Bandelier National Monument: Natural Resource Condition Assessment

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Natural Resource Stewardship and Science Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Natural Resource Report NPS/BAND/NRR—2015/1000 ON THIS PAGE View of Upper Alamo Canyon, 2009 Photography by: National Park Service

ON THE COVER View across Burnt Mesa, Bandelier National Monument Photography by: Dale Coker Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment

Natural Resource Report NPS/BAND/NRR—2015/1000

Editors

Brian Jacobs1 Barbara Judy1 Stephen Fettig1 Kay Beeley1 Collin Hafey2 Catherin Schwemm3 Jean Palumbo4 Lisa Thomas4

1Bandelier National Monument 15 Entrance Road Los Alamos, NM 87544

2 Jemez Mountain Field Station, USGS at Bandelier National Monument 15 Entrance Road Los Alamos, NM 87544

3Institute for Wildlife Studies P.O. Box 1104 Arcata, CA 955184

4Southern Colorado Plateau Network National Park Service USGS Flagstaf Science Center 2255N. Gemini Drive Flagstaf, AZ 86001

August 2015

U.S. Department of the Interior National Park Service Natural Resource Stewardship and Science Fort Collins, Colorado The National Park Service, Natural Resource Stewardship and Science oﬃ ce in Fort Collins, Colorado, publishes a range of reports that address natural resource topics. These reports are of interest and applicability to a broad audience in the National Park Service and others in natural resource management, including scientists, conservation and environmental constituencies, and the public.

The Natural Resource Report Series is used to disseminate comprehensive information and analysis about natural resources and related topics concerning lands managed by the National Park Service. The series supports the advancement of science, informed decision- making, and the achievement of the National Park Service mission. The series also provides a forum for presenting more lengthy results that may not be accepted by publications with page limitations.

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This report is available from the Bandelier National Monument website (http://www.nps. gov/band/index.htm), and the Natural Resource Publications Management Web site (http:// www.nature.nps.gov/publications/nrpm/) on the Internet. To receive this report in a format optimized for screen readers, please email [email protected].

Please cite this publication as:

Jacobs, B., B. Judy, S. Fettig, K. Beeley, C. Haﬀey, C. Schwemm, J. Palumbo, and L. Thomas. 2015. Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment, Natural Resource Report NPS/BAND/NRR—2015/1000. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.

NPS 315/129413, August 2015 ii Contents

Figures ...... v Tables ...... vii Appendices ...... viii Executive Summary ...... ix Contributors ...... xi Chapter 1: NRCA Background Information ...... 1 Chapter 2: Park Resource Setting/Resource Stewardship Context ...... 3 2.1 Introduction ...... 3 2.2 Physical resources and processes ...... 6 2.3 Signifcant biological resources ...... 12 2.4 Relevant regional or landscape scale natural resource information ...... 17 2.5 Threats/stressors to important park resources ...... 18 2.6 Resource stewardship ...... 18 2.7 Literature cited ...... 25 Chapter 3: Study Approach ...... 29 3.1 Preliminary scoping ...... 29 3.2 Study design ...... 31 3.3. Literature cited ...... 34 Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions ...... 35 4.01 Fire History and Ecology ...... 36 4.03 Montane Grasslands ...... 56 4.04 Mixed Conifer / Aspen Forest ...... 60 4.04-1 Aspen ...... 64 4.05 Ponderosa Pine Forest and Woodland ...... 73 4.06 Pion-Juniper Woodland ...... 83 4.06-1 Erosion in Pion-Juniper Woodlands ...... 93 4.07 Rare Plant Species ...... 98 4.08 Nonnative Plants ...... 106 4.09 Rio Grande Corridor and Associated Riparian Vegetation ...... 110 4.10 Rito de los Frijoles and Capulin Creek and Associated Riparian Vegetation ...... 114 4.11 Water Quality and Aquatic Macroinvertebrates ...... 122 4.12 Native Fish ...... 136

Contents iii Contents (continued)

4.13 Landbirds ...... 140 4.14 Mexican Spotted Owl ...... 149 4.15 Jemez Mountain Salamander ...... 152 4.16 Mountain Lion ...... 156 4.18 American Pika ...... 163 4.19 River Otters ...... 169 4.20 Lynx ...... 172 4.21 Bighorn Sheep ...... 173 4.22 Natural Sounds ...... 175 4.23 Air Quality ...... 179 Chapter 5: Toward Ecosystem Integrity in a Warmer Drier Future: Don’t Panic! ...... 187 5.1 State change ...... 187 5.2 Future state ...... 188 5.3 State of management ...... 188 5.4 Opportunities for success ...... 189 5.5 Addressing uncertainty ...... 191 5.6 Conclusions ...... 193 5.7 Literature cited ...... 194

iv Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Figures

Figure 2-1. Bandelier National Monument is located on the Pajarito Plateau in north central New Mexico...... 4 Figure 2-2. Map of public and private lands surrounding Bandelier National Monument...... 5 Figure 2-3. Water year precipitation for the period 1929–2014 from the Firetower weather station...... 7 Figure 2-4. Fires greater than 10 acres within and adjacent to Bandelier National Monument for the period 1909–2011...... 8 Figure 2-5. Map showing the canyons and drainages of Bandelier National Monu- ment and adjacent lands, with the major canyons and perennial streams labeled...... 11 Figure 2-6. Vegetation map showing dominant vegetation types of Bandelier Na- tional Monument as of spring 2011, before the Las Conchas Fire burned approximately 60% of the park (Muldavin et al. 2011)...... 13 Figure 4-1a. Number of ignitions per month, by type, in the Jemez Mountains, New Mexico, from 1909–2012...... 37 Figure 4-1b. Cumulative acres burned per month, by type of ignition, in the Jemez Mountains, New Mexico, from 1909–2012...... 37 Figure 4-2a. Fires that occurred in the Jemez Mountains, New Mexico, by decade, from the 1900s to the 1960s...... 39 Figure 4-2b. Fires that occurred in the Jemez Mountains, New Mexico, by decade, from the 1970s to the 2010s...... 39 Figure 4-3. Linked drivers of vegetation change in Bandelier National Monument and the southwestern U.S...... 47 Figure 4-4. Cumulative footprint of medium and high severity wildfres in the distributions of the mixed conifer-aspen forest zone (blue green), ponderosa pine forest zone (drab green), and pion-juniper woodland zone (orange), since 1977...... 49 Figure 4-5. Change in spatial distribution of major vegetation map units from 1981–2004. a.1981, modifed from Allen (1989). b. 2004, modifed from Mulda- vin et al. (2011)...... 50 Figure 4-6. Change in total area of coverage of major vegetation map units from 1981 (white bars) – 2004 (black bars)...... 51 Figure 4-7. Expansion of plant communities with a shrub component (J-S, PJ-S, SH-O, SHRU, PP-S, PPJS, PMCS, MC-S) from 1981–2004. a. Spatial distribution of shrubs as a major community component. b. Areal coverage of shrubs as a major community component...... 52 Figure 4-8. Montane meadow. NPS photo...... 56 Figure 4-9. Changes in montane grassland area, 1935–1981, Jemez Mountains, New Mexico...... 57 Figure 4-10. Vegetation communities within the Cerro Grand Fire perimeter as mapped based on 1981 imagery (Allen 1990) and 2004 imagery (Muldavin 2011)...... 62 Figure 4-11. Number and mean height of aspen stems inside elk exclosures and in

Contents v Figures (continued)

control plots outside of exclosures over fve years...... 67 Figure 4-12. Changes in vegetation cover, 1954–1963, in the study area at Ban- delier National Monument, showing persistent ponderosa pine forest (green), persistent pion-juniper woodland (yellow), and the ecotone shift zone (red) where forest changed to woodland...... 73 Figure 4-13. Fire scar chronology for samples collected in Frijoles Canyon...... 74 Figure 4-14b. Bandelier National Monument and the areas of high and moderate burn severity for the three fres (1997 La Mesa Fire, 1996 Dome Fire and 2011 Las Conchas Fire) that represent areas of tree cover loss...... 75 Figure 4-14a. Bandelier National Monument and outlines of 1997 La Mesa Fire, 1996 Dome Fire, 1997 Lummis Fire, 2000 Cerro Grande Fire and 2011 Las Conchas Fire...... 75 Figure 4-15. Vegetation communities within the Dome (1996) and Lummis (1997) fre perimeters as mapped based on 1981 imagery (Allen 1990) and 2004 imagery (Muldavin 2011)...... 78 Figure 4-16. State-and-transition diagram for pion-juniper mesa tops. Solid boxes represent ecosystem states...... 86 Figure 4-17. Diagrams showing six versions of the same non-metric multidimensional ordination with symbols coding for the eight clusters found in our cluster analysis...... 87 Figure 4-18. Landscape transformation associated with a die-off of pion pine trees triggered by a global change-type drought...... 88 Figure 4-19. Bar graphs showing the mean and standard error for total (A) and percent (B) abundance of individual functional groups...... 90 Figure 4-20. E. coli. Results of bacteria samples collected from Rito de los Frijoles and Capulin Creek in Bandelier, 2001–2014, showing E. coli counts and State of New Mexico water quality criteria...... 126 Figure 4-21. Water temperatures in Rito de los Frijoles at Bandelier National Monu- ment from August 1, 2009 to March 1, 2014...... 126 Figure 4-22. Site abundance. Average quantitative sample abundance of individuals collected from SCPN sites in Bandelier National Monument...... 129 Figure 4-23. Taxa richness. Taxa richness of quantitative samples collected from SCPN sites in Bandelier National Monument...... 129 Figure 4-24. Physical habitat. Pre-Las Conchas Fire (2010) and Post- Las Conchas Fire (2011–2012) percentage of particle grain sizes found at RIT01 and RIT02 at the Rito de los Frijoles in Bandelier National Monument...... 130 Figure 4-25. Physical habitat. Pre-Las Conchas Fire (2010) and Post- Las Conchas Fire (2011–2012) percentage of particle grain sizes found at CAP01 (red) and CAP02 (blue) at the Capulin Creek in Bandelier National Monument...... 130

vi Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Tables

List of Contributors ...... xi Table 3-1. First draft list (July 2010) of all potential topics for the Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment, herein sorted by priority...... 30 Table 3-2. Final list of selected topics organized within the NPS Ecological Monitor- ing Framework (Fancy et al. 2009)...... 32 Table 4-1. Chapter 4 resource topics organized within the NPS Ecological Monitor- ing Framework...... 35 Table 4-2. Common and widespread nonnative plant species found in Bandelier Na- tional Monument, their location, and status post-Las Conchas Fire (LCF), if known; website provided if available...... 107 Table 4-3. Data available from streamfow gauges on Capulin Creek and Rito de los Frijoles in Bandelier National Monument...... 117 Table 4-4. Reports of water quality data collected from streams at Bandelier Na- tional Monument since 2004, and aquatic macroinvertebrate data collected since 2005...... 124 Table 4-5. Status in Bandelier National Monument of bird species identifed in the North American Landbird Conservation Plan (Rich et al. 2004) for Bird Conservation Region 16 and species that are found in the park...... 140 Table 4-6. Bird capture rates by year at a Juniper-woodland mesa-top site at Bande- lier National Monument (S. Fettig unpublished data)...... 142 Table 4-7. Number of hatch-year (HY) birds banded per 600 net-hours, for three sites (Alamo Drainage (ALDR), Frijoles East (FREA), and Frijoles West (FRWE)) at Bandelier National Monument from 2010 through 2013...... 142 Table 4-8. Birds identifed as species of concern by existing published conservation plans, USFWS (2008), Rich et al. (2004), Butcher et al. (2007), Norris et al. 2005), NMDGF (2006), NMPIF (2007), that are regular breeding species with moderate or high abundances at Bandelier National Monument...... 143 Table 4-9. Birds, identifed as species of concern by existing published conservation plans, USFWS (2008), Rich et al. (2004), Butcher et al. (2007), Norris et al. (2005), NMDGF (2006), NMPIF (2007), that are accidental, rare, migrant, etc. at Bandelier NM, and their status at the park...... 144 Table 4-10. National Park Service indicators of air quality and specifc measures. The W126 metric is a biologically relevant measure that focuses on plant response to ozone exposure...... 179

Contents vii Appendices

Appendix A: Climate and Climate Change at Bandelier National Monument...... A1 Appendix B: Assessment of Vegetation Change in Bandelier National Monument...... B1 Appendix C: Scope of Work for Assessing the Vegetation Community Condition at Bandelier National Monument ...... C1 Appendix D: Species of Management Concern at Bandelier National Monument ...... D1 Appendix E: Analysis of Water Quality Core Parameters and Constituents at Bande- lier National Monument...... E1 Appendix F: Avian Demographic Information for Bandelier National Monument ...... F1 Appendix G Ecological Impacts from Grazing by Livestock ...... G1

Note: Appendices are not printed as part of this report, but are instead appended as fles on a CD.

viii Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Executive Summary

The Natural Resource Condition Assessment (NRCA) Program, administered by National Park Service (NPS) Water Resources Division, aims to document current conditions of important park natural resources through a spatially explicit, multi-disciplinary synthesis of existing scientifc data and knowledge. The NRCA for Bandelier National Monument (NM) began in 2010 but was interrupted in June of 2011 by the Las Conchas Fire, which burned over 60% of the monument.

