4. Language contact EXFAC003-AAS v11
EXFAC03-AAS v11 Language
4: Language contact
Steve Pepper
Thanks to Alexander, Daniel and Katarzyna
Four new words for ‘pepper’ ● Sogdian: mr'ynck' (marēnčka) < Sanskrit marica ‘black pepper’ ● Yaghnobi: pelpel < Sogdian paδpaδ < Sanskrit pippali ‘long pepper’ ● Slovakian: korenie (‘spice’) ● Northern Saami: bihpar
Special mention to ● Per Henrik and Hrafnkell – It’s not too late... Why study languages? calendar – one language per month
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Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) 1 4. Language contact EXFAC003-AAS v11
Course contents
1. Universals 2. Typology 3. Language families 4. Language contact 5. Language variation ? 6. Language death
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Language contact
Topics Overview of linguistic areas Four effects of language ● East and South-East Asia ● Central Asia contact ● South Asia 1. Borrowing / loanwords ● Australia 2. Code-switching ● Polynesia 3. Language shift / ● The Americas ● The Middle East and North Africa interference ● The Ethiopian peninsula 4. Language generation ● Central Africa Linguistic areas ● West Sahel ● Coastal West Africa ● Bantu languages ● Khoisan languages
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Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) 2 4. Language contact EXFAC003-AAS v11
Borrowing
In previous lectures: Topics Two reasons why languages ● Donor and recipient resemble each other languages ● Universal and/or typological ● Cultural vs. core borrowings tendencies (Lecture 1 + 2) ● Phonetic form vs. semantic ● Inheritance due to genetic content relationship (Lecture 3) ● What can be borrowed? Here we consider a third reason ● Borrowing
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Chinese grapes
ZHO 葡萄 pútáo ‘grape’ < Old Iranian /ba:da:wa:/
Loaned more than two thousand years ago and still in use ● Nobody would regard it as a foreign element photo by ben fink ● Belongs to Chinese as much as any indigenous word Sense of belonging depends on the extent to ● Fully integrated into the language which borrowed items are ● The sense of belonging or adaptation is a adapted to the matter of degree ● phonology ● writing system and LAT cactus > ENG cactus, pl. cacti or cactuses ● grammar Original plural form being adapted to English of the borrowing language. morphological system
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Japanese violins
JPN バイオリン baiorin < ENG ‘violin’
The Japanese sound system lacks [v] and [l] ●[v] Î [b] [ɹ] Î [ɽ] The Geisha HAWARYU – A Meiji-era Beauty from Old Japan. Image: Okinawa Soba
Labio- Most Japanese know that the word Bilabial dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal comes from English Nasal m n ɴ ● Some will even pronounce it with a [v]
Plosive p b t d k ɡ ● Foreign origin also obvious from written form (katakana script) Fricative f v s z h
Flap ɽ JPN パン pan < POR pão ‘bread’
Approximant ɹ j w Still written in katakana even though Lateral approximant l borrowed several centuries ago ● Otherwise fully integrated
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Swahili books
Swahili (SWA, Bantu, E. Africa) ● Elaborate noun class system ● Many loan words from Arabic
class semantics prefix singular translation plural 1, 2 persons m-/mu-, wa- mtu person watu 3, 4 trees, natural forces m-/mu-, mi- mti tree miti 5, 6 groups, aug. Ø/ji-, ma- jicho eye macho 7, 8 artifacts, dim. ki-, vi- kisu knife visu 9, 10 animals, loanwords Ø/n-, Ø/n- ndoto dream ndoto 11, 12 extension u-, Ø/n- ua fence, yard nyua 14 abstraction u- utoto childhood —
(kitaab) ‘book’ > kitabu (CL7), pl. vitabu (CL8) ﻛﺘﺎب ●
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Haba haba hujaza kibaba
when I’s a little girl my grandma told me that is the little things in life that’s gone make me happy when I’s a little girl my grandma told me that is the little things in life that’s gone make me happy she said that little by little fills up the measure don’t ever give up keep on moving haba na haba hu-jaza ki-baba little by little little and little HAB-fill_up CL7-measure fills up the measure don’t ever give up Kiswahili proverb keep on moving ‘little by little fills the measure’ haba haba, hujaza kibaba http://www.kamu.si/en/lookup/sw?Word=kibaba
