The Binanderean languages of Papua New Guinea: reconstruction and subgrouping Pacific Linguistics 625 Pacific Linguistics is a publisher specialising in grammars and linguistic descriptions, dictionaries and other materials on languages of the Pacific, Taiwan, the Philippines, Indonesia, East Timor, southeast and south Asia, and Australia. Pacific Linguistics, established in 1963 through an initial grant from the Hunter Douglas Fund, is associated with the School of Culture, History and Language in the College of Asia and the Pacific at The Australian National University. The authors and editors of Pacific Linguistics publications are drawn from a wide range of institutions around the world. Publications are refereed by scholars with relevant expertise, who are usually not members of the editorial board. FOUNDING EDITOR: Stephen A. Wurm EDITORIAL BOARD: I Wayan Arka and Malcolm Ross (Managing Editors), Mark Donohue, Nicholas Evans, David Nash, Andrew Pawley, Paul Sidwell, Jane Simpson, and Darrell Tryon EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD: Karen Adams, Arizona State University Bambang Kaswanti Purwo, Universitas Atma Alexander Adelaar, University of Melbourne Jaya Peter Austin, School of Oriental and African Marian Klamer, Universiteit Leiden Studies Harold Koch, The Australian National Byron Bender, University of Hawai‘i University Walter Bisang, Johannes Gutenberg- Frantisek Lichtenberk, University of Universität Mainz Auckland Robert Blust, University of Hawai‘i John Lynch, University of the South Pacific David Bradley, La Trobe University Patrick McConvell, The Australian National Lyle Campbell, University of Hawai’i University James Collins, Northern Illinois University William McGregor, Aarhus Universitet Bernard Comrie, Max Planck Institute for Ulrike Mosel, Christian-Albrechts- Evolutionary Anthropology Universität zu Kiel Matthew Dryer, State University of Claire Moyse-Faurie, Centre National de la New York at Buffalo Recherche Scientifique Jerold A. Edmondson, University of Texas Bernd Nothofer, Johann Wolfgang Goethe- at Arlington Universität Frankfurt am Main Margaret Florey, Resource Network for Ger Reesink, Radboud University, Nijmegen Linguistic Diversity Lawrence Reid, University of Hawai‘i William Foley, University of Sydney Jean-Claude Rivierre, Centre National de la Karl Franklin, SIL International Recherche Scientifique Charles Grimes, SIL International Melenaite Taumoefolau, University of Nikolaus Himmelmann, Universität zu Köln Auckland Lillian Huang, Shih-chien University, Tasaku Tsunoda, University of Tokyo Taiwan John Wolff, Cornell University Elizabeth Zeitoun, Academica Sinica The Binanderean languages of Papua New Guinea: reconstruction and subgrouping Jacinta Mary Smallhorn Pacific Linguistics Centre for Research on Language Change Pacific Linguistics College of Asia and the Pacific The Australian National University Published by Pacific Linguistics School of Culture, History and Language College of Asia and the Pacific The Australian National University Canberra ACT 0200 Australia Copyright in this edition is vested with Pacific Linguistics First published 2011 National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry: Author: Smallhorn, Jacinta Title: The Binanderean languages of Papua New Guinea: reconstruction and subgrouping / Jacinta Smallhorn. ISBN: 9789858836310 (pbk.) Notes: Includes bibliographical references. Subjects: Historical lexicology. Papuan languages – Lexicology, Historical language and languages – Variation. Papua New Guinea – Languages. Other authors/ The Australian National University. College of Asia contributors: and the Pacific. Pacific Linguistics. Dewey Number: 499.12 Copyedited by Piers Kelly Typeset by Jeanette Coombes Cover design by Julie Manley Printed and bound by Addcolour Digital Pty Ltd., Fyshwick, Canberra Table of contents Acknowledgements xi Abstract xii Abbreviations xiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Preliminary notes 1 1.2 What is a ‘Papuan’ language? 3 1.3 The Trans New Guinea hypothesis 5 1.3.1 Trans New Guinea I 5 1.3.2 Trans New Guinea II 5 1.3.3 Trans New Guinea III 6 1.3.4 Trans New Guinea IV 6 1.3.5 Clues to the history of the Trans New Guinea family 7 1.4 Survey of research on Southeast Papuan 8 1.5 The comparative method 10 1.6 History of research on Greater Binanderean languages 11 1.6.1 Greater Binanderean member languages 11 1.6.2 The recognition of Binanderean as a linguistic group 16 1.6.3 Binanderean subgrouping and reconstruction of historical phonology 19 1.7 Presentation of source material 20 1.7.1 Reliability of sources 23 1.8 Outline of remaining chapters 24 2 Proto Binandere phonology and phonological history of Binanderean languages 26 2.1 Introduction 26 2.2 Tri-furcation of Proto Binandere 32 2.3 Nuclear