PROCEEDINGS of the International Conference on Modern Age of the Western Mediterranean Coast FORTMED 2015

DEFENSIVE ARCHITECTURE OF THE MEDITERRANEAN XV TO XVIII CENTURIES Vol. II

Editor Pablo Rodríguez-Navarro Universitat Politècnica de València. Spain

EDITORIAL UNIVERSITAT POLITÈCNICA DE VALÈNCIA Colección Congresos UPV

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© editor Pablo Rodríguez-Navarro

© de los textos: los autores

© 2015, de la presente edición: Editorial Universitat Politècnica de València www.lalibreria.upv.es / Ref.: 2111_04_01_01

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ISBN : 978-84-9048-377-0 (obra completa) ISBN : 978-84-9048-426-5 (Vol. II) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4995/CONGR.2015

Modern Age Fortifications of the Western Mediterranean Coast. Se distribuye bajo una licencia de Creative Commons Reconocimiento-NoComercial-SinObraDerivada 4.0 Internacional. Basada en una obra en http://ocs.editorial.upv.es/index.php/Congreso (URL del congreso en OCS)

IV Defensive Architecture of the Mediterranean. XV to XVIII centuries / Vol II / Rodríguez-Navarro (Ed.) © 2015 Editorial Universitat Politècnica de València

Table of contents

Preface ...... XV

Contributions ...... 01

RESEARCH ON BUILT HERITAGE

Research on construction techniques of the “genoese” coastal towers in southern Corsica (built between XVI and XVII century) ...... 03 P. R. Altamura

The Royal Citadel of . Hypothesis of architectural restoration for the conservation and use ...... 11 F. Armaleo, M. Bonna, Mª Grazia, I. Bruno, S. Bucca, V. Cutropia, N. Fazio, L. Felice, F. Gulletta, V. Mondi, E. Morabito, C. Rizzo

El enigma de las Casas Reales del sitio arqueológico de Panamá Viejo ...... 19 S. I. Arroyo

Il castello templare di Peniscola, da fortezza di epoca crociata a cittadella tardo rinascimentale ...... 27 S. Bertocci

The triangular fortress of Butrint, Albania. New studies for the conservation and the valorization ...... 33 M. G. Bevilacqua, R. Pierini, M. Pierotti, P. Ruschi

La Real Cittadella di Messina. Approccio architettonico alle preesistenze e restauro ...... 41 A. Bonifacio

Orbetello, a fortress on the water. A research for the valorization of the city and its bastioned front ...... 49 A. Cartei, M. G. Bevilacqua, C. Calvani, R. Pierini, D. Taddei

La protección contra los corsarios: el recinto fortificado de Mascarell ...... 57 Mª. E. Casar Furió, Mª T. Broseta Palanca

Les phares antiques, entre défense et aide à la navigation. Exemples en Méditerranée Occidentale ...... 65 J. Christiansen

IX El Castillo de Cullera. Adecuaciones del castillo islámico ...... 71 J. M. Climent Simón, Mª. I. Giner García, A. Rodrigo Molina

Intervención y puesta en valor de la Torre del Molinete en Mazarrón y su entorno paisajístico y patrimonial ...... 79 P. E. Collado Espejo

Las murallas urbanas de Córdoba (Villa y Axerquía) en la Edad Moderna ...... 87 C. Courault

Proteger y defender la Manga del Mar Menor: estudio histórico-arqueológico de la Torre de San Miguel del Estacio y la Torre de la Encañizada ...... 95 B. Cutillas Victoria

Fortaleza de Altea ...... 103 J. M. Del Rey Aynat

Fortifications and landscape system: geological and geomorphological resilience in the development of the La Spezia Gulf ...... 111 S. Di Grazia, L. Marinaro

De Grunenberg’s fortifications in Augusta. Knowledge and conservation of a neglected heritage ...... 119 E. M. Di San Lio, Mª. R. Vitale, F. Aliffi, S. Macca

El alcázar de Pastrana ...... 127 E. J. Fernández Tapia

El castillo de Almansa: ejemplo de adaptación de un castillo a las teorías de la fortificación del siglo XV ...... 135 J. F. García Sáez

Castles in southern , diagnostic plan for knowledge and the enhancement ...... 143 C. Gattuso, Ph. Gattuso, B. Elena, V. Caramazza

Fortifications in the port area of Messina and Palermo between destruction, oblivion and debates on their restoration ...... 151 C. Genovese

