Fields of Reams

THE HANNACROIX CREEK PAPER MILLS

Chuck Friday Editor and Commentator

Third Edition Revised 2009

Fields of Reams

THE HANNACROIX CREEK PAPER MILLS

THIRD EDITION

Table of Contents

Topic Page

Prologue ………………………………………………………………… 1

In the Beginning … ………………………………………………………………….1

Early Attempts at Producing Paper from Straw Pulp ………………………………….1

The Paper Machine ………………………………………………………………….2

The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills …………………………………………….. 4

Ravine Paper Mill …………………………………………………………….. 5 Croswell-Parsons Paper Mill ………………………………………………… 9 Valley Paper Mill ……………………………………………………………… 13

Straw …………………………………………………………………………………….17

Making Paper from Straw ………………………………………………………………17

Motive Power and Power Transmission ………..…………………………………….. 25

Epilogue ………………………………………………………………………….. 35

Appendix – Site Maps for Paper Mills …………………………………………….…38

Acknowledgments …………………………………………………………………. 40

Resource List …………………………………………………………………………… 41

Cover art: Harvest by Currier & Ives, 1849

Straw Coming from the Farm to the Paper Mill

1 Fields of Reams The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills

Prologue

The third edition of this paper was prompted by the discovery of additional information that surfaced after the publication of the second edition in 2006. Much of the early background on papermaking found in the first two editions of this paper has been removed. This edition continues to focus on the use of straw as an alternative resource to rags for some paper products; more specifically wrapping paper. Furthermore, the technology issues facing rural paper mills have been expanded to include some discussion of the transmission of power as it related to the prime movers of the period and the equipment required to make paper from straw.

In the beginning ....

The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills operated at a time when the paper industry was undergoing rapid changes. The introduction of the paper machine in the early 1800s opened the field of papermaking to a wider group of entrepreneurs and the quest for alternative sources of raw materials for making paper products. Prior to the invention of the paper machine, papermaking was truly a craft as all paper had to be made by hand (one sheet at a time). Very little changed over centuries in terms of the processes used to make paper. Linen and cotton rags were the raw materials of choice for most paper products. Wood pulp was just being introduced and its acceptance was slow in arriving.

Early Attempts at Producing Paper from Straw Pulp

What we call paper is actually a thin sheet produced from the physical bonding of fibrous materials known as cellulose. Paper does not have a woven structure, but is a product of matting the fibers together. When minuscule cellulose fibers are soaked with water, they become flexible, allowing them to interlace. When the fibers dry, they lose their flexibility, they contract, and they harden.

Cellulose is a substance that forms a major part of the cell walls of trees, grasses, vegetables, and many other plants. Cellulose is a carbohydrate -- that is, a substance composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Cellulose is the most abundant of all naturally occurring organic compounds. Cellulose fibers have high strength and durability. They are readily wetted by water, exhibiting considerable swelling when saturated, and are hygroscopic -- i.e., the fibers absorb appreciable amounts of water when exposed to the atmosphere. Even in the wet state, natural cellulose fibers show no loss in strength. It is the combination of these qualities with strength and flexibility that makes cellulose valuable in the production of paper.

Prior to the 1800s, people were already searching for alternative sources of cellulose to meet the demand for paper. The rag supply simply could not meet the demand for paper products. Jacob Christian Schaeffer was the first known individual to experiment with the use of straw (along with other materials) for making paper (circa 1765-1771). Schaeffer, however, never went beyond the experimental stage in his quest for a replacement for rags. It wasn't until the early 1800s when an Englishman, Mathias Koops, actually set up a business that would attempt to commercially manufacture paper using straw. Koops' practical attempt at operating a straw paper mill coincided closely with the introduction of the paper machine. As a historical footnote, Koops' straw paper mill went bankrupt in less than two years of operation! Not a great start for the straw paper business!

In the United States, William Magaw of Meadville, Pennsylvania, in 1828, obtained a patent for pulping straw. The first commercially successful process for a paper product from straw took place at the George A. Shyrock mill, Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, in 1831. This mill produced binder board on a cylinder paper machine at the rate of 100 pounds per hour. The first mill to produce bleached straw paper was erected at Rensselaer, New York, by John B. Davis, who reportedly used the first steam-heated dryers.

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 2 The Paper Machine

Perhaps the single most important event in the evolution of papermaking (after the invention of paper by the Chinese, circa 105 CE) was the transition of making paper by hand to making paper by a machine. Prior to the invention of the papermaking machine, the only significant technical advance was the introduction of the hollander machine (circa 1680) for macerating rags for the purpose of producing paper pulp. For centuries the papermaking process was relatively static in terms of technical innovations.

This changed during the 1790s with the ideas of a French inventor by the name of Nicholas-Louis Robert. The first papermaking machine was a crude affair, but followed the same processes set forth over the centuries with hand made papermaking. Robert‘s machine consisted of an endless wire netting or belt, mounted on upright shaking supports and was carried around two rolls. A pulp container was placed beneath the wire. The liquid stuff (pulp) was raised by a scooping wheel and dropped into a gutter leading into a feedbox, its flow being directed in even distribution on to the moving wire. Two felt-covered rolls pressed out the water from the web, which was gathered on a wooden winding roll.

Up to this time, paper sheet size was limited to what could be handled by a single individual. This new invention was designed to make sheets in varying lengths and widths. Robert patented his invention in 1799 but practical application of his work did not come for several more years and with the creative efforts of additional individuals. M. Didot bought the patent from Robert and went to England and continued work on this machine with John Gamble and Bryan Donkin. They worked out an improved model and in 1803 the first successful machine for making paper was put into operation. Two brothers, Henry and Sealy Fourdrinier purchased the interests of these men. The Fourdrinier brothers attached their name to this new invention and this style of papermaking machine continued to be called the Fourdrinier paper machine.

Another machine for making certain kinds of paper had also made its appearance early in the 19th century. Entirely independent of Robert, the Fourdriniers and Donkin, an English artisan named John Dickinson had been working on a different type of papermaking machine between 1800 and 1810.

Instead of a flat, continuous moving screen or web of copper wire passing over rollers, Dickinson devised a copper mesh cylinder that revolved partially submerged in the vat of pulp. By means of a suction device within the cylinder a layer of pulp was made to adhere to its outer surface, and as the cylinder reached the apex of its turn the pulp adhered to a continuous belt of felt material and was carried along on its surface. Felt and pulp passed through a series of press rolls that squeezed out the water, after which the paper and felt were separated, the paper being wound on a roll and the endless belt of felt being returned through the machine to repeat the operation.

Dickinson's cylinder paper machine was first put into operation in 1809. The Fourdrinier paper machine‘s architecture was more sophisticated than the cylinder machine architecture and produced a superior quality paper product while costing more to build and operate. However the cylinder machine effectively competed with the Fourdrinier in the early days of machine-made paper.

It was nearly seven years after the appearance of Dickinson‘s cylinder machine in England before the American paper machine can be said to have really appeared. By 1816 Thomas Gilpin of Wilmington, Delaware, had produced a similar machine to Dickinson‘s. Shortly after Gilpin‘s success, several other American paper makers introduced their own versions of the cylinder paper machine. The American version of the cylinder machine eliminated the suction device within the cylinder by substituting a lifting mechanism to maintain a higher water level outside the cylinder than inside it. Like the suction device, this mechanism created enough pressure that water from the vat flowed into the cylinder with sufficient force to consolidate a film of fiber on the cylinder‘s surface. This innovation made the cylinder paper machine much easier to build, greatly reducing its cost and encouraging its rapid and widespread adoption in American paper mills.

Continuous felt belts for these paper machines were not manufactured in the United States until 1864. Subsequent to then, several local companies manufactured felt belts from 1870 to 1900 including: H. Waterbury and F.C. Huyck, Rensselaerville; H. Waterbury & Sons Company, Oriskany; H.C. Huyck & partners in Bethlehem and Rensselaer; The Acme Felt Company and The Albany Felt Company, Albany.

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 3 Since the Fourdrinier-type paper machine required meticulous construction and precise adjustment, raising the cost of building and of operating the machine, many early American paper mills made the decision in the 1820s to produce their paper products using the cylinder machine. This was five or six years before any paper was made from a Fourdrinier in the United States [the first Fourdrinier machine installed in the U.S. was in 1827 at Saugerties, NY]. In the 1830s American paper mills rapidly installed cylinder paper-making machines. By 1845, less than thirty years after the American debut of mechanized paper production, only two hand mills remained in operation. It was the architecture of the cylinder paper machine that was used at the Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills.

Cross Section of Cylinder Paper Machine (1809)

Early Cylinder Paper Machine (1816)

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 4

The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills

The Hannacroix Creek is a tributary of the Hudson River. The Hannacroix Creek (sometimes spelled Hannacrois) begins in the Town of Westerlo in southwestern Albany County. The Creek flows in an easterly direction through the Albany County hamlets of Alcove, Coeymans Hollow and Aquetuck then curves southward a bit into the Town of New Baltimore in Greene County. The Creek then heads northward back into Albany County through the southern outskirts of the hamlet of Coeymans where it empties into the western side of the Hudson River near the Albany-Greene County line.

Map of the Hannacroix Creek region (1896)

The Hannacroix Creek, in its meandering route to the Hudson, passes through some of the most beautiful farmland in the Hudson Valley. The Hannacroix Creek provided the essential link between the paper mills built along its banks and the farmers and lime kiln operators that provided the raw materials for their economic success.

Few people realize that the 19th century Hannacroix Creek provided waterpower for three (3) paper mills. These mills were:

Ravine Mill , Coeymans, NY (Albany County) 1832-c.1885

Croswell-Parsons Mill, New Baltimore, NY (Greene County) 1826-1897

Valley Mill, Alcove, NY (Albany County) 1848-1892

The Ravine Mill was often referred to as the Robb & Carroll Mill. The Croswell-Parsons Mill, in earlier documents, was called the Croswell Mill. Other historical clarification should be given to some of the key localities along the Hannacroix Creek. Coeymans Hamlet was referred to as Coeymans Landing. Ravena was referred to as Coeymans Junction. Finally, Alcove was referred to as Stephensville.

A historical description of each mill is provided in the next section of this paper.

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 5 The Ravine Paper Mill (Coeymans, NY)

The Ravine Mill was located in the Hamlet of Coeymans. The mill site is located approximately 100 yards west of State Route 144 near the Albany-Greene County border. This was the only mill of the three that was constructed for the specific purpose of manufacturing paper. The Ravine Mill operated from 1832 to approximately 1885. Earlier editions of this paper were incorrect in assuming William C. Robb and Nelson Carroll were the initial owners of this mill. According to information found in the Albany County Book of Deeds, Robb and Carroll purchased the mill site from the heirs of George Chittenden in 1872. In 1848 George Chittenden had acquired the mill site (10 acres) from Leonard W. Kipp and his wife Anna C. Kipp. It is not known if Leonard and Anna Kipp were the initial owners of the mill. The details of the original owner and operator of the Ravine Paper Mill in 1832 remain a mystery as of this writing.

The Ravine Mill had a substantial timber dam built on the Hannacroix, located several hundred yards upstream from the mill site. Remnants of the dam are still visible in the creek bed. It has been reported that the vertical height of the dam was twenty feet. Further reports indicate that the span of the dam was 100 feet. Recent measurements reveal that the base of the dam exceeded 60 feet. The site was an excellent natural location for the construction of a timber dam. The headrace for the transportation of water to the mill was located upstream from the dam and the indentation of the head gate is still visible in the bank of the creek.

Ravine Paper Mill Dam’s infrastructure in creek bed (2005)

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 6

Remains of Ravine Paper Mill Dam (c. 1899)

The dam broke in 1879. The Coeymans Herald reported on this event:

“We neglected to mention last issue that a break had occurred in Robb & Carroll’s mill dam, whereby all the water escaped. They have a force of men at work and as soon as possible will repair it. The cost of repairs will amount to about $300, besides the loss sustained by having the mill idle for 15 or 20 days.”

“The timber for the repairs in Robb & Carroll’s mill dam arrived yesterday.” (Coeymans Herald, June 18, 1879)

“The repairs on Robb & Carroll’s mill dam have been completed and the water let on.” (Coeymans Herald, June 25, 1879)

The Coeymans Herald‘s March 20, 1873 edition stated:

The paper mill of Robb and Carroll, situated in the northern (sic) part of the village on the Hannakrois Creek was thoroughly overhauled last summer, and it now doing a large business. They manufacture upwards of $30,000 worth of paper a year.

On March 20, 1875, the Coeymans Herald reported:

The paper mill of Robb & Carroll, situated in the southern part of the village on the Haanakrois (sic) creek, was thoroughly overhauled last summer, and is now doing a large business. They manufacture upwards of $30,000 worth of paper a year.

The August 23, 1880 edition of the Coeymans Herald mentioned:

Nelson Carroll represented the Ravine Mills at the straw paper makers convention held at Stanwix Hall, Albany, Friday. Representatives from all the straw wrapping manufacturers and large consumers were in attendance.

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 7 Of noted technical interest is a short article that appeared in the Coeymans Herald on February 23, 1881, regarding the Ravine Mill‘s installation of a steam engine:

The new steam engine for Robb & Carroll’s paper mill arrived Monday. It was built by the famous steam engine builders Cluet Bros. & Co., of Schenectady, and is a frame-girder engine all with the improvements to the cylinder is 12x20 inches, having 20 inch stroke and is rated at 55 horsepower, the fly-wheel is 7 feet in diameter and weighs 2400 lbs – Having this new accession the Ravine mill is now fitted so as manufacture paper the year round regardless of drouths (sic), whereas heretofore they had to shut down during the dry season.

Because of the addition of the steam engine, further improvements were made to the mill operation in October 1881:

“Messrs Robb & Carroll have added an improvement to their Ravine paper mill whereby the water for their engines and the spray for the machine is now pumped up by the steam engine, thus taking off large strain upon the water-power.” (The Coeymans Herald, October 19, 1881)

In addition to straw wrapping paper, the Ravine Mill also produced products for the cement industry as noted by an April 27, 1881 item in the Coeymans Herald:

Robb & Carroll have manufactured at their Ravine paper Mill a large quantity of 22 x 32 paper for lining cement barrels. The order is from a Cement Company and comes thru their agent in New York. The paper mill is running on full time and has many orders in advance.