This assessment includes a description of selected resources and, when possible, reference conditions, current condition and trends, and factors that afect current conditions or are likely to afect future conditions. It addresses biological integrity at the landscape scale, as well as for communities and species of management concern. Recent drought and concomitant tree mortality, perhaps foreshadowing a predicted future warmer, drier climate, and the modern history of large severe fres are a focus of the report. Air quality, water quality and hydrology, and natural sounds are also addressed.

Bandelier NM protects over 33,000 acres of rugged but beautiful canyon and mesa country, as well as evidence of a human presence going back over 11,000 years. Petroglyphs, cavate dwellings carved into the soft rock clifs, and standing masonry walls throughout the landscape are a record of a culture that survives in the surrounding communities.

The landscape of Bandelier NM has changed dramatically over the last century. Heavy grazing, prior to and during early federal management of the monument, efectively excluded fre in a system that had previously included frequent, low-severity surface fre. Subsequent national fre suppression policy and the timing of favorable wet climate windows in the American Southwest allowed land managers to manage ecosystem processes and created a semblance of stability across much of the landscape of the monument for most of the 20th century. Fire exclusion promoted dramatic increases in upland forest density and fuel loading during the early and mid-20th century. Subsequent large and severe crown fres burned over large areas of the monument, converting many forested areas into savannas, shrublands, or grasslands.

In the summer of 2010, scientists from the staf of Bandelier NM and the Southern Colorado Plateau Network (SCPN) of NPS convened a scoping workshop to begin work on the Ban- delier NRCA. Collectively, the park natural resources staf and collaborating U.S Geological Survey (USGS) scientists brought over one hundred years of experience and knowledge about the park to this efort (see Chapter 3). At the end of two days of lengthy discussions, prioritization exercises, and decision-making, a list of focal resources emerged which provided direction for setting indicators and measures of resource condition. The fnal list included twenty-three resources grouped under fve main categories: air and climate; geology and soils; water; and biological integrity (see Table 4-1). During the initial scoping, the group also decided that the assessment would develop a quantifed and spatially explicit description of recent vegetation change within the monument using the wealth of vegetation data that had been collected by NPS, USGS, and collaborating scientists. Given recent drought-induced tree mortality and repeated catastrophic wildfre impacts over the last several decades, the time was right to synthesize current knowledge of broad-scale vegetation patterns in Bande- lier NM.

The resulting vegetation analysis indicated drastic vegetation change within Bandelier NM

Executive Summary ix between 1981 and 2004. Woodlands and savanna with juniper as the canopy dominant have expanded. Immediately upslope, the most striking change was the complete loss of mature pion from pion-juniper woodlands. Further upslope a continuing contraction and fragmentation of ponderosa pine stands was evident, with increased shrub dominance in the understory. Ponderosa pine-mixed conifer stands have been replaced by ponderosa pine- shrub communities.

The full impact of the Las Conchas Fire on ponderosa pine and mixed conifer forests has not yet been assessed. Nor are the long-term efects or recovery times known for wildlife communities that depend on forested habitats, such as breeding bird communities. The Las Con- chas Fire had substantial physical impacts on both Capulin Creek and the Rito de los Frijoles, greatly altering stream morphology, destroying riparian vegetation, and decimating aquatic macroinvertebrate communities. Given the scale and severity of the Las Conchas Fire, the recovery time for the monument’s aquatic systems is uncertain.

Many of the rare plant species occurring in Bandelier NM are associated with mesic forested or riparian habitats that have since been severely altered by the Las Conchas Fire. Overall, their current condition within the monument is poor. The last breeding Mexican spotted owls (MSO) within Bandelier NM were observed in 2002. The Las Conchas Fire destroyed most potential MSO breeding habitat in the monument. Likewise, although less is known about their population biology and distribution, Jemez Mountain salamanders—typically found in mixed conifer forests—are likely declining within the monument.

Since the 1990s natural resource management at Bandelier NM has focused on documenting soil erosion rates in pion-juniper woodlands and developing restoration treatments to foster the recovery of herbaceous understory vegetation. These eforts have not only improved the ecological integrity of pion-juniper communities, but have also helped to stabilize archeological sites. More than 75% of the known pre-contact archeological sites within Bandelier NM occur within pion-juniper communities. Most of these sites have experienced adverse efects related to soil erosion and lack of post-fre vegetation recovery. Erosion management and long-term monitoring of restoration response and erosion rates should continue. Research has begun to assess the role of biological soil crusts in degraded and restored pion-juniper woodlands, as a next step in the multi-decade campaign to stabilize erosion with the monument.

Bandelier Wilderness is designated as a Class 1 area under the Clean Air Act. However, in the most recent assessments, many of the criteria for air quality fell within the “moderate concern” category, including visibility, ozone, and nitrogen deposition. The Clean Air Act bestows an “afrmative responsibility” on federal land managers to protect Class 1 areas from the adverse efects of air pollution. In section 169A, “Congress hereby declares as a national goal the prevention of any future, and the remedying of any existing, impairment of visibility in mandatory Class 1 Federal areas in which impairment results from manmade air pollution.”

Bandelier NM serves as a harbinger of the types of changes projected for the American Southwest as a result of anthropogenic climate warming. The recent decadal drought, fres, and insect outbreaks have resulted in a landscape much diferent from one that would be familiar to the park’s namesake. This assessment will help guide future goals and direction as the monument resource management focus transitions to preserving key ecological processes and basic ecological capital, and fostering incremental landscape adaptation in the face of a hotter and drier climate.

x Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Contributors

All natural resource staf in the Bandelier National Monument Division of Resources Man- agement provided their expertise directly as NRCA chapter authors, Chapter 4 section authors, supporting contributors, and/or chapter and section reviewers. Craig Allen was involved with the Bandelier staf in all phases of the project; his careful scientifc review and attention to scholarship in the last stage of writing were vital contributions. Collin Hafey’s writing skills were put to use on various writing and editing assignments in the fnal months of the project.

Matt Bowker and David Smith’s report, Assessment of Vegetation Change in Bandelier Nation- al Monument, a “Barometer of Change in the National Park System”, formed the basis of the sections on forest and woodland vegetation change in Chapter 4. The unpublished report is included in its entirety in Appendix B.

The Southern Colorado Plateau Network contributed to the report preparation in several ways. Steve Monroe and Stacy Stumpf wrote the water quality and aquatic macroinvertebrate section in Chapter 4; Steve also contributed to the riparian sections. Jean Palumbo and Sonya Daw edited the document and formatted the fnal publication within InDesign.

Barbara Judy, Lisa Thomas and Cathy Schwemm served as project managers for the Ban- delier NRCA and contributed to its writing. Barbara Judy and Lisa Thomas also served as reviewers.

List of Contributors

Name and position Organization Craig Allen, Research Ecologist Jemez Mountain Field Station, USGS Kay Beeley, GIS Specialist Bandelier National Monument Matthew Bowker and David Smith Northern Arizona University Sonya Daw, Writer/Editor Southern Colorado Plateau Network Stephen Fettig, Wildlife Biologist Bandelier National Monument Collin Haffey, Pathways Ecologist Intern Jemez Mountain Field Station, USGS Brian Jacobs, Botanist Bandelier National Monument Barbara Judy, Chief of Resources Bandelier National Monument Stephen Monroe, Hydrologist Southern Colorado Plateau Network Jean Palumbo, Writer/Editor Southern Colorado Plateau Network Catherin Schwemm, NRCA Ecologist Institute for Wildlife Studies Stacy Stumpf, Aquatic Ecologist Southern Colorado Plateau Network Lisa Thomas, Program Manager Southern Colorado Plateau Network Laura Trader, Fire Ecologist Bandelier National Monument

Contributors xi This page intentionally left blank Chapter 1: NRCA Background Information

Natural Resource Condition Assessments data and analysis methods used, evalu- (NRCAs) evaluate current conditions for ations of level of confdence for each a subset of natural resources and resource assessment, identifcation of information indicators in national park units. NRCAs gaps and research needs, and references. also report on trends in resource condition (when possible), identify critical data gaps, Although the primary objective of NRCAs is and characterize a general level of conf- to report on current conditions compared to dence for study fndings. The resources and reference conditions and values, NRCAs also indicators emphasized in a given project report on trends, when possible and relevant depend on the park’s resource setting, the (i.e., when the underlying data and meth- status of resource stewardship planning, and ods support such reporting). Factors that science, the identifcation of high-priority infuence resource conditions, such as past indicators, the availability of data and the activities or conditions that provide a helpful expertise to assess current conditions for context for understanding current condi- a variety of potential study resources and tions, may also be included. indicators. The methodology for NRCAs typically in- NRCAs represent a relatively new approach volves an informal synthesis of scientifc data to assessing and reporting on park resource and information from multiple and diverse conditions. They are meant to complement— sources, with a level of rigor and statistical not replace—traditional issue- and threat- repeatability that varies by resource, depend- based resource assessments. All NRCAs have ing on available data and expertise. The several characteristics in common: credibility of an NRCA results from the data, methods, and reference values used in the 1. They address a subset of natural re- project work, which are designed to be ap- source issues in each park, not all re- propriate for the stated purpose of the proj- sources. The resource topics are selected ect, and should be adequately documented. by a team of park staf and outside There is a close connection with the NPS experts based on a variety of criteria, Inventory and Monitoring (I&M) program: including legal status, management need, NRCAs utilize I&M data whenever possible, and available data. and can potentially contribute to the I&M 2. They assess current condition by com- program by providing current condition paring various measures of present-day estimates and establishing reference condi- status with ecological reference mea- tions and/or baseline values for vital sign sures that describe past and/or desired indicators. conditions. NRCAs do not establish management targets 3. NRCA products are intended to include for study indicators; that process occurs a substantive spatial component, when within the realm of park planning and relevant, providing data and analyses in management activities. NRCA products can, spatial presentation and GIS data for- however, help park managers defne short- mats that can be incorporated in future term workload priorities, frame data and planning and management eforts. study needs for important park resources, 4. They are organized around ecological and communicate current park resource indicator frameworks, and conform to conditions to various audiences. A success- national guidelines and standards. Spe- ful NRCA delivers science-based informa- cifcally, the products include description that is both credible and has practical tions of indicator resources, defnitions uses for a variety of park decision-making, of reference conditions, descriptions of planning, and partnership activities. The

1 NRCA Background Information 1 condition analyses and data sets developed For more information on the NRCA pro- for NRCAs will also be useful for park-level gram, visit: climate-change studies and planning eforts. http://nature.nps.gov/water/nrca/index.cfm

2 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Chapter 2: Park Resource Setting/Resource Stewardship Context

2.1 Introduction dential proclamation on February 11, 1916, 2.1.1 Enabling legislation/ named after Adolph Bandelier, who died in Administrative history/Cultural 1914. signifcance Bandelier’s original 22,352 acres were Located in Los Alamos County, New administered by the US Forest Service from Mexico, the 33,997-acre Bandelier National 1916 until the National Park Service as- Monument (NM) contains one of the largest sumed responsibility in 1932. Over time, concentrations of prehispanic archeological lands have been added to the monument, sites in the American Southwest. Within the and the current boundaries include approxi- monument are more than 3,000 sites, most mately 33,997 acres. Congress designated associated with the Ancestral Pueblo period 23,267 acres of the monument as wilderness and dating from AD 1100 to 1550. These in 1976. sites consist of large villages containing up to 400 rooms, hundreds of small farming ham- Bandelier NM is a remarkably rich and lets, clif houses, and scatters of artifacts. signifcant cultural resource site, and its Major sites include Frijolito, Yapashi, Tyu- natural setting has afected these resources onyi, Long House, San Miguel, Painted Cave, throughout its history. Ancestral Puebloan and Tsankawi. The park and the surrounding communities were established where natural area also contain a high concentration of a resources were abundant, and the condi- unique architectural form called cavates (clif tions of those natural resources are now houses that have been carved out of the soft afecting the persistence of the evidence of volcanic tuf bedrock). those communities, especially the erosion resulting from past grazing practices and the Adolph F. Bandelier, a pioneer in the study of Southwest history and ethnology, visited Frijoles Canyon in October 1880 and was the frst person to record the existence of many of the major archeological sites in the area. He was guided by inhabitants of Cochiti Pueblo, who have direct ancestral ties to the sites in Frijoles Canyon. Bande- lier’s scientifc and popular writings brought the area to public attention. In the late 1890s the archeological remains in the region were frst proposed for protected status under the names of “Pajarito National Park or Clif Cities National Park.” This park proposal, spearheaded by Edgar L. Hewett, included a much larger tract than the current monument boundaries. To further his proposal, Hewett assisted in the development of the Antiquities Act, which became law in 1906, permitting the president to create national monuments “to preserve historic and prehistoric structures and objects of historic or scientifc interest” (Antiquities Act, section 2). Bandelier NM was established by presi- Fishing in El Rito de los Frijoles, 1940.

2 Park Resource Setting 3 Figure 2-1. Bandelier National Monument is located on the Pajarito Plateau in north central New Mexico.

lack of post-fre vegetation recovery. Because for additional information on the human this NRCA is necessarily focused on natu- history of the monument, beginning with the ral resources, we will not be addressing the “Bandelier National Monument Archaeolog- cultural contribution of the monument. The ical and Historic District – National Register reader is directed to several valuable sources Nomination Form” (NR66000042, updated

4 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Figure 2-2. Map of public and private lands surrounding Bandelier National Monument.