La Torre del Grau Vell en la defensa de la Costa de Sagunto ...... 159 T. Gil Piqueras, P. Rodríguez-Navarro

Los baluartes del palacio señorial de Betxí ¿Una fortificación real o ficticia? ...... 167 F. Iborra Bernad, Mª A. Sebastià Esteve, G. Aguilella Arzo

Identification and valuing the spanish in Algeria. Case of the town of Bejaia ...... 175 A. Korichi

Una splendida cittadella fortificata a presidio dello Stretto di Messina ...... 183 M. Lo Curzio, M. Lo Curzio

X Del castillo medieval al palacio-fortaleza ...... 191 C. López González

The coastal military architecture of World War II in Sardinia ...... 199 M. Mameli, P. Sanjust

El ensanche de Santa Catalina: un urbanismo defensivo ...... 207 O. Mansergas Sellens

Fortifications in the territory of Alessandria: an heritage to preserve and enhance...... 215 A. Marottaa

Los sistemas defensivos del Real Arsenal de Cartagena (S. XVIII) ...... 223 J. A. Martínez-López

Muro Mediterráneo: búnkeres y baterías para la defensa del litoral (1936-39) ...... 231 A. Martínez Medina

The castle of Collalto Sabino. Transformations and restorations ...... 239 V. Montanari

Affinities in construction techniques of a unitary project: the coastal towers of the Asinara Island (Sardinia)...... 243 S. Murru

Estudio del sistema defensivo de Orán ...... 251 S. Niar, F. Lasheras Merino

Artillery barriers built by the Catholic Monarchs in the Granada coastal fortifications: the Castles of Almuñecar and Salobreña ...... 257 A. Orihuela Uzal, A. Almagro Gorbea

The complex of San Lorenzo del Chagres in Panama: historical development and survey project for the documentation of the Caribbean fortress ...... 265 S. Parrinello, F. Picchio

Trasformations and Permanences of landscape and architecture: the Minerva Tower of Punta Campanella in the Sorrento-Amalfi Peninsula ...... 273 S. Pollone, L. Romano

El sistema defensivo del Antemural del Pacífico y Llave del Mar del Sur. Las fortificaciones de la Cuenca de Valdivia y la Bahía de Corral (Chile) ...... 281 E. Prieto Ustio

Una fortaleza entre cielo y mar: hipótesis de conservación y valorización ...... 289 E. Romeo

Las fortificaciones militares del S. XVIII en Cartagena ...... 295 D. Ros McDonelle, Mª. Mestre Martí, E. De Andrés Rodríguez

XI La muralla del vendaval de Cádiz ...... 303 J. Mª. Sánchez Carrión

La recuperación de los colores originales de las Torres de Quart de Valencia...... 311 A. Torres Barcino, J. Serra Lluch, J. Llopis Verdú, J. L. Higón Calvet, B. Saiz Mauleón, R. Villaplana Guillén

The defense of fortified ruins on the Italian coast ...... 319 A. Ugolini, Ch. Mariotti

Le torri costiere del Regno di Sardegna: costruzione, danni e restauri ...... 327 D. Vacca

La Torreta de Castielfabib, ¿una torre defensiva hexagonal tardomedieval? ...... 333 A. Vázquez-Esparza

CHARACTERIZATION OF GEOMATERIALS

Methodological approach in the conservation of coastal fortifications ...... 341 G. Cargangiu, S.Columbu, P. Meloni, M. Carboni, M. Casti, O. Cocco, A. Murru, M. Palomba, A. Ruggieri

Geomaterials and decay forms of the coastal towers of Piscinni and Foghe, Weastern Sardinia ...... 345 G. Cargangiu, P. Meloni, M. Palomba, O. Cocco, F. Sitzia, A. Murru, M. Carboni, M. Casti, A. Ruggieri

San Fernando Batteries in Portobelo - Panama: building materials characterization and the environmental impact evaluation ...... 353 Ch. Ciantelli, A. Bonazza, C. Sabbioni, R.A. Suñé Martínez, C. Vaccaro

The ancient mortars and geomaterials of tower fortification of Nora (Pula, Sardinia, Italy ...... 357 S. Columbu, G. Cargangiu, F. Sitzia

Petrographic and physical investigations on geomaterials for conservation of Las Plassas Castle (Marmilla, Sardinia, Italy) ...... 365 S. Columbu, R. T. Melis, G. F. Murru, G. Serreli, G. Uccheddudu