The Ravine Paper Mill, like other 19th century mills, was not immune to personal injuries. One such unfortunate incident happened to George Young, an employee of the mill in 1883:

“George Young had his right hand caught in a calendar press at Robb & Carroll’s paper mill, Monday, and two fingers and thumb were badly smashed.” (The Coeymans Herald, November 14, 1883)

The Ravine Mill used both water and steam power to operate its equipment. The chimney at the mill site remains standing. Part of the mill‘s foundation was saved and a home was constructed on it. The Ravine Mill had a pulp preparation capacity of 600 pounds using two grinding machines. It was configured with one 48-inch cylinder paper machine. In an 1885 report the mill‘s production capacity was stated at 2.5 tons in a 24-hour period, but not in operation at the time of this same report. It appears that this mill, at times, ran only intermittently. Some of the mill‘s paper products were shipped by the short-lived Athens- Schenectady rail line, then the West Shore railroad. At least one delivery of paper was sent to San Francisco. The mill employed between 12 to 15 workers during peak operations.

Two images of the chimney at the Ravine Paper Mill site (2004)

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 8

No documentation has been found that reports the official closing of this mill. It is known that William C. Robb, Sr. died in 1883 and Nelson Carroll died in 1895. In the 1886 edition of The History of the County of Albany the Ravine Mill was given only cursory notice within the discussion of the Town of Coeymans. The mill was listed under ―miscellaneous industries of the township”. There was very little activity reported in the local paper about the mill‘s operation after the death of William C. Robb, Sr. The only improvement reported after William Robb‘s death was the installation of ―a new vat‖ in the mill in October 1883. This leads to the speculation that, without William Robb‘s technical leadership, the paper mill quickly lost any momentum for its continued operation.

The Ravine mill site sold at a foreclosure sale in 1888. Messrs Blodget & Niles were identified as the buyers for the amount of $3,150. Blodget & Niles were operators of a lumber and coal business at Coeymans Landing. Years previous to this sale the mill was reported as ―idle‖.

Perhaps the most poignant eulogy that could be given for the Ravine Paper Mill was the following news item found in the September 4, 1889 issue of The Coeymans Herald :

“A leak in the Ravine mill pond lets the water flow out naturally and that once beautiful and placid sheet of water, so attractive to belles and beaux who were wont to sail upon its smooth surface or bask in the shade at “Lover’s Retreat”, is now nothing but an unnavigable rippling brook.”

In 1894, businessmen from the Phillipsburg and Washington, New Jersey area visited the area and ―examined the Ravine mill buildings and site as to their suitability for being converted into a silk mill.‖ It was estimated that the site needed an estimated $1,000 in repairs to make it in ―tenantable shape‖. The roofs and floors were the items requiring the most repairs. No subsequent status was ever cited on this initial visit and the mill site was never reported as reopening for commercial use.

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 9 The Croswell-Parsons Paper Mill (New Baltimore, NY)

Croswell-Parsons Mill 1897

The Croswell-Parsons Paper Mill in New Baltimore operated intermittently from 1826 to 1897. As with the Valley Paper Mill in Alcove, the Croswell-Parsons Mill was not originally constructed as a paper mill. Initially it served as a combined grist and saw mill – both mills using the same water source at the lower falls where a four foot timber dam was used to impound the water.

The first operator of the paper mill was Nathaniel Bruce. In 1829 Hiram Seely became a partner with Mr. Bruce. During the partnership a paper machine was introduced. This would suggest that during Nathaniel Bruce‘s early years, paper may have been made by hand. About 1832 George Dayton succeeded Mr. Bruce and the business was known as the Seely & Dayton Paper Mill. Nathan Stevens bought out Seely & Dayton (date unknown) and leased the premises for several years. The mill was then purchased by a Mr. Morehouse and shortly after burned (dates unknown).

The mill site was subsequently purchased by James Croswell and the mill was rebuilt. While James Croswell was operating the mill, it burned again (destruction by fire was a common phenomenon for mills during this period). James Croswell had the mill rebuilt and later turned the operation over to his son William Croswell. William Croswell eventually went into partnership with his son-in-law Stephen Parsons. Prior to the establishment of the Croswell-Parsons coalition, the Croswell family operated the mill for two years with the technical expertise of William C. Robb, Sr. who had apprenticed for seven years as a papermaker prior to taking on the role of the operator of his own enterprise. Mr. Robb would eventually travel downstream about one-half mile and operate the Ravine Paper Mill in partnership with Nelson Carroll [his son-in-law].

It appears that Stephen Parsons leased the mill in 1886 to Levi Wood and E.J. Van Slyke. According to The Coeymans Herald, the mill was manufacturing wall paper. While Wood & Van Slyke operated the mill, they were known to use the West Shore Railroad for shipment of some of their raw materials. In fact, they were looking for an easier way to access the railroad as is evidenced in the following item found in the April 25, 1888 edition of The Coeymans Herald:

“The need of a bridge across the Hannacroix creek near the paper mill is severely felt by our enterprising firm, Van Slyke & Wood. In order to avail themselves of the advantages connected with the West Short RR, they have constructed a rope ferry by which they can propel themselves across the creek free of charge and connect with trains at Coeymans Junction for Albany and the West. “

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 10 The 1890-91 edition of Lockwood’s Directory of the Paper Trades indicated that a Mr. E.J. Van Slyke was operating the mill and he ―succeeds Van Slyke and Wood.‖ Van Slyke became the sole operator from 1889 to 1894. In 1895 Stephen Parsons died, apparently leaving the mill property as part of his estate. Later attempts at operating the mill suggests that the property was still being leased rather than sold outright. Miss Lizzie C. Parson reportedly ―sold‖ the mill to Charles Young of Coxsackie in 1895. It does not appear that Mr. Young had any success with the mill. Attempts were still being made as late as 1896 to refurbish the mill and use if for operating specialized paper products. An article in the November 25, 1896 Coeymans Herald speaks of a Mr. John Vogel of Waterford making an attempt at papermaking:

“The paper mill has been put in order and stock is now being received by boat and conveyed by team to the plant where it will be converted into material for the manufacture of paper boxes. Mr. Vogel is contemplating the adding of a box factory to the mill if circumstances will warrant.”

Another item appeared in the New Baltimore column of the Coeymans Herald’s May 12, 1897 edition regarding the mill‘s operation under the operation of Mr. Vogel: ―Considerable heavy wrapping paper has been manufactured at the paper mill during the past week.”

Further evidence of the 1896 attempt to continue the mill‘s operation can be found at the Catskill (NY) County Clerk‘s Office (Book 147, pp 373-374, where Mrs. Rose Parsons and Miss Lizzie Parsons (are identified as ―parties of the first part‖) and John Vogel (identified as party of the second part) entered into an agreement as follows:

―…the party of the second part agrees to put mill in running order, and keep it in repair at his own expense, and to pay to the parties of the first part eight hundred dollars without interest or taxes; said payment to be made as follows, to wit – One dollar per ton for every ton of paper made in said mill, said payments to be made monthly and the party of the second part has the privilege of selling or leasing the said property providing the above mentioned agreement is kept‖ [September 25, 1896].

Shortly after this agreement (July 29,1897) Rosanna Parsons sells the mill property to the Hannacroix Water Company for $800. The Hannacroix Water Company ― … having its principal office at Ravena, NY …this grant is made subject to whatever rights, if any, John F. Vogel has under the terms of a certain contract … for the sale or lease of said premises … ― This agreement was recorded at the County Clerk‘s Office on August 13, 1897 (Book 148, pp 94-95). The Hannacroix Water Company, however, opted to establish their water supply system at the Dean‘s Mill site further upstream on the creek.

The mill‘s timber dam sat atop the falls. The headrace of the mill site is still visible today. While the Croswell-Parsons Mill product was initially some combination of rag and straw wrapping paper, the mill changed its product line to ―hanging‖ paper (i.e., wallpaper) in the latter part of the 19th century and then back to heavy wrapping paper. It appears that subsequent attempts by Mr. Vogel to operate the mill never materialized beyond some short start up period.

The first evidence of the Croswell-Parsons Paper Mill to use steam power appeared in a short news article in The Coeymans Herald in 1887:

“Van Slyke & Wood have lately purchased another steam engine and boiler which they will use in connection with their water power. The engine is of 25 horsepower which will increase their capacity nearly one half.”

Apparently an earlier purchase of a steam engine was made, as the 1887 article states that the owners ―purchased another steam engine‖. Whether this newer steam engine replaced an earlier model is not clear. The boilers were fueled by pea coal.

This mill used a cylinder paper machine. The machine had a width of 48 inches. In 1885 the mill was reportedly capable of producing a ton of paper in a 24-hour period. Its pulp making capacity used two 250-pound grinding engines (that were later upgraded to 300 pound engines). The mill operated on an irregular schedule. The reliance on water power could prove problematic in the winter as well as the summer. The Coeymans Herald reported on the problems regarding the ice build up in the Hannacroix Creek:

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 11 “The Hannacroix creek broke up on Monday about noon near Van Slyke & Wood’s paper mill, causing a cessation for a few hours in the manufacturing rooms. The water receded however after a few hours and business was again resumed.” (January 4, 1888)

“The ice in the Hannacroix creek brook (sic) up Monday morning. It was 17 inches thick in places, and was for a time gorged backing the water to such an extent that Van Slyke’s paper mill was obliged to shut down their wheel being submerged. The blockade was of short duration and no damage to property ensued.” (January 14, 1891)

Remains of the Croswell-Parsons Timber Dam

Croswell-Parsons Paper Mill (west side of building)

There are no more news items in The Coeymans Herald after May 1897 that would suggest that Mr. Vogel was running a viable papermaking operation. With the construction of the Coeymans-Ravena public water works project by the Hannacroix Water Company, any predictable water supply coming downstream from the Dean‘s Mill dam was in question. It was evident that any water rights afforded the Croswell-Parsons Paper Mill would have a lower priority than the requirements of a public water supply.

The Coeymans Herald helps support this hypothesis in a segment of a news item published in its October 20, 1897 issue on the description of the Coeymans-Ravena Water Works project: .‖ … The main reservoir Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 12 from which all water is taken is the mill pond known as Dean’s pond. This is now the property of the Water Company and all water power rights are subordinate to the requirements of the water works system…”

Croswell-Parsons Mill Pond (looking north toward dam)

No further information has been found that would suggest that any businessman was willing to invest any capital in the production of straw paper products at the mill sites on the Hannacroix Creek after 1897. The final straw paper had been made on the Hannacroix, and the end of a remarkable manufacturing journey ended.

Remains of Croswell-Parsons Paper Mill (from Postcard)

In 2008 it was announced that the Croswell-Parsons Paper Mill ruins had been placed on the New York State and National Registers of Historic Places.

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 13 The Valley Paper Mill (Alcove, NY)

In 1848 John E. Andrews converted a cloth dressing and carding wool mill at Alcove to a paper mill for the manufacture of straw wrapping paper. The original paper mill‘s power plant consisted of two overshot water wheels that operated from water impounded by a timber dam located on the Hannacroix Creek constructed to the west of the mill site. The dam was washed out at least once during the early life of the paper mill.

About 1854 Andrews went into partnership with W.S. Briggs. In 1854 Briggs and Andrews made additions and improvements, including a new boiler, steam engine, and cylinder paper machine. It has been reported that there was another chimney erected at the site, but was destroyed by wind in 1862. This older chimney was part of the old section of the mill that was built closer to the hill and to the south of the remaining chimney.

In 1871, W.S. Briggs and Sons (Newton S., Ralph B., and Amos D.) bought out the ownership rights of Andrews and ran the paper mill as a family business. The family business continued for approximately three years when the business was conveyed to Amos as the sole proprietor.

Valley Paper Mill (circa 1890)

In 1883 Amos made further technical improvements to the mill. It is reported that he added a newer steam engine and a new water wheel. Depending on what source is cited the exact horsepower ratings for this dual power system varies. In one case the power ratings were cited as 125 HP for the steam engine and 150 HP for the water turbine -- for a total power rating of 275 HP. Another, perhaps more reliable source, identifies the power plant at the mill site as follows: ―One steam engine 90 HP, four water [turbine] wheels; two rated at 15 HP, one rated at 20 HP and one rated at 80 HP‖. This second description yields an overall power rating of 220 HP. In either case, this was not a trivial operation. Of the three mills on the Hannacroix Creek, the Valley Paper Mill was configured to operate in a relatively sophisticated manner for the particular product they were manufacturing.

The wrapping paper was transported to Coeymans Landing (aka Coeymans Hamlet) along the Hudson River. Coal was often brought back on the wagon‘s return trip to Alcove. Coal was used to fire the boilers that ran the steam engine and other equipment requiring steam heat in the mill. A substantial amount of coal must have been required to handle the functional requirements of the mill. One shipment of pea coal to the mill in 1880 was reported to be 230 tons. No information is available about the boiler(s) used to heat the water to make steam. However, it is suspected that the boiler (or boilers) were substantial for the time, as the size of the chimney allowed for a considerable draft to be created which was an essential requirement for the proper combustion of the fuel.

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 14

In 1881 the Valley Paper Mill was still using open vats for some (or all) of its cooking of straw with an alkali solution. Evidence to support this claim comes from a couple of news articles published in the Coeymans Herald in 1881. The following details an accident that occurred during the operation of an open vat at the mill:

January 5, 1881. “Albert Seaburgh while engaged at work in the bleach connected with A.A. Briggs’ paper mill on Tuesday of this week made a mis-step and fell feet first into the boiling lime and water. After a while the unfortunate man was taken out and Dr. Elmendorf summoned who we learn, pronounces the recovery of Mr. Seaburgh doubtful.”

One week later, the Coeymans Herald reported:

January 12, 1881.” Albert Seaburgh who was badly scalded in the bleach at A.D. Briggs’ paper mill, we are glad to report is improving and hopes are entertained of his recovery.”

Another, more tragic accident, also occurred in 1881 as reported by in the February 23rd issue of the Coeymans Herald:

“A Girl Crushed to Death in a Water-Wheel. A sad accident occurred at the paper mill of A.D. Briggs last Thursday morning to a little girl of Charles Hamilton, five years old. The child opened a door leading to the water wheel, and making a misstep fell upon the wheel and was instantly crushed to death.”

Despite the accidents, the Valley Paper Mill continued to upgrade its technical plant in 1881 to improve its productivity:

“A.D. Briggs received last week for his paper mill what is termed as a “washer” which is calculated to facilitate the making of paper by preparing the bleached straw by machinery instead of as formerly by hand. The cost of the invention was $500.” (The Coeymans Herald, September 28, 1881)

The Valley Paper Mill was almost destroyed by fire in the next year as described in the February 8, 1882 issue of the Coeymans Herald:

“We learned that the paper mill of A.D. Briggs came near being burned one day last week in consequence of the straw in the bleach taking fire. By the promptness of some of the workmen the flames were subdued and the property saved.”