2014). is bounded on the north along the plateau by Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL); to 2.1.2. Geographic setting the northwest and west by the Jemez Dis- Bandelier NM is located along the southern trict of the Santa Fe National Forest (SFNF); portion of the volcanic Pajarito Plateau on in the northwest corner by Valles Caldera the southeastern fank of the Jemez Moun- National Preserve (VCNP), and to the south tains in north-central New Mexico (Figure by Caada de Cochiti land grant and the Rio 2.-1). The Pajarito Plateau is composed of Grande in White Rock Canyon. volcanic ash and lava fows ejected from the Valles Caldera in a series of eruptions, the Within the park, there is a long elevational last of which occurred approximately 50,000 gradient that extends from 1600 m (5,300 ft) years ago (NPS 2014). Erosion has carved at the Rio Grande in the bottom of White the plateau into a series of deep canyons that Rock Canyon to 3,109 m (10,199 ft) at the extend from the edge of the Valles Caldera summit of Cerro Grande in the Sierra de los to the Rio Grande. Of these, Capulin, Alamo, Valles (which forms the natural boundary Frijoles, and other smaller canyons are with- with Valles Caldera). The long elevational in the monument boundaries. Bandelier NM gradient, in combination with the geologic, topographic, and soils diversity provides the

2 Park Resource Setting 5 framework for a wide variety of ecosystem campers, has received much less use in the types and complex vegetation patterns. past three years due to efects from the fre and subsequent fooding. (Reference: NPS 2.1.3 Surrounding lands/Adjacent IRMA Park Visitor Statistics and Interpreta- ownership tion Division Backcountry Permit records.) The monument is surrounded by public land managed by federal agencies 2.2 Physical resources and with a range of mission directives (Figure processes 2-2). Northwest of the monument is the 2.2.1 Climate Valles Caldera National Preserve (89,000 The climate of Bandelier NM is character- acres/~36,000 ha), federally-owned lands ized by cool-to-cold, dry winters, and warm, that are at present managed by a public trust. wet (monsoonal) summers. Average monthly The preserve was re-designated as a unit temperatures range from lows of -7° to -4°C of the National Park Service by the 113th (20 to 25°F) in December and January, to Congress in December 2014 and will trans- highs of 30° to 32°C (85 to 90°F) in June. fer to the Department of Interior in 2015. The mean daily temperature extremes range The area is open to regulated public use and between -10 °C and 6°C (14° and 43°F) in hunting is permitted. To the northeast is Los January and 13°C and 30 °C (55° and 86°F) Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) and in June, considered the coldest and warmest the Township of Los Alamos. LANL includes months of the year, respectively. The coldest 26,500 acres (~10,700 ha) of open space recorded daily temperature at nearby Los lands and federal facilities, though use of the Alamos was -27.2 °C (-17°F) and the warm- land is highly restricted and mostly closed to est 35 °C (95°F). the public. The remainder of the lands surrounding the monument are primarily within Mean annual precipitation is about 427 mm, Santa Fe National Forest, including 5,200 as recorded at the fre lookout tower near acres (~2,100 ha) of the Dome Wilderness park headquarters (Figure 2-3) (unpublished directly adjacent to the western boundary of weather records on fle at Bandelier NM). Bandelier Wilderness. Winter precipitation is delivered princi- pally as snow by low-pressure systems that 2.1.4 Visitation statistics sweep from west to east across the South- Recorded visitation at Bandelier NM has west, and coalesce with moisture from the ranged in recent years from 234,896 (in Pacifc Ocean or the Gulf of Mexico. Win- 2010) to 126,682 (in 2013). During 2010, ter precipitation is generally followed by a about 750 people were issued backcountry seasonal dry period during the months of camping permits. During 2013, about 265 May and June. This dry period is defned as people were issued backcountry camp- much by the increased potential evapotrans- ing permits. Camping trips in Bandelier piration that accompanies increased day Wilderness generally average one to two length, solar radiation, and temperatures, nights. Wilderness day use is estimated to be as by decreased precipitation. The spring higher than overnight camping use, but since dry period is usually relieved by the onset of permits are not required for day users the the Mexican monsoon; this weather pattern exact number of visitors is unknown. Since typically delivers at least 40% of the annual the 2011 Las Conchas Fire, visitor use in the precipitation during July through September, wilderness has changed. For example, the and is associated mostly with short-duration, southwest corner of the monument is less high-intensity thunderstorms. Each summer, accessible to hikers due to fre and food ef- as high pressure becomes entrenched of the fects, resulting in reduced visitation to Capu- coast of Baja California, low pressure in the lin Canyon and Painted Cave. The wilder- Southwest feeds Pacifc moisture across the ness portion of Frijoles Canyon, an always region, fueling the development of afternoon a popular destination for day hikers and thunderstorms. The magnitude, frequency,

6 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Figure 2-3. Water year precipitation for the period 1929–2014 from the Firetower weather station. The average water year total for the period 1929–2012 is 15.67. Years with missing months are indicated with *(n) with the number of missing months in parentheses.

and tracking of individual large, intense thunderstorm cells during this period can account for large year-to-year variability in annual rainfall and also variability between local areas. The subject of climate and climate change in New Mexico and Bande- lier NM are addressed in detail in Enquist and Gori (2008), Fisichelli (2013), Gonzalez (2014), and in Chapter 5 and Appendix A of this report.

2.2.2 Fire Historically, fre and climate were the primary environmental components that maintained ecosystem diversity at Bandelier NM. Frequent surface fres (6–15 year intervals) in most communities promoted relatively open woodlands of ponderosa pine and mixed conifer forest systems. Cycles of wet and dry periods allowed vegetation to build up during years with above-average precipitation, while dry periods limited recruitment and supported low-intensity lightning-caused fres that further limited recruitment of woody species (Allen 1989). Fire suppression and grazing have now largely eliminated surface fres, and tree densities have increased substantially as a result (Touchan et al. 1996).

High fuel loads, combined with drought conditions have led to a series of increasingly catastrophic fres in the Jemez Mountains over the last 30 years that have destroyed large areas of mature forest and have had numerous detrimental secondary impacts (e.g., exotic plant species expansion, post- fre foods). The 1977 La Mesa Fire burned 15,000 acres (60 km²), and the 1996 Dome Fire burned 16,500 acres (67 km2). The Cerro Grande Fire in 2000 originated as a controlled burn but eventually spread to 43,000 acres (194 km2); while most recently the Las Conchas Fire in 2011 burned over 150,000 acres (600 km2) and was the largest fre in New Mexico’s history. The cumula-

2 Park Resource Setting 7 Figure 2-4. Fires greater than 10 acres within and adjacent to Bandelier National Monument for the period 1909– 2011. The “Rx” indicates management-ignited fres.

8 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment tive result of these events is that there is separating the Pajarito Plateau from the San now almost no forested area of the monu- Miguel Mountains and the rim country to ment that has not burned in the last 20 years the west known as Sierra de los Valles and (Figure 2-4). Fire will be a recurring theme its associated mesas (Sawyer Mesa, Mesa del throughout this document, and conservation Rito). The Sierra de los Valles are made up implications discussed in Chapter 5. of dacites associated with Cerro Grande and Sawyer Dome, along with rhyolites of Rabbit 2.2.3 Geology Mountain. In contrast, the Pajarito Plateau is Geologically, Bandelier NM is located on the bounded to the east by White Rock Canyon, southeastern fank of the Jemez Mountains, a deep gorge containing the Rio Grande that which lie at the intersection of the Jemez has extensive exposures of Tertiary mafc lineament and the Rio Grande rift. The Je- lava beds. mez lineament is a chain of volcanic centers extending from Arizona to Colorado, and 2.2.3.1 Terrain and watershed the Rio Grande rift is a crack in the earth’s characteristics crust extending from the Rocky Mountains Topographically, the layered volcanic rocks of central Colorado to Chihuahua, Mexico. of the Pajarito Plateau provide a structural This geologic interface was the site of a series control that has led to a series of deeply of volcanic events related to tectonic move- incised southeast-trending, steep-walled ments beginning some 16 million years B.P., canyons (Frijoles, Lummis, Alamo, Hondo, culminating in two massive explosions that Capulin, Medio, and Sanchez) alternating led to the formation of the Toledo and Valles with broad mesa tablelands. The tablelands Calderas at 1.61 and 1.23 million years ago, themselves are moderately incised with small respectively (Spell et al. 1993). The Toledo drainages that create an undulating topogra- eruption ejected an estimated 396 km3 of phy of small canyons and intervening “inter- rock and ash, while the Valles eruption pro- fuves,” particularly at the lower, distal ends duced about 292 km3. By comparison, Mt. of the mesas. Conversely, the upper portions Saint Helens erupted 25 km3 and Krakatoa of the mesas are fatter and are bounded by 18 km3 of new material. the structurally uncontrolled slopes of the San Miguel Mountains and Sierra de los The Valles and Toledo eruptions cumula- Valles. Along the plateau escarpments and tively deposited the 300-meter thick Ban- canyon sides there is a distinctive banding of delier Tuf in two distinct layers that now clifs, rock outcrops, and rubble zones that dominate the Bandelier NM landscape as refect the stratigraphy of the various mem- part of Pajarito Plateau (the lower Otowi bers of Bandelier Tuf and other volcanic and upper Tshirege members, respectively). rocks. Conspicuous are the dramatic pink- The most recent eruption, El Cajete at to-orange clifs of the Tshirege Member of 50–60,000 B.P., covered the local landscape Bandelier Tuf that can be over 250 m (820 with many meters of pumice, much of which ft) tall. was subsequently eroded and reworked, leaving pumice patches predominately on The canyon and valley bottoms can con- east-facing slopes and deep alluvial deposits tain relatively broad foodplains (100–200 on lower slopes (Wolf et al. 1996). Along m; 325-650 ft) flled with deep sediments the western boundary of the park lie the San delivered by perennial, intermittent, and Miguel Mountains, which are comprised ephemeral streams. Frijoles Canyon and of older Tertiary and andesitic and rhyolitic Alamo canyons together occupy 9,062 ha volcanics along with sedimentary sandstones (22,392 acres), and Frijoles Canyon contains of the Santa Fe Group and Galisteo Forma- the only consistently perennial stream, El tion. The south-to-north trending Parajito Rito de los Frijoles. The smaller Hondo, Fault Zone ranges from the base of the San Capulin, Medio, and Sanchez Canyons to- Miguel Mountains northward, distinctively gether account for 4,087 ha (10,099 ac), and

2 Park Resource Setting 9 have intermittent zones of perennial waters. Hackroy, and Nyjack series); weakly devel- These drainages join the Rio Grande within oped shoulder and backslope soils (ustorth- White Rock Canyon, which in turn forms ents and ustipsamments) of the Palatka, the eastern boundary of the monument. The Zacaton (south facing), and Abrojo (north Rio Grande, with its headwaters in the San facing) series, and rock outcrops. In contrast, Juan Mountains of southwestern Colorado, this group also includes Armenta and Ador- can deliver high discharges, particularly with nado soils that are derived from rhyolitic El spring snowmelt (>140 cms, 5,000 cfs), along Cajete pumice, which overlays the Bandelier with signifcant sediment deposition. While Tuf. These soils are deeper (haplustolls), the gorge confnes the river on a broad scale, and have comparatively better developed but there are foodplain deposits on both sides of coarser surface horizons (sandy and gravelly the river that are up to 130 m (427 ft) across loams). At similar elevations are soils of the and support riparian and wetland vegetation. inter-plateau canyons and valleys. These The Rio Grande is impounded 20 km south include Navajita and Piojillo soils of the of the park boundary at Cochiti Lake reser- lower colluvial toe slopes of canyon sides, voir. Reservoir flling began in 1972, and the along with alluvial soils of valley foors and pool at diferent times has extended up into foodplains (Totavi, Espiritu/Petegral, and White Rock Canyon through the monu- Metate). ment and into the adjacent tributary canyons some 13 km (eight miles). This has created Mid-elevation mesa tops and slopes of the an identifable high-water zone as high as Pajarito Plateau are represented by a simi- 30 m (98 ft) up slopes above the current Rio larly structured group of soil units. Rotado Grande and side canyon foodplains. and Tocal soils are relatively deep Paleustalfs and Haplustalfs, respectively, that are derived 2.2.4 Soils from rhyolytic tuf and occupy the summits A frst-order soil survey by the Natural Re- of the interfuves. The shallower Urioste (Us- sources Conservation Service (NRCS) was torthents) and Cymery (Haplustepts), along recently completed for Bandelier NM and with rock outcrops, characterize shoulders made available in digital form (Hibner 2005). and backslopes of the canyons. El Cajete Thirty-nine soil map units were described pumice soils are represented again by the and delineated at a 1:24,000 scale, and these Adornado series on the plateau tops and the are generally organized in broad terrain Cajete Series on the slopes. A cooler version groups and along an elevation gradient. The of Metate occupies the alluvial terraces of map units are made up of various combina- the valley bottoms. tions of 34 soil series (and variants) from The highest-elevation plateau soils typi- a wide variety of soil families. At the low- cally occur above the Parajito Fault Zone at est elevations in White Rock Canyon and greater than 2,300 m (7,500 ft). Tschicoma, surrounding areas are a suite of units that Hoxoh, and Jemez are the deeper soils of represent the bordering escarpments, mesas the plateau summits and summit toeslopes and plateaus along with the bottom-land (Argiustolls, Haplustolls, and Haplustalfs, foodplains of the Rio Grande and imme- respectively). Shallow Cymery, Urioste, and diate tributaries. These soils are variously Estaban soils occupy the slopes, along with derived from basalt, sedimentary bedrock, or rock outcrop. Above the plateaus lie the alluvium. mountain soils with Mapache and Lucito oc- Lower-elevation soils of the plateaus and cupying the lower slopes and Casey the up- mesas are derived from colluvium, slope per slopes and summits of the Sierra de los alluvium, or eolian-deposit parent materi- Valles; Wauquie and Laventana are andesitic als over rhyolitic Bandelier Tuf residuum. soils found on the slopes of the San Miguel This group includes moderately developed Mountains. Tschicoma and Tranquilar soils soils (halplustalfs) of plateau tops (Canuela, occupy small valley footslopes and foors,

