkish to be the result of the deliberations of some eminent society of learned men'; but no such society could have devised what the mind of man produced, left to itself in the steppes of Tartary, and guided only by its innate laws, or by an instine· tiva power as wonderful as any within the realms of nature. . . . The most ingenious part of Turkish is undoubtedly the verb. Like Greek and Sanskrit, it exhibits a variety of moods and tenses, sufficient to express the nicest shades of doubt, of surmise, of hope, and of supposition. In all these forms the root remains intact, and sounds like the key-note through all the various modulations produced by the changes of person, number, mood, and time. But there is one feature so peculiar to the Turkish verb that no analogy can be found in any oBhe Aryan languages, the power of providing new verbal bases by the mere addition of certain letters, which give to every verb a negative, or , or reflexive, or reciprocal meaning. In their system of conjugation, the Turkic dialects can hardly be surpassed. Their verbs are like branches which break down under the heavy burden of fruits and blossoms." Agglutina.. 76. Nearly every word of the above applies with equal force to San­ tion in Mundii. tali. Suffix is piled upon suffix, till we obtain words which, to European languages. eyes, seem monstrous in their length, yet which are complete in themselves:. and every syllable of which contributes its fixed quota to the general signification of the whole. One example of the use of suffixes must suffice. The word dal means "strike," and from it we get dal-ocho-akan-tahen-tae­ tin'a-e, which signifies "he, who belongs tG him who belongs to me, will continue letting himself be struck." If we insert the syllable pa in the middle of the root, so that we get dapal, the beating becomes reciprocal, and we have a fight, so that dapal-ocho-akan-tahen-tae-tin·a-e means "he, who belongs to him who belongs to me, will continue letting himself be caused to fight." Again, if we substitute ako-an for akan, the same pugnacious individual with a string of owners will, with less disinterestedness, continue causing to fight only for himself. The best idea of the enormous number of complex ideas which can thus be formed according to the simplest rules may be gained from the fact that the conjugation of the verb "to strike" in the third person singular alone, occupies nearly a hundred pages in Mr. Skrefsrud's Santa,]i Grammar. Otl}e~charac£ 77. Among other characteristic features of the Munda languages we may ~~~~~s la~. mention the following. 'l'hey contain four sounds, usually known as semi­ guag~s. , the enunciation of which is checked and left incomplete, the breath being expired through the nose. * Although masculine and feminine nouns are distinguished, thel'e are only two real genders, one for all animate and the other for all inanimate objects. Nouns have three numbers, a singular, a dual, and a plural, the dual and plural numbers being indicated by suffixing the dual or plural respectively of the third personal pronoun to the noun. Short forms of all the personal prollouns are £reefy used, in each case as verbal suffixes. The dual and plural of the first personal pronoun have each two forms, one including the person addressed, and the other excluding him. If, when giving orders to your cook you say, "we shall dine at half past seven," you must be careful to use ale for" we," not abon; or else you will invite your servant to the meal, which might give rise to awkwardness. Participial formations are used instead of relative pronouns, exactly as in Tibeto-Burman and Dravidian languages. " The deer which you bought yesterday" would be rendered" the yesterday deer bought by you." Roots are modified in meaning not only by suffixes but also by infixes, as in da-pa-l mentioned above. The logical forID of the Munda ­ tence is altogether different from that of an Aryan one, and hence it is impossible to divide the language into the parts of speech with which we are familiar, say, in English. The nearest thing which it has to what we call a verb, merely calls up an idea, but is unable to make any assertion. The final assertion is made by

~ Mr. Skrefsrnd, who is, I believe, the only scholar who is familiar with both Bodo and Santfili, appears to conslder these Mundn semi·consonants as identical with the' abrupt' tone of tho Indo·Chinese languages. THE MUNDA. SUB-FAMILY. 35 " one of the. most characteristic features of Munda Grammar, a pal'ticie kll.{lwn as "the categori()al ct." By its form, the sentence first unites the represented ideas into a mental picture, and then, by a further effort, affirms its reality. In English· we say" John came." A Santali would first call up a picture of John having oome, and then, by adding the categorical ct, would assert that this picture was a ilict. Hence this a is not used in sentences w hieh do not contain a categorical asser­ tion, e.g., those which in English would contain a verb in the SUbjunctive or optative mood. Santali, with what is really better logic, relegates SUbjunctive and relative to what may be called the incomplete verb in company with what .are with us , gerunds, and , and forms the only complete and real verb by the addition of the categorical ct. • 78. As in the case of several Tibeto-Burman tribes, the names which we Names of give to many Munda ones are not those by which their members call themselves, l\Iund1\ Ian· but those which we have adopted from their Aryan-speaking neighbours. We gllages. also observe the same principle running through the names by which they do call themselves that is so common among the Tibeto-Burmans. Most of the tribes simply call themselves" men," the same word with dialectio variations, Kol, Kora, Kor-kii (simply the plural of Kor), Horo, HoI', or Ho, being used nearly universally. The Indian Aryans have adopted in one case the word "Kol," as a sort of generic term for any of these non-Aryan tribes, and have identified the word with a similarly spelt Sanskrit one meaning "pig," a piece of etymology which, though hardly according to the ideas of European science, is infinitely comforting to those that apply it. 'rhe of these Kols is a subject of legend over large tracts of the south side of the Gangetic valley, where not one word of Munda origin has been heard for generations. The name is perhaps at the bottom of our word" ," and of the names of one or more important which would indignantly deny their Munda origin. 79. The present stronghold of the Munda languages (the people are spread Habitat.of much wider) is the north-east of the central plateau of India. The hills of the the famIly. Sonthal , Chota Nagpur, Orissa, , and North-East Madras are full of tribes speaking various forms of the M unda tongue, mixed here and there with advance colonies of people whose speech is Dravidian proper. There are also many in the plains districts at the foot of these mountains, so that in North-Eastern India they cover a large tract of country. Crossing the , the mountains of which are mainly occupied by Dravidian tribes, we find the Korkiis, also speaking a MUilda language, at the north-west end of the plateau, where Berar and the Central Provinces meet. Here also we meet the BhUs, who have so often been credited with speaking a Munda lang1lage. It is possible that they once did so, .but, so far as I can ascertain, they now all speak a broken Gujarati, a broken Marathi, or a broken Hindi, according to the locality where they happen to live. It may bo that there are tribes which have still retained the language of their forefathers. They have not, how- ever, yet been discovered. Here also may be mentioned once for all a number of so-called Munda languages found in the Ohhattisgarh country, Baiga, Bhinjia, , and the like, which are really the names of clans or of groups of exorcists, who have abandoned their original language, Munda 01' Dravidian, and now talk a broken patois of the local Chhattisgarhi. Munda languages are also widely spoken in North-Eastern Bengal and Assam. People who use them are largely employed as in both tracts, especially in tea gardens. A. colony of them has also been settled in Assam for some years, con­ sisting of emigrants led thither by the missionaries who have so successfully worked amongst them in their own home. Mundas as a body make excellent labour­ ers, and show no reluctance to "leave their native country for work at a distance. Fully eleven-twelfths of the Mundas of Western l3engal and Chota Nagpur fall under one or. other of the two great nationalities of Santiils and Kols. '1'1.e former occupy mainly the north and east, and the latter the south. The matter has, however, been somewhat complicated by the fact that some Santals are wrongly called Kols. 80. The head-quarters of Santali are, naturally, the Sonthal Parganas, north. Santiili. east of the Chota·Nagpur plateau, at the eastern end of that great range of hills which extends right across India as far as Mount A.bu ; but the language covers a much larger tract of country. To the north there are numbers of its speakers in Bhagalpur and Monghyr, and to the east we find it in the districts of Birbhum and ~ ~2 38 THE LA.NGUAGES OF nmIA.

Mu"shidabad. It extends much further south, through Manbhurn, Bankum, Burdwan, Midnapur, and eastern Singhbhum, right into the 'Orissa Tributary States. Only to the west do we find but few speakers. There are some in the parts of near the Sonthal Parganas, and (if local returns are correct) an over~ floi'v from the Orissa Tributary States into the State of , whioh belongs politically to the Central Provinces. It is called by various names. The proper spelling of the word which we pronounce as Santal is said to be Saontar, and in addition to this we have Manjhi, ThaI', and, the name by which the people call themselves, HoI' or "men." The language has two or three dialects, differing slightly from the standard, Mahli. Population Dialect. returning it. the principal of which are Mahli and Karmali. Kiirmali. I Both are mostly spoken in the Sonthal Parganas and , and the latter is also incolTectlv Standard • II Ka]." • 1,726,657 M ahli • 18,801 called" Kal" by many writers, its speakers being Kiirmiili • 17,342 wrongly classed as Kols at the last Census. It is Not specified 27,821 said to be a form of SantiiJi, and, so far as our pre~ TOTAL, Santiili 1,790,621 sent information goes, neither it ·nor the people who use it have any but the most distant connection with the Kols of Central and South Chota Nagpur. Santfili has received much grammatical study. The first works of import~ ance were written by the Norwegian missionaries of the Sonthal Parganas, amongst which Mr. Skrefsrnd's grammar is still the leading authority on the language. The Free Church missionaries of Manbhum have also produced some useful elementary works, and an excellent dictionary is now issuing from their press. N or have officers of Government been.idle. We have an English-Santali dictionary from the pen of Mr. Martin, and the late Mr. John Boxwell wrote the first soientific examination of the language, an account which for insight and clearness has never been superseded. In Europe the Danes, headed by Professor Thomsen of Copenhagen, have made a speoial study 01' this speech from the point of view of comparative philology. There are several Santali versions of the New Testament and of a portion of the Old. Kol. 81. The Kollanguage has its home in Central and South Chota Nagpur and in the neighbouring portions of the Orissa Tributary States and of Chhattisgarh. It has two main dialects, Mundari and Ho, the former of which is spoken to the north, mainly in Population Dialect. returuing it. and Palamau, while HO is spoken to the Mundliri. south in Singhbhum and the neig-hbourhood. Mun­ Mundiiri , 440,794 , which its speakers call Raro, has also reoeived Ho · · 371,860 considerable attention from the ..nissionaries who · · 111,304 Birhiir · · 626 work among the tribe. The Ohurch of England, 'l'uriii. · · H,880 the German Evangelical Mission, and the Church Not specified · 20,323 of Rome have all contributed to our knowledge. TOTAL, Kol 948,687 It should be noted that the Dravidian Oraons in a part of the district of Ranchi have abandoned their own language and speak a form of Mundari known Ho. as Horolia Jhagar. Ho, or, as it is often called, Kol, is the dialect of the Larika or Fighting Kals, whose principal seat is the district of Singhbhum and the Tributary States to its south. It closely resembles Mundari, the main difference being one of pronunciation. As we see fmID its name, Ho frequently drops a finalr at. the end of a word. Of the other 1\.01 dialects the most important is Bliumij, Bhumij (with a sub.dialect, Tamuria), spoken in the same country as KoI. Tiimurii'i.. There is also Birhor, the language of the" men of BirhOl'. the forest," spoken in Chota N agpur. The Turias Populatiou Sub· dialect. returning it. of Chota N agpur and Sambal pur are said to speak 'furia. yet another dialect. People known as Kols are found living as far' west as Banda in the United Bhumij • 103,732 TiLmuriii. · · · 7,572 Provinces, but beyond the frontiers of Chota N agpur TOTAL, Bhumij 111,304 they have ceased to speak their propel' language, and · use the ordinary Hindi dialect of their Aryan neigh­ bours. The New Testament and portions oithe Old have been translated into Mundari. Korwii. 82. The only other considerable tribes of Western Bengal who speak Munda languages are the Korwas, the Kharias, and the Jufmgs. The Korwas, who THE MUNDi SUn-FA.MILY. 37

Popul.tion Dis~eet. • appear to be related to the Mundas, inhabit the retu rniofit it. west of Chota N agpur, especially the States of Komo. • 15,882 Singli • · . 173 Sirguja and J ashpur, the Dewan of the latter being Not specified · · 387 a member of the tribe. They are even found in TOTA.L, Korwo. 16,442 that part of the district of which lies south of the Son, being the only Mundi tribe speak- Singli. ing- a Munda language in the United Provinces. Here their language is called Korwari. Singli. or Ernga is said to be a dialect of Korwa. The Khariiis are Khariii. much scattered. Their chief home is in the , but they are also found eastwards as far as Birbbum, westwards over the greater part of Ohota N ag- pur, and southwards in and in the adjoining Tributary States of Ohhattisgarh and Orissa. They do not all use their own language. In Manbhum they speak a broken Bengali, while in the Orissa Tributary States some of them at any rate use a Dravidian form of speech. The Juangs or of the States Juilng. of Keonjhar and in Orissa speak a language which is said to be closely allied to Kharia, although it has borrowed largely from Oriya. They are probably the lowest in the scale of civilization of all the Munda tribes. Till quite recently the women of the tribe did not even sew fig leaves together to make themselves aprons. A bunch of leaves tied on in front and behind was all that was claimed by the most exacting demands of fashion, and this costume was " renewed as required, when the fair wearer went to fetch cattle from the wood, which provided her millinery." Attempts have of late been made to introduce the wearing of loin-cloths, with what succes_s I am unaware. Other minor tribes of the eastern Mundas are the following: Asur or , with a dialect called Asur. Birjia or Kural}ti, is spoken by wild tribes of Ranchi, and an Asur grammar has been written by Population Dialect. ret'lrllillg it. Dr. Hahn. Agaria is said to be the same language. -- Kora is spoken in Manbhum, , and the Korii. Orissa Tributary States. It is also said to exist in Asur 3,126 Agariii. ·• ·• .• <123 Sambalpur and the neighbouring Feudatory States, Birjiii (Chota N agpur) • 1,377 where a language called Kisan has .been identified " (Central Provinces) 46 with it. Kisfm is spoken by many thousand people Kiaiin. TOTA.L, Asur .:1.,872 in that part of the country, but the specimens of it which I have seen are really specimens of Kurukh, a Dravidian, not a Munda, language. 'We are not entitled to assert from this that Kisan is always a Dravidian language, for, like Kharia, some members of the tribe may have changed their language for another. Indeed, Kisan, which merely means' cultivator,' may not be a real language at all, but may connote simply the language of cultivators just as 'Kora 'or' YOdii.' is by some considered to mean' digger,' and to have nothing to do with the Munda word meaning' man.' .For these reasons, the speakers of Kisan and K6da in the Oentral Provinces have been shown under the head of Kurukh. The matter is further complicated by the fact that in many cases the Kuras 2.tave been con­ founded with the Korwas, who are an altogether different tribe, speaking a different language. The most southerly forms of Munda speech are those spoken by the Savaras and Gadabas of North-East Madras. '1'he former have been identi- Gadabii. and fied with the Suari of Pliny and the Sabal'ae of Ptolemy. A wild tribe of the SavarH. same name is mentioned in , even so far back as in that of late vedic times, as inhabiting the Deccan, so that the name, at least, can boast of a great antiquity. 813. Orossing India we find in the western' districts of the Oentral Provinces and in the neighbouring portion of Berar the Western Munda language called Korkii.* Kiirkii. We have a short grammar of this language and a into it of the Gospel of - - -_ St. Mark. '1'here are peop] e also called Korkiis, in the west of Ohota N agpur in the country overlook- Dialect. Population returniug it. ing Baghelkhand, but, so far as my inquiries extend, they now all use an Aryan language, and whether Kiirkii 81.263 they are really the same tribe as the Korkiis of the l\lul!.si · · · · · 6,412 Berars I do not know. '1'he Western Korkii is said TOTA.L, Korkii 87,675 to have two dialects, "Muasi and Nihiili '1.'he former :'IIuil.si. is spoken in Chhindwara As for Nihali, it appears NiMli. to have died out in the Berm's) where it used to be a ------~ The,home of its speakers is in the west of the PachIDDrhi Hills lind in the of the C~ntral Provmc·,~. The Berar Korkus are mainly found in the l\lelghat '1;l!uk of Ellichpur, which is geographically a pllrt of Betul. 38 THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA. f:tirly important language. Specimens have been obtained from NilI!-ar in the Central Provinces, which have a Munda basis, but are largely mixed with Dravidian.

The Dravidia.n Sub·Fa.mily. ;;Jabitat. 84. Of much greater importance than their Munda cousins in regard to the number of their speakers are the languages which are known as Dravidian. Broadly speaking, they form the speech of the south of the Indian peninsula, as contrasted with the Aryan languages of the north. r Population '1'he northern limit of this southern block of Dravi­ Language. returning it. dian languages from this point of view may roughly be taken as the north·east corner of the district of Tamil • 16,525,500 Chanda in the Oentral Provinces. Thence, towards Malayiilam · 6,029,304 the Arabian Sea, the boundary runs south-west to Telugu · • 20,696,872 Kanarese • 10,365,047 Kolhapur, whence it follows the line of the Western Kodagu · 39,191 Ghats to about a hundred miles below , where it Tulu · · · 535,210 Toda · · 805 joins the sea. The boundary eastwards from Chanda Kota · · ·. 1,300 is more irregular, the hill country being mainly Gond(including· Kolami) 1,125,479 Kandh 494,099 Dravidian, with here and there a Munda colony, Kurukh · 591,886 and the plains Aryan. Kandh, which is found most Malhar · · 465 to the north-east, is almost entirely surrounded by Malto · · · 60,777 BrahUi · · · 48,589 Al'yan speaking Oriyas. Besides, however, this solid · · block of Dravidian speaking country, there are is­ TOTAL, Dravidian Sub·family . • 56,514,524 lands of languages belonging to the family far to the north in the Oentral Provinces and Ohota Nagpur, even up to the bank of the at Rajmahal. Most of these are rapidly falling under Aryan influences. Many of the speakers are adopting the Aryan caste-system, and with it broken forms of the Aryan language, so that there are in this tract numbers of Dravidian tribes to whose identification philology can offer no assistance. Finally, in far-off Baluchistan, there is Brahiii, concerning which, as already stated, there have been many discussions as to whether it is the advance guard or the rear guard of Dravidian migration. The following table shows the relationship whioh exists between the various Dravidian languages. Sanskrit writers divided the speeches of Southern India into two, which they named" .Andhra" and" Draviqa" respectively. 'l'his divi~on is well borne out by the present conditions of the existing vernaculars. Andhra was the parent of Telugu. K6lami, Kui, and Gond are intermediate languages, and, except Brahtii, all the others are descended from Dra vi<;la : Original Dravidian Language. I I Drivida LAngunge. Andhra- J,angnage.I . I I , _I I-I -,I I I I I I Tamil. Malay[l.m. Tnl.. Kodagu. Tad.. Kot.. Kannrese. Kurukh. Malto. Gond. Kui. Kot.mi, eto. Tel.gu. Brahiii. Character· 85. The Dravidian languages are polysyllabic and agglutinative, but do not istics. possess anything like the wonderfullllxuriance of agglutinative suffixes which we have noticed as distinguishing the Munda family. They represent, in fact, a later stage of development, for although still agglutinative, they exhibit the suffixes in a state in which they are beginning to be modified by euphonic con­ siderations, dropping letters in one place and changing in another. The suffixes, however, though thus sometimes losing their original form, are still independent and separable from the stem·word, which itself remains unchanged. The following general account of the main characteristics of the Dravidian forms of speech is taken with one or two verbal alterations from the Manual of the Administration of the :- "In the Dravidian languages all nouns denoting inanimate substances and irrational beings are of the neuter gender. The distinction of male and female appears only in the pronouns of the third person, in formed by suffix­ ing the pronominal terminations, and in the third person of the verb. .. In all THE DRAVIDIAN SUB-F.\ULY. 39 other cases the distinction of gender is marked .by separate words signifying !male' and 'female.' Dravidian nouns are inflected, not by means of case terminatjons, but by means of suffixed postpositions and separable particLes. Dravidi(,tn neuter ilouns are rarely pluralised. The Dravidian dative (lett, ki, or ge) bears no analogy to any case termination found in Sanskrit or other Indo­ Emopean languages. Dravidian languages use postpositions instead of preposi­ tions. In Sanskrit adjectives are declined like substantives, while in Dravidii'tn adjectives are incapable of declension. It is characteristic of Dravidian languages in contradistinction to Indo-European, that, wherever practicable, they use as adjectives the relative pal,ticiples of verbs, in preference to nouns of quality, or adjectives properly so called. A peculiarity of the Dravidian dialects is the existence of two pronouhR of the first person plural, one inclu­ sive of the person addressed, the other exclusive. The Dravidian langua~es have no passive voice, this being expressed by verbs signifying 'to suffer,' etc. The Dravidian languages, unlike the Indo-European, prefer the use of continua­ tive participles to conjunctions. The Dravidian vel'bal system possesses a negative as well as affirmative voice. It is a marked peculiarity of the Dravi­ dian languages that they make use of relative participial nouns instead of phrases introduced by relative pronouns. 11_hese participles are formed from the various participles of the verb by the addition of a formative suffix. Thus,' the person who came' is in Tamil literally 'the who-came.' " 86. The relationship of the Dravidian to the so-called Turaman languages Relationship is a complicated question. Dr. Caldwell long ago pointed out points of ii~~ Non­ J'esemblance between these two families, and more especially between the la~~:~geB. Dravidian languages on the one side and the Finnish, H ungal'ian, and Turkish languages on the other. This, however, is not the place to enter upon the discussion of so large a subject. We must content ourselves with pointing out the vast questions which it raises. If the theory is correct (and I may say at once that, personally, I do not accept iiJ, it might lead us to look upon the Dravido-Mundillanguages as forming a connecting link between that of Finland and those of Australia. The audacity of philologists could hardly go further than this, and yet there is something to be said in favour of the relationship on b6th sides of the connecting family. 87. Little can be added to what has been written in previous census reports Tamil. regarding the various Dravidian languages. What follows is mostly a repetition of well-known facts in words that have been used before. The to be mentioned is Tamil, not because it is numerically or geographically the most important, but by reason of its being the most cultivated and the best known of the Dravidian forms of speech. It covers the whole of Southern India up to and the Ghats on the west, and reaches northwards as far as the town of Madras, and beyond. It is also spoken as a vernacular in the northern part of the island of Ceylon, while most of the emigrants from the Peninsula to British Burma and the Straits Settlemcnts, thc so-called Klings or Kalingas, have Tamil for their native language; so also ·have a large propor- tion of the emigrant coolies who proceed from Madras to and the West Indies. In India itself, Tamil speakeI's, principally domestic servants, are found in every large town and cantonment. The Madras servant is usually without religious prejudices or scruples as to food, headgear, or ceremonial, so that he can accommodate himself to all circumstances, in which respect he is unlike the Northern Indian domestic. Tamil, which is sometimes called Malabar, and also, by Deccan Muhammadans and in the West of India, Arava, is a fairly homogeneous language. Only some petty dialects such as !rula, Irula, Kasuva, and Yerulmla have been reported. 'l'he Kasuvn, and first two are the dialects of small tribes in the Yeruka!l\. Popu'ation returned in Dinlecl. Madr.s nnd Nilgiris, and the last, which is also known as Korchi Coorg. or Korava, is used by a clan of vagrants, and will ~-----:---- be dealt with under the head of gipsy lan­ guages. Malasar is a corrupt Tamil spoken by a [rula 982 forest tribe which inhabits the northern slope of Kasuva • 241 Yerukala 44,768 the Anamullay range. Standard Tamil itself has two forms, the Shen (i.e., perfect) and the Kodum or Codoon (i.e., rude). The first is the literary ltmguage used for poetry, and has many adificial features. Codoon Tamil is the 40 'l'RE LANGUAGES OF INDIA. sty Ie used for the purposes of ordinary life. Ancient Tamil bad an alphabet of its own, the Vutteluttu, i.e., 'round writing,' while the modern language ern r plVatteluttu is also of North Indian origin. ( The modern Tamil character is an adaptation of the Grantha letters which corresponded to the letters existing in the old, but incomplete, Vatteluttu alphabet, from which, however, a few characters have been retained, ·the Grantha not possessing the equivalents. Like the Vatteluttu, it is singularly imperfect considering the copiousness of the modern vocabulary which it has to represent. Tamil is the oldest, richest, and most highly organised of the Dra­ vidIan languages; plentiful in vocabulary, and cultivated from a remote period. . 88. Closely connected with Tamil is Malayalam, the language of the . Its name is derived from mala, the local word for" mountain," with a termination which some explain as meaning " district," and others as meaning "sudden slope." It is a modern offshoot from Tamil, dating from, sa,y, the ninth century. In the seventeenth century it became subject to Brahmanical. influence, received a large infusion of Sanskrit words, and adopted the Grantha instead of the Vatteluttu character for its alphabet. From the thirteenth century the personal terminations of the verbs, till then a feature of Malayalam as of the other Dravidian languages, began to be dropped from the spoken language, and by the end of the fifteenth century they had wholly gone out of use except by the inhabitants of the Laccadives and by the Moplahs of South Kanara, in whose speech remains of them are still found. The Moplahs, who as M usalmans had religious objections to reading Hindu mythological poems, have also resisted the Brahmanical influence on the l,anguage, which with them is much less Sanskritised than amongst the , and, where they have not adopted the A.rabic character, they retain the old Vatteluttu. lVIalayalam has a large literature, principally, as explained above, YeraVB. Yerava 13,175 Brahmanical. It has one dialect, the Yerava, spoken in COOl'g. Telugu. Telugu, as a vernacular, is more widely spread than Tami.l. It occupies practically the whole of the east of the peninsula till it meets Tamil on the south. To the north it reaches to Chanda in the Oentral Provinoes, and, on the coast of the Bay of Bengal, to Ohicacole, where it meets Oriya. To the west it covers half of the Nizam's dominions. The district thus occupied is the Andhra of Sanskrit geography, and was called Telingana by the Muhammadans. Speakers of the language also appear in the independent territory of Mysore and in the area occupied by Tamil. Only on the west coast are they altogether absent. The Te~ugu or Telinga language ranks next to Tamil in respect to culture and copiousness of vocabulary, and exceeds it in euphony. Every word ends in a vowel, and it has been called th ~ Italian of the East. I t used to be named the Gentoo language from the Portuguese word meaning "," but this term has dropped out of use amongst modern writers. It employs a written character which, like that of Tamil, is derived from the Brahmi alphabet of As6ka, but by an altogether different line of descent, as its pedigree comes down through the Yengi and Chalukya scripts of the seventh century A.D. The Kanarese alphabet has the same origin, and the two were identical in the thirteenth century, but since then a marked divergence has arisen, which has increased since the introduction of printing in the course or the nineteenth century. Neither of these characters has been limited by the number of letters in the old Vattcluttu alphabet, as was the case with Tamil, and hence they are as full and complete as that of MalayiiIam or of any of the alphabets used for writing Sanskrit. '1\he curved character of the letters is a marked feature of both, and this is due to the custom of writing with a stylus on palm-leaves, which a series of straight lines would inevitably have split along the grain. 'l'elugu has borrowed many words from Sanskrit, and has a considerable literature. It has no proper dialects, unless we can call by that name a few tribal corruptions Komtiiii, Kiimtiiii 3,490 of the such as K 6mtaii, spoken Yiiniidi, and Chentzu. in the ·Oentral Proyinces, and Yaniidi and Ohentzu Gipsy in Madras. There ar~ also Gipsy tribes, such as the Kaikadis and the Waddars, corruptions. whose members use a deformed kind of 1'elugu. As a Dravidian language, THE DRA VlDIAN SUB-FAMILY. 41 ,Telugu occupies a somewhat independent position in regard to the others. This was clearly recognised by the old Sanskrit writers, who called it " Andhra,", in contraqistinction "to the other languages of Southern J·.l.dia, which they grouped together under tile name of " Draviga." 89. The true centre of the Kanarese-speaking people is Mysore. The historio Kanarese,

" Carnatic" was for the most part on the above the Ghats. I) It is also spoken in the south-east corner of the Bombay Presidency, and occupies a 'Strip of the coast between Tulu and Marathi. Above the Ghats, it stretches eastwards well into the Nizam's territory, and northwards to beyond the Kistna. The character used for writing and printing Kanarese is, as stated above, closely connected with that employed for Telugu, but the language itself possesses greater affinity to Tamil. The ancient Kanarese alphabet, known as Hala-kannl\da, which was the same as the contemporary Telugu one, dates from the thirteenth century, and in it is preserved an ancient form of the language, analogous to that of literary Tamil, and nearly as artificial. Up to the sixteenth century Kanarese was free from any admixture of foreign words, but since then the vocabulary has been extensively mixed with Sanskrit. During the supremacy of Haidar Ali and Tippu Sultan, Urdu words were largely imported into it from Mysore, while it borrowed from Marathi on the north-west and from Telugu on its north-east. Dialects of Kanarese Population are .Badaga, Kurumba, and Kodagu. The first returning it Dialect. in Ma. two are spoken in the Nilgiri Hills. The Badaga Badag3. and Coorg. tribe, called by our early historians the Burghers, Badag& 34,229 speak a language which closely resembles old Kurumba 9,:l06 Kanarese. 'l'he dialect of the forest tribe of Kurumbas or Kurubas is a corruption of - Kurumba. rese with an admixture of Tamil. K odagu or Kodagu. Coorgi is by some classed as an independent form of speech. I t is the language of Ooorg, and is described by Caldwell as standing about midway between old Kanarese and Tulu. In the Census returns it is treated as a distinct language. 90. Tulu, immediately to the south-west of Kanarese, is confined to a small Tulu. area in or near the district of in Madras. The Chandragiri and the Kalyanapuri Rivers in that district are regarded as its ancient boundaries and it does not appear to have ever extended much beyond them. It is a cul- tivated language, but has no literature, It uses the , Kanarese character. Bishop Oaldwell describes it as Populatiou Dialeot. returning it I one of the most highly developed of the Dravidian in Madras. tongues. It differs far more from its neighbour Koraga Malayalam than Malayalam does from Tamil, and 3,14i. I' Bella.ra 196 more nearly approximates the Kodagu dialect of Kanarese. It is said to have two dialects, Koraga Koraga and and Bellara. Bellam. 91. The remaining languages of the Dravidian tract proper are Toda and Todo. Kota, both spoken by wild tribes in the Nilgiris . .By some they are considered to be dialects of Kanarese, but Bishop Caldwell maintains that they are distinot languages. Toda has received a good deal of attention, mainly because its speakers are within easy reach of Ootacamund. The Kotas are another tribe Kota. lower in position and occupation than the Todas. Todas and Kotas are said to understand each other's language. The number of speakers of each is very small, and the tongues have only survived through the secluded positions of the tribes. 92. We now come to the scattered Dravidian languages of Northern and . The best known of these is Gond, spoken mainly in the Central Gand. Provinces, but overflowing into Orissa, North-Eastern Madras, the Nizam's territories, Berar, and the neighbouring portions of . Its chief peculiarity is usually said to be an elaborate conjugational system, but this is more apparent than real. The Linguistic Survey shows that it has a common ancestor with Tamil and Kanarese, and that it has little immediate connexion with its neighbour Telugu. The language is popularly known as "Gondi," whioh means only "the language spoken by Gonds," and, as many Gfmds have abandoned their ancestral tongue for that spoken by their Aryan neighbours, it is often impossible from the mere name alone to say what 42 THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA. , language is connoted by i~. For instance, there are. ma~y . thousands of Go~ds in BaO'helkhand, who have been reported to the LmgUIstIC Survey .3S speakIng G6ndi,Obut this, on examination, turns out to be a broken form of J3agheli. Similarly, the Gond Ojhas of Chhindwara, in the heart of the Gond country, speak what is called the Ojhi dialect, but this is also a jargon based on Bagheli. UJ.ltil, therefore, all the various forms of alleged Gondi have been systematically examined, great reserve must be used in speaking of the Gond lauguage as a whole. That, however, there, is such a language, that it is Dravidian, and that it is spoken by many thousands of people, there is not t4e slightest doubt. ']_'he language is usually said to have numerous dialects of which ·the following are Mari, P~rji. the principal: Mad or Maria and Parji, both spoken in the . Gattu. Gat"tu or Gotte, the former being said to be the correct spelling, is the language of the Hill Kois, and. is found in Chanda, Vizagapatam, and Godavari, and the Koi. related Koi or , in the same locality, as well as in Bastar and the Nizam's territories. N one of these, however, are real dialects. The true Gond language is the same everywhere, and all that can be said is that; as we go east and south it is more and more mixed with the neighbouring Telugu. In Naiki. Chanda and the Nizam's territories we have N aiki, and in Berar Kolami and Ladhadi. Naiki and Kolami are closely oonnected, Kolami. Population and differ considerably from the other Gond dialects. Ladhiidi. Dilileot. returning it. They will be classed as forming an independent language when the Linguistic Survey' finally Mii,ri 59,749 disposes of them.. Ladhadi is now so mixed with Piirji · 8,883 Gattu · · 5;494 Aryan elements that its final classification is at Koi · · 8,144- present doubtfUl. Gond has no literature and no Kolami · · 1.505 character of its own, but the Gospels and the book Unspecified · 1,041,754 · of Genesis have been translated into it. There are TOTAL, Gond 1,125,479 several grammatical sketches and vocabularies of I the various dialects. Kandh. 93. Kandh, as the Oriyas call it, or Kui, as its speakers call themselves, is the language of the Khonds of the Orissa Hills and the neighbourhood. It is unwritten and has no literature, but the Gospel of St. Mark and one .book of the Old Testament hav~ been translated into it, the Oriya character being employed to represent its sounds. The language is much more nearly related to Telugu than Gond, and has the simple conjugation of the verb which distin­ guishes all the Dravidian langu'ages of the south. It has two dialects, those of Chinn a Kimedi, and of Bod and Gumsar. Kurukh. 94. Further north, in the hills of Chota Nag-pur, and in Sambalpur and Raigarh in the Oentral Provinces, amongst a number of Munda languages, we find the Dravidian K urukh or, as it is often called, Oraon. In the Central Provinces it is usually called, Kisan, the language of culti­ Speakers of Kisii,n or Radii, in the vators, or Kada, the language of diggers. The Central Provinces- latter name should not be confused with the Munda Sam balpur • • 22,270 Feudatory States • 19,801 Kora. I t also has no literature, and is unwritten, TOTAL 42071 save for translatiohs of the Gospels, and a few sniall . _..:.__ books written by missionaries. We possess an excellent grammar of this language, which clearly proves its Dravidian character. Kurukh has no dialects proper, but ~ corrupt form, known as" Berga Oraon," is' found in the'Native State of Gangpur. ']_'he Kurukhs near the town of Ranchi have abandoned their own language, and speak a corrupt Mundari called" Hor6lia Jhagar." Malhar. 95. Malhar is a small Dravidian language spoken by 465 people in the in Orissa. It was first discovered during the present Census, and except its undoubted Dravidian character, little is known about'it. It seems to be a corrupt K urukh. Malto. 96. Finally, in this direction, we have the Malto, spoken by the Maler, or hillmen of Rajmahal. It is closely connected in its grammar with Kurukh, but has borrowed much of its vocabulary from the Aryan languages in its neighbour­ hood. It also appears to have borrowed to a small extent from the neighbouring Santali. The Psalm,S, the four Gospels, and the Acts of the Apostles have been translated into it, but it possesses no indigenous literature or written character. vVe have a good grammar of it by one of the missionaries of the Church ::Missionary Society. Kurukh and Malto are sister-languages, and are related tQ

\ .i I MAP SHOWING THE' LOCALITIES IN ~ WHICH THE ARYAN LANQUAGES OF INDIA ARE SPOKEN, \ N. B. -Boun~aries are onll a~~rolimale, _-.

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OF \ E A I IS A L B E N G REFERENCE

Indo.A'Iy~n LanglJag'"

Outer Languages CJ Intermediat.- Language. 0 Inner Language!. . 0 ---.!:.A_~OAOIVE )[ahi Non·Sanskritie [,anguage! CI ISLANDS (F'J Cahcut OOl~a.IlI.una Co \\ y.. I Ea.llranian Langu9{(es .D U: Q ler& .'oil,] o (FI) \ Tric!inopolY NOTE. < The hlur dots in the North·Esslof the PashbJ t~)}-:I, r area indioate that Kohistllni is ,Iso spohn i i~ ~,>, ~ The yellow dots in the same locality, and in the Kashmiri, Konistani, and Khowar arr,\, indk'\! 0;\ JTu1kori' I j Ihni Gujari is ,Iso sp(lkell. ' NICOBAR " ~ome of the less imporfllnt Uanguiges ,ml ISLANDS C man)' Dililerre have been omitted, {/ ~ E.VLO)\ I ~

M~LD\VE I. N ' I' I N n .' ,siLANDS COLOIIRO E A . II A N~~'.J=,=O==--C=__ __L_ __ ~ __ -====;':;===1 -- ---'·------,-=-=-=---=-~.t,=-,-=-=-=-==--- I 8[2 -~ 910' ------_-______9~'

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INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY. THE ARYAN SUB-FAMILY. 43 , Ka.narese. According to tradition their speakers are immigrants from the Carnatic and came to their pres~m.t seats in comparatively recent times. ') 97." Turning hOW to the western frontier of India, we come to the Brahm, Brahii.i. spoken"in the no,rth of Sind &nd the east of Baluchistan. Ethnologically, the • connection of the Brahliis with the inhabitants of Southern India has not ret been established. Of their &ncient history little is known. They appear "to have been driven from their ancient home on the lower Indus towards the inhospitable and inclement mountainous regions of Middle Baluchistan. They lead a pastoral life, living on the produce of their herds, and are generally inoffensive, sociable, and given to hospitality. Their distinguishing characteris- tics are an olive-coloured skin, a feeble, middle-sized frame, and a dark, thin, beard; and, notwithstanding the high altitude of their domicile and the cold climate in which they live, they have retained their dark complexion. That the language is connected with the Dravido-Munda stock has long been known, and was finally proved by Dr. Trumpp in the year 1880. The best known authority on the subject is the account of the tribe and of their speech published by Dr. Duka in 1887, in which the. results of Trumpp's investigations have been incorporated. The latter scholar was of opinion that the language is more closely connected with the Dravidian than with the Munda family, more espe­ cially as it possesses no dual, which is a prominent characteristic of the last­ named, and this has been fully confirmed by the Linguistic Survey. There are several grammars and vocabularies available, and a reading book, containing specimens of the language, was published at in 1877. No portion of the Bible seems to have been translated into it. The portion of Baluchistan inhabited by the Brahms was not one of those in which vernacular languages were returned for the Census, and hence nearly all the speakers of Brahiii shown in the tables hail from Sind. In their own home many do not speak their tribal language. The Brahliis frequently marry women of alien tribes, and in such cases the children speak their mother-tongue, rather than that of their fathers.

INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY. THE ARYAN SUB-FAMILY.

98. The original home from which the populations, whom we now group Original together under the name of Indo-Europeans, spread over Europe and parts of home. Western and Southern Asia, has been a subject of long discussion, extending over many years. We English are probably most familiar with the cautious opinion expressed by the late Professor Max M liller, that it was " somewhere iI;l Asia," although his oft-repeated warning that the existence of a family of lndo~ European languages does. not necessarily postulate the existence of one Indo,. European race, has too often been ignored by writers who should have known better. The earliest enquirers based their conclusions. in the main on Philology, and in former times it was, indeed. universally assumed that' the original seat should be sought for either on the Caucasus or on the HindU. Kush. Since then other sciences have been made the handmaids of the enquiry. Bistory, Anthro­ pology, Geography, and Geology have all been pressed into the service. Philo- logy fell for a time into discredit, and a more recent opinion, based in the main upon Anthropology, asserted with equal decision that the locality must be looked for in N orth-Western Europe. More recently, we have been led back to the old theory, and have had Armenia and the country round the Ox:us and Jaxartes pointed out to us as the place of origin. The latest researches are those of Professor Otto Schrader, who, after a review of all the evidence available, con- siders that the oldest probable domicile of the Indo-Europeans is to be sought for on the common borderland of Asia and of Europe,-in the steppe-country of Southern Russia. Here they were a pastoral people; here some of their number gradually took to agricultural pursuits; and from here they wandered off to the east and to the west. 99. The first great division. of the people was into the so-called centum- Oentum and speakers and satem-speakers. The former, who used some word cognate to the :~:~m speak. Latin centum for the numeral "hundred," wandered westwards, and became the parents of the Greek, Latin, Keltic, and Teutonic 1'aces. The latter, with whom we are immediately concerned, and who expressed the idea of "hundred IJ by some word corresponding to the hypothetical form satem, wandered to the G3 .. 44 THE LA.NGUAGES OF INDIA. east, and from their language descended the speech families which we call Aryan, Armenian, Phrygian, Thracian, Illyrio-Albanian, and Balto-Slavonic. We have to do only with the first of these six. Meaning of 100. I t is a matter for regret .that this term" Aryan" is fre1uently used, and word especially by the English, in an extended sense, as equivalent to "Indo­ co Aryan." European." It is really the name of one of the tribes of these satem-people, as used by these people themselves. In the following pages it will be used only in this sense, and it will not be applied to other satem-people, or to languages, su~h as English, Latin, or German, which are sometimes called "Aryan languages " in England. The word "Aryan" is an Aryan word, originally used by the " Aryan" people, and among other suggested significations is said to mean" the betriended." Indians and .Branians who are descended from an Indo-European stock have a perfect right to can themselves Aryans, but we English have not.· Aryan wan· 101. At some time unknown to us these Aryans wandered forth eastwards derings. from the original home of the Indo-Europeans, probably by a route north of the Caspian Sea. They settled in the country lying on the banks of the J axartes and the Oxus, and we may, with some probability, name the oasis of Khiva as one of the most ancient seats of the Aryans in Asia. fl'hence, still a united people, they appear to have followed the courses of these rivers into the high­ lying country round Khokand and Badakhshan, where they separated, one por­ tion marching south, over the Hindu Kush into the valley of the Kabul, and thence into the plains of India, and the other westwards towards what is now Merv and Eastern Persia. After the separa­

Population tion, the once common Aryan speech developed on Branch. returniog II. two different lines and became, on the one hand, the Indo·Aryans parent of the Indo-Aryan, and on the other hand, and Eranians. Eranian . . 1,397,786 that of the Eranian (or, as it is often called, Indo-Aryan . . 219,780,650 " Iranian ") family of languages.t As in the case of TOTA.L, Aryan I Sub-family • 221,178,436t the Western Indo-Europeans, wherever these two Race-mixture Aryan families wandered, they found themselves in '!'lith Abori­ the presence of aboriginal popUlations, who were gines. either driven by the invaders into the mountainous tracts of their own country, or else, and this in the majority of cases, were conquered and compelled to adopt an Aryan speech. Nevertheless, as Professor J usti remarks, the ethnical character of the Aryans, who had immigrated in comparatively small numbers, became so altered, partly by intermixture with the numerically superior aborigines and partly owing to climatic influences, that, anthropologically speaking, they have developed into races alien to those of Europe, with whom they are connected by a relationship of language; just as, speaking generally. the inhabitants of Southern Europe have sprung from a stem which is not that of the Swedes or Frieslanders. Similarly, from the point of view of anthropology, the Hindus are all altogether different race from the Teutons, whose language is, nevertheless, related to Sanskrit, and the of the present day show a far closer resem­ blance to Orientals of other stocks than to the linguistically related fair com­ plexioned sons of the sea-coasts of the north.

The Eranian Branch. 102. We have left the Eranian branch of the Aryans in the hill country near Khokand and Badakhshan. Thence they spread eastwards and westwards. Those

• No completely satisfactory name has yet been found to connote the whole family of speeches which I call above" Indo-European." "Indo-Germanic," "Indo·Teutonic," "Indo·Keltic," "Indo·Classic," "Japhetic," "Mediterranean," and" Aryan" have all been suggested, and some, especially" Indo·Germanic," are used at the present day. Something may be said for and against each of these names. I have selected" Indo·European," as to me the least objectionable. Some well-known scholars maintain that the word" Aryan" was used in the original home of the Indo-Europeans, and that in Europe it has survived in Keltic languages in the Old Irish word aire, a prince. That may be, but I know of no reason for believing that the word was ever employed to signify the Indo-European people as a whole. It is a convenient word, and that is really all that can be said for its use in the extended sense of "Indo·European." t Strictly speaking, as we employ the term .. Indo·Aryan," we should also call the other linguistic family: the Erano.Aryan. It is, however, shorter to use" Eranian" without the addition of "Aryan," and the use of, the word will lead to no confusion. In the case of India it is different, for there are many Indian languages which are not Aryan. Hence, in order to connote the Aryan languages which developed in India, we must use the term" Indo-Aryan." j: The Eranian figures include not only the total of Table X, Part II A, but also that of Part 11 B. INDO· EUROPEAN FAMILY. THE ARYAN SUB PAMILY. 45 who migrated to the east and are now found in the Group. , Population , retuming, it. Pamirs, still speak Eranian languages, but, furthar east, even in Yarkand, we find tribes of Aryan build Western (Persian) r. 20,748 and oomplexion w~o have adopted the Tartar speeoh Eastern. • • 1,377,038 of the nations who have conquered them in later Limi~s of TOTAL, Eranian I periods. We may therefore take the Sariqal countr' ~;::h~ Branch. • 1,397,786- as the eastern limit of the Eranian family of languages at the present day. To the west and south the Eranians occupied Merv, the whole of Persia, Afghanistan, and Baluchistan. In the latter tracts, the eastern limit of Eranian speech may be considered to coincide roughly with the River Indus, although a good deal of the country west of that river was once occupied by Indo-AryanA, and Indo-Aryan languages are still found there. It does not appear, however, that the Eranians ever occupied the country now known. as Kafiristan, or the Laghman country between Kafiristan and the Kabul River. 103. A t the earliest period fot' w hieh we have documentary evidence we find Persic and Eranian divided into two not very different languages, commonly called the Medic. Persie and Medic, though Persic and non-Persic would be better names.t 104. The oldest form of the Persic language that we are aoquainted with is the Persico Old "Old Persian" of the Achremenides, of whioh the best known example is found in Persian. one of the versions of the inscription of Darius I or Darayavahush (B.C. 522-486) at Behistun. It was the official language of the court of Persepolis, and as such was used over the wJ:lOle of Eran, being employed not only in government documents, but also, inevitably, as a lingua franca between the inhabitants of different provinces, much as Hindastani is used in India at the present day. The next stage of this Persic language which we meet in a written form is the " Middle Persian" or Pahlavi (i.e., Parthian) of the Sassanides (third to seventh Middle centuries A.D.), which bears much the same relationship to modern Persian that Persian. the Prakrit languages do to the modern IndO-Aryan vernaculars. Finally, we have Persian. modern Persian, which developed into a language of literature and polite society, and thus became fixed at an early period. Save for the admixture of Arabic words, it has been on the whole the same language for a thousand years. Under Muhammadan dominion it became one of the great vehicles of , and some of the most famous Persian books, including the greatest lexicographical works, have been composed in India. It is nowhere a vernacular of that country, but is one of the languages of belleslettres amongst the educated Musalmans. As stated by Mr. Baines in the last Census Report, "In Bengal and Rangoon there are remnants of the old ruling families of Delhi and Lucknow; in the Punjab, traders and immigrants are found, and the refugees from Afghanistan; and in Bombay, horse-dealers and emigrants from Persia who have settled down in the chief towns. Beyond these centres there is hardly any real Persian spoken, and a good deal of whafis returned as such is but the better sort of Urdu." These, however, are not by any means the only people of Eranic origin who have made India their home, temporarily or other- wise. In the times of the Greek successors of the Great and of the Indo-Scythians who followed them, adherents of the old Eranian sun worship entered India as missionaries. Together with the elements of their religion, they': were adopted into the ranks of the Brahmans themselves, and still survive as Siikadvipiya Brahmans. In later times votaries of the rival ana more orthodox cult of Zarathustra settled in Western India, in order to avoid Islamitic persecution in their native land. They are now represented by the flourishing community of Parsees. In both cases, however, these immigrants have abandoned their Eranian vernacular and at the present day speak languages of India. The Persian of the Afghan refugees closely resembles the Badakhshi dialect of that form of speech, and contains a number of Pashta words. 105. '11he group of dialects which are classed together under the name of the "Medic" language was spoken in widely separated parts of Eriin. Media itself Medic.

• The Eranilln figurl's in~lude not only the total of Tllhle X, Part II A, but also that of P~rt II ~. . t The charactfristic features of the" Medic" language were, and are, found not only ill Media, whIch corresponds to the modern North·Western Persia and Kurdistan, but also in tracts far to the east. They are, 1D0reover, characteristio of the language of the Avesta, which is East Erl1nian in origin. The term Medic is, however, a convenient one as designating the tribe which was the most important politically amongst t~ose who used the non·Persic language. At the same tim.e it should be carefully noted that although the Ave~ta 18 written in "Medic," that is no ground for assuming that its birthplace was Media or anywhere in the neIghbourhood. This view is, it is true, held by some scholars, but the question may DDt be begged by the wrong U1ie of the word Medic, 46 THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA.

was in what is at the present time Western Persia.