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Donor and recipient languages
Borrowing involves Colonialism ●a donor language and a ● Vietnamese < French ● recipient language ● Wolof < French (Senegal) Example ● Wolof < English (Gambia) Great civilizations ENG orangutan < MSA orang ‘man’ + utan ‘forest’ ●Chinese> Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese, etc. ● Donor language: Malay ● Arabic > Urdu, Persian, ● Recipient language: English Turkish, Swahili, Fula, etc. ● Persian > Urdu, Turkish, etc. In principle: Any language can be donor or recipient Dead languages ● Ancient Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, In practice: Donor often Classical Chinese enjoys greater prestige
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Types of borrowing
Cultural borrowings are more Cultural borrowings common than core borrowings ● Elements that fill a lexical gap ●JPN sushi ●ZHO paper tiger ●SWAsafari Core borrowings ● Elements that replace existing elements ●ZHO zài-jiàn Î bái-bái ‘bye-bye’ ●HIN dhyanavād Î thainkyū People of the world unite, defeat the American imperialists Î and all their running dogs – all reactionaries are paper tigers ● URD shukriyā thainkyū
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Phonetic form vs. semantic content
Loan translations (calques) Meaning is more easily ● Foreign composite translated borrowed than sound directly – XHO lán-méi ‘blueberry’ (‘blue’ + ‘berry’) Direct loans Loan creations ● Phonetic form borrowed and adapted ● New composite using – baiorin, sushi, orangutan, indigenous elements safari, kitabu – XHO diàn-nǎo ‘computer’ (lit. ‘electric brain’) Loan shift (semantic loans) Loan blends (hybrids) ● Indigenous word extends its meaning ● Mixture of loan and translation – XHO dìng ‘fixed; stable’ → – HIN/URD ḍabal kamrā ‘double ‘meditative state’ room’
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What can be borrowed?
Almost anything can be borrowed Peripheral vocabulary more easily ● Sounds, meanings, word order, than basic vocabulary derivational affixes, inflections and ● body parts, kinship terms, grammatical categories pronouns, basic verbs, etc. more resistant Lexical items more easily than grammar and phonology Derivational affixes easily borrowed Open word classes more easily than closed word classes Grammar with a wide scope more ● nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs easily than grammar with a narrow scope ● pronouns, pre- and postpositions, conjunctions, etc. ● conjunctions (e.g. ‘and’) easier to borrow than TAM markers Nouns more easily borrowed than verbs, (e.g. JPN < ZHO) Sound system may be changed as a result of lexical borrowing
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WOLD – http://wold.livingsources.org/ World Loanword Database
Database of “basic vocabulary” ● 41 recipient languages
● 369 donor languages Swahili, Iraqw, Gawwada, Hausa, Kanuri, Tarifiyt ● 1,000-2,000 words per language Berber, Seychelles Creole, Romanian, Selice Romani, ● 24 “semantic fields” Lower Sorbian, Old High the physical world, kinship, animals, the body, food and drink, clothing and grooming, German, Dutch, English, the house, agriculture and vegetation, basic actions and technology, motion, Kildin Saami, Bezhta, possession, spatial relations, quantity, time, sense perception, emotions and values, Archi, Manange, Ket, cognition, speech and language, social and political relations, warfare and hunting, law, Sakha, Oroqen, Japanese, religion and belief, modern world, miscellaneous function words Mandarin Chinese, Thai, ● 1,460 “meanings” Vietnamese, White Hmong, Ceq Wong, Indonesian, 5.78 ‘olive’ (0.93 %), 5.85 ‘sugar’ (0.79 %), 5.92 ‘wine’ Malagasy, Takia, Hawaiian, (0.74 %), 5.93 ‘beer’ (0.68 Gurindji, Yaqui, Zinacantán %), 5.27 ‘kettle’ (0.68 %), Tzotzil, Q'eqchi', Otomi, 5.88 ‘cheese’ (0.66 %), 5.82 Saramaccan, Imbabura ‘pepper’ (0.66 %) Quechua, Kali'na, Hup, Wichí, Mapudungunv
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Code-switching
Lakini niko sure ukienda after two days utaipata Uchimi Supermarket kwa wingi ‘But I am sure if you go after two days you will find it at Uchimi Supermarket in abundance.’
