The Case of the Lundas and the Luvales in Zambezi District, Zambia

International Journal of Research in Arts & Social Science Vol. 1. No. 1 December, 2016

ISSN 2141 825X www.oasisinternationaljournal.org

LANGUAGE USE IN EDUCATION AND ETHNIC CONFLICT AND CHALLENGES AMIDST COMPETING LINGUISTIC ALLEGIANCES: THE CASE OF THE LUNDAS AND THE LUVALES IN ZAMBEZI DISTRICT, ZAMBIA

by 1Chipo Kasoma, 2Lisa Kwaleyela and 3Gosnell L. Yorke (Ph.D) 1 UNICEF, Lusaka, Zambia 2,3 Dag Hammarskjӧld Institute for Peace and Conflict Studies, Copperbelt University, Zambia

Abstract In Zambia, the debate surrounding whether or not it is much more salutary to instruct children in their first language (L1) or mother tongue in the early stages of their academic development appears to have subsided in the last two decades, in favour of its proponents. Undoubtedly, this more valorizing and somewhat conflict-mitigating view of African languages is due, in no small measure, to the establishment of the African Academy of Languages (ACALAN) in Bamako, Mali, in 2001 under the theme, “African Languages for a Peaceful, Prosperous and Integrated Africa”. Scholars have consistently challenged the traditional practice by most African states of adopting ex-colonial languages as a medium of instruction in schools. This is because research has shown that native speakers forced to learn in a foreign language tend to lag behind in their academic development as they attempt to first learn the new (imposed) language. Based on this realisation, in 2013, Zambia set trends among many African countries by adopting a policy of teaching in local languages at lower grade levels (grades 1-4). This policy is reported to be working remarkably well in most parts of the country. For example, the May 2016 Joint Annual Review (JAR) by the Ministry of General Education and Cooperating Partners, covering a sample of 40 schools across the country, revealed a significant increase in test scores, literacy and numeracy, compared to the last two years before adoption of the policy. Further research, however, has also shown that implementation of this commendable policy has come with its own linguistic challenges in Zambezi District, Zambia. Zambezi District has suffered a long-standing conflict over language use between the Lunda and the Luvale ethnic communities, dating back to pre- colonial times. This article seeks to highlight the conflicts and challenges faced in the implementation of the local language policy in education in Zambezi District among the Lundas and the Luvales. In addition, it offers recommendations that might help mitigate and/or manage the prevailing ethnic conflict induced by this policy-driven use of language in education. Key words: African Academy of Languages, Education, Ethnic Conflict and Challenges, Language Use, Lunda, Luvale, Zambezi District and Zambia.

Introduction African Union (AU) in 2002, now functions as an Official Organ of the AU. Many former British colonies, such as Zambia, opted to adopt English as the The common factor driving much of the official language after independence. This above policies and politics of language has is not dissimilar to what transpired been a human rights-induced commitment elsewhere on the continent such as in to education without discrimination, the Lusophone or Portuguese-speaking Africa promotion of social justice and, more long- where the language of the erstwhile term, the deepening of the democratic coloniser was adopted as the official traditions within the affected states language, post-independence (Yorke, (Brock-Utne, 2003). However, more 1999). However, the use of English as a recently, now that evidence points to a medium of instruction (as opposed to global trend in terms of an increased indigenous African languages) in the number of children in school, the focus has education system has, for decades, tended to shift somewhat towards quality generated great controversy among education. The question regarding the scholars (Nzunga, 1997). This modern most effective language to use as a debate as to whether or not it is more medium of instruction cannot be avoided salutary to teach children in their mother as this has profound implications for both tongue has its grounding in the 1948 access and quality. For instance, children United Nations Universal Declaration of may shun school when forced to learn in Human Rights (UDHR), which places an unfamiliar language, thereby emphasis on education among the basic compromising access, or they would not human rights. Pursuant to the adoption of be able to comprehend fully what is being the UDHR, the right to education has been taught in a foreign language, thereby re-affirmed by many other international affecting quality. and regional instruments. Among others, these include the UNESCO Convention This article emerged from a qualitative against Discrimination in Education study that was conducted in Zambezi (1960), the International Covenant on District, Zambia, by Chipo Kasoma in Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 2016. The research covered a total of 63 (1966), the Covenant on the Rights of the participants (39 male and 24 female) out of Child (1989) (see Gaventa and Mayo. which 29 were Lundas, 23 Luvales, 5 of 2010), the Declaration on the Rights of hybrid ethnic identity (Lundas and Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Luvales) and 6 „other‟ represented Religious and Linguistic Minorities (1992) ethnicities (neither Lunda nor Luvale). The and the European Charter for Regional or data was collected using eight Focus Minority Languages (1992). Group Discussions (see below). In addition, 13 key informant interviews as Closer to home is the establishment of the well as a study of relevant secondary African Academy of Languages literature and documents were undertaken. (ACALAN) in Bamako, Mali, in 2001, The collected data was then analysed under the pan-African theme, “African thematically with the help of the N-VIVO Languages for a Peaceful, Prosperous and software. Integrated Africa”. ACALAN, formed just one year before the Organization of African Unity (OAU) morphed into the