10 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Figure 2-5. Map showing the canyons and drainages of Bandelier National Monument and adjacent lands, with the major canyons and perennial streams labeled.

respectively. Santa Fe subwatershed (HUC 13020201) within the much larger Rio Grande water- (A detailed soils description is included in shed (Figure 2- 5). The monument contains Hibner 2005 and NPS 2007.) Erosion is ad- signifcant freshwater resources, including dressed in section 4.01. springs, perennial and ephemeral streams, wetlands, and groundwater. Partial water 2.2.5 Hydrology and water quality sources for streams in the park are springs Bandelier NM is located in the Rio Grande- and seeps at relatively high elevations near

2 Park Resource Setting 11 the north and west borders of the park, the monument. As a natural community, the however, most of the fowing water origi- riparian ecosystem along the Rio Grande has nates on Santa Fe National Forest and Valles experienced enormous change during the Caldera National Preserve lands outside last century, due largely to water impound- park boundaries. Of note are the two peren- ments and fow management, both upstream nial streams in the monument—the Rito de and downstream of the park, but also as a los Frijoles and Capulin Creek. Both fows consequence of domestic grazing and exotic can become partially subsurface during very vegetation. dry years. The southeastern boundary of the monument is the Rio Grande River. All water 2.3.1.2 Montane grasslands courses in the park generally fow northwest Montane grasslands typically occur in clear- to southeast. ings between 7,500 and 10,199 ft (2286–3109 m) and can include many herbaceous The quality of the freshwater resources species. Prior to 1900, historic high fre in Bandelier NM is of concern to manag- frequencies and vigorous grass competition ers (Weeks 2007), and impacts come from maintained largely treeless grasslands. In the two primary sources. Potential for air- Jemez Mountains there is evidence that with borne legacy waste deposition from LANL fre suppression during the last 130 years is monitored by LANL, the New Mexico conifers have invaded these high montane Environment Department Water Quality grassland sites, creating young forests and Division, and by NPS. More recently, the savannas rather than open grasslands and landscape-scale Cerro Grande Fire and the meadows. Las Conchas Fire have led to substantial erosion that may have accelerated (temporarily) 2.3.1.3 Mixed-conifer/aspen forests the leaching of toxics from surface sources, At the higher elevations in the monument but which have also degraded water quality (6500–10,170 ft/1980–3100 m) mixed-conifer by increased sedimentation. Water quality is communities can include Douglas-fr (Pseu- addressed in section 4.11. dotsuga menziesii), white fr (Abies concolor), aspen (Populus tremuloides), Engelmann 2.3 Signifcant biological resources spruce (Picea engelmannii), blue spruce (Pi- cea pungens), and limber pine (Pinus fexilis) 2.3.1 Vegetation communities as well as ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa). The Jemez Mountains support a diversity of Over the last 125 years, the structure and ecosystems sculpted by variations in eleva- composition of mixed conifer forests have tion, soil type, topography, climate and fre changed dramatically. Fire suppression in history. A vegetation map for Bandelier NM the 20th century allowed the development was completed in 2011 (Muldavin et al. 2011; of dense sapling understories in many mixed Figure 2-6), that delineates and describes conifer forests, with tree regeneration domi- the vegetation communities in detail; this nated by Douglas-fr and white fr. chapter provides only brief descriptions of the most common plant community types. 2.3.1.4 Ponderosa pine forests Much of the vegetation documented in the At somewhat lower elevations (5,800–10,000 2011 map was damaged or destroyed in the ft/1,770–3,050 m) ponderosa pine forests oc- Las Conchas fre, however, and a thorough cur generally below or interspersed among discussion of those impacts is presented for the mixed-conifer forests. Ponderosa pine pinyon-juniper woodland, and ponderosa vegetation communities can be described as pine and mixed conifer forests in Chapter 4 forest, woodland or savanna, depending on and Appendix B. canopy density, but generally have ponderosa as the dominant overstory species. Pon- 2.3.1.1 Rio Grande corridor derosa pine forests across the southwestern The boundary at the Rio Grande includes U.S. are threatened by several factors, but the lowest elevations (4,000 ft/1219 m) of primarily by changes in fre regimes that have

12 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Figure 2-6. Vegetation map showing dominant vegetation types of Bandelier National Monument as of spring 2011, before the Las Conchas Fire burned approximately 60% of the park (Muldavin et al. 2011). led to unnaturally high tree densities, and by 2.3.1.5 Pion -juniper woodlands interacting impacts of climate change and Pion-juniper woodlands are located in drought. lower warm/dry areas from about 5,350– 7,400 ft/1,630–2,260 m, and, at some sites,

2 Park Resource Setting 13 intergrade with shrub and grassland veg- the park today than prior to Euro-American etation. The ecology and distribution of arrival. Bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) had pion-juniper communities have changed been previously extirpated from the park; profoundly during the last century, and New Mexico Game and Fish Department these changes are particularly apparent in released ffty Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep the Jemez Mountains region. Under some into Cochiti Canyon in August 2014. Bande- conditions, the density of pion pine (Pinus lier NM is part of the historic range of the edulis) and juniper (Juniperus ssp.) species gray wolf (Canis lupus) and the grizzly bear has increased dramatically, due to the com- (Ursus arctos), although neither animal cur- bined efects of fre suppression and grazing. rently exists within the park boundaries. Grazing has reduced or eliminated the herbaceous understory that historically carried 2.3.2.2 Birds low-intensity fres and regulated pion and 170 bird species have been documented in juniper abundance; and the absence of fres Bandelier NM. The 2014 State of the Birds has allowed trees to survive and mature in report identifed western forest birds that greater numbers than would have occurred need conservation eforts, as well as com- with natural fre regimes. mon birds in steep decline (NABCI 2014). The report identifes Yellow-Watch-List In other areas, previous pion-dominated species which are birds with small popula- woodlands recently have been decimated tions restricted to a small range, or birds by the related impacts of drought and beetle that are more widespread but with troubling infestation. Between 2002 and 2003, over declines and high threats. For Bandelier 90% of the mature pions in the monument NM, these species include: band-tailed and on the Pajarito Plateau were killed by pigeon (Patagioenas fasciata), fammulated a combination of these factors. At present owl (Otus fammeolus), Mexican whip- the remaining mature pions occur only poor-will (Antrostomus arizonae), rufous at cooler upper elevations or in localized hummingbird (Selasphorus rufus), Lewis’s moister microsites. woodpecker (Melanerpes lewis), olive-sided The loss and degradation of the pion– fycatcher,(Contopus cooperi), pinyon jay dominated woodland communities are (Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus), Virginia’s likely permanent changes; soil loss, increas- warbler (Oreothlypis virginiae), Cassin’s ing temperatures, catastrophic fres and the fnch (Haemorhous cassinii), evening gros- absence of seeds are all factors that impede beak (Coccothraustes vespertinus). On the list both natural and human-assisted restoration. of common birds in steep decline and regu- Pion –juniper systems are addressed in sec- larly occurring in the monument are com- tion 4.06 and Appendix B. mon nighthawk (Chordeiles minor), Wilson’s warbler (Cardellina pusilla), and pine siskin 2.3.2 Vertebrate wildlife (Spinus pinus).

2.3.2.1 Mammals 2.3.2.3 Reptiles and amphibians The diverse plant communities within Ban- A 2002–2003 inventory of the park (Nowak delier NM support a variety of wildlife spe- and Persons 2008) observed 17 species of cies. Two extirpated species and 59 extant reptiles and amphibians, with an estimated species of mammals have been documented inventory completeness of 65%. There are at the park (Bogan et al. 2007). Fifteen bat 44 species known or expected to occur species are known to occur, and of those the in Bandelier NM. The Jemez Mountains spotted bat (Euderma maculatum) and big salamander (Plethodon neomexicanus) has free-tailed bat (Nyctinomops macrotis ) are undergone range-wide declines in recent of special interest to the park and the state. decades and is listed as threatened by the Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and elk state of New Mexico. Further information (Cervus canadensis) are more abundant in about the Jemez Mountains salamander can

14 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment be found in section 4.15 2.3.3.3 Bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) 2.3.3 Threatened/Endangered species Status: Delisted, monitored. Bald eagles Threatened and endangered species, such winter in Bandelier NM, and winter roosting as Mexican spotted owls (Strix occidentalis and fshing habitats are located near canyon lucida) and Jemez Mountain salamanders, mouths and along the Rio Grande River. can be found in the Bandelier Wilderness, as well as delisted and monitored animal 2.3.3.4 The New Mexico Meadow Jumping species such as the peregrine falcon (Falco Mouse (Zapus hudsonius luteus) peregrinus) and bald eagle (Haliaeetus Under study by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife leucocephalus). Service (USFWS) for Endangered status. Un- der such designation, portions of the monu- 2.3.3.1 Mexican Spotted Owl (Strix ment might be designated as critical habitat. occidentalis lucida) Status: Threatened. Mexican spotted owls 2.3.4 Species of concern (MSO) are federally threatened, and until the 2.3.4.1 Peregrine falcon (Falco pereginus) summer of 2011 several of the major canyons Due to impacts from DDT, peregrine falcons within Bandelier NM were known to have were one of the frst animals in the U.S. to suitable nesting and/or roosting habitat for be listed under the Endangered Species Act the birds (Personal communication, Stephen in the late 1960s. The primary strategies for Fettig). Though no owls have been observed peregrine recovery were to raise birds in during annual surveys since 2002, it was captivity that would be free of DDT then to hoped that nesting birds were either going release them into protected habitat after the undetected or would return. The Las Con- chemical was banned (USFWS 1984). Since chas fre of 2011 likely destroyed any remain- that time peregrine falcon populations have ing habitat by removing all of the standing recovered extremely well, and the species trees that MSO may have been using for was ofcially removed from the Endangered roosting and protection. MSO are addressed Species list in 1999 (Mesta 1999). However, in section 4.14. USFWS requires continued monitoring until at least 2015 (unless populations decline in 2.3.3.2 Jemez Mountain Salamander which case additional action will be taken; (Plethodon neomexicanus) USFWS 2003). Consequently NPS still con- Status: Endangered. The Jemez Mountain siders breeding peregrines to be a species of salamander is the only endemic amphib- concern. ian in the Colorado Plateau region, and was listed as federally endangered throughout its Suitable nesting areas for peregrine falcons range in 2013. Critical habitat was designated occur in and immediately adjacent to the in USFS lands west of the monument in monument, and include pion-juniper mixed conifer forests at elevations between woodlands and ponderosa pine and mixed ca. 7,500 to 10,500 feet, where downed trees conifer forests. The 2006 annual surveys and sufcient ground litter provide impor- indicated the presence of an occupied nest tant microhabitat. The Las Conchas Fire in the park. The Peregrine Falcon Habitat (2011) afected much of the known salaman- Management plan identifes three manage- ders in Bandelier NM; although these fosso- ment zones that surround suitable nesting rial animals were underground and almost ledges and describes visitor use and manage- certainly survived the fre itself, the varying ment that will prevent impacts, particularly fre severities and associated alterations to breeding falcons. in vegetative habitat had unknown efects on afected populations of this terrestrial 2.3.4.2 American Pika (Ochotona princeps) salamander. Salamanders are addressed in Pikas are small lagomorphs (rabbit family) section 4.15. distributed across most of the high altitude