Language. Population yet the Medic word for" dog," (T1T(iKa. .which Hero­ retnrDiDg it. dotus has preserved to us, can claim the word spiie, spoken now-a-days in dj,Jltant Afghanistan, Balilch 152,188 amongst its descendants, but not the neighbouring · .' 1,224,807 l'ashto · . Persian sag. In, fact, the one literary monument Ormuri ... Ishkitsha.mi· ... of ancient Medic which we possess, the Avesta, had Munjllni · . 28 its home, according to most authorities, not in Shighni · ... Wakhi (Part II· ·B) 15 Media, but in East Eran. The oldest parts of the Avesta probably date from about the sixth century ~OTAL., Eastern group 1,877,038 before our era, and although large portions of it ( belong to a period many centuries later, we have no documents to illustrate the medireval Medic, a& East Eranian Pahlavi does for Persico All that we have are the modern languages which languages. have developed from it. These are the Ghalchah languages of the Pamirs~ Pasht6, Ormuri, Bal6ch, and a number of dialects (of which the best known is Kurdish) spoken all over Persia proper, and beyond. As the most important of these languages are spoken in the eastern portion of the ancient Bran, they are conveniently olassed together under the name of the eastern group of the Branian languages. * I shall commence to deal with them from the south. :Baliich. 106. rrhe home of the Baloch or Biloch language is, as its name implies,. istan, but it extends considerably beyond the usually recognised limits of that province. To the east it reaches to the Indus, as far north as Dera Ghazi Khan, although the country along the banks of that river is mainly 'inhabited by Indians whose language is either Lahnda or Sindhi. Northwards it extends to near Quetta~ or, say, the thirtieth degree of north latitude, and, as we go westwards, it is found even further than this, up to the valley of the Helmand. Westwards it extends to 'about the fifty-eighth degree of east longitude, and its southern boundar.V is the Arabian Sea. This large tract of country is inhabited also by another tribe, a non-Eranian one, the Brahuis, who have a language of their own. Brahiii is spoken in the central portion of Baluchistan, and separates Baloch into two clearly distinguished dialects, viz., Northern Baloch and Southern and Makritni • 609 ~ estern Baloch or ¥a~r~~i. .Each has minor sub- dIalects, but the mam dlvlSlon mto Northern Baloch and Makrani is sufficient for our present purpose. Besides phonetical and grammatical differences, the former is much richer in words borrowed from India than the latter. As in Pashto, both dialects freely borrow Arabic and Persian words. The Baloches, unlike their Afghan neighbours, have found difficulties in pronouncing certain of the Arabic letters, so that some of the words taken from that language have been quaintly transformed. Baloch has but a small literature,. most of which consists of folk songs, tales, and the like, that have been collected by Mr. Dames and other scholars. We have grammars and vocabularies of both dialects, and several books of the Bible have been translated into it. l?or writing, both an adaptation of the Arab., and the Roman character are employed. Of all the Eastern Eranian languages, Baloch is the one which has most conserved archaic forms. Its consonantal system in some respects stands on the same stage &s that of the Medireval Pahlavi. According to Professor Geiger, it still preserves unchanged letters which fifteen hundred years ago had begun to lose their prommciation in the language which is now modern Persian. In its grammatical inflexions, also, several ancient forms are preserved. East of the Indus, Baloches, still using their native tongue, are found in some Native States as .personal retainers and treasure-guards of the chiefs. These are usually Makrahis. But few of the speakers of Baloch have been recorded in the Oensus, most of them living outside the area of enumeration. PnshtQ. "107. Pasht6 is spoken in British territory in the trans-Indus districts as far south as Dera Ismail Khan. Northwards it extends into the Yiisufzai country, Bajaur, Swat, and Buner, and through the Indus Kohistan at least as far as the River Kandia, where the Indus turns to the south. In the northern portion of Swat, Buner, and the Kohistan, many of the inhabitants speak in their homes

• This name" Eastern" must be taken with the same reservation as th~t with which" Medic ,. is employed. The minor diaJects are spoken not only in Central Persia, but even in the far north·west, on the shQres of the Caspian. INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY. THE ARYAN SUB-FAMILY. 47

!anguages of Indo-Aryan origin, but Pashto is universal as a kind of lingu(/ fra'1wa. ):n ~ritish territory its eastern boundary may be roughly taken as coinciding with tlie course of the Indus, although there are Pashto-speaking­ colo:p.ies in the Ha2.ara district, and in Raw~lpindi it is spoken on both banks of the river. After entering the district of Dera Ismail Khan the easterL.' boundary gradually slopes away from the Indus, leaving the lower parts of the valley in possession of Lahnda, and some thirty miles south of the town of Chandhwfm it meets Baloch, and turns to the west. The southern boundary passes south of Quetta and through Shorawak, till it is stopped by the desert of Baluchistan. Thence it follows the eastern and northern limits of the desert, with extensive colonies down the rivers which run south through the waster to nearly the sixty-first degree of east longitude. It then turns northwards up to about fifty miles south of Herat, where it reaches its limit to the north-west. The northern boundary runs nearly due east up to the Hazara country, in which tract the inhabitants do not employ Pashto but either Persian, or a language of Mongolian origin. Skirting the west, south, and east of the Hazara country,. and just avoiding the town of Ghazni, it finally goes northwards up to the Hindu Kush. Leaving Kafiristan to its east and north, it roughly follows the Kabul River up t6 Jalalabad, whence it runs up the Kunar so as to include Baj.aur and Swat as already stated. In this irregularly shaped area the popula­ tion is by no means entirely Pashto·speaking. In British territory the Hindus speak Lahnda, and in His Highness the Amir's territory there is a great admix­ ture of races, including Tajiks, Hazaras, Kizilbashis, and , who speak the languages of the countries of their Origin. Roughly speaking, we may say that the country in which the majority of the population use Pashto as their lan­ guage is Southern and Eastern Afghanistan, the country to the west of the Indus from its southward bend to Dera Ismail Khan, and a strip of Northern. Baluchistan. If the identifications of the names are correct, Pashto speakers have occupied at least a portion of their present seat for more than two thousand five hundred years. They have been compared with the 7rcLKTV€S of Herodotus, and with the Pakthas of the , while the chrcLpvTar, of the Father of History are prqbably the same as the Afridis, or as they call themselves, the A pridis. Their subsequent history does not concern us here, and it will suffice to recall the fact that they have several times invaded India, that numbers are now settled in that country, where they are lmown as Pathans (a corrupt form of "Pashtana" or "Pakhtana "), and that Sher Shah, the Emperor of Delhi) was of Afghan origin. Another class of Afghans comes into India each autumn, and wanders over the country during the cold weather, usually as pedlars and horse· dealers, but sometimes for less reputable pursuits. Pashta has a literature of respectable size and possessing works of merit, which are written in a modification of the Arab-Persian alphabet. It has received considerable attention from scholars both in India and in Europe. The rugged character of its sounds suits the nature of its speakers and of the mountains which form their home, but they are most inharmonious to the somewhat fastidious oriental ear. Tradition tells us of the earliest linguis­ tic. SUi'vey on record, in which a Grand Wazir brought to his King specimens of all the languages spoken on the earth; but the specimen of Pashto consisted of the rattling of a stone in a pot. According to a well-known proverb Arabic is scienoe, Turki is accomplishment, Persian is sugar, Hindostani is salt, but Pashta is the braying of an ass I In spite of these unfavourable remarks, though harsh sounding, it is a strong, virile language, which is capable of ex­ pressing any idea with neatness and accUl'acy. It is much less archaic in its general characteristics than :Baloch, and has borrowed not only a good deal of its vocabulary, but even part of its grammar from Indian sources. As a whole, it is a singularly homogeneous form of speech, although two dialects are recognised, a North-Eastern or Pakhto and a South-Wester;n or Pashto. They differ little except in pronunciation, of which the two names are good and typical examples of the respective ways of uttering the same word. . Each has several tribal sub-dialects, which also differ only in points of pronunciation. Nothing like the total number of Pashto speakers has been recorded in the census, which was necessarily confined to the settled :British territory. 108. Pashta exhibits many points of connection with the Ghalchah languages of the Pamirs, but still more closely related to these last is the curious iBolated THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA.

Ormuri. ~ittle speech, known as Ormuri or Bargista (the speech of Barak), which i:i the tongue of a few thousand people near Kanigoram in ":azirisian, a locality -outside the census area. They have an impossible tradition that they came from Y aman in Arabia, and that their language was invented for them by a "'very old and learned man named 'U mar Laban,' some four hundred years a~o~ They claim to be descended from a certain Barak, from whom one of the names of their tribe and of their langua~e is derived. 'l'here are a good many Ormurs settled in the Bahawalpur State, but they have all abandoned their own tongue. The language is certainly an East Eranian one, and de­ serves more study than it has yet received. It does not appear tc have any 'literature, but the Arab-Persian alphabet as adapted for Pashta has been employed for writing it. . Ghalchah 109. The last of the East Eranian languages to be mentioned here are those languages. which form the so-called Ghalchah group. They are all spoken in or near the Pamirs, and are closely connected with each other. They are Wakhi, spoken in W akh~n; Shighni or Khugni in Shighnan and Roshan, with its dialect Sariq-qali, spoken in the Taghdumbash Pamir and Sariqal; Ishkashami, Sang­ llchi or Zebaki, spoken in the country round the towns whose name it bears; Munjani or Mungi of Munjan, with its dialect Yiidgha; and Ya~hnabi, spoken some way to the north of the Pamirs round the head-waters of the Zarafshan River. Of these, the only one which concerns us immediately is Yiidgha or Leotkuhiwar, whioh has crossed the ridge of the Hindu Kush by the Dorah Pass, and is spoken in the" Ludkho" Valley leading from that pass to Chitral. The others are also heard in Chitral and its neighbourhood, hut only in the mouths of visitors. None of them except Yiidgha seems to be vernacular in any territory immediately under British influence. Yiidgha itself is very little known. Colonel Biddulph has given us a short grammatical sketch and voca­ bulary, which has been the foundation of all subsequent writings, till the Lin­ guistic Survey put further materials at the disposal of enquirers. That it is a dialect of Munjani cannot be doubted. To the philologist, the Gha1chah lan­ guages are of importance. They possess some grammatical forms in common with certain of the Indo-Aryan languages immediately to their soutb, and thus ap­ pear to be one of the links connecting the latter with 'Branian languages. The area in which Yiidgha is a vernacular is beyond the census area, and no speakers of it have been recorded. A few visitors who speak Munjani and vVakhi appear in the tables. Their presence is, of course, accidental.

The Indo-Aryan Branch. 110. As in the case of the Eranians, we have left the ancestors of tbe present Indo-Aryans in the hill country near Khokand and Badakhshan. Whilst the former wandered eastwards and westwards, the latter migrated towards the south. The reason for the parting of the ways is unknown to us. It may have been due to religious schisms, as some have urged; or to the establishment of a monarchical system amongst the Eranians to which the Indo-Aryans could not subscribe, as has been suggested by others; or it may have had no imme­ diate visible cause, and have been due simply to that irresistible tendency to advance in a given direction which we often notice in the ('ase of nomadic tribes. All that is certain is that they did separate, and th~t most of the Indo­ lndo-Aryan Aryans went southwards by the western passes of the Hindu Kush and settled first route into India. in what is now Eastern Afghanistan, extending as far south as Harahvaiti, which corresponds to the Arachosia of Strabo, or the country round the modern Kandahar. Thence they advanced down the valley of the Kabu], and, as we all know, formed themselves into a nation in the Punjab. In the Punjab and in Eastern Afghanistan their language ultimately arrived at that stage which we may conveniently designate as Old Sanskrit. This was not a homogeneous tongue. It had dialects. All the modern Indo-Aryan languages of India proper can claim it, in some one or other of its dialects, as their parent. Clas­ sical Sanskrit is also a literary development of one of them. Secondary 111. It is generally agreed that the great mass of the Indo-Aryans came south, route froJn the Pamirs. as above stated, by the western passes of the Hindu Kush. I t is also very prob­ able that a smaller number of them entered from the head-waters of the Oxus, by the much more difficult routes through Chitral or through Gilgit) or INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY. THE ARYAN .SUB-FAMILY • 49 "through both. This theory is to some extent borne out by the present linguis­ tic condi.tions of this tract of country. In the Pamirs, where the Oxus tales its rise" the lang'uage is Eranian. To the south, in Kafiristan, Laghma,n, Chitral, and Gilgi~, it is Indo-Aryan, but at the same time shows points of con· nection with the Ghalchah languages of the Pamirs, which are not possessed ,1>y the speee he~ descended from Old Sanskrit or by Old Sanskrit itself. It can Non·Sans­ hence hardly represent a wave of reflex migration from the Punjab. How far kritic lInrloo. south this minor Indo-Aryan invasion extended it is impossible to say. If ~~~;:s. an­ we may take language as a test, it certainly got as far as Ll1ghman to the east, and to the north of Swat and Huner, and traces of it are also found in Kashmir. In the last-named country it was met by a reflex wave from the so"Q,th. Whether it actually penetrated into the Punjab itself is a question regarding which only guesses can be hazarded. On this point language offers us little assistance. It must be admitted that the theory here put forward, that there was a secondary Indo-Aryan migration from the Pamirs, has not yet been thOl'oughly discussed by scholars, and that it is advanced here on purely linguis- tic grounds. To me personally these seem to be the Population only available explanation of the state of affairs, Main Group. l'eturuing it. and from them it follows that, as the languages spoken in the country south of th,) Pamirs have not N on-~anskritic 54,425 come from the south, although Indo-Aryan, they are S~nskritic 219,726,2::!5 not derived from the Old Sanskrit which found its TOTA.L, Indo-Aryan first home in Eastern Afghanistan and the Punjab, Branch 219,780,650 but have had an independent development from a - distinct but cognate form of speech. 'l'his being assumed, the Indo-Aryan languages fall into two main groups, the non- Sanskritic and the Sanskritie.

THE NON,SANSKRITIC INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES. 112. As explained above, this group of languages is only provisionally called non-Sanskritic, on the ground that, although clearly Indo·Aryan, its speakers appear to have arrived at their present seats from the north, and not to be colonists from the south, where that form of Indo-Aryan language which we call Sanskrit became developed. These languages have one striking peculiarity in the conjugation of the verb, 'Viz., that the characteristic letter of the mood is k. Thus" to beat " is in Veron K.afir pesumtinik, in Kalasha Characteris. Rafir tyek, in Khawar dik, in shid8ki, and in Pashai hanik. The same tic points. letter occurs in the infinitive of the Eranian Ghalchah languages of the Pamirs as in the Wakhi Population Group. returning it. ahilgak, to desire, but does not appear in any of the Sanskritic Indo-Aryan languages. There are other points of connection with the· Ghalchah languagl~s Shinii.KhiiwAr 64,425 Rafir . . ... which it is not necessary to give here. It will Kalashii· Pashai ... suffice to compare the curious form ispa for

TOTAL, Non-Sans- "us," which occurs in Khawar, with the Wakhi kritic languages 54,425 spa, our. These non-Sanskritic languages fall into three groups, the Shina-Khawar, the Kafir, and the Kalasha-Pashai. But few of the speakers are recorded in the census, the area of which does not extend beyond the settled British frontier. 113. The Shina-Khowiir group includes two languages, 'Viz., Shina and Sbinlt-KM­ Khawar. Shina is the language of the Gilgit ;:~roQP.­ -~~- Valley, and of the Indus Valley from Baltistan to Population 1 Langnage. retnrning it. the River Tangir. It also extends to the south-east of the last-named river, and occupies a large block of mountain country between Baltistan and the Shina . 54,192 Khawiir . 233 Valley of Kashmir. It has several well-defined dialects, the most important 1::eing Gilgiti of the TOTAL, Shinii.- Khawar group • 54,425 Gilgit Valley. To the north-west of Gilgit another unnamed dialect is spoken, and besides these we - have Astari of the Astor Valley, Ohilasi of the Indus Valley from near Astor to the Tangir, and Gurezi of the Gurez Valley. Besides ., H 50 THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA. this there are the dialects of those whom the :BaltiB call Brokpas, or Highlanders., Tkese are the Brokpa of Dras, which differs little from Gurezi, the Brokpa of Skardu which is the same as Astori, and the curious isolated colony of Shina, spoken near the frontier line between Baltistan and Ladakh, called the' Brokpa of Dah and HamI. This dialect differs so widely from that of the other two B'rokpas, that the respective speakers are unintelligible to each other, and have to use BaIti as a lingua jrranea. Shina has been written about by several authorities, of whom the best known are the late Dr. Leitner a.nd Colonel Biddulph. The Dah Hana. dialect has been described by Shaw. The Dard. Gurez people call them.selves "Dards," and this nam.e is by some extended tofapply to Shina generally, or even to all the non-Sanskritic Indo-Aryan languages. Khawar. 114. Khowar is th~ language of Chitral and of a part of Yasin. It is some- times called Chatrari, usually pronounced ChitraIi by Europeans, or Arniya. It extends down the Chitral River as far as Drosh and is bounded on the north by the Hindu Kush. No dialects have been recorded. Leitner, Bid­ dulph, and O'Brien are our principal authorities for this language. The home of Khowar lies outside the census area. Kifir Group. 115. West of the Chitral country lies the mountainous tract known as Kafiristan, the land of the Unbeliever. T here is no such language as Kafiri, though it has often been written about.- The country is divided up into a number of Bashgali. tribal languages. Four of these, Bashgali, Wai, Veron, and Ashkun, are classed together in the Kafir group. The Bashgal River takes its rise in the southern face of the Hindu Kush, and joins the Chitral River near N arsat. Its vll.lley is the home of the Bashgali Kafir.laIiguage, which is the speech of the Siah Posh Kafirs generally. All the trIbes who wear the dark-coloured raiment seem at once to understand each other, and to be able to converse fluently and without hesitation. We have a grammar of this interesting language from the pen of Colonel Davidson. 116. The Sufed Posh (white raiment) Kafirs occupy the centre and south-east Woi. Qf Kafiristan, and consist of three tribes, the Wai, the Presun or Veron, and the Ashkund. The language spoken by the Wai is closely connected with :Bashgali. It is spoken on the lower valley of the Waigal, a river which takes its rise in the interior of Kafiristan, and, after receiving the Wezgal (in whose valley Wasiii. Veri is spoken), enters the K unar near Asmar. The Presuns inhabit an inaccessible valley in the heart of the country to the west of the Wasiii Veri. :Bashgal area. Their language is called Wasiii Veri or Veron, and differs widely from Bashgali, its speakers being mutually unintelligible to each other. The Afihkund. remaining language, Ashkund, or the language of the 'Bare Mountain,' is spoken to the south-west of the tract inhabited by the Presuns. We know nothing about it except its name, its locality, and the fact that it is not understood by other Kafirs. It is hence placed only provisionally in this group. All the speakers of this group inhabit countries outside the census area,-most of them, indeed, are subjects of His Highness the Amir of Afghanistan. Kalashii­ 117. The Kalasha-Pashai group includes Kalasha, Gawar-bati, and "Pashai. Pashai Group. The Kalasha Kafirs inhabit the Doab between the Bashgal and Chitral Rivers. KaliisM. They are not " Kafirs" in the strict sense of the word, as they, have adopted the Musalman religion, and are subject to the Chitralis, although the Bashgalis claim them as slaves. Previous to the Linguistic Survey, our only authority regarding this tribe was contained in the works of Dr. Leitner.. Lower down the Chitral River, at its junction with the Bashgal, in and about the country of Narsat, dwell the Gawars, who also have a language of their own, known Gawal'·bati. as Gawar-bati, or Gawar-speech, of which a vocabulary was given by Colonel Biddulph under the name of Narisati. Still lower down, on the right bank. Pashai. of the }, which has noW become the Kunar, dwell the Pashai. The only information which up to the present time has been available regarding their language has been based on short lists of words by Burnes and Leech. Pashai, Laghmiini, properly speaking, is the speech of the Dehg~ of Laghman and of the country Dehgini. to the east of it as far as the Kunar. It is also called Laghmani, from the tract where it is spoken (the abode of the Lambagai of ptolemy) and Dehgani because most of its speakers belong to the Dehgan tribe. The boundaries

• .. On~ ingenious gentleman, has even given a specimen of it, but on examination it turns out to be the Amazulu Kafir of ! INDO-EUROPE.A,~ F~MILY. THE ARYAN SUn-FAMILY. 51 .pf the language are said to be, roughly, on the west .the Laghman River, on the north the boundary of the Kafirs, on the east the Kunar River, and on the south the Kabul .River, although the riverain villages on the left bank of the Kabul speak. Pashto. It has two well.,marked dialects, an eastern and a western. This language, the most western outpost of Indo-Aryan speech, is thus spoken in the heart of Afghanistan, and is of more than ordinary inteJ;e~t both to ethnologists and philologists. It is. fully dealt with in the Linguistic Suryey. The languages of this group form a connecting link between the Kafir and Chitral languages, and the Sanskritio languages of the Indus K6histan and the northern Punjab. The further south they go, the more points of agreement with the Sanskritio languages are exhibited by them, though they tenaciously cling to. their typical infinitive in k. Pashai shows most Salls­ kritic influence, while the most northern, KaHisha, on the other hand, has points in oommon with Khawar which are wanting in the other members of the group. Gawar-bati occupies an intermediate position. A.ll the speakers of this group inhabit countries outside the census area. None of these languages are written or have any literature. The Roman alphabet has been used of late in transcribing them, though natives, when it is necessary to write any passage in them, more usually adopt the Arab-Persian alphabet as adapted to PashtD. No portions of the Bible have as yet been translated into any of them.

THE SANSKRITIC INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES. 118. Returning to the immigration of the Indo-Aryans through the Kabul Valley from the west, we are not to suppose that it all took place at once. Every probability leads us to imagine it as a gradual affair extending over The gra.dual many hundred years. We see traces of this in the Vedas themselves. If pro- immigra.tion. fessor Hillebl'andt is right in his conclusion, the tribe over which King Div6dasa ruled inhabited A.rachosia (i.e., Kandahar), while under his descendant Sudas its members are found on the Indus, and have already turned into legend the martial exploits of his ancestor. This is a thing for which generations are required. It will readily be understood, therefore, that at -the earliest period of which we have any cognisance the Punjab was in the possession of a number of Indo-Aryan tribes, not nec~ari1y on good terms with each other, and some- times speaking different dialects. As each new tribe came from the west or, possibly, from the north, it pushed the older settlers before it. 119. The earliest documents which we possess to illustrate the language used Earliest by the Indo-Aryans of this period are contained in the Vedas. The hymns which documents. form this collection were composed at widely different times and in widely different localities, some in Arachosia and some in the country near the Jamna, but owing to their having undergone a process of editing by those who compiled them into their present arrangement, they now show few easily recognisable ~vidence of traces of dialectic differences. Attempts, it is true, have been made to discover dialects. such, but for our present purposes they are of small importance compared. with the fact that dialects appear to be mentioned in the hymns as in actual existence. 120. While it is impossible to discriminate between eaoh conseoutive wave of these migrations, it is easy to distinguish between the earliest and the latest. More than twenty years ago Dr. Hoern1e suggested that the evidence of the modern vernaculars of India justified the idea of there having been two Indo- The~ry of Aryan invasions of India, one precedi~g. the oth~r, by tribes speaking different i::~e~i;~. but closely connected languages. It IS rmmaterIal whether we are to look upon tionl. the state of affairs as two invasions, or as the earlier and later invasions of a series extending over a long period of time. The result is the same in both cases. The earlier comers spoke one dialect, and the new comers another. Dr. Hoernle, however, went further. He looked upon the second invaders as entering the Punjab like a wedge, into the heart of a country already occupied by the first immigrants, and forcing the latter outwards in three directions, to the east, to the south, and backwards to the west. His suggestion was founded on the facts which he had observed in his inquiries into the mutual relation- ships of the modern Indo-Aryan vernaculars, and it has been strongly oonfirmed by subsequent investigations, which have also tended to show that the spea~ers ul 62 THE LANGUA.GES OF INDIA..

of the language of the em-lier immigration were driven to the north, ag well as to the east, west, and south. In the Vedas themselves we have records of wa;rs between King Sudas, whose kingdom lay to the west, I)n the Indus and the , against the Purus, an Aryan tribe which his poet called mridhravach, i.e., speaking a. barbaric tongue, * far to his east in the neighbour­ hPod of the Ravi and the J amna; and the contest ·between the rival priest-poets of tbe Sarasvati and of the Indus forms one of the best known episodes o\f that oolleotion. Similarly, the great war of the , between the Kurus ;.tnd the , gives us hints of value. Since Lassen's time it has been recog­ nised that the latter were older settlers than the former, and it is an interesting fact that some of their most important allies came from the neighbourhood of the Indus, and others from the in the distant east, while their chief helpers, the , were a mountain tribe, who practised polyandry and were on friendly terms with other clans which dwelt in the Himalayas. Nay, Lassen goes even further, and maintains that so long had the Panchalas preceded the Kurus that their complexion had been altered by the Indian climate, and that thus the war was really one between a dark and a fair-complexioned race. The Mahabharata itself, which many scholars maintain was originally composed in the interests of the Kurus, calls tribes settled on the Indus, which were un­ doubtedly Aryan, by the opprobrious name of "Mlechchha," thus denying to them even their common .A.ryanhood. Many other similar items could be taken from the same work did space permit . •Jlon~eo£ ~atpr 121. The question next arises as to the route by which this later Indo-Aryan nDulIgratlOD. invasion entered India. This it is impossible, with our present knowledge, to answer with any degree of certainty. We may but deal with probabilities. ~hey can only have entered the Punjab from the west, the north, or" the north­ east. The north-west was barred by the difficult nature of the country (the modern Kafiristan), and no one will suggest that they came from the south or east. As regards the western route, they could hardly, if the theory is correct, have used that, for it was already barred by tribes!)f the earlier immigrants who ocoupied the Kabul and Indus Valleys. .A. glanoe at the map will show that the only probable route from the north-east was down the valley of the Jhelum, for the rivers more to the east take their rise in the inhospitable country south of Ladakh, and an immigration along any of their courses would imply that the tribes came through that country, even if they succeeded in surmounting the difficult passes which separate it from the northern Punjab. Noone has suggested that Ladakh was ever inhabited by Aryans. This hill country between Ladakh and the plains of the Punjab is now filled with people who speak languages belonging to the group connected with the later invasion, so that we must assume that it was populated from the south. If they came down the Jhelum, they must have come through Kashmir, which is not likely, for, as will be subsequently shown, Kashmir and the Jhelum Valley are at the present day strongholds of speeches connected with the older invasion, forced northwards by the expansion of the new comers. There remains the route from' the north. That means that the later comers entered the Punjab through the Gilgit and Chitral country, and thenoe through Swat and Bajaur. Now, it is just here that the barrier of languages oonnected with the earlier invasion is weakest. The hill country between the Kunar and the Indus, as far north as Drosh, is inhabited by a mixed population at the present day. Some of them are modern immigrants from Afghanistan and speak Pasht0, which has also been largely adopted by the original inhabitants. But some of these tribes still retain a language (Kohistani) which, while in the main belonging to the earlier invasion, also shows signs of contact with the later one. At the same time, in the same hills, there wander the Gujal's, whose language is one of the later stook. Immediately to their north and west are the languages which I have classed as non-Sanskritio. It is therefore probable (I do not go further than this) that the later invaders entered the Punjab through the Swat Kohistan, and, if this is the oase, they would be of the same tribe as the ancestors of those who now speak the non-Sanskritic languages, and would have represented the advanoe guard of ihese immigrants, who reached the Punjab which they found already settled by Indo-Aryans from the west speaking a closely cognate tongue. Thence they forced their way to the Eastern Punjab, which they wrested from • So translated by Professor Hillebrandt. See Rigvedll, vii, 8, 18. INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY. THE ARYAN SUB-FA.MILY. 53 the first comers, wh~ remained surrounding them on Gall sides. Their language became one. of the various old dialects of the Punjab, from some or all of wbich in cour~e of time developed ancient Sanskrit. It must, however, be freely admitted that the modern non-Sanskritic Indo-Aryan languages show few tracps ¥ of special connection with any partioular group of the Sanskritio ones. They are no nearer to what we may for shortness call the later languages than they are to the earlier ones. This can be explained by the existence in lat,er periods of Classical Sanskrit which for some thirty centuries has exercised a dominating influence over all the Indo-Aryan vernaculars of India proper. 122. It is reasonable to suppose that the tribes which composed this later The" Middle­ invasion (wherever they came from) should have expanded as time went on, land." and should have thrust outwards in each direction the members of the earlier incomers. In medireval Sanskrit geography we find one tract of country continu- ally referred to as the true, pure, home of the Indo-Aryan people. The name given to it, Madhyadesa, or "Middle-land," is noteworthy in this connection. It extended from the Himalaya 011 the north to the Vindhya Hills on the south, and from what is now Sirhind (properly 'Sahrind ') on the west to the confluence of the Ganges and the J amna on the east. According to legend, from end to end of this Middle-land, there ran, unseen to men, the holy stream of the , on whose banks, in Vedic times, was the principal seat of the later invaders. Now, the modern Sanskritic Indo-Aryan vernaculars fall at Inner and once into two main families, one spoken in a compact tract of country almost 01 uter 7If L angllage exactly correspon di ng t 0 t hIS· anCIen. t .lUa d hya d-e"a, and t h e ot h er surround" mg It families. in three-quarters of a circle, commencing in Kashmir and running through the Western Punjab, Sind, the Maratha country, Central India, Orissa, Bihar, Bengal, and Assam. we know to have been conquered from Mathura (which was in Madhyadeia), and this is the only part of India in which we find at the present day that the inner family has burst through the retaining wall of the outer one. 123. Between these two families of languages there is a remarkable series of Comparison antithetic facts. In pronunciation they are sharply opposed; each has pre- ~hthet~:o. ferences which will at once occur to every philologist. The most remarkable one 1 s. difference is in. the treatment of the sibilants, which has existed since the tima .of Herodotus. The inner family hardens them; every sibilant is pronounced as a hard dental 8. The outer languages (like those of the Eranian branch) seem, almost without exception, to be unable to pronounce an 8 clearly. In Persia the Greeks found an s pronounced as Ii, or even dropped altogether. The repre· sentation of the River Sindhu by "Indus" is a familiar example. So, in Sindhi, the familiar kas becomes kaku. In the east the old Prakrit grammarians found 8 softened to sh. At the present day we find the same shibboleth of nationality; in Bengal and part of the Maratha country 8 is weakened to sk, and in Eastern Bengal and Assam it is softened till its pronunoiation approaohes that of a German ek. On the other hand, on the N orth-Western Frontier and in Kashmir, it has become an h, pure and simple. 124. In the declension of nouns there are also differences. The inner family is, Declension. in the main, a set of languages which are in the analytic stage. The original have mostly disappeared, and grammatical needs are supplied by the addition of auxiliary words which have not yet become parts of the main words to which they are attached. Familiar examples are the case suffixes, kii, ka, se, etc., of Hindi. The languages of the outer family have gone a stage further in linguistic evolution. They were once, in their old Sanskrit form, synthetic; then they passed through an analytic stage--some are only passing out of that stage now, and are, like Sindhi and Kashmiri, so to speak, caught in the act,_· and have again become synthetic by the incorporation of the auxiliary words, used in the analytic stage, with the main words to which they are attached. The Bengali termination of the genitive, er, is a good example. 125. The conjugation of the verb offers very similar peCUliarities. Here, how- Conjugation. ever, it is necessary to go into gl'eater detail. Broadly speaking, two tenses and three participles of Old Sanskrit have survived to modern times. These are the present and the future tenses and the present active and past and future passive participles. The Old Sanskrit has disappeared altogether. The old present tense has survived in every modern language, and, allowing for • See, however, the remarks on Lahnda,l'o8t. 64 THE LANGUA.GES OF INDIA.

phonetic growtht is the Same in form everywhere, although its meaning has frf.quently changed; for instance, in Kashmiri it has become a future indica­ tive and in Hindi a present SUbjunctive. The old future has :mrvived, but only here and there, and principally in Western India. Most of the modern lan­ guages use instead a periphrasis based on the old Sanskrit future participle pas­ SYTe, and when they wish to say" I shall strike," their speakers really say, with­ out knowing it, "it is to be struck by me." The original past tense has univer­ sally disappeared, and all the modern languages employ in its place a similar periphrastic form based on the old past participle passive. Instead of saying " I struck him," they all, without exception, say "he (was) struck by me." E:ere it is that we see the great contrast in the treatment of the verb between the inner and the oute]! families. It will be noticed that in the tenses formed from passive participles, the subject of the verb, "I," has been put into the ablative, or, as it is in these circumstances called, the agent case. " I" has become" by me." Now in Old Sanskrit" by me " could be represented in two ways.- We could either say maya, which was a separate distinct word, or we could employ the syllable me, which could not stand by itself, but could only be attached enclitically to a preceding word. In just the same way there was a two-fold series of enclitic and non-enclitic forms for the other personal pro .. nouns, and for all in both numbers. These enclitic pronouns are familiar to Europeans. In Latin, "give to me" was "date mihi," in Italian it is "datemi," in which the mi is an enclitic pronoun. Similarly we have ali enclitio pronoun when Mr. Punch makes a tipsy man say "gimme" for "give me." Now the modern Indo·Aryan languages show most clearly that the Outer family is derived from a dialect or dialects of Old Sanskrit which freely used these enclitic pronouns with passive participles, while the Inner family is descended from a dialect or dialects which did not USE) them at all in such cases. The result is that in the Inner family the bare participles are used for every person without change of form,-mara means a,like "I struck," "thou struckest," "he struck," H we struck," " you struck," and" they struck,"-while in the Outer family, the enclitic pronouns have become permanently fixed to· the root, and have developed. into personal, terminations like what we have in Latin or Greek. In these languages "I struok," "thou struckest," "he struck," and so on, are all different words, each of which tells by its termination who tbe striker was. This important distinction is at the bottom of the altogether different appear­ ances whioh the two families present. The grammar of each of the Inner ones can be written on a few leaves, while, in order to acquire an acquaintanoe with one of the Outer, page after page of more or less complicated deolensions and conjugations must be mastered. Limits of • 126. The limits of these two families may be defined as follows :-The Inner Inner family, family is bounded on the north by the lIimalayas, on the west by, roughly speaking, the Jhelum, and on the east by the degree of longitude which passes through Benares. rhe western and eastern boundaries are very wide, and in­ clude a good deal of debatable ground in which the two families meet and over­ lap. If these limits are n~owed So as to include only the purer languages of the Inner family, the western boundary must be placed at about the meridian of Sirhind in Patiala, and the eastern at about the meridian of in the United Province!'!. Between Sirhind and the Jhelum the language is Panjabi, which contains l7lany unrecorded f{Jrms, increasing as we go westwards, for which the only explanation is that to the west of Sirhind, or, we may say, to the west of the Sarasvati, the country was originally inhabited by tribes belong­ ing to the Outer family, who were conquered and absorbed by members of the Inner one, whose language gradually superseded theirs, just as Hindostani is now gradually superseding Panjabi. Panjabi is one of the Inner languages, but it contains many forms which can only have survived (if they were not im­ ported) from an original Outer dialect. Between Allahabad and Benares, or, in other words, in Oudh, Baghelkhand, and the Chhattisgarh country, the language is Eastern Hindi, which is an intermediate form. of speech, possessing the oharacteristics Qf both families. To the south, the boundary of the Inner family is well defined and ma~ be roughly taken as corresponding to the southern • Sanskrit scholars will recognjse that this is not literally true, as according to the grammarians, the enclitic me belonged to the dative Bnd genitive, not to the instrumental. They will also recognise that OWing to the interchange of case forms which arose at an early stage in the linguistic , the point is of JlO importance. Compare Pischel in ZDMG XXXV (1881),p. 714. INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY. THE ARYAN sUn-FAMILY. 55

. " .. watershed of the Nerbudda River. On the west, the family merges into the Outer ~indhi through Rajastha.ni, and into Lahnda (also Outer) thro'lLgh Panjabl. As stated above, it has burst through the retaining wall of exterior languages and reached the sea in Gujamt. The remaining Sanskritic Inno-· Aryan languages belong to the Outer family. 127. Taking the Sanskritic Indo-Aryan languages as a whole, they fall into ~he Resul~ant following groups: -A N orth-Western, a Southern, and Eastern" (belonging to the r:ouJ:g,Qf Outer family) ; a Mediate (intermediate between the two families); and a West- Sa~{krit~~n ern and a Northern (belonging to the Inner family). We thus arrive at thel1l'do.A yan following list of languages:- . '7el'Dllcn1 an. Population returning it. A.-Outer- I. North-Western Group- 7,352,305 1. Kashmiri 1,007,957 2. Kohistani 36 3. Lahnda • 8,337,917 4. Sindhi 3,006,395 II. Southern Group- 18:237,899 5. Marathi 1~,237,899 III. Eastern Group- 9U,242,167* 6. Oriya 9,687,429 7. Bihari 34,579,844* 8. Bengali 44,624,048 9. Assamese 1,350,846 B.-Intermerliate- IV. Mediate Group- 22,136,358* 10. Eastern Hindi 22,136,358* C.--Inner- V. Western Group- 11. Western Hindi. 40,714,925* 12. ! 10,917,712 13. Gujarati . 9,928,501t 14. Panjabi . 17,070,961 VI. Northern Group- 3,124,681 15. Western Pahiiri 1,710,029 16. Central Pabari. 1,270,931 17. Eastern Pahari • 143,721

TOTAL 219,725,509

Of the above, Marathi and Eastern Hindi are groups of dialects, not of languages. The languages of the Northern group are merely, each of them, also a group of dialects. Western Pahari means the dialects spoken in the hills north of the Punjab, such as Chambiiili, Kuluhi, and Sirmauri. They are many in number. Central Pahari includes the hill dialects spoken round Tal and . They are Garhwali, Jaunsari, and Kumauni. Eastern Pahari is what is more commonly oalled Naipiili. 'J'he names are those used at the last census.t :By adding to the above 716 persons who have returned themselves as speaking Sanskrit, we arrive at 219,726,225 as the total number of speakers of the Sanskritic sub-branch of the Indo-Aryan vernanulars. 128. As stated above, the earliest specimens of the actual Aryan vernaculars Development of India are to be found in the hymns of the Rjg Veda. Most of these hymns :o~~~ were undoubtedly originally composed in the actual spoken language of their vernaculars. authors, a natural, unartificiallanguage, as oompared with the more artifioial language subsequently developed in 13rahmanical schools and called Classioal Sanskrit. Although they have been edited, so as to obscure dialectic peculi- arities, by the Brahmans who compiled them into one collection, these hymns furnish invaluable evidence as to what was the house-language of the earliest Aryan inhabitants of India. 129. From the inscriptions of Asoka (eire. 250 13.C.) and from the writings of the grammarian Pataiijali (eire. 150 :S.C.), we learn that by the third century before our era an Aryan speech (in several dialects) was employed in the north * These figures do not agree with those given in the tables. For explanations of the discrepancies, sce the separate" languages. t These figures include the Bhil dialects and Khii.ndesi. l Much of the above is taken from Dr. Hoernle's Annual Address made to the Asiatio Sooiety of Bengal in the year 1898. The portion of that address regardillg the languages of India was based on notes furnished by me (as Dr. Hoernw himself states), and henoe I ha\'e had no hesitation in quoting him without the use of inv:lrted 56 THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA. of India, which had gradually developed from the ancient vernaculal's spoken dm'ing the period in which the Vedic hymns were composed, and which was the ordinary language of mutual intercourse. Parallel with it, the'so-oalled Classical Sanskrit had developed under the influence of the Brahmans from one of these dialects as a secondary language, and achieved a position much the same as that oNihe Latin of the Middle Ages. For centuries the Aryan vernacular language of India has been called Prakrit, priikrita, i.e., the natural, unartificial, language, as opposed to Sanskrit, samsJcrita, the polished, artificial, language. From this definition of the term" Prakrit," it follows that the vernacular dialects of the ~eriod of the Vedic hymns, as compared with the comparatively artificial sarns­ k~.ita language of these hymns as they have been preserved by the Brahmans WID compiled them, were essentially , and as such they may be called Primary the Primary P1'akrit of India. The vernaculars which developed from them Praltlit. and which continued developing, alongside of the Sanskrit whose growth was arrested by the grammarians of the Brahmanical schools, until they became the modern Sanskritic Indo-Aryan vernaculars, may be called the Secondaru Secondary iT Prllokrits. Prakrits ;' while the final development, these modern vernaculars themselves, as Tertiary they have existed for the past nine hundred years, may be called Tertiary Prakrits. Prakrits. It is with these Tertiary Prakrits that we are immediately concerned. Border line 130. It stands to reason that no distinct border line can be drawn between the brween each Primary Prakrit (or Prakrits)* and .the Secondary Prakrits, or between the 8 age. Secondary Prakrits and the Tertiary. We have no positive information regard- ing the earliest condition of the Secondary Prakrits. They appear to us first in their vigorous youth in the Asoka inscriptions. We know, on the other hand, that the change from the Secondary Prakrits to the Tertiary ones was, as might be expected, so gradual that, at or about the approximate burder line, it is impos- sible to state whether the language belongs to the Secondary or Tertiary stage. Gharacteris­ At the same time there is no difficulty in recognising the main distinctive pecu­ tics of Primary liarities of each group. In the primary stage the language is synthetic and has Prakrit. no objection to harsh combinations of consonants. In the secondary stage the Characteris· language is still synthetic, but and harsh combinations of consonants tias of are eschewed, so much so that, in its latest artificial literary developments, it !'econdary Prakrit. arrives at a condition of almost absolute fluidity, becoming a mere collection of Characteris­ vowels hanging for support on an occasional consonant. This weakness brought ti('s of Tertiary its own , and in the Tertiary stage we find the hiatus of contiguous vowels Prakrit. abolished by the creation of new diphthongs, declensional and conjugational ter­ minations, consisting merely of vowels, worn away, and a new kind of language appearing, no longer synthetic, but analytic, and again reverting to combinations of consonants under new forms, which three thousand years ago had existed, but which two thousand years of attrition had worn away. Nay morf', in some of the modern vernaculars, mainly those which I have called the" Outer" ones, we see the analytic form of language again disappearing, and being replaced by a new synthetic form of language, similar in, its course of development to that of the Indo-European Ursprache of the pastoral tribes on the shore of the Oaspian. Dialects af 131. As to whether the very earliest form of the Secondary Prakrit language ~~C:kri~\'y had any dialects we are not in a position to say positively, but, as we know that there were dialects in the Vedic times, there is every reason to believe that it possessed them too. It covered a wide extent of country, from the Indus to the Kosi, !1nd it would be surprising if there were no lucal variations of speech. More­ over, two hundred and fifty years before Ohrist,' we find the edicts of Asoka Pall stage. written in this language, and here we see that the then existing Aryan vernacular of India did contain at least two main dialects, a Western and a'll Eastern Prakrit. The particular stage of their development at which the Secondary Prakrit had by this time arrived, was crystallised by the influence of Buddhism, which used it for its sacred books. It is now known as the Pall language. As a vernaculal' it, however, continued its course of development, and, in later stages, in various Stage of dialects, is known as the Prakrit par excellence. When we talk of Prakrits, we Prakrit par usually mean this later stage of the Second'ary Prakrits, when they had developed eiuellence. l' d f beyond the stage of Pa 1, an be ore they had arrived at the analytic stage of the modern Indo-Ayran vernaculars. Prakrit in These Prakrits became, in later times and under the influence of religious literature. • It is quite certain that. even during the Vedic period. the vernacalars in actual use already contained many wordr in the same stage of development as Pali, which is a Secondary Prakrit. INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY. THE ARYA.N SUB-FAMILY. 57 , ~and political causes, the subject of literary study. Poems and religious works were written in them, and they were freely used in the . We have gram- mars of them written by contemporaries or by men who lived only a short time after thOey had become dead languages. It may be taken as a convenient date for fixing the memory, that these Prakrits were dead languages by, in round numbers, 1000 A..D. All that we know about them is founded on the literatu1-e in which they have survived, and in the grammars written to illustrate that literature. Unfortunately we cannot accept this literature as illustrating the actual vernaculars on which it was founded. To adapt them to literary purposes the writers altered them in important particulars, omitting what they considered vulgar, reducing wild luxuriance to classical uniformity, and thus creating al~­ gether artificial products suited for that artificial literature which has ever been so popular in India. 'l'hese literary Prakrits cannot, therefore, be considered as representing the actual speech of the people at any epoch, although they are based upon it, and a veil is drawn by them between us and it which it is not always easy to lift. We are able, however, to distinguish (as in the Asoka In­ scriptions) that there was a Western Prakrit and an Eastern Prakrit, each pos- Weste:n sessing distinctly ~arked characteristiC§. ~e principal ~orm of the ~ este:n ~:~~:;; was called 8aura8eni, the language of or the mIddle, GangetIC Doab Prakl'it. and its neighbourhood, and of the Eastern, Miigadhi or the language of Magadha, . the present South Bihar. Between these two, there was a kind of neutral ground, the language of which was called Ardha-Magadhi, or Half-Magadhi, which partook of the nature of "both languages. Its western boundary was somewhere near the present Allahabad, but we cannot say certainly how far east it extended. According to tradition, it was the language in which M aha vira, the Jain apostle, preached (he belonged to this side of India), and it was used in the older Jain scriptures. Closely connected with it, but leaning rather to the Eastern than to the Western, was the Miikiiriisktri, "or language or Mahariishtra, i.e., the Berars, and the country adjoining. It became the main language of Prakrit poetry. On the other hand, in the extreme north-west of India, bordering on the Eranian tongues of what are now Mghanistan and Ealuchistan, there must have been an unnamed speech, whose existence is vouched for by the next stage of the Prakrits to be presently described, and which was a development of the particular dialect of Old Sanskrit spoken on the banks of the Indus. 132. The next stage of the Secondary Prakrits is that known as "literary Apabbratbsa." The word A.pabkrainsa means" corrupt" or "decayed." Applied Apabhramia.. to a language, it means, from the point of view of a philologist, "developed." 'When the Prakrits, by being reduced to writing, became fixed exactly as Sanskrit had become fixed in the Brahmanical schools, and remained unchanged as a literary form of speech for many generations, the true vernaculars on which they were founded were called by this name, as they were from the point of view of a scholar of Prakrit " corrupt." These were the A pabhrarilsas, and in a still further stage (')f their development (by which time the Prakrits bad become dead languages) they also were used in literary works, some of which have survived to the present day. As these works were evidently intended to represent the current vernacular as nearly as possible, the language used has not been nearly so severely edited as was the case with the earlier Apabhrathsas which were the foundation of the Prakrits. We have, therefore, in this A.pabhramsa literature valuable evidence as to the actual spoken languages of India at the time of its committal to writing. As to what that time was we are unable to say with any degree of exactitude. All that we can be certain about is that we have Apabhrarbsa poetry written in the sixth and also in the first half of the eleventh century, although at the latter period it may bave been a dead language. On the other hand, the earliest specimens which we possess of what may be called the modern vernaculars (i.e., the 'l'ertiary Prakrits) date from the end of the twelfth and the "be"inning of the thirteenth centuries. It is quite possible that there were older ones. At any rate, the form of language which I call Tertiary must have been well "established before it could have been used for literary works, so that, as I have said above, we may roughly consider the year 1000 A.D. to be the approximate date from which the modern Indo- Aryan languages took their present shape. We may thus assume that the vernaculars of India were represented by the literary Apabhrarbsa dialellts in, . appro~mately, the later centuries of the first millennium after Christ. 58 THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA.

Apabhrath~ 133. It is, therefore; to Apabhrarh~a rather than to the' literary Prakrits, and,· dialects. 'Irnch more rather than to Sanskrit, that we must look for expla:p.ations of the development of the modern vernaculars. Sanskrit and, specially, the literary Prakrits. will often, it is true, throw valuable side-lights on our enquiries, but the root of our investigations must be Apabhramsa. Only one dialect, * the J\ugara (probably spoken in Western India), has been preserved to us by litera­ ture, but with the aid of the Prakrit grammarians it is not difficult to recon­ struct the chief features of the others. It will be sufficient to give a list of these dialects together with the modern languages which have descended from them. '~n the country round the lower Indus the Apabhramsa dialect caned Vrachaqa ~\s spoken. I t was the parent of the modern Sindhi and Lahnda, the latter beYng spoken in the ancient country of the Kaikeyas, who appear to have had a dialect of their own, or possibly, to have included in their number members of a tribe speaking a non-Sanskritic language. We do not know the name of the dialect from which K6histani and Kashmiri are descended, but it must have been closely related to Vrachac;Ia, if not actually that form of speech. South of the N erbudda Valley, running nearly across India from the Arabian Sea to Orissa, there must have been spoken a number of dialects all related to the Apabhrarilsa Vaidarbhi or DakshiQatya, whose head-quarters were , the modern Berar, known in Sanskrit literature as the Great Kingdom-Maha. l,ashtra. It and allied A pabhramsas were the parent of the modern Marathl. t To the east of DakshiQ.atya, and reaching to the Bay of Bengal, was the Apa.. bhrarilsa 09.ri or Utkali, from which was descended the modern Oriya. North of 09ri, and covering the greater part of the present provinces of Chota N agpur and Bihar, together with the eastern half of the United Provinces up to about the meridian of Benares, was the great Apabhramsa dialect of Magadhi, the parent of the modern Bihari, one of whose dialects, Magahi, still bears the ancient name. It was the principal dialect which corresponded to the old Eastern Prakrit, and not only Oqri, already mentioned, but also Gauc;Ii and J;:>hakki are further developments of it. These four are all representatives of the old Eastern form of speech. East of Magadhi lay Gau4a or Prachya Apa.. bhrarhsa, the head-quarters of which were at Gaur, in the present district of MaIda. It spread to the south and south-east, and here became the parent of the modern Bengali. Further east, round the present Dacca, it developed into another Apabhrarh~a, :phakki, the original of the modern Eastern Bengali spoken in Mymensingh, Dacca, Sylhet, and Cachar. Besides spreading to the south.. wards, Gauqa A pabhramsa also spread to the east keeping north of the Ganges, and is there represented at the present day by Northern Bengali and, in the valley of Assam, by Assamese. Northern Bengal and Assam did not get their language from Bengal proper, but directly from the west. Magadha Apa. bhramsa, in fact, may be considered as spreading out eastwards and southwards in three directions. To the north it developed into Northern Bengali and Assamese, to the south into Oriya, and between the two into Bengali. Each of these three descendants is equally directly connected with their oommon imme.. diate parent, and hence we find Northern Bengali agreeing in many respects rather with the Orya spoken far away to the south than with the Bengali of Bengal proper, of which it is usually olassed as a subordinate dialeot. 134. We have now concluded our survey of the Apabhramsa dialects, which belong to what I have called the Outer Indo-Aryan languages. :Between the eastern and the western Prakrits there was, as already stated, an intermediate one called Ardha-Magadhi. Its modern representative is Eastern Hindi, spoken in Oudh, Baghelkhand, and the Chhattisgarh country. The eastern limit of Eastern Hindi may roughly be taken as the meridian of Benares, and, to the west, it passes a short way beyond Allahabad, its furthest point being in the district of Banda.