Alteration processes of geomaterials used on the pentagonal tower of Serravalle Castle (central- west Sardinia, Italy) ...... 373 S. Columbu, P. Meloni

The coastal fortification of Cape de Forma (Menorca, Spain): petrophysical characterization and alteration of stones and ancient mortars ...... 381 A. Depalmas, S. Columbu

Diagnostics for the knowledge: the case of the tower of Palazzo Termine Pietragliata in Palermo (Italy) ...... 389 C. Gattuso, F. Fernández, M. M. Pecoraro, A. Mª Palermo

XII Durability of repair mortars used in restoration of a Sardinian coastal tower: assessment after ten years ...... 397 P. Meloni, G. Cargangiu, M., Palomba, S. Enzo, M. Carboni, O. Cocco, M. Casti, A. Murru, A. Farci, A. Ruggieri

Multidisciplinary Studies, Crossreading and Transversal Use of Thermography: The Castle of Monzón (Huesca) as a case study ...... 405 C. Mileto, F. Vegas, J. L. Lerma

XIII Defensive Architecture of the Mediterranean. XV to XVIII centuries / Vol II / Rodríguez-Navarro (Ed.) © 2015 Editorial Universitat Politècnica de València

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4995/FORTMED2015.2015.1770

Artillery barriers built by the Catholic Monarchs in the Granada coastal fortifications: the Castles of Almuñecar and Salobreña Antonio Orihuela Uzala, Antonio Almagro Gorbeab School of Arabic Studies, CSIC (Spanish National Research Council). Granada, Spain, [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract In 1489, after the surrender of the coastal towns of Almuñecar and Salobreña during the Granada War (1482-1492), the Catholic Monarchs immediately set about repairing and improving the military defences of the castles situated in both towns. Due to the important efficiency displayed by the pyro- ballistic artillery during that war in order to attack and seize the fortresses and towns of the Nasrid Kingdom, the old Andalusi walls were unable to withstand the attacks, therefore the monarchs, together with the captains of their artillery immediately began to adapt the fortifications that had been conquered to make a stand against the new weapons. Basically this led to the construction of artillery barriers based on the experience of those fortresses constructed or adapted during the 15th century in Castile. Particular reference was taken from the important construction of the Castle of la Mota in Medina del Campo. In this article there will be a study of the features of the artillery barriers built in both fortresses.

Keywords: Artillery barriers, moats, re-adaptation, Catholic Monarchs.

1. Introduction The two main coastal towns nearest to the they were reconnoitred by loop holes and capital of the Nasrid Kingdom, Almuñecar and cannon embrasures, situated outside the reach of Salobreña, both had defence fortresses on the the attacking artillery, hence guaranteeing the highest points of the rocky headlands where they ultimate defence of the fortress, even though the are situated. Both fortifications complied with more elevated parts had received hard the suitable siege warfare concepts used in punishment from the enemy. medieval times, with stretches of walls and Nevertheless, this theory of fortification was towers constructed with rammed earth, further adapted to the reality of each case, particularly reinforced at a later date with masonry cladding. topographically speaking, giving place to diverse In order to strengthen the capacity for defence, solutions. While in Almuñecar a barrier was and particularly to adapt the fortresses for the constructed giving additional volume to the use and protection against the artillery, in both Andalusi (from al-Andalus times) wall, as well castles artillery barriers were raised. Their main as the excavation of a deep moat, the hard features were the special thickness, low height quality of the rock forming the base of the castle and loop holes for the use of pyro-ballistic in Salobreña made it impossible to carry out a weapons. similar defence system. Therefore they recurred The proposal was that these barriers should be to the construction of a double barrier like a protected in part of their height from external defence system in depth, hence offering attacks by means of deep excavated moats and adequate protection to the castle.