Switch between two (or more) Motivations for code-switching different language codes in a 1. To fill a lexical gap single stretch of discourse 2. To express the pragmatic force One language is primary, the or the “feeling” more precisely other secondary 3. To signal in-group membership ● Sometimes these also switch of two communities Grammatical elements come 4. To signal change of attitude from primary language 5. To mark emphatic repetition Adam-lar yer-i vask-e yap-ıyor 6. As a discourse marker (marking man-PL floor-ACC wash-INF do-PROG/3SG significant boundaries in the ‘The men are washing the floor’ conversation)
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The death of Manchu
Manchu is a dying language ● 60 speakers in 1999 out of an ethnic population of over 10 million ● It was “killed” by Chinese...
In 1644, the last emperor of the Ming dynasty in China hanged himself after Manchu invaders had entered Beijing, and the Manchus subsequently ruled China until the fall of the empire in 1911. By then, however, virtually all Manchus spoke Chinese. Far from protecting their linguistic heritage, political power had made it all the more important for the Manchus to learn Chinese, and their loss of power eventually also led to the loss of their own language. Today the Manchu language is all but extinct…
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Pan Jin-yu (1914–2010)
Pan Jin-yu (Chinese: 潘金玉, July 21, 1914 - October 24, 2010) was the last remaining speaker of the Pazeh language of Taiwan. She was born the fifth of six children in 1914 to Kaxabu-speaking parents in Puli. Later, she was adopted by parents who were Pazeh speakers living in Auran village (Taiwanese: Ailan), which is now part of Puli township. She was said to be fully fluent in the language, despite being the only remaining speaker. However, Taiwanese Hokkien was the living language she spoke generally. She taught Pazeh classes to about 200 regular students in Puli and there were also classes with fewer students in Miaoli and Taichung.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan_Jin-yu
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Language shift
Manchu and Pazeh are examples of language shift ● Process by which the language of one community is replaced by the language of another community Leads often to language death ● Common phenomena throughout history ● Accelerating today under the impact of globalization ● A local language disappears every two weeks… Languages that retreat or disappear often leave behind a very noticeable trace in the languages that take over ● Superstrate language subject to interference from the substrate language
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Superstrate and substrate languages
North Indian languages English ● Share many features with Dravidian ● Spread widely through British colonization languages (South India) (e.g. India, Singapore) ● Indo-Aryan languages picked up many ● More and more children grow up with Dravidian traits, e.g. retroflex stops English as L1 Chinese ● Shift only partial, most children bilingual (or multilingual) ● Northern dialects share features with Altaic languages ● Substrate interference has created new and characteristic variants of English – longer words, more use of stress ● Southern dialects with Austro-Asiatic Indian English and Tai-Kadai languages ● Different variants, depending both on – shorter words, more use of tone substrate language and on the degree of interference (“Hinglish”) Arabic Singapore English ● Maghrebi Arabic: elements < Berber ● “Singlish” shows interference from ● Syrian and Iraqi Arabic: < Aramaic Chinese dialects and Malay ● Sudanese Arabic: < Nubian
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Lexical interference
Vocabulary often not “The Prophet” strongly affected by ● Satirical poem written in substrate interference exaggerated version of ● Words are borrowed, but not Indian English to much greater extent than Borrowings in other situations ● goonda ‘hooligan’ ● Follow the general trend ● lassi ‘yoghurt drink’ – cultural borrowings more ● behn ‘sister’ common than core borrowings ● wallah ‘(agentive suffix)’ – meaning more easily borrowed than sound Loan shifts Examples from Indian ● too much (= ‘a lot of’) English ● harass (= ‘bother’)
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I am standing for peace and non-violence. Not that I am ever tasting the wine. Why world is fighting fighting I’m the total teetotaller, completely total, Why all people of world But I say Are not following Mahatma Gandhi, Wine is for the drunkards only. I am simply not understanding. Ancient Indian Wisdom is 100% correct, What you think of prospects of world I should say even 200% correct, peace? But modern generation is neglecting – Pakistan behaving like this, Too much going for fashion and foreign thing. China behaving like that, It is making me really sad, I am telling you. Other day I’m reading newspaper Really, most harassing me. (Every day I’m reading Times of India All men are brothers, no? To improve my English Language) In India also How one goonda fellow Gujaratis, Maharashtrians, Hindiwallahs Threw stone at Indirabehn. All brothers -- Must be student unrest fellow, I am thinking. Though some are having funny habits. Friends, Romans, Countrymen, I am saying Still, you tolerate me, (to myself) I tolerate you, Lend me the ears. One day Ram Rajya is surely coming. Everything is coming - Regeneration, Remuneration, Contraception. You are going? Be patiently, brothers and sisters. But you will visit again Any time, any day, You want one glass lassi? I am not believing in ceremony Very good for digestion. Always I am enjoying your company. With little salt, lovely drink, Better than wine; The Patriot – Nissim Ezekiel 21 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper
Grammatical interference
Substrate influence on grammar quite common ● More examples from “The Patriot”… Reduplication Excessive use of ‘the’ ● Why world is fighting ● Not that I am ever tasting fighting the wine Lack of articles Omission of direct object ● threw stone at Indirabehn ● Modern generation is ● all people of world neglecting Use of ‘one’ instead of ‘a’ Excessive use of continuous ● You want one glass lassi? ● I am standing for peace and non-violence
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II amam standing forfor peacepeace andand non-violence.non-violence. Not Not thatthat II amam everever tastingtasting thethe wine. Why world is fighting fighting I’m the total teetotaller, completely total, Why all people of world But I say Are not following Mahatma Gandhi, WineWine is for the drunkards only. II amam simplysimply notnot understanding.understandingunderstanding.. Ancient Indian Wisdom is 100% correct, WhatWhat you think of prospects of world II shouldshould saysay eveneven 200%200% correct,correct, peace? peace? But modern generation is neglecting-neglecting- Pakistan behaving like this, Too much going for fashion and foreignign thing.thing. China China behavingbehaving likelike that,that, ItIt isis makingmaking meme reallyreally sad,sad, II amam tellingtelling you.you. Other day I’m reading newspaper Really, most harassing me. (Every(Every dayday I’mI’m readingreading Times ofof India All men are brothers, no? To improve my English Language) In India also How one goonda fellow Gujaratis, MMaharashtrians,aharashtrians, Hindiwallahs Threw stone at Indirabehn. All brothers - Must be student unrest fellowfellow,, I am thinkingthinking.. Though some are having funny habits. Friends, Romans, Countrymen, I am saying Still, you tolerate me, (to(to myself) myself) I I toleratetolerate you,you, Lend me the ears. One day Ram Rajya is surely comingcoming.. Everything is coming - Regeneration, Remuneration, Contraception. You are going? Be patiently, brothers and sisters. But you will visit again Any time, any day, Any time, any day, You want one glass lassi? I am not believing in ceremony Very good for digestiondigestion..Always. Always I am enjoying your company. With little saltsalt,, lovely drinkdrink,, Better than wine; The Patriot – Nissim Ezekiel
Phonological interference
Standard British English to Indian English: [θ] Î [th̪] (as in think) [ð] Î [d̪] (as in thus) [t] Î [ʈ] (as in tin) [d] Î [ɖ] (as in do) (Dental plosives and retroflex plosives not found in English) Also: ● stress patterns http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nG_crqCznLs ● phonotactic rules
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Language generation
Language contact can Pidgins result in new languages ● Not full languages Two kinds ● Simpler than source languages ● Pidgins, e.g. Russenorsk – fewer words, less inflection ● Creoles, e.g. Bislama – restricted range of phonological and grammatical options Products of situations not Creoles conducive to bilingualism ● Full languages ● Trade, enslavement, migration ● Created by second generation pidgin speakers ● Usual scenario – larger vocabulary – vocabulary from superstrate – more complex grammar – grammar from substrate
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Pidgins Russenorsk
Language of ‘pomor’ trade ● Used by Russian traders and Norwegian fishermen in Northern Norway ● 18th and 19th Century About 400 words attested ● Mostly related to fish, the weather and trade
Moja på tvoja Kak sprek? Moja njet forsto n på r n r r n моя́r твоя́r как språk моя́ нет forstå поr my in your how speak? my no understand I speak in your language What are you saying? I don't understand
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Creoles Bislama
An official language of Prepositions Vanuatu (L1 and L2) ● blong = of (gen.) < ‘belong’ ● Originated among slave – buk blong mi ‘my book’ workers on plantations in – man blong Amerika ‘American’ Australia and Fiji ● long = at, to, in, by, beside, ... ● English vocabulary (95%) – jea long haos ‘The chair in the ● Oceanic grammar house’ Pronouns Verbs
person SG DU TR PL ● mi wantem bia ‘I want beer’ (incl.) mi yumitu yumitrifala yumi ● mi bin wantem bia ‘I wanted 1 (excl.) – mitufala mitrifala mifala beer’ 2 yu yutufala yutrifala yufala ● bambae mi wantem bia ‘I will want beer’ 3 hem tufala trifala olgeta
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National anthem of Vanuatu
Bislama English Yumi, yumi, yumi i glat long talem se We, we, we are happy to proclaim Yumi, yumi, yumi ol man blong Vanuatu We, we, we are the people of Vanuatu God i givim ples ia long yumi, God has given us this land, Yumi glat tumas long hem, We have great cause for rejoicing Yumi strong mo yumi fri long hem, We are strong and we are free in this land Yumi brata evriwan! We are all brothers Plante fasin blong bifo i stap, There were many ways before Plante fasin blong tedei, There are many ways today Be yumi i olsem wan nomo, But we are all one Hemia fasin blong yumi! Despite our many ways Yumi save plante wok i stap, We work hard Long ol aelan blong yumi, On our many islands God i helpem yumi evriwan, God helps us in our work Hem i papa blong yumi! He is Our Father!