FGD CLASSIFICATION SHEET Age FGD Cases Gender Ethnicity Cases\\FDG 6 41-60 Female Luvale Cases\\FDG 7 18-40 Male Lunda Cases\\FDG 8 Female Lunda 18-40 Cases\\FGD 1 Male Luvale 41-60 Cases\\FGD 2 Mixed Female Lunda/Luvale 18-40 Cases\\FGD 3 Male Luvale 18-40 Cases\\FGD 4 Mixed Mixed Gender Lunda/Luvale 18-40 Cases\\FGD 5 Male Lunda 41-60

INTERVIEW CLASSIFICATION SHEET Interview Length of stay in Participants Age Ethnicity Gender Zambezi Other (neither Lunda Cases\\Interview 1 18-40 years nor Luvale) Male 5-10 years Cases\\Interview Above 60 10 Years Lunda Male Above 20 years Cases\\Interview Other (neither Lunda 11 18-40 years nor Luvale) Female 5-10 years Cases\\Interview Other (neither Lunda 12 41-60 years nor Luvale) Male 11-20 years Cases\\Interview Other (neither Lunda 13 18-40 years nor Luvale) Male 5-10 years Above 60 Cases\\Interview 2 years Luvale Male Above 20 years Cases\\Interview 3 41-60 years Luvale Male Above 20 years Above 60 Cases\\Interview 4 years Lunda Male Above 20 years Cases\\Interview 5 18-40 years Mixed Lunda/Luvale Male < 5 years Other (neither Lunda Cases\\Interview 6 18-40 years nor Luvale) Male 5-10 years Other (neither Lunda Cases\\Interview 7 18-40 years nor Luvale) Male 5-10 years Cases\\Interview 8 18-40 years Mixed Lunda/Luvale Male 11-20 years Cases\\Interview 9 41-60 years Lunda Male 11-20 years