2 Park Resource Setting 15 regions of western North America that have sites within riparian-associated forest com- been proposed for listing. Though found at munities, meadows and clearings, however, high elevations, pikas do not hibernate and many of the populations documented in the spend much of the relatively short, high-alti- monument prior to the Las Conchas Fire in tude summer foraging and collecting veg- 2011 were located near small spot fre loca- etation for winter use. Interacting, multiple tions from the 1977 La Mesa Fire (Personal efects of climate change (e.g., declining pre- communication, Brian Jacobs). Yellow lady’s cipitation, higher temperatures, less snow- slipper is included in section 4.07. fall), now appear to be signifcantly reducing the number of supportive sites needed to 2.3.4.6 Cerro hawthorn (Crataegus maintain functioning metapopulations of erythropoda) pikas. Pikas are addressed in section 4.18. This hawthorn is an uncommon, but locally abundant, small tree of well-watered 2.3.4.3 Rio Grande cutthroat trout upper canyon areas. This species is found (Oncorhynchus clarki virginalis) only in the Rocky Mountain states of Colo- This species may have been extirpated many rado, Arizona, New Mexico, Wyoming and decades prior to the Las Conchas Fire as a Utah, and in the Jemez Mountains is found result of introducing non-native rainbow, between about 7,000–8,000 ft (2,130–2,440 brown and brook trout into all the major m) in elevation. In Bandelier NM it occurs park streams, but was certainly lost follow- in upper Frijoles Canyon. The global status ing the fre in 2011 and associated extreme of this species is generally secure, though it foods. Trout are addressed in section 4.12. may have been extirpated from Bernalillo and Sandoval counties in New Mexico. Prior 2.3.4.4 Grama-grass cactus (Sclerocactus to 2011 it was uncommon in the monument, papyracanthus) but locally abundant in moist areas of upper The status of this species in Bandelier NM canyons. Though directly impacted by the is undetermined; it was documented in the 2011 and 2013 food events, re-sprouting by late 1980s but has been rarely seen since several individuals has subsequently been then. Grama-grass cactus is a small, relatively observed (Personal communication, Brian short-lived species that is often cryptic in Jacobs). Cerro hawthorn is included in sec- its habitat and similar in appearance to the tion 4.07. grama grass (Bouteloua spp.) with which it is often associated. Grama-grass cactus is 2.3.5 Internal streams and aquatic distributed across New Mexico and adjacent resources portions of Arizona and Texas at elevations 2.3.5.1 Capulin Creek and Rito de los between about 5,000 and 7,510 ft (1,525– Frijoles 2,290 m). Grama-grass cactus is included in The Capulin Creek watershed is a designated section 4.07. wilderness area, managed for recreational use within the boundary of Bandelier NM. 2.3.4.5 Yellow lady’s slipper (Cypripedium The upper reaches of the watershed outside parviforum var. pubescens ) of the park boundary are managed for recre- The yellow lady’s slipper orchid is extremely ation and timber harvest by the U.S. For- rare in the Jemez Mountains and is known est Service. In 1996 the Dome Fire burned from only a few localities, though it is widely several thousand acres in the Capulin Creek distributed across North America. It occurs watershed. On 26 June 2011, the Las Con- in relatively open and grassy mixed conifer chas Fire ignited and ultimately burned forests of upper elevation, mesic canyons, on approximately 60% of the land within well watered benches, seeps, and bogs on the Bandelier NM, including the majority of the north facing sides (Personal communication, upper portions of Capulin Creek. All canopy Brian Jacobs). This species tolerates shade and understory vegetation was burned, and to nearly full sun conditions in fairly open

16 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment subsequent fooding by a large event on 21 New Mexico Department of Game and Fish, August 2011 drastically changed the geomor- Bandelier NM, and the Santa Fe National phology of Capulin Creek within the park. Forest collaborated to reintroduce this species to Capulin Creek in 2006. The Las Con- Rito de los Frijoles is a perennial stream chas Fire in 2011 and subsequent fooding fowing eastward from the Sierra de los extirpated all fsh from both Capulin Creek Valles to the Rio Grande. The upper reaches and Rito de los Frijoles. of the watershed are a designated wilderness area, managed for recreational use within 2.4 Relevant regional or landscape park boundaries. The Bandelier NM visitor scale natural resource information center and numerous archeological sites are located near the stream in the lower portion 2.4.1 Elk of the watershed, resulting in high levels of Elimination of top predators, and the inten- visitor use. In 1977 the La Mesa Fire burned tional maintenance by the state of New Mex- about 6070 ha (15,000 acres) in and near ico of a large herd of elk (Cervus canadensis) the Rito de los Frijoles watershed. The 2011 for hunting purposes, have resulted in a Las Conchas Fire burned a large portion of population of elk that is imposing substantial the upper portion of the Rito de los Frijoles impacts on vegetation. Elk utilize all lands on watershed. A large food event on 21 August the plateau, and can have especially potent 2011 signifcantly afected channel mor- impacts on shrubs and aspen, particularly phology and physical habitat of Rito de los post-fre (personal communication, S. Fet- Frijoles. See section 4.10 for information on tig). The role of elk in monument ecosystems the Rito de los Frijoles and Capulin Creek is discussed in section 4.17. riparian communities 2.4.2 Cochiti Reservoir 2.3.5.2 Aquatic macroinvertebrates The Rio Grande River forms the eastern Aquatic macroinvertebrates serve as the boundary of Bandelier NM from the mouth primary food base for many aquatic verte- of Frijoles Canyon on the north to a point brates, function as the primary processors midway between Alamo and Capulin Can- of energetic inputs in low order streams like yons to the south, approximately six river those found in Bandelier NM, and are con- miles (10 km). About 12 miles (20 km) up- sequently important indicators of ecosystem stream of Frijoles Canyon, the Rio Grande health. Communities of aquatic macroinver- enters White Rock Canyon (WRC), a deeply tebrates in streams are commonly monitored cut gorge of relatively recent geologic origin, alongside physical and chemical properties and the river remains within this canyon of water because of their potential to provide system until it emerges downstream at the additional indications of water quality and Cochiti Reservoir Dam some 6 miles below overall hydrologic condition (Brasher et al. the park’s southern boundary. Numerous 2011). The Southern Colorado Plateau Net- ecological impacts resulted when the dam work has been monitoring Capulin Creek was constructed and the reservoir flled, and Rito de los Frijoles since 2009. (See including the extirpation of a native plant section 4.11 for more information on aquatic population (an orchid, Epipactis gigantea), macroinvertebrates. and the impairment of several perennial springs that stopped fowing when they were 2.3.5.3 Native fsh covered with sediment (Personal communi- Historical information on native fsh occur- cations, Brian Jacobs). Seasonal inundation ring in the creeks that are within the park is and drawdown of the reservoir continues to lacking. Native Rio Grande cutthroat trout support the establishment of weedy species (Oncorhynchus clarki virginalis) populations along the perimeter of the lake and riparian were extirpated from Capulin Creek by large areas upstream. Riparian systems upstream food events following the Dome Fire. The of Cochiti are addressed in section 4.10.

2 Park Resource Setting 17 2.5 Threats/stressors to important 2.5.4 Erosion in pion-juniper park resources woodlands A comprehensive discussion of threats and Accelerated rates of soil erosion within large stressors to park resources can be found in portions of the semi-arid pion-juniper Chapter 4. Excerpted below are the most woodland zone were frst identifed as a critical and encompassing of these impacts. management issue in the 1970s in connection with early soil mapping and eforts to 2.5.1 Climate change control a feral burro (Equus asinus) popula- The topic of climate change and changes tion (Earth Environmental Consultants 1978, in the size and intensity of wildland fres is Chong 1992). However, it was not until the greater than can be addressed here, but is mid-1980s when park-wide archeological arguably the greatest ecological threat to survey eforts began to systematically docu- systems and species at Bandelier NM and ment erosional impacts to cultural sites. across the Colorado Plateau. The cumulative efects of climate change on natural resourc- 2.5.5 Nonnative plants es and physical processes at the park are in- In Bandelier NM, exotic species comprise corporated in nearly every topic in Chapter approximately 15% of all the plant species 4, and addressed further as a management found within the park, however <5% (e.g., concern in Chapter 5. ~40 of ~800 taxa) are considered invasive (NPS 2006). And of those, only about 10-12 2.5.2 Fire history and ecology species are both high risk and easy to treat. Fire has played an essential role in shaping Several species are considered nuisance spe- and maintaining the vegetation communi- cies in that they are common and fairly wide- ties and landscapes in Bandelier NM and ranging, usually in disturbed areas, but they the Jemez Mountains. Many factors, includ- are either weak competitors or treatment ing climatic conditions, a high occurrence on a large scale is not practical. The most of lightning strikes, availability of surface challenging management species are those fuels and fammable vegetation, and topog- that are so invasive that they are ubiquitous raphy make fre one of the dominant natural across the landscape and very difcult to disturbance processes in this region. Most constrain. of the vegetation communities and wildlife that have persisted through time here have 2.6 Resource stewardship evolved under the infuence of frequent fre. 2.6.1 Management directives, planning However, natural fre processes, to which guidance and research related to vegetation communities and species in the natural resources region have adapted, have been altered in multiple ways through human actions, and 2.6.1.1 General/Resource Plans now climate change. Master Plan (NPS 1977). The importance of “ethnographic, scientifc and educational” 2.5.3 Park-wide vegetation change values at Bandelier NM was defned and articulated in the 1977 Master Plan. The goals At the scale of the entire monument, there of protecting and interpreting the ruins and are four tightly-linked phenomena respon- preserving the park’s natural setting were sible for most change that has occurred in identifed as the two primary purposes of the recent decades: 1) climate change, 2) fre, 3) monument. drought/insect outbreak, and 4) past land use. Other factors that strongly afect par- Resource Management Plan and Environ- ticular ecosystems in the park, such as elk mental Assessment for Bandelier National herbivory or persistent accelerated erosion, Monument (NPS 1988). The plan called are discussed in later sections. for landscape ecology research and actions, including inventory of monument fora;

18 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment a paleo-environment study of the entire monument; management of burros, cattle and native ungulates; and focus on fre management as a key tool, among other areas of management focus.

Statement for Management (NPS 1990). This update of the park’s Master Plan addressed the need for managing cultural and natural resources; providing for management-oriented scientifc study of issues related to soils erosion and efects of fre suppression on vegetation; and documenting changes resulting from human activities.

Resource Management Plan (NPS 1995). Natural resource management goals and objectives specifed in the document were to:

● preserve, protect, interpret and manage the cultural and natural resources of the park within naturally functioning ecosystems, consistent with cultural resource preservation ● provide the means and opportunity for people to study, understand, and enjoy the resources of the monument without unduly compromising the resources or Moving cattle on Monument Road, Bandelier National Monu- ethnographic values ment, 1973. NPS photo ● restore and sustain natural ecosystem conditions and processes unimpaired Fire Management Plan (NPS 2005). The from human infuence to the degree purpose of the monument’s Fire Manage- practicable given landscape and cultural ment Plan (FMP) was to describe fre and resource constraints resource management goals and objectives ● carry out a wilderness management and to provide a framework for incorporat- program which preserves and restores ing those goals when making fre and fuels resource conditions and values defned management decisions. Specifcally, the use by law and policy and is compatible with of wildland fre was described as the “prac- cultural resource management objectives tice of allowing a naturally ignited wildland fre to burn in a predefned geographic area, ● preserve a comprehensive natural under specifc prescription parameters, resource base for its value to promote to accomplish fre and resource manage- scientifc and educational interest ment goals and objectives”. Ironically, as of At the time the most critical resource issues fall 2014, there is very little area left in the were 1) loss of naturally-functioning ecosys- monument that has not been burned in large tems resulting in increased erosion, 2) large- wildfres or prescribed burns since 1996 (in- scale vegetation change and loss or alteration cluding the Las Conchas Fire of 2011, which of natural processes (predation, fre), and 3) alone burned over 60% of the park), and the a lack of scientifc data, and increasing hu- manner in which the FMP will be applied in man activities and external development. the future is uncertain. The FMP is currently (2014) being revised.

2 Park Resource Setting 19 2.6.1.2 Specifc Resource/Restoration Plans polygons apply early in the breeding season An Environmental Assessment to Decide (starting March 1 each year) when the birds How to Eliminate Feral Cattle from Ban- are most sensitive to disturbance. Inner delier NM (NPS 1994b) evaluated a range polygons apply later in the breeding season, of alternatives and adopted direct reduction when young are in the nests. Disturbance by shooting as the proposed action. This limits apply to number and duration of use plan has been implemented as needed since of all aircraft and motorized equipment, its adoption in 1994, including as recently and number of people in walking groups. A as 2009. The plan was challenged in federal critical aspect of the plan is that all nesting court by the New Mexico Livestock Board, habitats are managed as if occupied, unless who asserted a fnancial loss following cattle feld observations demonstrate a lack of oc- reduction in 1994. A federal magistrate de- cupancy at specifc sites. nied the claim by the NM Livestock Board, clearing the way for monument staf to con- Water Resources Management Plan tinue implementing feral cattle removal. (Mott 1999). This administrative document presents water resources issues within the Integrated Pest Management Plan, Bande- context of the monument’s setting. Bande- lier National Monument (Jacobs 1994). This lier NM was established to preserve what administrative document explains the inte- remains of the area’s once thriving Ancestral grated pest management policy at Bandelier Puebloan culture. Springs, streams, and ri- NM. Program components and pesticide use parian zones allowed these ancient agrarians and responsibilities are included. The listing to fourish in an otherwise harsh landscape. of pests include ants, bears, bees, feral cats, The occurrence of water over a wide range cockroaches, coyotes, feral dogs, clothing of elevations and microclimates continues to moths, poison ivy, raccoons, skunks, mice, support the monument’s diverse assemblage packrats, squirrels, chipmunks, ticks, feral of plants and animals, and provides the visi- cattle, and feral burros. For each pest listed tor from today’s world a diferent manner of there is a description of its biology, impacts, sustenance. action threshold, and control methods. Biological Assessment Bandelier National Bandelier National Monument Peregrine Monument Fire Management Plan (NPS Falcon Habitat Management Plan (NPS 2004). This Biological Assessment (BA) 1994a). Peregrine falcons were delisted in was prepared to meet the requirements of 1999 under the Endangered Species Act. Section 7 of the Endangered Species Act, as Bandelier NM continues to follow the amended (ESA) (19 USC 1536 [c], 50 CFR Peregrine Falcon Habitat Management Plan 402), and to assess the efects of implementa- because across New Mexico this falcon tion of the proposed alternative of the EA on continues to show signs of low breeding federally listed, proposed or candidate spe- success. Productivity (number of young per cies or their critical habitat that are known to adult pair) has declined over the 2001–2013 be or could be present within Bandelier NM. period. Productivity was below 0.9 young This BA integrates research and documenta- per adult pair in 2013 with 1.1 young per tion on federally listed species in the park adult pair being the minimum rate needed to and the protection measures developed as a maintain the state-wide population over the collaborative efort of biologists and manag- long-term. ers with the NPS and the USFWS.