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Fig. 1- Ground plan of the northern part of the castle of Almuñecar with its artillery barrier

2. Almuñecar Castle In 1489, after the surrender of the town to the Castilian forces, the Catholic Monarchs. The town of Almuñecar is situated on a hill immediately set about the conditioning and beside the sea in the middle of the plain formed reinforcement of the fortress, which they by the mouth of the Río Verde. On the southern considered an essential element for the defence side of the hill, it narrows with the edges of the of the new frontier of their territories now slopes becoming steeper and therefore they were established further to the conquest of the Nasrid used for the construction of a fortress, Kingdom on the Mediterranean coast. The undoubtedly dating from Punic and Roman experience of the Castilian siege warfare, times. The medieval Andalusi castle had updated with what they learnt in the Granada rammed earth walls and solid towers. The War (1482-1492), allowed the fortress to be northern side, facing towards the town and equipped with the appropriate measures to having easier access, had two stretches of wall confront the new weapons. which formed a pointed position, with a tower at the vertex. This wall was reinforced during the final part of the Nasrid period with a thicker layer of masonry, which has a particularly significant thickness, surrounding the central tower. In fact it became the most outstanding and powerful element of the fortress. This northern front also had outer walls that surrounded the main walls with some remaining Fig. 2- View of the northern front of Almuñecar parts that are embedded or attached to the barrier Castle in a photo from the first half of the 20th constructed later on. century (L. Torres Balbás)

258 Therefore the northern front was strengthened the demolition of one of the half towers resulted with an artillery barrier, i.e. with a very thick in almost the whole gateway and its top wall (4,10 m), as it was a more fitting place for disappearing. attacking the castle, It had round towers at the In order to cross the moat a bridge was built, angles and a moat of almost eight metres in principally of masonry, but with a drawbridge on depth, and twenty in width, excavated in the the side nearest the gateway. This structure was schistose rock of the hill. The two stretches designed to serve as a caponier by which the forming the barrier follow directions that are moat could be reconnoitred better. So the first noticeably parallel to those of the previous wall, opening with a round arch had an elevated marked out by the defence wall to which many platform with regard to the bottom of the moat, parts of the new wall were attached. They have a closed with parapet and battlements and with very steep escarpment so the vertical part of the openings for weapons. The central pier of the wall scarcely represents a third of the total bridge has a small room inside with loopholes on height with respect to the bottom of the moat. both fronts, and it could be accessed by a ladder Of the outermost towers, the eastern one has a from a doorway opened towards the moat in the circular ground plan and is adjacent to a direction of the fortress. This could be accessed previous square one. The western one has a descending with a ladder from the main doorway semicircular ground plan, extended with straight of the castle. This is a simplified version of the sides to offer a greater projection over the moat. one previously used in the Castle of la Mota at The main access to the precincts, that was in this Medina del Campo. Each of the stretches of wall northern side, was included into a prominent part is provided with three openings for weapons formed by two half round towers that flanked the situated slightly above the line where the gateway. It had the shape of a low arch, similar escarpment ends and where the vertical wall to that of the of the Arrabal Gateway in begins. They have a small trumpet-shape the Alhambra, and similarly we can suppose it outwards and another much larger one inwards was crowned with the royal coat of arms. During that makes up the firing room. the Spanish War of Independence (1808-1814)

Fig. 3- Front view of the artillery barrier of the Castle of Almuñecar from a distance (above) and from the moat (below) (Almagro and Orihuela, 2015)

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Fig. 4- Bridge-caponier of the Castle of Almuñécar

The walls are topped with a small projection of hardly elevated in a distant vision, which means ogee arches on corbels that support the parapet, that it is barely vulnerable to enemy attack. that alternate between embrasures and loop holes Following this criterion, the towers are hardly coinciding with the centre of each battlement. elevated with regard to the stretches of wall. They have a substantial width, similar to other There is full continuity in its parapet walks, contemporary ones such as those drawn by which could be crossed along their whole length Francisco de Holanda in the fortress of Salsas. without any hindrance or impediment. Basically The round towers at the end of the stretches of the work was carried out in stone masonry, held wall as well as the semi-towers protecting the in place with excellent lime mortar which was doorway have small vaulted rooms at a level especially hard and resistant. Brick was used in below the original ground level, provided with specific sectors such as the jambs of the loop loopholes to reconnoitre the bottom of the moat. holes and the arches and carved stonework in the As they were below the edge of the arch of the doorway and in the little arches and counterscarp, they were protected from the shots corbels that mark out the starting point of the of the attackers, unless they were made from that parapet. same edge (Almagro and Orihuela, 2008).

Fig. 5- Cross-section of the barrier and moat of the Castle of Almuñecar (Almagro and Orihuela,

2015). Fig. 6- Western stretch of the barrier of the Castle As can be seen in the cross-section, the part of of Almuñecar. The original escarpment which no the walls that is elevated with regard to the longer exists covered the rock that can now be terrain, besides being of a great thickness, is observed.