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Common features of language contact
Four language contact phenomena ● Borrowing, code-switching, language shift, language generation Superficially different, different terminology ● Commonalities relating to the role of L1 and L2
L1 L2 Borrowing recipient language donor language Code-switching primary language secondary language Language shift substrate language superstrate language Language generation substrate language superstrate language
L1 L2 Providing grammar and phonology lexicon Social status lower prestige higher prestige
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Linguistic areas
“Sprachbund” Contact-induced similarities often more ● Geographic area in which languages apparent than family resemblances: tend to share significant traits that are not inherited from a common ancestor Hindi/English language ● Few overt similarities despite being Still, languages may or may not come related from a common ancestor ● Both Indo-European ● Not always easy to distinguish a Hindi/Tamil linguistic area from an area where ● Many similarities despite being unrelated related languages share features inherited from a common ancestor ● Indo-European and Dravidian ● Earlier belief that only vocabulary can be borrowed led to suggested Cantonese/Vietnamese relationships based on typological traits ● Sino-Tibetan and Austroasiatic – e.g. Chinese and Thai (tonal, ● Perceived to be more similar than monosyllabic, uninflected) Cantonese/Tibetan Language tree model is an idealization ● Both Sino-Tibetan, but geographically ● In some cases the ‘tree’ looks more like more distant a thicket…
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Macro-areas and micro-areas
Macro-areas East and South-East Asia ● Large geographical areas, e.g. Central Asia ● Eurasian SOV belt South Asia – Turkey in the West through Iran, Tibet, Australia Mongolia, Korea to Japan in the East, Polynesia and down to the whole of South Asia The Americas – Includes languages from Altaic, Indo- The Middle East and North Africa European, Dravidian, Sino-Tibetan and Austro-Asiatic The Ethiopian peninsula ● Sub-Saharan Africa Central Africa Micro-areas West Sahel Coastal West Africa ● Smaller geographical areas, e.g. Balkan Sprachbund Bantu languages – Albanian, Romanian, Macedonian, Khoisan languages Bulgarian, (Greek)
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Areal features
Word order (SOV, SVO or VSO) Morphological type ● SOV languages: postpositions; ● Analytic, agglutinative, flective or adjectives, genitives and relative polysynthetic clauses before the head noun Reduplication ● SVO and VSO languages: ● Frequent use of full or partial prepositions; adjectives, genitives reduplication in word formation and relative clauses after the head noun – e.g. Tamil avan-avan ‘each man, every man’, vantu-vantu ‘coming time and again’ Case marking Classifiers/noun classes ● Marking of syntactic functions, etc. ● Classifiers: words used between through morphology (affixes, vowel numerals and nouns change etc.) or function words ● Noun classes: groups of nouns with Monosyllabic common inflectional features ● Tendency for morphemes and Tones sometimes words to be monosyllabic ● No tones, level tones, contour tones
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SVO ● ÷CASE ● +MONO ● ANALYTIC ● +REDUP ● CLASSIF. ● CONTOUR Mood particles; Adj = V East and S-E Asia
Location Large number of contour tones ● China and South-East Asian mainland (excl. Malaysia) Monosyllabic morphemes ● Also N-E India, Himalayas, islands of Typical SVO word order S-E Asia, [Korea and Japan] – prepositions, postposed adjectives, Language families genitives, relative clauses ● Sino-Tibetan, Austro-asiatic, Tai-Kadai, Extensive repertory of classifiers Hmong-mien Reduplication commonly used for ● Chinese slightly exceptional word formation – preposed adjectives, etc. No case marking ● Some features shared with Tibeto-Burman Most widespread characteristic is the use of classifiers ● Continuous belt from Bengali in the West throughout South-East Asia, including the Austronesian language Malay, up through Tibet and China, reaching as far as Korea and Japan
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Classifiers in Japanese