The monument’s Peregrine Falcon Habitat Vegetation Management Plan (NPS 2002). Management Plan sets disturbance limits This administrative document explains the for breeding habitat within the park. Dis- vegetation management policy at Bandelier turbance limits are identifed on maps as NM. Vegetation management is a compo- concentric polygons around the most suit- nent of many diverse activities planned or able nesting habitats. The largest concentric on-going at the park. A variety of routine

20 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment activities, such as road and trail mainte- for reversing the problems identifed above nance, hazard tree mitigation and developed and includes the No Action alternative as a landscape maintenance, can be considered baseline for present management conditions. vegetation management actions. Prescribed The primary goal in the Preferred Alterna- fre, exotic plant control, rare plant manage- tive is to re- establish healthy, sustainable, ment, ruins stabilization and disturbed site grass dominated plant communities within revegetation are other management actions the pion-juniper woodland to help stabilize which can afect vegetation. Since vegeta- soils and cultural resources. tive systems are dynamic, changes occur in the absence of management actions as well; Bandelier National Monument Acoustic no action or, alternatively, suppression of Monitoring Report (NPS 2014). In 2011, ‘natural forces’, such as wildfre, can allow the Natural Sounds and Night Skies Divi- signifcant changes to occur. A vegetation sion received a request to collect baseline management plan provides a context for acoustical data at Bandelier NM. During the these diverse activities, prescribes actions, months of February and June, 2012, four and assigns responsibilities. It also enables acoustical monitoring systems were de- park managers to assess the cumulative ployed for 28 and 35 days, respectively. efects of vegetation management actions The goal of the technical assistance request park-wide. Through vegetation manage- was to complete a baseline soundscape ment planning, managers can understand inventory throughout the park, especially in the vegetation dynamics within their park the much-visited Frijoles Canyon portion of and coordinate short-term actions to achieve the park. The results of this inventory will long-term goals. be used in conjunction with a visitor sound- Exotic Plant Management Plan (NPS scape survey to establish indicators and stan- 2006). This administrative document ex- dards of soundscape quality that will support plains the exotic plant management policy the park in developing a comprehensive at Bandelier NM. Written by park botanist approach to soundscape management plan- Brian Jacobs and approved by Superinten- ning. This project will develop a Soundscape dent Darlene Koontz, the plan acknowledges Desired Condition for the park’s pending that introduced species already established Foundation for Planning and Management within the park are likely to become natu- document, provide an impact assessment ralized components of the local fora. Park threshold for development projects within management seeks to minimize the im- the canyon, and assist the park in assessing pacts of these immigrants and contain their potential efects from ongoing and proposed spread, but complete eradication is in most air tourism and helicopter overfights related instances impractical. At Bandelier NM, to park operations. primary eforts will be focused on those Pending ~2017 - Fisheries Management ‘targeted’ species which can be efectively Plan. Monument staf have requested as- controlled or contained using mechanical sistance from regional subject matter experts and/or limited chemical methods. to develop a Fisheries Management Plan for Bandelier National Monument Final the perennial streams in Frijoles and Capulin Ecological Restoration Plan and Environ- canyons. Topics to be addressed in the plan mental Impact Statement (NPS 2007). The include fsh management and restoration purpose of the Ecological Restoration Plan conditions. is to direct eforts to re-establish healthy, sustainable vegetative conditions within the 2.6.1.3 Resource Stewardship Strategy pion-juniper woodland and to mitigate ac- Each national park is directed to develop celerated soil erosion that threatens cultural a Resource Stewardship Strategy (RSS) resources. This plan evaluates two options as part of the park management planning process. Indicators of resource condition,

2 Park Resource Setting 21 both natural and cultural, are selected by the mid-to-late 1970s with the development park. After each indicator is chosen, a target of John Lissoway as the Monument’s frst value is determined and the current condi- natural resource management specialist and, tion is compared to the desired condition. with the strong support of the regional sci- The completion of this NRCA is the frst step ence ofce in Santa Fe, initiated a number of in completing an RSS for the monument. basic inventory and monitoring eforts. The Management plans will then be developed to La Mesa wildfre in 1977 and subsequent outline actions to be taken over the next 15 post-fre fooding in Frijoles watershed, to 20 years that will help achieve or maintain along with acquisition of the Cerro Grande the desired condition(s) for each indicator. lands for upper watershed protection, also The RSS will be a multi-disciplinary efort, stimulated additional research work. incorporating a variety of information from diferent sources. Management concerns about soil erosion and feral burro impacts in lower elevation Pending 2015 – Resource Stewardship woodland communities, and the potential Strategy, with Climate Change Vulner- for catastrophic crown fre in upland forests ability Assessment. Monument staf has were major drivers for targeted research, requested assistance from regional and including fre history reconstructions to sup- national program staf to carry out an RSS. port the prescribed fre program. Much of As preplanning for the RSS, Bandelier NM the early fre-related work was subsequently managers have undertaken development of a documented in the La Mesa symposium Foundation Document (completion sched- proceedings, including the beginnings of uled for June 2015; contact Greg Jarvis). In integrated natural-cultural eforts. addition, the monument is scheduled for a State-of-the-Park Workshop in March The resource program began to gain criti- 2015 (contact Jim Haskell). Cumulatively, cal mass during the 1980’s with an infux of these advance eforts will have identifed outside researchers (including Brian Jacobs key resources and issues and compiled the and Craig Allen), and particularly in 1990 information required for the development of with the arrival of a strongly supportive the RSS. The park is in an excellent posi- superintendent, Roy Weaver, who then hired tion to undertake this planning efort given a dynamic chief of resource management, several decades of research and monitoring Charisse Sydoriak, in 1991 when John Lis- which have characterized existing condi- soway became the frst full-time fre man- tions, trends, recent disturbances, and likely agement ofcer at Bandelier. As part of this trajectories. Much of this is compiled and critical mass, the park hired Craig Allen as documented in the NRCA along with emerg- an ecologist in 1989, Kay Beeley as a biolo- ing issues and challenges that will provide gist/GIS specialist in 1992, Brian Jacobs as the basis for a comprehensive RSS. Finally, park botanist/vegetation specialist in 1992, since about 1995 the park has experienced Stephen Fettig as wildlife biologist in 1994, a series of extreme climate events and as- and Laura Trader in 1995 as fre ecologist sociated ecological disturbances which, if with the Bandelier fre monitoring program properly addressed within the context of an begun in 1992. RSS, could provide rationales for coherent By the early 1990s a core staf was in place at (proactive versus reactive) management go- the park, and Weaver and Sydoriak con- ing forward. tinued to develop an integrated natural/ cultural/fre resource management pro- 2.6.2 Status of supporting science gram throughout the 1990s, until the Cerro 2.6.2.1 History of the Natural Resource Grande fre brought a close to that chapter Program and the Bandelier Ecology Group of park history. Brian served as the Bandelier The natural resource program at Bandelier NM Botanist until his retirement in Decem- National Monument was formalized in the ber 2014 (see the inset for a description of

22 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Brian Jacobs retires

Throughout his career at Bandelier National Monument, Brian Jacobs has engaged in both landscape scale research and management of the natural resources in effective ways that have fundamentally improved the current and future condition of the park’s ecosystems. Beginning in the late 1980s, with the frst comprehensive fora of Bandelier, Brian established a key foundation for all subsequent vegetation studies and management activities. He managed the feld collections from the fora in an on-site herbarium, which served as a resource well outside the boundaries of the monument and is now on permanent loan in the regional herbarium collection of the Museum of Southwest Biology at the University of New Mexico and available online from the University of Wyoming.

Brian Jacobs will likely be remembered for his key role in the extraordinary project to ecologically restore large portions of the park’s pion-juniper woodlands. He both contributed vital research on pion-juniper woodlands and was instrumental in overseeing implementation of the project across the Brian Jacobs, botanist, began work- woodland portions of Bandelier. He lined up and oversaw related research ing in Bandelier National Monument in 1986. He retired in December activities of graduate students (Richard Gatewood and Brian Hastings), and 2014. sizable grants to analyze, treat and monitor the affected woodland landscape between 2002-2012.

Brian’s research on pion-juniper woodlands helped distinguish the age of pion-juniper stands based on growth characteristics such as size of individuals, and stand and canopy structure. This research contributed to a management framework for different “types” of pion-juniper and has helped conserve the unique ecosystem across much of the Colorado Plateau. In Bandelier, through years of testing potential approaches, Brian determined that herbaceous ground cover could be markedly improved and soil erosion rates greatly reduced, simply by thinning relatively young pion-juniper trees (and lopping and scattering their stems as a coarse woody mulch), thereby promoting a more resilient woodland closer to historic pattern and process conditions.

Overall, Brian’s contributions to Bandelier supported natural patterns and processes in the ecosystems of Bandelier and adjoining landscapes. He worked on his own and with the NPS Exotic Plant Management Team to eradicate backcountry exotic plants (particularly Tree of Heaven (Ailanthus altissima), toadfax (Linaria vulgaris), and Russian olive (Elaeagnus angustifolia)); he designed and implemented the highly successful rehabilitation of several miles of and old logging and fre road on Burnt Mesa, now an attractive and popular hiking trail; he made many contributions to the park’s fre management program, ranging from major inputs into various fre management plans to supervising the multi-park NPS fre monitoring program for a number of years; he was the main architect and driver of Bandelier’s current vegetation management plan; and for over 20 years he was the main park liaison for all things hydrological, from gaging stations to water quality studies, including development of a well-regarded water resource management plan for Bandelier.

Brian also focused his energy on studying landscape changes across Bandelier, including the effects of severe drought since ca. 2000, numerous fres, and the ecological restoration project. He partnered with colleagues to acquire diverse data on vegetation and geomorphic changes across the monument through multiple approaches, ranging from plot-level monitoring to remote sensing. For example, in 2014 he initiated a study with researchers from the USGS Canyonlands Field station on the ecological role of microbiotic crusts in semi-arid pion-juniper woodlands, and their potential to promote or impede vascular plant community recovery after historic landuse.

Brian’s contributions to Bandelier National Monument typically were undertaken quietly but substantively in his thoughtful and understated manner, characterized with extraordinary competence and effectiveness. His durable legacy, including valuable research studies implemented, development of long-term natural resource monitoring programs and associated data collected and archived, creation of high-quality management documents, and careful implementation of ecologically- based land management actions, will remain hugely important far into Bandelier’s future.

2 Park Resource Setting 23 his contributions), while Craig, Kay, Steve, monitoring and research experience in the and Laura are still working at Bandelier. Bandelier landscape.

In 1993 the ecologist position was trans- 2.6.2.2 NPS Inventory and Monitoring ferred to the new National Biological Survey Program (NBS), but Craig Allen remained based at With a mission to improve overall park man- Bandelier as a research ecologist, continuing agement through expanded use of scientifc to work directly together with Kay Beeley as knowledge, the Inventory and Monitoring the “Bandelier Ecology Group”. Dr. Allen (I&M) Program was established to collect, was a core partner in building the 1990s organize and provide natural resource data, resource program. Informed by the solid as well as information derived from data foundation of his 1989 dissertation work through analysis, synthesis and modeling on ecological changes in the Jemez Moun- (NPS 2011). tains landscape he identifed critical natural The primary goals of the I&M Program are resource issues (e.g. soil erosion in pion to: juniper woodlands and impacts on cultural resources, stand structure and fre hazards ● Inventory the natural resources under in upland forests, alteration of natural fow NPS stewardship to determine their regimes on Rio Grande by the U.S. Army nature and status Corps of Engineers, elk overpopulation and ● Monitor park ecosystems to better un- historic grazing impacts, negative impacts on derstand their dynamic nature and con- park resources from activities on adjacent dition and to provide reference points lands) and worked with park management for comparisons with other altered to garner additional support for the program environments and recruit/build a credible staf. ● Establish natural resource inventory With the addition of vegetation, GIS, fre, and monitoring as a standard practice and wildlife expertise to the park’s natural throughout the National Park System resource program, Bandelier’s capacity and that transcends traditional program, eforts to address a number of outstanding activity, and funding boundaries issues increased markedly during the 1990s, ● Integrate natural resource inventory and while continuing to build the information monitoring information into NPS plan- base and attract outside researchers. By 1995 ning, management, and decision making the NBS became part of the U.S. Geological ● Share NPS accomplishments and in- Survey, and since then Craig has led the formation with other natural resource USGS Jemez Mountain Field Station and organizations and form partnerships for with Kay the Ecology Group at Bandelier, attaining common goals and objectives providing the park with a stable ecology (NPS 2011) program and expertise which has supported core monitoring eforts while fostering an To realize these goals, 270 parks with signif- active research program with numerous cant natural resources were organized into external collaborators. USGS ecologist 32 regional networks. Bandelier NM is part Collin Hafey joined the team near the end of the Southern Colorado Plateau Network, of the NRCA project. The long-term synergy which also serves eighteen additional parks. between the USGS feld station and NPS Through a rigorous multi-year, interdis- resource management staf allowed for great ciplinary scoping process, each network strides throughout the past two decades, selected a number of important physical, despite the programmatic setbacks incurred chemical, and/or biological elements and in the aftermath of the Cerro Grande processes for long-term monitoring. These wildfre event. Collectively, this group holds ecosystem elements and processes are over 125 years of resource management, referred to as ‘vital signs’, and their respec-