• A striking proof of the existence of dialects in Vedic times is conveyed by the fact that Apabhramsa, and indeed all the Secondary Prakrits, contain forms which 'cannot be explained by any reference to Classical Sanskrit. Such is the locative termination hi, derived immediately from the Pilli and Old Sanskrit (but not the Literary Sanskrit) dki. This corresponds to the Greek termination (it, and must (as dhi) have been used in the Vedic period. though eXcluded from the standard dialect from which Classical eanshrit is derived. t Mariithi was derived from the Apabhramsa spoken in Mahiiriishtra, What is known as Mahnriish~ri Prakrit was the literary form of that Apabhramsa; a very artificial p"oduction, which was principally used for poetry intended to be set to music, and whlch has neely borrowed from Prakrits spoken in other parts of 1n~la. INDO·EUROPEAN FAMILY. THE ARYAN SUB-FAMILY. 59 , 135. As regards the Inner languages, the principat Apabhramsa is that which has been preserved to us by literature. It was known as Niigara Apabhramsa, and, as ~ts name siiggests, was probably the language of Western India, where the Nagara Brahmans still form an important part of the community. 'In" various dialects (and it certainly hadJocal variations) it must, if we are to accept the evidence of the modern vernaculars, ba.Te extended over the whole of West~rn India north of the Deccan, excepting the extreme north-west. Amongst them was the Saurasena Apabhramsa of the middle Doab, * which was the parent of the modern w.estern Hindi and Panjabi. Another dialeot of this Apabhrarhsa, , whose head-quarters were in the country round the modern , wi.Sd the parent of Rajasthani and yet another, Gaurjari, of the modern Gujarf~ti. Both these last were certainly very closely related to the standard Nagara A't>a­ bhramsa dialect. 136. There remain the modern languages of the Northern Group. These are spoken in the Himalaya from the Eastern Punjab to Nepal. We know of no Prakrits or A pabhramsas peculiar to this tract. The modern languages are closely connected with Rajasthan!., and we know from history that at least some of the tribes which speak them claim to have originally migrated from Rajputana. It is therefore safe to assume, until further information ·becomes available, that all these forms of speech should linguistically be classed as of common origin. with Rajasthani, and that therefore they are derived from the Apabhramsa of Avanti. 137. Concurrent with this long development of the modern vernaculars, we Classical have the Classical Sanskrit, also derived from one of the Primary Prakrit dialects, Sanskrit. but fixed in its existing form by the labours of grammarians, which may be said to have culminated in the work of Par;lini, say, about the year 300 B.C. This , jealously preserved by the Brahmans in their schools, had all the prestige which religion and learning could give it. It borrowed freely from the secondary Prakrits, and they in turn borrowed freely from it. On the other hand the Prakrit grammarians, who dealt only with Prakrit forms, ignored these Sanskrit ones, and the literary works written in artificial Prakrit which have come down to us rigorously excluded them. 1Ve have, however, the express statement of grammarians, and we must also conclude from analogy, that this borrowing did exist, and that, as at the present day, the more highly educated Prakrit-speaking p·opulation freely interlarded their con­ versation with Sanskrit words. These words, once borrowed, suffered a fate similar to that of the ancient Primary Prakrit words which came down to them by direct descent. They became distorted in the mouths of the speakers, and finally became Prakrit in form, though not by right of origin. 138. These borrowed words were called Tatsamas or" The same as' that' (i.e., ~ and Sanskrit)," while the original Prakrit words, which had come by direct de- Tadbh:ms. scent from the Primary Prakrit were called Tadbhavas or "Baving 'that' (i.e., Sanskrit, or more correctly the Primary Prakrit, from one of the dialects of which Classical Sanskrit was descended) for its origin." To these may be added a third class, the Tatsamas which had become distorted in the mouths. of the Prakrit-speaking population, but which wel'e still unmistakably borrowed words. These are usually known to European scholars as semi-Tatsamas. It is evident that, in the natural course of events, the tendency must have been for all Tatsamas to become semi-Tatsamas, and for the latter to be ultimately so degraded as to be indistinguishable from Tadbhavas. Another class of words is also to be mentioned, the so-called " Desya " words of the Indian grammarians. Desyas. It included all words which the grammarians were unable to refer to Sanskrit as their origin. Many such words were included in this group simply through the ignorance of the writers who catalogued them. Modern scholars can refer • It is not quite certain thaHhe Sauraseni Prakrit (distinguished from the Saurasena Apabhramsa), as it has been preserved for os in literature, really represents a language founded on an early vernacular of the Doiib. It may be an artificial literary production founded on the genemllinguistic peculiarities of a mush wider area of Western India. than this comparatively smail tract. Oue thing is certain, that the literary Saurasiini had peculiarities (e.g., the form of the ) which do not, at the present day, appear in the language of the Gangetic Doab, but which do appear in G!jjarati. There are, however, explanations of this fact which it is not necessary to give here. On the otbllr hand, Sauraseni Prakrit more nearly approaches Sanskrit in its vocabulary than any of thll other Prakrits. It has fewer of those so-called." Desya" words which :Ull to be explained a~ descended from dialects of Old Sanskrit, different from that dialect on which Classical Samkrit is mainly based. 'I'his ill entirely consonant wil;.h the fact that, according to tradition, that dialect was the one which, in VCdlC time~, a.nd later, was spoken on the banks of the Sarasvati, and in the Upper and Middle Doiib. Even the GIeeks recog- nised _Muttra (Mathurii), the chief town of the country of Siirasena, a8 Mo~oupa ~ rwY Dewy. \ 12 60 THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA. \) most of these to Sanskrit like any other Tadbhava. A. few others are words boJ!rowed from Dravido-Munda languages. 'l'he great majority a!'e, however, words derived from dialects of Old Sanskrit which wertl not that from which Classical Sanskrit has descended. They are thus true Tadbhavas, although not in the sense given to that word by' Indian grammarians, in whose philosophy the existence of such ancient dialects was not dreamed of. These Desya words were local dialectic forms, and, as might be expected, are found most commonly in literary works whose origin was in countries like Gujarat, far away from the . natural home of Classical Sanskrit, the Madhya-desa. For our purpose they ~y be considered as identical with '1'adbhavas. Tatsamas a~d ~ 139. We find an exactly similar state of affairs in the modern Sanskritic ;hdbhad'as In Indo-Aryan vernaculars. Omitting foreign words (such as those borrowed from Te~n:~i:~:' Dravido-Munda languages, from Arabic, Persian, or English), their vocabularies may each be divided into three classes, Tatsamas, semi-Tatsamas, and Tadbhavas. The last class consists of words which the modern vernaculars have received by descent from the Primary Prakrits, or from Classical Sanskrit through the Second­ ary Prakrits. From the point of view of the present day, their ultimate origin is immaterial. In the stage of the Secondary Prakrits, they may have been Tadbhavas or Tatsamas, but the fact that they have come down to us through that stage is sufficient to make them all Tadbhavas in the stage of the Terti­ ary Prakrits. On the other hand, the Tatsamas and semi-Tatsamas of the present day are loan-words, borrowed in modern times by the modern verna­ culars (not by their Secondary Prakrit progenitors) from Sanskrit. To take examples, the modern vernacular word ajna, "a command," is a Tatsama loan­ word borrowed direct from Classical Sanskrit. Its semi-Tatsama form, which we meet in some languages, is Clgya, and one of its Tadbhava forms is the Hindi an, derived from the Secondary Prakrit a1}a. So also, , a king, is a Tatsama, but ray or rao is a 'l'adbhava. Of course complete triplets or pairs of every word are not in use. Frequently only a Tatsama or a 'l'adbhava occurs by itself. Sometimes we even find the Tatsama and the Tadbhava forms of a word both in use, but each with a different meaning. Thus, there is a Classi­ cal Sanskrit word vamBa, which means both" family" and "bamboo," and con­ nected with it we find in Hindi the semi-Tatsama bans, meaning" family," and the Tadbhava bans, meaning" a bamboo."· In8uenoe of 140. We thus see that for many hundred years Classical Sanskrit has been Sanskrit on the modern exercising, and is still exeroising, a potent influence on the vocabularies of the vernllcuiars. modern vernaculars. It is only upon the vocabularies that its influence has been directly felt. Their grammars show little if any traces of it. 'l'hese have conti- nued steadily in the courses of their development since the Vedic times. The influence of Sanskrit may have retarded this development, and probably did so in some cases, but it never stopped it, and not one single Sanskrit grammatical form has been added to the living grammars of these languages in the way that Sanskrit words have been added to their vocabularies. Nay, more, all these borrowed Tatsamas are treated by the vernaculars exactly as other borrowed foreign words are treated, and very rarely change their forms in the processes of grammatical accidence. For instance, in Hindi, gnora, a horse, has an oblique form" ghare," because it is a 'l'adbhava, but raja, a king, does not change in the oblique cases, because, and only because, it is a Tatsama. N ow in all the modern vernaculars the verb must change its form in the processes. of conjuga­ tion, while nouns are not necessarily changed in the course of declension. Bence 'l'atsamas l'1-re as a rule never treated as verbs. If it is found necessary to do so, it must be done with the help of another Tadbhava verb. For instance, the word darsan, seeing, is a Tatsama, and if we wish to use it in the phrase " he sees," we cannot say darsane, but must employ the periphrasis dart-an kare, he does seeing. On the other hand, in all the modern vernaculars nouns need not be declined synthetically. Borrowed nouns can always be declined analytically. Hence Tatsama nouns (which are necessarily declined analyti­ cally) are common, and, in the high literary styles of all the vernaculars, very common. 'rhus, although there are sporadic exceptions to the broad rule, it

* Tatsamas and Tadbhavas occur also in European languages. Thus" lapsu ... in "lapsus calami" is II Tataama, and" lapse" is a semi·Tatsama, both meaning" a falling, • while" lap" is the Tadbhava form of the word,"with the different meaning of .. the hanging part of a garment." Similarly" fragile" and I. redeml'tioll," ~e semi·Tatsamas, while "frail" and" ransOm" are the corresponding Tadbhavas. INDO-EUROPEA.N FAMILY. THE ARYAN SUB-FAMILY. 61 may be laid down as a universal law that Indo-Aryan vernacular nouns may be either Tatsamas (including semi-Tatsamas) or Tadbhavas, but that Indo-Aryan vernacular verbs must be rradbhavas. During the last century, the introduction of printing and the spread of education has, in the CMe of some ]anguages, introduced a fashion of using Tatsamas to which the wildest Johnsonese may almost be compared as a speci­ mE!n of pure English. It has been proved by actual counting that in a modern Bengali work 88 per cent. of the words used were pure Sanskrit, everyone of which was unnecessary and could have been represented by a vocable of trUf home growth. In such cases the result has been most lamentable. The verIt~­ cular has been split into two sections-the tongue which is understanded of ahe people, and the literary dialect, known only through the press and not intelli­ gible to those who do not know Sanskrit.* Literature has thus been divorced from the great mass of the population, and to the literary classes this is a matter of small moment, for" this people, who knoweth not the law, are cursed." As Mr. Baines says in the last census report, this Sanskritised form of Bengali is the product of what may be called the revival of learning in Eastern India consequent on the settlement of the British on the Booghly. The vernacular was then found rude and meagre, or rather was wrongly considered to be sucb, owing to the absence of scholarship and the general neglect of the country during Mughul rule. Instead of strengthening the existing web from the same material, every effort was made in Calcutta, then the only seat of instruction, to embroider upon the feeble old frame a grotesque and elaborate pattern in Sanskrit, and to pilfer from that tongue whatever in the way.of vocabulary and construction the learned considered necessary to satisfy the increasing demands of modern intercourse. He who trusts to the charity of others, says Swift, will always be poor; so Bengali, as a vernacular, has been stunted in its growth by this process of cramming with a class of food it is unable to assimilate. The simile used by Mr. Beames is a good one. He likens Bengali to an overgrown child tied to its mother's apron-string, and always looking to her for help, when it ought to be supporting itself. Although Bengali displays the greatest weak­ ness in this respect, and has lost all power of ever developing a vigorous litera­ ture, racy of the soil, until some great genius rises and sweeps away the en­ chantment under which it labours, other Indian vernaculars, especially Hindi, show signs of falling under the same malignant spell. The centre of is naturally Benares, and Benares is in the hands of the Sanskritists. There is no necessity as may have existed in the case of Bengali for Hindi to have recourse to the classical tongue. In themsel ves, without any extraneous help whatever, the dialects from which it is sprung are, and for five hundred years have been, capable of expressing with crystal clearness any idea which the mind of man can conceive.. It has an enormous native POcabulary, and a complete apparatus for the expression of abstract terms. Its old literature contains some of the highest flights of poetry and some of the most eloquent ex­ pressions of religious devotion which have found their birth in Asia. Treatises on philosophy and on rhetoric are found in it, in which the subject is handled with all the subtilty of the great Sanskrit writers, and this with hardly the use of a Sanskrit word. Yet in spite of Hindi possessing such a vooabulary and a power of expression not inferior to that of English, it has become the fashion of late years to write books, not to be read by the millions of Upper India, but to display the author's learning to a comparatively small circle of Sanskrit-knowing scholars. Unfortunately, the most powerful English influence has during this period been on the side of the Sanskritists. This Sanskritised Rindi has been largely used by missionaries, and the of the Bible have been made into it. The few native writers who have stood up for the use of Hindi undefiled have had a small success in the face of so potent an example of mis­ guided efforts. Arguments may be brought forward in favour of using Classical Sanskrit words for expressing technical terms in science and art, and I am willing to admit their force. I am not one of those who (to quote a well-known example) prefer" the unthroughforcesomeness of stuff" to "the impenetrability of mat­ ter," but there the borrowing from the parent language should stop. There is

* The newly·appointed minister to a Scotch parish had made a round of visits to his peorle. " He's a role fine, edicated man, the new mrenister," ~aid an enthusiastic wife. ".Ay, he's n' thnt," returned the husbltnd . .. Ye di'llna ken the meaning o' thll hauf 0' the words he uses."-St. Jame,'s Gazette. 62 THE LA.NGUAGES OF INDIA.

still time to save Hindi from the .fate of Bengali, if only a lead is taken by writers of a~knowledged repute, and much can be done in this direcJ~iop. by the use of a .wise disoretion on the part of the educational authorities of the provinces imme- diately ooncerned. t n:8uence of t- 141. i'l'he Aryans who entered India from the north-west were at an early stage Dravido· brought into close contact with the aboriginal tribes. These almost certainly MUl_da langu::". belonged chiefly to the Dravido-Munda stock. '11he new-comers intermarried with them and adopted many of their customs. In the matter of language they ~?rrowed a portion of their vocabulary. Thirty years ago, it was generally con­ sl~ered that these borrowings were large. Then the pendulum swung to the otH.~r extreme, and it was maintained with considerable vigour that there were hardly any at all. My own opinion is that the borrowings have been much more considerable than has been admitted by many scholars of late years, but that they were nothing like so universal as was once contended. The discussion has centred mainly round what are known as the cerebral letters of the alpha­ bet. '1'hese letters did not occur in the original Aryan (i.e., Indo-Eranian) language, and, in Indo-Aryan languages, came into being on Indian soil. They are common in Dravido-Munda languages, and in them are almost certainly original. The point in discussion was whether the Indo-Aryans borrowed them from the Dravido-Munclas, or whether they did not. Neither contention was correct. These letters occur with frequency in words of purely Aryan origin. It would be more accurate, in my opinion, to say that in many cases the pronun­ ciat~on of Aryan words became changed under the influence of the exam pIe of the surrounding non-Aryan tongues, whose speakers many times exceeded the Indo-Aryans in numbers. Analogy did the rest, save that a certain number of words (principally names of things of which the Aryans had no previous ex­ perience in their Central Asian home) were directly borrowed. This is borne out by the fact that, where we have reason to believe that Dravido-Munda influence was least strong, the use of these cerebral letters is most fluctuating. In Assamese, although the difference is maintained in writing, there is practi­ cally no distinction in pronunciation between the dental and the cerebral letters. It is probable, also, that in other cases the Dravido-Munda languages have had an indirect influence on the development of the vernaculars. When there were two or three ways of saying the same thing, the tendency would be to use the idiom which Was most like in sound to an expression meaning the same thing used by the surrounding non-Aryan tribes. Thus, in the Prakrit stage, there were many ways of expressing the dative. One of them consisted in suffixing the Aryan word kahun (derived from the Old Sanskrit krite), and it had most chance of surviving, because it resembled the Dravidian dative suffix ku, or the Old Dravidian suffix from which the modern ku is derived. And so, owing to' the existence of the suffix ku~ although it had no connection with any Aryan language, this Aryan suffix kahun did survive to the exclusion of other dative suffixes in some of the Indo-Aryan vernaculars, land now appears in Hindi under the form of the familiar ko. Other similar instances of this indirect non­ .Aryan influence on the Aryan languages of India could easily be quoted. Two. will suffice. In the progress of a word through the stage of the Secondary Prakrits, a medial hard consonant first became softened, and then disappeared. Thus the Old Sanskrit chalati, "he goes," first became chaladi and then chaZai. Some of the Secondary Prakrit dialects remained for a much longer period than others in the stage in which the softened consonant is still retained. Nay, this softened consonant has in some cases even survived in the modern vernaculars. Thus the Old Sanskrit soka, "grief," is saga, not 8oa, in HindI. '11he occasional retention of this soft medial consonant can be explained by the influence and example of Dravidian languages in which .it is a characteristic feature. In some Indo-Aryan languages of the Outer Circle, especially in Kashmiri, Sindhi, and Eihiiri, a final short i or u is not dropped, as is usual in the Inner languages, but is, so to speak, only half-pronounced, the mere colour, as it were, of the vowel being given to the final consonant. Thus the Sanskrit mitrti, " an image," becomes murat in the Inner , but is pronounced mitrati in the Outer Bihari. This is also characteristic of TIravidian tongues. IInfidueCnhc? of 142. In vocabulary, the influence of Indo-Chinese languages upon those of the n 0- Jnese Ill' . d lallguages. nqo-Aryans has been sina. It IS only apparent III Assamese an _ the COlTUpt Bengali of Eastern Bengal, in which a few Tibeto-Burman and Ahom words INDO-EUROl'EAN FAlULY. THE ARYAN SUD-FAMILY. 63 can be traced. In Assamese, Tibeto-Burman influenlle has also been at work to prevent the use of the Dravidian pronunciation of oerebral letters. In .the same language too use of pronominal suffixes with certain nouns, though 1m­ doubtedly of Aryan origin, is probably due to Tibeto-Burman influenoe. Their~ use with nouns has been dropped in neighbouring Aryan languages, but the example of Tibeto-Burman forms of speeoh (which, however, use prefixes ]jot suffixes) accounts for their survival in Assamese. I think that another and lllQre widespread example of the influence exercised by Tibeto-Burman languages may also be traced. It is an important point of idiom. In Old Sanskrit there were two ways of expressing the past tense. We might either say "I strucr him" or "he was struck by me," "I went" or" I am gone." In the mod~~n vernaculars only the second, the passive, construction survives. No modtJrn Indo-Aryan language "ever says" I struck him" or" I went," but all say "he was struck by me " or "I am gone." In Old Sanskrit there was' a third way, which was only used with intransitive verbs. It was an impersonal construc­ tion, as in the phrase "it is gone by me" for "I went." This construction could not, in Sanskrit, be employed with transitive verbs, but it is common with them in the modern vernaculars, as in the Hindi sentence, main-ne u8-kij mii1'ii, by me, with referenoe to him, striking was done. Now, this impersonal con­ struction of transitive verbs is one of the most prominent peculiarities of Tibeto­ J3urman , and it is probable that the Indo-Aryan tribes borrowed it at a very early period of their migration into India, although it was not admitted to the standard speech which developed into Classical Sanskrit. 143. The Indo-Aryan vernaculars have also been influenced by languages Influenc~ of altogether s~range to In~a. Contac~ with the tongues of fo~eign nations has ~~n-I~~:.n affected theIr vocabularIeS to varymg extents. The one whICh has had lllost gu " influence is Persian, not the old Eranian language of pre-Musalman times (though that has also contributed a small quota), but the Arabicised Persian of the Mughul conquerors. Thus, through Persian, the Indo-Aryan vernaculars have also received an important contribution of Arabic, and even some feW' Turki, words. The influence of the Musalman religion has opened another door for the entry of Arabic, and a few words have also been imported on the west coast from Arab traders. In the main, however, the Arabic element in all the Indian vernaculars, whether Aryan or not, came in with Persian, and as a palt of that language. The pronunciation of the Persian words so imported is that of the M ughul times, and not the effeminate articulation of the land of the Lion and the Sun at the present day. The extent to which Persian has been assimi- lated varies greatly according to locality and to the religion of the 'Speakers. Everywhere there are some few Persian words which have achieved full citizen- ship and are used by the most ignorant rustic, and we find every variation between this and the Urdu of a highly educated Muhammadan writer of Luck- now, who uses scarcely a single Indo-Aryan word except the verb at the end of his sentence. Under all circumstances, however, it is the vocabulary and but rarely the syntax which is affected. Only in the Urdu of the Musalmans do we find the Persian order of words in a sentence. There has been no other introduction of Persian construction, nor are the Arabic words inflected (except by purists) according to their own rules, but they have to conform to the gram .. matical system of their host. So strong is the native instinct against the use of foreign constructions that Hindu writers class a dialect as Urdu, not on the basis of its vocabulary, but on the order of words whioh it employs. A well .. known work was issued in t.he last century entitled "Tales in pure Hindi." It does not contain a single Persian word from cover to cover and yet Hindu writers class it as Urdu, beoause the writer orders his sentences in the Persian fashion. He was a Musl1lman, and could not release himself from the habit of using idioms which had been taught him by Maulvis in his school- days. 144. Other foreign languages have also contributed to the vocabularies of the Indo.. Aryan languages. They are prinoipally Portuguese, Dutch, and English. The influence they have had is small, although some very common words are borrowed from these tongues. The use of the English vooables is growing, mainly owing to their use by employes of the railways, and by soldiers of the native army. The influence of a cantonment on language spreads far and wide. 64 THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA.

The North· I Langnage. Population 145. The North-Western Group of th~ Sanskritic Western returning it. Group. Indo-A.ryan vernaculars contains- foul' languageG, .. - Kashmiri, Kohistani, Lahnda, and Sindhi: They Kiishmiri . 1,007,957 Kohistiini · · 36 all belong to the Outer Oircle, and are closely con­ Lalt ,dB. . · · 3,337,917 nected-so closely indeed, that Lahnda has been Sindhi · · 3,006,395 · · used to explain the meaning of difficult words in TOTAL, North· Western the Kashmir chronicles. Group . · · 7,352,305 Kiishmiri. 146. Kashmi.ri. has its home' in the Valley of Kashmir, beyond the limits of whlch it is scarcely used as'a national tongue. In the Pup.jab it is spoken by immigrants, either or colonies of weavers Speakers of Kashmiri in- d Is II 1 The Puniab and North. an carpenters. There is a 0 a sma sett ement West Frontier • 9,34,9 in the United Provinces which is permanent, and United Provinces. lOO consists principally of educated Hindus. Kashmiri In the Punjab, the largest numbers has to its north Shina, one of the non-Sanskrit Indo... are in Amri~ar (2,487), Chamba Aryan forms of speech, and it is not unlikely that (1,775), Ludhlana (1:224), ,Kangra the PiSiiahas, who according to tradition were the (782), and Lahore (752). b ., f h t l'b k' a ongmes 0 t e coun ry, were a so a tl'l e spea mg a non-Sanskritio tongue. Kashmiri itself is a strongly Sanskritic language, and must have been imported from the south, but some of its words (even oommon ones, such as the word for" father") cannot be derived from Sanskrit, and are identical with those found in the non-Sanskritic languages. Moreover: the lower orders in Kashmir affect that peculiar habit of hardening soft consonants, which is one of the most characteristic features of the latter. Kashmiri has been studied during the pa.st ten years; we have now a complete grammar, and it dictionary is under preparation. To the philologist it is of great interest, for we see in it a language which is, so to speak, caught in the act of transforming itself from the analytic to the synthetio stage. 0 wing to the extensive use which is made of , its pronunciation is as difficult to foreigners as English is, and it possesses many broken vowel sounds which are not easily reoorded in writing. Although the vernacular of so small an area, it is said to have at least three dialects, Kamrazi, spoken in the northern portion of the valley, Marazi in the southern portion, and Yamrazi round Srinagar, but the Kishtwiiri. differences between them appear to be slight. Kishtwari, spoken in the hills south-east of Ka.shmir, must be counted' as a dialect of Kashmiri, and so also Pogul, the Pog111 and the Rambani of the hills south of the Banihal Pa.. A more Rambani. important division is between the Kashmiri of the Musalmans (who are many, and uneducated) and that of the Hindus (who are few, and eduoated). M usalman Kashmiri abounds in foreign words borrowed from Persian, and often somewhat quaintly distorted. Hindu Kashmiri is very free from admix­ ture of Persian, and although the home language of Pandits, is singularly free from Tatsamas. Most of its copious vocabulary is composed of honest, sturdy, Tadbhavas. Literature, 147. Kashmiri has a considerable literature, a small portion of which has Alphabet. been published by German scholars. It has two alpJlabets, a modification of the Persian used by Musalmans, and the ancient Sarada charaoter akin to -nagan, which is still used by Hindus. The §erampur missionaries pub­ lished a Kashmiri version of the Scriptures in the Sarada character early in the last century. Modern translations have been in the Persian . KOhistani. 148. The River Indus, after leaving Baltistan, flows pretty nearly due west through th.e Ohilas country, till it receives the River l(andia, whioh takes its rise not far to the north in the maze of mountains between Ohilas and Ohitral. From this point to its entry into British territory, the Indus runs in a southerly direction through groups of hills, known collectively as the Indus Kohistan, and inhabited by a number of wild tribes who all speak varieties of a language of Sanskritic Indo-Aryan origin, which is called Indus-Kohistani Maiyaii.. or Maiyan. To the west of the Indus-Kohistan lie in order the valleys of the Swat, the Panjkora, and the Kunar. Those of the first two are "known as the Swat and Panj1:ora-Kohistans respectively. Here the language of the bulk of the people was formerly an Indian one, allied to Maiyaft, but is now, owing to Pathan domination, almost invariably Pashto. Only a faithful few still cling INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY. THE ARYA.N SUB-FAMILY. 65 ~ to their ancient lang;age, though they have abandoned their Aryan religion, and the dial~cts which they speak are called Garwi and ~rarwali. 'These thrC'e, G~rw! !Lnd Maiyitii, ·Garwi, and ~'6rwali, together form one well-defined group of dialects, Torwah. Indo-Aryan in origin and evidently descended from the Uld Sanskrit. 1hey form a connecting link in the chain of N orth-Western Indo-Aryan languages commencing with Sindhi, and passing via Lahnda, through them, in~ Kashmiri. This group can conveniently be called the Kohistani language. The tribes who speak it have never been famous for devotion to the politer ar.ts, and it possesses no literature of any kind. Very little is known about it. Colonel Biddulph was the first to describe it, and through the kindness of Colonel DeanlS and Oaptain Dew, I have since been able to collect further materials, whiOj1 allow us to set the language in its proper place in relation to the other tongdes of India. '1.'he home of Kohistani lies outside the census al;ea, and the few speakers who have been returned are temporary visitors to the Punjab. 149. Lahnda is a language the existence of which has long been recognised, Lahndii. but under many names. In the last Census Report it was called Jatki, but this, like Nhiltani, Western Panjabi, and other titles given to it, has the disadvantage of not being sufficiently comprer.ensive. It is not spoken only by J ats; it is not peculiar to M ultan; and it is not a western dialeot of the Panjabi. of the Manjh. I therefore think it best to give it the name which is indicated by the natives of the Punjab themselves, i.e., Lahnda or the Language of the 'West (Panjabi, Lahnde-dz Bali). It has no literature, and has no standard form, so that it is rather a group of connected dialects tnan a language with a definite standard. The eastern boundary of Lahnda may be taken as the River Chenab from the Kashmir frontier down to the town of Hamnagar in the district of Gujranwala. Thence it runs in a straight line to the north-east corner of .Mont!!omery, and across that district to the south-west corner. It takes in the northern portion of Bahawalpur, and thence gradually merges through Siraiki into Sindhi. Its northern boundary may be taken as coinciding on the east with the range of mountains forming the southern limit of the , while to the west it skirts that valley and reaches as far north as the watershed dividing the Indus from the Jhelum Valley. Here it is bounded 011 the west by the Kohistani of the Indus Valley, till we reach the. Hazara district. Thence the western boundary may roughly be taken tiS the Indus itself. These eastern and western boundaries are, however, very indefinite. Pashta is spoken in several places close to the Indus, and, from the Indus westwards up to the Afghan mountain country, we find Lahnda also spoken, but principally by Hindus, the Musalman language being Pashta. As we get further south into the Derajitt, Lahnda more than holds its own, and is the principal language of the plains west of the Indus. On the east the boundary given is purely con­ ventional. There can be no dOLlbt that the Outer Prakrit from which Lahnda is derived once extended up to near the Sarasvati and practically covered the whole ground now occupied by Panjabi. The expansion of the Aryan tribes which immigrated latest has, however, in later times occupied that tract with a population speaking one of the Inner Prakrits, who absorbed some of the oharac­ teristic features of the language of the original inhabitants. Such, for instance, are the Panjabi words f01' "we" and "you," viz., "asiii," "tusin," and the occasional dialectic use of pronominal suffixes. '1.'he further west and south we go, the more prominent are these peculiarities, so that the merging of Panjabi into Lahnda is exceptionally gradual even for an Indian language. Nay, it is not even correct to say that the eastern limit given above for Lahnda is the western limit of l'anjabi. That language makes its influence felt far. into the Lahnda tract proper. All that can be said is, that the line from Ramnagar to the south- west corner of M ontgomel'y roughly separates the country in which the main features of the language are those of Lahnda-from the one whose main linguistic features are those of Panjabi. It will thus be understood that, although Lahnda is in the main a language of the Outer Circle of Indo-Aryan languages, it is in some respeots, varying aocording to locality, a mixed one. . The tract of country which at the present day is the special home of Lahnda, roughly corresponds with the ancient land of Kaikeya. If the evidence of the modern vernacular is to be accepted, the ]( aikeyas must have spoken a language very similar to the Vrachaqa ApabhramEa alre&dy alluded to. But amongst them there were members of another Aryan tribe, known as .PiSii.chas:l*

II It is very probable that our Gipsies are the descendants of these Kaikeya Pisiichas. 66 THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA. These Pisachas were most probably of the same race as those Indo-Aryans who settle'a in Chitral and Gilgit, and, at any rate, their home was in North·, Western India. The HindU. grammarians have preserved 'for us the main f"2atures of their language, a characteristic point of which was the preservation of the letter t between two vowels. In the other Indian Prakrits such a t :first 1:mcame d, and was then elided altogether. It is an interesting confirmation of the correctness of the observations of these ancient scholars to observe that the same fact is noticeable, though to a less extent, at the present day in Lahnda &nd Panjabi. Panjabi usually has both forms, that with the t and that without; but, ~p such cases, Lahnda always preserves the t intact. Thus, the word for ~~ewn " is sUa in Lahnda, but sita or sia in Panjabi; " done" is Lahnda ktlii, but Panjabi kitii or karia; "drunk" is pita in both Lahnda and Panjabi. In a pure Inner language, such as Hindi, the t would be dropped in all these cases, and we should have siii, kia, and pia, or some such words. We thus see that Lahnda appears to have also borrowed peculiarities from yet another source than Panjiibi. . The number of dialeots of Lahnda is very great. The form of the language used in Hazara and to the west of the Indus is usually called Hindki or Hindk6. Its special peculiarities have not yet formed the subject of study. East of the Indus they fall into two main groups, a northern and a southern. The dividing line may be taken as the southern foot of the . Pothwliri. 150. The most important of the northern dialects are P6thwari and what Mr. Drew calls "Chibhali." P6thwari is spoken over the sub montane tract in the east of the districts of Gujrat, Jhelum, and Rawalpindi. The word Chibhali. " Chibhiili " properly means the -language of the Chibhs, a tribe which is most numerous between Murree and , and who have no special language of their own. Drew, in his work on Kashmir, uses the name to mean the group of dialects which are spoken in the Murree Hills, and in the countl'y through which the Jhelum flows The following fonns of Lahnda hHve been reported from the Punjab, from Kashmir to the the North-West Frontier,snd Baluchistan:­ plains, extending as far Population Dialect. Dialect. I Population east as the Chenab so as retnrning II. returning it. to include N aoshera and Punch. The name is Lahnda 350 Dialect8 north of the Balt Range- not a good one, for the Jatki · · 220,836 contd. Derawiil · · 526,577 Chibhs extend further to Chiniiwar • · · 165 SawiLiii 42,291 the east, and, moreover~ · Jandiili · 39,016 Dialects north of the Balt Range. Khatri : 1 34,930 are not by any means · the only tribe in the Awiinkiiri • 621 Dialerta south of the Balt Range. area allotted to Chi­ Dhanni · 11,711 Ghiibi · · 74,082 Kiichhri 16 bhall. Tbe word is, Hindki · · 661,283 Khiitriini · 96 however, a convenient }'(ithwiiri · · 226,542 Miiltini · · · 96J,997 Tinaoli · · 2 Bahiiwalturi · 530,036 one, and (with the above Reahi · · · 3,011 Thaloch ri · · 1,555 explanation) will, pend­ · · Ubhe-di boli 1,924 · ing the completion of Of the aboye Jatld Is the laul!'uage of the Jat population of Der. Gbazi Khan. DOl~Wlll is the Linguistic Survey, foond In De ... Ismail Khan. Chinliwari is spoken aloDg tIle Chenab. Nearly 011 Ihe speakers of Awankari, Dhanni. Gbebi. and Pothwari, belong to Ra"alpindl. Hindki, is pl'incipally found be employed in the iu Bazara and Rawalpindi. Roshi (valley of the Resh), Sawaiii (valley of the Soan), Jandali and Khatri (both north of Pindi Gheb) all belollg to Ruwalpindi. Bahiwalpurlls the LahndA sense given to it by Mr. of Bahawalpur. 'Obheodi bOli is the 'Obhecbi of . Drew.' Among the Punchi. genuine dialects which fall under the geneml head of "Ohibhali " are Punchi, the language of Punch, and again, the dialect of the Rairal country in the eastern hills of Hazara, and eastwards uP. the Jhelum Valley and as far as the Dhundi. Punch border, which some people call Dhundi from the tribe of Dhunds who are found (among others) in east Hazara. This so-called Dhundi is .the language of the" Galis" and of the hills round Murree. The exact relatIon­ ship of Chibbilli to Lahnda is uncertain. The Linguistic Survey has not yet reached it, and its present classification is on the authority of Drew. It resem­ bles Panjabi in many particulars, and may, finally, have to be allocated as a 'Iiniioli. dialect of that language. Other northern dialects of Lahnda are the :rinaoli of west Hazara (probably another of the Chibhilli ,dialects, and ,henc~ subJect t~ the Ghebi. same reservations), Ghebi of Rawalpindi, and Awankflri of Jhelum, WIth a AWiinkAri. colony of its speakers across the Indus in . Mfiltani. . 151. South. of the Salt Range, Lahnda is very generally known as " /' INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY. THE ARYAN SUB-FAMILY. 67 The special form spoken round M ul.tan is familiar to us from the vocabulazy written by the lata Mr. O'Brien, and we have also a full grammar based on the dialect of Shahpur, from the pe_n of Mr. Wilson. Another dialect, spoken in Northern Sind, is known as Ubhechi, i.e., the language of the East. SeveralObMchi. more dialect names have been recorded, but they are of little importance, tw main distinction being into forms of speeoh used east and west of the HiveI' Jhelum, on which are founded a number of fanciful names, such as Kachhi, the' dialect of the alluvial valley, Thalli, the dialect of the sandy waste, which connote no idea of locality, unless we are told what valley and what waste are, meant. Finally, on the west side of the Indus, there is one dialect of Hind4j' to be mentioned. It is Khetrani, spoken by the Khetran Baloches of Th[J- Khetrani. Chotiali. I t is not a form of the Ba16ch language as is sometimes affirmed. 152. Lahnda differs widely from Panjabi in vocabulary, more nearly ap- Lah:ida.cI:.m­ proaching Sindhi in this respect. Some of its words are identical with Kashmiri ~a::jil.M~t vocables, and even with words once used in that language but no longer employed. It is, however, in its grammatical forms that the most characteristic differences from Panjabi are exhibited. Lahnda has a true future, of which the characteristic letter is 8, and a true passive formed by suffixing i, the former of which is strange to, and the latter of which is rare in, the language of the Manjh. It also employs pronominal suffixes with all the freedom of its sisters Kashmiri and Sindhi, and has many' postpositions which do not occur in Panjabi. The northern dialects are harsher and more nasal than the s_outhern, and possess characteristic features of their own. Amongst them may be men- tioned the use of the suffix nii instead of dii to form the genitive, the employ- ment of an oblique form in the case of nouns ending in consonants, and the formation of the present participle. The Arab-Per~ian character is usually employed in writing Lahnda. A Written corrupt form of Deva-nagari, seldom legible except to its writer, is also found. character. In 1819 Carey published an edition of the New Testament in this latter charac- ter in the dialect of Labnda spoken round U ch. He called it the U chchi language. 153. Sindhi is spoken in Sind, on both sides of the lower Indus, commencing Sindhi. in the north at about latitude 29° N. On that side it merges into Lahnda, and on the east into the Marwari dialect of Rajasthani. To the south it merges into Gujaratl through Kachchhi, and on the west it is bounded by thfl languages of Baluchistan. The population which speaks it being largely Musalman, its vocabulary naturally bOlTOWS freely from Persian, and since the country has passed under British rule, an adaptation of the Arab-Persian alphabet has been used for writing it, although a debased form of the Deva-nagari character is employed to a small extent for personal memoranda and accounts. This latter is so corrupt and incomplete that, when written, it can rarely be read by anyone except the original scribe. Sindhi is not much spoken beyond the borders of Sind, except in the neighbouring States of Las Bela, Kachh, and Bahawalpur, but, the Sindhis being enterprising traders, they are found sporadically in most of the large towns of India, and even of Persia and Central Asia. Sindhi has three main dialects, Siraiki, Liiri, and Thareli. The first is spoken in Siro or Upper Sirlliki. Sind and Bahawalpur. It is a transitional form of speech between Sindhl and Lahnda, and it is as yet doubtful with which language it should finally be classed. The inhabitants of the· Punjab speak of it as a dialect of Sindhi, while those of Sind describe it as a dialect of Panjabi, i.e., Lahnda. Lari is spoken Liiri. in Laru or Lower Sind. It is the literary dialect and the one dealt with in grammars of the language. Thareli is spoken by the hunting and outcast tribes Thareli. of the Tharu or Desert of Sind, which forms the political boundary between that province and . It is, like Siraiki, a transition dialect, but this time between Sindhi and Marwari. Six hundred and fifty-one people have been returned as speaking Siraiki, but no figures are available for the other dialects. Owing to its isolated position, Sindhi has :preserved many phonetic and gram­ matical peculiarities which have disappeared elsewhere, and is a typical speech of the Outer Circle of languages. To the present day it retains peculiarities which were recorded many hundred years ago as characteristic of the old Vriichaga Apabhramsa from which it is descended. The Hindu grammarians also record a PaiMichi dialect as spoken in the Vrachaqa country. The Pisachas, therefor,.(}, were once found in the country which is now Sind, alongside of the people who xi 68 THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA.

tlwn spoke VrachaQa Apabhramsa, and whose descendants now speak Sindhi. As in the case of Lahnda, we again find corroboration of this .by the fact that at the pr~sent day, like Lahnda, Sindhi possesses certain words which still retain a medial t.* (Kachchhl.) " 154. To the south-east, Sindhi merges into Gujarati through Kachchhi. Pend- ing the completion of the survey, I have followed the usual custom of classing the latter form of speech as a dialect of Gujarati. It is probable, howeyer, that it should more properly be included under Sindhi. Under any circum- . stances it is a transition tongue. Gujarati, itself, will be dealt with later on (Gujariiti.) ~ongst the inner languages, of which it is certainly a member, although, like p;.·mjahi, it occupies territory once beld by some language of the Outer Circle. Leaving, therefore, Gujariiti for the present, we come to the Southern group. . The Southern 155. The Southern Group of Sanskritic Indo-Aryan vernaculars consists of a Group. single lan~uage. it is a group of dialects, not of languages. The one language is Marathi. Mariithi. 150. Marathi, in its mrious dialects, extends nearly across the Peninsula of India. In the Bombay Presidency it covers the north of the Deccan Plateau, and a strip of country between the Ghats and the Arabian Sea, extending to about a hundred miles south of Goa. 1 t is also the Population language of Berar and of a good portion of the returning it. north-west of His Highness the Nizam's dominions. It stretches across the south of the Central Provinces (except in a few localities in the extreme south, Mariithi 18,237,899 where Telugu is the language), and occupies also a great portion of BastaI'. Here it merges into Orjyu through the Bhatri dialect of that language. J t has to its north, in order from west to east, Gujarati, Rajasthfmi, Western Hindi, and Eastern Hindi. The first three are languages of the Inner group, and Marathi does not merge into them. On the contrary, there is a curiously sharp border line between the two forms of speech. Its most eastern dialect, Ralabi, does show points of contact with the neighbouring Chhattis­ garhi dialect of Eastern Bindi, and shades off gradually into Oriya, which is also a language of the Outer Circle. Oriya is its neighbour to the east. On the south it has Dravidian languages, and it is bounded on the west by the Arabjan Sea. In Marathi we first meet in general use an interesting grammatical form known as the past participle and a resulting past tense, with the letter l as its characteristic. Thus, uthila, he ·rose. It extends through all the remaini:qg languages of the Outer Circle, so that we have in Oriya, uthila ; in Bengali, uthila; in Bihari, uthal ; and in Assamese, uthil. It is also found, in a restricted use, in Gujarati. This l-participle, therefore, not only extends over the whole of East-Aryan India, but reaches, through an unbroken chain of dialects all imperceptibly shading off into each other, to the Arabian Sea. This is illustrative of the intimate relationship which exists amongst all these forms of speech, and, although Assamese is widely different from Marathi, and a speaker of one would be entirely unintelligible to the other, a man could almost walk for fifteen hundred miles, from to Goa, without being able to point to a single stage where he had passed from one language to another. Yet he would have passed through four distinct

'" I do not in any way mean to srgue that either IJahndii or Sindhi is derived from a Paisachi dialect. From the fact that both an Apabhramsa and a Paislichi were spoken in Vriicha~a, we are entitled to maintain with considerable probability that the Paisiichas were not the same tribe as those wbo spoke ApabbraIilsa. They were therefore foreigners, and so, also, by parity of reason, were those of Kaikeya. Assuming that the home of the Paisilcha~ was somewhere in the country at the foot of the Pamirs, the natural course for emigration would he through the Swat Valley, down the Indus to the Kaikiiya and Vriichaga country. This would be in times when the original inhabitants, whom they found in situ, were in so early a stage of linguistic development that they still retained the original t in words like pita and so forth. The influence of the cognate IllJlguage of the alien Paisiichas would account for speakers of Lahndii and Sindhi not dropping the t, when this had been done in the natural conrse of linguistic development further east. Such an influence would have more effect in the direction of conservation than in the direction of innovation, and hence we find no trace of other PaiS!ichi peculi.arities (such as the change of a to t) which were strange to the original dialect. I freely admit that much of the above is pure theory, but I do not see my way to admitting the correctness of any explanation, other than the ill !luence of Rome non·Sl1nskritia form of ~peech, for the retention of the t in these languages. Paisiichi supplies an the requirements of. ,such a tongue, both in its locality and in its phonetic laws. Hindu grammarians also mention another form of Paisiichi spoken in Silrasena, i.e., in the Madhya-desa. Can these have beun su~sequent emigrants from the Buh-Plimir country who had joined their cousins, the descendants of tbo~e Indo­ Aryalls who formed the la.ter immigration P ~ INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY. THE ARYAN SUD-FAMILY. 69 tongues of the Indian vontinent, Assamese, Bengali, Oriya, and Marathi, and through many dialects. " 157.. Marathi has a copious literature of great popularity. The poets wrote Mariithi in the true vernacular of the country, and used a vocabulary mostly composed of Tocabulary. honest Tadbhavas. '1'he result is that the language at the present day is rich in them, and though the scholars for whom the Maratha country is famous have in later times endeavoured with some success to heighten the style of the lan- gmige by the use of 'l'atsamas, these parasites have not obtained that complete mastery over the literary form of speech that they have in .Bengali. ~'he country was not invaded by the Musalmfms till a comparatively late period, and was more or less successful in repelling the invasion, so that the number of worrls borrowed from or through Persian is small. A.s Mr. Reames says, Marath'i is ohe of those languages which may be called playful, it delights in all sorts of jingling formations, and has struck out a larger quantity of secondary and tertiary words, diminutives, and the like, than any of the cognate tongues. 158. The earliest Marathi writers whose worl{s have come down to us are Literature. N amdeva and Dnyanobii, who flourished at the end of the thirteenth century and drew their inspiration from the early-Vaishnava reformers. Sridhar (end of 16th century) is best known for his paraphrases of the Sanskrit Puranas, but the most celebrated of all was Tukaram or Tukobii, a contemporary of Sivaji, who wrote in the first half of the seventeenth century. His" Abhangas," or loosely con­ structed hymns in honour of the God Vithoba, are household words in the Maratha country. The most famous successor of Tukaram was Moropant (A.D. 17 20) . As in the case of the other vernaculars of India, nearly all the earlier work is in verse, although there are some prose chronicles of varying importance. 159. No less than some fifty names have been recorded at various times as those of dialects of Marathi. Few of these can be called genuine dialects, the Dialects. majority being merely forms of the standard speech or of one of the real dialects, pronounced in some peculiar way according to locality or to the caste of the speakers. For instance, the Marathi of the Konkan north of Ratnagiri is very nearly the same as the standard, but natives recognise two dialects, one spoken by the Brahmans and another spoken by Musalmans. The investigation of such minute differences may be a proper task for a linguistic survey, but is altogether out of place in a census report. We need, therefore, note only three main dialects of Marathi, viz., Desi, Konkani, and the Marathi of Berar and the Oen- tral Provinces. Khandesi which has hitherto been considered to be a dialect of Marathi is more nearly allied to Gujarati, and will be considered when dealing with that language. 160. Desi Marathi is simply the standard form of the language, spoken in DeS! Dialect. its purity round Poona. It has travelled far with the Maratha conquerors, and there are large colonies of its speakers in Baroda, which is a Mariitha State, although locally in . Population I Dialect. retur iJ; g it. Gujarat, in Saugor, and in other parts of Oentral India. Several varieties of it are mentioned, of DeSi • 10,089,991 which we may name the Sangameswari and the Sangames. Konkani 420,629 Bankoti of the Oentral Konkan, and KudaJi and warl. ~lariith! of Berar and -I - kId b t R . d Bilnkoti. Central Provinces 4,300,591 Ma wam, spo en ower own e ween aJapur an Kudiili. Ralah! 114,2RO Goa and in the State of Savantvadi. These four are Millwani. Others and unspecified.· 3,312,408 transition forms of speech between the standard dialect and Konkani. The lower classes of Thana TOTAL, Mariithi • 18,237,899 and the neighbouring parts of use another form of this dialect, usually known as Kunbau after Kunbiifl. the name of one of the castes which employ it, and the of Bombay, Thana, and Kolaba speak a mixture of it and Gujarati. Koli. Konkani is spoken in the Konkan south of Goa and throughout the districts of KonklUli. North Kanara and Belgaum.. Goanese, itself, is a form of it. It differs more widely from standard Marathi than any of the other dialects, and local pride sometimes leads to its being given the dignity of a distinct language. '1'0 the south it is mixed, in its vocabulary, with Kanarese and Tulu. Oarey translated the New Testament into Konkani early in the last century, and printed it in the Deva-nagari character used for the other Marathi dialects; but of late years the character employed is generally the Kanarese one, except in the case of the Portuguese missionaries and their converts, who em.ploy the Roman alphabet. 70 THE LANGUAGES. OF INDIA.

Warh&di. Warhadi or Berari is the'dialect spoken in Berar and the neighbouring portion of- Hyderabad. Historically, it should represent the purest Marathi, tor Berar corresponds to the ancient Vidarbha or . The political c~ntre of gravity, however, in after centuries moved to the west, and with it the linguistic standard. The River , which separates the Central Provinces from Berar, may also be taken as the linguistic boundary between Nagpuri and War­ ham. The latter dialect is, however, also found in Betul, in the Central Provin­ ces, while, on the other hand, the Marathi: of Basim and of the western part' of Buldana in Berar is not Warhadi, but more nearly approaches the dialect of Poona. The form of Marathi spoken in the south of the Central Provinces is Niigpuri c~.Jled Nagpuri. It is practically the same as Warhadi, but varies according to JJialect. lo~ality, diverging further from the standard as we go east. In the Saugor district the Marathi spoken is not Nagpuri, but is the standard f.orm of the language. This tract of country passed to us from the Peshwa and not from the Nagpur Raj, and the Marathi-speaking population came from Poona; not Nagpur. rrhey regard the true Nagpur people with some contempt in conse­ quence. The same is the case with the scattered Maratha families of Damoh and Jubbulpore. In the extreme east of the Nagpuri area, in the district of Bala­ ghat, the dialect has changed so much that it has a separate name, and is called Marheti. Marheti. In this part of the Central Provinces, the districts of Balaghat and Bhandara are the eastern limit of N agpuri. :Further east we are met by Chhattis. garhi, which is a dialect of Eastern Hindi. To the south Marathi covers the northern portion of the district of Chanda (the south is occupied by Telugu) , and Halabi gradually merges into Ralabi. Ralabi, also called Bastari, has hitherto been Dialect. nobody's child in the linguistic classification of India. It is, as the Lin,guistic Survey shows, a corrupt mixture of several languages, both Aryan and Dravidian, forming a transition tongue between Marathi and Oriya, but generally with a Maratha backbone. The Halabi of BastaI' is considered by Chhattisgarhi speakers to be Marathi, and by Marathi speakers to be Chhattisgarhi. This well illustrates its mixed nature. It is spoken in the central portion of Bastar, having Telugu to its south. In the north-east corner of Bastar we find a form of Bhatri. speech called Bhatri. This is the link between Ralabi and Oriya, and is classed as a dialect of the latter language. It might with almost equal accuracy be de­ scribed as one of the many forms of Ralabi. Immediately to its east lies Oriya itself. We have now brought Marathi across India from the Arabian Sea to within a couple of hundred miles of the Bay of Bengal. Ritherto attention has been naturally fixed upon the particular dialect of it which is spoken in the Bombay Presidency, and it has been usually classed as the most south-western of the Aryan languages of India. It will have been seen that "Southern" de­ scribes it much more completely.