To put a cap on this protracted and AU Decision on the Linkage between persistent debate about how best to Culture and Education which is echoed in navigate between the foreign and the ACALAN in terms of its recognition of the indigenous, empirical evidence in the last importance of African languages as 2-3 decades has shown quite compellingly medium of instruction and as conflict- that it takes 2-3 years to become proficient mitigating and culture-bearing vehicles. in basic communication skills in a second language (L2) and 4-10 years to reach It is against this background and aspiration grade level competence (Lucas and Katz. to localise the above policies and politics 1994; also see Cummins, 2005; Rolstad, of language that Zambia in 2013 was 2005; and Degraff, 2017). Given these among some African countries that findings, teaching in English language adopted a policy of teaching in indigenous may therefore not be helpful for African languages at lower grade levels (grades 1- children because it will take them no less 4). However, it should be noted that this than 2 years to go beyond learning the was not entirely a new development but language sufficiently well to competently was, instead, a re-introduction of an assimilate the content of the teaching. indigenous language policy that existed Consequently, such African children are previously under the colonial bound to lag behind their English-speaking administration in 1948. And even back counterparts in academic performance and then, the implementation of the 1948 development in that both access and indigenous language policy in schools quality run the distinct risk of being ignited much conflict and controversy in severely compromised. Chavuma District (then part of Balovale land) in terms of language use within the In recent years, this defensible linguistic Lunda and Luvale ethnic communities. conviction has generated international activism, specifically promoting the use of Re-introduction of the indigenous indigenous languages in schools and language policy in 2013 has, within its resulting in further international first three years of existence, already conventions. These include the World began recording a positive output in terms Declaration on Education for All and the of academic performance. For example, Framework for Action to Meet Basic the May 2016 Joint Annual Review (JAR) Learning Needs, adopted by the World by the Ministry of General Education and Conference on Education for All, held in Cooperating Partners, covering a sample Jomtien, Thailand, in 1990 (Gaventa and of 40 schools across the country, revealed Mayo, 2010). significant increase in test scores, literacy and numeracy, compared to the last two In addition, there was a follow-up years before adoption of the policy (Global conference held in Dakar, Senegal, in 2000 Partnership for Education, 2016). which produced the Dakar Framework for Similarly, another study conducted in 2016 Action. The Framework highlighted six (6) by Francis Kafata involving 45 goals to be achieved by 2015 relating to respondents from 20 Primary Schools in universal primary education, gender Kitwe District, Copperbelt Province, equality and the reduction of adult showed that issuing instructions in the illiteracy. Embedded within these goals, indigenous language is more beneficial as however, was an emphasis on education in the pupils grasp more quickly and a familiar language, the absence of which classroom participation improves. has proven to have the effect of Moreover, pupils tend to continue with the disadvantaging speakers of indigenous same language even after lessons, which languages. Another related and important helps them to acquire knowledge even piece of the puzzle, as it were, is the 2005 more readily as well (Kafata, 2016). It © 2016 www.oasisinternationaljournal.org Page 50 means, therefore, that, presumably, this is communities (Mukunto 2016). It should be a rather commendable language policy for noted from the onset, however, that the Zambia which boasts some seventy or so Luvales seem to have a much more different indigenous languages. In theory detailed documentation trail than their at least, such a language policy has the Lunda counterparts. Kwekudee (2013) in potential to improve overall academic „Trip Down Memory Lane‟ gives an performance and even help to minimize interesting and informative account of the ethnic conflict amidst competing linguistic two ethnic groups before their settlement allegiances. in Zambia (then Northern Rhodesia). They happen to have been part of the Bantu Notwithstanding the great successes people that migrated from Cameroon in documented elsewhere in the country, West Africa to the Great Lakes Region and however, further research has also shown Southern Africa. Kwekudee further traces that, paradoxically, the same language their emergence to the Lunda princess conflicts and challenges experienced in from the Lunda Kingdom who fell for the Chavuma District in 1948 have re-surfaced charm of Tshinda Ilunga, the adventurous in Zambezi District with the re- hunter who hailed from the Luba introduction of the indigenous language establishment in the 1600s. This act drove policy in education in 2013. The entire her brothers away in anger to establish Zambezi District (including Chavuma their own kingdoms, which eventually which is now an independent District) has culminated in the formation of the Lunda suffered a long-standing language conflict and Luvale dynasties. Others were the between the Lunda- and Luvale-speaking Lozi, Bemba and Kaonde ethnic groups people, dating back to pre-colonial times. that emanated from this legacy. These This has posed a serious threat to the groups adopted different dialects and some success of the education indigenous small variations in tradition and material language policy in that area, thereby culture which Papstein (1989) argues necessitating further exploration as to how could have contributed to the genesis of best the recently re-introduced policy can the language-induced ethnic conflict under be implemented so as to help mitigate investigation. and/or manage protracted ethnic conflict. The Luvale faction led by Chinyama Zambezi District is located approximately passed through Angola and first settled at 1,077 km from Lusaka, the Capital City, in the Chavuma border before entering the North-Western Province of Zambia. present-day Zambezi. In Zambezi, the Zambezi (formerly known as Balovale Luvales, who were fierce warriors, drove land before the dawn of the First Republic away the Mbwele to Western Province in 1964) recorded a total population of and took possession of the entire area 80,306 people in the 2010 Census (Central surrounding the Zambezi River. However, Statistics Office – CSO, 2010). The Luvale because they were fishermen traditionally, and affiliate ethnic groups, namely, the the Luvales opted to settle along the Luchazi, Chokwe and Mbunda, are the Zambezi River on the West bank. This not majority, jointly accounting for around only gave them a better view of their three-quarters of the total population. approaching enemies but also allowed them to maintain jurisdiction over both History of the Lundas and Luvales sides of the river. In order to understand the protracted and persistent language-induced conflict According to the 1939 MacDonald between these two ethnic communities, it Commission Report, when Ishima, the first is needful for us to provide a cursory Lunda Chief, arrived in Zambezi around recital of the history of the two ethnic 1895, he sought land from the Luvale © 2016 www.oasisinternationaljournal.org Page 51