Undaunted by these setbacks, Mr. Briggs, one week later, was reportedly, ―… looking about with the object of buying or building another paper mill.‖ At the end of 1882 a news item in The Coeymans Herald gives the first quantitative information available on the amount of rye straw needed for the Valley Paper Mill to operate for a full year:

―A.D. Briggs has a large quantity of rye straw in building and in stack, enough to run his mill day and night for the next year. The amount on hand is 1,500 tons.” (December 13, 1882)

And the next month, the following update is given on the upgrades being done:

“A.D. Briggs has a number of men at work digging a large raceway to carry off the water from the mill, he also intends to put in two turbine water wheels.” (Coeymans Herald, July 4, 1883)

An 1886 Coeymans Herald news item reports on the Valley Paper Mill reaching out to Wisconsin farmers for their straw inventory. This is the first time that identifies Briggs‘ operation using the local railway system for supplying straw. The practice of using the railroads for supplying straw was a common practice for the paper mills in Columbia County.

“It is reported that 1000 tons of straw has been purchased in Wisconsin for the Valley Paper Mill of this town, which is to be delivered by West Shore, and that the mill has contracted its paper for a year with New York parties.” Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 15

In 1885 the Valley Paper Mill at Alcove was reported to have the capacity to process over one half ton of straw pulp at any one time. Its pulp-making machinery consisted of two 250-pound engines and two 300- pound engines. In terms of paper production, the mill in the 1880s had two cylinder papermaking machines. This is a bit extraordinary for the period, as most rural straw wrapping paper mills could only afford a single cylinder machine. Wrapping paper production in 1885 was reported to be 3.5 tons in a 24- hour period. The mill at this time employed 25 people. Both men and women of the Alcove community were involved in the production of straw wrapping paper.

The mill burned early on Sunday morning, January 31 1892.

Alcove Paper Mill Burned

The paper mill owned by Greene & Slingerland at Alcove caught fire at half-past two o’clock on Sunday morning and was burned to the ground. The mill was valued at $1,600. About $500 worth of stock was also burned. There was an insurance of only $3,000 on the property. It is thought the fire must have been the work of an incendiary as at the time of closing the mill about 11 o'clock the previous evening everything about the premises was in a safe condition.

During last fall the machinery of the mill had been overhauled at great expense and everything added to facilitate the manufacture of a superior grade of straw wrapping paper.

The burning of the mill will prove a severe loss to the hamlet of Alcove as it was the only industry furnishing employment to quite a force of help. The probabilities are that it will not be rebuilt.

The Coeymans Herald, February 3, 1892 [The value of the mill was corrected to $16,000 in the next week‘s edition].

Mr. Briggs partnered with Mr. Green for some period prior to relinquishing his ownership role to Green and Slingerland. In July 1886, The Coeymans Herald reported: ―A.D. Briggs and Stanley Green of Alcove have started on a two month’s trip through the Western States and Territories.‖ It is presumed this trip was to try to secure long term contracts for straw from midwestern farmers.

Nothing was reported in The Coeymans Herald regarding the eventual transfer of ownership to Green and Slingerland. Mr. A.D. Briggs was critically ill in 1886 and after recovery from that illness took some extended trips. In 1891 he was appointed Postmaster for Alcove. Probably sometime after recovery from his illness and his appointment to the position of Postmaster he finally relinquished control of the paper mill to Green and Slingerland.

In any event, the Valley Paper Mill was never rebuilt after the fire. A creamery was eventually constructed on the mill site and placed into operation in 1897.

A remaining item of evidence of the paper mill at Alcove is the 110 foot (estimated) chimney that still stands at the site along the Hannacroix Creek at the junction of State Route 143 and County Route 111. There is still evidence of the dam site along the creek bed, and remains of the mill‘s tailrace are still visible to the east of the chimney. Portions of the wooden flume have recently been discovered underneath the property west of the chimney and County Route 111.

As a legacy to the Valley Paper Mill, the local community has acquired two pieces of straw wrapping paper made from the Valley Paper Mill. These straw paper samples are available for the public to view at The Little Red Schoolhouse Museum in Coeymans Hollow, New York.

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 16 Fire Destroyed the Valley Mill January 31, 1892

Valley Paper Mill employees (circa 1890)

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 17 Straw

In the 19th century straw procurement was a relatively simple task. The binder-thresher method of harvesting cereal grains (i.e., rye, oats, barley and wheat) resulted in concentrating the straw on the farm in large stacks, from which it could be baled with a stationary baler or loaded directly on wagons to be delivered to the mills. The price paid for straw was in a range of $10 to $20 per ton in post Civil War times. Little data are available regarding the pricing of straw in this period. The price would vary from this estimate given the fact that mills were competing with the New York City market for straw. It is known that farmers shipped straw bales to New York City from the river ports of Coeymans and New Baltimore. In The Coeymans Herald, April 1, 1875 edition, the following prices were noted:

“The business outlook this spring is decidedly better, and trade promises better than it has for several years before. Hay and straw have advanced. Good straw is selling at $15 and $17 per ton, and retailing hay at $15 and $18. Prices however, may fall a little after the river opens.”

Wheat and rye straw were preferred over other straws for producing paper pulp. Rye straw has a higher cellulose content and somewhat longer fibers than other straws. Oat straw cooks readily, but it has a shorter fiber length and tends to make a soft paper. Barley straw cooks with more difficulty than wheat or oat straw. Wheat and rye straws produce stiffer, stronger papers than other straws. According to 19th century censuses, the farms in the Towns of New Baltimore and Coeymans grew a substantial amount of oat and rye. Both of these grains can be grown in areas that have soils too poor for growing other cereal grains. Rye was the straw most in demand for making wrapping paper at the Hannacroix mills.

Making Paper from Straw

Some sources suggest that mills during this period tried to keep from four to six months of straw available at the mill sites. This can neither be confirmed nor denied for the Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills. At times it was reported that some of the mills stored from 1,000 to 1,500 tons at the mill sites. Scales were available at the mill sites for weighing the straw.

Transporting Rye Straw to the Paper Mill (after threshing process)

The rye straw would be moved to a location in the mill known as the digester room. This was the area where the straw would be mixed with water and an alkali solution and allowed to ―cook‖ for several hours. This process was necessary to remove a material called lignin from the straw. Lignin acts like the glue or cement that gives straw its rigidity. Straw pulp can not be made with lignin present. The alkali solution combined with steam heated cooking removes the lignin so straw can be used for paper pulp.

In some mills the straw was washed and cut before going to the digester room. In Europe and South America the practice was to chop up the straw prior to cooking. The use of chopped straw would increase the capacity of the cooking vats or boilers. It is not known if the Hannacroix mills observed this practice.

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 18 The early digester rooms in the mills were probably an assortment of open, wooden vats that were heated by steam pipes. In later years, pressurized, steel rotary boilers might have been used. It is believed that the paper mills on the Hannacroix never installed pressurized digesters, but stayed with open vats or tubs for cooking the straw.

It is believed that lime (Calcium oxide, CaO) was the alkali agent de jour at the Hannacroix mills. Since the Hannacroix Creek region rests on a vast limestone deposit, it seems reasonable to assume that the mills were an important customer of the lime kilns operating in the immediate area. One such lime kiln is visible today in the southwestern part of the Town of New Baltimore. The remains of another kiln can be seen at Joralemon Park in Coeymans. William Caswell of Coeymans operated a kiln and supplied lime to both the Valley and Ravine Paper Mills. The Clarksville lime kilns were also suppliers. Potash (or potash derivatives) and soda ash could also have been used as alkali agents during this period.

Lime Kiln at New Baltimore

Open Wooden Vat for Cooking Straw

The straw was allowed to cook for several hours. More time would have been required when using open vats. With pressurized, rotary boilers, the cooking pressures would be from 5 to 60 psi. and cooking time at maximum pressure could vary from 3 to 13 hours. The rotation of the boilers was very slow, operating at less than 1 rpm. Baffles were located inside the boiler to prevent the straw from clumping together.

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 19

Cylindrical and Spherical Rotary Boilers (Digesters) for Cooking Straw

At the end of the established cooking period, the vat or boiler would be emptied and the cooking solution (called black liquor) drained off. This black liquor was probably dumped right into the Hannacroix Creek. There is no evidence to support any specific concerns regarding the impact of these chemicals on the local environment. Also, there is no record of any chemical recovery system in place at any of the mills.

The cooked straw may have been conveyed to a larger pit or vat for seasoning. The purpose of a seasoning pit would be to allow the chemical cooking action to continue for 24 to 48 hours more and to blend the straw pulp from several cooking locations into a more uniform product.

In some mills that produced straw paper products another piece of machinery was used for the purpose of crushing the nodes of the straw and other hard particles that may have survived the cooking process. This machine was referred to as the ―kollergang‖ or ―edge-runner‖. The machine consisted of two large millstones, made from hard red granite, the surfaces of which had V-shaped grooves. A horizontal spindle turned the millstones in an iron basin. The washed pulp was placed in this basin and the nodes and harder portions of the straw fiber, not acted upon by the previous alkali agent, were crushed to make a smoother straw paper product. It is not known if the Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills used this particular piece of equipment. It may not have been necessary to create this level of pulp refinement for straw wrapping paper.

Edge-Runner

Another piece of equipment probably used in one or more of the Hannacroix mills was a machine patented by J.E. Andrews of Coeymans Hollow and original owner of the Valley Paper Mill. The purpose of this hardware, as reported by Scientific American (1868), was ―…to furnish an improved washer for

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 20 cleansing paper stock, so that after being washed the foul water shall not again come in contact with the stock, but be discharged‖. The article further stated that the machine could “… separate kernels, gravel, or any foreign matter from the stock‖.

Andrews’ Paper Stock Washing Machine

Once the straw pulp had been cooked and seasoned, the straw would be introduced to the beater engines, or more commonly known as hollanders. Hollanders are oblong tanks that contain a cylinder with blades along its outer surface. The rotary motion of the cylinder within the tank moves the straw pulp around the tank and forces the straw underneath its turning blades. This process ―beats‖ the straw and allows the straw to create cellulose fibrils that will interact with each other when processed by the cylinder paper machine. Hollanders were also used as washing machines that rinsed the alkali solution from the straw prior to the actual beating process.

Hollander “Beating & Washing” Engine

There is historical evidence with regard to the Hannacroix mills‘ beater engines or hollanders. The Ravine Mill had two engines each rated at 300 pounds each. The Croswell-Parsons Mill had two engines rated at 250-300 pounds each. The Valley Mill had two engines rated at 250 pounds each and two engines rated at 300 pounds each.

Another piece of equipment that deserves mention here is the Jordan refiner. The Jordan was introduced to the paper industry about 1858. It consists of a conical plug, covered with longitudinal knives, which fits into a conical shell similarly lined with knives. A means of moving the plug in or out with respect to the shell enables the distance between the knives of the plug and those of the shell to be accurately adjusted so that the treatment of the pulp can be varied from a light brushing action to one of sharp cutting. This permits considerable variation in the quality of paper made. The pulp enters at an opening in the small end of the shell, passes spirally around the rapidly revolving plug, and is discharged at the large end by the centrifugal action of the plug. Originally the Jordan supplemented the beater and was supposed to

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 21 give the finishing touches to the pulp and to even out inequalities in the pulp from different beaters. It is not known if the Hannacroix Creek paper mills used this hardware in the preparation of straw pulp.

Advertisement for Jordan refiner

Once the straw pulp was beaten, it would be ready to be used to make paper. The straw pulp was placed in a chest next to the ―wet end‖ of the cylinder paper machine. Water might be added to dilute the pulp to the right consistency. Once the pulp was diluted with water, the solution was called stock. It is not believed that the Hannacroix mills used any bleaching agents for making their wrapping paper. If bleaching agents (e.g., chlorine) were to be used, the chemicals would be added at this time. The straw stock would now be ready to flow to the cylinder paper machine and produce straw wrapping paper.

The straw stock moved into a vat. The vat contained a revolving, partially submerged hollow cylinder covered with wire cloth. In some cylinder machines a V-shaped trough connected to a suction pump. The pump created a partial vacuum in the trough, causing straw fiber to cling to the cylinder‘s surface as it rose out of the stock. Water drained through the wire cloth surface to an outlet pipe connected to the suction pump.

In other versions of the cylinder paper machine the suction device was eliminated within the cylinder by substituting a lifting mechanism to maintain a higher water level outside the cylinder than inside it. Like the suction device, this mechanism created enough pressure that water from the vat flowed into the cylinder with sufficient force to consolidate a film of fiber on the cylinder‘s surface.

A revolving roller pressed a wet felt against the wire cylinder, removing the continuously forming web of paper. The paper traveled on this felt and on a subsequent dry felt through a first press roller and second press roller. Steam drying rollers finished the drying process.

The straw wrapping paper would then be wound on reels attached to the end of the cylinder paper machine. The rolls would then be removed periodically and could have been sold directly to mill customers, or mill employees would cut up the rolls (measured in 480 sheets per ream, with a sheet size of 24‖ x 36‖). The paper could also be subjected to a calendering process whereby the paper would pass through a set of cast iron rollers to give a smoother finish to the sheet.

The yield, expressed as pounds of straw per ton of wrapping paper produced, varied from 2,600 to 3,400 pounds, with an average of 3,000 pounds of straw needed to produce a ton (2,000 pounds) of wrapping Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 22 paper. This was probably the high end of any yield expected from the Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills. A mill would have to be very efficient to get a 67% yield. Any yield reported higher than this number would be subject to closer scrutiny.

Cutting Paper Rolls into Sheets

The Dry End of a Paper Machine

Work at the Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills was not attractive. The work sites were dirty, smelly and lacked adequate lighting. There was no central ventilation or heating system to adjust temperatures to compensate for seasonal extremes. Open vats filled with boiling, alkali mixtures coupled with a multitude of exposed belts, pulleys and wheels for running equipment made work extremely hazardous. The mills ran six days a week. The mills probably did not work continuously during the year. The mill schedules were inextricably tied to the vagaries associated with the supply of straw as well as the availability of waterpower. Eventually steam engines helped smooth out the work schedule during low water or ice jams.

Wages for paper mill workers as reported in an article published in Harper’s Magazine (1887) stated: ―There is considerable difference of pay in different mills. The census figures, averaging all paper hands, show a rise of yearly earnings from $239 in 1850 to $253 in 1860, to $399 currency ($320 gold) in 1870, to $349 in 1880 …Wages really reached their highest point in this country about 1873 (though paper was highest in 1865, and then steadily fell with the cost of material) .. (in) Massachusetts average for all paper hands (was) $8.63 weekly in 1860, $9.77 in 1872, $8.17 in 1880.‖ The Census Report of Saratoga County, NY for 1850 reported a paper mill worker‘s monthly wage of approximately $36.