Population Language. returning it. Eastern 161. The languages of the Eastern Group are Group. Oriyii . 9,687,429 Oriya, Bihari, Bengali, and Assamese. It thus Bihiiri * . • 34,579,844 includes all the Aryan languages of India which, Bengali · • 44,624,048 Assamese · 1,350,846 roughly speaking, are in use to the east of the · · meridian of Benares.

'l'OTAL, Eastern Group. 90,242,167

Orlyii. 162. Oriya or Utkali is the Aryan language spoken in Orissa and in the country bordering on that province. To the north it includes a portion of the district of , which, together with part of , was the Orissa of the phrase" Bengal: Bihar, and Orissa " fonnd in the Diwani grant and in the re­ gulations framed by the Government in the last decades of the 18th century. It is also the language of the district of Singhbhum, belonging to the Division of Chota N agpur, and of several Native States which fall politically within the same division. On the west it is the language of the greater part of the district of Sambalpur and of a small portion of the district of in the Central Pro­ vinces, together with the many Native States which lie between these districts

• '1'he figures for Bihiiri are approximate only. See below. INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY. THE ARYAN SUB-FAMILY. 71 and Orissa proper. On the south it is the language of the north of the Madras district of G~njam, with its connected Native States, and of the JeyporeAgen,\y of Vizagapatam. it is thus spoken in three provinces of British India, and covers, say, 82,000 square miles. 163. It is called Oriya, Odri, or Utkali, that is to say, the language of Odra Name of or Utkala, both of which are ancient names for the country now known as Oriss:.l.. the laDguage. It is sometimes called U riya, but this name is merely a mis-spelling of the more correct" Oriya." The earliest example of the language which is at present known consists of some Oriya words in an inscription of the thirteenth century. An inscription dating a century later contains several sentences which show that the language was then fully developed, and differed little from the modern form of speech either in spelling or in grammar. It is bounded on the nor~h by Bengali, on the north-west by Bihari, on the west by the Chhattisgarhi dialect of Eastern Hindi, and on the south by Telugu. To the south-west it merges into the Halabi dialect of Marathi through Dialects. Bhatri . 18,483. Bhatri. This last is its only true dialect. Elsewhere it has local varieties of pronunciation and accent, but the standard is in the main closely followed over the whole Oriya-speaking area. Bhatri is the transition dialect to Marathi, and the only specimens of it which Bhntri. I have 5een were written in the Deva-mlgari (i.e., the Marathi) alphabet, and not in the Oriya one. 164. Oriya is handioapped by possessing an excessively awkward and Written cumbrous written character. 'l'his character is, in its basis, the same as Character. Deva-niigari, but is written by the local scribes 'With a stylus on a talipot palm leaf. The scratches are themselves legible, but in order to make them more plain, ink is rub bed over the surface of the leaf and fills up the furrows which form the letters. The palm leaf is exoeptionally fragile, and any scratch in the direction of the grain tends to make it split. As a line of writing on a long narrow leaf is necessarily in the direction of the grain, this peculiarity pro- hibits the use of the straight top line which is a distinguishing peculiarity of the Deva-nagari character. For this, the Oriya scribe is compelled to substitute a series of curves, which almost sUITound each letter. It requires remarkably good eyes to read an Oriya printed book, for the exigencies of the printing press compel the type to be small, and the greater part of each letter is this curve, which is the same in nearly all, willIe the real soul of the character, by which one is distinguished from another, is hidden in the centre, and is so minute, that it is often difficult to see. At first glance, an Oriya book seems to be all curves, and it takes a second look to notice that there is something inside each. 165. On the ground that its grammatical construction in some respects closely O?nnectiOD resembles that of Bengali, Oriya has been more than once claimed by Calcutta i31th Ii Pandits as a dialect of that language. They are, however, wrong. It is a sister, enga. not a daughter, and the mutual points of resemblance are due to the fact that they have a common origin in the ancient Yagadha ApabhrarMa. It has the same weak sense of number as Bengali, and when the plural has to be expressed it is done, as in that language, by the aid of a noun of multitude. As in all the Eastern languages, the first and second persons singular of the verb are only used by the uneducated, or when respect is not intended. It has one great advantage over Bengali in the fact that, as a rule, it is pronounced as it is spelt. There are few of those slurred consonants and broken vowels which make Bengali so difficult to a foreigner. Each letter in each word is clearly sounded, and it has been well described as "comprehensive and poetical, with a pleasing sound and musical intonation, and by no means diffioult to acquire and master." In Bengali, the accent is thrown baok as far as possible, and, to assist tbis, the succeeding are contracted or slurred over in pronunciation, but in the best Oriya every syllable is distinctly pro­ noun

cO~lnotes. however, the language spoken over a much wider area. It occupies the whole of West Biha.r and of the eastern portion of the ,United Provinces. Jt also covers the district of Palamflu, and the southern or Ranchi plateau of Chota Nagpur. It vades according to locality. the tongue of and B~nares differing somewhat from that of Shahabad and Saran, another division of forms being between the Bhojpuri spoken south, and that spoken north of the Ganges. It has one important sub-dialect, the Nagpuria of Chota Nagpur, and natives also recognise, by using' separate names, the Madhesi Bhojpuri spoken in Champaran, the Sarwaria of Basti and the neighbourhood, and the Tharui or broken dialect spoken by hill tribes of the Himalaya. These are refinements of small importance. The three main sub-dialects are the Standard, the Western, and Nagpuri~,. Western Bhojpuri is frequently called" Purbi," or "the lan­ guage of the East" par excellence. This is naturally the name given to it by the inhabitants of Western Hindostan, but has the disadvantage of being too indefinite. It is used very loosely, and often includes languages which have nothing to do with Bhojpuri, simply because they are spoken to the" East" of those who refer to them. Bhojpurl. has a very small literature, all written in the last few years. So far as I am aware, no portion of the Scriptures has been translated into it. Relationship 172. These three dialects fall naturally into two groups, viz., Maithili and dfal~~~st~:ee Magahi on the one hand and Bhojpuri on the other. The speakers are also separated each other. by ethnic peculiarities, but Maithili and Magahi and the speakers of these two dia- lects are much more closely connected together than either of them is to Bhojpuri. I shall here content myself with noting the most characteristio differences which strike the most casual observer. In pronunciation Maithili, and to a less degree Magahi, is much rounder than Bhojpuri. In Maithili, the vowel a is 'pronounced with a broad sound approaching the" 0 in hot" colour which it possesses in Bengali. Bhojpuri, on the contrary, pronounces the vowel with the clear sharp cut tone which we hear all over Central Hindostan. On the other hand, it also possesses a long drawled vowel which is pronounced like the aw in awl. The contrast between these two sounds is so very marked, and is of such frequent occurrence, that it gives a tone to the whole language which is recognised at once. In the declension of nouns Bhojpuri has an oblique form of the genitive case, which is wanting in the other dialects. The polite pronoun of the second person, which is very frequently heard in conversation, is apane in Maithili and Magahi, but raure in Bhojpuri. The verb substantive in Maithili is usually chhai or achhi, he is. In Magahi it is 'usually hai, and in Bhojpuri bate, bare, or h6we. The three dialects all agree in forming the present tense by adding the verb substantive to the present participle, exactly as in other modern Indian languages. But Magahi has also a special form of the present, viz., dekha hai, exactly equivalent to the English" he is a-seeing," and so has Bhojpuri another form delchd-lii, which probably means" he is come to see." The whole system of verbal conjugation is amazingly complex in Maithili and Magahi, but is as simple and straightforward in Bhojpuri as it is in Bengali or Hindi. There are many other minor differ­ ences between the three dialects, but the above are those which are most charac­ teristic and striking. Suffice it to say, further, that Maithili and Magahi are the dialects of nationalities which have carried conservatism to the excess of uncouthness, while Bhojpuri is the practical language of an energetic race, which is ever ready to accommodate itself to circumstances, and which has made its influence .felt all over India. ' Ethnio 173. The last remark brings us to the consideration of the ethnic differences differences. between the speakers of Maithili and Magahi on the one hand, and those who speak Bhojpuri on the other. These are great. MithWi, a country with an ancient history, traditions of which it retains to the present day, is a land under the domination of a sept cf Brahmans extraordinarily devoted to the , anise, and cummin of the law. For centuries it has been too proud to admit other nationalities to intercourse on equal terms, and has passed through con­ quest after conquest, from the north, from the east, and from the west, without changing its ancestral peculiarities. The story goes that at the marriage of Rama, the Brahmans of Mithila showed the same uncivilised pride which is charaoteristic of their descendants in the twentieth century. This Brahmanical domination has left ineffaceable marks upon the nature of the rest of the popUlation. Mithila, or Tirhut, is one of the most congested part§ of India. INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY. THE ARYAN SUB~FAMILY. 75 , Its inhabitants increase, and multiply, and impovr,rish the earth, nor Jrill they se~k other pleans of life than agriculture, or other lands on whiclr to practise the one art with which they are acquaintcd. Magadha, on the other hand, although it is intimately connected with the early history of Buddhism," was too long a cockpit for contending Musalman armies, and too long subject to the head-quarters of a Mmalman province, to remember its former glories'lof the Hindu age. A great part of it is wild, barren, and sparsely cultivated, and over much of the remainder cultivation is only carried on with difficlllty by the aid of great irrigation works widely spread over the country, and dating from prehistoric times. Its peasantry, oppressed for centuries, and even now, under British rule, poorer than that of any neighbouring part of India, is uneducated and unenterprising. There is an expressive word current in Eastern Hindoslan which illustrates the national character. It is " bhades," and has two meanings. One is "uncouth," "boorish," and the Qther is "an inhabitant of Magadha." Which meaning is the original and which the derivative, I do not know, but a whole history is contained in these two syllables. 174. '1'he Bhojpuri-speaking country is inhabited by a people curiously differ­ ent from the others who speak Bihari dialects. They form the fighting nation of Hindostan. An alert and active nationality, with f.ew scruple~ and considerable abilities, dearly loving a fight for fighting's sake, they have spread over Aryan India, each man ready to carve his fortune out of any opportunity which may present itself. They have furnished a rich mine of recruitment to the Hind6stani army, and, on the other hand, they took a prominent part in the Mutiny of 1857. As fond as an Irishman is of a stick, the long-boned, stalwart Bhojpuri, with his staff in hand, is a familiar object striding over fields far from his home. Thou­ sands of them have emigrated to British Colonies and have returned rich men; every year still larger numbers wander over Northern Bengal, a;nd seek employ­ ment, either honestly, as palki-bearers, or otherwise, as dacoits. Every Bengal Zamindar keeps a posse of these men, euphemistically termed" darwans," to hold his tenants in order. Such are the people who speak Bhojpuri, and it can be understood that their language is a handy , made for current me, and not too much encumbered by grammatic subtleties. 175. Throughout the Bihari area, the written character is that known as Written . This script is used over the whole of Hindostan alongside of the more Character. complete and elegant Deva·nagari. Practically speaking, the former may be looked upon as the current hand of the latter, although epigraphically it is not a corruption of it as some think. Kaithi is the official character of two widely distant countries, Bihar and Gujarat, and a Tirhut Patwari finds little difficulty in reading a Gujarati book. The Brahmans of Tirhut employ a special character of their own, called the Maithili script. It closely resembles that used for Bengali, but differs from it just enough to make it at first sight rather puzzling to l'ead. 176. Bengali is the language of the Gangetic Delta, and of the country im- Bengali. mediately to its north and east. North of the Ganges its western boundary may be taken as the River Mahananda in the east of the district of Purnea. South of the Ganges it reaches up to the foot of the Chota N agpur plateaux. It covers the greater part of the district of Midnapore, and that tract of Singhbhum which is known as . To the east, it runs a short way up the Assam Valley, taking in about half the district of Goalpara, and, in the Surma Valley, it covers the whole of Sylhet and Cachar, as well as Mymensingh and Dacca, although here the ground is partly occupied by Tibeto~Burman languages, whose speakers are found in scattered colonies. Further south it is spoken in Noakhali and Chittagong, and even in parts of the hill tracts of the latter district and of Arakan. To its north, it has the Tibeto-Burman languages of the Himalaya, to "its west BihRri, to its south-west Oriya, and to its east Tibeto-Burman languages and Assamese. On the south, it is bounded by the Bay of Bengal. In no other speech of India is the literary tongue so widely divorced from that of ordinary conversation as in Bengali. The two can almost be spoken of as distinct languages, rather than as two dialects of the same languages. Up to the last few years very little was known about the actual speech of the forty odd millions who are recorded as having Bengali for their vernacular. Even European grammarians, most of whom were missionaries and ought to have known better, were the obedient slaves of the Pandits of Calcutta, and only illustrated the artificial book language in their wl}rks . ... L 2 76 THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA. Mrh Beames was the first, and I believe the only writer, to draw attention in the coticluding decades of the last century to the necessity of pptting o:q. record what the people really spoke.* Since then the Linguistic Survey ·has succeeded In' exploring the with considerable success. Dialects. ~ 177. In dividing the language into dialects, the lines of cleavage may be either horizontal or perpendicular. Adopting the former method, we get this literary dialect on the one hand, and the true vernacular on the other. The former is practically the same over the whole of Bengal, but is only used in books a

* The resnlt of tbe influence of Pandits upon Ben~ali wOTlld be well illustrated if we took a passa""e of narrative English, and substituted a Latin word for every noun that oocurred. Theoretically the nOUns should be in A.nglo·Saxon, but to an Englishman, Latin more nearly holds the position of II learn~d language that Sanskrit does in India. As an example, I hel'e give a verse or two of the Parable of the Prodigal Son, with 8 Latin word (geDder and case being usually neglected) substituted wherever the Bengali version employs a Sanskrit one j-" A oertain vir uad two filiuses. And the junior filius medio of them said to his pater,' pater give me the pars of tbe substantia that falleth to me.' A.ud he made divisio unto t·hem of his proprius facul­ tas. And not multus dies aH~r .the junior filius made omnis substantia collectns Rnd becflme peregre profec­ 't,HS into a regia longinquus." In this extract the Latin words are taken from Bpza's translation. No wondel!' that a Bengali viJ)a~er starts and stares in the witness box when asked to repeat (aDd expeoted to understand) a foriD of 1l8Severiition couched in llinguage analogouij to the aboye. INDO-EUROPE.AN FAMILY. THE ARYAN SUB-FAMILY• 77 .. litoral of the Bay of Bengal there is a south-western dialect, also of the EastErP,l Chiikmli '. • , • • 48,921 type, and inland there is another curious dialect, called Chakma, spoken by tribes of the Ohittagong Hill Tracts. This last has a character of its own, similar to, but more archaic than, the one used for writing" Burmese. Probably only a variety of Ohakma is Daingnet, a corrupt form of Daingnet • 3,105 Bengali, hitherto considered to be a Tibeto-Burma'h language. It is spoken in that part of the Akyab district which adjoins Ohittagong. Except as given above, no figures are available for the Bengali dialects. 180. Some remarks must be made regarding the extra..ordinary way in which Ben~flli. pro­ the many Sanskrit words used in the literary dialect are pronounced in Bengali. nunClatlon. It should be remembered that these words are just as foreign to the language as French words are to English, so that 13engalis pronounce their Sanskrit words much in the way that Englishmen speak" Frenche ful fayre and fetisly, after the scole of Stratford atte bowe." During the period in which the Prakrits represented the spoken language of India, the vocal organs of the Indo-Aryan were incapable of pronouncing without difficulty letters and sounds which had been easy to their forefathers. As they pronounced them differently, they spelt them differently, and owing to the records left by the Hindu gramma- rians we know how they did pronounce them. When they wanted to talk. of the Goddess of Wealth, whom their ancestors had called Lakshmi, they found that it cost them too much trouble to pronounce kshm, and so they simplified matters by saying, and writing, Lackckki or, dialectically, Lakkki. Again, when they wanted to ask for cooked rice, which their forefathers called bhakta, they found the kt too hard to pronounce, and so said, and wrote, Matta, just as the Italians find it difficult to say factum, and say, and write, fatfo. Again, some of them could not pronounce an s clearly, so they had to say sh. When they wanted to talk of the sea, they could not say sagara, "but said, and wrote, skagara, or shayara . .As a last example, if they wanted to express the idea conveyed by the word "external," they could not say bahya, and so they said, and wrote, bajjha. Now, I have already explained that the modern Bengali is descended from an Apabhramsa closely connected with that very from which the above examples are all taken. The very same incapacities of the vocal organs exist with now, that existed with their predecessors a thousand years ago. A Bengali cannot pronounce kshm any more than they could. He can- not pronounce a clear s, but must make it sh. The compound letter hy beats him, and instead he has to say jjk. These are only a few examples of facts which might be multiplied indefinitely. Nevertheless, a Bengali when he borrows his Sanskrit words writes them in the Sanskrit fashion, which is, say, at least two thousand years out of date, and then reads them as if they were Magadhi Prakrit words. He writes Lakshmi, and says Lakkhi. He writes sagara, and says shagar, or, if he is uneducated, . He writes bahya, and says bajjha. In other words, he writes Sanskrit, and reads from that writing another language. It is exactly as if an Italian were to writefactum, when he says futto, or as if a Frenchman were to write the Latin sicca, while he says secke. The outcome of this state of affairs is that, to a foreigner, the great di.fficulty of Bengali is its pronunciation. Like English, but for a dif- ferent reason, its pronunciation is not represented by its spelling. The vocabulary of the modern literary language is almost entirely Sanskrit, and few of these words are pronounced ru;; they are written. Bengalis themselves struggle vainly with a number of complicated sounds, which the disuse of centuries has rendered their vocal organs unable, or too lazy, to produce. The result is a maze of half-pronounced consonants and broken vowels not provided for by their alphabet amid which the unfortunate foreigner wanders without a guide, and for which his own larynx is as unsuited as is a Bengali's for the sounds of Sanskrit. 181. Bengali has a genuine popular literature extending from at least the Literature. fifteenth century to the end of the eighteenth. Since then the so-called" revival of learning" has galvanised into a vigorous existence the of the present day, largely based upon English models, containing many excellent works and some few of genius, but not popular in the true sense of the word. Of the early authors, perhaps Chandi Das and Mukunda Ram are the two whose writings will best repay perusal. Their writings come from the heart 78 THE LANGUA.GES OF INDIA. a:rfi not from the school, and are full of passages adorned with true poetry and descriptive power. Extracts from the works of Mukund;t Ram have been admirably translated into English verse by the late Professor Cowell.

!'~~~~~~r. r 182. The well-known Bengali character is a by-form of the NagarI type of Ip.dian alphabets, which became established in Eastern India about the eleventh century of our era. Varieties of it are used for Assamese, and by Brahmans for the Maithili dialect of BiharI. Assame:le. 183. Assamese is the last of the speeches of the Outer Circle. As its name implies, it is the language ofthe Assam Valley, over the whole of which it is the only Aryan tongue, except in the extreme west, where, in the district of Goal­ pa.ra, it merges into Bengali. Elsewhere it is surrounded entirely by Indo­ Chinese languages. The influence of the latter on Assamese has not been great. A few words have been borrowed, and one or two old A.ryan forms (such as the use of pronominal suffixes) have been retained, owing ro,the existence of somewhat similar idioms prevailing amongst the neighbouring tribes. Western Assamese differs slightly from that spoken. at the eastern end of the valley, but the only true Mayang. dialect is the Mayang or Bishnupuriya, spoken by a Hindu colony in the State of Manipur and by scattered members of the same tribe in Sylhet and Cachar. From its geographical position we should expect Mayang to be a dialect of Bengali rather than of Assamese, and it would not be wrong to class it as the former. I, however, place it under Assamese, as it has several of the typical characteristics of that language. We may also mention a mongrel trade language, which has developed at the foot of the Garo Hills under the name of Jharwa. It is a "pigeon" mixture of Bengali, Garo, and Assamese. The A.ssamese are a home-staying people, and the only localities in which their language is found spoken by any considerable number of people outside the Assam Valley are the hills of that Province, and the Bengali-speaking districts of Sylhet and CachaI'. 184. Like Oriya, Assamese is a sister, not a daughter, of Bengali. It comes from Bihar, through Northern Bengal, not from Bengal proper. It was, neverthe­ less, once hotly argued whether Assamese was a dialect of Bengali .01' not. A great deal of this is a mere question of words which is capable of discussion ad infinitum. The words" dialect" and" language" are no more capable of mutually exclusive definition than are" variety" and" species" or "hill" and" mountain." It may be admitted that Assamese grammar does not differ to any considerable extent from that of Bengali; but, if we apply another test, that of the possession of written literature, we can have no hesitation in maintaining that Assamese is entitled to claim an independent existence as the speech of an independent nationality, and to have a standard of its own, different from that which a native of Calcutta would wish to impose upon it. Assamese 185. Assamese differs most widely from Bengali in its pronunciation. It has, ~i7~B:~gali. besides the usual sound of a as 0 in "hot," a long drawled a something like the sound of the 0 in "glory." Little distinction is made between long and short vowels, accent having everywhere superseded quantity, as in modern Greek. No difference is made between the cerebral and dental consonants, both being sounded as semi-cerebrals like the English t and d. The consonants ok and okh have the sound of 8 in "sin" andj that of z in "azure." On the other hand, the letter 8 is pronounced with a sound approaching that of ok in " loch." The declension of nouns does not differ materially from that of colloquial (not literary) Bengali, but the conjugation of verbs has many charaoteristic features in points of detail which need not be mentioned here. The Assamese vocabulary, even when used in literature, is much more free from Tatsamas than is Bengali. Literature. 186. The Assamese have just reason to be proud of their national literature. In no aepartment have they been more successful than in a. branch of stlldy in which India as a rule is curiously deficient. The chain of historical events for the last six hundred years has been carefully preserved, and their a:uthenticity can be relied upon. These p.istorical works, originally written in imitation of the chronicles kept by the Ahom conquerors of the country, and still called by their 1hom name, are numerous and voluminous. According to the customs of the country, a knowledge of these histories was an indispensable qualification to an Assamese gentleman; and every family of distinction, as well as the Government and publiC officers, kept the most minute records of contemporary events. But is by no means confined to history. Some seventy poetical 'Works, principally religious, have been catalogued. One of tlIe INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY. THE ARYAN SUB-FAMILY. 79

oldest poets, and at the same time the most celebrated, was Sri Sankar , 1'}ho flourished about .four hundred and fifty years ago. The Hindu system of medicine was professionally studied by numerous Assam families of distinctio~ and some knowledge of the science formed one of the necessary acquiremenis of a well-bred gentleman. Hence arose a good stock of medical works, principaJly translations or adaptations from Sanskrit into the vernacular. We know of at least forty dramatic works written during the past five hundred years, and many of these are still acted in the village . The whole of the Scrip­ tures was translated into Assamese by the Serampur missionaries in the year Un3, and &everal editions have since been issued. In later years, the American Baptist Mission Press has published a large number of works religious and 1.ay, and has done much to keep the language pure and uncontaminated by the neighbouring Bengali. 187. The character used in writing Assamese is nearly the same as that em- Writteu ployed for Bengali. It has one sign, that to represent the sound of w, which is character. wanting in the alphabet of that language. 188_ tVe now come to the form of speech which is intermediate between the Mediate Outer Circle and the Inner languages. It is the Group. Approximate vernacular of the countl'V in which the hero Language. Po~ulatio" ~" Speaking it. Rama-chandra was born; and the Jain Apostle ------1----11 Mahavira used an early form of it to convey his Eastern Hindi. 22,136,358 teaching to his disciples. The Prakrit of that tract, Ardha-Magadhi, hence became the sacred language of the .T ains, and its modern successor, Eastern Hindi, through the works of a Eastern great genius, became the 'medium for celebrnt,iug the Gestes of Rama, and in Hindi. consequence the dialect used for nearly all tl "Joetry of Hindostan. ] 89. Eastern Hindi, which includes thre, dialects, A wadhi, Bagheli, and 'Chhattisgarhl, occupies parts of six Provinces, namely, Oudh, the Province of Agra, Baghelkhand, , Chota Nagpur, and the Central Provinces. It covers the whole of Oudh except the district of and a part of :Fyzabad. In the United Provinces it covers, roughly speaking, the country be~ tween Benares and Hamirpur in Bundelkhand. It occupies the whole of Baghelkhand, the north-east of Bundelkhand, the south-Sone tract of the district of Mirzapur, the States of Chang Bhakar, Sirguja, , Korea, and a portion of Jashpur in Chota Nagpur. In the Central Provinces it covers the districts of J ubbulpore and Mandla, and the greater part of Chhattisgarh with its Feudatory States. 190. As in the case of Bihari, it was found impossible to enumerate separately the number of speakers of Eastern Hindi residing in the Lower Provinces of Bengal. Out of the 26,780,174 people returned from Bengal as speaking "Hindi," '24,283,028 have been credited to Bihiir!, leaving a balance of 2,497,146 unaccounted for, some of whom certainly speak Eastern Hindi, while the rest speak Western Hindi. It is impossible to divide these figures accurately between the two languages. Mr. Gait, however, estimates on very good grounds that we may put the speakers of the former at 1,150,000, leaving a balance of 1,347,146 to be credited to Western Hindi. Adding this 1,150,000 to 20,986,358, the figures given in Table X, Part II, we arrive at 22,136,358 as the approxi., mate number of speakers of Eastern Hindi in all India. 191. The three dialects of Eastern Hindi closely resemble each other. Indeed, Dialects. Bagheli differs so little from Awadhi, that, were it not popularly recognised as a separate speech, I should be inclined to class it as a form of that dialect. Chhattisgarhi, under the influence of the neighbouring Marathi and Oriya, shows greater points of difference; but its close connection with Awadhi is nevertheless apparent. The Awadhi-:Bagheli dialect covers the whole of the Awadhi aDd Eastern Hindi area of the United Provinces and of :Bundelkhand, Baghelkhand, Bagheli. Chang Bhakar, and the districts of Jubbulpore and Mandla. It is also spoken by some scattered tribes in the Central Provinces to the south and west. If we wish to make a dividing line between Awadhi and Bagheli, we may take the River Jamna where it runs between Fatehpur and Banda, and thence the southern boundary of the . The boundary must, however, be uncertain, for there is hardly any definite peculiarity which we can seize upon as a decisive test. Chhattisgarhi occupies the remainder of the Eastern Hi~di Chh:_ttiS­ gsr tract;. that is to say, the States of Udaipur, Korea, and Sirguja, and a portion of 1. 80 THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA. Ja!Jhpur, and the greater part of Chhattisgarh. As above described, Eastern Hmdi occupies an irregular oblong tract of country, extenfling f-1'OIl1" but not ~J.?cluding, Nepal to the Basta:r ~tate in the Central Provinces, much longer frota north to south than It IS from east to west. Its mean length may be roughly taken as 750 miles, and its mean breadth as 250, which together give a:fi. area of about 187,500 square miles. A vernacular 192. Owing to the prestige of the Lucknow Oourt Awadhiis also spoken as a elsew?el'e vernacular by Muhammadans over the eastern part of the United Provinces dnd ~:S~e~~ the over the greater part of Bihar, the language of the Hindu majority of this tract Hindi tract being Bihari. It is difficult to say how many of these Musalmans do use proper. AlVadhi, b"?t,. so far as my information goes, I can estimate them as numbering about a mIllIon. Sreakers Large numbers of speakers of Eastern Hindi are scattered all over Northern IIbroad. India. Putting to one side the number of Oudh men who have travelled abroad in quest of service, there is our Native Army which is largely recruited in that Province. Linguistio 193. Eastern Hindi is bounded on the north by the languages of the Nepal boundaries. Himalayas and on the west by various dialects of Western Hindi, of which the principal are Kanauji and BundelL On the east it is bounded by the BhojpurI dialect of Biharl and by Oriya. On the south it meets forms of the . Positiou of 194. It would take up too much space to examine fully the relationship which ~~:~~r~ith Eastern HindI bears to the languages on its east and on its west. In its pro­ regard to nunciation it follows that of the wes.' .. 1 the most important particulars, while languages in the declension of nouns (although. has typical peculiarities of its own) it in ~!J~beOI~t:~r the main follows Bihar'i. So also in th0 declension of its pronouns it follows the Groups. Eastern languages; for instance, its possessive pronoun of the first person is mar, not rnera. In the conjugation of verbs it occupies a true intermediate position. We have seen that the typical characteristic of the Eastern l~nguages is the use of personal terminations in the past tense, of which the base ends in l. Eastern Bindi does not use a past participle in l, but does employ the same personal terminations as those which are found in Bihari. For instance, the Western Hindi participle" struck" is marti, which is a contracted form of mariti, while the Bihari form is marila. In the "West, "he struck" is mara (i.e., maria), with­ out any termination. In Biharl it is marilas, with the termination 8, meaning " he " (or, literally, "by him "). Eastern Hindi takes the Western maria, and adds to it the Bihari termination 8, so that it has maria-s, more usually pro­ nounced maris. In the future tense it is still more mixed. Its first person com­ monly follows the Eastern fashion, and the third the Western. The second person wavers between the two. Thus," I shall strike" is the Eastern miirabaii, while "he will strike" is the Western marihe. We thus see that Eastern Hindi occupies an intermediate position between the Oentral Languages and those of the East, exactly like the" Half-Magadhl" from which it is descended. AWBdhi 195. Two dialects of Eastern Hindi, Awadhl and Bagheli, have received Literature. considerable literary culture. Of these the Awadhlliterature is by far the most important. The earliest writer of note in that dialect was a Musalman, Malik Muhammad of Juyas (fl. ]540 A.D.), the author of the fine philosophic epic entitled the Padumawati. This work, while telling in vivid language the story of Ratan Sen's quest for the fair Padmavatl, of Alau'ddin's ruthless siege of the virgin city of Ohitor, of Ratan's valour, and of 's wifely devotion, cul­ minating in the terrible sacrifice of all in the doomed city that was true and fair, to save it from the lust of the Tartar conqueror, is also an allegory describ­ ing the search of the soul for true wisdom, and the trials and temptations which beset it in its course. Malik J\.Juhammad's ideal of life is high, and throughout the work of the Musalman ascetic there run veins of the broadest charity and of sympathy with those higher spirits among his Hindu fellow countrymen who were groping in the dark for that light of which many of them obtained glimpses. Half a century later, contemporary with our Shakespeare, we find the poet and reformer Tuls\ Das. This extraordinary man, who, if we take for our test the influence whic]? he exercises at the present day, was one of the half dozen great writers which Asia has produced, deserves more thana passing notice. He is:1popularly known as the author of a history of Rama, but he was far more than ,. INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY. THE ARYAN S!."B-FAMILY. 81

that. He occupjes a position amongst the singers of the Riima legend peculif~ to himself. Unlike.the religious poets who dwelt in the Doab, and whose theme was Krishna, he lived at Benares, unequalled and alone in his niche in the Temple of Fame. Disciples he had in plenty-to-day they are numbered by millions-l.- b~ imitators, none. Looking back through the vista of centuries we see his noble figure standing in its own pure light as the guide and saviour of Hindostan. lIis influence has never ceased, nay, it has ever kept increasing; and only when we reflect upon the fate of Tantra-ridden Bengal or on the wanton orgies which are carried out under the name of Krishna worship, can we justly appreciate the work of the man who first in Northern India taught the infinite vileness of sin and the infinite graciousness of the Deity, and whose motto might have been- .. He pl"ayerh best who love~h best All things both great and small ... • But Tulsi Das not only taught this elevated system of religion ;-he succeeded in getting his teaching accepted. He founded no sect, laid down no dogmatic creed, and yet his great work is at the present day the one Bible of ninety mil­ lions of people, and fortunate it has been for them that they had this guide. It has been received as the perfect example of the perfect book, and thus its influ­ ence has not only been exercised over the unlettered multitude, but over the long series of authors who followed him, and especially over the crowd which sprang into existence with the introduction of printing at the beginning of the last century. As Mr. Growse says, in the introduction to his translation of the Ramayan of this author, "the book is in everyone's hands, from the court to the cottage, and is read and heard and appreciated alike by every class of the Hindu community, whether high or low, rich or poor, young or old." In fact the importance of Tulsi Das in the history of Tndia cannot be overrated. Putting the literary merits of his work out of t~", 1uestion, the fact of its ttniversal acceptance by all classes, from Bhagalpur to the Punjab, and from the Him,a­ laya to the N erbudda, surely demands more than a polite acknowledgment of his existence. N early thirty years ago, an old missionary said to me that no one could hope to understand the natives of Upper India, till he had mastered every line that Tulsi Das had written. I have since learned to know how right he was. The result of the commanding position which this poet occupies in the literary history of India, is that the A wadhi dialect in which he wrote has since his time been accepted as the only form of North Indian speech in which certain forms of poetry can be composed. For the past three centuries the great mass of Indian poetical literature has been inspired by one or other of two themes, the history of Rama and the history of Krishna. The scene of the latter's early exploits was the central D6ab, with the district of Muttra to its south, and the ·of that tract has been used as the means of recording it. But all the vast literature dealing with Barna has been composed in Awadhi. Nay, more, the use of A wadhi has extended, so that, excepting that devoted to the Krishna cycle, nine-tenths of all the poetry of has been written in it. Such, for instance, is the great translation of the Mahubharata made at the com­ mencement of the last century for the Maharaja of Benares. The list of authors in this dialect is a long one, and their works include many of great merit. 196. The other dialect of Eastern Hindi, Bagheli, has also a considerable Bagheli literature. Under the enlightened patronage of the Kings of u'ewa, a school of Literature. poets arose in that country, whose works still enjoy a considerable reputation. These were, however, rather the products of scholars and critics who wrote about poetry than of poets themselves. The critical faculty was finely developed, but the authors were not" makers" in the true sense of the word. 197. We now come to the consideration of the Innerlanguages which fall into The Western two groups, the Western and the Northern. The Group. Population Langnage. returning it. Western Group includes Western Hindi, Rajasthani, Western Hindi. 4.0.714.925* Gujarati, and Panjabi. Ritjasthiilli 10,917 ,712 We,tern Gujariiti • 9,928,601t 198. Western U in di covers the country between Panjabi • 17.070,961 Sirhind [Sahrind] in the Punjab and Allahabad in Hindi. the United Provinces. On the north it extends to TOTAL. We.tern Gro11p 78,632,099 the foot of Himalaya, but on the south it does not

* 'fhe figure" for Western Hindi are those ginn in tbe tables, pIli" 1,347.146 as exp:ained und~r the head of Eastern Hindi. t lucludillg Bhil dialects a.nd Khande8i. 82 THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA. readb much beyond the valley of the Jamna, except towards the east, where it covers Bundelkhand and a portion of the Central Provinces,. It nas. several rP,pognised dialects, of whic~ the principal are _Hind~stani, Braj Bhasha, Kanauji, and Bundeli, to WhICh we may add the Bangaru of the South-Eastern Pu,ujab. Of these, Hindostani is now the recognised literary form of Western Hindi and it will be more convenient to consider it last. The home of Braj Braj Bhasha. Bhasha is the Central Doab and the country immediately to its south from near Delhi to, say, , its head-quarters being round t.he. town of Muttrlt. South and west of the Jumna It IS also spoken in

Estimated , in the States of Bharatpur and Karauli, Dialect. popuhtion ,peaking it. and in the north-west of the Agency. To its west and south it gradually mp,rges into ­ Vel'nacular Hindostani 7,072,745 thani. For more than two thousand years Muttra Dakhini 6,292,628 has been one of the most important centres of Other Rindostani. including unclassed Aryan civilisation. Here also tradition places the dialects 5,921,884 scenes of the earlier life of the famous demi-god · 8,380,724 Braj .Bhasha · , · Krishna. It was thus natural that the dialect of Kannuji • · 5,OS2,006 Bundeli . · 5,460,280 thi§. country, the direct descendant of the old Prakrit Biingarii . · 2,505,158 of Siirasena, should be used for literature. In the TOTAL, Western Hindi 40,714,925* Sanskrit , the ordinary conversation in prose gf women of the upper classes was couched in Sauraseni Prakrit, and a variety of the same dialect was employed by the Digambara J ains for their sacred books. In ancient times a part of Surasena was known as Vraja, i.e., the country of the cow-pens, and from this is derived the BKAJ BRIBnI. modern appellation of Braj, with its language known Estimded Where spoken. number of as Braj Bhasha. The most important writer in the opeaker •. modern vernacular was the blind bard Sur Das, who flourished in the middle of the sixteenth century. As Central India 8,847 Punjab · 3,551 Tulsi Das sung of Rama, so Sur Das sung of Krishna, Rajputana · 1,263,245 and between them, according to native opinion, they United Provinces 7,109,000 have exhausted all the possibilities of poetic art. Elsewhere · 1,OSI Many are the traditions of minor poets who were TOTAL, Braj Bhasha 8,380,724 unable to produce a single line which was not to be found already existing in the works of one or other of these two masters of song. To the European mind there can be little comparison between the two. Sur Das was a voluminous author who sung in one key, a sweet one it is true, while Tulsi Das, besides being a great reformer who rose superior to dogma and creeds and who refused to found a sect, was master of the whole gamut of human passion. Siir Das was not only one of the founders of a sect, but was also the creator of a school of poets whose theme was Krishna, and especially Krishna, the com­ panion of the herdmaidens of Muttra, which still exists and which expresses itself through the medium of Braj Bhasha. The most celebrated of his followers was Bihar! (early part of seventeenth century), the author of the famous Sat-. Kanauji. 199. Kanauji is the dialect of the Lower Doab from about Etawah to near Allahabad. Opposite the town of Kanauj it has also spread across the Ganges into the district of KUAl1JI. Hardoi and a part of U nao.. It is nearly related to Estimated Braj Bhasha, being really little but a sub-dialect of Where Bpoken. nllmberoi .peakers. that form of speech. It has received small literary cultivation, being completely overshadowed by its United Provinces 5,082,006 more powerful neighbour, but the Serampur mission­ Elsewhere · · ... aries used it for one of their translations of the New TOTAL, Kanauji 5,OS2,006 Testament in the early part of the last century. If we may trust the evidence of their translation, the dialect has lost several old historical forms which existed in Kanauji in the early part of the nineteenth century, and which are still found in some of the Rajasthiini dialects, and in the Khas of N epa!. • These figures are to be received with caution. They are all only estimates, which are based on imperfect materials. Details of each estimate are given lower down. The figures for" other Hindostani" (which are arrived at by '.1educting the other figures from the total for Western Hindi) certainly inolude many speakers of other diAlects, even Rajasthani ones. INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY. TilE ARYAN SUB-FAMILY. 83 200. Bundeli i~ the dialect of Western Hindi spoken in Bundelkhand an~ the Bllnd~li. . . neighbourhDDd, including not Dnly the Bundelk~and Bmf]):iiLi. Agency, but also Jalaun, Hamirpur, and , tDgether with the eastern pDrtion Df the Gwalwr Estimated Agency. It is also spDken in the adjoining portions Where spoken. number of speaker •. of BhDpal, and in the Damoh, SaugDr, SeDni, 'Rnd N arsinghpur, and purts of the Hoshangabad and Cent.ral Inn.ia . 2,206,456 Chhindwara districts of the Central Provinces. Ceiltral Provinces · 1,803,591 United Provinces 1,450,000 Banda, though politically in Bundelkhand, dDes Elsewhere · 233 not speak Bundeli. The language here is a mixed one, but it is in the main Bagheli. Bundeli has a TOTAL, Bundiili · 5,460,280 I small literature, dating from the time of Ohhattar Sal of Panna and his immediate predecessDrs and succeSSDrs of the early part of the eighteenth century. The Serampur missiDnaries translated the New Testament into. it. These three dialects, Braj Bhiisha, Kanauji, and Bundeli, are all closely connected with each other, and are typical pure languages of the Inner grDup. 201. The Western Hindi spoken in the sDuth-east of the Punjab has several Blingarii. local names, but it is everywhere the same dialect. In the Hariana tract , of Hissar and Jind, it is recDgnised by EurDpeans BXNG.lRU. under the name Df Hariani. They, hDwever, call Number of Where spoken. speakers. the same form (If speech,' when they meet it in , Dujana, the cDuntry parts Df the Hissar 401,704 Delhi district, and , simply " Hindi." Jind . 200,5J2 Natives sDmetimes call it Jatu, and sometimes Rohtak . · 629,421 Dujana · 24,097 Bangaru, according to the caste of the people who. Delhi (about) · · 400,000 speak it Dr to the tract in which it is spDken. Kamal 84-1-,562 Bangaru, or the language Df the Bangar, the high Rajputana · · 3,054 Elsewhere · · 1,808 and dry tract of the South-Eastern Punjab west of · the Ganges, appears to be the most suitable name by TOT A L, Biingarii. 2.505.158 I which to. identify it. This form Df "Vestern Hindi has Panjabi to. its north and west, and and Marwari (bDth dialects of Rajasthani) to its south, and it is a mixture Df the three languages, with Western Hindi as its basis. It does nDt extend further nDrth than Karnal. In the east of the Umbala district the form of Western Hilldi which we find spoken is the same as the vernacular Hindostani of the Upper Doab which will now be described. In West U mbala we find Panjabi. 202. As a vernacular, Hindostani is the dialect of Western Hindi which ex- HindOstiilli. hibits that language in the act of shading off into Panjabi. It has the Western Hindi grammar, but the terminatiDns are thDse which we find in Panjabi. Thus, the true Western Hindi postpositiDn of the genitive is kau, and the fDrm used in Panjabi is da. The Hindostani dialect of Western Hindi takes the k Df kau, but the termination a of the Panjabi, and has ka. So also in all adjectives and participles. Hindostani must be considered under two aspects, (1) as a vernacular dialect of Western Hindi, and (2) as the well-knDwn literary lan- guage of Hindostan and the linguafra'f~ea current over nearly the whDle of India. As a vernacular, it may be taken as the dialect of Western Hindi spoken in Ai a verna­ the Upper Gangetic Doab, in Rohilkhand, and in the east of the U mbala district eu ar. .of the Punjab. It is spoken in its greatest purity round Meerut and to. the north. In Rohilkhand it gradually shades off into Kanauji, and in Umbala into Panjabi. In the rest of the Eastern Punjab the language is Bangaru except in Gurgaon where 'Vernacular Hindostani merges into. Braj Bhii.sha, which may be cDnsidered to be established in the east of tbat district. In the neighbourhDod of Meel'Ut, save in a few minor particulars, the language is practically the same as that taught in . the us~al Hind?sta_ni _gr~!llmars. 'II< It is nDt, ho~ever, as the ye~'nacular?f the Up. ~~;ul~~~ar.Y perDoab that HmdDstalllls generally known. 10. Europeans It IS the pDlIte speech and lingua Df India generally, and more especially of HindDstan. The name itself is offranca. European coinage, and indicates the idea which is thus connoted, it being rarely * It will be noticed that this account of Hindostani and its origin differs widely from that which has been given hitherto by most authors (including the present writer), which was based on Mir Amman's preface to the " Biigh 0 Eahar." According to him UrdG. was a mongrel mixture of the language~ of thl' various tribes who fioc\ie'd to the Delhi Bazaar. '1 he explanation given above was first put forward by Sir Charles Lyall in the year 1880, and the Linguistic Survey has shown the entire correctness of his view. Hindostiini is simply the vernacular of the Upper Doiib, on which a certain amount of literary polish has been bestowed, Hnd from w.'ich a few rUitic idioms hav~ been excludlld. M2 84 THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA.

use~ by natives exoept under European influence. As a lingua franca Hindostani grew up in the bazaar attached to the Delhi Oourt, and was carried ~verywhere in India by the lieutenants of the Moghul Empire. Since then its seat has been s~cure. It has several recognised varieties, amongst which may be mentioned Urdu. Urdu, Rekhta, Dakhini, and Hindi. Urdu is that form of Hindustani whioh is '\fl'itten in the Persian character, and which makes a free use of Persian (including Arabic) words in its vocabulary. The name is said to be derived from the U'rdit-e mu'alla or royal military bazaar outside the Delhi palare. It is spoken chiefly in the towns of Western Hindostan and by Musalmans and Hindus "ho have fallen under the influence of Persian culture. Persian vocables I'Ire, it is true, employed in every form of Hindustani. Suoh have been admitted to full citizenship even in the rustic dialects, or in the elegant Hindi of modern writers like Harishchandra of Benares. '1'0 objeot to their use would be affeoted purism, just as would be the avoidanoe or the use of all words of Latin derivation in English. But in what is known as high Urdu, the use of Persian words is carried to almost incredible extremes. III writings of this class we find whole sentences in which the only Indian thing is the g'ra:n­ mar, and with nothing but Persian words from beginning to end. It is curious, however, that this extreme Persianisation of Hindustani is not, as Sir Oharles Lyall rightly points out, the work of conquerors ignorant of the tongue of the people. On, the contrary, the Urdu language took its rise in the efforts of the ever pliable Hindu to assimilate the language of his rulers. Its authors were Kayasths and Khatris employed in the administration and acquainted with Per,dan, not Persians or Persianised Turks, who for many centuries used only their own language for literary purposes.* To these is due the idea of employ­ ing the Persian character for their vernacular speech. and the consequent pre­ ference for words to w hioh that character is native. " Persian is now no foreign idiom in India, and though its excessive use is repugnant to good taste, it would be a foolish purism and a political mistake to attempt (as some have attempted) to eliminate it from the Hindu literature of the day." I have made this quotation from Sir Oharles Lyall's work, in order to show what an accomplished scholar has to say on one side of a much debated question. That the general principle which he has enunciated is the correct one I think no one will dispute. Once a word has become domesticated in I:I industiini no one has any right to objeot to its use, whatever its origin may be, and opinions will only differ as to what words have received the right of citizenship and what have not. This, after all, is a question of style, and in Hindustani as in English, there are f'tyles and styles. For myself, I far prefer the Hindustiini from which words whose citizenship is in any way doubtful are excluded, but that, I freely admit, is a matter of taste. Rekhta. 203. Rekhta (i.e., " scattered" or" crumbled' ') is the form which U rdft takes when used for poetry. The name is derived from the manner in which Persian words are" scattered" through it. When poems are written in the special dialect used by women, which has a vocabulary of its own, it is known as . t ======;- 204. Dakhini is the form of Hindustani used Dakhini. DHRIN!. by Musalmans III the Deccan. Like Urdu it is Where spoken. ~~~~:;'gf written in the Persian character, but is much .pe.ker~3 more free from Persianisation. It uses grammatical Ajlller • Baroda 69,048 forms (such as mere ko for mujh ko) which are Berar ~70,003 common in rustic parts of Northern India, but Bombay 1,125,043 ('entral Provinces 2,516.757 which are not found in the literary dialect, and in Coohiu • • 2,467 some localities,t does not use the agent case with ne Cool'g • • 6,679 before transitive verbs in the past tense, which is a IIydrrabad :Madras . l,~~~:!~g characteristic feature of all the dialects of Western l'vlyRore 245,516 Hindostan. In the fibO'ures given in the margin, I Punjab 13d 'l'ravancroe 5,956 'have deducted the speakers of Hindustani who are found in Gujarat, from the total of the Bombay TOTAL, D:llrhini 6,292,62B Presidency. The Hindostani of Gujarat has very

* ~ngllsh 18 bem?' :nt:o~uce~ iuto I"dll~n v~rn~cu:nrs In t~e same ,;~y. On~e in Monghyr I overheard one BengalI say to ano~h~r e deser clImate constltutlOner Janya atl healthy. A native horse·doctor once said to me abo~~ ~ dog I~ckmg his wound, '. Ku~ta.kii. saliva bahut antiseptic hai," and Mr. Grahame Bayley has heaI'd one PanJR~1 dentist say to anothe~ "con!lnually excavate na k[1ro." t It IS hardly necessary to pOint out that much of the preceding account of Urdu is based on Sir Charles Ly~ll's Sketch of the Hindustani langl!age. ! As a broad rule Pombny Dilkhini and all that spoken north of, the Satpurns employ nB, while Madras Dakhini does not. r INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY. TH.E ARYAN SUB-FAM.ILY. 85

few of the typical characteristics of Dakhini, and more nearly approaches the' standard of Delhi. ~ 20;)" The wow" Hindi" is used in several different meanings. It is aPersian, Hindi. not an Indian, word, and properly signifies a native of India, as distinguished fr~UJ. a " Hindu" or non·Musalm:in Indian. 'Thus says" whatever live Hindu fell into the King's hands was pounded to death under the feet of ~le­ phants. The Musalmans who were Hindis had their lives spared." In this sense (and in this way it is still used by natives) :Bengali and Mariithi are as much Hindi as the language of the Doab. On the other hand, Europeans use the word in two mutually contradictory senses, vi~., sometimes to indicate the San­ skritised, or at least the non- Persianised, form of Hindustani which is used as a literary form of speech by Hindus, and which is usually written in the D~va­ nagari character, and sometimes, loosely, to indicate all the rural dialects spoken between Bengal Propel' and the Punjab. It is in the latter sense that the word was employed at the last Census, but, in the present pages, I use it only in the former. This Hindi, therefore, or, as it is so:netimes called, "High Hindi," is the prose literary language of those Hindus who do not employ Urdu. It is of modern origin, having been introduced under English influence at the commence- ment of the Jast century.. Up till then, when a Hindu wrote prose and did not use Urdu, he wrote in hIS own local dialect, Awadhi, Bundeli, Braj Bhiisha, or what not. LaUe.. lal, under the inspiration of Dr. Gilchrist, changed all this by writing the well-known Prem Sagar, a work whioh was, so far as the prose portions went, practically written in Urdu, with Indo-Aryan words substituted wherever a writer in that form of speeoh would use Persian ones. It was thus an automatic reversion to the actual vernacular of the Upper Doiib. The course of this novel experiment was successful from the start. The subject of the first book written in it attracted the attention of all good Hindus, and the author's style, musical and rhythmical as the Arabic suj', pleased their ears. Then, the language fulfilled a want. It gave a lingua franca to the Hindus. It enabled men of widely different pI'ovinces to con- verse with each other without having recourse to the, to them, unclean words of the Musalmans. It was easily intelligible everywhere, for its grammar was that of the language which every Ii iridu had to use in his business relations with Government officials, and its vocabulary was the common property of all the Sanskritic languages of Northern India. Moreover, very little prose, excepting commentaries and the like, had been written in any modern Indian vernacular before. Literature had almost entirely confined itself to verse. Rence the language of the Prem Sagar became, naturally enough, the standard of Hindu prose all over Hindostan, from Bengal to the Punjab, and has held its place as such to the present day. Now-a-days no Hindu of Upper India dreams of writing in any -language but Urdu or Hindi when he is writing prose; but when he takes to verse, he at once adopts one of the old national dialects, such as the Awadhi of Tulsi Das or the Braj Bhasha of the blind bard of Agra. Some adventurous spirits have tried to write poems in Hindi, but the attempts have been disastrous, and have earned nothing but derision. Since Lallu Lars time Hindi has developed for itself certain rules of style which differentiate it from Urdu, the principal ones relating to the order of words, which is much less free than in that form of Hindostanl. It has also, of late years, fallen under the fatal spell of Sanskrit, and is showing signs of becoming. in the hands of Pandits, and under the encouragement of some European writers who have learned Hindi through Sanskrit, as debased as literary Bengali, without the same excuse. Hindi has so copious a vocabulary of its own, a vocabulary rooted in the very beings of the sturdy peasantry upon whose language it is based, that nine-tenths of the Sanskrit words which one meets in most modern Hindi books are useless and unintelligible excrescences. The employment of Sansl{rit words is supposed to add dignity to the style. One might as well say that a graceful girl of eighteen gained in dignity by masquerading in the furbelows of her great grandmother. Some enlightened native scholars are struggling hard, without displaying any affected purism, against this too-easily acq_uired infection, and we may hope that their efforts will meet with the encouragement which they deserve. 206. We may now define the three main varieties of Hindostimi as follows:- Hin~1\st~ni, Hindostani is primarily the language of the N orthel'll Doab, and is also the ~~dd~ and lingua franca of India, capable of being written in both Persian ~ and III 1. 86 THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA.