260 3. Salobreña Castle transition towards Modern Age fortifications. The first governor was Francisco Ramirez de The hill where the Castle is situated has been a Madrid (died in 1501); he was secretary and human settlement at least since the Punic field marshal of the artillery between 1482 and colonization. There are scarce and 1493. The master commander Ramiro Lopez decontextualized layers of Punic and Roman (died in 1505), main artilleryman and engineer, remains, Islamic structures of different periods was commissioned with the fortifications of the and important fortification works carried out Kingdom of Granada after its conquest. He after the surrender of the town to the Catholic carried out important work in Granada and the Monarchs in December of 1489. Apart from this, Alhambra, Almeria, Almuñecar and Salobreña there were other later interventions during more (Cámara, 2002: 123-137). In the General than three and a half centuries of military Archive of Simancas we can find the record of presence and usage. the Statement of work necessary in the aforesaid th Since the 10 century Arab geographers began fortress, dated 17th February, 1490 (Vilar, 2007: th to mention Salobreña. Ahmad al-Razi (10 673-676). Although it is difficult to give a th century) quoted it as a castle, ‘Arib b. Sa‘id (10 precise interpretation of the content of the century) recognizes it as a town (madina) due to document, we shall proceed to summarize the the campaign carried out by ‘Abd al-Rahman III main interventions instructed for the in the Cora de Elvira against the Muladí uprising improvement of its defensive nature: in 913 (Castilla, 1992: 126). Al-‘Udri (11th - Make an artillery barrier of 130 paces in length century) referred to it as the administrative area towards the southeast, where the town was (iqlim) of Salubiniya, while Yaqut (13th century) situated, because this area was the most designated it as a fortification (hisn). Possibly it vulnerable one. It should have three very strong may have been considered as a fortification round turrets, one in each part and another in the between the 10th and 12th centuries, although middle, as it was impossible to excavate a moat some historical sources refer to it as a town and around the barrier due to the hardness of the others as a farmstead (alquería). Since the rock of this hill. Nasrid Kingdom was constituted, there is a greater agreement in regarding it as a town, - Change the Gateway of the fortress to the far Salubiniya, in sources of that time. It had city north of the barrier, next to the water tower, walls, a harbour, a mosque and a citadel being a safer place and easier to defend. (alcazaba) in the highest part, where there was a - Build a new tower of Homage next to the Nasrid residence used by members of the Gateway, on top of the foundations of the older dynasty as a place of rest and also as a royal existing one. It would be possible for the prison (Navas and Garcia-Consuegra, 2009). governor to control all 3 gates from this tower, The transformations undergone by the due to its situation at the highest point of the fortification both in the period of the Catholic fortress: the Town gate, the False gate giving Monarchs and Charles V, and throughout the towards the country and the Aid gate giving 18th century were so extensive that the facings of towards the sea. the towers and walls that could undoubtedly be - Construct a cistern with a capacity of 10.000 attributed to the al-Andalus period only pitchers of water, on the site indicated by master represent a minimal part of what exists at Ramiro, being the lowest in the fortress. present. The conquest by Castile meant that the citadel was adapted to new types of military - Make a piece of coracha or double wall under architecture demanding a widespread use of the gateway of the Aid from the sea, 100 paces artillery. The strengthening of old medieval long and with a bulwark at the end of the sea structures was no longer sufficient, rather than way which approaches 100 paces to the sea, to that, methods were needed implying the aid and defend those who came to assist the

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Fig. 7- Ground plan of Salobreña Castle with artillery barriers (Orihuela and Almagro, 2015). fortress by sea. As it was such a long distance it northern area. The work was done with ordinary would [not] be possible to go forward and assist masonry or strengthened with edges and courses without doing this, because there are 480 paces of brick in some parts. The vaults of the towers, from the doorway to the sea The majority of the rooms and loop holes were also built with works planned in 1490 were carried out, brickwork. although they may have been over different stages of construction covering several decades. The majority of the work planned by Ramiro The most significant one was the construction of Lopez had not yet been carried out when there th an artillery barrier in front of the Islamic walls was an earthquake on 26 January, 1494. The on the south-eastern side with less steep slopes, epicentre was in the sea to the southeast of with a round turret in the centre. Malaga, and it resulted in the fall of a tower in the Salobreña fortress, together with the collapse In the northernmost part of the barrier a new of the Tower of Homage (Olivera, 1995:51). entrance gateway to the precincts from the town was built. On the other hand, in the north-east Another important document that gives us part of the fortress a coracha or low enclosure information on the proceedings during that was made to protect their access to the sea, with decade is the payment accounts corresponding to an artillery bulwark orientated towards the port the building work carried out between August of La Caleta. These precincts also integrated the 1496 and December 1498 (Romero, 1995: 117- water tower that since the al-Andalus period had 141). In these accounts the construction of the protected the access to a well of a waterwheel cistern in the southernmost point of the fortress which was probably connected via an planned by Ramiro Lopez is detailed. Together underground conduction to the medieval with this there are details of the reconstruction of irrigation canal that reached the town from the the higher part of the Tower of Homage (named New Tower, Rosal or Rosario Tower in the