Chief and was allocated land on the he facilitated Ishinde, a messenger under eastern side of the Zambezi River. the colonial administration, to rise to the Unfortunately, this geographical chieftaincy. In addition, Miller used the juxtaposition of the two ethnic Zambezi River boundary as a natural mark communities in such close proximity to of demarcation with the Luvales ending up each other later spawned the conflict- on the west and the Lundas on the east ridden slave trade in that the more (MacDonnell Commission Report, 1939). powerful Luvales traded off the Lundas as slaves to the Ovimbundu traders. In their This partitioning of Balovale land resulted defence, the Lundas sought protection in a major conflict between the two ethnic from the Lozis, who by then had already groups as, following this, Chavuma established a powerful kingdom in District, considered the area‟s best Barotseland. These battles of conflict and agricultural land and, in spite of having a conquest between the Lozis and the larger Luvale population, ended up within Luvales in defence of the Lundas came to Lunda control and confines. To date, the be known as the „Wars of Ulamba‟ Zambezi River boundary-generating (Papstein, 1989). conflict has never been resolved. Instead, it continues to complicate relations When the colonial imperialists came to between the Lunda and the Luvale ethnic Zambia, their first point of contact was communities with implications even for with the Lozis. As a colonial language use in education. This has administration strategy as well as a means become even more acute in recent times of compensation for the support rendered given the fact that the Central Business by the Lozis during the Wars of Ulamba, Area (CBA) is on the eastern part (the the entire Balovale land ended up as part Lunda area), while the west is waterlogged of Barotseland. Consequently, both Luvale with little or no potential for meaningful and Lunda chiefs became answerable to and sustainable agricultural production the Litunga. Kwekudee (2013) narrates (the Luvale area). how, for a brief moment in history, the two ethnic groups had to put their differences In addition, and as if to rub salt in the aside and cooperate in fighting a common ethnic wound, as it were, Balovale land threat posed by both Lozi and colonial was later changed to Zambezi District after dominance. This was especially the case Zambia‟s independence in 1964. As the after the colonial masters began to show first President of the new Republic, this their anti-indigenous administrative was Dr Kenneth Kaunda‟s conflict- tendencies and intentions. This opposition, resolving strategy in his commendable and amidst subtle clashes between themselves concerted attempt to encourage peaceful (as their own differences were not totally co-existence between the two ethnic forgotten), quickly gained the Lundas and groups. Unfortunately, this did not the Luvales a reputation of being wild and resonate well with the Luvales who not unruly subjects that required much closer only saw themselves as unwilling control and supervision. inheritors of poorer land on the west side of the Zambezi river but also knowing that In 1923, for the first time, came a colonial they enjoyed historical precedence over District Commissioner (DC) by the name the other inhabitants of the land as a of Bruce Miller from Mwinilunga, a whole. Lunda-dominated area. All other DCs before him were from Borotseland, which Below is a map of Zambia, which shows was neither Lunda nor Luvale. Due to his the location of Zambezi District in the background, Miller was perceived as North-Western Province of Zambia. showing a bias toward the Lundas in that © 2016 www.oasisinternationaljournal.org Page 52