Measure words used when counting Japanese English (literal) different kinds of objects 鉛筆五本 pencil five-CLS ● dai – cars, bicycles, machines, enpitsu go-hon mechanical devices, household 犬三匹 appliances dog three-CLS inu san-biki ● hiki, piki, biki – small animals, insects, 子供四人 fish, reptiles, amphibians, demons/ogres child four-CLS (‘oni’) kodomo yo-nin 鶏三羽 ● hon, pon, bon – long, thin objects: rivers, chicken three-CLS roads, train tracks, ties, pencils, bottles, niwatori san-ba guitars; also, metaphorically, telephone ヨット三艘 yacht three-CLS calls, train or bus routes, movies, points yotto san-sō or bounds in sports events. 車一台 ●mai– thin, flat objects: sheets of paper, car one-CLS kuruma ichi-dai photographs, plates, articles of clothing トランプ二枚 ●nin– people playing card two-CLS toranpu ni-mai – etc. (over 100 in Japanese)
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SOV ● +CASE ● ÷MONO ● AGGLUT ● ÷REDUP ● ÷GENUS ● ÷TONE Vowel harmony; vowel richness Central Asia
Location ● From Turkey to Mongolia and N-E Siberia Vowel harmony ● last vowel of word stem determines Language families vowel of suffix ● Turkic, Mongolian, Tungusic – ev-ler-den ‘house’ ● Language area or language family? – adam-lar-dan ‘man’ – Turkic + Mongolian + Tungusic = Altaic? Agglutinative morphology – Korean, Japanese, Ainu? ● plural suffix -ler/-lar ● Related to Uralic languages? ● ablative suffix -den/-dan Typical SOV word order ● postpositions, preposed adjectives, genitives and relative clauses Rich vowel systems ● front and back vowels exhibit roundedness distinction Case marking ● large number of case forms
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SOV ● +CASE ● ÷MONO ● FLECTIVE ● +REDUP ● +GENUS ● ÷TONE Retroflexes; moods and impersonal forms South Asia
Location ● Most of India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Retroflex consonants Bangladesh, Sri Lanka ● Tip of the tongue against back of gums Language families Rich modal distinctions (verb mood) ● Indo-European (Indo-Aryan) ● Speaker’s interest or somebody else's ● Dravidian ● Speaker approves or disapproves ● Austro-Asiatic (Munda and Mon-Khmer) ● Sino-Tibetan (Tibeto-Burman) Impersonal constructions ● Swimming comes to me = ‘I can swim’ ● To me knowledge does not exist = ‘I don't know’ Typical SOV word order ● Postpositions, preposed adjectives, genitives and relative clauses Gender and case Reduplication in word formation Flective and agglutinative
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(WO) ~ ● ERG ● ÷MONO ● FLECTIVE ● ?REDUP ● +GENUS ● ÷TONES Few vowels; no fricatives or voicing Australia
Dyirbal (N.E. Queensland) Mother-in-law languages (avoidance languages) A speaker was completely forbidden from speaking with his/her mother-in- ● Vocabulary used only in the presence of certain close law, child-in-law, father’s sister’s child relatives or mother's brother's child, and from Speech taboos approaching or looking directly at these people. In addition, when within hearing ● e.g. during periods of mourning or initiation range of taboo relatives a person was Few vowel phonemes, often only three required to use a specialised and complex form of the language with No fricatives essentially the same phonemes and grammar, but with a lexicon that shared No distinction between voiced and unvoiced stops no words with the non-taboo language. Ergativity This phenomenon, commonly called mother-in-law languages, was common ● Intransitive subject marked like transitive object in indigenous Australian languages. It – Intransitive ŋuma banaganyu existed until about 1930 when the 'Father returned.' father-ABS returned taboo system fell out of use. – Transitive yabu ŋuma-ŋgu buṛan Avoidance languages 'Father saw mother‘ mother-ABS father-ERG saw Also found in North America and Africa – (e.g. the Zulu and Xhosa system of Transitive ŋuma yabu-ŋgu buṛan ukuhlonipha ‘respect’). 'Mother saw father.‘ father-ABS mother-ERG saw
37 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper
SVO/VSO ● ÷CASE ● ÷MONO ● ANALYTIC ● +REDUP ● ÷GENUS ● ÷TONE Complex system of possessive markers Polynesia
Location Little inflection, more derivation ● Infixes in Tagalog ● Mostly island dwellers: Madagascar, sumulat ‘writer’ < sulat ‘write’ Hawai’i, Indonesia, New Zealand, ● Reduplication in Malay Philippines, Taiwan, Pacific Islands babi-babi ‘pigs’ ● Some mainland speakers: Malay Marking of several types of possession, e.g. Fijian ● Inalienable things: body parts (arm), kinship relations peninsula & Vietnam (mother), etc. ● Food: taro, tobacco, etc. Language families ● Drink: tea, oyster, orange, etc. ● Austronesian ● Various: house, work, etc. ● Language area or just one language family?