Deva-nagari oharacters, a~d, without purism, avoiding alike'the excessive use of eid.er Persian or Sanskrit words when employed for literature. The name "Urdit" can then be confined to that special variety of Hindostani in which :Rersian words are of frequent occurrence, and which hence can only be written in tlie Persian character; and, similarly, "Hindi" can be confined to the form of",Hindostani in which Sanskrit words abound, and which hence can only be wrItten in the Deva-nagari character. These are the definitions which were proposed by the late Mr. Growse, and they have the advantage. of beipg intelligible, while at the same time they do not overlap. Hitherto, all the three words have been very loosely employed. Finally, I use" Eastern Hindi" to connote the group of intermediate dialects of which Awadhi is the chief, am! " Western Hindi" to connote the group of dialects of which Braj Bhasha and Hindostani (in its different phases) are the best known. . Literature. 207. As a literary languag-e, the earliest specimens of Hindustani are in Urdu, or rather Rekhta, for they were poetical works. Its cultivation began in the Deccan at the end of the sixteenth century, and it received a definite standard of form a hundred years later, principally at the hand of Wali of , commonly called" the Father of Rekhta." The example of Wall was quickly followed at Delhi, where a school. of poets took its rise of which the most brilliant members were Sauda (d. 1780, the author of the famous satires) and Mil' Taqi (d. 1810). Another school (almost equally celebrated) arose in Lucknow during the troubled time at Delhi in the middle of the eighteenth century. The great difference between the poetry of U rdit and that written in the various dialects of Eastern or Western Hindi lies in the system of prosody. In the former the prosody is that of the , while in the latter it is the altogether opposed indigenous system of India. Moreover, the former is entirely based on Persian models of composition, which are quite different from the older works from which the native literature took its origin. Urdu prose came into existence, as a literary medium, at the beginning of the last century in Oalcutta. Like Hindi prose, it was due to English influence, and to the need of text-books in both forms of Hindustani for the College of Fort . The Bagh 0 Bahar of Mir Amman, and the Khirad Afruz of Hafizu'ddin Ahmad are familiar examples of the earlier of these works in Urdu, as the already mentioned Prem Sagar written by Lallii Lal is an example of those in Hindi. Since then both Urdu and Hindi prose have had a prosperous course, and it is unnecessary to dwell upon the copious literature w!_lich has poured from the press during the past century. Muhammad Husain (Azad) and Ratan Nath (Sarshar) are probably the most eminent among the writers of Urdu prose, while in Hindi the late Harishchandra of Benares, by universal consent, holds the first place. Hindi, of course, has no poetical literature. continues to flourish, one of the most distinguished authors of the last century being the late King of Oudh. Ritjasthiini. 208. As its name indicates, Rajasthani is the language of Rajasthan, in the sense given to that word by Tod. It is spoken in Rajputana and the western portion of Oentral India, and also in the neighbouring parts of the Oentral Provinces, Sind, and the Punjab. To the east it shades off into Bundeli in the Gwalior Agency. To its north it merges into Braj 13hasha, in the States of Kerauli and Bharatpur and in the British district of Gurgaon. To the west it gradually becomes Panjabi, Lahnda, and Sindhi, through the mixed dialects of the Indian Desert, and, directly, Gujarati in the Sbte of Palanpur. On the south it meets Marathi, but does not merge into it. Dialects. 209. Rajasthfm is a tract divided amongst many states and many tribes, and it has hence many closely related dialects. No less Nnmber of than fifteen variations of the local speech have Dialect. s-peakers reported. been counted in the Jaipul' State alone. Omitting Mewiiti 692,498 minor local differences, there are at least sixteen lIiilvi · · · 1,142,065 real dialects spoken over the area in which Rajas­ Nimari · · 216,110 Jaipuri · 2,166,771 thani is the vernacular. An examination of them Mitrwii,ri · · 4,781,991 shows that they fall into four main groups, which Biigri · · 845,743 Gujal'i . · 204,322 may be called Mewati, Mftlvi, Jaipuri, and Unspocified · · 368,212 Marwari, and these may be taken as the four main dialects of the language. In addition to these we TOTA.L, Riijasthiiui • 10,917,712 may a.lso notice Bagri, Nimal'i, and Gujari. The INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY. THE ARYAN SUB-FAMILY. 87 , " , first is a form of Miirwari, and the second of Malvi, while the third IS most nearly related to Jx:lipuri. 210. Me-wati or Bighota is the dialect of th~Mewiti. M:iiWATI. north-east of Rajputana. It is the language of" the Meos, whose head·quarters are in the State.pf Number of Where spoken. speakers. Alwar. It is also spoken in the South-, . and the native states adjoining. The Ahirwati RlljputBna. , 478,756 spoken to the south and south· west of Delhi is a Punjnb • · 110,409 i form of it. As· might be expected, it is the dialect Cenb'al India. · 3,147 Elsewhere 186 of Rajasthani which most nearly approaches West- ·- · ern Hindi. In Abirwati we see it merging ill to TOTAL, Mewiiti 592,498 Bangarii, while in the dialect of Alwar, it is shad- ing off into Braj Bhasha. 21l. The head-quarters of Malvi are in the country round , but Mii.lvi. it extends over a wide tract. To the east it reaches MAL,i. Bhopal, where it meets Bundell, and to the west ) Number 01 Where .poken. opeakers. it is stopped by the Bhi! dialects spoken in the hills south of Udaipur. It also occupies the north­ Crntral India 1,524.663 western districts of the Central Provinces. A Centl·al Provinces · 5:&,797 peculiar form of it, which is much mixed with R!tjputana 161,056 Elsewhere · 3,549 Marwari forms, is called Rangri, and is spoken by · Raj puts. In North Nimar and the adjoining TOTAL, Malvi 1,742,065 portion of the Bhopawar Agency of Central India, Malvi has become so mixed with Khandesi and the N;:"IRI. that it has become a new dialect, Where spoken. Number of called Nimari, and possessing peculiarities of its speakers. own. Nimari can, however, hardly be called a Central India 177,945 true dialect, in the sense in which we call Mewati, Central Provinces· :lB,165 M alvi, J aipuri, and Marwari dialects of Rajas­ thrmi. It is rather a mixed patois made up of TOTAL, Nimiiri 216.110 several languages, with Malvi for its basis. 212. J aipuri may be taken as representing the dialects of Eastern Rajputana, Jaipun. - of which it and Harauti are the chief. It goes as far JAIPUBI. east as Gwalior, in which Agency Bundeli is the Where spoken. Number of principal form of speech. We know more about speakers. I I J aipuri than about any other form of Rajasthani. Ajmer.Merwara • 5,938 Central India • · 41,642 At the l'equest of His Highness the Maharajah of Rajputana · 2,118,767 , an elaborate survey of all the various local Elsewhere · · 424 dialects employed in the State has been carried out TOTAL, J aipuri 2,166,771 by the Rev. G. Macalister, M.A., who has published the results in an admirable little volume. 213. By far the most important of the Rajputana dialects, whether we consider Mil.nvil'i. the size of the area in which it is the vernacular, Mlawlar. the number of its speakers, or the extent to which Where spoken. Number of it has spread over India, is Milrwari. Its home is \ speakers. Western Rajputana, including the great ·States of Ajmer·Merwara 333,401 Marwar, , , and J aisalmir. It has Assam · 7,205 .Bengal · · · 10,663 many varieties, of which the best known are the Berar · · 41,521 'l'hali, or Western Marwari of the Desert, which Bombay · · · 253,503 Central India · · 125,498 extends well into Sind, the Mewari of the Udaipur Central Provinces· · 30,941 State, and the Bagri of North·East Bikaner and Bagri. Hyderabad · 57,777 the neighbouring portion of the Punjab. The last Punjab (exclnding Biigd) · 196,026 is often considered a distinct dialect. The Shekha- RBjputana (excluding. wati of North-West Jaipur differs very little from Hiigri) • 3,712,262 United Provinces 8,050 the 'Marwari spoken in the east and centre of the Elsewh~re • · 6,144 adjoining State of Bikaner. In most parts of TOT AL, Marwitri · (ex- India Marwari is taken by natives to include all cluding Biigri) 4,781,991 lil.Glii. the various dialects of Rajputana, so that the figures Punjab · 281,4!H given inevitably include some speakers of Jaipuri Rajputana. · 564,252 and Malvi. In the previous Census Marwari TOTAL, Biigri. • 845,743 was classed as a separate language, and all TOTAL, Miirwiri (in- the remaining dialects of Rajasthani, together ~th cluding Biigl'i) 5,627.794 Western Hindi, Eastern Hindi, and Bihari, were 88 , THE LANGU t\.GES OF INDIA. put together under one head, that of "Hindi." That all the four Rajasthani dialects form one closely connected group, distinct from Western Hindi, can­ '1iot be doubted; indeed, they are much more closely connected with Gujarati than with that language. rrhe historical relationship that has existed for cen­ tl1l'ies between Rajputana and Gujarat is a matter of common knowledge. Liti"'ature. 214. The only dialect of Rajasthani which has a considerable recognised litera­ ture is Marwari. Numbers of poems in Old Marwari Or , as it is c~lled when used for poetical purposes, are in existence but ha ve not as yet been seriously studied. Besides this, there is an enormous mass of literature in various forms of Rajasthani, of considerable historical importance, about which hardly any­ thrng is known. I allude to the corpus of bardio histories described in 'Iod's Rajasthan, the accomplished author of which was probably the only European who has read any considerable p lrtion of them. A small fraction of the most celebrated history, the Prithlraj Rasau of Chand Bardai, has, it is true, been edited and translated, but the rest, written in an obsolete form of a language little known at the present day, still remains a virgin mine for the student of history and of language. The task of producing the whole is, however, too gigantic for any single hand, and unless it is taken up by some body of scholars acting on a uniform plan, I fear that the only students of H ajputana history for many years to come will be fish~insects and white ants. What an oppor­ tunity of laying his fellow countrymen under everlasting obligations lies open to some patriotic prince! Besides these Bardic Chronicles, Rajasthani also possesses a large religious literature. That of the Vadii Panthi sect alone contains more than half a million verses. We do not know in what dialect of Rajasthani any of these works are written. The portion of the Prithira} Rasau which has been published is written in an old form of ·Western Hind'i­ not Rajasthani,-but, unfortunately, this work, while the most celebrated, is also the one regarding the authenticity of which the most serious doubts are justified. The Serampur missionaries translated the N ew ~restament into Harauti (an eastern dialect), Ojaini (i.e., Malvi), Udaipuri (i.e., Mewari), Marwari, Jaipuri proper, and Bikaneri. Characteris. 2l5. At the time of the great war of the Mahabharata, the country known as tics of the hnguage. that of the Panchalas extended from the river Chambal up to Hardwar at the foot of the B imalayas. The southern portion of it, therefore, coincided with Northern Rajputana. We have already seen that the Panchalas represented one of the Aryan tribes who were the first to enter India, and that, therefore, it is probable that their language was one of those which belonged to the Outer Circle of Indo-Aryan Sanskritic languages. If this is the case, it is, a fortiori, also true of the rest of Rajputana more to the south. The theory also further requires us to conclude that as the Aryans who spoke the Inner Group of languages expanded and became more powerful, they gradually thrust those of the Outer Circle, who were to their south, still further and further in that direction. In Gujarat, the Inner Aryans broke through the retaining wall of the Outer tribes and reached the sea. There are traditions of several settlements from the Madhyadesa in Gujarat, the first-mentioned being that of Dwaraka in the time of the Maha­ bharata war. The only way into Gujarat· from the Madhyadesa is through Rajputana. The more direct route is barred by the great Indian Deselt. Rajputana itself was also occupied in comparatively modern times by invaders from Central Hindostan. The Rathaurs abandoned Kanauj in the Duub late in the twelfth century A.D., and took possession of Mar war. The Kachhwahas of Jaipur claim to have come from Oudh, and the Solankis from the Eastern Punjab. Gujarat itself was occupied by the Yadavas, members of which tribe still occupy their original seat near Muttra. The Gahluts of Mewar, on the other hand, are, according to tradition, a reflex wave from Gujarat, driven into the neighbourhood of Chitor after the famous sack of Vallabhi. W~e thus see that the whole of the country between the Gangetic Doab and the sea-coast of Gujarat is at present occupied by immigrant Aryan tribes who found there other Aryan tribes pr~viously settled, who belonged to what I call the Outer Circle, and whom they eIther absorbed or drove further to the south, or both. This is exactly borne out by the linguistic conditions of this tract. Rajasthan! and qujarati are languages of the Inner Group, but they show many traces of forms which are characteristic of languages of the Outer Circle. A fe~ may INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY. THE ARYAN SUB-FAMILY. 89 be mentioned here. In pronunciation Gujarati, iike Sindhi, Marathi, .;md· Assamese, prefers the sound of a to that of au. Thus, the Hindostani chauthii, fourth, i~ chatha in Sindhi, Rajasthani, and Gujarati. Again, like Sindhi, both Gujarati and Rajasthani have a strong preference for cerebral sounds instead Qf dentals. Like Sind hi and other north-western languages, vulgar Gujarati pronounces 8 as h. So also do the speakers of certain parts of Rajputana. ~ke all the eastern languages, and Marathi, but unlike the Inner languages, both Gujarati and Rajasthani nouns have an oblique form ending in ii. Finally, in the cohjugation of verbs, both Gujarati and Rajasthani, like Lahnda, have a future whose characteristic is the letter 8. *' We thus see that in several typical features both Rajasthani and Gujarati show signs of the influence of languages of the Outer Circle. " 216. Rajasthani uses the Deva-nagari character for its literature. For ordi- Writtep nary purposes it has..a corrupt form of that script, popularly known as , character. which is well-nigh illegible to everyone except its writer. It omits nearly all the vowels, and the stories about the consequent misreadings are amongst the popular chestnuts of Indian folklore. 217. Rajasthani, in the form of Marwari, can be heard all over India. There Riijastbani is hardly a town where the "thrifty denizen of the sands of Western and in other Northern Rajputana has not found his way to fortune, from the petty grocer's l~di~. 0 shop in a Deccan village to the most extensive banking and broking connection in the commercial capitals of both East and West India." 218. Before finally leaving the consideration of Rajasthani, it is necessary to The Giijars. mention the interesting tribe of Gurjjaras, 01' Giijars, who appear to have entered India from the north-west in about the fifth century A.D. There are two branches of them, a northern a:nd a southern. The Southern Gujars occupied Gujarat, and gave their GUJAlli. name to that country. The Northern spread over I Number of the Punjab (where they gave their name to two Where spoken. s~.ker •• districts) and the western part of the United Provinces. They are a nomadic tribe, and num- Central Provinces . 1.272 bers of the Northern branch wander over the Kashmir . 126,849 . mountains north of the Punjab, as far, at least, as Punjab . . 76,168 Elsewbere • 33 Kashmir. The Giijars of the Punjab proper speak the languages of the people amongst whom they TOTAL, Gujari 204,322 live, but those of the Himalaya have a tongue of their own, which in its grammar is indistinguish- able from that of the language of Jaipur. Whether they got their language from the Western Pahari tribes, to be dealt with under the northern group of languages, and whose speech is closely related to Rajasthani,. or whether the J aipuris got their language from the Giijars of Gujarat, I am not yet in a position to say, as the Linguistic Survey has not yet reached these parts of India' but it is a curious and noteworthy fact that we find in the mountains of Kash~ir a dialect of a language spoken so many hundred miles to their south-east. 219. Here, - also, may be briefly mentioned one of the languages classed as Labhini. Gipsy djalects,-Labhani. Although not here classed as dialects of Rajasthani, they are certainly con­ nected with that language. The Linguistic Survey LABIIANI. bas not yet reached them, and hence I do not alter the Nnmber of I arrangement under which they have been provision­ Where spoken. speakers. ally put under the other head. Labhani, which also passes under various names, such as Labani, Berar . 56,254 Lamani, or Banjari, is the language of the Labha­ Bombay. • · 20,839 Central Provinces 23,654 nas or Banjaras, the great carrying tribe of South­ Madras 34,452 ern and Western India. They are found as far north Punjab . 2,165 as the Punjab, and, so far as the enquiries of the Central India 8,OO.J. Hyderabad · 92,209 Linguistic Survey have yet gone, their tribal Mysore . 35,301 tongue seems to be based on Western Rajasthani. RajpullmB · · 1,523 Elsewhere · 35 Banjaras are found as far east as Bihar, but in this · region they have no language of their own, though TOTAL, Labhiinl 274,436 some of the most popular Bhojpuri poems deal I with their adventures. ------~ ,.. It is probable that this particular 8 futnre bad its origin in the Inner Gronp, but its retention, wbere it has be\n lost hy other Inner. languages, caD be best explained by the influence of the Outer. Circle. Jr 90 THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA.

Gujariiti. 1220. Gujarati is the lahguage spoken in Gujarat, Baroda, and the neighbour- ing Native States. It extends south along the coast told Gujarati. In dealing with Rajasthani, we have seen how intimately connected that la~uage is With the one now under consideration, and how it is really a language of the Inner Group, which has superseded one of the Outer Circle, some of whose peculiari­ ties it has borrowed. We know very little about what that former language was. It is probable that it was intermediate between Sindhi and Marathi, the contiguous languages of the Outer Circle. But Gujarat has been so overrun from the earliest times by nations hailing from many different parts of the w.orld, that there is little hope of our ever bejng able to resuscitate any frag­ ments of it with certainty. The present Gujarat people is a wonderfully composite one. Greeks, Bactrians, Huns, and Scythians; Gurjjaras, Jadejas, and Kathis; Parsis and , not to speak of soldiers of fortune from the countries of the west, have all contributed, together with the numerous Indo­ Aryan immigrations, to form the population. In such a mixture it is wonderful that even the traces of the old Outer language which we have been able to identify have survived. 223. Gujaruti has not a large literature, but it is larger than it has been some- Literature. times credited with. The earliest, and at the same time the most famous, poet whose works have come down to us in a connected form was N arsingh ]\tIeta, who lived in the fifteenth century A.D. There is also a considerable series of bardic chronicles similar to those which we have met with in Rajputana, on which is based Forbes' well-known Bas-mala. Then, again, there is a fairly long list of poets and poetesses, and of writers on grammar and on rhetoric. Since the introduction of printing, a copious flood of literature has issued from the presses. 224. The Deva-p.~gari charaoter was formerly used in Gujarat for writing Writt,m books. Carey's translation of the New Testament, published at the commence- cbarsutol". ment of the last century, was printed in that alphabet. For less important documents, that modification of the Deva-mlgari character known in Upper India as the Kaithi, and very generally used there for similar purposes, was also employed. This is now the official character of Gujarati, as it is of Bihari, and all books and papers in the language are printed in it. 225. In dealing with Lahnda, I have incidentally pointed out that, like Panjiibi. Rajasthani and Gujarati, Panjabi is not a pure Central language. As we go westwards it becomes more and more infected with features characteristic of the Outer Circle, and merges so gradually into Lahnda that it is impossible to say where one begins and the other ends. The lines of approximate demarca­ tion between the two will be found in the paragraphs dealing with the latter language. The line between Westel'll Hindi and Panjabi is more distinCt, and may be taken as the meridian passing through Sirhind [Sahrind]. 226. The mixed character of the languages of the Central and Western The Punjab Punjab (Panjabi and Lahuda), is well illustrated by the character given to the of old time. inhabitants of those tracts in the Mahubharata, and by incidental references in the grammar of PaniQ,i. Although not distant from the holy Sarasvati, the centre from which Sanskritio civilisation spread, we learn that the laws and customs of the Punjab were at a very early period widely different from those of the Madbyadesa. The people are at one time described as living in a state of kingless anarchy, and at another time as possessing no Brahmans (a dreadful thing to an orthodox Hindu of the middle country), living in p(:'tty villages, and governed by princes who supported themselves by internecine war. Not only were there no Brahmans, but there were no oastes. The population had no respect for the Veda, and offered no sacrifices to the gods. They were rude and uncultivated, given to drinking spirituous liquor, and eating all kinds of flesh. Their women were large-bodied, yellow, extremely immoral in their behaviour, and seem to 1"ve lived in a state of polyandry, a man's heir being not his son, but the son of his sisters.* That this account was universally true in every particular • Can the :mtbor of tbis description have had the customs of the J ate in his mind when writing P 92 THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA..

~ need not be urged. It is given to us by enemies; but, whether true or not, it illustrates the gulf in habits, customs, and language, which existed between the J\.{adhyadesa and the Punjab. . 227. Panjabi, as spoken in the plains of the Punjab, may be divided into Dialects. two wen~marked dialects-the Standal'd, spoken round , and known Standarc! of as tne Panjabi of the Manjh or Central part of the Bari Doab, and Malwai, of the the Mfilljh. ancient Ois- Malava country (distinct from the M:ilwa of Central India), of the South~East. The principal difference MAllI'ai. MiLW.lI. between the two is the preference which Malwai shows for pronominal suffixes. As spoken in the Where spoken. Number of speakers. Eastern Punjab, Panjabi is sometimes known as P6wadhi. To the south, Panjabi fades off into the Bagri form of Marwari. Another and more distinct Dogl'i. PUlljab 74,170 dialect than Malwai is the Dogrispoken in Jammu, which has a written character of its own, allied to that employed for Kashmiri. Panjabi uses the DOGBi. Written form of script entitl~d the , which is also dw,ractel'. connected with the Sarada of Kashmir. Panjabi Where spoken. Number of speakers. Literature. has hardly any early literature. Even the Sikh Gmnth is mainly composed in various languages Jammu [lDd Kashmir • 436,211 spoken outside the Punjab, principally "Western Punjab 22,510 Hindi. Of late years a small literature has sprung Elspwbere 26 up together with the introduction of the art of printing. The Serampur missionaries translated TOT Au, Dogri '1 458,747 the New Testament and portions of the old into Standard Panjabi, and the New Testament alone into Bhatneri (a mixed dialect spoken on the border of Eikaner). Panjiibi 228. Panjabi is the -vernacular of our Sikh soldiers, and is hence not only &broll.d. found in many parts of India, but is even heard in distant China, where Sikh police are employed in the Treaty Ports. N!'rthern 229. The languages of the Northern Group have not yet been satisfactorily Group. investigated. Pending further enquiry, I follow the last Census report in dividing them, on purely geographical principles, into Western Pahari, Central Pahari, and Eastern POl'ulallon Language. returning il. Pahari. They are all spoken in the Lower Hima­ I layas, and most of those who employ them are known as , the descendants of the ancient "-eetern Pahari • 1,710,029 Central Pahiiri . • 1,270,931 Khasa tribe, the KclcnoL of Greek geographers. Who Ea.tern Pahibi • Ie' 143,7'al the Khasas were, and where they came from, are subjects which have been often discussed, and it TOTAL, Northern Group • 3,124,681 would be unprofitable in the present state of our knowledge of their languages to devote any space to them here. It is sufficient to note that, wherever else they are found in North-Western India, they have certainly occupied the "Lower Himalayas from the Jhelum to Nepal for many centurietl. They were a­ thorn in the side of the rulers of Kashmir, and at the present day one of the names by which Eastern Pahari (i.e., Naipali) is known is Khas. For further particruars the reader is referred to the late Mr. Atkinson's admirable monograph in Ohapter IV of Part II of the Gazetteer of the Himalayan districts of the United Provinces. As regards the speech used by them at the present day, it consists of a number of dialects, all nearly related to each other. They have one remarkable point in common,--a very close connection with the Rajasthani, and more especially with the eastern dialects of that language. This is almost certainly due to the historical fact that numbers of emigrated to the Lower Himalayas at various times during the eady troubles with the Muhammadans, and there intermarried with the Khasas, and conferred upon' the descendants of these mixed unions a spurious, but now fully recognised, Kshattriyahood. These descendants would naturally speak the language of their ~igh-caste fathers, and, being the ruling class, would equally naturally impose it upon their SUbjects. Whether Gujari falls under this classification, or has an independent connection with Rajasthani, I am not at present able to say. I have already dealt with it as a dialect of that language. Western ~30. Under the term of" Western Pahari " is included the maze of Sanskritic PalLl.ri. languages spoken in the hill country from Bhadarwah and Ohamba on the T171·th~ west to Sirmaur on the south~east. Over thirty distinct dialects have been Dic,lects. counted in this tract, of which , (spoken in the north of the OTHER LINGUISTIC FAMILIES., • 93 Chamba State), Chambiali (spoken in the rest of Chamba), Kuluhi (in Kulu), Kangri (in Kangra), and Sirmauri (in Nahan and most of the other Simla States) may be taken as the typical ones. Ohambiali has an alphabet of its own, in Writton which types have been cast and books printed, and the other dialects us'e an charactl'r. ~lphabet of the same character called the Tankri. It is a near relation of the Sarada character used for writing Kashmiri. There are almost as many dialects spoken in the neighbourhood of Simla as there are states in that region. The special form of speech used as a vernacular by the natives of Simla itself is known as Keonthali, but they may all be classed as closely connected with Sirmauri. So far as I am aware, none of these dialects have any literature, but parts of the Scriptures have been translated into Chambiali. We have grammars of Gadi (one of the forms of Ohambiali) and of Kuluhi. In Lahaul, Spiti, and Kanawar, the languages spoken are Tibeto-Burman, and there are also colonies of speakers of Tibeto-Burman in Kulu. 231. Oentral Pahiiri includes the languages employed in Garhwal, Kumaon, Central and Western Nepal. It has three well-known dialects,-Garhwali, spoken mainly Pah1ki. in Garhwal and the country round the hill station of Mussoorie; J aunsari, spoken in the Jaunsar tract of Dehra Dun; and ,Kumauni, spoken in Kumaon (including the hill station of Naini Tal) and Western Nepal. These dialects vary con­ siderably from plaoe to place, every pargana having a form of speech with 11 local name of its own. The form of Kumauni which is spoken in Western Nepal js usually known as Palpa, from the town of that name. None of these dialects have any literature. The Serampur missionaries published translations of the Litemtul'e. New Testament into Garhwali, Kumauni, and Palpa, in the early part of the last century, and versions of portions of the same have lately been made into Garhwali and Jaunsari. During the past few years, also, some excellent little books illus- trating these hill languages have been published by native scholars. Of all the Pahari dialects these Central ones agree most closely with Rajasthiini. 232. Eastern Pahari is the language usually known as Naipali (not a good Ea~te:" name, as it is only one of many languages spoken in Nepal). Natives of Nepal Pahiirl. call it Khas, i.e., the language of the Khasas, and it is also called Gorkhiya or G6rkhali and Parbatiya. This language has a small literature, the only example of which I have seen being a printed in Benares some years ago. The language has hardly been seriously studied by English scholars, although one or two vocabularies and grammars have been published, but it has received a good deal of attention from Russian and German savants.· It is 'little spoken in British India, except by some of our Gurkha troops. Like the other Pahari languages, it is olosely connected with Rajasthani. We have a version' of the New Testament in N aipall published by the Seram'Pur missionaries at the commencement of the last century, and since then other versions of parts of the Scriptures have been issued. We know little about Eastern Pahari Dialech. Dialects. Dadhi or Dahi is one of them, which is spoken in the Nepal Terai. It is a broken form of speech. Other Ling'uistic Families. 233. The only Semitic language which is a vernacular of the British Empire Semitio Arabic . . 42,881 in the East is Arabic, most of the speakers !~~'i~;' Somali 5,530 (23,895) of which are found in Aden. The remainder may be put down to traders. Similarly, out of the 5,530 speakers Ha~itic of the ~amitic Som~li, 5,494 were returned from Aden, the remainder being ~~=11. found ill Bombay CIty. lJnclassed Langua~'es. 234. There remain a few languages, whioh for various reasons do not admit of classification. 235. The word "Gipsy," used in dealing with the Gipsy tribes of India, is a:ipsy employed in its purely conventional sense of " Vagrant," and should not be taken dtalect.~. as in any way suggesting their connection with the Romani Chals of Europe. Regarding the dialects spoken by them, I cannot do better than to quote the Gipsy dialects. 344,143. words used by Mr. Baines in the last Census report:- " It is out of the question to distribute these languages amongst those hav­ inO' fixed dialects, as their character changes with the locality most fa~oured by the tribe using them, and while retaining a backb9De

'" 'I:-.is is also true of the other great language of Nepal,-NiilViil'i. which iA ot Tibeto-Burm:w origin. Kearly all that can be learnt regmding it must be sought fo), eithel' in Hussia or ill G~l'm(lny. 94 THE LaNGUaGES 0]' INDIA.

peculiar to itself, freely assimilates the local vocabdary and pronunciation. "The most prevalent of these dialj;lcts is tl,lat of the Brinjaras or Lambanjs, the carriers of Upper and Central India, which is based on a sub~ Himalayan Hindi vernacular. The .tribe, however, is found as far south as the Madras table-land, and it is not improbable that the Lambani of the Deccan could hardly make him­ self understood by the corresponding caste further north. Again, the earthworkers, called Od or Waddar, carry a language of their own from to the sea, using a vocabulary less and less Dravidian as the tribe frequel}-ts tracts farther away from the East Deccan, from whence it probably originated. More difficult still, as regards classification, are the dialects used by the less reputable tribes of wanderers, such as the nominal Hindi of the thieving and mat-weaving castes of , and the Telugu and Marathi of the acrobats and pickpockets of the Deccan. All these can doubtless be divided into degraded forms of either Hindi or Telugu ; but in doing so we have to disregard the local characteristics just mentioned, so that they have all been taken under a heading of their own, namely, Gipsy dialects." I have little to add to the above, except to explain that these Gipsy dialects have not yet been touched by the Linguistic Survey, and that I am hence un­ able to say as yet what is the real basis of each. It may, however, be added that at least some of these tongues, such, for instance, as those of the N ats and , are simple thieves' patters, made up by altering the order of the letters in good Hindi words. Just as a London thief transforms" police" to "icelop," or "slop," so a Magahiya Dom refers to a Jamadar of Police as the" Majadar" or " Sweet One." The Sansis of the Punjab speak two languages. Their ordinary form of speech is probably connected with Western Pahari, while their secret tongue is more of a thieves' patter. We may note in addition, as the language of a vagrant tribe, the Yerukala, also called Korchi and Korava. It is a dialect of Tamil, and is current over the Deccan. Ail regards the European Gipsies, it is well known that they are of Indian origin, and Musalmrtll historians describe to us the circumstances under which they entered Persil;t from India, and thence spread over the Western World. It is doubtful from what particular Indian tribe they have sprung, but, of late years, the best authorities have gradually come to the opinion that these "Roms" or " Doms " most probably spoke one of the Indo-Aryan languages which I have described above as non­ Sanskritic. The Doms of the present day are very widely spread over India, and have a thieves' slang of their own. In its grammal', Romani presents many remarkable points of similarity with the languages of the Outer Oircle. Burushaski. 236. Burushaski is spoken by the brave tribes who inhabit Hunza Nagar and the neighbourhood, on our extreme North-Western frontier. Hitherto this halS remained a riddle among languages. No philologist has as yet satisfac­ torily succeeded in placing it under any known family of speeches. One gen­ tleman has claimed to be able to class it as a "Siberio-Nubian" tongue, a name which may be comforting to some people, and which has the doubtful advantage of being unintelligible to everyone except its inventor. At present we must be content to accept the existence of a curious and interesting language lying at a place where Turki, Tibeto-Burman, Indo-Aryan, and Eranian Ian· guages all meet. N a speakers of this language have been recorded at the present census, their home lying far beyond the area of its operations. Burushaski has many names. The neighbouring races call it Khajuna; the Nagar people call it Yashkun, and the Yarkandis Kiinjuti. The dialect spoken in Yasin and the neighbourhood is known as Warshikwar. The language has a fully conjugated verb, with two numbers and three persons, and its most characteristic feature is the extremely frequent use which is made of pronominal prefixes, so as sometimes to alter great1y the appearance of a word. Thus," my wife" is aus, but "thy wife" is [JUS; "to make him" is etas; "to make you" is mamaritas if you are a gentleman, but matas if you are a lady. Andamanese. 237. Finally, there are the languages of the Andaman islanders. Philologists A d 1882 have, not yet succeeded in connecting them with any n omanese ., • recognized 'family of speech. They are all agglutinative, maldng free use of prefix, infix, and suffix, and are adapted only to the expression of the more simple ideas. Abstract ideas are almost beyou":: their Fower of expression, and meaning is eked out by the free use of gesture. VERNACULA.RS OF OTHER COUNTRIES, 95

Vel'nacu]al'S of otber Countries, Asia and Africa.

238. 'Of the E'ranian languages which are not vernaculars of India, Persian Eranian It is the only one which appears in the tables. • has. already been dealt wJth. lAanguail'e~.rmeman. The cognate Armeman IS represented by a couple Armenian. • 205 of hundred speakers. It is the parent tongue of,a small colony of that race in Bengal, Lower Burma, and a few other parts of India. Most of them are permanently domiciled in the country, and many use English as their vernacular. SEMITIC LANGUAGES. 239. Arabic has been dealt with as one of the Hebrew • 1,280 vernaculars of Aden. Hebrew is hardly a mother Syriao 40 tongue. It was returned by .r ews, and its return~in 1,320 each case probably means little more than that the head of the house was conversant with the language MONGOLIAN LA.NGUAGES. of his saored books. Osmanli • 321 240. Two forms of Turki have been returned as Turki 90 noted in the margin. The speakers are few in OTHEll ASIATIC LANGUAGES. number, and are all temporary residents. Japanese. . • . 363 241. 'fhe only other which Other AsiaUo have been recorded are Ohinese and Japanese. The former has been described lan~uage$. under the head of Indo-Chinese languages. Japanese is spoken by a few visitors. 242. Of the Afl'ican languages, Somali is the one whioh has been returned African by the greatest number. It has been dealt with under the head of vernaculars languages. of India. The others are given in the margin. The Dankali A.mharic (includini 63 most important are Swahili of Zanzibar and .N egro) 249 Amharic cum . The latter probably re· Swahili 32 Others 1 presents what is called in the vernacular "habshl" or Abyssinian, but is used in a much wider sense to mean an inhabitant of any portion of East Africa. Most of these African languages are spoken by the "Seedee boys" employed on board steamers. There are also a few children captured in slave dhows who have been made over to orphanages in Bombay, and servants in the households of ohiefs and rich natives. rl'he employment of BabsM slaves dates from the time of the Musalman invasion, and we find them mentioned in vernaoular literature as far baok as the 16th century. EUropean Languages • IN Do-EUROPEAN • 26l1,975 243. Of the many European languages which Wel'e Teutonic • 254,510 English _ 252,388 returned as spoken in India, English is the only one Dutch 375 which js strongly represented, It includes not only Flemish :3 Norwegian· ]5 the language of persons born in the , Swedish 82 but also scattered individuals whose homes are in D"nish 67 Australia, , the U llited States, etc., and also German 1,580 the increasiIlg class of Europeans of British descent Romance . 14,790 born and domiciled in India, and the Eurasians. Of Italian 993 Latin 3S the other languages returned, German, Greek, .and l\ialte~e 34 most of the Romanoe ones may be taken as mamly RoumaniAn· 1 French 1,065 the languages of commercial sojourners. 'Latin was Spanish 233 returned by a few missionaries of Italian or Portu­ Portuguese 12,426 guese nationality.. Portuguese, which was appal'· .Keltic 24 ently not returned at the last Census, is mainly repre· Welsh 12 sen ted by the half-caste Goanes~ of Western India. Ga.elic a Irish 9 The Keltic lanO'uages are probably returned in some cases by pe~ple whose home language is good Slavonic 393 English, and whom patriotism has induced to show Russian 390 Czech 1 themselves as more familiar with Welsh, Gaelic, or Polish 2 Irish, than they really are. Some of the entries are, G'f'eeTc 258 however, no doubt due to members of Welsh, Scotch, Greek 258 or Irish regiments which happen to be stationed in --I 22 India. The minor languages are in many cases MONGOLIAN · those spoken on board vessels in our ports, and Ural-Altaic 22 the absence or presence of a single shiV may ma\:-e a Ma~uar 21 Fi~Jli~h · 1 considerable proportionate difference III the number · of speakers of each. TOTAL EUROPEAN . . 269,997 96 'I'HE LANG-UAGE~ OF INDIA . .. 244. The total num.ber of speakers of European languages shows an increase of about 24,000 over the figures shown in 1891. One reason is the inclusion of 12,426 speakers of Portuguese in the present return. English shows aE increase of about 13,000, which is sufficiently accounted for by changes in the European garrison, and by the natural increase in the domiciled English population and in the :Eurasian community. Italian, Dutch, and Russian also show large propor­ tionate increases, due, in each case, to the presence of men-of-war at Aden on the Census night. German and French show a considerable decrease, possibly owing to a corresponding absence of ships. The Keltic languages also show a great de­ crease, no doubt owing to absence of Welsh, Scotch, and Irish Regiments who were busily employed impressing their perfervid'ltm ingenium upon South Africa. The other items are too insignificant and too accidental to require comment. Conclusion. 245. With the European languages we complete our survey of the tongues spoken in India, whether as vernaculars or by foreigners. India is a land of contrasts, and nowhere are these more evident than when we approach the consideration of its vernaculars. There are languages whGse phonetic rules prohibit the existence of more than a few hundred words, which cannot express what are to us the commonest and most simple ideas; and there are others with opulent vocabularies, rivalling English in their copiousness and in their accuracy .of idea-connotation. There are languages every word of which must be a monosyllable, and there are others with words in which syllable is piled on sy liable, till the whole is almost a sentence in itself. There are languages which know neither noun nor verb, and whose only grammatical feature is syntax; and there are others with grammatical systems as complete and as systematically worked out as those of Greek or Latin. 'l'here are languages with a long historical past reaching over thirty centuries; and there are others with no tradition whatever of the past. There are the rude languages of the naked savages of Eastern Assam, which have never yet been reduced to writing, and there are languages with great literatures adorned by illustrious poets and containing some of the most elevated deistic sentiments which have found utterance in the East. '1'here are languages, capable in themselves of expressing every idea, which are nevertheless burdened with an artificial vocabulary b9rrowed from a form of speech which has been dead for two thousand years, and there are others, equally capable, that disdain such fantastic crutches, and every sentence of which breathes the reek of the smoke from the homesteads of the sturdy peasan­ try that utters it. There are parts of India that recall the plain in the land of Shinar where the tower of old was built, and in which almost each of the many mountains has its own language, and there are great plains, thousands and tens of thousands of miles in area, over which one language is spoken from end to end. And over all there broods the glamour of eastern mystery. Through all of them we hear the inarticulate murmur of past ages, of ages when the Aryans wandered with their herds across the steppes of Central Asia, when the Indo­ Chinese had not yet issued from their home on the Yang-tse-kiang, and perhaps when there existed the Lemurian continent where now sweep the restless waves of the Indian Ocean. Light comes from the East, but many years must yet be passed in unremit­ ting quest of knowledge before we can inevitably distinguish it from that false dawn which is but a promise and not the reality. Hitherto scholars have busied themselves with the tongues and thoughts of ancient India, and have too often presented them as illustrating the India of the present day. But the true India will never be known till the light of the West has been thrown on the hopes, the fears. the beliefs, of the two hundred and ninety-four millions who have been counted at the present census. For this, an accurate knowledge of the vernaculars is necessary, a know ledge not only of the colloquiall(tnguages, but also, when tbey exist, of the literatures too commonly decried as worthless, but which one who has studied them and loved them can confidently affirm to be no mean possession of no mean land. SUBSIDIARY TABLE.

SUBSIDIARY TABLE I.

Langnages spoken in India, number of Ilel'SOnS speaking them, 'etc.

'} ~ ~ Family, Sub·Family, Number per Total number of Total number bookB prhlted in ea.ch , llrancb, and Sub· GronplIIld Sub·Group. Language. of speakers. million of total Whore chieJly spoken. population. IanguaQ'o during Branch. the decennium."

(alayo· Polyne· lIIalo.y Group. Sel ung or Selon 1,318 <10 Burma. 'sian Family. · · · Nicobarese 6,513 22 Andamans and Nic;)bars Indo-Chinese · · Family. I.Khmer Sub-Family. Mon, Talaing or Peguan 174,510 695 Burma , . 3 Palaung 67,756 :m Do. Wa · · 7,667 26 Do. Khassi · · 177,827 606 Assam . . 37 belo-Burman Sub. Bhotia of Tibet or Tibetan 14,812 50 United Provinces, Ben- Family. · gal Rnd Kashmir. 'ibelo-Himalayan Bhatia of Baltistan or Balti 130,678 445 Kashmir State. Branch. Bhotia of Ladakh or Ladakhi 90 0'3 Punjab. Sharpa Bhotia · · 4,407 15 Bengal. Bhotia of Sikkim or Denjong-ke 8,826 30 Bengal States. Bhotia of Bhotan or Lho-ke 40,765 139 Punjab Stutes, Punjab and Bengal. Bhotia (others) · 35,822 122 Kashmir I:!tate. Lahuli · 9,513 32 Punjab. Kanawari or Multhani · · 19,526 67 Do. Kami · 11 ...... Assam. Bhramu · · · 15 ...... Do. Padhi, Pahri or Pahi 268 1 Do. Bayu or Vayu · 114 0'3 Do. i Kil'anti (Kbambu or Jimdar) 43,954 150 Bengal. Kiranti (Yakha) 1,366 6 Do. i Kiranti (others) • · 64 0'2 Assam. Gurung · · · 7,481 26 Bengal and .Assam. Sunuwar · · · 6,265 18 Bengal. Thami · · · · 319 1 Do. Mangal' · · · 18,476 63 Bengal and Assam. Newari · • · 7,873 27 Bengal. Murmi · · · 32,167 110 Do. Manjhi · · · · 1102 II Do. Rang or Lepcha · · 19,291 66 Do. Limbu · · 23,200 79 Do. Dhimal · · · 611 2 Do. ilk-Assam ,Branch. Aka . · · · · 26 O'J Assam. Dafla · · 805 :I Do. Abor-miri · · · · 40,829 139 Do. !llishmi · · · 71 0'2 Do.

Assam-Burmese "- Bodo Group. Bodo or Plains Kacbari 239,458 816 Assam and Bengal Branch. · 'Lalung 16,414 56 Assam. " · · l~:'l~fi:' In thIS columa dl'l1 exclusjvo of those for Ceatral FroVInces. Coorg, Cachin, KashmIr. lIly.ore, R'Jpatana, and Tr8.8ncoro for whIch :be r<'quLred IDforroaho" THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA.

SUBSIDIAR

Languages spollen in India, llumln • , Tot.l number m Fomil!, Sub-Family, Total nnmber Nnmber per book. prinled In Brunch, and Bub- Group and Sub-Group. Language. million of tolal Where chiefty spoken. of speakers. population. each language dnrli Drn.Dch. the decennium. ----

Bodo Group. Indo-Cbinese Dima-sa 0 19,940 68 Assam. Family -oontd. c · Chutia 0 2.364 8 Do. Tlbeto-Burman Sub· Fltmlly-eontd. Guro · 185.940 634 Assam and Bengal. . 19 Assam-Burmese Rabha. 0 20,243 69 ASB~m_ Branch - contd. Tipura or Mrung 111,974 382 Bengal and. Assam. Moran · · 78 0'2 Assam. Naga Group.

Raga Borlo Sub- Mikir • 83,620 285 Do. 1 Group. Empeo or Knohcha N aga • 6.604 23 Do_ Kabui · 4 , .. , .. Do. Weste'l'n Naga Angami 27.865 95 Do. Sub-Group. 5 Do. -Kezhama · 0 · · 1.546 Rengma 5.617 19 Do. SElma · · 5,830 20 Do.

Oentral Naga Ao 0 2B,135 96 Do. Sub-GrQup. · Lhota or Tsontsu 0 16.962 58 Do. Tbukumi 26 0'1 Do. : · · Yachumi · 35 0'1 Do. Eastern Naga Tableng 198 1 Do. Sub-G9'oup. · · · Tamlu · · 1,645 5 Do. · 1 Do. :\Iojung · 0 152

237 Do. 0 9 Naga Unclassed. . 0 69,64.1 . .

Kukl-Cllin Group. Meithei Sub· Manipuri, Meithei, Kathe or 272.997 931 Assam and Bengal. 19 Gl·OUp. Ponnu.

Assam. Old Kuki Sub· Rangkhol 4.766 16 Group. · · Bengal. 0 3.693 13 Hallam • : 1 ... United. Provinces. Andro · · · Mhar · 169 1 Assam. Chaw · 215 1 Burma.

Northern O/tin Thado or J angshen 3.399 12 Assam. Sub-GJ'oup. · Sairang · · 71 0'2 Do. Oentra! Ohin Zahao · B.216 11 Do. Sub-Group. · Lushei or Dulien . 72.142 246 Do. Bengal. Bl1njogi 0 560 2 · 0'3 Do. IPankhu .. 0 113 I SUBSIDIARY TABLE. £9

BLE I-contd.

~ersons spealdng them, etc. -contd.

Total oum ber of mlilYJ Sub-Family. Number per books ~Dtcd in Total nom ber million of total Where chiefly spokeD. " BraDch. and Sub. Group and Sub·Group. L.Dgna~e. of speakers. ellch JanguQge dllring Brancb. population. the decennium.

ndo-Chinese 80ufltern Chin Yindu 43 0'1 ·Burma. lluilY-Gontd. Sub-Group. · Khyeng 414 1 Bengal. eto-Burman Sub- · lamily-contd. Khami, Khweymi or Kumi 25,863 88 Burma. lssam-Burmese lranch-contd. Anu 775 3 Do. That 67 0'2 Do.

Ullclassed Kuki (unspeeified) 53,880 184 Assam and Bengal. Languages. Chin (unspecified) . 181,765 620 Burma . · · 1 Kachin Group. Kachin or Singpho · 67,340 230 Do. . · 11 Kachin. Kachin Burma Szi Lepai 756 3 Do. Hybrids. · · Lashi · 84 0'2 Do. Marn · 151 1 Do. Maingtha · · 465 2 Do. Other Hybrids. 66,979 194 Do.

Burma Group. Mru 23,898 81 Bengal and Burma. Burmese · 7,474,896 25,484 Burma and Bengal · 701 42 amese-Chlnese Sin1tlc Group. KareIl. 887,875 3,027 Burma Sub-FB~ily • · · · Tai Group. Siamese · · 19,536 67 Do. Lu · · 19,380 66 Do. Khun . · · · · 42,160 144 Do. Shan · · · · 763,262 2,568 Do. 8 Phakial · · · · 289 1 Assam. Nora · · · 2 ... Do. Tai·rong · 12 ... Do. Aiton · 1,569 5 Do •. avillo-Munda. Family. dll Sub-Family. Santali or Hor · · 1,790,521 6,104 and Assam. Kol · · 948,687 3,234 Do. Korwa. · · · 16,442 56 Ben~al. Kharia 101,986 348 Ben~al and Central · · Provinces. J nang or · · 10,853 37 Bengal States. Asur · · • · 4,872 17 Bongal. Kora or Eodn · · 23,873 81 Do. Gadaba · · 37,230 127 Madras. Savara · · · 157,136 536 Do. Korku 87,675 299 Cenlml Provinces and. · l Berar. I o II lClO THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA.

SUBSIDIA

Languages spolien in India, nUlll . Number per Total numb FamHr. Sub-Family. Total number books printed I Br.neh. and Sub. Gronp and Sub-Group. Langu'ge. million 01 total Where chiefly spoken. of speakers. population. language d~ Branch. the deceDul

I

Dravido-~Iunda Tamil or Arava 16,625,500 66,34.1 Madras and Mysore 2,36 Family -oontd'o · · Malayalam · · 6,020,304 20,556 Madras. 37 Dravidian Sub-Family. Telugu or Andhra 20,696,872 70,662 Madras. Hyderabad 2,39 · and Mysore.