24 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment tive monitoring programs are intended to NPS/SCPN/NRR—2011/460. National provide high-quality, long-term information Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado. on the status and trends of those resources. Chong, G. W. 1992. 17 years of grazer SCPN conducts long-term monitoring of exclusion on 3 sites in pinyon-juniper a number of vital signs in Bandelier NM woodland at Bandelier National (Thomas et al. 2006). Network staf moni- Monument, New Mexico. Unpublished tors aquatic macroinvertebrates and water paper for Community Ecology Course quality in Capulin Creek and in El Rito de at the University of New Mexico. los Frijoles. They monitor upland vegetation Available online https://irma.nps.gov/ and soils in the pinyon-juniper woodlands App/Reference/Profle/2658. and work in conjunction with the Bandelier Fire Efects Program to monitor the mixed Earth Environmental Consultants, Inc. 1978. conifer forest. Through a cooperative agree- Soil survey of the Bandelier National ment with Northern Arizona University, they Monument. PX7029-7-0838, PX7029- also monitor upland bird communities in the 8-0450, CX70040199. National Park mixed-conifer forest. The network’s Land Service, Southwest Region, Ofce of Surface Phenology project uses Moder- Natural Science, Santa Fe, New Mexico. ate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer Enquist, C., and D. Gori. 2008. Implications (MODIS) satellite data to monitor the of recent climate change on phenology and condition of vegetation and conservation priorities in New snow cover in all SCPN parks, including Mexico. Climate Change Ecology Bandelier NM. and Adaptation Program, The Nature Conservancy, Santa Fe, New Mexico. 2.7 Literature cited Allen, C. D. 1989. Changes in the landscape Fisichelli N. 2013. Climate change trends for of the Jemez Mountains, New Mexico. the Draft Tsankawi Unit Management PhD Dissertation. University of Plan Review, Bandelier National California, Berkeley. Monument, New Mexico. Climate Change Trends. National Park Service Aspen CRM Solutions. 2012. The grandest Climate Change Response Program, thing I ever saw: A historic resource Fort Collins, Colorado. study of Bandelier National Monument. National Park Service, Bandelier Gonzalez, P. 2014. Climate change, impacts, National Monument, Los Alamos, New and vulnerabilities, Bandelier National Mexico. Monument, New Mexico. National Park Service unpublished report, May Bogan, M. A., K. Geluso, S. Haymond, and E. 8, 2014, Natural Resource Stewardship W. Valdez. 2007. Mammal inventories and Science, Washington, D.C. for eight national parks in the Southern Colorado Plateau Network. Natural Hibner, C. D. 2005. Special Project Resource Technical Report NPS/SCPN/ Soil Survey of Bandelier National NRTR—2007/054. National Park Monument. U.S. Department of Service, Fort Collins, Colorado. Agriculture, Natural Resource Conservation Service. Brasher, A. M. D., C. M. Albano, R. N. Close, M. L. Freeman, C. L. Lauver, Jacobs, B. F. 1994. Integrated pest S. A. Monroe, S. E. Stumpf, A. E. C. management plan, Bandelier National Snyder, and L. P. Thomas. 2011. Aquatic Monument. National Park Service, macroinvertebrate monitoring protocol Bandelier National Monument, Los for the Southern Colorado Plateau Alamos, New Mexico. Network. Natural Resource Report

2 Park Resource Setting 25 Mesta, R. 1999. Final Rule to remove the National Monument. National Park American Peregrine Falcon from Service, Bandelier National Monument, the federal list of endangered and Los Alamos, New Mexico. threatened wildlife, and to remove the similarity of appearance provision NPS [National Park Service]. 1994a. for free-fying peregrines in the Bandelier National Monument conterminous United States. Federal peregrine falcon habitat management Register 64 (164):46541-46558. plan. National Park Service, Bandelier National Monument. Los Alamos, New Mott D. 1999. Water Resources Management Mexico. Plan: Bandelier National Monument, New Mexico. National Park Service, NPS [National Park Service] 1994b. An Water Resources Division. Denver, Environmental Assessment to decide Colorado. how to eliminate feral cattle from Bandelier National Monument. Muldavin, E., A. Kennedy, C. Jackson, P. National Park Service, Bandelier Neville, T. Neville, K. Schulz, and M. National Monument, Los Alamos, New Reid. 2011. Vegetation classifcation and Mexico. map: Bandelier National Monument. Natural Resource Technical Report NPS [National Park Service]. 1995. Resource NPS/SCPN/NRTR—2011/438. Management Plan, Bandelier National National Park Service, Fort Collins, Monument. National Park Service, Colorado. Bandelier National Monument, Los Alamos, New Mexico. NABCI [North American Bird Conservation Initiative] U.S. Committee. 2014. The NPS [National Park Service]. 2002. State of the Birds 2014 Report. U.S. Vegetation Management Plan, Department of Interior, Washington, Bandelier National Monument. D.C. National Park Service, Bandelier National Monument, Los Alamaos, Nowak, E.M., and T. B. Persons. 2008. New Mexico. Inventory of amphibians and reptiles for twelve national parks in the NPS [National Park Service]. 2004. Southern Colorado Plateau Network. Biological Assessment Bandelier Final report to the National Park National Monument Fire Management Service, Southern Colorado Plateau Plan. National Park Service, Bandelier Network, Flagstaf, Arizona. National Monument, Los Alamos, New Mexico. NPS [National Park Service]. 1977. Final Master Plan: Bandelier National NPS [National Park Service]. 2005. Monument. National Park Service, Bandelier National Monument, Fire Santa Fe, New Mexico. Management Plan. National Park Service, Bandelier National Monument, NPS [National Park Service]. 1988. Los Alamaos, New Mexico. Resources Management Plan and Environmental Assessment for NPS [National Park Service]. 2006. Exotic Bandelier National Monument 1988. Plant Management, Bandelier National National Park Service, Bandelier Monument, March 2006. National Park National Monument, Los Alamos, New Service, Bandelier National Monument, Mexico. Los Alamaos, New Mexico.

NPS [National Park Service]. 1990. NPS [National Park Service]. 2007. Bandelier Statement for Management, Bandelier National Monument, Final Ecological Restoration Plan and Environmental

26 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Impact Statement. National Park U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Bandelier National Monument, Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Los Alamos, New Mexico. Range Experiment Station. Fort Collins, Colorado. NPS [National Park Service]. 2011. Program brief: Inventory and monitoring USFWS [U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]. program. U.S. Department of the 1984. American peregrine falcon Rocky Interior, National Park Service, Natural Mountain/Southwest population Resource Program Center, Inventory recovery plan. Rocky Mountain/ and Monitoring Division, Fort Collins, Southwestern Peregrine Falcon Colorado. Retrieved 02/04/2015 from Recovery Team (U.S.), Denver, http://science.nature.nps.gov/im/assets/ Colorado. docs/IM_Program_Brief.pdf. USFWS [U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]. NPS [National Park Service]. 2014. Geologic 2003. Monitoring plan for the American resources foundation summary, Peregrine Falcon, a species recovered Bandelier National Monument. under the Endangered Species Act. U.S. Unpublished report, April 22, 2014. Fish and Wildlife Service, Divisions National Park Service, Geologic of Endangered Species and Migratory Resources Division, Ft. Collins, Birds and State Programs. Pacifc Colorado. Region, Portland, Oregon.

Spell, T. L., P. R. Kyle, M. F. Thirwall, and USFWS [U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]. A. R. Campbell. 1993. Isotopic and 2007. Rio Grande silvery minnow geochemical constraints on the origin (Hybognathus amarus) draft and evolution of postcollapse rhyolites revised recovery plan. U.S. Fish and in the Valles Caldera, New Mexico. Wildlife Service, Southwest Region, Journal of Geophysical Research Albuquerque, New Mexico. 98:19723-10739. Weeks, D. 2007. Water resources foundation Thomas, L. P., M. N. Hendrie (editor), C. L. report, Bandelier National Monument. Lauver, S. A. Monroe, N. J. Tancreto, S. Natural Resource Technical Report L. Garman, and M. E. Miller. 2006. Vital NPS/NRPC/WRD/NRTR—2007/060. Signs Monitoring Plan for the Southern National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado Plateau Network. Natural Colorado. Resource Report NPS/SCPN/NRR— 2006/002. National Park Service, Fort Wolf, J. A., J. N. Gardner, and S. L. Reneau. Collins, Colorado. 1996. Field Characteristics of the El Cajete Pumice Deposit and Associated Touchan R., C. D. Allen, and T. W. Swetnam. Southwestern Moat Rhyolites of the 1996. Fire history and climatic patterns Valles Caldera. Pp. 311-116 in Jemez in ponderosa pine and mixed-conifer Mountains Region, New Mexico forests of the Jemez Mountains, Geological Society Forty-Seventh northern New Mexico. Pp. 33-46 in C. Annual Field Conference, September D. Allen: Fire efects in Southwestern 25-28, 1996, edited by F. Gof, B. S. forests: proceedings of the Second La Kues, M. A. Rogers, L. D. McFadden, Mesa Fire Symposium, Los Alamos, and J. N. Gardner. New Mexico, March 29-31, 1994. General technical report RM-GTR-286.

National Park Service 27 This page intentionally left blank Chapter 3: Study Approach

The Bandelier National Monument (NM) topics or identify data sources. The group Natural Resource Condition Assessment then discussed how appropriate each topic (NRCA) project was coordinated by the was for the NRCA, whether the resource was Southern Colorado Plateau Network of high concern for management and/or legal (SCPN). In January of 2010 the program reasons, what types of data were currently managers of the Southern and Northern available and how complete and usable the Colorado Plateau Networks hired Cathy relevant datasets were, and fnally what the Schwemm as a term GS-11 Ecologist to assist relative priority level might be for each topic. both networks with coordination of NRCA projects. The NRCA Ecologist was later Prioritizing topics was difcult, but neces- funded through a cooperative agreement sary for several reasons. First, NRCA guide- but continued to perform similar functions lines state very clearly that the NRCAs will throughout the project. In addition, the Ban- focus on, ‘…a subset of important natural delier NM staf provided substantial input resources in national parks.’ Given the fund- to the project, including project defnition ing levels for NRCAs and the complexities of and direction, data summaries and analysis, national park ecosystems, it is not possible GIS support, writing, and review. An outside to include all natural resources at the level of cooperator was funded to focus on the topic assessment required (nor is it probably use- of highest priority, and this work also was ful). The group discussed at length how each reviewed by the SCPN program manager, the potential topic would be addressed within Bandelier NM staf, and Craig Allen, Jemez the guidelines of the NRCA and whether Mountain Field Station, U.S. Geological it was appropriate to include a given topic, Survey (JMFS-USGS). perhaps at the expense of something else. It was sometimes difcult to accept that some 3.1 Preliminary scoping topics would be considered of moderate or low priority, even though such a designation The preliminary scoping workshop was held did not probably indicate that the resource in July 2010 at Bandelier NM Headquarters itself was of low priority, only that it might in Los Alamos NM. The group that was con- not beneft as greatly from a higher level of vened for the initial scoping continued their attention as might something else. substantive involvement over the course of the NRCA project. The NRCA team By the end of the two-day meeting the team included Bandelier staf Kay Beeley (GIS had completed the frst draft list of resource Specialist), Brian Jacobs (Botanist), Barbara topics (Table 3-1) and priority levels, and in- Judy (Resources Management Chief), Laura corporated this list into the NPS Ecological Trader (Fire Ecologist), and Stephen Fettig Framework (described below). For various (Wildlife Biologist), as well as Craig Allen reasons, this list changed somewhat over the (JMFS-USGS Research Ecologist). Lisa course of the project. For example NRCA Thomas (SCPN Program Manager) and guidelines generally discourage including Cathy Schwemm (NRCA Ecologist) provid- visitor and human use issues, so the group ed project coordination with able assistance agreed to eliminate those topics. The fnal list from Barbara Judy. The scoping workshop (i.e. the Table of Contents for Chapter 4) is was held over two days and began with an in- presented within the Ecological Framework troduction by SCPN on the general goals and format (Table 3-2). process for completing the NRCA. The remainder of the time was devoted to develop- NRCA funding for the Bandelier project was ing a preliminary list of focal resource topics. sufcient for the park staf to work coopera- To achieve this, the group frst constructed a tively with an outside investigator to address complete list of all possible natural resource one or two priority topics at a higher level of topics, but did not attempt to prioritize the analysis than was possible without this fund-

3 Study Approach 29 Table 3-1. First draft list (July 2010) of all potential topics for the Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment, herein sorted by priority. Items in bold were identifed as being currently monitored or researched at some level.