38 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper
Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) 19 4. Language contact EXFAC003-AAS v11
(WO) ~ ● +CASE ● ÷MONO ● POLY ● +REDUP ● GENUS/CLASSIF ● ÷TONES Head marking; few vowels, many consonants North America
Location Large parts (but not all) exhibit: ●North America Polysynthetic morphology Language families ● KAL: Utaqqiguvinga, aullaqatiginiaqpagit ● Joseph Greenberg: 4 “If you wait for me, I will go with you” ● Lyle Campbell: ca. 100 Relatively few vowel phonemes, usually 4-5 Many consonant phonemes ● Including pharyngeals, epiglottals, and ejective consonants (not common elsewhere) Head-marking ● Relations between the constituents of a phrase or clause marked on the head and not on the modifiers ● e.g. genitive is not marked on the modifier, as in English the dog’s house, but on the head (in this case house)
39 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper
not SOV ● ?CASE ● ÷MONO ● AGGLUT ● +REDUP ● ÷GENUS ● ÷TONES Relational nouns; vigesimal numerals Meso-America
Location ● Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Possession expressed as Nicaragua, Costa Rica his N1 N2 (= N2’s N1) Language families ● ‘the man’s dog’ expressed as ● Uto-Aztecan, Mayan, Totonacan, Oto-Manguean, his-dog the man Mixe-Zoquean Spatial relations expressed by relational nouns, not adpositions ● ‘on me’ = my-head ● ‘behind it’ = its-back Vigesimal numeral systems ● Based on combinations of 20 Widespread use of compounds ● leg-head ‘knee’ ● bird-stone ‘egg’ ●blood-road‘vein’ ● hand-mother ‘thumb’
40 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper
Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) 20 4. Language contact EXFAC003-AAS v11
VSO/SVO ● +CASE ● ÷MONO ● FLECTIVE ● ÷REDUP ● +GENUS ● ÷TONE Emphatic consonants; consonantal stems Middle East and North Africa
Location Consonantal stems ● Middle East and North Africa ● Inflected by inserting different vowels in Language families different forms, such as Arabic ● Semitic and Berber (both Afroasiatic) – kitāb 'book' vs. kutub 'books' < k-t-b ● Some shared features not due to common ● Loanwords adapted to this system origin – plural of film = aflām ● Arabic, Berber, Hebrew – the plural of bank = bunūk Emphatic (pharyngealized) consonants ● Arabic ṭ, ḍ, ẓ and ṣ, pronounced while retracting the root of the tongue to create contraction in the pharynx Originally VSO word order ● prepositions, postposed adjectives, genitives and relative clauses – Modern Hebrew and modern colloquial Arabic usually considered to be SVO – Berber and standard Arabic still VSO
41 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper
SOV ● +CASE ● ÷MONO ● FLECTIVE ● ÷REDUP ● +GENUS ● LEVEL Ejective implosives The Ethiopian peninsula
Location Ejectives and implosives ● Horn of Africa (Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia) ● A special series of consonant phonemes Language families which may be pronounced as ejectives or ● 80 different Afroasiatic languages (Semitic, implosives. Unvoiced implosives are only Omotic and Cushitic branches) found in this area. Quantity (length) distinctions in both vowels and consonants. Simple tone systems ● level tones high and low ● combinations like high to low (falling) or low to high (rising). Typical SOV word order ● postpositions, preposed adjectives, genitives and relative clauses
42 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper
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SVO ● ÷CASE ● ÷MONO ● FLECTIVE ● ÷REDUP ● +GENUS ● (LEVEL) Initial mutation West Sahel
Location Initial mutation ● Savannah areas south of the Sahara ● Changes in initial consonant used as Language families inflectional and derivational marker ● Atlantic branch of Niger-Congo (Wolof, ● Fula plural forms: Fula, etc.) gite ‘eyes’ < yitere ‘eye’ fulɓe ‘Fula persons’ < pullo ‘Fula person’ Extensive gender system ● Fula has 24 noun classes No tones Typical SVO word order ● prepositions, postposed adjectives, genitives and relative clauses