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 23 Paper Machine in 1859

A twelve-hour workday was the norm. There is some evidence that one or more mills may have worked 24 hours a day. This would be common when straw was inventoried in sheds or stacks at the mill site. Even on Sundays, some employees had to make themselves available to work on such tasks as equipment repairs, raw material preparation and dam/raceway maintenance.

Early Paper Machine in America

Perhaps the best description of a local, 19th century straw paper mill found to date was published in two competing Catskill (Greene County, NY) newspapers in 1882. These articles described the refurbished mill in Cairo, NY called the Woodstock Mill.

“In the basement there is a lime bath, connected by a fan pump that pumps the hot lime solution onto the straw in the bleaching tubs. These bleach tubs are made of Georgia pine planks 3 inches thick, 5½ wide, and are 16 x 16 feet, width and depth. They hold from 10 to 15 tons of straw, and are operated by screws and gearing, three to a tub.”

“Between the room containing the tubs and the next apartment is a large straw washer. The room next in order is the one containing the beating engines – these are 700-pound engines – and the Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 24 room is 46½ by 29 feet. Against the wall is coiled 100 feet of hose on a reel, ready for instant use, as it is attached to a large tank kept constantly filled, and as the water is forced through the hose by natural pressure, no time is lost in starting an engine. This arrangement of hose is the same on all the partitions, every room being supplied… The next room is called the machine room and is 40 x 90 feet. This room contains two 68 inch paper machines, which are capable of producing about six tons of straw paper per day”

“… A new chimney 65 feet high has been built for the boiler room. The motive power for the machinery is furnished by four Risdon patent turbine wheels in one box … rated at 150 HP.”

“…The Catskill Creek furnishes the water power by means of a new dam …This dam is 200 feet long and 14 feet high, giving a fall or head of 32 feet of water … It is a very substantial structure, built of log cribs filled with stones the bottom tier of logs bolted to the rocks by means of key bolts, each tier of logs bolted to each other and filled with stone, of which there were about 10,000 loads; over two tons of iron bolts were used for fastening the logs; it is 30 feet wide, all covered with 3 inch plank, and on the edge or top a tier of hardwood, wedge shaped planks to protect it from the ice … There are 8,000 to 10,000 tons of stone in this dam, which forms the outlet of a beautiful lake of 12 or 15 acres …”

It should be noted that the scale of this mill was substantially larger than any of the paper mills on the Hannacroix. However, the functional layout and construction paradigm presented here was probably the basic blueprint used for straw paper mills during this period.

A typical work environment at a 19th century paper mill (characterized by shafting, gears, belts and pulleys)

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 25

Motive Power and Power Transmission

All the processes described required relatively heavy equipment to make straw wrapping paper. A major portion of the motive power came directly from the Hannacroix Creek. In the earlier years of operation, the mills probably used vertical water wheels enclosed in wheelhouses to avoid bad weather. These water wheels were probably overshot or breast wheels.

Overshot Water Wheel (note power take off of wheel gears, pulley and belt)

Breast Water Wheel

In later years these vertical wheels would have been replaced or supplemented with water turbines. Turbines took up less space and were more economical to operate. There is historical evidence to support the fact that the Valley Mill converted (at least) some of its water powered engines to turbines. No evidence is available that identifies the specific water powered engines of the other two Hannacroix Creek paper mills. The Ravine Mill probably used a turbine as its tailrace emptied directly into tidal water. Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 26 Water (Hydraulic) Turbine

Water Turbine and Penstock (c. 1855)

Whether the mills used vertical water wheels or turbines, they all required dams to be built to impound water in millponds to convert water power to mechanical power. Pictures are available that show the timber dam on the lower falls for the Croswell-Parsons Paper Mill (please refer to earlier section). Timber crib work is still intact in the creek bed at the Ravine mill site. A stone abutment is still visible at the Valley mill site. From review of the available literature it can be theorized that the Ravine and Valley dams were more sophisticated than the Croswell-Parsons dam. The Croswell-Parsons dam was probably more susceptible to washouts than the dams at the other two paper mill sites. The dam at the Ravine mill probably achieved the greatest vertical height – an estimate of 20 feet was reported by the Coeymans Herald.

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 27 Schematic of a Timber Crib Dam

Types of water conduits used to bring water from millpond to mill

One or more control gates were used to determine the rate of water flowing to a mill from its dam site. Two common control gate mechanisms used during this period were: (1) screw operator; and (2) the rack and gear system. An illustration of each is shown on the next page.

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 28 Control Gate – Screw operator mechanism

Control Gate – Rack & Gear mechanism

It‘s difficult to determine when the Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills began to supplement waterpower with steam power. From the very early years the mills were using steam as a heating agent for the vats and cooking boilers. When stationary steam engines came on the local scene is not known. What is known, is that the first paper mill in the United States to run completely on steam power was established at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania in 1816. It is doubtful that rural mills such as those on the Hannacroix Creek had steam power this early. Stationary steam engines probably became economically and technically feasible some time in the 1850s and more plausible after the Civil War.

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 29 In contrast to the mechanically simple waterwheel, the steam engine was an intricate and, at first experience, incomprehensible machine. What made it go and kept it going required much explanation. The many rotating and reciprocating parts in their closely articulated action evoked on first encounter both admiration and bewilderment. The technical principles governing its behavior were slowly perceived and still more slowly understood and accepted. These behavioral dynamics are consistent with the reaction to any radical technological change and helped retard the installation of steam engines in the rural setting. This resistance to change may also have existed in making the conversion to water turbines from vertical water wheels. A reluctance to change technologies also slowed the acceptance of the use of wood pulp within the paper industry, thus extending the life of those mills using straw pulp.

What probably made the use of the steam engine attractive to the Hannacroix Creek mill owners was the increased reliability of steam power over waterpower. Steam engines could complement the water wheel by taking up the slack in periods of low water. With sufficient water impounded in the milldams, the steam engines could be withdrawn from the power equation thus saving on fuel costs. Additionally, the steam engine could be used to increase production at certain periods of the year where power requirements exceeded the ability of waterpower to handle the manufacturing load alone.

All three paper mills on the Hannacroix Creek, at some time, used steam engines as a complement to their water power assets.

Paper Mill Steam Engine

Louis C. Hunter summarizes the mill steam engine of the 19th century in his book entitled; Steam Power: A History of Industrial Power in the United States 1780-1930 (Volume 2), 1985:

“Operationally the basic mill engine was marked by the use of moderately high pressures, by low piston and rotating speeds (according to later standards), by adequate if hardly close regulation of speed obtained through flywheel and conventional flyball governor, and by low efficiency as reflected in high fuel consumption. Although Oliver Evans and some other advocates of high steam talked of pressures ranging from 100 psi upwards, the customary range in stationary practice was from 30 to 60 psi, or less than half of that typically employed on western riverboats and the 30 to 45 psi that became typical of condensing engines on eastern steamboats. These modest pressures evidently resulted less from concern for safety than from the difficulties and cost of maintaining steam tightness in both the many fixed joints of boiler, engine, and steam lines and in the moving joints presented by piston, piston rod, and valve rods. It was necessary, too, to limit the strain and stress to which the parts of the engine comprising the drive train were exposed because of the uncertain knowledge of strength of materials and the proportioning of parts, again always with reference to cost.”

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 30 Boiler House Interior of Straw Paper Mill in Elkton, Maryland

All the paper mills on the Hannacroix Creek employed steam heat from the manufacturing of straw paper products. Low pressure boilers of some kind were an essential piece of equipment for providing steam heat to the cooking vats. These steam heated vats were used to cook the straw, alkali agent (lime) and water that was the ―soup‖ that would eventually be reduced to straw pulp stock.

However, with the introduction of the steam engine in the three mills, higher pressures were required that put an additional burden on the steam boilers. Every high pressure boiler was a container of concentrated energy in the form of water and steam at high temperature confined under pressures ranging from 30 to 150 psi and upward. One expert calculated that a pound of steam at 60 psi yielded about one-third of the energy of a pound of gunpowder.

Louis C. Hunter, author of Steam Power (1985) describes this high pressure boiler as follows:

“ … Fully equipped the boiler was provided with water supply and steam lines, a force pump or other device for admitting feed water to replenish the boiler against the pressure of steam, gauges for indicating water level and steam pressure, and a safety valve with its graduated lever and sliding weight for releasing steam when the pressure exceeded the point designated by the weight. All boiler furnaces required a chimney or smokestack to carry off smoke and the spent combustion gases and to supply the draft of air necessary for proper combustion. Externally fired boilers required a setting of brickwork in addition. The boiler had not only to be strong enough and tight enough to contain water and steam under pressure; it had to support both its own weight and the approximately equal burden of water content. The structure was required to withstand the wracking strains of expansion and contraction attending variations in firing and the alternate heating by day and cooling at night characteristic of most industrial use …”

In sheer destructive power, boiler explosions in mills made a powerful impression on those living nearby. One such explosion occurred in mid-19th century at a paper mill in Schuylerville, NY and reported in a subsequent article in an 1864 edition of Scientific American magazine: “… the boiler moved horizontally with fearful velocity … through eleven buildings, wrecking them as completely as if an earthquake had toppled them over …‖ Two fatalities were caused by this boiler explosion. Luckily, no boiler explosions were reported to have occurred at any of the three paper mills on the Hannacroix Creek.

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 31 Feeding Coal into the Boilers

Aftermath of a Boiler Explosion (1909)

The prime movers, which produce power (e.g., water wheel and/or steam engine), and the mill machinery that require power, are usually separated by space. To bridge the distance between the prime mover and the mill‘s equipment is the function of power transmission. The machinery of transmission consists of varied combinations of shafts or shafting, pulleys, bands or belts, rope or rods, and assorted toothed wheelwork or gears with accessory equipment for support and servicing. The hardware associated with the transmission of power to 19th century mills was commonly referred to as millwork.

The components of millwork usually provided for the conveyance of power through the rotation of shafts and wheelworks. The basic unit was the shaft -- a round or polygonal bar of wood or iron. The bars were coupled together in lengths that were commonly of lengths from six to fifteen feet. Groupings of such rotating bars, known as line shafts, were carried by means of hangers or brackets just below ceilings or along walls at a level convenient for connection with the machines installed on the floor. Power was carried from line shafts by means of smooth-faced pulleys and belts of leather or other material directly to the drive pulleys of each piece of mill equipment. Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 32

In the power takeoff from the power source, as well as in the main shafts carrying power to any upper floors, it was for many years the practice to use toothed wheelwork in the form of spur and bevel gear wheels rather than pulleys and belting. Such geared drives were favored for their positive action (no slippage as with belting), more rugged endurance, and the precise manner in which changes in direction of motion and in rotating speeds could be controlled.

Turbine Wheel, Bevel Gears & Line Shafting [1873]

Power in the form of rotating motion was transmitted from the power source (i.e., water wheel, turbine or steam engine) to individual pieces of equipment via line shafts. Control was accomplished by varying the pulley (or gear wheel) diameters on the driving and driven shafts and the width of belts employed. Further variation of machine speeds within the control of the operator was often provided by means of a pair of matching cones or step pulleys on the machine and on the assorted shafting above the specific machine.

Line shafts, countershafts, geared wheelwork, pulleys and belting were supported by such auxiliary equipment as hangers, brackets and couplings. There were also various kinds of clutches and ―fast-and- loose‖ pulleys for engaging and disengaging whole lines of shafting or individual machines. Where shafting rested and turned, lubricating cups at journals or bearing boxes provided a means for attending to the operating and maintenance issues related to friction.

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 33 Millwork Hardware (1875)

The requirements of power transmission before the emergence of electrical motors imposed a challenge to the 19th century millwright. After the machinery layout had been determined, shafting plans had to be made covering every part of the mill and each individual machine. These plans had to be made in detail with accurate calculations for obtaining the speeds and power requirements for which each machine was designed.

Plans for Power Transmission at a 19th Century Mill

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 34 From an operating perspective, maintenance of all millwork components was a constant headache. Even the routine matter of lubrication and cleaning of bearings was a labor-intensive and often neglected task owing to the awkward position of the ceiling hangers (one to every eight to ten feet) by which long lines of shafting were supported. Excessive lubrication was a source of oil drippings and work spoilage. Lubrication neglect could lead to lost work in friction, overheating, damaged bearings and the occasional fire.

A more difficult, demanding, and even more neglected maintenance task was that of keeping shafting and hangers properly aligned, pulleys balanced, and belts adjusted to correct tension. In rural mills such as the Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills the lack of rigidity in walls and floors could add to the vibrations created by poorly installed and carelessly maintained millwork. Changes in the position of machinery, additions to or changes in the distribution of floor load, and marked changes in temperature and humidity could produce deflections in alignment of the millwork. In addition to occupying excessive space and interfering with lighting and handling materials, the long lines of overhead shafting with the rotating pulleys and rapidly moving belts could be a safety hazard and the source of frequent accidents.

Example of Power Transmission on Mill Floor [c. 1890] (not a paper mill illustration)

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 35

Epilogue

For centuries the prime raw material for the manufacture of paper was rags. As the demand for paper products increased over the centuries substitute raw materials had to be discovered that would accommodate the growing need for paper. Straw had been experimented with in the late 18th and early 19th century. In America, a practical process for the production of wrapping paper from straw was patented in 1828. For the rest of the 19th century, paper mills were given an alternative method for manufacturing paper.

The quality of straw paper never reached the quality of paper made from rags. Some paper mills were profitable in producing paper for the newspaper industry, but the cost of manufacturing was considerably higher than the cost of producing wrapping paper. However, enough applications were available that did not require a high quality product and the cost of entry into the market attracted many small entrepreneurs.

Straw paper‘s biggest demand seemed to be in wrapping and straw board (a forerunner of cardboard). This type of paper product did not require the same rigorous (and costly) production processes needed for paper used for such applications as writing paper or book printing. Since the cost of production was less, and the demand was high, many rural communities found a niche in the paper producing industry.