Fig. 1: Map of Zambia Background to the Conflict-generating development among the learners (Ibid; Indigenous Language Use in Education also see Snelson, 1974). Policy in Zambia However, when Northern Rhodesia was In terms of the indigenous language use in eventually colonised in 1924, the British education policy in Zambia, Chondoka and Government felt the need to conduct an Manchishi (1999) point out that the investigation so as to ascertain the efficacy earliest European missionaries, as was true of the prevailing education system. Thus, of elsewhere in Africa, introduced the first the Phelps-Stokes Commission was form of formal education to the local instituted, whose Advisory Board endorsed people in Zambia, even before colonialism teaching in indigenous languages. This in 1883. These originators of the initial was in a bid to ensure that education was education system promoted the use of an attuned to the practical needs of the indigenous language then called SiLozi, people, most of whom had a very limited since their first point of contact was with command of English. For the first two Lewanika, the Lozi King of Borotseland. years of primary schooling, the Board SiLozi was used to teach children in lower recommended the use of the mother grades while English was introduced at tongue or the first native language to higher-grade levels. This pedagogical which children are exposed. This was to be approach by the early European followed by a principal zonal language or missionaries is reported to have been the dominant local language in a particular largely successful in mitigating conflict geographical area up to standard 5 (Banda based on linguistic allegiances. Also, it D, Mostert L and Wilkan, G, 2012). At helped to promote cognitive and academic the time, there were only four (4) principal indigenous languages that were adopted,