Kanarese 1O,3e5,047 35,338 Bomb~y, Mysore, 54 · Madras, Hyderabad. Kodagu or Coorgi · 39,191 134. Coorg. Tulu . · · 535,210 1,825 Madras . . 1 Toda . · 801) 3 Madras. Kota · · · 1,300 4 Do. Gond • 1,125,479 3,837 Central Provinces, · · · Berar, Hyderabad. Kandh or Kui 494,099 1,685 Madras, Central Pro- · · · vinces, Bengal. Kurukh or Oraon • · · 691,886 2,018 Bengal. Malhar · · 465 2 Bengal States. Malto or Maler · · 60,777 207 Bengal. Brahui · 48,589 166 Bombay . Indo-European Family. Aryan Sub-Family. Eranian Branch. Eastern Group. BalMh · 152,188 519 Bombay and Punjab. Pashto 1,224,807 4,176 N.-W. F. Province, 11 · Punjab. Munjani or Mungi 28 0'1 Assam. Indian Branch.

Non-Sanskritic Sub- Shina Khowar Khowar, Amiya or Chatrari 233 1 Kashmir State. Branch. Group. Shina 54,192 185 Do.

Sanskritlc Sub·Branch. Sanskrit Group. Sanskrit 716 2 Madras and Mysore • 2,7:

North-Western Kashmiri 1,007,957 3,436 Kashmir State : Group. · Kohistani 36 0'1 N.-W. F. Province. Lahnda 3,337,917 11,380 Punjab, and N.-W. F. Province. Sindhi 3,006,395 10,250 Bombay. 6:

Southern Group. Marathi 18,237,899 62,179 Bombay, Berar, Central 1,9! Provinces and Hy- derabad.

Eastern Group. Oriya • 9,687,429 33,028 Bengal, Madras and 1,31 · .Central Provinces. I

Bihari '. 37,076,990 126,408 Bengal ond United · · Provinces. Bengali 44,624,048 152,138 Bengal and Assam · G,7( Assamese 1,350,846 4,605 Assam . 2] · · c: SUBSIDIARY TABLE. 101

~BLE I-contd. ~SOllS slJeaking them, etc.-conta.

Number per Tota! nn~ber of Tota! number Dr:mch. and Sub· Group and Sub·Group. Language. million 01 tot.l Where chiefly spoken. books printed in each ~"llranch. ','-"m' •. 01 ~peaker•• pop1)lation. language during the decennluln.

!ado. European Mediate Group. Eastern liI indi 20,986,358 71,049 United Provinces, ") Family-conia. · Central ProvincPl'l, 1 and Central India. [ryan Sub-Family- I contd. Western Group. Western Hindi 39,:367,779 134,218 United Provinces, ~ 16,395 ISanskritic Sub· · · Punjab, Rajputana, (Including Branch- cOlltd. Central India, Cen· 10,879 in tral Provinces and \ Urdu.) Hyderabad. j Rajasthani 10,917,712 37,222 Rll.jpntana, Central In- 10 dia, Central Prov- inces, Pnnjab and Bombay.

Gujarati • 9,928,501 33,850 Bombay, Rajputana, 2,628 Central India and Baroda.

Bliillanguagea 759,928 2,591 Central India and Rajputana.

Kharuleshi 2,742 9 Bombay.

Panjabi 17,070,961 58,201 Punjab and Kashmir 2,587

Northern Group. Western Pahari 1,710,029 5,880 Punjab and ffilshmir · 2 Central Pahari 1,270,931 4,383 United Provinces 1 Eastern Pahari or Naip:.t!i 143,721 490 Bengal, Assam and United Provinces.

emitic Family. Arabic 42,881 146 Hyderabad and Bom· 897 bay.

Hamitic Family. Somali 5,630 19 Bombay. ,I.ssilled Languages. Andamanesa · 1,882 6 Andamans. Gipsy languages 344,143 1,173 Hyderab3d, Berar, ~Olnbay, Central Provinces and My. 80r(l.

Others 126 0'4 Ajmer-Merwara.

Indo· European Eranian Group. Family. Persian 20,748 71 Bombay, Punjab and 1,161} · · lIIysore. Wakhi · · 15 ... Assam. Armenian Group. Armenian · 205 1 Bengal. 'mitic Family.

orthern Branch. Hebrew . 1,280 4 Bengal, Bombay, and · · ~urmll. Syriae . · · 40 0'1 M.alabar Coast. , 9liliti,c Family. Ethiopia GrDup. African Dialects · 2 ...... t Dankali 63 0'2 Bombay. · · • I Abyssinian (including Negro) 249 1 Do. • Illcludea Khandeahi and Bhil J..ngu.ge•• 102 THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA.

SUBSIDIARY TABLE I-concld.

Languages spoI{en in India, numbcl' of Ilersons spealling them, etc.-concld.

(' , Total Dum Family. Snb-Family. Number per Total numbor Where chielly spoken. bookN prill Branch, Dud Sub- Group and ilub·GlOUp. Langnage. of speakers. million of to"tal each langaul Dranch. population. ---tb€l df~ell

IIJongolian FamUy. Ural Altaic Turkish Dialects 411 1 Bombay. Group. Japanese Groull. Japanese · 363 1 Bombay and Burma.

Mono·syllitbie Chinese 50,513 172 Burma and Bengal. Group. ·

1I1alayo-Polynesian nraJayan Group. Javanese 1 ... ]!'amily. ... Malay. · 2,460 8 Burma. Bantu Family. Swahili (Zanzibari) · 821 1 Bomhay. Sidi . · · 2 ... Central Provinces.

Indo-European Greek Group. Greek (ROllUlic) 258 1 Dombay and Burma. ):'amily. Romanie Group. Italian · 993 a Bombay and Bengal. : Latin 38 0'1 Central Provinces. ! Maltese • S~ 01 BombllY· Roumanian · 1 ...... French 1,065 4 MadraA, Bombay and · Bengal. Spanish · 233 1 .Bombay and Burma. Portuguese · · · · 12.426 42 Bombay and Madras. Celtic Group. Welsh. 12 ... Assam . Gaelic (Scotch) 3 ... Mysore State. Irish · 9 ... United Provinces.

Balto-Slavonic Russian 390 1 Bombay. Group (Slavonic). Bohemian (Czech) 1 ... Madras. Polish · 2 ... Bengal and MJsore. TeutoniC) Group. English · · 252,388 860 E verywberc. 6,97: Dutch · · :376 1 ... Flemish · · · · 3 ...... Norwegian · 15 ... Bombay. Swedisb · · 82 0'2 Burma and Madras. Danish · · 67 0'2 Madras alld Bombay. German • 1,580 5 Bombay, Bengal, · · Madras and Burma . • Jllong~lian Family. Ural Altaic Finnish 1 ...... ( Group. · · 'H ungarian (Magyar) 21 ... Bengl\l and Bombay. • · This Tab:. does not contain tb. figures for Languages no~ returned or not identified, traced, otc. APPENDIX 103

TAB LEX.

Language.

The Table shows all the languages ordinarily used by persons enumerated-dialects being included in the languages to which they belong. It is divided into four parts. Part I is a general Table showing for each Province, State or Agency the number of persons who use A. Vernaculars of India., B. Vernaculars of other Asiatic countries, Africa and Australia and C. European languages. Fart II gives the distribution of the languages by linguistic families, based on the classification framed by Dr. G. A. Grierson, C.I.E., PH.D., in charge of the Linguistic Survey. Fart III shows the territorial distribution of each language and Part IV gives for each Province, State or Agency, the number of persons speaking each language.

COl1tmnS 2-4-Include persons whose language was not returned or could not be identified, as follows :-

PROVINCE, STATE on. AGENCY. Persons. Males. Females.

INDIA. . 1,0!8,223 549,739 498,4:84 Provinces. 50,986 34,445 216,541

Ealuchistan (IJistricts and Admini8terd Terri- 259,539 139,476 120)063 tories) :Bombay - · · · · 1,769 987 782 :Burma · · · · 127)170 59,755 67,415 Coorg · · · . 9 7 2 Madras · · · · · · · 799 195 604 N.-W. Frontier· Province· · · · · · 13,778 7,967 5,811 Punjab • · · · 41,13l 22,327 11:l,804 United Provinces· · · · · · 6,791 · · · · · 3,731 3,060

Sta tcs and Ag'encies. 597,237 315,29<1 281,943 :Baluchistan Agency · · 502,500 266,994 235,506 Bombay States · · · 6~8 34-8 D40 · · · ·, · · · 515 160 355 Kashmir State · · 93,415 47,728 45,687 Madras States (Travancore)· · ·• · · · 25 13 12 Mysore State · · 36 24 12 Punjab States · · · · · 58 · · · · · · 27 31 1011 TABLE X.

Language.

PART I.-GENERAL STATEMENT.

POPULATION.

l'EOvmCB, STATE OB AGBNC ...' Persons. Male •• - 1. 2. 3.

INDIA. 20!,361,056 140,951,824 1

Provinces. 231,899,507 117,804,942 1. Ajmer-Merwara · · · · · · · · · 476,912 251,026 2. Andu.mans ani Nioobu.rs .. · · · · · · · 24,64S 18,695 3. Assam. · · · · · · · · · · · · 6,126,343 3,143,692 4. Baluchistan (Di8tricts and .A.rlmini8tered Territories) · · · · 308,246 178,526 Ii. Bengal · · · · · · · · · · · · 74,744,866 37,376,782 6. Berar · · · · · · · · · · · · · 2,754,016 1,394,300 7. Bombay . . . · · • • · · · · · · 18,559,561 9,583,409 8. Burma · · · · · · · · · · · · 10,490,624 5,342,033 9. Central Provincee · · · · · · · · · · 9,876,646 4,855,984 10. Coorg · · · · · · · · · · · · · 180,607 100,258 11. Madras · · · · · · · · • • • · 38,209,436 18,841,284 12. North-West Frontier Province · · · · · · · · · 2,125,480 1,159,306 13. Punjab · · · · · • · · · · · 20,330,339 10,942,705 14.: United Provinces of Agra and Oudh · • · • · · • · 47,691,782 24,616,942

· States and Agencies. 62,4.61,549 32,146,882 15. Baluchistan Agenoy · · · • · · · · · · 502,600 266,994 16. Baroda State 1,952,692 1,008,634 · · · · · · · · · · I 17. Bengal States · · · · · · · · · · · 3,748,544 1,901,4.04 18. Bombay States · · · · · · · · · 6,908,648 3,513,003 19. Central India Agency · 8,628,781 4,428,790 · · · · · · · · • 20. Central. Provinces States · · · · · · · · 1,996,383 988,830 21. Hyderabad State · · 11,141,142 5,673,629 22. Kashmir State · · · · · · · 2,905,578 1,542,057 23. Madras States · · · · · 4,188,086 2,098,048 Cochin .state · · · · · 812,025 ;/05,200 Travancore State 2,952,157 1,490,165 · · · .' · · · · 24. M,Ysore State , · · · · · · i · 6,539,399 2,797,024 ~fi, Punjab, States · · · · · · · · · 4,424,398 2,409,rS09 26. Rltjputana Ag~ncy " 9,723,301 5,104,2,1,6 • · · · · · · · · · 27. U uited Prpvinees States · · · · · 802,097 414,414 105 TABLE X.

Language. P A.RT I.-GENERAL STA.TEMENT.

B.-VRBlfAcrrLABs OlJl OTIIBB ASIATIO COlTlf'I'BIBB, A.-VERlUCULUS 011 INDIA. C.-EUBOPBUI LA.NGUAGE •• AFBIC.A. A.ND AUSTRALIA.

Persons. Males. Female,. Persons, Male •• FemDles. Person,. 1II01es. Femoles.

\

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

92,966,163 U9,169,209 143,796,954 76,6'(3 58,!l89 18,18!l 269,997 1'(4,387 95,610

231,135,960 117,358,617 113,77'l,3U 12,095 55,761 11l,3M 240,466 156,119 8

475,417 250,158 225,259 11 11 ... 1,484 857 627 24,252 18,379 5,873 57 53 4 340 263 77 6,123,881 3,141,865 2,982,016 188 163 25 2,274 1,664 610 43,608 34,967 8,641 1,513 1,058 455 9,586 3,025 561 74,689,709 37,343,329 37,346,380 5,957 4,635 1,322 49,200 28,818 20,382 2,753,232 1,393,870 1,359,362 6 1 5 778 429 349 18,501,891 9,544,256 8,967,635 5,995 3,982 2,013 49,1)06 34,184 15,722 10,293,669 5,228,619 5,065,150 50,541 40,864 9,677 19,244 12,81)5 6,349 9,868,357 4,850,797 5,017,560 379 185 194 7,910 5,002 2,908 179,998 99,916 80,082 10 7 3 590 328 262 38,167,881 18,819,225 19,348,656 267 174 93 40,489 21,690 18,799 2,103,686 1,144,730 958,956 3,292 2,495 797 4,724 4,114 610 20,258,291 10,897,792 9,360,499 3,053 1,642 1.411 27,864 20,944 6,920 47,662,088 24,590,814 23,061,274 826 491 335 82,077 21,906 10,171

:

61,830,203 31,810,592 30,019,611 4,578 2,728 1,850 29,531 18,268 11,263

Language not recorded. 1,052,393 1,008,447 943,946 66 47 19 233 140 93 3,748,235 1,901,207 1,847,028 ISS 85 48 176 112 64 6,906,688 3,611,818 3,394,870 162 100 62 1,110 737 373 8,62,1,,278 .. 4,425,323 4,198,955 262 109 153 4,241 3,358 883 1,996,101 988,672 1,007,429 81 50 31 201 108 93 11,132,145 5,667,816 5,464,329 430 276 154 8,052 5,377 2,675 2,811,386 1,493,748 1,317,638 585 459 12B 192 122 70 4,185,072 2,096,386 2,088,686 68 59 9 2,921 1,590 1,331 811,255 404,802 406,453 14 10 4 756 3SB 368 2,949,972 1,488,932 1,461,O4{) 54 49 5 2,106 1,171. 935 5,626,467 2,790,056 2,736,411 2,440 1,320 1,120 10,456 5,624 4,8S2 t,423,602 2,409,365 2,014,237 289 169 120 449 248 201 9,721,822 5,103,404 4,618,418 41 35 6 1,438 807 631 ) &02,014 414,350 S87,664 21 19 2 62 45 17 n • 106 TABLE X.

Language.

PART n.-DISTRInUTION BY LINGllISTIC FAMILIES.

• POPDLATION• Fnmily, Sub·fDmily. Dranch. a.nd Sub- Gro~p Blld Sub.Group. L.DgUBg•• Femalet, Branch, Persons. Malee.

6, 6, 1, Z, S, 4, ~

INDIA. 294,361,056149,951,824 144,409 ,23 A..-VERNACULARS OF INDIA. 292,966,163 149,169,209 14,3,796 7,8:n <1,200 3 ~lalayo- I Polynesian Family. llIalay Group. 7,831 4,200 Selung or Selon . · 1,318 661 Nicobarese . . · 6,513 3,539 2,9fj

Indo-Chinese 11,71.2,299 0,790,125 0,9 Family. Mon-Iihmer Snb- <127,760 210,639 21 Family. Mon, Talaing or Peguan . · 174,510 88,713 5 Palaung · 67,756 34,283 Wa . · · 7,667 3,920 3• Khassi · . · 177,827 83,723 94,

Tibeto-Burman 9,560,454 4,718,182 4, Sub-Family. I Tibeto-Himalayan 425,814 219,072 200,7. Branch. 1 Bhotia of Tibet or Tibetan · · 14,812 7,696 7,IU 130,678 65,8440 64,saj Bhotia. of BaltiBtan or Balti · '0 Bhotia of Ladakh or Ladakhi 90 73 ~ ! Sh:u-pa Bhotia · · 4,407 2,308 2, Bhotia of Sikkim or Denjong-ke 8,825 4,637 4,lM Bhotia of Bhotan or Lho-he · 40,765 22,4008 18,S~. Bhotia (otherJl) · 35,822 18,055 17,7~ Lahuli . · · 9,513 4,854 4,1l6t Kanawari or Multhani · · 19,525 8,854 lO,6~ Rami . · · 11 11 ... Bhramu. · · · 15 15 .. , l'adhi, Pahri, or Pahi · · · 268 160 Hayu or Vayu · · · 114 67 Kiranti (Khambn or Jimdnr) . · 43,9540 22,625 21,32 Kiranti (Yakha) 1,366 750 61 Kiranti (Others) · · . 64 53 ~ Gurung • 7,481 3,933 3,ot I ! Sunuwar 5,265 2,860 Thami . . . . 319 192 I M.angar • . . 18,476 10,313 107 TABLE X.

Language. PART I1.-DISTRIDUTION BY LINGUISTIC FA1UILIES.

POPULA.TION. 'amily, Sl1b-f!lmily, Branch, and Sub- Group aDd Sub·Group. Language" llIanch. PerioDS. Male •• Females.

I

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. t

P'ibeto· BUfman Newari 7,873 4,284 3,589 ~nb ·Family -contd. · lfib cto· Himalayan Murmi 32,167 16,108 1B,059 1 Branch-contd. · · Manjhi · · · 902 484 418 Rong or Lepcha · · 19,291 9,605 9,686 Limbu · · 23,200 12,569 10,631 Dhimal · · · · · 611 314 I 297 (1,731 orth·Assam 22,338 19,393 Branch. Aka · · · · 26 21 5 DaHa · · · · · 805 501 304 Abor-Miri · · · 40,829 21,763 19,066 Mishmi • 71 53 18 " · · ssam·BUfmese 9,092,909 4,476,'7~ 4,616,137 Branch. Bodo Group. 596,411 300,5$1 295,820 Bodo or Plains Kachari · 239,458 120,007 119,451 Lalung 16,414 7,864 8,550 Dima'Ba • · · 19,940 10,401 9,539 Chutia · · · 2,364 1,489 875 Garo · · · 185,940 93,652 92,288 Rabha · · 20,243 9,272 10,971 Tipura or Mrung · · 111,974 57,878 64,098 Moran 78 28 50 NagaGroup. · · 247,780 Naga Bodo Sub· 125,095 122,685 Group. 90,228 46,457 43,771 Mildr · · • 83,620 43,002 40,618 Empco or Knohcha Naga • · 6,604 3,451 3,153 Kabui · · · · 4 4 ... Western Naga Sub- Group. 40,858 20,419 20,439 Angami • · 27,865 13,980 13,885 Kezhama · · 1,616 1,046 601 Rengma · 5,617 2,772 2,845 Sema · · · · 5,830 2,822 3,202 Central Naga Sub- 115,158 22,351 22,807 G1'oup. Ao · · · · 28,135 13,394 ' 14,741. Lhota or Tsontsu · · · 16,~6a 8,933 ·8.029 Thukumi '\ · · · 26 6 ., 20 Yachumi · · 35 , 18 17 108 TABLE X.

Language. PART II.-DISTRIBUTION BY LINGUISTIC FAMnIES •

• POPI1LATIOIl'. Family. Sub-family, Branch, and Snb- Group aud Sub-Group. Language. Branch. Persons. Males. Females. ,

1. 2. , 3. t. 1>. 6. m· Tibeto-Burman Naga. Group-contd. sub- Family-contd. Assam-Burmese Easte'1"1/, Naga Sub- 1,895 Em 1,068 Branch-conta. Group. Tllbleng · · · · 198 89 109 Tamlu · · 1,545 738 807 Mojung · · · · 162 ... 152 Naga Unclassed. 69,641 35,041 34,600

Ruld-Chin Group. 82{,149 305,867 3lS,t82 Meitkei Sub-Group. 2'1'2.99'1' 135,441 137.556 Manipnri, Meithei, Kathe'or Pounn · 212,997 135,441 137,556

Old Kuki Sub· Group. 8,844 3,733 5,111 Rangkhol · · · · · 4,766 1,729 3,037 Hallam · · · · · 3,693 1,810 ·1.883 Andro 1 1 · · · · ... ~ Moor 169 81 88 · · · · I Chaw · · • · 215 112 103 \ ,..,. Northern Ohin Sub· 3,470 1,575 1,895, Group. '.... ~ado or Jangshen · · · 3,899 1.675 1,824 SlIirang · · · · n ... 71 Central Ohin Sub- 76,031 33,977 42,054 Group. Zahao · · · · · 3,216 1,548 1,668 Luehei or DaUen · · · · 72,142 32,088 40.064 BaDjogi · · · · · 560 279 281 Pankhu · · · 113 62 51 Southern Ohin Su~- 27,162 13,796 13,366 GrDup. Yindu · · · 43 31 12 Khyeng · · 414 205 208 Khami, Khweymi or Kumi · · 25,863 13,134 12.729 Anu · · · · 775 388 387 That · . · · 67 37 SO

I(;nclas8orl Languages. 235,645 117,145 118,5OG Kuki (Unspecified) · · 53,880 26,264 27,6U Chin (U nepecified) 181,765 90,881 ecf,s84 · · r Kaehio Group •• 125,775 62,261 63,514 Kackin. 67,340 32,841 fJ4.J!'5 Kachin or Singpho 67,340 32,841 S~,42~ · · ~ 109 TABLE X.

Language.

PART II. - DISTRIBUTION BY LINGUISTIC FAMILIES.

POPULATION. mily, Sub·fBmUy. ~.uch, and Subo Group and Sub-Group. Language. Branch. Persons. I Malo •• Females, 1. 2. S. 4. 5. 6. 0 eto-Burman Kachin Group - contd. Family-vontd. 1,456 890 566 Kackin Burma Hy· am-Burmese brids. nch-contil. Szi Lepai · . . 756 S!l.8 408 Lashi · · 84 49 35 Marn · · · 151 76 75 Maingtha · · 465 417 48 m"e,. Hybrids, 56,979 28,530 28,449

Burma Group. 7,498,794 3,683,158 3,815,636 Mrn · · · 23,898 12,267 11,631 Burmese · · · 7,474,896 3,670,891 3,804,005 1ese-Chinese Ib ·Family. 1,724,085 861,30( 862,781

SlnItlc Group. 887,875 446,046 441,829 Karen · · · · · · 887,875 446,046 441,829 Tnl Group. 836,210 415,258 420,952 Siamese. · , · · 19,536 10,683 8,863 La · · · · 19,380 0,686 9,6940 Khan · · · · · · 42,160 20,937 21,223 Shan · , · · · 753,262 372,874 380,388 Phakial • · · · 289 284 6 · 2 2 .. , Nora · · · · 12 ... Tai·rong , · · · 12 Aiton · · , , · 1,569 780 789

Dr avido- 59,693,700 29,765,511 29,928,288 .nda Family • 1,u82,lS() 1,M'i',090 MUll da Sub· 3,179,2,5 Fa mily. Santali or Hor · 1,790,521 892,994 898,127 Ko] · · · 948,687 469,105 479,583 Korwa · · · · 16,442 ,8,158 8,284 Kharia · · 101,986 51,878 50,10B Juang or Patua 10,853 5,863 4,99G · · 2,355 Asur · · 4,872 2,507 · · · · , 12,216 Kora or Koda • · 23,873 11,657 18,763 18~46:- Gadaba · • · · · 37,230 157,136" 78,861 78,275 Savaro ~ · , 44,676 Korka · · · · 87,675 42,999 110 TABLE X.

Language.

PA.RT II.-DISTUlllllTION ny LINGlJISTIC FUnLIES• ~- • r POPULa..TION. Family. Sub· family. Branch, and Sub- Group ond Sub·Group. Languoge. llranch. Persons. Males. Females.

1. 2, 3. ,. 6. 6. • Dl'avhlo- lumla Family -eontd. Dmvi!1iall Sub- 56,514,524 28,183,826 28,331, 19! family. Tamil or Arava 16,525,500 8,099,828 8,42;, 671 · · 3,008,780 3,020, Malayalam • · 6,029,304 621 Talugu or Andllm · · · 20,696,872 10,436,336 . 10,260, 53~ Kanarese 10,565,047 6,200,595 5,164, 452 Kodagu or Coorgi · 39,191 19,986 19, 20i Tulu 635,210 264,258 270, 95: Toda . · S05 451 251 Kota · 1,300 621 Gond · · 1,125,479 649,840 675 ,611 Kandh or Kui · · 494,099 251,768 242 Kurukh or Oraon · · · · 691,886 290,060 301 Malhar · · · 465 258 Malto or Maler · · · 60,777 30,994 2 Brahui · · · 48,589 29,551 1 Iudo-Enro- ~21,1fj",673 113,393,605 107,764, penn Family. Aryan Sub- 221,157,673 113,393,605 107,,6:1, 66) }'a.mily. Eranian Branch. 1,377,023 ,45,109 631, 911. Eastern Group. 1,377,023 '145,109 B31 ,911 Baloch · · · 152,188 85,292 66 ,8~ Pashto · 1,224,807 659,789 565 ,Ol! · · · I Munjani or Mungi · · 28 28 ... Imlian Branch. 219,,80,650 112,648,496 10~"132 ,154 ," Non-SanslU'itic 54,425 29,142 25, 283 Sub-Branch. Shlna. i;howor G~OIlJ.l. 54,425 29,142 2. 5,28l

Khowar, Arniya or Cha.trari 233 118 Shina · · 54,192 29,024 25 Sanskritic Sub· 219,726,225 112,619,854 107,106, 871 Branch. Sa.nskrit Group. 718 440 m i Sanskrit 716 440 2it') · I North·Western Group. 7,352,305 3,950,140 3,29 3,165 Kashmiri , 1,007,957 540,095 r467 ,862 · · r Kohistani 36 23 13 • · · · · Labnda . · · , 3,337,917 1,784,316 1,6~3 ,601 Sindhi . 3,006,395 1,634.,706 ~,371 ,689 ~ · -, - 111 TABLE X.

Language.

PART II.-DISTRIBUTION BY LINGUISTIC FA1UILIES,

POPULA.TION. lIr.mlly, Sub.family, '&neh, and Sub- Gro",p and Sub·Group. Language. Umllch. Persons. Male,. Fomales.

I. 2. 3. ~. 5. < 6. IlIdo-Em'o- Southern Group. 18,237,899 !I,U8,136 9,089,763 ltD Falllily- contd. Marathi · 18,237,899 9,148,136 9,089,763 ~nSkritic Sub' Eastern Group. 92,739,313 46,422,987 46,316,346 ,lranch-contd. Oriya . · · 9,6'37,429 4,788,588 4,898,841 Bihari' · , · 37,076,990 18,436,041 18,640,949 Bengali • · · 44,624,048 . 22,512,296 22,111,752 Assamese · · 1,350,846 686,042 664,804 DIediate Group. 20,986,358 10,528,235 10,458,123 Eastern Hindi · · · 20,986,35B 10,528,235 10,458,123 Western Group. 77,28<1,953 40,0<16,321} 36,338,621 Western Hindi · 39,367,'779 20,832,718 18,535,061 Rajasthani · · 10,917,712 5,731,485 5,186,227 Gujamti. · · · 9,928,501 6,103,343 4,825,158 Bhil Languagest · · · 759,928 380,086 379,842 Khandeshi • · · · 2,742 1,360 1,382 Panjabi • · · · · 17,070,961 9,278,780 7,792,181 Northern Group. 3,124,681 1,614,110 1,510,571 Western Pllhari · · 1,710,029 893,896 816,133 Central Pahllri · · · · 1,270,931 635,085 635,846 Eastern Pahari or Naipali • · 143,721 85,129 58,592 ~emitic 42,881 29,655 13,226 ~alllily. Arabic · · · • · 42,881 29,655 13,226 [amitic 5,530 3,4!l6 2,034 Family. Somali · · · · 5,580 3,496 2,034 nclassed 346,150 182,617 163,533 nguages. Andamaneso · 1,882 1,036 846 Gipsy Languages · · . 344,143 181,541 162,602 Others · 125 40 85 ~.-VERNACULARS OF OTHER ASIATIC (JOU'NTRIES, ~6,6~3 58,489 18,184 AFRICA, AUS'l'RALIA. .do-Euro- 20,968 13,811 ';',151 111 Family Eranilln Group. 20,763 13,679 7,084. Persian . · · · 20,748 13,679 7,069 Wakhi . · · · 15 ... 15 Armenian Group. 205 132 73

Armenian , 205 132 " 73 · · · > · , ,n all provlnces Biharl and the vanous forms of Hindi were for tho most pa~t, returned IDf\Tely, as' Hmdl' or 'Urd.u In th~ Un~te.d IeS and elsewh81'e the total was distributed for the purpose of Table X amongst the different languages acco·dmg to a lmgwsbc tlton list prepllled by Dr. lJrierson, hut in Bengal it was shown in Table X merely as • Hindi', and the approximate distribution WftS ,d in the corresponding chapter of the Report. 1"01' Lhe purpose of the above statistics the whole of the' Hindi' speakers :'11 Bongal ha,," lI!e~ under 'Bihari.' ~ciuded in .Qujarati as well as shown sepaTatelv. 112 TABLE X.

Language. PART II.-DISTRIBUTION BY LINGUISTIC FAMILIES. - POPULATION. Family. Sub-family, Drancb. aDd Sub- Group and Sub-Group. Language. llrnncb. Persone. MnJes. Femal"

]. 2, 3.

Semitic 1,320 113 6 Family. Northern Branch, 1,320 713 601 Hebrew · · , 1,280 673 607. Syriac . · · · · 40 40 ...

lIamitic ~ 314 213 I 01 Family. 2 I African Dialects · · • 2 1 Ethiopic Group. 312 212 I Dn Dankali · · · · 63 62 Abyssinian (including Negro) • 249 150

I Mongolian 51,287 t2,253 9,0 3J: Family. Ural Altalc Group. UI 263 Turkish .Dialects · · · 411 263 Japanese Group. 383 160 Japaneso · · · · · 363 160 Dlonosyllabic Group. 50,513 U,830 8,6 83 Chinese · · · · · 50,513 41,830 8,6 &3 ]Ialayo- 2,t61 1,286 l,li' polynesian Family. Malayan Group. 2,481 1,286 1,1 71 Javanese · · · 1 ". Malay · · · · 2,460 1,286 1,17 323 213 B antn Family. 11 Swahili (Zanzibari) · · 321 211 11 Sidi . · · 2 2 ... C.-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. 269,99~ 1~4,3S~ 95,61 o Illdo-Euro- 269,975 17t,37{) 95,6 00 pean Family. Greek Group. 258 203 i , Greek (Romaic) 258 203 'J · I Romanco Group. 14,790 0,550 5,21 Italian '. · · 993 870 12 Latin · · · 38 15 ~; . Malicso · · 34 33 J Ronmanian 1 ... I · · · · , French 1,065 692 , 3"'" Spanish · · · 233 195 33 Portuguese · · • · 12,426 7,745 4,681 113 TABLE X.

Language.

PA.RT II.-DISTRIDUTION BY LINGUISTIC FA.MILIES.

POPULATION. IF.mll1• Sub·Family. Branch. aud Sub- Group and Sub·Group. Language. Branch. Persons. Males. Female ••

1. Z. 8. 4. 6. 8. (_\ ~ndO.EnrO. an Family- Celtio Group. 2" 18 6 contd. Welsh · . · · · 12 8 4 Gaelic (Scotch) • . · · · 3 3 ... Irish · · 9 7 2

Balto-Slavonic Group 393 353 '0 (SlavoniC). Ruasian • · · · 390 352 38 Bohemian (Czech) · · · · 1 1 ... Polish · · · · 2 ... :I

Teutonie Group. 254,510 164,251 90,259 English. · · · · · 262,388 162,666 89,722 Dutch · · · · · 375 351 24 . Flemish. · • · · 3 1 2 Norwegian · · · · 15 15 ... Swedish. · · · 82 51 31 Danish · · · · 67 51 16 German. · · · · · 1,580 1,116 464 JIollgolian Family. 22 12 10 Ural AItBlc Group. 22 12 10 1 1 ... Finnish. · · · · Hungarian (Magyar) · 21 11 10 , Language not returned . . . . · 94:7,164 4:97,642 440,622 i l Language not identified, traced, etc...... · 101,059 62,097 48,962 • 114 TABLE X.

Language.

PART III.-TERRITORIAL DISTmnUTION OF EACH LANGUAGE.

POFtI'LATION. FOPULATION. Language and Province. Language and Pronnce. Persons. Males. FernaleB. Persons. Males.

1. 2. 3. 4. 1. 2. 8. SELUNG OR. SELON 1,318 661 657 BHOTIA OF BHOTAN OR 40,765 22,408 LHO·KE. Burma 1,318 661 657 Ajmer-Merwara 3 3 NICOBARESE 6 513 3,539 2,974: t Assam 1,654 1,205 Alldamans lind Nicobars 6,513 3,5S9 2.974 Bengal 7,456 3,982 MON, TALAING OR 17<1,510 88,713 85,797 PEGUAN. Punjab 4.,252 2,343 12 Andamllns and Nicobars . 389 359 30 United Provinoes of Agra 29 lind Ondh. 6 Assam 27 27 Bengal States. 9 14,857 Bllrm?o 174,094 88,327 86,767 Punjab States 27,363 18,055 PALAUNG 67,756 34,283 33,473 BHOTIA (OTHERS) 35,822 18,055 Burma 67,756 34,283 33,473 Kashmir State 35.822 4,85,1 WA 7,667 3,920 3,74:':' LAHULI 9,513 3,736 Burma 7,667 3,920 3.747 Punjab 7.510 264 136 KHASSI 177,827 83,723 94:,104 Kashmir State 1,739 982 Assam 177,802 83,701 94,101 Punjab States 13engal 17 KANAWARI OR MUL· 19,525 8,854 14 3 THAN!. Ryderabad State 8 8 Punjab 25 24 BHOTIA OF TIBET OR 14,8B 7,696 ':',U6 TIBETAN. Kashmir State 7 7 19,493 8,823 Baluohistan • 1 1 Punjab States 11 Bengal 1,744 [J26 818 KAMI 11 North·West Frontier Provo 25 25 ASBam • 11 11 ince. Punjab 180 141 S9 BHRAMU 15 15 United PrClvinces of Agr~ 10,835 6,878 6,467 Assam. 15 15 lind Oudh. Bengal States 66 39 27 PADHI, PAHRI OR PARI 268 160 Kashmir State 1,445 834 611 Assam. 268 100 Fll njab States 268 224 44 HAYU OR VAYU • 114 6:7

United Provinces Stat~8 • 248 128 120 Assam. 90 50 BHOTIA OF BALTISTAN 130,678 65,844 6,1,834 Bengal. 24 17 OR BALT!. KIRANTI ·(KHAMBU OR 43,954 22,625 Kashmir 130,678 65,844 64,834. JIMDAR).

BHOTiA OF LADAKH 90 73 17 Assam. 564 499 ORLADAKHI. Bengal. 33,837 17,237 Assam 7 7 Bengal States 9,553 4,889 Pnnjab 62 48 14 KIRMTI (YAKRA) 1,366 750 Punjab States 21 18 3 Assam. 115 91 SHARPA BHOTIA 4,407 2308 2,099 Bengal. 1,186 604 Bengal 3,495 1,835 1,660 Bengal States 66 65 ,Bengal States 912 473 439 , KIRANTI (OTHERS) 64 r 53 BHOTIA OF SIKKIM 8,825, 4,637 4,188 Assam. 58 53 Beng1l 1,5J7 764 783 United Provinces of Agra I) Bengal Statn 7,278 3,873 3,406 and Oudh. 115 TABLE X.

Language.

PART III.-TERRITORIAL DISTRIBUTION OF EACII LANGUAGE. , POPULATION. POI'ULA.'1'IOB.

lAG. AND PaOVI~CE. LANGUA.GE AND PaOVINCE. I PeriODS. Males. Femnles. Person9. Males, Femnle ••

1. 2. 3. 4. 1. 2. 8. 4. 7,481 3,933 3,548 DAFLA · · 801) 5'»1 30! 1,3S9 857 482 Assam · 805 501 30,.1. 4,360 2,165 2,195 ABOR-MIRI 40,829 21,763 19,066 " · · · · I States · 1,782 911 871 Assam · · 40,829 21,763 19,066 TAR 5,265 2,860 2,405 MISHMI · · · 71 53 18 · · 259 168 91 Assam · · 71 53 18 1 4,461 2,377 2,084 BODO OR PLAINS 239,458 120,007 119,!51 · · KACH!RI. 1 States 645 315 230 · Assam 218,049 108,595 109,4540 319 192 127 · · Bengal ·• 20,995 11,086 9,909 279 176 103 · · 326 88 · · - Bengal States · 414 · · · 8 4 4 LA LUNG · · · 16,414 7,864 8,550 I States · · 32 12 20 Assam · · · 16,414 7,864. 8,550 .R · 18,476 10,313 8,163 DIMA-SA · · · 19,940 10,401 9,1)39 · · 1,815 1,352 463 Assam · · 19,940 10,401 9,539 I · 14,627 7,858 6,769 CHUTIA 2,364 1,489 875 2,034. 1,103 · 1 States · 931 Assam 2,364 1,4.89 875 &I · 7,873 4,284 3,589 GARO 185,940 93,652 92,288 382 264 · · I · 118 Assam 137,154 69,251 67,903 · 6,437 3,462 · I · · 2,975 Bengal 48,369 24,176 24,193 1,054 558 I States 496 United Provinces of Agra 19 19 .. , · · and Oudh. ". I 32,167 16,108 16,059 Bengal States 398 206 192 I 105 84 21 · · RABH! 20,243 9,272 10,971 11 26,747 13,306 13,441 · · · Assam 20,24.3 9,272 10,971 11 Stutes 5,315 2,718 2,597 · TIPURA OR MRUNG Ill,974: 57,878 54,096 II 902 484 418 · · Assam 10,403 5,235 5,168 J 515 282 233 · · · Bengal • 25,386 13,398 11,988 J States 387 202 185 · Bengal States 76,185 39,245 311,940 )R. LEPCHA 19,291 9,605 D,686 · MORAN ';'8 28 50 I 17 17 ... · · · · Assam 78 28 50 ,1 · · 11,329 5,428 5,901 · · MlKIR 83,620 43,002 40,618 ,I States ?,945 4,160 3,785 · · 83,620 43,002 40,618 · 23,200 12,569 10,631 Assam · · EMPEO KACHCHA 6,604 3,4:51 3,Hj3 I 1,165 966 OR · 199 NAGA. II · · · 16,125 8,523 7,602 Assam · 6,604 3,451 3,153 II States · · 5,910 3,080 2,830 KABUl · 4: 4: ... .L 611 314 4. 40 ... · 297 Assam · · I 4 .. · · ... 4 ANGAMi 27,865 13,880 13,885 11 · · ~ 607 314 293 · Assam 27,SG5 13,980 .?lS,8'll5 , · · 26 21 Ii 1,045 501 ~ · KEZHAMA 1,546 .. 26 21 5 Assam · · · 1,54e 1,04(.>, 501 I '" · · , · · 116 TABLE X,

Language.

PART JIl,-TERRITORIAL DISTRIBUTION OF EACH LANGUAGE,

POPULATION. POPULATION',

LANGUAGB AND PnOVIIICB. LAIIGtrAGE 1ND Psovn'lC:S. Persons. Male,. Females. PersoDs. Mal". Female

1. 2. S. 4. 1. 2. 9. 4.

HENGMA '0 5,617 2,772 2,815 THADO OR JANG· 3,399 1,575 1,8l · SHEN. Assam 0 5,609 2,770 2,839 Assam 0 0 0 3,399 1,575 1,8: Bombay 8 · · 2 6 SAIRANG · n ... r, SEMA 5,830 · 2,622 3,208 Assam · 71 ... Assam • 5,830 2,622 3,208 · ZAHAO 3,216 1,M8 1,61 AD · · · 28,135 13,391 14,7i1 Assam · 3,216 1,548 1,61 Assam · 28,135 13,39<1. 14,741 · · LUSHEr OR DULIEN 72,142 32,088 LROTA OR TSONTSU 16,962 8,933 8,029 40,0: Assam 72,011 32,030 39,9 Assam 16,962 8,933 8,029 · · · States 131 58 I THUKUl\U · · 26 6 20 · Assam · 26 6 20 BANJOGI · 560 279 21 YACHUMI 35 18 17 Bengal · 560 279 2: Assam · · 35 18 17 PANKHU 113 62 I TABLENG · 198 89 109 Bengal 113 62 Assam · · 198 . 89 109 YINDU · 43 31 TAMLU · · l,M5 738 807 Burma · · · 43 31 Assam 1,545 738 807 KHYENG U4 206 ~ · 0 l\WJUNG Hj2 Bengal 414 206 ~( · · '" 152 Assam 0 152 ... 152 KHAMI, KHWEYMI OR 25,863 13,134: 12,72 · KUMI. NAGA UNCLASSED 69,6t1 35,O.u 3t,600 Andamans and NicobarB. 1 1 ... Assam · 69,641 35,041 34,600 Bengal 1.469 761 7C MANIPURI, MEITHEI 272,907 135,«1 137,556 · · KATHE OR PONNU. Burma 24,389 12,372 12,Q1 Assam · · · · · 255,765 126,509 129,256 Madras 4 ... Bengal · 183 102 81 ANU · 7,5 388 3S Burma 3,676 1,796 1,880 · · Burma 775 3138 S~ United Provinces of Agra 111 58 53 · · aDd Oudh. THAT · · 67 37 3 Bengal States 13,282 6,976 6,286 Burma , 67 37 3 , · RANGKHOL • 4,766 1,720 3,037 KUKI 53,880 26,26! 27,1)1 Assllm · 4,766 1,729 3,037 · · · Assam 47,042 22,754 24,2~ HALLAM 3,603 · · 1,810 1,883 Bengal · 1,819 960 Bli Assam 21 · 17 4 Bengal State~ , 5,019 2,550 2.46 Bengal States 3,672 1,793 1.819 · CHIN , 181,765 90,881 00,88 ANDRO 1 · · · 1 '" Aesllm .' 2,149 1,588 56 United Provinces of Agra 1 1 · and Oudh. ... Borma , 179,615 89,203 gO,32:

MHAR 0 160 Central Provinces • 1 .. , · • 81 88 · ( ASI'll.m . · · · 169 81 88 KACHIN OR SING PHD . 67,34:0 3.'!,8!U 34,49! CHAW 215 112 .. · 103 Assam · · 1,770 920 ~ 85C BLlrma 215 · (' · 112 103 Borma , · 65,570 31,921 ~ 33.6.].1 117 TABLE X.

IJungua,ge.

PART ([l.-TERllITORUli DrSTIllBUTION OF EACH L;tNGUAGE.

POPULATION. POPULA..TION. lNGlJ'AGE AND PBOVII.'fCE. LA.:NGUAG8 ,Al'I'D PROVINCE. PersoDs. Male •• Femoles. Persons. M.le~. Femal•• , --- I. 2. 3. ~. 1. 2 •. 3. •• LEPAI · 756 348 408 SHAN · · 753,262 372,874 380,3SS ,rma 756 348 408 AndBmanB Ilnd Nicobara 13. 12 I HI 84 49 35 Assam. · · 1,490 941 54.9 .rma · 84 49 35 Burma · · 751,759 371,921 379,B3S m · 151 76 75 PHAKIAL · · 289 28-1 5 rma · 151 76 75 Assam. · · 289 284 (} NGTHA 465 417 48 NORA · 2 2 ... ,rIDIi 465 417 48 Assam. 2 2 ... · , · ER HYBRIDS 56,979 28,(j30 28,449 TAI·RONG · · 12 12 ... 66,979 28,630 28,449 Asaam • 12 12 ... .IIDa · · · · r · 23,898 12,267 11,631 AITON · 1,569 780 789 njral 10,484 6,352 5,132 Assam. · · 1,569 780 789 Irma 13,414 6,915 6,499 SANTALI OR HOR 1,790,521 892,394 898,127 · · Assam. · 30,129 16,065 14,074 :MESE 7,474,806 3,670,891 3,80!,005 · Bengal. · 1,645,311 770,306 775,005 ldamans and Nicobllrs· ' 1,833 1,823 10 Bengal States 215,059 106,021 109.038 633 410 223 · sam · · Centrol Provinces States. 22 12 10 62,545 31,763 ngal · · 30,782 KOL , 9!S,687 469,105 4:79,582 1 1 · · · rar ... Assam ., 43,291 22,176 21,116 66 53 13 'mbay · · Bengal 675,746 330,334 345.412 IrIDa . 7,407,644 3,636,410 3,772,234 · · Berar 19 6 14 ntral Pro'l'inces 155 155 ... · · Central Provinces · 11,507 5,556 5,951 130 125 5 ~il.ras United Provinces of A gra 3 1\ ... and Oudh. llth·West Frontier Provo 1 ... 1 210,206 106,923 103,283 inee. Bengal States 4 2 2 IDjab · · Cen Iral Provinces States. 7,915 4,109 3,806 363 363 lited Provincps of Agra ... 8,158 and Oudh. KORWA · · 16,442 ' 8,284 mgal States 1,611 782 729 · · Assam , 79 36 43 rderabad State 4 1 3 · · · Bengal 8,147 4,013 4,134. 6 3 3 · YEore State · United Provinces of Agra 30B 161 147 and Oudh. ~EN SS7,875 446,0-10 441,829 Bengal States 7,908 3,948 3,960 ldauans and Nieobara 11 11 ... KHARIA 101,986 51,878 50,108 IIIDa 887,863 446,035 441,828 · · · Andamans and Nieobara . 1 1 ... mjah 1 1 ." Assam. 1,919 1,156 763 · ~ · IIESE 10,083 I 19,536 8,853 Bengal 54,625 26,892 27,73;; Id.mans and N icobal's ] · · 1 ... Cen tral Pro vinces 18,521 9,063 9,468 l!mll • 19,531 10,679 8,852 · · Bengal States 24,758 13,711 11,047 ,dral Provinces 1 1. ... · sdras 3 2 1 Central Provinces States • 2,162 1,055 1,107

") 19,380 9,686 9,694 JUANG OR PATUA 10,853 5;863 <1,990 ... 0 19,3S0 9,686 9,694 55 64 1 IIIDa Assam. . · , 2 2 .., ... J~ · 42,160 20,!l37 21,223 Bengal · · lllna'" 42,160 20,937 21,223 Bengal Sttltes · 10,796 5,8Cl' 4,989 ------,------~ • 118 TABLE X.

Language. PART Ufo-TERRITORIAL DISTRIBUTION OF EACH LANGUAGE.

POPULATION. POPULATION.

L'NGU!G~ AIID PBOVIliCB. LANGUAGE AIID PnOVINOB. Persons. M.les. Females. Persons. Males. Female& ---

1. 2. 3. 4. 1. 2. S. 4, (' TAMIL OR ARAVA- ASUR 0 0 4,872 2,507 2,365 contrl. Central India Agency 1,130 717 4 Ben gill 0 · 4,433 2,238 2,195 · Central Provinces 26 11 15 Central Provinoes States. 137 70 Hyderabad State 34,435 16,828 17,( Bengal Sta.tes 0 0 393 248 145 206 1 Central Provinces States. 20 10 10 Kashmir State · 392 I 446,643 460,1 KORA OR KODA · 23,873 11,657 12,216 Madras 'States · · 907,162 54,171 27,819 Assam 46 22 24 Gochin · · 26" 492,273 247,735 244,! Bengal 21,923 10,521 11,402 Travancore · · Mysore State. 0 229,160 118,533 HO,f Bengal States 0 1,90..L 1,114 790 · Pnnjab States 7 4 GADABA 0 0 0 37,230 18,763 18,467 · · Rlljputana Agency. 61 30 Andamans and Nicobal's • 1 1 ... · MALAYALAM 6,029,304 3,008,';'80 3,O20,5~ Madras 36,406 18,374 18,032 · · · 36 35 Centml Provinoes States. 823 388 435 Andamans and Nicobars • Baluchistan 2 2 ... SAVARA 157,136 78,861 78,275 · · · Bengal 67 63 Madras 157,100 78,845 78,256 · · · · Berar 11 4 Mysore State · 36 16 20 · Bombay 1,199 '751 , KORKU · · 87,675 42,999 «,676 · · Burma 324 286 , Assam 0 0 208 40 168 · · · Central Provinces • 11 8 Beral' 28,343 ]3,856 14,487 · · · Coorg 27,214 17,382 9,~ Central Provinces • 57,436 28,257. 29,179 · · · · Madras 2,861,297 1,412,'798 1,449,4 Central Ioadia Agency 42 21 21 · · North· West Frontier Provo 46 46 Central Provinces States. 1,646 825 821 ince. ..'

Punjab 0 5 4 TAMIL OR ARAVA 16,525,500 8,099,828 8,425,672 · United Provinces of Agra 13 7 Ajmer.Merwara 29 11 18 and Oudh. · Bombay States 9 8 AndamBoa and Nieobara • 851 731 120 · · Central Provinces Statps • 1 1 , .. Assam 0 2,497 1,405 1,092 · · Hyderabad State 31 22 Baluohistan 0 49 33 16 · .Madras States 3,135,917 1,574,658 1,561,2 nengal 2,264 1,341 923 · Cockin 715,847 355,008 360,8 Berar 459 247 212 · Travancore 2,420,049 1,219,635 1,200,4 Bombay 9,613 5,493 4,020 · Mysore State 3,121 2,705 4 Burma 99,576 73,712 25,864 · · · · TELUGU on ANDHRA 20,696,872 10,436,336 10,260,5: r,~ntral Provinces 6,140 3,259 9,881 · Andamans and Nicobara • 212 180 Coorg 6,207 2,893 2,314 · · · Assam 5,270 2,823 2,4 Madras 15,224,447 7,426,185 7,798,262 · · · Baluchistan 36 31 North·Wast Frontier Provo 589 583 6 inclI. Bengal · 14,759 7,771 6,91 Punjab · · 138 87 51 Berar · 0 35,431 17,671 17,~1 · Bombay · 98,051 49,935 c.la,l: United Provinces o£'".Agra 766 521 245 and Oudh. Burma · · · 96,601 80,448 13,11 Baroda State , · · · 85 53 . 32 Central Provinces · · 93,856 46,772 47,01 Bengal Slt.tes . 10 5 5 Coorg · 2,974 1,665 I,a( Bombay States (I • · · · 396 238 158 lIIadraB · · · 14.,276,509 7,113,a91 7;:'62,61 119 TABLE X.