An Albany, NY paper, The Argus, reported the business situation with regard to straw wrapping paper in an April 27, 1881 article entitled ―Meeting of Papermakers Reported‖:

A meeting of the eastern straw papermakers was held at Stanwix Hall, yesterday, which was largely attended, and embraced representatives from all the straw wrapping manufacturers and large consumers in the State. Among those present were H.S. Vandecar, president of the association, and Jacob W. Rossman, Stockport, Charles E. Bingham, secretary, Germantown, F. Krum, Schoharie, George L Morris, Peter Messick, J.D. Shufelt, H.J. Hanor, Martin L. Bess, Isaac Son, Chatham; R. Mowery of the Phoenix Company, C.F. Davis, Valatie, S.H. Newcomb, Stone Ridge. B.W. Peaslee, Malden Bridge, W.C. Niles, Chatham, W.F. Smith, Philmont; Mr. Carroll, Coeymans, and Mr. Milton, Medusa. It was decided to let the price for light wrapping paper remain as at present three and one quarter cents per pound; while the price of heavy paper was reduced to two and one half cents per pound. The meeting proved very satisfactory, and it was shown conclusively that the demand for wrapping paper is on the increase, and that all the mills are running on their usual time. The meeting adjourned subject to the call of the executive committee. [Ed Note: Price fixing was not illegal during this period!].

At the same time that straw was being used for producing paper products, efforts were being made to work out the kinks in the use of wood as the raw material to replace rags for the production of all types of paper. By the end of the 19th century, wood pulp was being successfully introduced as the solution to the rag supply problem. In addition to the use of wood pulp, the paper industry was consolidating and economies of scale forced the small rural paper mills to close down. The days of the small, rural paper mill were numbered. Paper mills such as those on the Hannacroix Creek either consolidated or went out of business. Straw was no longer a viable alternative for producing even the lowest quality paper products. For a time, however, straw and rural paper mills played an important role in satisfying the demand for certain paper products. In doing so, the straw paper mills provided employment for many rural communities and contributed to the diversification of local economies.

Lyman Horace Weeks in his book A History of Paper-Manufacturing in the United States, 1690-1916 gives a brief summary of straw paper manufacturing in New York State. In his book he states:

“Just prior to the civil war the demand for straw paper was not large and prices were small. For several years the business was at a rather low ebb. From 1862 to 1870 there was a boom. Paper could not be produced fast enough to supply the demand and new mills were rushed up in a hurry while the old ones were enlarged. Prices went up as high as $1.10 per ream of ten pounds. The demand for rye straw was enormous and prices ranged from fifteen to thirty dollars a ton. But the fall came. Manufacturing was inflated, prices could not be maintained and rye straw could no longer be bought cheap. That was the beginning of the end. In the early seventies the production

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 36 of straw-paper was well established in the western states and it was not long before that section had the monopoly of that kind of paper-making. Locations, new mills, waterpower, wages, raw materials, markets and facilities generally were more favorable in the west than in the east. The small mills in New York gradually gave up the struggle and before the end of the century fully two- thirds of them had been dismantled or had been turned over to the manufacture of other kinds of paper.” (pages 260-61)

The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills probably would not have gotten even an honorable mention in terms of their papermaking ability in the 19th century. They were clearly paper mills that were on the margin of a rapidly changing industry. The true epicenter of straw papermaking in New York State was Columbia County. At one given time, Columbia County hosted approximately 27 straw paper mills. These mills relied heavily on straw transported in from the Mohawk Valley. The mills operated cylinder machines and many mills reportedly made from 5 to 10 tons of paper in a 24-hour period. Their product line included strawboard, wrapping paper and cigarette paper.

In 1885 New York had 30 counties operating at least one paper mill making straw paper products. Columbia, Saratoga, Rensselaer, Onondaga and Fulton counties operated the most straw paper mills. Most of these mills succumbed to the same fate as the Hannacroix Creek Mills. Some mills lasted longer than others.

Below is a map of New York State highlighting (in yellow) those counties that were reported to have had at least one straw paper mill operating in the 19th century:

New York State: Straw Paper Mill Counties

Straw had its drawbacks as a viable, long-term source for making paper. Straw, because of its inherent chemical properties, cannot be processed as quickly on a paper machine as wood pulp. This is because of its ability to retain water. This is commonly referred to as a ―drainage problem‖ and limits the speed that the paper machine can move. The paper needs to be drained of much of its moisture before reaching the various pressing rollers. The slower the paper machine moves, the less paper made per period of

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 37 operation – a definite impact to a mill‘s financial bottom line. Straw also has short cellulose fibers, which are not conducive to making quality paper products.

Another problem with straw is its silica content. The silica is a residue of the cooking process and contaminated the equipment. This contamination required constant cleaning and maintenance (sometimes replacement) of machinery and piping. The silica would have interfered with any chemical recovery processes because it would cause encrustation of the evaporators and furnaces needed for the distillation of the black liquor.

With the introduction of the combine machine for harvesting grain in the Midwest, the ability to gather straw as a harvesting byproduct became more difficult. Instead of being blown into a stack, the straw was left scattered over the field. The production equipment to pick up and bale the straw left on the ground did not keep pace with the expanded use of the combine. As a result, the straw paper mills frequently had to obtain their straw at considerable distances, with the accompanying high transportation costs, even though sufficient straw was lying in the grain fields close to the remaining straw mills.

The black liquor created from the alkali process used for removing lignin increasingly became an environmental issue. No acceptable solution for recycling the effluent was readily available. The cost of treating the liquor made many mills unprofitable.

Despite the shortcomings of straw, several countries are taking lead roles in developing strategies for using straw to complement existing paper pulp resources. Among the countries that are seeking practical solutions to straw‘s deficiencies are Canada, India and China. For instance, Arbokem of Vancouver Canada has assumed an advocacy role with regard to reintroducing straw as a viable alternative to the continued use of wood pulp. Arbokem has run several pilot projects where straw had been determined to be a successful candidate for the replacement of wood pulp for specific applications.

There has been a renewal in interest in hand papermaking, especially with the art community. Artists and craft stores are using paper made from plant fiber pulp to develop new handmade products in the form of stationery, books, lamps, and jewelry in addition to simply selling unique handmade sheets. Papermaking has become so popular that children now regularly learn how to make it in school. A new chapter may still be written in the use of straw for producing paper from this annually renewable resource.

Making Paper Reams at the Mill

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 38

Appendix – Site Maps for Paper Mills

Site Map for Ravine Paper Mill

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 39

Site Map for Croswell-Parsons Paper Mill

Site Map for Valley Paper Mill

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 40 Acknowledgments

I want to thank the RCS Community Library and Vedder Library staffs for their support of my project. Special thanks to Nora Lee and the research team at the Upper Hudson Library Access Network. I am indebted to Mike DiNapoli for making my papermaking lab a reality. I want to thank the dozens of individuals who were kind enough to share with me their information about the history of the Hannacroix Creek region in the 19th century.

The title ―Fields of Reams‖ was taken from material found on the internet and believed to have been initially used by Al Wong of Arbokem Incorporated of Vancouver, Canada.

All illustrations and images were scanned from resources listed below or copied directly from the internet.

The construction of my resource list is a bit unconventional, but I was not trying to conform to any specific content or structure. Please feel free to contact me at 518-756-6523 or [email protected] for specific inquiries on my resource list or other related topics.

Chuck Friday October 2003

Re: Second Edition [2006]. Special thanks to Jean and Cless Bush of New Baltimore, New York for sharing many pieces of anecdotal information that were added to the 2nd edition of this paper. The 19th century editions of The Coeymans Herald [on microfilm] at the RCS Community Library also provided for an in depth view of the paper mills on the Hannacroix as well as a wider perspective on the local economy from 1873 until the turn of the century.

Re: Third Edition [2009]. Thanks to Jean Bush and members of the Ravena-Coeymans Historical Society for uncovering more detailed information on the Ravine Paper Mill at Coeymans Landing. Excellent information was acquired from Cornell University‘s Making of America internet site where 19th century periodicals such as Scientific American and Manufacturer & Builder have been made available for public use. Continued appreciation must be given to the staff members at the RCS Community Library and Vedder Library for their patience and support during the development of this 3rd edition.

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 41

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Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 43 Chambersburg, PA, Kittochtinny Historical Society, ― The Shryock Brothers as Manufacturers of Paper Goods‖, July 9, 1882.

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Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 44 Down East, Rags to Riches, October 2006.

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Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 45 Franklin Institute, Journal of, 52 (1851) 418-419, Experiments on two Hydraulic Motors with Prony‘s Friction Brake, showing the comparative power between an Overshot Wheel and a Jonval Turbine, made for Troy, N.Y., (E. Geyelin).

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Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 46

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Manufacturer & Builder, January 1869, Vol 1, ―Firmness of Paper,‖ pp 6-7.

Manufacturer & Builder, May 1869, Vol 1, ―On Boiler Explosions,‖ p 132; ―Historical Notes on Paper Manufacture‖, p137-138

Manufacturer & Builder, June 1869, Vol 1, ―Paper Belting,‖ p 173; ―Paper Houses,‖ p 179.

Manufacturer & Builder, August 1869, Vol 1, ―The Transmission of Power by Means of Wire Ropes,‖ p 225.

Manufacturer & Builder, September 1869, Vol 1,‖Steam Gauges,‖ p 268; ‖Working Steam Expansively – The ‗Corliss‘ Engine,‖ p 270; ―Paper Collars,‖ p 278; ―Manufacture of Paper-Hangings,‖ pp 279-280.

Manufacturer & Builder, October 1869, Vol 1, ―Paper, and How It May Be Tested‖, page 1, ―Manufacture Straw Board‖, p 292-293; ―The Manufacture of Steam Engines,‖ p 300.

Manufacturer & Builder, November 1869, Vol 1, ―Rider Vertical [Steam] Engine,‖ p 321; ―Paper Box Manufacture,‖ p 331; ―Stationary Steam Engines,‖ p 332; ―Belting: Facts & Figures, No. 1‖, pp 334-35; ―Waterproof Packing Paper,‖ p 345.

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 48 Manufacturer & Builder, December 1869, Vol 1, ―Durability of Steel Boilers,‖ p 354; ―Belting Facts & Figures No. 2,‖ p 364; ―Steam Engine Economy,‖ p 365.

Manufacturer & Builder, January 1870, Vol 2, ―The Area of Steam-Passages for Steam Engines‖, p 3; ―Paper from Tule,‖ p21.

Manufacturer & Builder, February 1870, Vol 2, ―Belting Facts & Figures, No. 3,‖ p 35.

Manufacturer & Builder, April 1870, Vol 2, ―Professor Tyndell on Certain Boiler Explosions,‖ p 99; ―Jute,‖ pp 102-103; ―Supposed Loss of Power by the Crank Motion,‖ pp 103-104; ―Dimensions of Steam Boilers,‖ p 107; ―Siamese Paper,‖ pp 110-111.

Manufacturer & Builder, May 1870, Vol 2, ―Changing Direction of Rotation,‖ p 135; ―Pulleys, Belts, Drums, & Ropes,‖ p139; ―Parchment Paper,‖ pp 140-141

Manufacturer & Builder, June 1870, Vol 2, ―Harsen‘s Upright Engine,‖ pp 165-166; ―Building Paper,‖ p 168; Swain‘s Turbine Water Wheel,‖ p 181.

Manufacturer & Builder, August 1870, Vol 2, ―Rice Paper Plant,‖ ―The Best Form of Belt Pulleys,‖ p 235.

Manufacturer & Builder, September 1870, Vol 2, ―Treatment of Wood for Paper-Making,‖ p 259; ―Notes on Japanese, Korean and Chinese Paper‖, p 262-263; ―Greene‘s Upright Balance Engine,‖ p 265; ―Advice to Boiler Makers,‖ p 277.

Manufacturer & Builder, October 1870, Vol 2, ―Building Paper Felt‖, pp 296-297; ―Starkey‘s Horizontal Engine,‖ p 297; ―New Method of Straightening High Chimneys,‖ p 300; ―Paper Boxes‖, pp 308-309

Manufacturer & Builder, November 1870, Vol 2, ―Prevention of Boiler Explosions,‖ p 335; ―On Steam Pumps,‖ p 340.

Manufacturer & Builder, December 1870, Vol 2, ―Vulcanized Rubber,‖ p 358-359; ―The Allen [Steam] Engine,‖ p 369-371.

Manufacturer & Builder, January 1871, Vol 3, ―Names of Paper,‖ p 14; ―Swain‘s Turbine Wheel,‖ p 24.

Manufacturer & Builder, February 1871, Vol 3, ―Building Paper Insurance,‖ p 48.

Manufacturer & Builder, April 1871, Vol 3, ―Safety Boilers,‖ pp 80-81; ―New Rotary Steam Engine‖, p 89

Manufacturer & Builder, June 1871, Vol 3, ―[Elm City] High-Speed Vertical Engine‖, p 132.

Manufacturer & Builder, July 1871, Vol 3, ―Computing Speed of Gearing & Pulleys,‖ p 162.

Manufacturer & Builder, August 1871, Vol 3, ―Steam Boiler Explosions,‖ pp 176-177; ―Roper Caloric Engine,‖ p 185.

Manufacturer & Builder, September 1871, Vol 3, ―Great [Ferryboat] Boiler Explosion,‖ pp 193-195; ―The Housatonic Dam‖, pp 204-206

Manufacturer & Builder, October 1871, Vol 3, ―Water Heater, Regulator & Alarm for Steam Boilers,‖ pp217-218; ―[Baxter] Portable Steam Engine & Boiler,‖ p 232; ―Rider Horizontal Governor Cutoff Engine,‖ p 234.

Manufacturer & Builder, December 1871, Vol 3, ―Material for Paper-Making‖, p 270

Manufacturer & Builder, January 1872, Vol 4, ―Cleaning of Boilers & Repairing Ordinary Damages,‖ p 2; ―New Sources of Supply for Paper,‖ p 6.

Manufacturer & Builder, March 1872, Vol 4, ―New Glue Size for Paper-Makers,‖ p 59.

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 49 Manufacturer & Builder, April 1872, Vol 4, ―Ellis & Bonney Turbine Wheel‖, p 79; ―Grout‘s Balanced Slide- Valve,‖ p 85.

Manufacturer & Builder, May 1872, Vol 4, ―Harris-Corliss Steam Engine,‖ p 108; ―Friction Pulleys,‖ p 112.

Manufacturer & Builder, June 1872, Vol 4, ―Case‘s Turbine Wheel,‖ p 124; ―Treatment of Wood for Paper- Pulp,‖ p 135.

Manufacturer & Builder, July 1872, Vol 4, ―Advantages of Leather Belting Over Rubber or Canvas,‖ p 151; ―Parchment Paper,‖ p 168.

Manufacturer & Builder, September 1872, Vol 4, ―Heating of Feed-Water for Steam Boilers,‖ p 193.

Manufacturer & Builder, October 1872, Vol 4, ―Steam Trap,‖ p 217; ―Berryman‘s Boiler-Feed Regulator,‖ p 218; Newburg [Whitehall & Smith] Steam Engine,‖ p 221.