© 2016 www.oasisinternationaljournal.org Page 53 namely, SiLozi, ChiTonga, ChiBemba and and learning in a foreign language had ChiNyanja. Furthermore, the Board later meant that, essentially, for the vast recommended that English could majority, school was unrelated to real life eventually become the Language of (Kafata, 2016). Instruction (LOI) as soon as the difficulties in reading and writing in indigenous Many other subsequent studies conducted languages were mastered (Banda et al., generated similar findings, which 2012). These recommendations provided a prompted the Ministry of Education and basis for the 1948 indigenous language other stakeholders in Zambia to realise policy although the Government would that, perhaps, to enhance academic later increase the officially recognized performance and to mitigate conflict, zonal languages from four to seven. The teaching and learning were better done in a other three languages are Lunda, Luvale familiar language. For Kafata, this means and Kaonde. taking the children, epistemologically speaking, from the known to the unknown. When Zambia attained its independence in For him, this enables pupils to express 1964, it was understandably driven by a themselves and actively participate in their profound sense of nationalism and own learning, prevents cognitive overload, patriotism. For example, the fact that very minimizes ethnic conflict and few people were literate and competent in psychologically boosts their self-esteem English so as to cope with the immediate (Ibid). demands of administration and governance, posed a real threat to the Thus, the Ministry of Education began to newly found freedom and to national take slow and cautious steps to re- development. In this regard, it was little introduce and re-emphasise the role of wonder that the 1966 Education Act local or indigenous languages in declared English as the sole LOI education, beginning with the 1996 throughout the country. Predictably, this „Educating our Future‟ policy. This policy resulted in an overall decline in literacy revived the use of a familiar language to and numeracy levels among children who teach literacy (reading and writing only) in hardly ever used English at home. Kashoki Grade 1, although English was maintained (1990 quoted from Kelly), Kelly (1999 and as the LOI. This was achieved through 2000) and Muyeba (1998 also quoted from programmes such as the Primary Reading Kelly) describe the 1966 Act as one that Programme (PRP) and the Zambia New just schooled and graduated illiterates Breakthrough to Literacy (ZNBL). because the initial teaching was done in The challenge with this new approach, English, a language which, as has been however, was the confusion caused by mentioned earlier, was completely foreign teaching Grade 1 literacy in a local to most pupils at the time (Banda et al., language, on the one hand, and then 2012). continuing with English as the overall A later study by the Zambian Ministry of medium of instruction, on the other. Education and the Southern African Although these additional programmes did Consortium for Monitoring Education score some notable successes, their Quality (SACMEQ) which was conducted performance was compromised by the in 1995 showed that only 25% of Grade 6 conflict and controversy which was pupils could read at defined desirable aroused by teaching initial literacy in local levels. Kafata (2016) asserts that it was languages while English, a foreign evident that the first 30 years of English as language, still enjoyed the supremacy. the only medium of instruction had been This awareness later prompted the ultimate less than entirely satisfactory. Teaching policy decision in 2013 to completely © 2016 www.oasisinternationaljournal.org Page 54 revert to teaching in local or indigenous addition, the Lundas are mostly settled on languages at lower grade levels, i.e., the east bank and almost non-existent on grades 1 to 4. the west. Therefore, adopting Lunda entirely on the east bank as the LOI has Implementation of the Conflict- proved to be a recipe for conflict in that it generating Local Language Use Policy seriously disadvantages the Luvale pupils in Education in Zambezi District who are coerced into learning in an unfamiliar language. This is contrary to As earlier indicated, empirical evidence what the commendable local language has shown countrywide relatively policy seeks to achieve in the first place. In impressive results ensuing from the re- light of this complex and conflict- introduction of the education local generating linguistic scenario, the Ministry language use policy in its first three years of Education decided to have students of implementation. Nevertheless, Zambezi taught in Luvale in the Luvale-dominated District in the North-Western Province of parts of Zambezi east as well as all parts of the country seems to be the one notable Zambezi west, while the Lunda-populated exception, owing to protracted and parts of Zambezi east would maintain persistent language-driven conflict Lunda (Muzata, 2015). However, Chief between the Lunda- and Luvale-speaking Ishinde of the Lunda-speaking people, ethnic communities resident there. Today, perhaps influenced by the history of for example, Lunda continues to be conflict and hostility between the two geographically recognised as the zonal ethnic communities, proved not to be a language of Zambezi District. This is conflict-resolver in that he stubbornly simply based on the Zambezi River refused to abide by this decision. Instead, boundary regulation of the 1920s to which he demanded to have the natural aquatic we referred earlier and which officially boundary respected by having Lunda (and divided the District into two parts, with the Lunda only) taught in all parts of Zambezi Luvales to the west and the Lundas to the east of the river. Unfortunately, and not east. surprisingly, this has remained a source of This locational scenario only adds to an conflict since then with the on-going already conflict-generating context in Zambezi District-based Lunda-Luvale which Luvales account for the majority of conflict-generating politics of language the population on both the east and the being very much a part of that whole west banks of the Zambezi River. To trajectory. complexify matters even further, the The situation is further compounded by Luvale ethnic group ought to be what appears to be undue external political considered to be even much larger in that, interference by certain state actors. This as was mentioned earlier, they also precludes the Ministry of Education, as the encompass the Luchazi, Chokwe and official regulatory organ of the state, from Mbunda sub-ethnic groups within the taking decisive and definitive action. For region. instance, in succumbing to pressure from When the local language policy was re- the Lunda faction, the then Minister of introduced, Muzata (2015) re-counts that Education (through his Permanent the Ministry of Education first took Secretary) in 2014 ruled to have Lunda statistics of ethnic groups in the different taught in all of Zambezi east and Luvale in parts of Zambia before determining which the west. This decision was later overruled local languages to adopt. It was found that and reversed by the then President of the the Luvale-speaking pupils were more on Republic, the late Mr. Michael Chilufya both sides of the Zambezi River. In Sata.