Binandere 33 2.4 The Central Binandere linkage 36 2.5 North Binandere 37 2.6 Zia-Mawae 38 v vi 2.7 The North Binandere languages and Yekora 39 2.8 Binandere-Ambasi 42 2.9 South Binandere 43 2.10 The Orokaiva dialects 47 2.11 Coastal Binandere 53 2.12 The Baruga dialects 54 2.13 Gaena-Korafe 57 2.14 Gena and Ambe-Dofo 59 2.15 Parallel tendencies in Proto Binandere phonemes 60 2.15.1 The palatal voiceless plosive 61 2.15.2 The prenasalised palatal plosive 63 2.15.3 The palatal nasal 64 2.15.4 The palatal glide 65 2.15.5 The word-initial voiceless alveolar fricative 66 2.15.6 The word-final mid-central vowel 67 2.15.7 The rounded labial nasal 69 2.16 A framework for sound changes 71 3 Aspects of reconstructed Binanderean phonology and lexicon 74 3.1 Introduction 74 3.2 Neutralisation of voiced plosives and prenasalised plosives 74 3.3 The case for *d and *r as separate phonemes 75 3.4 Vowel sequences 76 3.5 Assignment of phonetic values to the proto-phonemes 76 3.6 Suprasegmentals 79 3.7 Irregular sound changes 81 3.7.1 Metathesis 81 3.7.2 Assimilation 81 3.7.3 Vowel variation 82 3.7.3.1 i~u variation 82 3.7.3.2 e~o variation 84 3.7.3.3 i~e variation 85 3.7.4 Reduplication of one syllable 87 3.7.5 Uncertainly reconstructed final syllables 88 3.7.6 Substitutive final syllables 89 3.7.7 Segment loss 89 3.7.8 Inserted -or- 91 3.7.9 Irregularities due to borrowing 92 3.7.10 Other irregularities 93 3.8 Likely Austronesian (Oceanic) loans 93 3.9 Instances of multiple proto-forms with the same gloss 95 vii 4 Proto Binandere morphology 97 4.1 Introduction 97 4.2 Verbal morphology 97 4.2.1 Introduction 97 4.2.2 Tense 99 4.2.3 Person/number 102 4.2.4 Speech act value 105 4.2.5 Purpose 106 4.2.6 Non-finite (medial) same-subject verb aspect 107 4.2.7 Bilabial consonant variation in u-class verb stems 111 4.2.8 Imperfective 111 4.2.9 Imperative 112 4.2.10 Irrealis mood categories 113 4.2.11 Nominalisation 114 4.2.12 Negative nominalisation 115 4.2.13 Stative 115 4.3 Nominal morphology 116 4.3.1 Case 116 4.3.2 Topic 121 4.3.3 Marking plurality on kinship nouns 122 4.3.4 Diminutives/intensives 125 4.3.5 Deictics 125 4.3.6 Pronouns 126 4.3.7 Reflexives 128 4.4 Innovations that define various branches of the tree 129 4.5 Conclusion 130 5 Guhu-Samane 131 5.1 Introduction 131 5.2 Phonological history 132 5.3 Bound morphology 139 5.4 Conclusion 145 6 Membership in the Trans New Guinea family 146 6.1 Introduction 146 6.2 Methodology 146 6.3 Retentions of TNG etyma in Greater Binanderean that are shared with Huon, Koiarian, Mailuan, and Madang 148 6.4 Some resemblant forms shared by Greater Binanderean and Huon which lack established pTNG antecedents 155 viii 6.5 Some resemblant forms shared by Binanderean and Koiarian which lack established pTNG antecedents 156 6.6 Some resemblant forms shared by Binanderean and Mailuan which lack established pTNG antecedents 157 6.7 Some resemblant forms shared by Binanderean and Madang which lack established pTNG antecedents 158 6.8 Yareban 160 6.9 Morphology 163 6.10 Conclusion 163 Appendices I Lexical cognate sets 165 II Reconstructed lexicon 395 II.1 Ordered alphabetically by English gloss 395 II.2 Ordered alphabetically by phonological form 407 II.3 Ordered by number 419 III Symbols concordance for lexical cognate sets 432 IV Abbreviations for parts of speech in lexcial cognate sets 438 V Reconstructed morphology 439 VI Phoneme inventories of Greater Binanderean languages 441 VII Kinship terms 443 VIII The family tree of Greater Binanderean 444 IX Sound correspondences including intermediate proto-languages 445 X Phoneme inventories of intermediate proto-languages 449 References 454 ix List of Tables 1.1 Review of work produced on Greater Binanderean languages 12 2.1 Innovations defining the subgroups of Binanderean 28 2.2 The phonemes of Proto Binandere 28 2.3 Sound correspondences 29 2.4 Sporadic sound changes in Central Binandere 37 2.5 Sound changes 73 3.1 Metathesis of prenasalised plosives 81 3.2 Assimilation 82 3.3 Reconstructed forms with indeterminate high vowel 82 3.4 Aberrant reflexes of reconstructed high vowels 83 3.5 Reconstructed forms with indeterminate mid vowel 84 3.6 Aberrant reflexes of reconstructed mid vowels 85 3.7 Reconstructed forms with indeterminate front vowel 86 3.8 Aberrant reflexes of reconstructed front vowels 86 3.9 Syllable reduplication 87 3.10 Uncertainly reconstructed final syllables 88 3.11 Substitutive final syllables 89 3.12 Phonetically natural glide loss 90 3.13 Syllable loss 90 3.14 Loss of disparate word-initial consonants 91 3.15 Inserted -or- 91 3.16 Irregularities due to borrowing 92 3.17 Other irregularities 93 4.1 Tenses in Binanderean languages 102 4.2 Person/number in Binanderean languages 104 4.3 Mood/speech act value in Binanderean languages 106 4.4 Purposive mood in Binanderean