Manufacturer & Builder, November 1872, Vol 4, ―The Leffel Double Turbine Water Wheel‖, p 244; ―Economy & Safety in Steam Boilers,‖ p 246; ―Vertical Tubular Steam Boilers,‖ p 249

Manufacturer & Builder, December 1872 – February 1873, ―Stetson Turbine Wheel‖, p 269

Manufacturer & Builder, January 1873, Vol 5, ―Risdon Turbine,‖ pp 2-3.

Manufacturer & Builder, February, Vol 5, ―Remarkable Results of Turbine Wheel {Emerson],‖ p 35.

Manufacturer & Builder, March 1873, Vol 5, ―Angell Water Wheel,‖ p 51; ―Francis Dyanometer,‖ p 52; ―Boiler Explosions,‖ p 65; ―Hemp for Papermaking,‖ p 72.

Manufacturer & Builder, April 1873, Vol 5, ―Upham & Libby Diagonal Water Wheel,‖ p 75; ―Balke‘s Steam Pump & Boiler,‖ p 81.

Manufacturer & Builder, May 1873, Vol 5, ―[Chase] Turbine Water Wheel,‖ p 99; ―Compound Steam Engine,‖ pp 108-109; ―Three Piston Steam Engine,‖ p 109, ―Steam Boiler Explosions,‖ p 111; ―Heating Feedwater in Steam Boilers,‖ p 112; ―Steam Boiler Inspection Laws,‖ p 114.

Manufacture & Builder, June 1873, ―Conde ‗Challenge‘ Steam Pump,‖ p 121; ― [Whalen] Turbine Water Wheel‖, p 123.

Manufacturer & Builder, July 1873, Vol 5, ―Valentine Outward Flow Turbine,‖ pp 148-149.

Manufacturer & Builder, August 1873, Vol 5, ―American Turbine [Stout, Mills & Temple],‖ p 171; ―Experiments on Boiler Explosions,‖ p 173; ―Steam Pumps with Fly-Wheels,‖ p 175; ―Ellis Journal Box,‖ p 177; ―Nickel Plated Safety Valve,‖ p 183.

Manufacturer & Builder, September 1873, Vol 5, ‖Haskin Semi-Portable Steam Engine,‖ p 193-194 ―Excelsior Turbine,‖ p 195-196; ―Pulley Speeds,‖ pp 215-216.

Manufacturer & Builder, October 1873, Vol 5, ―Sandy Hook Boiler Experiments,‖ p 224.

Manufacturer & Builder, November 1873, Vol 5, ―Root Boiler,‖ p 241-242; ―Make Steam Boilers Harmless,‖ p 257; ―Calculation of Water Power,‖ p 258; ―Boiler Explosion Experiments,‖ p 263.

Manufacturer & Builder, December 1873, Vol 5, ―Reliance Works Steam Engine (Allis),‖ p 265; ―Buffalo Vulcan Steam Engine Works (Cummer),‖ p 266; Harlem Boiler Explosion,‖ p 282.

Manufacturer & Builder, January 1874, Vol 6, ―Friction Clutch Pulleys,‖ p 7; ―Steam Piston Packing,‖ p 12.

Manufacturer & Builder, February, 1874, ―Paper as a Building Material,‖ p 32; ―The Manufacture of Paper‖, p 42.

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 50 Manufacturer & Builder, May 1874, Vol 6, ―Anderson & Kipp Boilers & Engines,‖ pp 100-101; ―Small Steam Engines,‖ p 103; ―Baxter Steam Engine,‖ p 114.

Manufacture & Builder, June 1874, Vol 6, ―Construction of Dams & Levees,‖ p 122; ―Transmission of Power by Shafting,‖ p 125; ―Coupling Shafts,‖ p 130.

Manufacturer & Builder, July 1874, Vol 6, ―Hoisting Engine & Boiler Combined,‖ p 150.

Manufacturer & Builder, August 1874, Vol 6, ―Hampson & Whitehill Steam Boilers,‖ p 169; ―Monitor Turbine‖, p 173; ―Construction of Mill Dams‖, p186; ―Dams As They Should Be Built,‖ p184.

Manufacturer & Builder, October 1874, Vol 6, ―Steam Engines for Light Power,‖ p 223; ―Improvement in Horizontal Steam Engines,‖ p 224..

Manufacturer & Builder, November 1874, Vol 6, ―Wooden & Iron Dams,‖ pp 250-251; ―Compact Steam Engines,‖ p 268.

Manufacturer & Builder, December 1874, Vol 6, No 12, ―Stone Dams,‖ p 280.

Manufacturer & Builder, February 1875, Vol 7, ―Kelly Sectional Steam Boiler,‖ pp 28-29; ―Yale Vertical Engine,‖ p 40; ―Building Brick Chimney Tops,― p 46.

Manufacturer & Builder, March 1875, Vol 7, ―Improvements in Shafting Appurtenances‖, p 56; ―Vertical Portable Engine‖, p 57; ―Belting & Gearing‖, p 70.

Manufacturer & Builder, April 1875, Vol 7, ―Steam Boiler Explosions in England (Part 1),‖ p 82.

Manufacturer & Builder, May 1875, Vol 7, ―Steam Boiler Explosions in England (Part 2),‖ p 106.

Manufacturer & Builder, June 1875, Vol 7, ―Steam Boiler Explosions in England (Part 3),‖ p 130; ―Cast Iron Tube Boiler (Dougherty & Broome),‖ pp 126-127.

Manufacturer & Builder, July 1875, Vol 7, ―Paper Buckets‖, p 147; ―Improvement in Elevators,‖ p 150; ―Tubulous Steam Boilers (Babcock & Wilcox),‖ p 152; ―Connecting Belts,‖ p 168.

Manufacturer & Builder, August 1875, Vol 7, ―Hair vs Leather Belts,‖ p 169.

Manufacturer & Builder, September 1875, Vol 7, ―Governors for Water-Wheels,‖ p 196; ―Portable Steam Engine (Erie City Iron Works),‖ p 198; ―Cast Iron Tube Boiler (Dougherty & Broome),‖ p 198; ―Internal Grooving in Steam Boilers,‖ p 202; ―Ammonia Paper Board,‖ p 207.

Manufacturer & Builder, October 1875, Vol 7, ―Use of Defective Boilers,‖ pp 218-219.

Manufacturer & Builder, November, 1875, ―Automatic Cut-Off Slide Valves‖, p 244; ―Report of Boiler Inspections‖, p 245; ―Effects of Back-Up Water on Turbine Wheels,‖ p 263.

Manufacturer & Builder, December 1875, Vol 7, No 12, ―Friction Clutch Pulleys,‖ p 272.

Manufacturer & Builder, January, 1876, ―Boiler Explosions Always Preventable,‖ p 3; ―Shive Steam Engine Governor,‖ p 6; ―Paper Barrels‖; ―Woodbridge Hydraulic Cement‖, p 24

Manufacturer & Builder, February 1876, Vol 8, ―Detecting Wood Fiber in Paper,‖ p 48.

Manufacturer & Builder, March 1876, Vol 8, ―Simplified Boilers & Engines,‖ p 52.

Manufacturer & Builder, April 1876, Vol 8, ―Lime Kilns of Rockland, Maine,‖ pp 80-81.

Manufacturer & Builder, May 1876, Vol 8, ―Increasing the Draught of a Chimney,‖ p 120; ―Paper Pails,‖ p 113.

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 51 Manufacturer & Builder, June 1876, Vol 8, ―Fastening Pulleys & Wheels to Shafts,‖ p 128; ―Paper Blankets,‖ p 139.

Manufacturer & Builder, July 1876, Vol 8, ―Rotary Tubular Boiler,‖ pp 150-151; ―‖High Masonry Dams [New Publication by J. B. McMaster]‖, p 164; ―Parchment Paper,‖ p 168.

Manufacturer & Builder, August 1876, Vol 8, ―Machine Belts,‖ p 179; ―Points on Boiler Making,‖ p 190.

Manufacturer & Builder, September 1876, Vol 8, ―Paper Pulp of Wood Fiber,‖ p 216.

Manufacturer & Builder, October 1876, Vol 8, ―Belts, Pulleys & Screws,‖ p 225; ―Defective Seams in Boilers [Part 1],‖ p 232.

Manufacturer & Builder, November 1876, Vol 8, ―Sectional Water Tubular Boiler (Mast & Foos),‖ pp 246- 247; ―Alcott Turbine Wheel,‖ p 247; ―Corrosion of Steam Boilers [Part 2],‖ p 253.

Manufacturer & Builder, December 1876, Vol 8, ―Information About Belts,‖ p 265; ―Criminal Boiler Explosion,‖ p 274; ―Hair vs Leather Belts,‖ p 276; ―Defects in Steam Boilers [Part 3],‖ p 280

Manufacturer & Builder, January 1877, Vol 9, ―Defects in Steam Boilers (Part 4),‖ p 12.

Manufacturer & Builder, February 1877, ―Where to Look for Defects in Boilers,‖ p 28; ―Wooden Steam Boilers,‖ p31; ―Defects in Steam Boilers (Part 5),‖ pp 36-37.

Manufacturer & Builder, March 1877, ―Risdon Turbine,‖ p 56; ―paper Box Making,‖ pp 58-59; ―Testing Lubricating Oils,‖ p 59; ―Defects in Steam Boilers (Part 6),‖ p 60; ―Connecting Leather Belts,‖ p 72.

Manufacturer & Builder, April 1877, Vol 9, ―Combined Engine & Boiler [New York Safety Steam Power Company],‖ p 73; ―Steam Boiler Test & Engineers‘ Exam,‖ p 77; ―Defects in Steam Boilers (Part 7),‖ p 84.

Manufacturer & Builder, May 1877, Vol 9, ―Centennial Boiler Test,‖ pp 100-101; ―History of Transmission of Power by Wire Ropes,‖ p 105; ―New Kind of Belting,‖ ―Paper Substitute for Wood,‖ p 106; ―Galvanized Iron or Copper Boilers,‖ p 120.

Manufacturer & Builder, August 1877, Vol 9, ―Corrosion of Steam Boilers,‖ p 180; ―Transmitting Power by Electricity,‖ p 191.

Manufacturer & Builder, September 1877, Vol 9, ―Boiler Tests at the Centennial Exhibition [Part 1],‖ p 194; ―Leffel Double Turbine,‖ pp 225-226.

Manufacturer & Builder, October 1877, Vol 9, ―Boiler Explosions,‖ p 228.

Manufacturer & Builder, November 1877, Vol 9, ―Centennial Boiler Tests (Part 2),‖ pp 243-244; ―Little Giant Steam Engine,‖ pp 247-248; ―Fractures of Steam Boilers,‖ p 251.

Manufacturer & Builder, December 1877, Vol 9, ―Boiler Attachment [Iron Clad Manufacturing],‖ p 265; ―Bursting of Boilers,‖ ―Belting,‖ p 275; ―Making Paper Water Tight,‖ p 288.

Manufacturer & Builder, January 1878, Vol 10, ―Conundrum: Reasons Why A Rotary Boiler Can Never Burst,‖ p15.

Manufacturer & Builder, February 1878, Vol 10, ―Boiler Inspection,‖ p 25; ―Feed Water Heater,‖ p 31; ―Strength of Boiler Plate,‖ p 36.

Manufacturer & Builder, March 1878, Vol 10, ―Paper Trade in Austria,‖ p 53; ―Corean [sic] Paper,‖ p 64.

Manufacturer & Builder, April 1878, Vol 10, ―1, 2 & 3 Horsepower Engines,‖ p 81.

Manufacturer & Builder, May 1878, Vol 10, ―Caloric Engine,‖ p 97; ―Flexible Shaft,‖ p 106.

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 52 Manufacturer & Builder, June 1878, Vol 10, ―Theory of Steam Boiler Explosions,‖ p 131; ―Gut Belting,‖ p 143.

Manufacturer & Builder, July 1878, Vol 10, ―Roberts [Steam] Engine,‖ p 145-146; ―Safe Boiler Tubes,‖ p 149; ―Paper Barrels,‖ p 155; ―England Adopting Our System of Belts,‖ p 156; ―Constructing Dams for Water Power,‖ p 167.

Manufacturer & Builder, August 1878, Vol 10, ―Balanced Steam Engine,‖ p 177.

Manufacturer & Builder, September 1878, Vol 10, ― ‗Little Giant‘ Steam Engine,‖ p 201; ―Waterproof Paper,‖ p 213.

Manufacturer & Builder, October 1878, Vol 10, :Feeding Boilers with Hot Water,‖ pp 220-221; ―Paper Exhibition [Germany],‖ pp 223-224; ―Strength of Boiler Plate,‖ p 227.

Manufacturer & Builder, November 1878, Vol 10, No 11, ―Feeding Boilers with Hot Water,‖ p 246; ―[Steam Powered] Flouring Mill Outfits,‖ p 246-247; ―Boiler Explosions in England,‖ p 247-248; ―Paper Carpeting,‖ p 261.

Manufacturer & Builder, December 1878, Vol 10, ―Steam Boiler Explosions in 1877,‖ p 266; ―Cold Rolled Shafting,‖ p 273; ―Extinction of Chimney Fires,‖ p 282

Manufacturer & Builder, January 1879, Vol 11, ―Is Government Inspection of Steam Boilers a Failure?,‖ p 10; ―Defective Designs of Steam Boilers,‖ p 12.

Manufacturer & Builder, February 1879, Vol 11, ―Dangerous Method of Connecting Steam Boilers,‖ p 36.

Manufacturer & Builder, March 1879, Vol 11, ―Double Piston Balanced Engine,‖ pp 49-50; ―Ignorance as a Cause of Boiler Explosions,‖ p 62; ―Nickel Seated Safety Valves,‖ pp 65-66; ―Anti-Friction Journal Bearings,‖ p 70.

Manufacturer & Builder, April 1879, Vol 11, ―Buckeye Automatic Cutoff Engine,‖ pp 73-74; ―How to Raise Steam Economically,‖ p 78; ―Tests of Boilers & Engines,‖ pp 78-80; ―Boilers of Short Duration,‖ p 84.

Manufacturer & Builder, May 1879, Vol 11, ―Boilers of Short Duration,‖ pp 106-107; ―Production in Paper [Berlin Exhibition],‖ p 108.

Manufacturer & Builder, June 1879, Vol 11, ―Cobb‘s Cutoff Steam Engine,‖ p 126; ―Bookwalter Portable Engine [Leffel],‖ p 129.

Manufacturer & Builder, July 1879, Vol 11, ―Boiler Explosion,‖ p 156.