43 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper
SVO/SOV ● ÷CASE ● +MONO ● ANALYTIC ● +REDUP ● ÷GENUS ● LEVEL – Coastal West Africa
Language families Predominantly monosyllabic words ● Various subgroups of Niger-Congo: Kwa, Kru, Benue-Congo (except Bantu) or morphemes, at least in verbs Languages Little if any inflection ● Yoruba, Ewe, etc. Complex tone system ● level tones (high, mid, low) ● combinations of level tones Labio-velar stops ●[kp͡, gb͡, ŋm͡] Typical SVO word order ● prepositions, postposed adjectives, genitives and relative clauses Similarities with San and with East and S-E Asia ● analytic, monosyllabic, tonal, SVO
44 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper
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SVO ● ÷CASE ● ÷MONO ● ?MTYPE ● ?REDUP ● +NC RELICS ● LEVEL Labial flaps; labial-velar consonants Central Africa
Location ● North of the Bantu area: Central African Republic, Labial flaps, labiovelar stops, Democratic Republic of Congo (Zaire), West labiovelar nasals Cameroon, Southern Sudan, parts of Nigeria and ● Not found in other parts of the Chad world Languages No noun classes ● Many small, undocumented languages ● Except some vestiges of a past noun class system A complex tone system ● level tones (high, mid, low) ● combinations of level tones Typical SVO word order ● prepositions, postposed adjectives, genitives and relative clauses
45 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper
SVO ● ÷CASE ● ÷MONO ● AGGLUT ● ÷REDUP ● +GENUS ● LEVEL Agreement Bantu languages
Sub-branch of Niger-Congo ● Many commonalities due to genetic relationship Much use of agreement Swahili is atypical in that it lacks tones ●subject-verb, object-verb, ● Others: Xhosa and Zulu (South Africa) modifier-noun kikapu kikubwa kimoja kilianguka vikapu vikubwa vitatu vilianguka Much inflection ●verb morphology particularly complex ni- na- ki- som -a 1SG/SUB PRES CL7/OBJ read IND 46 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper ‘I am reading it ’
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SOV/SVO ● ÷CASE ● ±MONO ● FLECT?/ANAL. ● ?REDUP ● +GENUS ● LEVEL Clicks; consonant clusters Khoisan languages
30 languages spoken by so-called Bushmen Khoi languages and Hottentots in Southern Africa ● SOV word order ● Most characteristic feature: clicks – postpositions, preposed adjectives and genitives Xhosa and Zulu have adopted three – postposed relative clauses ● c – ‘dental click’ (“tut-tut”) ● Words and morphemes are often polysyllabic ● q – ‘palatal click’ (champagne cork) ● Much inflection and derivation ● x – ‘lateral click’ (cantering horse) ● Xhosa Tongue Twister Lesson in South Africa San languages – http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KZlp-croVYw ● SVO word order – postposed adjectives and relative clauses – preposed genitives – both pre- and postpositions Words or morphemes tend to be monosyllabic Little/no inflection/derivation
47 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper
Next week: Language variation (?)
Further reading on language contact ● Gardner-Chloros, Penelope. 2009. Code-switching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press ● Haspelmath, Martin and Uri Tadmor. 2009. Loanwords in the World’s Languages: A Comparative Handbook. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter – online version: http://wold.livingsources.org/ ● Matras, Yaron. 2009. Language Contact. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press ● Thomason, Sarah. 2001. Language Contact – An Introduction. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press ● Winford, Donald. 2002. An Introduction to Contact Linguistics. London: Blackwell
48 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper
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