It means that the schools in Zambezi for some random exceptions induced by District continue to operate in a precarious pupil transfers and voluntary migration and conflict-charged linguistic from other Districts. environment so much so that even the ethnic orientation of staff and management In short, the case of Zambezi District is or the majority of pupils at a given school unique in the country in that the zonal sometimes determine the LOI at lower language (Lunda) is not necessarily the grade levels. To complicate matters familiar or most common language further, some schools such as Dechawang (Luvale). This points to the root cause of (or Kateta as known by the Luvales), and the conflicts and challenges being perhaps out of sheer frustration and to encountered by the re-introduced avert any further ethnic conflict, have indigenous language policy in education. opted to maintain English as the only LOI. A quick historical recital of how Lunda Conclusion and Recommendations ended up as the zonal language instead of Luvale, which accounts for the majority of In sum, two contrary enabling instruments the population, takes us back to the are often cited or invoked in the Zambezi colonial era. Particularly important in this District-based conflict over the role and protracted conflict-generating scenario relevance of the LOI. First, there is the based on language use and allegiances is Luvale argument that Luvale should be how the Zambezi River was designated the adopted as the sole LOI in the lower boundary marker to separate the Lunda grades (1-4) as opposed to Lunda. The and the Luvale ethnic communities. rationale for this is that the high number of Luvale-speaking pupils in the district on The MacDonnell Report of 1939 describes both sides of the Zambezi river would how the Zambezi River boundary was justify it. This argument seems to find used by Bruce Miller, a District some support in the 2013 Zambia Commissioner (DC) transferred from Education Curriculum Framework Mwinilunga under the colonial (ZECF). It is a Framework which administration, and who demonstrated stipulates that the LOI from grades 1-4 what appears to be a clear Lunda bias. should be a language which is familiar to Mwinilunga happened to have been a the pupil (Curriculum Development predominantly Lunda area at the time. Due Centre, 2013). However, the Lunda to his perceived bias and background, counter-argument in support of Lunda Miller offered the Lundas the much more being the exclusive LOI east of the fertile east bank at the expense of their Zambezi River stems from preceding Luvale counterparts who remained with policies such as the Education Acts of the more sandy and waterlogged west bank 1948, 1966 and 1996. Such pieces of (MacDonnell Commission Report, 1939). legislation seem to place some emphasis Furthermore, in spite of the fact that the on adoption of the principal or zonal Luvales were the first settlers in Balovale language--which ever that happens to be. land (including Chavuma District) as well as the majority in population, Miller saw This means, essentially, that both ethnic to it that Lunda emerged as the zonal communities seem to have a firm historical language. This pattern was different from basis for their argument. Granted, this on- other parts of the country where the going conflict might not have arisen in majority speakers logically determined the Zambezi District if the familiar language ultimate selection of the zonal language. to the pupil happened to have been the Undoubtedly, this accounts for the fact that zonal language as well. This is mostly the the indigenous language policy in case in other parts of the country except

© 2016 www.oasisinternationaljournal.org Page 56 education is generating little or no ethnic Brock-Utne, B. (2003). The Language conflict in other areas of the country. Question in Africa in the Light of Globalization, Social Justice and Unfortunately, Zambezi District stands out Democracy, Journal of Peace as the only known exception. Thus, in an Studies (Published by the effort to mitigate and/or mange ethnic International Peace Research conflict induced by language, it would be Association [IPRA]). 8 (2) 67-86. useful, in our considered opinion, to revert to the original objectives and tenets of the language policy. That is, expose pupils to initial academic concepts in a language Central Statistics Office (2012). 2010 that they can best understand and Census of Population and Housing: competently speak. This would then lay Population Summary Report. the foundation for conflict-mitigating Lusaka, Zambia. learning, a relatively smoother transition to

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