Manufacturer & Builder, August 1879, Vol 11, ―Lidgerwood Compact Steam Engine,‖ p 169; ―Proposed Turbine Contest,‖ p 172; ―Belting in the US vs Gearing in Europe,‖ pp 178-179; ―Two Remarkable Boiler Explosions,‖ pp 180-181; ―Power Transmission By Belts,‖ p 192.

Manufacturer & Builder, September 1879, Vol 11, ―Frank‘s Paper Cutting & Winding Machine,‖ pp 193; ―One Boiler Bursts at Last,‖ p 196; ―Poole & Hunt Leffel Turbine,‖ pp 198-199; ―Heald & Sisco Double Crank Steam Engine,‖ p 201; ―Steam Boilers – Good Qualities & Defects,‖ p 202; ―Edge-Laid Belts,‖ p 210; ―Measuring Water for Water Wheels,‖ p 216.

Manufacturer & Builder, November 1879, Vol 11, ―Safety Valves,‖ pp 244-245; ―Care of Steam Boilers,‖ pp 250-251; ―A Rotary Boiler Finally Bursts,‖ p 250; ―Lime & Hydraulic Cement,‖ p 251; ―Care in Emptying Steam Boilers,‖ p 256.

Manufacturer & Builder, January 1880, Vol 12,‖Results of a Defective Design of Steam Boiler,‖ p 3; ―Advantages of Vertical Steam Engines‖; ―Rules for Management of Steam Boilers‖, p 5; ―Rough vs Smooth Pulleys,‖ p 24.

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 53 Manufacturer & Builder, February 1880, Vol 12, ―Hanging Shafting,‖ p 25; ―Blowing Off Steam Boilers,‖ pp 25-26; ―Water Tube vs Fire Tube Boilers,‖ p 31; ―Boiler Explosion [Part 1],‖ p34.

Manufacturer & Builder, March 1880, Vol 12, ―Lubricating Bearings,‖ p 52; ―How To Judge of Leather in Belts,‖ p 59; ―Defective Boiler Rivets,‖ p 60; ―Boiler Explosion [Part 2],‖ pp 60-62; ―Speed of Line Shafts,‖ ―Capacity of Steam Boilers,‖ p 72.

Manufacturer & Builder, April 1880, ―Franklin Draught Regulator,‖ p 76; ―Contribution to the Causes & Prevention of Boiler Explosions,‖ p 82; ―Cones of Pulleys,‖ p 96.

Manufacturer & Builder, May 1880, Vol 12, ―Knowles‘ Compound Pumping Engine,‖ p 97; ―Boiler Plate Testing Machine,‖ pp 102-104; ―Contributions to the Origin of Steam Boiler Explosions,‖ pp 106-107; ―Factor of Safety in Steam Boilers,‖ p 120.

Manufacturer & Builder, June 1880, Vol 12, ―Feedwater Heater & Purifier,‖ pp 124-125; ―Babcock & Wilcox‘s Water Tube Boilers,‖ p 126-127; ―Allen Governor,‖ p 129; ―Explosion of a Compound Boiler,‖ p 130; ―Experiments with a Steam Injector,‖ ―Economical Point of Cutoff for Steam Engines,‖ p 132; ―Rotary Steam Engines,‖ p 136; ―Cotton Belting,‖ p 143.

Manufacturer & Builder, July 1880, Vol 12, ―Perkins High Pressure System [Compound Engine],‖ p 147; ―Manufacture of Paper Barrels,‖ p 149; ―Boiler Explosion from Faulty Construction,‖ p 155.

Manufacturer & Builder, August 1880, Vol 12, ―Decomposition Theory of Steam Boiler Explosions,‖ pp 170-171; ―Reed‘s Non-conducting Covering for Steam Pipes etc.,‖ p 177; ―Adhesion of Belts,‖ p 186.

Manufacturer & Builder, September 1880, Vol 12, ―Barking Machine for Wood Pulp Makers,‖ p 193; ―Economy of Heating Feed Water,‖ pp 215-216; ―Governor Pulleys,‖ p 216.

Manufacturer & Builder, October 1880, Vol 12, ―Stead‘s Attachment for Steam Boilers,‖ pp 120-122; ―Explosion of a Horizontal Tubular Boiler,‖ p 226; ―Directions for Lacing Rubber Belts,― p 229.

Manufacturer & Builder, November 1880, Vol 12, ―Whitehill Automatic Cutoff Engine,‖ pp 241-242; ―Cushioning the Reciprocating Parts of Steam Engines,‖ pp 246-247; ―Hotchkiss Boiler Cleaner,‖ p 247; ―Paper from Palm Fiber,‖ pp 247-248; ―Shafting & Bearings,‖ p 264.

Manufacturer & Builder, December 1880, Vol 12, ―Wallpaper Printing Machine,‖ p 265; ―Self-Oiling & Self- Adjusting Hangers for Shafting,‖ p 268; ―Franklin Institute Experiments on the Explosion of Steam Boilers,‖ pp 274-275; ―Why a Belt Runs to the Highest Part of a Pulley,‖ p 287.

Manufacturer & Builder, March 1881, Vol 13, ―Steam Boiler Explosion‖; ―Paper Car Wheels,‖ p 53; ―Paper Pulp from Wood,‖ p 70

Manufacturer & Builder, December 1882, Vol 14, ―Straw Lumber,‖ p 278.

Manufacturer & Builder, April 1883, Vol 15, ―Fishkill-Corliss Engine,‖ p 77

Manufacturer & Builder, May 1883, Vol 15, ―Care for Belts,‖ p 102.

Manufacturer & Builder, June 1883, Vol 17, ―Babcock & Wilcox Boiler,‖ p 121.

Manufacturer & Builder, February 1884, Vol 16, ―Chase Turbine,‖ p 28.

Manufacturer & Builder, October 1884, Vol 16, ―Belting,‖ pp 232-233; ―Boiler Explosions – The Cause & the Remedy,‖ pp 233-234.

Manufacturer & Builder, December 1884, Vol 16, ―Chase [Jonval] Turbine,‖ p 268.

Manufacturer & Builder, January 1885, ‖Poole & Hunt Leffel Turbine,‖ p1; ―Cheap Paper,‖ p 9; ―Boiler Inspections,‖ ―Sorghum as Paper Stock,‖ p 18.

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 54 Manufacturer & Builder, April 1885, ―Steam Boilers as Magazines of Explosive Energy,‖ p 76

Manufacturer & Builder, June 1886, ―Abendroth & Root Safety Boiler,‖ pp 121-122

Manufacturer & Builder, July 1886, Vol 18, ―Paper Railway Cross Tie‖; ―Chase Turbine Manufacturing Company of Orange MA,‖ p 164

Manufacturer & Builder, December 1886, Vol 18, ―Making Wood Pulp,‖ p 288

Manufacturer & Builder, January 1887, ―An Unexplained Explosion,‖ pp 8-9

Manufacturer & Builder, May-June 1887, ―Steam Boiler Explosions,‖ J.M. Allen [2 parts]

Manufacturer & Builder, July 1887, ―Corrosion of Shell Causes Explosion,‖ p 160

Manufacturer & Builder, September 1887, ―Destructive Explosion of a Horizontal Tubular Boiler,‖ p 206

Manufacturer & Builder, October 1887, ―Boiler Explosions in 1886,‖ p 220

Manufacturer & Builder, October 1888, ―Friedenshutte Explosion‖, pp 231-232

Manufacturer & Builder, December 1888, Vol 20, ―What Was Known About Belting Fifty Years Ago,‖ John H. Cooper, pp 278 -279.

Manufacturer & Builder, January 1890, Vol 22, ―Prevention of Accidents from Running Machinery,‖ pp 10- 11.

Manufacturer & Builder, October 1890, Vol 22, ―The Almond Coupling for Transmitting Motion at an Angle,‖ p 220; ―To Prevent Slipping of Belts,‖ p 219.

Manufacturer & Builder, November 1891, ―The Steam Engine,‖ (3 part series), Part 2 in December 1891, Part 3 in January 1892, lecture by C. A. Burton before the Engineers‘ Club of Kansas City, Missouri.

Manufacturer & Builder, February 1892, Vol 24, ―A Large Factory Erected in Five & Three Quarter Days,‖ pp 30-31; ―Transmission of Power by Electricity,‖ p 40.

Manufacturer & Builder, June 1892, Vol 24, ―An Accident in an Engine Room,‖ p 123.

Manufacturer & Builder, March 1893, Vol 25, ―Ingenious Water Wheel,‖ p 52.

Manufacturer & Builder, September 1894, Vol 26, ―Driving Mills by Electricity,‖ p 214.

Marks, G. C., Hydraulic Power Engineering, 1903, Part VIII, Turbines.

McCutcheon, M., Everyday Life in the 1800s, 2001.

McGaw, Judith A., Most Wonderful Machine; Mechanization & Social Change in Berkshire Paper Making 1801-1885, 1987.

McGaw, Judith A. (editor), Early American Technology: Making & Doing Things from the Colonial Era to 1850, 1994.

McKelvey, Blake, Rochester: The Water-Power City 1812-1854, 1945.

Mead, Daniel W., Water Power Engineering: The Theory, Investigation & Development of Water Power, 1920.

Merriam, J. C., Thomas P. Kettell, et. al., One Hundred Years‘ Progress of the United States, 1870, Stationary Steam Engine, pp 252-258; Paper: Its Manufacture, pp 291-298.

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 55 Merriman, Mansfield, Treatise on Hydraulics, 1905.

Miller, Warner (Herkimer, NY), ―American Paper Mills,‖ in 1795-1895: One Hundred Years of American Commerce, Chauncey M. Depew (ed.), 1895.

Montgomery, James, Theory & Practice of Cotton Spinning, pp 23-42, ―Calculating Shaft Speeds‖.

Munro, R. D., Steam Boilers: Defects, Management & Construction, 1903.

Munsell, J., A Chronology of Paper & Paper-Making, 1857.

Murray, John, Practical Remarks on Modern Paper, 1829.

Nicholson, John, The Operative Mechanic, 1826.

Olde Ulster, ―Stoking a Kiln in Olden Time‖, October 15, 1915 (Vedder Library)

Overman, Frederick, Mechanics for the Millwright, 1864.

Pallett, Henry, The Miller‘s, Millwright‘s & Engineer‘s Guide, 1866.

Paper Task Force, Nonwood Fiber Sources, July 1996, Technical Supplement – Part IIIA , White Paper 13, Nonwood Plant Fibers as Alternative Fiber Sources for Papermaking, (internet PDF resource) .

Paper Trail (The), Quarterly Newsletter of the Robert C. Williams American Museum of Papermaking, ―19th Century Researches for Alternate Paper Fibers in Paper Making: Louis Piette‖, January-March 2004

Paper Trail (The), Quarterly Newsletter of the Robert C. Williams American Museum of Papermaking, ―19th Century Researches for Alternate Paper Fibers in Paper Making (Part II): Links to Modern Papermaking‖, April-June 2004

Parker, Amasa J. (editor), Landmarks of Albany County, 1897.

Parkinson, Richard, A Treatise On Paper, 3rd edition, 1896.

Paul, Evelyn, ―The Croswell Paper Mill‖, The Heritage of New Baltimore, 1976.

Penn Yan Library, Yates County, NY, archived newspaper articles from Yates County Chronicle: ―Cascade Paper‖ November 21, 1867; ―Cascade Paper Mills‖, January 16, 1868; ―The Cascade Paper Manufacturing Company‖, May 7, 1868; ―Improved Straw Paper‖, June 2, 1868.

Penn Yan Library, Yates County, NY, ―The Fox Paper Mill‖, Walter Wolcott, 1911.

Penn Yan Library, Yates County, NY, ―Keuka Mills Oldest in U.S. for Manufacturing Straw Paper‖, Chronicle Express, October 10, 1935.

Penn Yan Library, Yates County, NY, ―Penn Yan Man Buys Interest in Old Straw Paper Mill‖, Chronicle Express, November 23, 1939.

Penn Yan Library, Yates County, NY, Yates County Historical Pamphlets, Issues No. 9 Fox‘s Mill site and No. 11 Cascade Mill site, undated.

Penn Yan Library, Yates County, NY, articles by Carolyn Sheridan in 1981 Summer Issue of the Chronicle Express: ―Worker Remembers Past Days at Fox Mill‖ and ―Man Recalls Papermaking‖.

Piette, Louis, The Manufacture of Paper from Straw & Many Other Materials in Bulk … for Manufacturing … in Culture & Industry, 1838.

Proteaux, A., Horatio Paine & Henry T. Brown, Practical Guide for the Manufacture of Paper & Boards, [Chapter 6, Straw, pp 198-201];1866. Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 56

Pursell, Carroll W. Jr., Early Stationary Steam Engines in America, 1969.

Quinby, A. B., On Pitch-Back & Breast-Wheels, American Journal of Science & Arts, 1826, pp 333-334.

Rance, H.F. (editor), ―The Raw Materials & Processing of Papermaking‖, Handbook of Paper Science, 1980.

Rankine, William J. M., The Steam Engine & Other Prime Movers, 1870.

Rankine, William J. M. & Edward F. Bamber, Manual of Applied Mechanics, Part VI: Theory of Machines.

Rankine, William J. M., A Manual of Machinery & Millwork, 1893.

Reference, General, Biographical Dictionary of the History of Technology, 1996.

Reference, General, Encyclopedia Britannica, ―Paper‖, ―Hydromechanics‖, 9th edition, c1885.

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Scientific American, October 10, 1846, Vol 2, No 3, ―Barnum‘s [Boiler] Safety Apparatus,‖ p 17.

Scientific American, October 24, 1846, Vol 2, No 37, ―Water Power,‖ p 37.

Scientific American, December 26, 1846, ―New Application of Water Power‖ [turbine], p 108 Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 57

Scientific American, January 9, 1847, Vol 2, No 16, ―Goddard‘s Combine Waterwheel‖ [turbine], p 123

Scientific American, April 3, 1847, Vol 2, No 28, ―Ashwell‘s Revolving Boiler,‖ p 217.

Scientific American, May 1, 1847, Vol 2, No 32, ―Mechanical Movements – Mitre & Hydraulic Ram‖, p 256

Scientific American, June 5, 1847, Vol 2, No 36, ―Novel Boiler Feeder,‖ p 292.

Scientific American, July 10, 1847, Vol 2 No 42, ―Self-Acting Water Wheel‖, p 1

Scientific American, August 14, 1847, Vol 2, No 47, ―Mechanical Movements – Circular & Rectilinear Motion, Transmission of Power‖, p 373.