Language. PART III.-TERRITORIAL DISTRIBUTION OF EACH LANGUAGE. . POPULATION, POPULA.'l'ION. ... L.l.NGtT... OE urn PnOVINCE. LANGUAGE AND :PROVINCE. Porsons. Males. Females. Persons. Male •• Female ••

1. 2. 3. 4. 1. 2. 8. 4. :LUGU OR ANDHta- TULU 535,210 20",,258 270,952 'ontd. ~ol'th-West Frontier Prov- 203 203 ... Andamans and Nicobars • 47 44 3 inee. Pnnjl\b · 6 3 3 Assam · 1 1 ... 1nited Provinces of Agra 640 364 276 Bombay 369 270 99 and Oudh. - ~aroda Shte 322 171 151 Coorg · 12,994 8,672 4,322 3en gal Sta tes · 3,921 1,926 1,995 Madras 499,056 240,086 258,970 30m bay States · 12,748 6,576 6,172 Bombay States · 1 1 ... :entml India Agellcy 777 571 206 Hyderabad State 115 40 75 :enhal Provinces States . 12,215 6,356 5,859 Madras States · · 1,979 1,306 673 [yderabad State 5,148,302 2,640,100 2,608,202 Codin · · · 65? B5? BOO ladras States · · 58,9tll 30,099 28,832 Travancore · l,32'V 949 372 Cochin · · 12,676 6,647 6,029 Mysore State. · 20,648 13,838 6,810 Travancore · · 7,460 3,9[;6 3,464 TODA · • · 805 451 354 [ysore State 835,046 425,747 . 409,299 Madras · · · 805 451 354 'unjab States 1 1 ... KOTA · · · 1,300 621 679 61 · tajpntana Agency. 32 29 Madras · 1,300 621 679 10,365,Ot7 · · NARESE · · 5,200,595 5,16t,452 GOND · 1,125,t79 54,9,840 575,639 282 · ,ndamans and Nicobars • 260 22 Andaman.s and Nieobara • 1 1 ... 17 9sam 11 6 Assam · 2,116 1,070 1,046 :engal 14 14 ... · · · Bengal ; 240 92 148 1,036 · · erar · 079 457 Borar 83,217 40,650 42,067 2,507,889 · · ombay · · · 1,269,452 1,238,437 Bombay 401 183 218 34 · · urma · · · :14 10 Central Provinces · 701,872 338,0(}1 363,871 3,382 · entral Provinces 1,577 1,805 Madras 51,054 27,247 23,807 80,770 · · · oorg 42,713 38,057 Central India Agency 20,531 9,778 10,753 1,557,644 · ladrRs · · 768,160 789,484 Central Provinces States • 190,480 95,428 95,062 nnjab 1 1 ... · · Hyderabad State 75,564 37,389 38,175 187 · nited Provinces of Agra 108 79 Rajputana Agency !,I and Oudh. 3 1 aroda State 46 34 12' · KANDH OR KUI · t9t,099 251,708 242,331 DmbllY States 689,436 303,876 285,560 · Assam · 11,827 5,832 5,995 entral ;India Agency 254 133 · · 121 Bengal 40,130 19,904 20,226 lOtr:!1 Provinces States. 2 2 ... · · yderabad Sta.te · 1,562,022 780,847 78:,175 Central Provinces · 7 4 :I ad ras States · · 17,951 8,899 9,052 Madras · 372,366 189,951 1B2,4.15 (Jachin 4,180 2,111 2,069 · United Provinces or Agra 9 9 ... T'I'avarwore· 1,454 665 '189 and Oudh. :Y8ore State · 4,044,076 2,023,903 2,020,173 Bengal States 10,525· 7,721 7,804 unjab States 4 2 2 Central Provinces States. 54,235 28,347 25,888 DAG-U OR COORGI 39,191 19,986 19,205 KURUKH OR ORAON 591,886 291),060 301,826 .. · Dorg . · · 39,148 19,951 19,197 Assam · · 10,841 5,749 , 5',092 . 1 adras., 88 31 7 Bengal 498,226 213,200 22ii,0l!6 · - · · · ~ :ysc);jl Stllte · 5 4 1 Central Provinoes · · 11,651 5,f1j:ll 6,030 120 TABLE X.

Language.

PiRT I11.-TERRITORIAL DISTRInUTION OF EACH LANGUAGE. -f POPULATION. POPULATION. - LA.NGUAGE AND PROVINCE. LilfGUAGE AND PROVINCB. PerBons. M.I.s. FelIlllI ••• Persons. Males. Femrue,.

1. 2. 3. 4. 1. 2. 3. ,. K URUKH OR OR-AON- PASHTO-contd. contd. Bengal States . 107,334 64,041 63,293 Madras. · 22 22 ... Central Provinces States .. 23,834 11,449 12,385 North·West Frontier Provo 1,142,869 603,398 539,47 ince. M ALHAR · 465 258 207 Punjab · 51,545 30,892 20,65 Bengal 50 33 17 United Provinces of Agra 774 691 E · · and Oudh. Bengal States · 415 225 190 Baroda State · · 27 20 i\IALTO OR .MALER 60,777 30,00! 20,783 Bengal States 40 39 Bengal 60,777 30,994 29,783 Bombay States · 267 205 6 B RAHUI · 48,580 29,551 19,038 Centrlll India Agency · 1,164 826 33 Andamans and Nieobars . 1 1 ... Central Provinces States. 49 46 Baluchistan · 645 509 136 Hyderabad State · ],565 1,117 44 Bombay · 47,037 28,457 18,580 Kashmir State · 1,953 1,395 55 North-West Frontier Prov- 45 45 ... Madras States 47 45 ince. · Bombay States · 861 539 322 Ooc'hin . · 2 1 · I, B ALOOH 152,188 85,202 66,806 Travancore 45 44 Ajmer-:Merwara 1 1 · · ... J Mysore State · 11 11 _I. Andam£lns and Nicobar~ • 58 fi8 ... Pnnjnb States 1,292 1,149 1 · II Assam 773 756 17 · · Rajputana Agency 655 654 ~, Baluchistan 1,517 971 546 · · U niled Provinces States 64 56 I Bengal 3 3 ... · · · MUNJANI OR MUNGI • 28 28 ... Berar . 2 2 28 · · ... Assam · · 28 ... Bombay · 103,079 57,479 45,600 KHOWAR, ARNIYA OR 233 118 tt: · OHATRARI. Madras. 26 26 ... · · · North· West Frontier Prov- 1 ... North-West Frontier Prov- 124 104 20 ince. ince. Punjab 4 ... , Punjab · 38,395 21,428 : 16,967 ,- · · Kasbmir State 228 118 .Il. United Provinces of Agl'a 1 1 · '" and Oudh. SHIN A. 54,102 20,024 2.'i,lW Baroda State 4 3 1 · · North-West Frontier Provo 5 5 ... Bombay States 5,772 3,180 2,fi92 ince. · Punjab , 51 30 21 Cen tral India Agency 131 112 19 · · KashmiI' State 64,1313 28,989 25,14: Kashmir State 1 , .. 1 · · 716 Punjab States 2,125 1,072 1,053 SANSKRIT · 440 276 2 ~iputana Agency • 176 96 80 Bal uehistan · 2 ... Madras 541 315 P ASHTO · 1,22<1,807 650,780 565,018 · · · 226 Ajmer-Merwara · · 69 69 ... Kashmir State · 9 9 ... Andamans and Nicobars . 355 345 10 Madras States (Travancore) 15 9 ! Assam. · 1,291 1,265 26 Mysore State 149 105 44 Baluchistan · · · 5,667 4,836 721 KASHMIR! · 1,007,057 MO,095 467,81)2 Bengal ' 3,011 2,914.' 97 Assam 23 20 3 .. · · ~ Berar . 602 526 76 · . · Baluchistan 28 .. 22 6 Bombay · 10,983 , 8,835 2,148 · · · · Bengal 33 Eurma. · 332 303 29 32 ,1 · · · ~ Central Provin~es 273 240 33 Bombay 201 161 · · r 40 121 TABLE X.

·Language,

PART III.-TERRITORUL DISTRIBUTION OF EACH I.ANGUA.GE.

POPULATION. POPULA.TIOtf • .NGUi.GB AND PBOVINoa. LAliQUAGII AliD PROVINe .. - Persons. M,Jes. Females, PereoDa. Moles. Female ••

i. Z. 3. 4. 1. 2. 3. 4. IMIllI-cotlttl. SINDHI-contd. , Baroda Stllte • ma . . . 12 12 ... · 153 84 69 Iraa , 1 1 ... Bengal States · 9 9 ... Bombay States 199,193 t.h.West Frontier Prov- 826 646 280 108,170 91,023 loe. · Ventl'al India Agency 255 126 129 ,jab . 6,978 4,367 2,611 · · Ceutral Provinces States. 21 21 ... ted "Provinces of Agra 96 78 17 ld Oudh. Hyderabad Stnte · _~105 '17 28 Ka.shmir State , oda State , 1 ... 1 · 25 11 14 Mysore State 36 leraba.d. State 4 2 2 · 29 7 Punjab States , 25,585 bmir State 998,192 533,998 464,194 13,982 11,603 Rajputanll Agency 39,168 jab States · 1,545 843 702 20,609 18,559 , , lUtana Agency 13 11 2 MARATHI 18,237,899 9,148,136 9,089,763 Ajmer-Merwara , 465 263 212 ted Provinces States 5 2 3 · Andamllns and Nieobara . 922 802 120 .STAN! • 36 23 13 · Assam 6,660 3,434 3,226 ~h-West Frontier Prov- 36 23 13 · · ceo B,,] uchistan · , 1,149 1,080 69 IDA · . 3,337,917 1,784,316 1,553,601 Bengal 2,177 1,306 871 amana and Nicobara • · 13 13 ... Berar 2,19~,620 1,100,517 1,094,103 lchistan · · · · 5 4 1 Bombay · · 8,639,191 4,344,140 4,294,!l91 ,bay , 19 · 22 3 Burma · · · 521 448 73 :h-West Frontier Prov- 581,713 308,808 272,905 ceo Central Provinces • 2,106,558 1,040,531 1,066,027 Coorg 4,827 2,843 1,984 jab 2,226,677 1,184,098 1,041,679 · · · Madraa 279,383 139,823 139,560 ,ed Provinces of A gra 98 64 34 · · ,d Oudh. N(lrth-West Frontier Prov- 813 811 2 ;ral India Agency 176 122 54 ince. Imir State 194 16& 36 Pnnjab , · · 952 543 409 jab States 629,786 290,953 238,833 United Provinces of Agra 6,201 3,383 2,818 and Oudb. lUtanB Agency 233 77 156 Baroda State · 38,583 20,546 18,037 'II 3,006,395 1,63',706 1,371,689 Bengal Stllotes 147 77 70 Itnl\ns and· Nieobara 162 164 8 · Bombay States · 1,699,193 847,241 851,952 m 16 16 ... Central India Agenoy 111,312 58,234 53,078 chistan 3,306 2,310 996 · Central Provinces States • 120,174 61,569 58,606 ;al . 7 6 1 · · H yderabad State · · 2,898,820 1,453,896 1,444,924 bay 2,735,633 1,487,109 1,248,524 · Kashmir State 3l. 30 1 DII 56 49 7 · Madras Stat~s · 39,819 21,766 18,053 I"a1 Provinc~s 1 1 ... · Gookin 20,133 10,742 9,391 7 6 1 ~ Travanco9'e • 17,900 10,145 7,755 :as 51 43 8 · M Jsore State 83,914 44,024, 39,81)0 b-West" Frontirr yrov- 216 200 16 · Ie. Pnnjab 8tates 52 38 ,14 ,ab 2,179 1,513 666 · . · · Rajputana Agency · 1,472 798 674. ri1 Provinces of Agra 211 181 30 ~ Owih. United Provinces States 3 3 ... a l . ------122 TABLE X.

,Language. .. PART llI.-TERRITORlA.L DISTRIBUTION OF nell LllNGU:A.GE • • POl'ULA.TION. PUP'O LA.TlON • LANGl'.iGB A'lfD PBO.INOE. LANGUAGB .A;ND PBOVUlOB. Peraons. Male,. Females. Persous. MaleB. Fema -- 1. Z. 3. 4. I. 2. 3. J f. ORIYA " . 9,68,,429 4,,88,588 4,898,8111 BENGALI-contd. .Andamans and Nicobars . 262 216 16 Bengal · · 40,714,099 20,466,179 20,24: Assam. · 23,761 12,328 11;433 Berar • · 19 14 Baluchistan · · 1 ." 1 Bombay · 1.631 1l,432 Bengal. .. 4,561,323 2,261;961 2,299,362 Burma 208.078 138,479 6 Bombay · · 4 .3 1 Central Provinces · 1.537 883 Burma. · 12,997 12,585 412 Madras · 626 501 Central Provinces · 702,635 345,574 357.,061 North·West Frontier Provo 89 64 iDee. ~ Madras .. · 1,835,443 887,615 '947;828 PUDJab · · 2,:J30 1,4.1.1 1',unjab ~ .. 2 2 ... United Provinces of Agrll .24,120 11,490 1 and Oudb. ;U niled Provhrces.of Agra 96 75 ' 21 Baroda State 95 66 and Oudh. · · :Bengal States '1.641,428 817,2·16 '824,182 Bengal States · 718,800 375,657 Bombay States · 144 76 '68 Bombay States · 44 28 'Centrlll India Agency 2 '2 ", Central India A,gency 415 271 Central Proviwes States. '906,070 449,24,0 456,"830 Central Provinces States • 201 128 Hyderabad State · 2,565 11274 1;291 Byderablld State · 66 42 'Mad ras St ates · 25 Ii:! 12 Kashmir State · 62 43 Travanc01'e · 3 ::1 1 Mud ras States · · 100 100 'Mysore State '671 348 323 Gockin 2 2 · " BIHARI '" 37,0,6,990 18,436,041 18,6!O,~-19 T'I'uvancQrc 98 98 " Ajmer·Merwarll· · · · · 1;090 640 450 Mysore State 20 15 Assam · · · · 992 462 530 iP.unjab States 139 93 .Bengal · • ~26,151,361 12,989,703 13,.161,658 iRajpntana Agency 470 251 Bel'B1 · · · 15 13 2 'United Pro.vinoes States • 78 <67 Bombay 54 31 23 · · ASSAMESE · ;l,350,846 686,O!2 66 Central Provinces • 20 17 3 Andamaus and Nicobars • 8 8 " North· West Frontier Pro,,· 708 531 177 .Assam 1,349,802 685,113 664. inee. · Punjab · · 38,033 22,198 15,835 Ben.ga.l · 300 210 United provinces of Agra 10,056,056 4,986,931 5,069,125 Bomba.y 1 ... and Oudb. · · · Baroda State 1 1 ... North· West Frontier Provo 1 1 .. · ince. Bengal States 628,813 322,750 306,063 Pllnjab · 1 1 .. Bombay States · 17 17 ." Bongal States 731 707 Central India Agency 191,191 106,960 84,231 Bombay States 1 I Central Provinces States. 113 69 64 · " United Provinces States 1 1 Hyderabad Stata 1 1 r,.' " Kasbmir State 49 47 2 ~ASTERN HINDI 20,986,358 10,528,235 10,45 S,l Punjab States · · 6,295 3,622 1,773 Assa.m · 334,,265 188,147 146, .Ra.jpu tana A geney · 3,181 2,158 1,023 r Berar · 4.250 2,403 1,1 Bombay BENGALI ,",624-,0-18 22,512,296 22,H.l,752, · 2,749 1,475 1.1 • · · ·Central Provinces Ajmer.Merwara 281 192 . 89 .. 8,679,981 1,784,529 ~ 1,B G5,J · Madras • And'~mans and Nicobars· ., 1,441 1,299 142 1,495 767 United Provinces· of· AgrB Assam 2,949,287 1,613,256 1,436,037 14.905,187 7,539,895 7,3 65,2 • · · and Oudb. r 'Baluchistan · 20 1] 9 E:uoda Slate 23 21 •· · · ~ • V ••• fool-not. ~t pOSe 11 •• 123 TABLE X.

Language.

PART III.-TEnRITORIll DISmIDUTION OF EACH L,lNG1TA:GE~

POP1JL4TION'. POPULATION.

LUI'GUA.GB "'MD FBOVINC.B. LANGUAGD .la.lfD PBOVI~CB. PerBons. Male,. Female •. Pe1'SODIJ. Moles. Fem.le,.

1. z. 3. 1. z. 3. 4. STERN HINDI­ RA.JASTHANI-co71ta. conld. 3 2(11,765 :ombay Stater • 3 I Central Provinces 497,729 245,964

! !entral India Agency 1,401,258 691,095 710,163 Coorg 10 9 1 ientral Provinces States • 656,960 319,780 331,180 Madras 1,419 1,09B 321

Iyaerabad State. • 136 76 60 I North-Wes~ Frontier Pro~ 53,174 28,266 I 2-1,,908 ! vinca. rnited PrQvinces States .' 61 44 7 Punjab 402,366 212,608 189,757

~BTERN BINDf • 39,367,779 20,832,'i18 18,535,061 I United Provinces of Agl'a. 8,205 4,721 3,484 and Oudh. ljmel'-MerWRIa • 132,10", 70,166 6I,938 Baroda State 1,936. 1,144 792 1 .ndamllons and Nieobara • 7,317 6,997 I,320 , Bengal States 487- 375 112 .ssam • 22,389 16,390 6,9911 Bombay States 20,243 IO,7I6 ' 9,527 lalnehistan • 10,232 8,37& 1,854 Contral ladia Agency 1,872,562 982,762 889,800' lemr • 273,003 144,408' 128,695 Central Provinces States • 2,225 1,3'67 858 919,076 488,847' 430,229 Hydera.bad State • 59,620 34,323 2'5,297 !ombay : lorma. 123,811 103,070 20,741 Kashmir Sta.te 127;172 67,941 59,231 :entral Provinces • 1,922,04.1 961,543 960;498 Madras States 31 17 l4. :oorg 6,679 3,665 3,014 Travancore • 30 1'1 13 bdras 883,601 446,740 436,761 Mysore State 1,171 907 264. I ,I ~ orth-West Frontier Pl'Ov, 16,817 12,178 4,639 Punjab Sta.tes 201,382 104,903 96,t79 ince. ?unjab 3,772,727 2,031,084 1,741,643 Rajputana Agency 7,0"35,093 3,681,389" 3,S~a,70J, J nited Pravinces of Agro. 21,588,984 11,503,832 10,085,152 United Provinces States • 39 39 and Ondh. ~ aroda St80tO • • 69,087 38,139 30,948 GUJARATII • 9,928,501 5,103,343 4,825,158 Bombay states • 206,1167 106,915 100,052 Ajmer·Merwara 816 515 SOl entrallndia Agency • 4,727,0621 . 2,420,525 2,30S,537 Anaamans ana Nieobars • 236 215 21

! entral Provinces States. 11,965 6,025' 5.940 I Assam 1,189 839 350 Byderabad State • 1,191,609 613,418 578,191 Baluchistan • 470 298 172 Kashmir State 1,553 1,183 370 Bengal 4,378 3,045 1,333 lIadras Sta tes 17,416 9,670 7,846 Berar 20,889 11,776 9,113

Cochiu • 2,46'1 1,400 1,06'1 Bombay 3,100,597 1,611,(H7 1,489,580 Tf'avancore • 5.964 3,688. 2,2'16 Burma 4,067 3,161 906 13(),472 129,547 llysOl'e State 2611,019 Cen tral Provinces 31,696 16,706 14,991 211,571 180,Oi5 ~nnjab States 391,646 Coorg • IS7 93 44 1,060_386 Rajputa.na Agency 2,267,796 1,207,410 Ma.dras 92,298 46,911 45,387 United Provinces States 534,978 282,192 252,786 North-West Frontier FlO' 182 ]04 78 vi 000. JASTBANI 10,917,712 5,731,485 5,186,227 Punjab 1,776 1,098 677

!ljmer M erwam • 339,750 ]77,748 162,002 United Provinces of Agra 4,632 2,718 1,914 47 45 2 and Ondh. Andamans and Nieubars • Baroda State 1,841,499 947,852 893,fH7 1,697 Assam. 7,211l 6,622 ,,, 21 Bengal States 63 47 16 Baluchistan • 253 232 4,283 Bengal • 10,190 6,907 Bombay States 4,164,007 2,119,942 ,,2,o.l.4,065 4l,776 25,164. 16,622 , Berar • Central India Agency 281,556 144,134 137,~22 233,334 132,232 101,102 llom~ay" 86 Central Provinces States . 826 ,223 10~ llurma 280 195 124 TABLE X.

Language.

PA.RT IlL-TERRITORIAL DISTRIBUTION OF EACH LANGUA.GE.

POPULJ..'rION'. POPl1L.lTION.

LAliGl1J.GB AND PllOvnrCE. LAl'fGUAGB AND PBovurCB. Persons. lII.ales. Females. Persona. Male •• Females. I

1. 2. 3. 4. 1. 2. 3. 4. 6 UJARATI-contd. PANJABI-contd. Hydere.bad State · · 19,489 11,075 8,414 Baroda State · · 135 112 23 Kashmir State · 74 91 48 Bengal States · 30 30 ... Madras State · · 4,922 2,831 2,091 Bombay States · 1,624 1,041 583 O(l~kin · 1,097 692 405 Central India. Ageuey 8,251 2,241 1,010 TrCIIl7ancore · · 2,821 1,646 1,175 Cen traJ. Provi uees Sta.Ws . 125 72 53 Mysore State · 3,440 2,058 1,382 Hyderabad State · · 2,659 1,503 1,156 Punja b States · 96 73 23 Kashmir State · 1,300,410 692,667 607,743 Rajputana Agency · 349,659 176,576 178,083 Madras States · 32 21' 5 United Provinoes States • 8 6 2 Ooc'liin · 6 6 ... BHIL LANGUAGES* · '169,928 380,086 379,842 T'raVa'llCO'l'6 21 16 6 Ajmer-M erwara 17 17 ... Mysore State 206 203 3 · · · <1 Assam · · · 240 139 101 Punjab States · 2,422,60{' 1,338,196 1,084,409 Bengal 338 169 169 Rajputana Ageney 22,102 12,488 9,611 · · I Berar 990 457 533 U ni\,ed Provinces Stll tes • 940 302 :n · \ Bombay 87,584 43,576 44,008 893,896 816,133\ WESTERN P AHARI " 1,710,029 · 34 Central Provinces 11,265 5,642 5,623 Andamans aud Nieobara • 37 3 · lj Baroda State · 67,883 34,729 33,154 Baluchistan • · 9 8 32,362 16,452 Central Provinces 1 ... 1 Eombay States 15,910 · · · 289 189 100 C~ntral India Agency 222,291 109,342 112,889 North-West Frontier Provo inee. 398,000 Central Provinces States. 34 16 18 Punjab · 765,879 367,879 Hyderabad State 2,836 1,:354 1,482 'U nited Provincps of Agra 40 34 6 · Bnd Oudb. Rajputllna Agency 334,148 168,193 165,955 Kashmir State · 155,285 80,060 75.22& 788,193 4l5,327 K lIANDESHI* 2,742 1,360 1,382 Punjab Stlltes · 372,865 · 296 244 62 Bombay · 2,021 993 1,028 United Provinces States Central Provinces • 3111 140 174 CENTRAL PAHARI 1,270,931 635,085 635,8i6 Assam. 97 61 3S Boroda State · 22 12 10 · · · Bemr . 17 5 12 Central India Agency 385 215 170 · · Central Provinces 20 10 10 p ANJABI 17,070,961 9,278,780 7,792,181 · · · N(lrth,W~8t Frontier Provo 3 3 ... Ajmer-MerwBra 691 527 164 ince. 0 · · Punjab 356 320 27 Andllmans lind Nicobars • 1,317 1,125 192 · 1,004,404 503,301 3,283 3,136 United Provinoes of Agra 501,103 Assam · 147 andOudh. Baluehi8~an · 20,287 16,219 4,068 Cen tral Provinces States. 1 ... 1 :Bengal · 2,250 1,960 290 · Hyde1'8bad State 18 12 • i Bemr 525 304 221 · · · Punjab States 109 83 26 Bombay · 32,760 21,839 10,921 · Burma 15,845 14,101 1,744 Rajputana Agency. 64 64 ... Central Provinces· 1,089 8B2 · 257 United Provinces States . 265,842 131,217 134,625 Coorg . · 4 4 ... c · 54 45 EASTERN PAHARI OR 143,721 Sf),.129 68,592 Mad~as · 9 NA1PALL Nortb-WestFrolltier Provo 300,587 , 185,264 115,323 ince. Andawans and Nicobal13 • 2 2 ... Punjab. · - 12,923,570 6,973,936 5,949,634 Assam. 20,196 14,258 6;938 United Provinces, of Agra 15,180 10,606 4,574 Bal uchistan -.\ 14 JO " 4 • IInil Oudh. - · 125 TABLE X.

Language.

PART III.-TERRITORIAL DISTRIBUTION OF EACH LANGUAGE.

POPULA..TION. POPUJ,.ATIOlf.

L,UraUAGB AlfD PaOVJJJCB. LAliGUJ.GB AND PROVINCE. PerSODS. Males. Females. Persons. Males. Female"

1. I. 3. t. 1. z. 3. EASTERN PARARI OR ANDAMANESE 1,882 1,086 846 NAIPALI-colltd. Bengal 65,400 33,747 31,653 Andamo.ne and Nicobars . 1,882 1,036 846 Bombay 1 1 GIPSY LANGUAGES 844,143 181,541 162,602 Burma 5,463 4,315 1,148 Assam 69 18 51 Madras 4 4 Bengal 103 56 47

North· West Frontier Provo 3,983 3,155 828 Berar 68,879 35,665 33,214 ince. Puujab 6,028 4,032 1,996 Bombay 26,509 13,026 12,483 "-ited Provinces of Agra 24,088 16,618 8;470 Central Provinces , 20,210 9,882 10,328 ,nd Oudh. 19a1 States 15,913 8,202 7,711 Coorg 27 20 7 iIlbay States 1 1 Madras 34,262 18,043 16,219 llral India Agency 75 51 24 North·West Frontier Provo 308 148 160 ince. shmir State 856 714 1-12 Punjab 7,182 3,750 S,432 Djsh States 1,613 966 647 United Prnvinces of Agra 353 139 214 and Olldh. jputana Agenoy • 23 4 Baroda State 243 112 lSI 19 AJ • liled Provinces State9 . 61 49 12 Bengal States 43 30 IS DIe. 42,881 29,655 18,226 Bombay States 3,780 1;82J. 1,956 mer·Merwara 3 3 Central India Agency 10,596 6,249 4,347 26 20 6 Central Provinces States . 4,379 2,090 2,289

InchiBt&n • 25 10 15 Hyderabad State • 125,070 68,588 56,482 ngal 1,231 867 364 Kafhmir Stllte 2,528 1,253 1,275 rar 118 70 48 Madras States 324 163 161 27,055 18,514 8,541 'l'ravancore 134 64 70

llmll 301 187 114 35,458 17,956 17,502

laraS 596 504 92 Punjab States 3,234 1,677 1,557

Ilth·West Frontier Prov­ 33 30 3 Rajputanll Agency. 1,586 852 7114 ince. mj~b 78 53 25 OTHERS 125 40 85 liled Provinees of Agrll 73 62 21 Ajruer-Merwara 125 40 85 and Oudh. ~·oda state. 153 89 64 PERSIAN 20,N8 18,670 ",069 ,ngal States 23 18 /) Ajmer.Merwara 11 11

Imbay States 1,981 1,220 761 Andama'nB aud Nicobars 39 37 2 Intral India Agency 538 393 145 Assam 42 36 'I yderablld St,ate 9,937 7,177 2,760 Baluchistan • 1,509 1,056 453

-$nir State 20 19 1 Beugal 2,888 2,167 721 ildras States 401 240 161 Bombay 4,257 2,859 1,398 Ooolzin 17 17 Burma 196 176 20 Travancore 384 223 161 Central Provinces 298 156 143 ICrHtate 274 179 95 Coorg 10 7 ,3 Ij~b State~ 9 6 3 Madras 200 121 79 ~utana Agency • 6 4 2 r North·WestFloDtier Provo 3,290 2,495 795 lliI 5,580 8,496 2,084 inee. , ~.,; 5,530 3,496 2,034 United P,'ovinces of Agra 803 470 333 . . ~ • Q~~ A .. .1h 126 TABLE X.

Language.

PART III.-TERRITORUL DISTRIBUTION OF EACH LiNGUAGE.

POPULATION. POPULA.TION. 1 Luml1.1.ll. J.JI1) l'EOVIlI'C~. LAlfGUAGR AND PBOVIlfCB. Person-s. MnleB. Fem.les. Persona. Mole,. Femnl".

1. 2. 3. ,. 1. 2. S. 4. , PERSIAN-contd. DANK ALI 63 62 t 1,401 Punjab · · · 3,026 1,625 Bombay 63 62 1 Bn.roda State 62 44 18 · ABYSSlN!A.N (including 249 150 99 · · Negro). nenga! States 132 84 48 · · Bombay 244 146 98 Bombay States 155 94 61 · · · Bombay State. 6 4 1 Central India Agenoy 262 109 153 · · TURKISH DIALECTS • 411 263 148 Centrlll Provinces States • 81 50 31 Baluchistan 4 2 ~ Hyderabad State 396 255 141 · · · · Bengal 4. 4. ... Kashmir State 552 433 119 · Bel'ar 6 1 Ii : My.ore State 2,431 1,311 1,120 · · · Bombay 312 192 120 Punjab State9 48 33 15 Butma 6 f1 ... Rajputana Agenoy • 39 83 6 · · .' United Provinces of Agral S 3 ... United Provinces States 21 19 2 and Oudh. Baroda State · 4. 3 I WAKHI 15 ... 15 · · Bombay States 2 2 ... Assam 15 ... 15 · · · · · Hyderabod State 34 21 I ARMENIAN 205 132 ~3 · Kashmir State .1 33 26 · · "1.- Andamans aud N icobars • 1 1 ... Madras States (Travancore) 1 1 ... Assam. oi 2 1 1 · · Riljputana Agency 2 2 ... Bengal • 160 99 61 · · JAPANESE 363 160 203 Bombay 1 1 ... · · · Bengal. 66 27 ag Burma 34 23 11 · · · · · Bombay • 182 110 7a Madras 6 6 ... · Burma. 107 17 90 United Provinces of Agra 1 1 ... · · and Oudh. 'Madras · · 8 6 II HEBREW · · 1,280 673 60~ CHINESE · 50,513 41,830 8,683 AndBmans and Nicobal's 7 7 ... Bengal · 636 274 262 : Bombay · · 367 183 184 Assam · 129 127 Burma • 254 160 94 Bengal · · 2,301 2,OG3 231 Central Provinces 79 28 51 Bombay 248 218 ~I Madras ~2 11 11 · · Burma 47,619 39,'223 8,291 North-West Frontier Provo 1 ... 1 · · · ince. Madras 23 23 ... United Provinoes of Agl'B 7 7 ... · · and Ouah. North-West ~'rOlltier Provo 1 ... Madras States 14 10 4 ince. · Punjab 26 17 l Cockin . 10 6 4 · · · United ProvinceS of Agra 12 10 . ~ Travancot"11 4 ... and Oudh. " 1 ... SYRIAC · 10 40 ... Bengal States · 1 .Madras States 4.0 40 ... Modras States (Travan· 2 2 ... core). Mysore State 3 8 ... Cochin . · . 4 4 ... • ? 10: Tf'avancot'e · 35 36 ... Punjab Slates · 241 136 A.FRICAN DIALECTS 2 1 1 JAVANESE . 1 ... 0 1

~ · 1 II I BeD~1I1 • . 2 1 1 Punjab . ... - · n 127 TABLE X.

Language.

PART Uf.-TERRITORUL DISTRIBUTION OF EAOll LANGUAGB. ------~--~~~---~~------~----~"~~~~ POPULi.TION. ,.1:1' POPULATION. .. LAJrG'O'AoGE AoIID PnOVll!"OE. LAIi'GU'~E AED PROVINe". " Persons, MaleR. Femnlesw "Persons. Mnlea, FemoIe •• ----1----

1. 2. 3. 4, 1, 2. 3. ~.

ALAY 2,460 1,286 1,174 FRE ~ CH -contd. Andamans and NieobarA 10 8 2 Baluohistan 2 2 Burma 2,425 1,259 1,166 Bengal 168 112 56

Madras .., 8 7 1 Beral 23 2 21 MadraB States (Tr"Vllon. 11 6 6 Bombay 232 190 42 DOTe.) 11) rROIO State. 6 6 Bnrma 82 63 U

iV AHILI (ZANZIBARI). 321 211 110 Central Provinces 25 14 11

Bombay 321 211 110 Coorg 8 8 1O1 2 2 Madras 387 216 171

Central Provinces 2 2 United Provinces of Agra 19 16 :I and Oudh. 7 7 REEK (ROMAIC) 258 203 55 Central India Agency nyd~rabad State 20 9 11 Beogal 47 3[, , 9 Kasbmir State 2 , Berar , 4 2 2 6 5 3 Bombay 129 104 25 Madras States 8 1 Burma 54 50 OocM", , 1 ... Central Provinces , 4. 4. Travanc01'1I , 6 3 32 Madras, 2 2 Mysore Sblte 57 25 6, Bengal States 1 1 Rajputana Agency 12 '1 Central India Agency ]7 2 15 SPANISH 238 195 as, :ALIAN 993 8,0 123 Bengal 11 9 2 Andamans and Nicobars • 1 1 Bombay 75 42 sa ]06 106 Bengal, 114 86 28 Burma 30 30 Bombay 712 649 63 Madras Burma, 51 United Provinces of Agra 1 1 39 12· and Oudb.. Hyderabad State 1 1 Madras 12 12 Msdras Sta'tes 9 '1 Uoitcd Provinces of Agra 11 9 2 Bnd Oudh. 1 1 Hyderabad State , 19 7 12 Cochin , 8 6 2 Madras Slates (Travan· 1 1 T'I'aVanCO'l'8 'Clore). Mysore State • 72 66 6 PORTUGUJ!lSE 12,426 ",745 4,681 Ajmer-Merwara 8 8 ~TIN 38 15 23 Andamans and Nicobars • '1 4. 3 Central Provinces • 313 13 23 Assam 4 3 1 Madras States (Travan­ 2 2 core). Bengal 219 203 16 ALTESE 34 33 1 Berai" 96 75 21 Bombay 34 33 1 :Bombay 8,156 6,126 3,030 :JUMANIAN 1 Burma 290 26'1 23 Unit\ld Provinces of Agra 1 1 and Oudh. Ceniral Provinces • 297 , 20S 81i RENCH 1,065 692 373 Coorg 111 66 , • 45 Aj-'ller.Merwara 2 2 Madrns 2,Oll 980 1,031 _Assan 12 12 United Provinces of Agra 43 .,36 7 ______, ______~ ______~ ______~ ______~ __~a~n~d~O~n~d~h~. ______~ __ ••__ I.-..._.....L. __ ...... 128 TABLE X.

Language.

PART IIlo-TERRlTORlAL DISTRIBUTION OF EACH LANGUAGE.

~ , . POPULA..l'ION • POPULATIOlf' • LANGUAGB UD PBovllfCB. LANGUAGE AND PBOVlNCB. Persons. Mala •. Females. Per8t1Ds. lIales. Fsmaleg.

1. 2. B. 4. 1. 2. S. f. p ORTUGU ESE -contd. LISH-contd. Baroda State 0 55 41 14 Baluchistan · · · 3,584 3,025 659 Bengal States · 16 14 9 Bengal · · 48,305 28,144 20,161 Bombay States 223 167 56. Berar · · 653 349 .. 304 Central India Agenoy · 98 74 94 Bombay · 39,102 1:16,758 12,344 Central Provinces States • 2 1 1 Burma · · 18,500 12,237 6,263 Hyderabad State · · 103 69 34 Central Provinces · · 7.500 4,737 2.763 Kashmir State 7 7 ... Coorg · · 454 247 207 Madras Statlls · · 589 33~ 256 Madras · 37,675 20,235 17,440 Oocltin 4(Jl 223 184 North· West Frontier Provo 4,724 4,114 610 · ince. TraIJanCOrB · · 182 110 '(2 Punjab · · 27,864 20,944 6,920 Mysore State 0 56 47 9 United Provinces of Agra 31,941 21,817 10,124 · and Olldh. Rajputana Agency · 35 24 11 Baroda Stato · · 178 99 79 wELSH · 12 8 4 Bengal States 145 92 53 Assam · · 9 5 4, Bombay States · 881 567 314' Madras · 0 · 2 2 ... Central India Agency 4,119 3,275 844 \ My sore State 1 1 ... Central Provinces States . 199 107 92 7,907 5,289 GAELIC (SCOTCH), · 3 3 .. , Hyderabad State · , 2,618 Mysore State · 3 3 ... Kashmir State · 177 III 66 IRISH · · 9 '2 2 Madras States · 2,304 1,236 1,OI)B United Provinces of Agra 7 6 1 Cocltin 347 163 184 and Oudh. · 1,903 1,045 859 Madras States · · 2 1 1 Travanl'O'l'e 0 R USSIAN 390 352 :kI1!!: Mysore State · 10,237 5,469 4,768 · 449 Bengal · · · 13 3 10 Punjab States · · 248 201 Bombay · · 362 343 19 Rajplltana Agenc~ • 1,388 773 615 Burma 3 ... 3 United Province. States . 62 45 17 3'(1) Central Provinces 2 1 1 DUTCH · 3at 24 Mlldras · 3 3 ... Bengal · · 9 7 2 United Provinces of Agra 1 ... 1 Bombay , 3iiO 333 17 and Oudh. Bombay States 3 1 2 Burma 12 9 3 Madras 2 ... 2 Kashmir State 1 1 ... · · · Kashmir State · 1 1 ... .M yeore Statll 2 ... 2 Madras States (Travan· 1 1 · oore). .- BOHEMIAN (CZECH) 1 1 ... FLl!:MISR · · 3 . t .2 Madras 1 1 .. , Bombay 1 ... 1 POLISH 2 ... 2 Madras States (Travao· 1 1 ... · · · eare). Bengal 1 ... 1 M ysore State 1 ... 1 Mysore State · · · 1 '" 1 , NORWEGIAN 11) 15 ENGLlSH · · 252,388 162,666 89,722 Bengal · 3 3 ."... Ajmer.Merwara 1.474 855 619 Bombay · 10 10 ... Anc1amans and Nicobars· • · · 332 258 74 Burma 1 1 .0(1 AsSilm. " 2,ll34 1,635 MadIlls · , 599 · · 1 1 ". .. 129 TABLE X.

Language.

PART III.-TERRITORIAL DISTRIBUTION OF EACH LINGUlGE.

POPVLATION. POPVL1TION.

1.UrGITAGE AND PBOVlNOB. L,UraUAGB AlI'D PJr,OVINOll. PersonSa Males. Females. Persons. Males. Females.

1. 2. 3. 4. 1. 2. a.· t. iEDISH · 82 51 31 FINNISH · · 1 l 1 ... Bengal · · 12 11 1 Bengal · · · 1 1 ... Bomba.y · 15 8 7 HUNGARIAN (MAGYAR) 21 II 10 Burma · · 18 18 ... Bengal · · 9 ... 9 Central Provinoes • · 13 2 11 Bombay · · · 12 11 1 Madras 17 11 6 · · LANGUAGE NOT RE- Bengal States · · 7 1 6 TURNED · · 947,164- 497,64:2 449,522 INISH .. 67 51 16 Baluchistan 139,476 120,063 · · · 259,539 eengal · · 9 9 ... Bombay · 1,769 987 782 Bombay · · 24. 23 1 Burma. · 127,011 59,625 67,386 Burma. · · 1 1 ... Madras. · · 652 99 553 Oentral Provineell • 1 1 ... North -West Frontier Prov- 13,610 7,842 5,768 ince. Madras 32 17 15 · Punjab 22,083 18,753 · · · 40,836 mMAN · · 1,58(1 1,1l6 464: Bombay States · · 688 348 340 Assam · · · 15 9 6 Hyderablld State · 462 138 324 Bengal · 279 192 87 Madras States (Travancore) 25 13 12 Berar • · · · 2 1 1 Mysore State · 36 24 12 B~mbay · · 692 554 138 Punjab States · 36 13 23 Burma · · · 126 104 22 Baluohistan Agenoy · 602,500 266,994 235,506 Central Provinces 32 22 10 LANGUAGE NOT · TRACED, Ere. 101,059 52,097 4:8,962 Coorg • 22 12 10 · · · Burma 159 130 29 Madras , 314 180 134 · · Coorg 9 7 2 United Provinces of Agra 53 22 31 · and Oudh. Madras , · 147 96 51 Bengal States '1 4 :3 North-West Frontier Prov- 168 125 43 ince. Bombay States 3 2 1 ,~' · Punjab 295 244 51 Hyderabad State 2 2 ... · · · United Provinces of Agra 6,791 3,731 9,C60 Madras States · 4 3 1 and Oudh. Travancore · 2 2 .. , Hyderabad State · 63 22 31 Mysore State · 26 6 20 Kashmir State 93,415 47,728 45,687 Rajpntana Agency :3 3 ... Punjab States · 22 14 8 130 TABLE X . .. AJMER-MERWARA] Language. ~ AND~MANS. ~ PART IV.-LINGUISTIC DISTRIBUTION OF EACH PROVINCE.

POl'ULA.TIOJJ • POl'ULU'ION.

LAlfGUAGE. LAIrBthi · · · 465 253 212 Kanarese • 282 260 22 Bihllri · · · · · 1,090 64,0 450 Tulu 47 44 S Bengali · · · · · 281 192 89 Gond · · · 1 1 ... Western Hindi · · 132,104 70,166 1)1,938 Brabui · · · 1 1 ... Rlljasthani 339,750 I 177,748 162,002 llaloch · 58 58 ... , · Gujarati • · 816 515 301 Pashto 355 345 10 · · · , Bhillanguagea 17 17 ... Lahnda 13 " · · · · · · 13 ... I Panjabi · · · · 691 527 164 Sindhi · · · · 162 154 8 Arabic • · · · 3 3 ... Marathi · · 922 802 120 Others · · · 125 ~O 85 Odya · · 262 246 1~ Bengali · · · 1,441 1,299 142 I 11.-VERNACULARS OF 11 11 ... Assamese • 8 8 ... OTHER ASIA.TIC COUN- · · TRIES, AFItICA, Western Hindi <1, 7,317 5,997 1,320 AIlSTRALIA.. · Rajllsthani · · 47 45 2 11 11 ... Gujarati 215 21 Persian · · · · 236 Panjabi · · · · 1,317 1,125 192 C.-EUROPEAN 1,4:84 85~ 62~ Westero Fahari 37 34 a LANGUAGES. · · Naipali (Khas) · · · 2 2 ... French · · · 2 2· ... Andamanesa · · 1,882 1,036 846 Portuguese · 8 ... 8 Euglish 1,474 855 619 B.-VERNA.CULARS OF 57 53 · · OTHER ASIATIC COUNTRIES, AFRICA., AUSTRALIA. A.NDAMANSAND NICODARS. 2-l,64:0 18,695 5,954: Persian · · · · 39 37 A.rmenian · 1 1 A,-VERNA.CUURS OF 24,252 18,3~!) 5,8~3 Chinese 7 7 INDIA. · · · Malay · · 10 8 Nicobarese · 6,513 3,539 2,974 Talaing . . 389 359 30 C.-EUROPEAN 340 21i3 · LANGUAGES. • KllwllYmi 1 1 ... . · 1 Burmese 1,833 1,823 10 Italian . · 1 ;0 · 4 Karen . 11 11 ... Portuguese '1 . f · · · 258 .. Siamese . . , 1 1 ... English . · · 332 , · · -- 131 TABLE X.

Langua.ge. [ASSAM. PART IV.-LINGUISTIC DISTRIBUTION OF EAC1I PROVINCE. ... POl'UL..6..TION' • POl'ULATION. " L.lNGUAGE. LANGUAGE. PersoDB. Male •. Female •• Persons. Male •• FemB.1es.

I. Z. 3. 4. I. 2. 8. 4. ASSAU. 6,126,343 3,143,692 2,982,651 ASSAlU-Gontd. , A.-VERn()U~ARS OF 6,123,881 3,141,861) 2,982,016 Ao 28,195 19,394 14,741 INDIA. · · Lhota 16,962 8,933 8,029 [on, Talaing or Peguan 27 27 ...... · Thukumi 26 6 20 :hassi · 177,802 83,701 , 94,101 · · · Ynchumi , 35 18 17 hotia of Ladakh · 7 7 ... · · · Tableng 198 89 109 hotia. of Bhotan · 1,654 1,205 449 · · Tamlu 1,545 738 807 &mi · · 11 11 ... · · · Mojnog 152 ... 152 hmmu · 15 15 ... · · · · · · Naga, un classed 69,641 35,041 34,600 adhi, Pahri or Pllhi 268 160 108 · · Mnnipnri. 255,765 126,509 129,256 ayn or Vayu · · 90 50 40 · · · RBngkhol 4,766 1,729 3,037 irnnti (Khambu or J imdar) 564 499 65 · · Hallam 21 17 4 iranti (Yakha) · 115 91 24 · · · Mhar 169 81 88 iranti (Others) · 58 63 6 · · · Thado or J angshen 3,399 1,575 1,824 urung · · 1,339 857 482 · Sairang 71 ... 71 mnwar • 259 168 91 · · · · · · Zahao 3,216 1,548 1,668 :angar · · · · 1,815 1,352 463 · Lushei or DuHan 72,011 32,030 39,981 ewari · · 382 264 118 · Kuki 47,042 22,754 24,288 :urmi · 105 84 21 · · · · · · Chin 2,149 1,588 561 ong or Lepcha · 17 17 ... · · · Singpho 1,770 920 850 imbu • · · · 1,165 966 199 · · Burmese 633 410 223 hima! · · · 4 ... 4 · · · · Sban 1,490 941 549 Ira · 26 21 6 · · · · · Pba.kial 289 284 5 aHa. · · · 805 501 304 · · · Nora 2 2 ... bor·Miri · 40,829 21,763 19,066 Tllirong 12 12 71 • ... lishmi 53 ~~ · · · · · · Aiton 1,569 780 789 odo or Plains Kachari 218,049 108,595 109,454 · · Santilli 01' Hor • 30,129 16,055 14,074 alung · 16,414 7,864 8,550 · · Kol 43,291 22,175 21,116 IDima·sa · 19,940 10,401 9,539 · · · · Korwa 79 36 43 Chutia 2,364 1,489 875 · · · · · · Kbaria 1,919 1,166 763 Garo 137,154 69,251 67,903 · · · · JUllng or Plltull 55 64 1 Rabha · 20,2'13 9,272 10,971 · · · Kora or Kodll 46 22 24 Tipurll or Mrung 10,403 5,235 5,168 · · · · Korku 208 40 168 Moran . 78 28 50 · · · · · · Tamil or Arava 2,497 1,405 1,092 lIikTr 83,620 43,002 40,618 · · · Telugu or Andbra 5,270 2,828 2,447 Empeo or KflChcha Naga 6,604 3,451 3,153 · Kanal'ese • 17 11 6 Iabni 4 4 ... · · · · · · Tulu · · · 1 1 ... Angam~ · 27,866 13,980 13,885 Gond 2,116 l,070 1,0.16 · , · · · · · ·Kezhama • 1,546 1,045 ,501 Kandh or Kui · · 11,827 5,832 5,995 Kurukh or praon · 10,841 5,749 5,092 Rengma • 5,609 2,770 2,839 · 1 · , · Baloch 773 756 17 Serna ., 5,830 2,622 3,208 Pashto · · · · · · · 1,291 1,2~o 26 · · - R '). 132 TABLE X .

BALUCHISTAN.] - .Language. BENGAL. , PART IV.-LINGUISTIC DISTRIBUTION OF EACH PROVINCE.

POPULATIOlf. POPULJ..TION.

LA.liGtTAGE. LANGllA.GE. Persons. Males. Females. Pel'SOn •• Male.. I Female,;

1. 3. 1. 2. 3. BALUCHISTAN-contd. A SSA1I -contd. Baloch 1,517 971 Mungi 28 28 Pashto 5,557 4,836 Ka.shmiri 23 20 3 Sanskrit • 2 2 Sindhi 16 16 Kashmiri 28 22 Marathi • 6,660 3,434 3,226 Lahnda 5 4 Oriya 23,761 12,328 11,433 Sindhi 3,306 2,310 Bihari 992 462 530 Marathi • 1,149 1,080 Bengali • 2,949,287 1,513,250 1,436,037 Oriya 1 Assamese • 1,349,802 685,113 664,689 Bengali • 20 11 Eastern Hindi 334,265 188,147 146,118 Western Hindi. 10,232 8,378 Wastern Hindi • 22,389 16,390 5,999 Rajasthani 253 232 Rajastbani 7,219 5,622 1,597 Gn~arati • 470 298 Gujarati 1,189 839 350 Panjabi • 20,287 16,219 Bleil languages 24(1 139 101 Western Pabari 9 8 Panjabi • 3,283 3,136 147 Ea.stern Pahari or Naipali 14 10 Centrlll Pahari • 97 61 36 Arabic 25 10 Eastern Pahari or Naipali • 20,196 14,258 5,938 B.-VERNACULARS OF 1,513 1,058 Arabic 26 20 6 OTHER ASIATIC COUNTRIES, AFRICA, Gipsy languages 69 18 51 AUSTRALIA. Persian • 1,509 1,056 B.-VERNACULARS OF 188 163 25 Turkish Dialects OTHER ASIATIC 4 2 COUNTRIES, AFRICA, AUSTRALIA. C.-EUROPEAN 3,586 3,025 LANGUAGES. Persian • 42 35 7 ~ French 2 Wakhi 15 15 English 3,584 3,025 Armenian 2 1 1 BENGAL. 7<1,7«,866 37,376,782 37, 368,U Chinese • 129 127 2 A.-VERNACULARS OF 74:,689,709 37,34:3,329 37,34tl,3 C.-EUROPEAN 2,27{ 1,6M 610 INDIA. LANGUAGES. Khassi 17 French 12 12 14 Bhotia of Tibet or Tibetan • 1,7,14 926 Portuguese 4 S 1 Shal'pa Bhotia 3,495 1,835 Welsh • 9 5 4 Bbotia of Sikkim 1,547 764 English • 2,234 1,635 599 Bhotia of Bhotan 7,455 3,982 German 15 9 6 Hayu 24 17 BALUCHISTAN. 4:8,707 39,050 9,657 Kiranti (Khambu) 33,837 17,237 lTERNACULARS A.- <13,608 34,967 S,6H Kiranti (Yakha) OF INDIA. 1,186 604 Bhotia of Tibet or Tibetan 1 1 Gurung • 4,360 2,165 Tamil or Ara va 49 33 16 Sunuwar • 4,461 ~ 2,377 JI'Ialayafam 2 2 Thami 279 176 Telugu Ot Andhl'a 36 31 5 Mangar 14,627 7,858 Erahni 645 509 136 Newari 6,437 3,~62 133 TABLE X.