262 document) done on top of the lower part from al- extend to a very small surface area between the Andalus times. barriers, and also they are orientated against the first barrier. This was originally of lime-crusted We have further relevant evidence from the rammed earth (tapia calicostrada), but after Marquis of Mondejar, who visited the fortress on 1534 it was covered externally and above with 29th September, 1534 (A.G.S.; Cª del Sueldo; 2ª masonry, and the crenellated part was built with Serie, Leg. 368, Fol. 442-443) to arrange for the th restoration and necessary supplies. In this visit the same structure. The work done in the 18 he proposed reinforcing with masonry the century established a bulwark orientated towards section of barrier situated between the round the sea, adapted to the cistern of the end of the th turret and the “torrejón” of the cistern. In this 15 century. Later, according to a project by J. way the height could be raised making a parapet Crame in 1767, the bulwark was modified to and battlements of that material, and pulling adapt it to fire in all directions, lowering the down the crenellations made out of rammed height of its parapet. earth, in accordance with what had been done in During the restoration work on the fortress, the northern sector of the barrier. commonly known as the castle, carried out The customary system of parapet-counterscarp- between 1955 and 1975 under the direction of moat-escarpment and artillery barrier used in the the architect Francisco Prieto-Moreno, a lot of fortifications of the transition up to the Modern debris was removed, but excavations following Age during the reign of the Catholic Monarchs archaeological methodology were not (1474-1504-1516) could not be used in performed. On the contrary, in the intervention Salobreña. The rock of the promontory where that began in 2014 under the direction of the the castle and the ancient medieval walled town authors of this paper, extensive archaeological are situated, is formed by a carbonated series excavations were fulfilled, by Dr. Julio Navarro consisting of calcareous and occasionally Palazón (EEA-CSIC), together with Antonio dolomitic marble of great hardness. For this Reyes Martínez. Thanks to these excavations it reason an artillery barrier was created, relatively has been possible to open all the embrasures of separated from the medieval precincts and the the two barriers which had been blocked up and foremost wall was maintained. Subsequently, the in some cases half buried. It has been possible to south-eastern part of it was replaced by a second discover to a partial extent the primitive barrier barrier almost twice as thick as the outer one. of rammed earth from the south-east sector; this However, the only two frontal embrasures had been enlarged with masonry after 1534.

Fig. 8- Cross-section of the artillery barriers of Salobreña castle (Orihuela and Almagro, 2015).

263 However, the greatest contribution regarding the barrier was built with a gateway with bends defensive system has been the appearance of the inside a strong tower situated at the opposite end lower part of the foremost Andalusi wall, which to the entrance into the Nasrid precincts. was amortized when the second powerful barrier Therefore the attackers would have to cross the was built, to protect the entrance into the interior whole area of conflict lengthwise, finding the enclosure of the ancient Nasrid fortress. second part of the route protected by another powerful barrier that replaced the medieval When the small houses built up against the outer foremost wall. side of the barrier in the last century can be pulled down, this will recover its former spectacular appearance.

4. Conclusions In the two fortified coastal towns nearest to the ancient Nasrid capital, the Catholic Monarchs decreed the construction of artillery barriers orientated towards the urban area, where their citadels were most vulnerable. In Almuñecar the schistose rock allowed a deep moat to be excavated, following a traditional layout already experienced, with an original bridge-caponier Fig. 9. View of the first barrier and the round Turret protecting the crossing. However, in Salobreña in the background, from the Bulwark of the Cistern, the intensely hard marble rock prevented an with the small houses attached to the outer part. artificial moat from being made, so an artillery

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