Scientific American, September 11, 1847, Vol 2, No 51, Mechanical Movements – Variations of Speed‖, p 408.

Scientific American, September 18, 1847, Vol 2, No 52, ―Mechanical Movements – Circular & Transverse Motion, also Parallel Motion‖, p 416.

Scientific American, October 23, 1847, Vol 3, No 5, ―Mechanical Movements, Applications of the Governor,‖ p 40.

Scientific American, October 30, 1847, Vol 3, No 6, ―Guyon‘s Waterwheel,‖ p 41; ―New Material for Paper,‖ p 42.

Scientific American, November 6, 1847, Vol 3, No 7, ―Coupling Line Shafts,‖ p 52; ―Hadley Falls Dam,‖ p 53; ―Reaction Water Wheel‖ [turbine], p 56.

Scientific American, November 13, 1847, Vol 3, No 8, ―Bevel Gearing,‖ p 64.

Scientific American, November 20, 1847, Vol 3, No 9, ―Method of Preserving the Denominations of a Bank Bill from Being Altered," p 68.

Scientific American, November 27, 1847, Vol 3, No 10, ―Reaction Water Wheels, p 76

Scientific American, December 11, 1847, Vol 3, No 12, ―Mechanical Movements – Circular from Perpendicular Motion; also Pneumatic Engine,‖ p 95.

Scientific American, December 25, 1847, Vol 3, No 12, ―Mechanical Movements – Oval Gearing & Wheel Gearing,‖ p 112.

Scientific American, February 19, 1848, Vol 3, No 22, ―Reaction Water Wheels‖, p 174

Scientific American, February 26, 1848, Vol 3, No 23, Reaction Water Wheels, p 182

Scientific American, March 11, 1848, Vol 3, No 25, ―First Paper Mill in Havana‖, ―Paper Mill in Milwaukee, Wisconsin‖, p 194; also ―Mechanical Movements – Bevil [sic] Wheel Coupling,‖ p 200.

Scientific American, March 18, 1848, Vol 3, No 26, ―Mechanical Movements – Old Arch Head & Flywheel,‖ p 208.

Scientific American, April 1, 1848, Vol 3, ―Pneumatic Regulator,‖ p 220; ―Transmission of Motion, Speed & Power,‖ p 221; start of multi-part series on ―Economy of Power in Cotton Factories,‖ Nos. 28-34, April 1 – May 13, 1848.

Scientific American, May 6, 1848, Vol 3, No 33, ―Reaction Water Wheels‖, p 259

Scientific American, May 13, 1848, Vol 3, No 34, ―Oscillating Engine,‖ p 265; ―Reaction Water Wheels‖, p 270. Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 58

Scientific American, July 15, 1848, Vol 3, No 43, ―Paper Making‖ [brief], p 338.

Scientific American, August 19, 1848, Vol 3, No 48, ―Information Respecting Reaction Water Wheels‖, p 381.

Scientific American, August 26, 1848, Vol 3, No 49, ―Hill‘s Balance Valve,‖ p 385.

Scientific American, January 20, 1849, Vol 4, No 18, ―Manufacture of Paper Pulp from Straw‖, p 142.

Scientific American, February 10, 1849, Vol 4, ―Turbine Wheel Governor,‖ p 164.

Scientific American, June 9, 1849, Vol 4, No 38, ―Feather Bucket Water Wheel,‖ p 297.

Scientific American, July 28, 1849, Vol 4, No 45, ―Water Wheels, Their Construction, Disputed Point &c,‖ p 355.

Scientific American, September 15, 1849, Vol 4, No 52, ―Munger‘s Yankee Turbine Wheel‖, p 100.

Scientific American, October 6, 1849, Vol 5, No 3, ―American Turbine Water Wheel‖, p 20.

Scientific American, December 22, 1849, Vol 5, No. 14, ―Interesting Law Case for Manufacturers & Those Having Water Dams‖, p 106.

Scientific American, January 12, 1850, Vol 5, No 17, ―Useful Information About Water Wheels,‖ p 131.

Scientific American, February 23, 1850, Vol 5, No 23, ―Emanuel Parker‘s Improvement on Water Wheels,‖ p 177.

Scientific American, April 6, 1850, Vol 5, No 29, ―Reaction & Percussion Water Wheels,‖ p 227.

Scientific American, March 2, 1850, Vol 5, No 24, ―Hadley, MA Dam‖, p 187.

Scientific American, March 9, 1850, Vol 5, No 25, ―American Turbine Water Wheel‖, p 199.

Scientific American, June 22, 1850, Vol 5, No 40, ―Parker‘s Reaction Water Wheels,‖ p 315.

Scientific American, July 6, 1850, Vol 5, No. 42, ―Parker‘s Water Wheel‖, p 331

Scientific American, September 28, 1850, Vol 6, No 2, ―Sinking of [Anchor] Ice,‖ p 14.

Scientific American, October 20, 1850, Vol 6, No 6, ―Reuben Rich‘s Center Vent Water Wheel & Scroll,‖ p 44.

Scientific American, February 14, 1852, Vol 7, No 22, ―Anchor Ice,‖ p 174.

Scientific American, March 6, 1852, Vol 7, ―Finlay‘s Patent Differential Governor;‖ ―Cut-Off Valve,‖ p 196.

Scientific American, October 2, 1852, Vol 8, No. 3, ―Manufacture of Paper from Bark‖, p 22.

Scientific American, February 4, 1854, Vol 9, No. 21, ―Manufacturing Paper‖ [from straw], p 163.

Scientific American, March 16, 1854, ―Which Is the Better Water Wheel‖; ―Paper for Newspapers Made of Straw‖, p 251.

Scientific American, April 29, 1854, Vol 9, No. 33, ―American Patent‖, ―White Straw Paper‖ [A. Mellier], p 263.

Scientific American, September 30, 1854, Vol 10, No 3, ―Shafting Hangar,‖ p 20.

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 59 Scientific American, October 21, 1854, Vol 10, No. 6, ―Making Paper from Wood‖, p 43.

Scientific American, February 10, 1855, Vol 10, No 22, ―Bearings for Loose Pulleys,‖ p 172.

Scientific American, May 5, 1855, Vol 10, No 34, ―Machine for Washing Paper Stock,‖ p 265.

Scientific American, May 12, 1855, Vol 10, No 35, ―Chemistry of Steam Boiler Explosions,‖ p 275.

Scientific American, June 9, 1855, Vol 10, No. 39, ―Materials for Paper‖, p 309.

Scientific American, September 15, 1855, Vol 11, No 1, ―Experiments with Turbine Water Wheels‖; (James B. Francis & Lowell Hydraulic Experiments) p 5.

Scientific American, April 26, 1856, Vol 11, No 33, ―Paper Making‖ [on patents etc], p 262.

Scientific American, August 9, 1856, ―Paper and Paper Making‖, p 381.

Scientific American, February 7, 1857, Vol 12, No 22, ―Bleaching Paper Bags with Gas‖, p 171.

Scientific American, June 27, 1857, Vol 12, No 42, ―To Dye Straw‖, p 1.

Scientific American, October 9, 1858, Vol 14, No 5, ―Paper & Papermaking (Kingsland Pulp Engine), pp 33-34.

Scientific American, July 9, 1859, Vol 1, No 2, ―Pulleys on Shafting,‖ p 22.

Scientific American, July 16, 1859, Vol 1, No 3, ―Construction of Cone Pullies (sic)‖, p 38.

Scientific American, July 30, 1859, Vol 1, No 5, ―Improvement in Steam Boilers,‖ p 67.

Scientific American, December 3, 1859, Vol 1, No 23, ―New Materials for Paper‖, p 1.

Scientific American, December 10, 1859, Vol 1, No 24, ―Treating Straw for Paper & Burnishing Paper‖, p 382.

Scientific American, March 3, 1860, Vol 2, No. 10, ―Belts for Driving Machinery,‖ p 150; ―Improvements in Papermaking‖, p 153.

Scientific American, March 24, 1860, Vol 2, No 13, ―Belts for Driving Machinery – Which Side Is Best?‖, pp 197-198.

Scientific American, June 23, 1860, ‖Japanese Paper‖ [mulberry bark], p 407.

Scientific American, August 18, 1860, ―Overshot and Jonval Turbine Wheels,‖ p 115; ―Friction – The Philosophy of Small Axles,‖ p115; ―Knickerbocker‘s Improved Friction Clutch,‖ p 120

Scientific American, September 28, 1861, Vol 5, No 13, ―Making Paper from Corn Leaves—A Great Discovery‖, p 203.

Scientific American, June 1, 1861, Vol 4, No 22, ―Mode of Preparing Paper Stock‖, p 346.

Scientific American, July 20, 1861, Vol 5, No 3, ―Corn Leaf & Grass Paper,‖ p 36.

Scientific American, November 2, 1861, Vol 5, No 18, ―How Straw Paper Is Made‖, p 283.

Scientific American, March 15, 1862, Vol 6, No 11, ―Anchor Ice,‖ p 166.

Scientific American, April 5, 1862, Vol 6, No 14, ―Anchor Ice,‖ p 214.

Scientific American, April 26, 1862, Vol 6, No 17, ―Anchor Ice,‖ p 262. Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 60

Scientific American, May 3, 1862, Vol 6, No 18, ―History of Turbine Water Wheels, pp 278-279.

Scientific American, October 11, 1862, Vol 7, No 15, ―Paper from Husks & Stalks of Indian Corn,‖ p 230.

Scientific American, October 25, 1862, Vol 7, No 17, ―Turbine Water Wheels,‖ p 155.

Scientific American, November 8, 1862, Vol 7, No 19, ―What Are Paper Consumers To Do?,‖ p 294.

Scientific American, December 20, 1862, Vol 7, No 25, ―The Manufacture of Printing Paper‖, p 393 ―[Shinn] Clutch Pulley,‖ p 392.

Scientific American, January 17, 1863, Vol 8, No 3, ―Pulp Exhibits from Straw, Corn Husks, Sorghum & Bass Wood,‖ p 35, (Convention of Western Paper Manufacturers).

Scientific American, March 28, 1863, Vol 8, No. 13, ―Paper & Cloth from Indian Corn Husks‖, p 201.

Scientific American, August 22, 1863, Vol 9, No. 8, ―Manufacture of Paper – Injustice to American Inventors‖, p 118.

Scientific American, September 19, 1863, Vol 9, No 12, ―Automatic Cutoff & Governor Valve,‖ p 177.

Scientific American, March 5, 1864, Vol 10, No 10, ―A Terrific Boiler Explosion‖ [Schuylerville, NY Paper Mill], p 150.

Scientific American, July 9, 1864, Vol 11, No 2, ―Paper From Corn Husks,‖ p 25.

Scientific American, July 16, 1864, Vol 11, No 3, ―Corn Husk Paper,‖ p 46.

Scientific American, August 6, 1864, Vol 11, No 6, ―Paper from Corn Husks,‖ p 87.

Scientific American, September 3, 1864, Vol 11, No 10, ―Corn Husk Stock For Paper,‖ p 153.

Scientific American, October 22, 1864, Vol 11, No 17, ―Flat-faced Frictional Gearings,‖ p 262.

Scientific American, January 21, 1865, Vol 12, No 4, ―Anchor Ice,‖ p 54.

Scientific American, February 4, 1865, Vol 12, No 6, ―Corn Husk for Paper Stock,‖ p 87.

Scientific American, February 18, 1865, Vol 12, No. 8, ―Paper from Cane, Hemp, Stalks, Wood, etc.‖, p 116.

Scientific American, March 11, 1865, Vol 12, No 11, ―Corn Husk Paper,‖ p 165, (Clinton Paper Mills at Steubenville, NY).

Scientific American, December 23, 1865, Vol 13, No 26, ―Paper from Corn Husks,‖ p 400.

Scientific American, March 31, 1866, Vol 14, ―Relating to Gears,‖ p 209.

Scientific American, April 28, 1866, Vol 14, No 18, ―Paper Made From Wood‖, p 277.

Scientific American, September 21, 1867, Vol 17, No 12, ―A German Paper Mill‖, p 178.

Scientific American, November 16, 1867, Vol 17, No 20, ―Improved Coupling & Cold Rolled Shafting,‖ p 305.

Scientific American, December 14, 1867, Vol 17, No 24. ―Patent Case – Wood & Straw Paper,‖ p 382.

Scientific American, April 25, 1868, Vol 18, No 17, ―Hanging & Care of Shafting,‖ p 265.

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 61 Scientific American, July 15, 1868, Vol 19, ―Paper – Its Material and Uses‖, p 36.

Scientific American, July 29, 1868, Vol 18, No 5, ―Paper Material‖ (okra), p 74.

Scientific American, August 19, 1868, Vol 19, No 8, ―Straw Paper Patent‖, p 122.

Scientific American, September 2, 1868, ―Scarcity of Paper Material‖, p 149.

Scientific American, September 23, 1868, Vol 19, No. 13, ―Note on Okra as a Paper Source,‖ p 199.

Scientific American, October 21, 1868, Vol 19, No. 17, ―Improved Machine for Washing Paper Stock‖, p 1.

Scientific American, November 4, 1868, Vol 19, No 19, ―The Manufacture of Straw Board‖, p 298.

Scientific American, February 27, 1869, Vol 20, No. 9, ―Manufacture of Paper from Okra‖, p 135.

Scientific American, April 24, 1869, Vol 20, No 17, ―Shafting, Pulleys & Belts,‖ p 264.

Scientific American, May 1, 1869, Vol 20, No 18, ―Papermaking Fifty Years Ago,‖ p 278-279.

Scientific American, May 29, 1869, Vol 20, No 22, ―Shafting, Pulleys & Belts,‖ p 340.

Scientific American, August 28, 1869, Vol 21, No 9, ―The Relation of the Diameters of Gears to Friction,‖ p 137.

Scientific American, September 11, 1869, Vol 21, No 11, ―Novelty Iron Works Steam Engine,‖ p 161.

Scientific American, September 18, 1869, Vol 21, No 12, ―Transmission of Power – Leather Belting,‖ p 181.

Scientific American, September 25, 1869, Vol 21, ―Newlin Turbine,‖ p 200.

Scientific American, October 2, 1869, Vol 21, ―Gerner Steam Boiler,‖ pp 209-210.

Scientific American, November 6, 1869, ―Improvements in Paper-Making Machines,‖ p 291.

Scribner‘s Monthly, December 1875, Vol 11, No 2, ―Countershaft Hanger‖; ―Culture of the Aspen for Wood Pulp,‖ p 299.

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Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills 62

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Transporting Reams of Straw Wrapping Paper to Market

Fields of Reams – The Hannacroix Creek Paper Mills