Language. [BENGAL. PART IV.-LINGUISTIC DISTRIBUTION OF EACH PROVINCE. _1 ...

FOPULATION. POl"ULA.'lION.

LA.l'fGtJ ..u:I-I. Ll.NGUAGB, - PersoDs. Males. Female,. Persous. Male •. Fem.les. -'--

I. 2. 3 i. 1. 2. S., 4. BENGAL-contd. BENGAL-contd. Bengali 40,714,099 20,466,479 20,247,620, 26,747 13,306 13,441 · · · urmi · · Assamese • 300 210 90· 515 282 233 · anjhi · · · Hindi' 26,151,361 12,989,703 13,161,658 11,329 5,428 5,901 · · epohs · · RajastDlIIli 10,190 5,907 4,283 16,125 8,523 7,602 · · im bu · · Gujarati • · 4,378 3,045 1,333. 607 314 293 imal · · BMllanguages (Si!lalgir) 338 169 169 20,995 11,086 9,909 od o or Plains Kachari Panjllbi 2,250 1,960 290 48,369 24,176 24,193 · ro · · • · Eastern Pahari or Nllipali 65,400 33,747 31,653 25,386 13,398 11,988 · ip ura · · Arabic 1,231 867 3640 183 102 81 · nipuri · · Gipsy languages · · 103 56 47 njogi · · · 660 279 281 okhu 113 62 51 · · · B.-VERNACULARS OF · 414 208 o,95~ 4,635 1,322' yeng 206 OTHER ASIATIC · AFRICA, ami 1,469 761 708 COUNTRIES, · · · AUSTRALIA. .n ki 1,819 960 859 · · · · Persilln 2,888 2,167 721 [m '10,484 5,352 5,132 · · · · Armenian · · · : 160 99 61 rmese • 62,645 31,763 30,789 · · · · Hebrew 536 274 262 ntali • 1,545,311 770,306 776,005 · · · · · · · African Dialeots 2 1 1 :0I 675,746 330,334 345,412 · · · · · Turkish Dialects 4 4 ... · 8,147 · .0 rwa 4,013 4,134 · · · · Japanese 66 27 39 :h &ria 54,625 26,892 27,733 · · · · · · Chinese 2,301 2,063 238 2 2 .. , · · · · SDg · · · II tl 4,433 2,238 2,195 · · · C.-EUROPEAN LAN- 49,200 28,818 20,882 to ra · · · · 21,923 10,521 11,402 GlJA.GES. IS mil · · · · 2,264 1,341 923' 'Pul'eek (Romaic) d,7 38 9 [a Iayalam • · 67 63 4 Italian · · 114 86 28 'el agu · · · 14,759 7,771 6,988 French · · · 168 112 56 narese · · 14 14 ... Spa.nish · · • 11 9 2 10 nd 210 92 148 Portuguese · · 219 203 16 ra ndb 40,130 19,904 20,226 Russian 13 3 10 · · · : 1m on · 438,226 213,200 225,026 Polish · 1 ... 1 hip,ar · · · 50 33 17 English · · · 48,305 28,144 20,161 Ito · · · 60,777 30,994 29,783 Dutch 9 7 2 ia loch · · 3 3 ... Norwegian 3 3 .. , hto - · 3,011 2,914 97 Swedish · · 12 11 1 hmiri" 33 32 1 Danish 9 9 · ~ · · · · '" ~ • BiD dhi 7 6 1 German , 279 192 87' · · · · · · . I · !Is l'llthi 2,177 1,306 871 Finnish 1 1 ~ ...... · · · • · Dri ya. 4,561,323 2,261,961 2,299,362 Hungarian (Magyar) 9 ... ) 9 - · , 134 TABLE X. nE:RAR. ] Language. BOMBAY. PART IV.-LlNGUISTIC DISTRIBUTION OF EACH PROVINCE.

POPULATION. POPULATION.

LurGllAGB. L.llfGUAGE. Persons. Malu. F."",le•• PersoDs. Males. Female --- I. Z. S. fa. 1. 2. 3. 4. 'BERAR. ' 2,75i,016 1,394,300 1,359,716 BOJIBAY -contd. A.-VERNACULARS 2,753,232 1,393,870 1,359,362 Tamil 9,513 5,493 4,C OF INDIA. · · · · Burmese • · 1 1 ... Malaya.lam · 1,199 751 4 Kot · 19 5 14 Taloga '. · · · 98,051 49,935 48, Kor ku · · 28,343 13,856 14,487 KanlUese • · · 2,507,.889 1,269,452 1,238, il · · 459 247 212 Tuln · · · 369 270 Mal IlYBlam · · · 11 4 7 Gona · · 401 183 Tel ugn · · · · 35,431 17,671 17,760 Brahm · · · · 47,037 28,457 18, 5 Kan areea • · · · 1,036 579 457 Balooh · · · 103,079 57,479 45, (lon d · · · 83,217 40,650 42,567 Pashto · · · 10,983 8,835 2, :Bal och · · • 2 2 ... Kashmiri · · · 201 161 Pas hto · · · 602 526 76 Lahoda · · · · 22 19 Mil rnthi · , · 2,194,620 1,100,517 1,094,103 Sindhi · · · 2,735,633 ~,487,109 1,248, 5 Bih ari · · 15 13 2' Marathi · 8,639,131 4,344,140 4,294, 9 Ben gali · · 19 14 5 OriYB · · · 4 3 Ee. stern Hindi • · · 4,250 2,403 1,847 Bibari · · · · 54 31 We stern Hindi • · 273,003 144,408 128,595 Bengali · · 1,631 1,432 1 Ra j3sthani · 41,776 AS8amese 1 · · 25,154 16,622 · '" Gu jal"Bti • · · 20,889 11,776 9,113 Eastern Hindi · · · 2,749 1,475 1, 2 B killanguage, · • 990 457 533 Western Hindi . 919,076 488,847 430, 2: Pa njabi · · 525 304 221 Rajasthani · · 233,334 132,232 101, 11 Cen tra.l Pahati • · · 17 5 12 Gujarati • · · 3,100,597 1,611,017 1,489, 61 Ara bic · · · · 118 70 48 Bkil, la7lguages · 87,584 43,576 44, ()( Gj psy languages · · 68,879 35,665 33,214 Kkandeski · 2,021 993 1, ni- VERNKCULA.RS OP 6 1 5 Po.njabi 32,760 21,839 10, OTHER ASIATIC · · COU1tTRIES,. AFRICA, Ellostem Pahari or Naipali 1 1 ... AUSTRALU. Arabic 27,055 18,514 8, 54] T nrkish Dialects 6 1 5 ·<1, · · · · · Somali 5,530 3,496 2, 03' C.-EUROPEAN 778 429 349 · · · · LA.NGUAGES. Gipsy languages · 25,509 13,026 12, Gre ek (Romaio) 4 2 2 B.-VEltNA.CiiLARS OF 5,995 3,98Z 2, 013 · · OTUER ASIATIC Frencb 23 · · · 2 21 COUNTRIE~, AFRICA, · AUSTRALIA. Por tuguese 96 75 · · 21 Persian 4,257 2,859 1, 398 En glish 653 · · · · · · 349 304 Armenian · 1 1 ... Ger man 2 1 · . · · · · 1 Hebrew · · 367 183 184, Dankali 63 62 BOMBAY, 18,559,561 9,583,409 8,0"6,152 · · · Abyssinian 244 146 9? A ,-VERNACULARS OF 18,501,891 9,544,256 8,957,635 · · · INDIA.. - Turkish Dialects · 312 192 • 12( Tha n,i. · · · · S 4 4. Japanese • · 182 110 72 Ren gma • 8 2 · r) · · 6 Chinese · · 248 218 • sa Bu l'mese , ., 66 53 13 Swahili (Zanzibari) 321 · · 211 • 1l~ · ~ 135 TABLE X.

Language. [ BURMA. PART IV,-LINGUISTIC DISTRIBUTION OF EACH PROVINCE,

POPULA.TION. POPULA._TION.

L~NGUAGE. L~NGUAG". Persons. Male,. Females. Persons. MaleB. Females.

1. ' 2. 3. 4. 1. 2. 3. ~. BURMA -Qontd. l BOlJIBAY-contd. Burmese . · 7,4.07,644 3,6S5,410 3,772,234 C.-EUROPEAN 40,906 34,184 11),~22 Karen 887,863 446,035 4U,828 LANGUAGES. · · Siamese 19,631 10,679 8,852 1reek CRomaie) 129 104 25 · La 19,380 9,686 9,694 ita !ian 712 649 63 · · Khun · 42,160 20,937 21,223 Itese 34 33 1 · · · · · Shan 751,759 371,921 379,838 eoch , 232 190 42 · · · · Tamil 99,576 73,712 25,864. ipa nish 75 42 33 · · · · Malaya1am · 324- 286 38 ~o rtuguese 8,156 5,126 3,030 · · · Teluga 96,601 83,448 13,153 ssian 362 343 19 · · · · KanareB8 • 34. 24 10 glish 39,102 26,758 12,34.4 · · · · Pashto 332 303 29 )u tch 350 333 17 · · · · · Kashmiri .. 12 12 ... lie mish 1 ... 1 · · · · · Sindhi 56 49 '1 10rwegian 10 10 ... · · · · · · · Marathi 521 448 73 iw edish 15 8 7 · · · · · · · · Oriya !12,997 12,585 412 )auish 24 23 1 · · · · · · Bengali* 208,078 138,479 69,599 fer man 692 654 138 · · · · · · Western Hindi 123,811 103,070 20.741 Iu ngariun (Magyar) • 12 ·11 1 · · · Rajssthani 280 195 85 uguages not returned 1,7611 087 I 782 · · Gujarati · · · 4,067 3,161 906 15,845 BUmU. 10,41)0,624 5,342,033 5,148,1)91 Panjabi · · · 14,101 1,7404 Naipali 5,463 4,316 1,148 .-VERNACULARS OF 10,293,669 6,228,519 5,061),150 · · · • INDIA. Arabic · · 301 187 114 &1 aug 1,318 661 657 · · B.-VERNA.CULARS OF · 174,094 88,327 50,541 40,864: 9,6"~ Mo u, Talaing or Pegaan 85,761 orj'IlER ASIATIC COUNTlUES, AFRICA, Pal aung a 67,756 34,283 33,473 · · · AUSTRALU. Wa , : 7,667 3,920 5,747 · · Persian 196 176 20 Mil. nipuri • 3,676 1,796 1,880 · · · · · · Armenian. 34 25 11 Cha w 215 112 103 · · · · Hebrew • 254 160 94 Yin du 43 31 12 · · · · · · Turkisp ~;'\leets 6 6 ... Kh Bmi 24.,389 12,572 12,017 · · · · · Japanese • 107 17 90 An u 775 388 S87 · · · · · Chinese 47,519 39,223 .8,296 Th at 67 . 37 30 · · · · · · · Malay 2,425 1,259 1,166 179,615 811,293 90,322 · · Cli n · · Ka chin 65,570 31,92l 33,649 C.-EUROPEAN LAN· 19,244 12,895 6,849 · · · GUAGES. 348 Szi Lepai . · 756 408 Greek (Romaic) · · 64 50 4. 49 ~ashi .., 84 35 Italia.n · · · 61 39 12 151 76 75 French Ma ru · · '" · · · · 82 63 III Ma ingtha. 465 417 48 Spanish, • 106 106 · · · · · 1 · .. Kac hin Hybrids · 56,979 28,550 28,449 Portuguese · · 290 267 23 .. · \ :M or 13,414 6,915 6,49[1 Russian 3 ... · · • I 3 136 TABLE X.

~fNTRAL PROVINCES. ] Language. COORG. PART (V.-LINGUISTIC DISTRIBUTION OF nCH PROVINCE.

PO.rULA',ON. POPULATION.

LA.NGUAGE. L.AJiGU..lGB. Persons. Male •• Femai ... Personsl Maies. Females. I 1• 3. 1. 2. 3. •• 2. •• CENTRAL PROVINCES -contd. BlJR!1A -concld. Panjllbi · · · , 1,089 832 257 18,500 12,237 6,263 Western Pahllri 1 ... 1 English · · · Dutch · • · · 12 9 3 Control Pahari • · 20 10 10 1 1 ... 20,210 9,882 10,32S Norwegian · · · Gipsy languages · swedish 18 18 ... n.-VERNACULARS OF 379 185 19,j · · · OTHER ASIATIC 1 1 DanIsh ... COUNTRIES, AFRICA, · · · AUSTR.lLU. German 126 104 22 · · · · Persian 298 165 143 L anguage not returned. 127,011 59,625 67,386 · · · · Hebrew · · 79 28 51 · · 2 La nguage nntraced • 159 130 29 Sidi · · · · 2 '" C.-EUROPEAN '1,910 5,002 2,008 CENTRAL 9;876,6(6 (,855,08t 5,020,662 LANGUAGES. PROVINCES. Greek (Romaia) 4 4 ... A.-VERNACULARS OJ! 1),868,35'1 4,850,79'1 5,017,560 14 (NDU. French · · · · 25 11 Latin 36 13 2: Chin 1 ... 1 · · · Portuguese 297 208 81 Bnrmese • 155 155 ... · · · Russian · 2 1 1 Smmase • 1 1 ... · · · · · English 7,500 4,737 2,76~ K 01 11,507 5,556 6,961 · · · · · Swedish 13 2 11 K hnria · 18,621 9,063 9,458 • · · · · Danish 1 1 ... A sur 26 11 16 · · · · · German 32 22 1fj K orkn 67,436 2B,267 29,179 · · · · · 180,607 100,258 80,349 Tami) · · · 6,140 3,259 2,881 COORG. IIalayalam 11 8 3 A.-VERNACULARS 179!998 99,916 80,082 · · OF INDIA. Telngn · · 93,856 46,772 47,084 Tamil · · · 5,207 2,893 2,3H K anares6 • · 3,382 1,577 1,805 Malayalam • 27,214 17,382 9,832 · · · · 1,665 Gond · · 701,872 338,001 363,871 Telugu · · · 2,974 1,309 K andh or Kui · · 7 4 3 Ka.nares9 • · 80,770 42,713 38,057 K 11lnkh or Oraon · · 11,651 5,621 6,030 Kodagu or Coorgi · 39,148 19,951 19,197 p ashto · · · 273 240 33 .Tuln · · · 12,994 8,672 4,32~ Sindhi · · · · 1 1 ... Sindhi · · · · 7 6 1 M amthi · · 2,106,558 1,040,531 1,066,027 Mal'athi · · 4,827 2,843 1,984 oriya · · · · 702,635 345,674 357,061 Western Hindi · 6,679 3,665 3,014 Bihllri • · · · 20 17 3 Rajasthani . · · 10 9 .1 B engali · · · 1,537 B83 654 Gnjamti • · · 137 93 H · 4 4, ... E astern Hindi • 3,679,981 1,784,529 1,895,452 Panjabi · · · 27 20 7 W estern Hindi • · · 1,92~,04,1 961,643 960,498 Gipsy languag~ · . Rajasthani "; 497,729 251,765 245,964 , · n.-VERNACULlRS OF 10 Gujar~ti ~. 31,696 16,705 14,991 OTHER ASIATIC " · · · r COUNTRIES, AFRICA, 11,265 5,642 BMl Janguages • · 5.623 AUSTRALIA. KkanilesJ.i r 314 140 17:4 Persian . 10 7 · · r · ~ · 137 TABLE X.

MADRAS. Language. [ N.-W. FRONTIER PROVINCE. PART IV.-LINGUISTIC DISTUIllUTlON OF UCII PROVINCE.

POPULATIDN'~ POPULATION.

LANGl1.A.GE. LUrGll.!GlIl. Persons. Males. Females, Persons. Male •• FemAle ••

1. 2. S. 4. 1. 2. ,3. ,. :OORG-contd. llUDRAS-contd. C.-EUROPE.\.N 590 328 262 LA.NGUAGES. B.-VERNACUL,mS OF 267· 174 93 I 3 3 ... OTnER ASIATIC · · COUNTRIES, AFRICA, 111 -66 45 !ues~ · · · AUSTltALIA. ,h · 454 247 207 Persian · · 200 121 79 · Armenian In · · · 22 12 10 · 6 6 ... nguage unrecog- 9 7 2 Hobrew 22 11 11 nizable. · · .Tapanese · · 8 6 2 llUDRAS 38,209,436 18,84,1,28-1 19,368,152 Chinose -VER:NA.CULARS OF 38, Hi7 ,881 18,819,225 19,348,656 23 23 ... INDIA, · · · · Malay · · • · 8 7 1 .i 4 ... 4 · · · C.-EUROPUN 40,489 21,690 18,799 )S6 • 130 125 5 J,,\NGUAGES. · · Greck CRomaie) 2 2 .. , ;6 3 2 1 · · · · · · Italian 12 12 ... ~ · · · 36,406 18,374 18,032 · · · · · Frenoh · 387 216 171 ~ 157,100 78,845 78,255 · · · · Spanish 30 30 ." 15,224,447 7,426,185 7,798,262 · · · · · · · Portuguese ·V 2,011 980 1,031 slam 2,861,297 1,412,798 1,448,499 · · · Welsh 2 2 ... II • 14,276,509 7,113,891 7,162,618 · · · · Russian 3 3 ... 'ese • 1,557,644 768,160 789,484 · · · · · Bohemian (Czech) 1 1 .. , :uor Coorgi 38 31 7 · · · English 37,675 20,235 17,44.0 499,056 2-10,086 258,970 · · · · · · Dutch 2 ... 2 805 451 354 · · · · · Norwegian 1 1 .. , 1,300 621 679 · · · · · · · Swedish 17 11 8 51,054 27,2t7 23,807 · · · · · · . Danish 32 17 15 lor Kui 372,366 189,961 182,415 · · · · · German 314 180 134. · · · 26 26 ... · · · · 22 22 ... Language not returned 652 99 553 i~ · · 641 316 226 Language not identified 147 96 al iri . 1 1 ... N.-W. FRONTIER 2,125,480 1,159,306 966,174 · · 51 43 8 PROVINCE. Ii 279,383 139,823 139,560 A.-VERNACULARS OF 2,103,686 1,144,730 9_58,956 · · · · INDIA. · · · 1,835,443 887,615 947,828 Bhotia of Tibet • · · 25 25 ... i · · 626 501 125 Burmese · · · 1 ... 1 1 Hindi · 1,495 767 728 Tamil or Arava · · 589 583 6 D Rindi • · 883,501 446,740 436,761 MalayaIlIm · 46 46 ... ~ , · ":UU 1,419 1,098· 321 Talugu 203 203 · · · · · · '" U 92,298 46,911 45,387 Bmbui 45 , 45 ... . , · · · 1 · · ·, 54 45 9 BIlIoch · 12.J. 104 7 !)O , 1 Pahari. 01' NIloipali 4 4 I :I .. Pashto · .' 1,142,869 539,471 · · · 596 604 92 Cbatrari . 1 ~~'~81 1 l' · .angt',J.ges 34,262 18,Oi3 16,219 Shina - J · · 133 TABLE X .

..... PUNJAB.] Lang'unge. PART IV.-LINGUISTIC DISTRIBUTION OF EACII PROVINCE.

POPULATION. POl'UL.LTlON.

LUiGHGIl. L.lllfGlI'AGB" Persons. l\lale •• I FomaleE'. Persons. lIlales. I Females. 1. 2. 3. f. 1. :I. 3. 4.

~ PUNJAB-vontd. N.-lV. FRONTIER PROVINCE-cantd. Burmese · · 4 2 2 Kashmiri · · · 826 546 280 Karen · · 1 ... 1 Kohistani · · · · 36 23 13 Tamil · · · · 138 87 61 Laboda · · · 581,713 308,808 272,905 Malayalam · · · 5 4 1 Sindhi · 216 200 16 Tolugu · · · 6 3 3 Mardtbi · • · 813 811 2 Kanarese · · 1 1 .. , Bihari · · · 708 631 177 Baloch • · · · 38,395 21,428 16,967 Bengali · · · · 89 64 25 PlIshto · · 51,545 30,892 20,653 A@samese 1 1 · · · · '" Chatrari · · · · 4 ... 4 Western Hindi. · 16,817 12,178 4,639 Shina · · · · 51 30 21 Rlljasthaui · · · S3,m, 28,266 24,908 Kashmiri · · 6,978 4,367 2,en Gujarati · · · 182 104 78 Lahnda · · · · 2,225,677 1,184,098 1,041,579 Pllojabt · · · · 300,587 185,264 115,323 Siodhi · · · · 2,179,V 1,513 S66 Western Pabllri 289 189 100 Marathi · · · 952 543 4i;'l Central Pahari 3 3 ... · 2 2 · · Oriya · · · ... Ilr 3,983 Eastern Pabari Naipali · 3,155 828 Isi.hari · · • · 38,033 22,198 1li,B3l Arabia 33 30 3 Bengali 2,330 1,441 · · · · · " · 889 Gipsy languages S08 148 160 · · Assamese • · f · 1 1 ... Western Hindi 3,772.727 2,031,084 1,741,C43 n.-VERNACULARS OF 3,292 2,495 797 · · OTHER ASIATIC Rajastbaoi 402,365 212,608 189,757 COUNTRIES, AFRIC!, · · · AUSTRALU. Gujarati · · · 1,775 1,098 671 Pel'liian · · · 3,290 2,495 795 Panjabi · 12,923,570 6,973,936 5,949,631 Hebrew · · · · 1 ... 1 Western Pahari · 760,879 398,000 367,879 Chinese 1 ... 1 356 329 · · · · Central Pahari · · 2i Eastern Pahari or Naipali · 6,028 4,032 1,99 C.-EUROPEAN LAN· 4,724 4,114 610 Arabio 78 53 2· GUAGES. · · · , Gipsy languages · · 7,182 3,750 3,4~ Eng;ish 4,724 4,114 610 · · · B.-VERNACULARS OF 3,053 1,642 1,411 OTIlER ASIATIC Language not returned 13,610 7,8402 5,768 COUNTRIES, ArRIC!, AUSTRALU. Language not identified 168 125 43 S,026 1,625 1,40J Persian · · · · 26 17 ! PUJUAB. 20,330,389 10,942,705 9,887,68'{ Chinese · · · · 1 ... . 1 Javanese f A.-VERNlCUURS OF 20,258,291 10,897,792 9,360,499 · · · INDIA. C.-EUROPEAN LAN· 27,864 20,9:14 6,920 Bhotia of Tibet 180 141 39 GUAGES. , · · Bhotia of Ladakh 62 48 14 Engli~h . 27,864 20,944 D 6,920 ," · · - · Bhotia c1f Bhotan 4,252 2,343 1,909 · Language not returned 40,836 22,083 18,753 Lohuli · · · · · 7,510 I 3,736 3,774- Ranlliwal'j or Mul-han{ 25 24 1 Language not identified 295 244

- ~ - 139 TABLE X

Language. [UNITED PROVINC~ PART IV.-LINGUISTIC DISTRIBUTION OF EACH PROVINCE.

POl'ULS.TION. POPULATION.

LANGUAGE. LANGUAGE. Peraous. Malee. Female •. Persons. Malee. F.male". - I 2. a~ 4. 1. 2. 3. ~. 1. UNITED PROVINCES , UNITED PROVINCES 4-'1,691,782 24,616,942 23,074,840 -oontd. 'OF A. AND OUDH. Rajastbani 8,205 4,721 3,4840 · · · , . 1.-VERNACULA,RS OF (7,6112,088 24,590,814- 23,061~74: Gujarati 4,632 2,718 1,914 INDIA. · · · · Panjabi 15,180 ]0,606 4,574 Bhotia (If Tibet 10,835 5,378 5,457 · · · · Western Pahari 40 34. 6 Bhotia of Bb olan 29 12 17' · · · · Oentl'al Pabari • 1,004,404 503,301 501,103 J{irllnti (others) 6 ... 6 · · · · Eastern Pahari or Naipali 24,088 15,618 8,470 Garo · 19 19 ... · · Arabic 73 52 21 Manipnri III 58 53 · · · · · Gipsy languages 353 139 2140 Andro • 1 1 ... · · · · B.-VERNlCULlRS OF 826 491 335 Burmese. 363 363 ... OTHER ASIATIC · · COUNTRIES, AFRICA, Kot 3 3 ... · · · · AUSTR!LIA.. Korwa • · · · 308 161 147 Persian · · · · 803 470 393 Tamil · · · · 766 521 Armenian · · · 1 1 ... Malayalam • · · 13 7 6 Hebrew · · · · 7 7 ... Telugn· · · · 640 364 276 Turkish Dialects · · 8 ·3 ... 'Kauares6 • · · · 187 108 79 Chinese · 12 10 9 Kandh 9 9 ... C.-EUROPEAN LAN- 32,0'" 21,906 10,171 · · · GUAGES. Baloch 1 1 ... · · · · Italian 11 9 :I Pashto · 774 691 83 · · · · · · Roumanian • 1 ... 1 Kashmiri 95 . 78 17 · · · · · French 19 16 3 Lahnda 98 64 34 · · · · · · · Spani.h 1 ... 1 Sindhi 211 181 SO · · · · · · · Portuguese 43 36 7 Marathi , • 6,201 3,383 2,818 · · · · Irish. '1 6 1 Oriya 96 75 21 · · · · · · · Russian 1 ... 1 Bihllri 10,056,056 4,986,931 5,069,125 · · · · · · · · English 31,9,U 21,817 10,124 Bengali 24,120 11,490 12,680 · · · · · German 53 22 31 Eastern Hindi · · · 14,905,187 7,539,895 7',365,292 · · · · Western Hindi · 21,588,984 11,503,832 10,085,152 Language not identified 6,791 3,731 3.060 140 TABLE X.

BARODA. 1 BZ~GAL STATES.:d Language. PART IV,-LINGUISTIC DISTRIBUTION OF EACH STATE OR AGENCY, . e POPULATION. POPULATION.

LU!G11A.GE, L .. lrGUAGE. Persons, lIfale •• Females. Persons. Males. Femoles, , 1. 2. S. 4, 1. 2. 3. i, BARODA STATE 1,952,692 1,008,634 94:4,058 BENGAL STATElS- - contd. , A,-VERN1CULARS 1,952,393 1,008,«" 943,9<16 OF INDIA, Mangar · · 2,034 1,103 931 Tamil · · 85 53 32 Newari · · 1,054 558 496 Telugu · · · 322 171 151 Murmi · 5,315 2,718 2,597 Kauarese • · · 46 34 12 Manjhi · 387 202 185 Baloch · · 4 :I 1 Lepcba · · · · 7,945 4,160 3,785 E'ashto · · 27 20 7 Limbu · · 5,910 3,080 2,830 Kashmlri 1 1 Bodo or Plains, Kllchari 414 325 88 · '" Sindhi · · 153 84 69 Galo 398 206 192 MaIllthi Tipura . . 76,185 39,2t5 36,940 · · · 38,583 20,546 18,037 · · Bihllri · · · 1 1 ... lIIanipnri · · · 13,262 6,976 6,286 · Halhllu Bengali · 95 66 29 · · · · 3,672 1,793 1,87~ Eastern Hindi • · 23 21 2 Lushei · · 131 58 73 Western Hindi • · · 69,087 38,139 30,948 Kuki · · 5,019 2,550 2,469 Rajastbani · · 1,936 1,144 792 Burmese • · · 1,511 782 729 [lujarati • · · · 1,841,499 947,853 893,647 Santali or Hor • · 215,059 106,021 109,038 Bhillanguages 67,883 34,729 33,154 Rol · · · 210,206 106,923 103,283 Kkanaeshi · :62 12 10 Rorwa · • · 7,908 3,948 3,960 Panjabi · · · · 135 112 23 Khal'ia · · · 24,758 13,711 11,047 I\.rabie Juaug " . 10,796 5,807 4,989 . · · · 153 89 64 · · :;ipsy languages · 243 112 131 .Asur · · · , 393 248 145 B,-VERNACULARS OF 66 47 19 Kom · · · 1,904 1,114 790 OTHER ASIATIC Tamil 10 COUNTRIES, AFRICA, · · 5 Ii AUSTRALIA. Telugu . 3,921 26 1,995 Persian 62 44 18 . · · Kaudh 15,525 7,721 7,801 rurkhh Dialeots 4 3 1 · · Oraon 107,334 54,041 53,293 C.-EUROPEAN LAN- 233 140 93 GUAGES, Malhax · • · · 415 225 190 Portuguese · · 55 41 14 Pashlo · · 40 39 1 ffinglish · · · · · 178 99 79 Sindhi · · · · 9 9 .. , BENGAL STATES, 3,748,544 1,901,404 1,847,14() Marathi • · · 147 77 70 A.-VERNACULARS OF 3,748,235 1,901,207 1,847,028 OriSD. ." 1,641,428 817,2,16 821,182 INDIA. · Bhotia of Tibet or Tibetan . 66 39 27 Bengali · · 718,800 375,657 343,143 ~harpa Bhotia 912 473 439 ABsamese • 731 707 2-1 , · · · . Bhotia of Sikkim I 7,278 3,873 3,4()5 Hiudio · 628,813 322,750 306,063 Bhotia of Bhotan · 9 6 3 Rajastbani · · 487 375 112 Kiranti (Khi1mbu) · 9,553 4,889 4,664 Gujarati • · · 63 47 16 Kiranti (Yakha) . 65 55 10 Paujabi · · · 30 30 ... • Gurung ,'-;: 1,782 911 871 Eastern Pahari or N aipali 15,913 8,202 7,711 · , , "unuwar 646 315 230 Arabie 23 18 5. n · · Gipsy languages 43 30 4.3 Tbami . I\. .\ 32 121 20 · 141 TABLE X.

ll,OMBAY STAT~ Language. [ CENTRAL INDIA. PART IV.-LINGUISTIC DISTRIBUTION OF EACH STATE OR AGENCY...... , ""

POFULA.!l'ION. POl"ULA..TlON.

LA.!(QUA.GB. LANGUAGn. Person8. Male •• Female •• Persons. M.le •• Fem31cs.

1. a. 3. ,. 1. 2. 3. 4. fALSTATES-aontd nOUBAY STATES- ·VERNA.CULARS OF 133 85 48 oontd. TIlER ASIATIC C. - EUROPEAN 1,110 i'3i' 3i'3 INTRIES, AFRICA, LANGUAGES. AUSTRALIA. Portuguese 223 167 56 132 84 48 1 . · · 1 1 Russian 3 1 2 e · ... · · English 881 667 3U, D.-EuROPEAN 11'6 112 64 · · LANGUAGES. German 3 2 1 (Romaic) 1 1 .,. · · · Language not returned 688 348 340 :ucse 16 14 2 · · · CENTUAJ, INDIA 8,6~8,i'81 4,428,790 4,199,!J91 h 145 92 63 AGENCY. · · · A.-VERNACULA.RS 8,624,2i'8 4,425,323 4,198,955 Ib 7 1 6 OF INDIA. · . Korku .. 42 21 21 D 7 4 3 · Tamil 1,130 717 413 ~UBA Y STATES. 6,908,648 3,513,003 3,395,6<15 · · Telugu 777 671 20& -VERN A.CULARS 6,906,688 3,511,818 3,394,81'0 OF INDIA. Kanarese • 254 133 121 . 396 238 158 · · · · · Gond 20,631 9,778 10,763 Ilam 9 8 1 · · · · Baloch 131 112 19 1 12,748 6,576 6,172 · · · · · Pashto 1,164 826 338 'ese • 589,436 303,876 285,560 · · · · · · Lahnda 176 122 64 1 1 .. , · · · · · · Sindhi 255 126 129 i , 861 539 322 · · · · · Maratlli • 111,312 58,23,j, 53,078 6,772 3,180 2,692 · - · · · · Oriyllo · 2 2 ... I 267 205 62 · · · · Bihllori 191,191 106,960 84,231 199,193 108,170 91,023 · · · · · · Bengali 415 271 144 Ii 1,699,193 847,211 851,952 · · · Eastern Hindi 1,401,258 691,095 710,163 144 76 68 · · Western Hindi. 4,727,062 2,420,525 2,306,537 17 17 ... · · · · Rajasthani 1,872,562 982,762 889,800 Ii 44 2B 16 · · · · Gujarati 281,556 144,134 137,422 eS9 1 1 ... · · · B7tillal1guages 222,231 109,342 112,889 n Hindi 3 3 ... · Knandeshi 385 215 170 rn Hindi 206,967 106,915 100,052 · · · · · Panjahi ,. 3,251 2,241 1,010 Ihani 20,24.3 10,716 9,527 · · · · Eastern Pabari or Naipali 75 51 24 lti 4,164,007 2,119,942 2,044,065 · Arabic 538 393 145 illanguages 32,362 16,452 15,910 · · · · Gispy langnages 10,596 6,249 4,347 bi 1,621 1,041 583 · · · · B.-VERNACULARS 'n,Pahari or N aipali 262 109 163. 1 1 ... OF OTHER ASIATIC COUNTRIES, AFRICA, : 1,981 1,220 761 · · . A USTRA'LIA • langnages 3,780 1,824 1,956 Persian · 262 109 153- ~,- VERNACULA.RS 162 100 62 C.-EUROPEAN 4,241 3,~58 883 F OTIIER ASIATIC LANGUAGES. ~NTmES, AFRlqA, Greek (Romllic) 17 2 --is AU8TRALIA. In 156 94 61 French 7 7 ,... ., · · · linian . 5 4 1 Portuguese 98 74 24 11 · · · I ish Dialects 2 2 ... English 1',119 3,275 8,14 ,! · · I 142 TABLE X .

.C~rRAL PROVINCES STATES.] HYDERABAD. Language.

PART lV. ....:.LINGllISTIC DISTnInU'fION OF U(JlI S~A.TE QR AGENCY..

POPULATION'. POPULA.TIQN".

LANGUAGE. LAIfG"'C!E. Persons. Males. Females. Perlons. }loles. I1lm.lel - -- 1. 2. 3. ~. 1. 2. 3. 4- cENTRAL PROV.PWES 1,996,383 988,830 1,007'1553 HYDERADAD STATE. 11,14-1,l!l2 1j,6Z~6.29 5,467, S'fATES. A.-VERNtlOULARS OF 11,13.2,145 5,6M',816 5,461,: INDU. A.-VERN,~CUL_\nS 1,996,101 988,672 1,007,429 Khassi 8 8 ... OF INDLl, · Burmese 4 1 Sa ntali 22 12 10 · · · Ta.mil 84,435 16,828 17, K 01 7,915 4,109 3,806 · · · · · Ma.layalam 31 22 K haria 2,162 1,055 1,107 · · · · · · Telngu or Andhra . 5,148,302 2,640,100 2,608, A Bur 20 10 10 · · Kanarese 1,562,022 780,84.7 781, Gadaba 823 38S 435 · · · Tllla 115 40 K orkn 1,646 525 821 · · · · · · Gond 75,564 37,389 8S, Tami! • 137 70 67 · · · · · Pashto 1,565 1,117 M 1I1ay(\lam 1 1 '" · · Kashmiri. 4. 2 T elugu 12,215 6,356 5,859 · · · · · · · Sindhi 105 77 K anatese 2 2 ... · · · · Marathi 2,898,820 1,453,896 1,444, Gond 190,480 95,428 95,052 · · · · · Oriya 2,565 1,274 I, K andh or Kui • 54,235 28,341 25,888 · · · · · Bihari 1 1 ... K nrukh or Oraon 23,834 11,449 12,385 · · · Bengali 66 42 P ashto 49 46 3 · · · · · Eastern Hindi 136 76 Si ndbi 21 21 ... · · · · · Western Hindi 1,191,{i09 {i13,418 578, M lI~tbi · '. 120,174 {il,569 58,605 · Rajasthllni 59,620 34,323 25, oriya • 906,070 449,24,0 466,830 · · · · · Gujarati 19,489 11,075 8, Bihari: 113 69 54 · · · Bhillanguago$ 2,836 1,354 1, B engali • · 201 128 73 · · Panjabi 2,659 1,603 1, E astern Hindi 656,960 319,780 337,180 · · · 18 Central Pahari 121 Western Hill di 11,966 6,025 6,940 · · Arabia 9,937 7,177 2/ ajasthllni 2,225 1,367 858 · · · · · · Gip~y languages 125,070 68,68B 66,' Gujarati · 326 223 103 · · Bhillal;tguageg, · 34 16 18 B.-VERNACULARS OF 4~0 21'6 1 OTITER ASIATIC PanjaQi 125 72 · · 63 COUNTRIES, AFRICA, Central Pahari 1 1 A USTR:ALIA. · ... Persia.n, 396 255 , Gip'y languages 4,319 2,090 2,289 · Tilt ~ish Di31ects 34 21 C.-EUROPEAN ~,O52 li,377 2,( D.-VERNACULARS liO LANGUAGES, OF OTHER ASUTIC 81 31 COUNTRIES, AFRICA, Italian 19 7 AUSTRALIA. · · · . French 20 9 p ersian · · 81 &Q 31 · 1 I · · · : Spanish · · · ... Portnguese 103 69 , · English 7,907 6,289 • 2,6 ,~-EUROPEAN 201 108 93 · · · , LANGUAGES. German 2 2 ... • · P ortugtr:se • : 1 1 Language not returned; 462 188 • 8l E nglish 199 107 92 ., · ( · I Lang'uage not traced 63 ::2 I 14,3 TABLE X.

KASHlYIlR. [ Language. ,MADRAS STA'.l~

PART IV.-LINGUISTIC DIS'fRIBUTION OF EACIl STATE OR AGENCY. I " POPULATION. POPULATION. '. LA.:NGUAGlI, LnrGUAGE. Persona, M.leB. Fomoles. Persons. M.I ••• Females. I <. 1. 2. 3. ~. 1. 2. 3. 4. U.SH1IlR S'UTE 2,905,578 1,642,057 1,363,521 ~IA.DRAS STATES. 4,188,086 2,Oq8,O-l8 2,000,038 (Includin(] Co chin and 0 A.-VERNA.CULARS OF 2,811,386 1,<193,748 1,317,638 T-ravancore.) INDIA. A.-VERNACULARS 4,185,072 2,096,386 2,088,686 834 lill Bhotia of Tibet or Tibetan • 1,445 OF INDIA. 64,834 lhotia of Baltistan or Balti • 130,678 65,844 Tamil 907,162 446,643 460,519 17,767 · · Bhatia (others) • · · 35,822 18,055 Malayalaw 3,i35,917 1,674,658 1,561,259 136 128 · · ~ahuli 264 Telugu · 58,931 30,099 28,832 7 7: ... 17,951 8,899 rllnawari · · · Kanarese • · 9,052 rami! · · · 392 206 186 Tulu · · · 1,979 1,306 673 3aloch 1 ... 1 · 47 45 · · Pashto · · · 2 ?asbto · · 1.953 1.395 558 Sanskrit 15 9 6 {howar · · 228 US 110 Marathi · 39,819 21,766 18,053 25,147 · Ihina · · · · 54,136 28,989 Oriya · · · 25 13 12 ianskrit · 9 9 ... Bengali 100. 100 ... 633,998 464,194 · · · Cilshmiri · 998,192 Western Hiudi 17,416 0,670 7,846 158 36 · · ~ahnda · · 194 Rlljasthani 31 17 14 · · 11 · · Hudhi · 25 14 Gujarati · · · · 4,922. 2,831 2,091 brathi · • · · 31 30 1 Panjabi · · · 32 27 5 lihari · · · · 49 47 2 Arabic · · 401 210 161 lengali · · · · 62 43 19 Gipsy languageg · 324 163 161 'i'estero B indi 1,553 1,183 370 · · · 68 59 9 tajllsthaoi 127,172 67,941 59,231 n. - VERNAGllLARS OF · · · OTHER ASIATIC Injarati 74 81 43 COUNTRIES, AFRICA, · · AUSTRALIA, 'anjabi 1,300,410 692,667 607,743 · · Hebrew 14 10 4. Vestero PII hari 155,285 80,060 75,225 · · Syrioo 40 ... 866 714 142 ~astem Pahari or N Ili pali · · 1 Turkish Dialeots ~I ,00 .rabic 20 19 1 · · · Chinese 2 2 ... lipsy langnagM 2,528 1,253 1,276 · · - . Malay • 11 6 5 B.-VERNACULARS OF 585 4:59 126 · · OTHER ASIATIC C.-EUROPEAN 2,021 1,590 1,33J COUNTRIES, AFRICA, LANGUAGES. AUSTRALIA. Italian " 1 1 ... ersillD 552 433 119 · · · · · Latin 2 2 ... urkish Dialects 33 26 7 · · · · Frenoh 8 5 · · · 9 Spanish , 9 7 2 ... C.-EUROPEAN 192 122 "0 · · LANGUAGES. Portuguese · · · 589 333 256 rench · 6 2 4. Irish • · · · 2 1 1 ortnguese . 7 7 ... English . 2,304 1,236 · · 1.068 ~ ussiah' 1 1 .. , Dutch • 1 1 ... , · · .. · · · = . Dghsh 177 III 66 Flemish 1 . . · . .. · · 1 ... uta\-- 1 1 j · · · ... German. · · · 4. S 1 1 angu::ge unspecified . 93,415 4","28 45,68" Language not returned 2(j Ita 12 . ~ . 144 TABLE X. COCHIN. j- TijA VANCOI\E. l1YSORE. Language. PART (V.-MNGUISTIC DISTRIBUTION OF EACH STATE OR AGENCY. ~ POPULATION. POPUHTIO .~',.

LA-NGUAGn. LANGUAGB. Porsons. Moles. Females. Pf!lSons. lIlales. Femoles. e-<> 1. 2. 3. 4. 1. 2. 3. ~.

COCIDN STAJ'E. 812,025 405,200 406,825 TRAVANCORE • S'fATE-contd . A.-VEItNJ\CULARS OF 811,255 404,802 406,453 30 INDIA. Rajnsthani · · · 17 1! T_mil · · 54,171 27,819 26.352 Guj~rati · · · · 2,821. 1,646 1,171 Malayahlm 715,847 355,008 360,839 Panjabi · · · 21 16 I I · · llS4 12,676 6,647 6,029 Arabic 0 223 16: Telugu 0 0 · · · Kanarese • 4,180 2,111 2,069 Gipsy languages · 134 64 71 · ' . Tulu . 657 357 300 · · · ll.-VERNACUtARS OF 54 49 f Pashto 2 1 1 OTIIER ASIATIC · · · COUNTIUES, AFRICA, Mu.rll.thi · · 20,133 10,742 9,391 AUS'1'RA.LU.. Bengs.l.i 2 2 ... Hebrew , · · · · 4. 4 OM Western Hindi. 2,467 1,400 1,067 Syriaa · · · · · · · 36 36 ... GujaTati • 1.097 692 405 TnrkiHh Dialects · · · · 1 1 ... Panjabi 6 6 '" Chineso · · · · · · · 2 2 ... Arabic 17 17 ... Malay · · · · 11 6 6 B.-VERN.lCUURS OF 14 10 4 C.-EUROPEAN Ln- OTHER ASIATIC GUAGES. 2,106 l,lt'l 931 COUNTRIES, AFRICA, A.USTRA.LIA.. ita.lian · · 1 1 ... I) Latin Hebrew 0 · 10 4 · · · · 2 2 ... Syriao · · , · 4 4 ... French · · · · 6 3 : Spanish 8 6 I .' • C.-EUROPEA.N LAN- 756 388 3iJ8 · · · GUAGES. Portuguese · 182 no 71 English • 1,903 1,045 851 Frenoh 0 .. · · 1 1 ... · · Dutch 1 1 ... Spanish 1 1 ... · · · Flemish Portuguese · 407 223 184 1 1 ... GerIOJln 2 2 English 0 · 347 163 184 · ." Langnage not returned. 25. 13 1': TRAVANCORE STATE. 2,952,157 1,4!10,165 1,461,992 ~IYSORE STATE. 0,539,399 2,79,,02" 2,7"2,37: A.-VERNACULARS OF 2,949,972 1,488,932 1,461,040 INDIA. A.-VERNACULARS

Tllroil 0 ,492,273 2,17,795 244,538 OF INDIA. 5,1.)20,467 2,790,050 2,736,41 l\1111a.yalam · 2,420,049 . 1,219,695 1,200,414 Burmese. • 6 3 : 21 Telugu 0 7,460 3,996 3,464 Savara S6 16 · · · ; KUDarese · · ],454 665 789 Tamil or Aro.va 229,160 118,533 1l0~621 949 372 Mllobya,iam \1,121 2,7()5 1,11 Tnln · 0 1,321 · P .. sHo · · · 45 44 1 Telugu or Andhra 835,046 425,747 409,29~ Sanskrit. 15 ~II 6 KaD"reSe 0 4,044,076 2,023,903 2,020.17: · · · · (I Marathi . •. 17,900 10,145 7,766 Kodagu or Coorgi 6 4 · · c '~ Oriya I '. 3 2 1 Tulu 20,648 13,838 6,SH · , · · Bengali On . &8 98 ... Pashto · 11 11 .. ,I' · · · · (' Western Hind; t 5,964 3,688 2,276 Sanskrit 149 105 44 r · • 145 TABtE X.

Lan g,lla ge. [PUNJAB STATES. PA.llT IV.-LINGlJISTIC DISTRIB1JTION OF E!ClI STATE OR. AGENCY,

POP[JL..lTION. POPULATION.

LANGUUIE. LAlI"GtTAGE. , persona. ll1ale,. Females. PersoWl. i.'iiJe •. Femal ••.

1. ~. 3. ,. 1. 3. , a. ,. " ]IYSORE STATE- PUNJAB STATES- contd. conld. Sindhi · · · 36 29 7 Bhotia of Bhotllu · 27,363 14,857 12,506 Marathi · · · · 83,914 44,024, 39,890 Lahuli · · · 1,739 982 757 oliya · · · 671 348 323 Kanawari or Multhani · 19,493 8,823 10,670 Bengali · 20 15 5 . Tamil · · 7 4. 3 Western Hindi . · 269,019 139,472 129,547 Talugu I · · · 1 1 ... Rajasthaui · · 1,171 907 264 Kanarese • · , · 4. 2 2 Gujarati · · 3,440 2,058 1,382 Balach · · 2,125 1,072 1,053 PauJabi · · · 206 203 3 Pashto · · · 1,292 1,149 143 Arabio · · · 274 179 95 Kashmiri. , · · 1,545 843 70~ Gipsy lIInguages · · 35,458 17,956· 17,502 Lahnda · · · · (129,786 290,953 2SS,S3a Sindhi 25;585 13,982 11,603 , · · · Marothi · · , · 52 38 14 B. -VERNACULARS OF 2,'.1:40 1,320 1,120 Bihari 5,295 3,522 1,773 OTHER ASIATIC · · · C01JNTRIES, AFRICA, Bengali 139 93 . 46 AUSTRALU. · · · Western Hindi 391,646 211,571 180,075 1,120 Persian 2,431 1,311 · · · · Rajasthani 201,382 104,903 96,479 Chinese , , 3 3 ... · · · Gujarati 96 73 23 Malay 6 6 '" · · · · · Panjabi 2,422,605 1,338,196 1,084,409 Western Pahari • 788,193 415,327 372,866 83 . C.-EUROPEAN LAN- 10,456 5,624' {,832 Central P~hllri • 109 26 GUAGES. Eastern Pahari or N lIipali 1,613 966 647 I talinn 72 66 6 · · · Arabie · 9 6 1\ F renah 57 32 25 · · Gipsy languages · 3,234 1,677 1,557 Portngues8 · · 66 47 9 ·Wclsh 1 1 ... · B,-VERNACULA.RS OF · · 280 169 Gaelio (Scotch) • 3 3 ... OTHER ASIATIC 120 · COUNTItUS, AI'RIC!, 2 •.. 2 Russia.n · · A1JSTRALIA. Polish · 1 ... 1 · · Persian E ngliah · · 10,237 5,469 4,768 · · 48 33 15 1 1 F lemiah ... Chinese · · 241 136 105 German 26 6 20

ang-uage not returned 36 2{ 12 C.-E1JROPE!N LAN- 449 248 201 GUAGES, PUNJAB STATES. 4-,424,398 2,409,809 2,014,589 English 449 248 201 ~

~. A.-VERNACliLARS. 4,423,602 2,409,365 2,OH,23~ , OF INDu. Language not retur~ed 36 13 2& .., ,Bhot~a of Tibet 268 224 44 Language not identified 22 ~14 8 boMa of Ladakh 21 18 3 1

------146 TABLE X.

R1l:irUTANA. ] UNITED PROVINCES STATES. Language.

PAnT IV.-LINGUISTIC DISTRIBUTION OF EACH STATE OR AGENCY.

POPULATION. POPUL..l'llON. ,. IaI

/>. 1. c. P. O. ("J. 1168 C. C. 1,-8·11·03.- •