Element Manage- Project Data Level of data Comments/ data availability ment priority availabil- summariza- priority ity tion Elk impacts on woody high high high medium Multiple data sources are individually summarized; vegetation (aspen) political implications; establishing reference conditions an important and non-trivial task; put BAND data in order frst. Historic spatial patterns of high high high medium Complete record for 1932 thru 1996 exists, so data fre since 1996 need to be digitized and updated; spatial patterning of fre and insect outbreaks of interest; fre effects data could be incorporated. Rio Grande corridor high high medium low Data are from multiple sources outside NPS, includ- ecosystem ing USFWS and Corps; water holding episodes have resulted in sediment accretion, creating habitat for riparian vegetation, SW willow fycatchers, etc. Large-scale ecosystem high high high medium Would qualitatively summarize large-scale ecosystem change changes over past several decades, and assess changes in relation to natural vs. human-caused drivers, particularly climate; numerous independent lines of anecdotal or semi-quantitative information; fnd a cooperator to synthesize BAND and Jemez data (possibility to include Forest Service and Valles Caldera NP). Erosion in pinon-juniper high medium high high Data are only from a few sites; representative? communities Invasive plants (cheatgrass) high medium low low Not clear where data would come from: fre effects? I&M? Veg. map? LANL contaminant impacts medium medium high medium It will likely be diffcult to get access to most of the data on park resources that would be needed to assess potential impacts to park. Peregrine falcons medium medium high high Summarize BAND population demographics and assess how they relate to statewide decline in productivity; lowest PEFA reproduction in 15 years. Vegetation change high medium high high This is currently being done in PJ; expand to other communities? Water quality (DDT, cattle, medium medium high Low Water quality impacts come from LANL, DDT site, cattle NPS) and NPS; this is important but may not be appropriate for this project. Jemez Mountain medium low medium medium The species is a priority, but much work is being done salamander elsewhere. High elevation mammals (pi- low low low low Ongoing research, data availability will increase in com- kas, bushy-tailed woodrats, ing years. red-backed vole) Bighorn habitat medium low Many outstanding questions regarding a potential re-introduction, so not sure how we would address this issue. Non-native fsh low low high high Not a high project priority. Mexican spotted owl medium low high high Could be part of a multi-park assessment; birds have not been seen in the park for about 6 years; 4 occupied territories in the 1990s – Steve speculates that canyons are drier, less preferred as habitat. Mountain meadows medium low medium medium tree encroachment in montane meadows;

30 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Table 3-1. (continued) First draft list (July 2010) of all potential topics for the Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment, herein sorted by priority. Items in bold were identifed as being currently monitored or researched at some level. Element Manage- Project Data Level of data Comments/ data availability ment priority availabil- summariza- priority ity tion Migratory birds (Grace's medium low low medium This is a national species of conservation concern, but warbler) not enough data to consider here; 50% decline in Grace’s warblers, a ponderosa pine species. Riparian zone stability (Frijo- medium low low low Not good for this project les picnic area) Wilderness values (viewshed/ medium low low low A soundscape project will begin in FY11, and night skies night sky/soundscapes) are being assessed by I&M and NPS night sky program. Contaminant dynamics high low low low Data accessibility issues; a Natural Resource Damage (dump sources) Assessment is being conducted on LANL; the BAND Technical Area contains a LANL dumpsite. Scenic values (Jemez Mtn medium low low low Important, but not appropriate for this project. trail/scenic byway) Legal summary of reservoir low low low Not appropriate. status Bats low low low low Mexican freetail bat population – intermittent use of BAND caves would be more appropriate as a multi-park assessment. ing. Because this opportunity was available, resource topics, indicators, and measures it was important to identify resource topics that would be emphasized in the study. This that were not only amenable to such an ap- framework was selected due to the tight proach but that were also of high importance integration of the framework with the NPS to the park. In the case of Bandelier NM, Inventory and Monitoring program from after developing the draft resource topic which much of the data used in the NRCA list, park staf determined that describing would originate. Further, an element of each vegetation changes in response to large- assessment is the identifcation of data need- scale impacts of wildfre, climate change ed to better determine current conditions. and ungulate herbivory were their highest If there were areas where data gaps seemed priorities for more extensive data analysis important, this information could potentially and synthesis. be incorporated more easily into future I&M program reviews if the topics were organized After the meeting, several follow-up confer- using this framework. ence calls were held with the NRCA Ecolo- gist, SCPN Program Manager, and Bandelier 3.2.1.2 Reference conditions NM and USGS staf participating in the Reference conditions were developed sepa- project to better defne the resource topics rately for each topic. Generally the process and goals of the project. utilized to develop relevant reference conditions was to frst conduct a literature search 3.2 Study design to determine what types of measures had 3.2.1. Ecological framework, reference been or were being used to evaluate similar conditions, reporting areas resources. Discussions were usually then conducted with local knowledge experts, 3.2.1.1 Ecological framework and existing NRCA documents examined The group incorporated the NPS Ecological to compare references conditions applied Monitoring Framework (Fancy et al. 2009) to similar resources in other NPS units. In to identify and then synthesize the natural some cases determining reference conditions

3 Study Approach 31 Table 3-2. Final list of selected topics organized within the NPS Ecological Monitoring Framework (Fancy et al. 2009). Changes are highlighted in bold with comments.

Level 1 Category Level 2 Category BAND Elements Geology and Soils Geomorphology Erosion in pion-juniper - removed, included in Vegetation Change Assessment (Bowker and Smith) Water Water quality Water quality Biological Integrity Invasive species Cheatgrass - removed, separate topic, included in Vegetation Change Assessment Exotic fsh Elk and deer removed, separate topic Infestations and disease Widespread vegetation mortality due to beetle outbreaks; included in Vegetation Change Assessment Bats/white-nosed syndrome - removed as a topic for the NRCA Focal communities Aspen Mountain meadows Migratory landbirds - priority increased in response to BAND Species of Concern effort Bats - removed as a topic for NRCA Bighorn sheep habitat - priority increased in response to BAND Species of Concern effort At-risk biota Jemez Mtn. salamander - priority increased in response to BAND Species of Concern effort and fre High-elevation mammals - focused changed to picas only Peregrine falcons - included with raptors Mexican spotted owls River otters - added as part of BAND Species of Concern effort Lynx - added as part of BAND Species of Concern effort Mountain lion - added as part of BAND Species of Concern effort Human Use Point source human LANL contamination - removed as separate topic, included as threat to water quality effects Contamination dynamics - removed as separate topic, included as threat to water quality Visitor and recreation use Wilderness values - removed, not a natural resource Landscapes and Ecosys- Fire and fuel dynamics Historic fre patterns - included in larger topic of Fire History and Ecology tem Processes Landscape dynamics Large-scale vegetation change - ultimately included pion-juniper, ponderosa pine, and mixed conifer vegetation types Rio Grande riparian ecosystem upstream of Cochiti Reservoir Riparian zone stability - included in Rito de Frijoles and Capulin Riparian Viewscape Scenic values – Jemez Mountain Trail - removed, not a natural resource

was straightforward, for example if a recov- change – are acting across all park systems ery plan had been developed for an endan- and management areas. gered species. Conversely, in many cases, particularly for complex ecological processes such as large-scale vegetation change, there currently are no quantifed reference condi- 3.2.2. General approach and methods tions available. The process for determining Specifc elements were approached difer- reference conditions (or reasons why they ently, but in general the NRCA Ecologist and are unavailable or unquantifed) is included Bandelier NM and USGS staf approached within each topic section in Chapter 4. each element in the following manner. First, all NPS, USGS, or other relevant participants 3.2.1.3 Reporting areas were asked to contribute their expertise. In As the project developed we determined addition the group communicated with any that the use of reporting areas would not cooperators or researchers recommended enhance the project. The two primary by staf or identifed from published or infuences on park resources and processes unpublished literature. If a resource had at present - catastrophic fre and climate been identifed during I&M scoping, all

32 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment supporting documentation for that process ment recommendations. This section was examined. Then a thorough literature varies in length and scope. In some search was conducted, frst for the specifc cases there are clear recommendations resource in the park, then for the resource for further research or data that would or process in other regions, and then for any be needed to have a high confdence in restoration, management, or research eforts making an assessment. If the team had that might provide information on methods specifc management recommendations incorporated to assess similar resources. to improve the state of the resource those may be included here as well. 3.2.3 Components included in each 7. Sources of expertise. Subject matter analysis experts not identifed elsewhere are Per the NPS NRCA guidelines, each assess- listed here. ment includes the following elements: 8. Literature cited. Each section is fol- 1. Background. This section describes the lowed by a complete list of citations. In resource and generally why it was se- addition, as part of the fnal product, a lected for inclusion in the project. It in- database of all references included in the cludes threatened or endangered status full document will be delivered to NPS. if appropriate, biological and ecological descriptions and contexts, relevance to 3.2.4 Project challenges and changes the NPS mission, and relationship to In the fall of 2011, oversight of the NCPN/ specifc park planning and management SCPN NRCA projects by the NRCA Ecolo- eforts. If known, threats to the resource gist was suspended due to an unanticipated or process are included in this section. funding issue. In October of 2011, FY 2012 2. Reference conditions. The measures budgets were uncertain; neither the NRCA used to evaluate the condition of the Program, the Intermountain Regional Ofce resource are defned here. If no clear Resource Management Division, nor the science-based measures appear to exist Inventory and Monitoring Program were and alternate evaluation methods were willing to take the risk of renewing the term utilized, those are also described here. NRCA Ecologist position until FY 2012 The absence of any valid reference is NRCA funding levels were established. Con- noted here as well. sequently, the term position expired. In the summer of 2012 funding for a similar coor- 3. Data and methods. This section can dinating position was established through a include references to both existing data cooperative agreement with the Institute for and methodologies evaluated as well as Wildlife Studies. Through this agreement, specifc assessment methods incorpo- Cathy Schwemm renewed her role as the rated for the NRCA. coordinating NRCA Ecologist. 4. Resource condition and trend. This section summarizes what is known about In the spring of 2011, Matt Bowker, with the the resource in relation to the described U.S. Geological Survey Colorado Plateau reference conditions. Field Station, was identifed as an appropriate cooperator to analyze and synthesize a 5. Level of confdence. In some cases broad array of vegetation data for for the very little is known about the status of park. Later that summer an Interagency the resource, the conditions that should Agreement was initiated to fund the data be used to make the assessment, or analysis and synthesis work. The following both. This section evaluates the level of year, Matt Bowker accepted an assistant confdence the team had in making the professorship at NAU. Because the original assessment. agreement was between NPS and USGS, it 6. Data gaps/Research needs/Manage- took over six months for USGS and NPS to

3 Study Approach 33 fnd a solution to continuing Matt Bowker’s report. This was in part because they were involvement in the project. Ultimately, he already engaged in a systematic review and was rehired as a USGS employee to complete assessment of these species. This added his work on this project, but these adminis- some additional work and time to the project trative issues delayed his work. but did not fundamentally change the focus or direction. The catastrophic Las Conchas Fire, ignited on June 26, 2011, ultimately burned over In the fall of 2014, with the news that Bar- 60% of the monument. Both the fre and bara Judy would be leaving her post at the subsequent foods and soil erosion that Bandelier, Lisa Thomas and Barbara Judy followed had immense impacts on park scheduled a close-out workshop on Novem- resources, many of which are described in ber 5th and 6th 2014. The Bandelier team, sections of Chapter 4. The disturbances including Craig Allen and JMFS-USGS Path- caused by these events not only altered the ways Intern, Collin Hafey, re-convened to ecology of many park systems, but required review the remaining work for Chapter 4 and all NPS and USGS personnel involved in the to complete Chapter 5 of the NRCA report. NRCA to divert their workloads dramati- Lisa Thomas provided a fnal content review cally toward the post-fre response. When of Chapters 4 and 5 following completion of the NRCA project re-started in the summer the BAND team’s work. of 2012, the NRCA Ecologist and NPS and USGS staf reviewed the direction of the 3.3. Literature cited project in light of fre and food impacts. Fancy, S. G., J. E. Gross, and S. L. Carter. 2009. Monitoring the condition of Midway through the NRCA process the natural resources in US national Bandelier NM staf decided to increase the parks. Environmental Monitoring and number of species of management con- Assessment 151:161-174. cern that would be addressed in the NRCA

34 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Chapter 4: Natural Resource Conditions

Chapter 4 is organized thus: (1) big-picture species of management concern. landscape-scale disturbance dynamics and parkwide vegetation change; (2) condi- The Bandelier NM staf added an additional tions in the major park ecosystems, starting resource category to the topics covered in with high elevation montane meadows and Chapter 4—Species of Management Inter- descending to the Rio Grande River and (3) est—to cover species that are not directly condition of wildlife communities and spe- managed by the monument, but have been cies within Bandelier National Monument of recurring interest to internal or external (NM). conservation partners in recent decades. These are species that historically may have The individual topics are also organized occurred on or near Bandelier NM, but are within the National Park Service (NPS) probably not integral to park ecosystem Ecological Monitoring Framework. Table 4-1 function. provides a roadmap to the Chapter 4 resource topics within this framework. Appen- dix D provides a more comprehensive list of

Table 4-1. Chapter 4 resource topics organized within the NPS Ecological Monitoring Framework.

Level 1 Level 2 Resource – Section

Air and Climate Air quality Air quality – 4.23 Climate and climate change Climate and climate change at Bandelier NM – Appendix A Geology and Soils Soil erosion Erosion in pion-juniper – 4.06-1 Riparian geomorphology Rio Grande Corridor and associated riparian vegetation – 4.09 Rito del los Frijoles, Capulin Creek and associated riparian vegetation – 4.10

Water Hydrology Rio Grande Corridor and associated riparian vegetation– 4.09 Rito del los Frijoles, Capulin Creek and associated riparian vegetation – 4.10 Water quality Rito del los Frijoles, Capulin Creek and associated riparian vegetation – 4.11 Biological Integrity Communities of concern Montane grasslands – 4.03 Mixed conifer forest – 4.04 Ponderosa pine woodlands – 4.05 Pion-juniper woodlands – 4.06 Rio Grande Corridor and associated riparian vegetation – 4.09 Rito del los Frijoles, Capulin Creek and associated riparian vegetation – 4.10 Native fsh – 4.12 Landbirds – 4.13 Species of management concern American Pika - 4.18 Aspen – 4.04-1 Species of management concern: At-risk biota Rare plant species – 4.07 Mexican Spotted Owl – 4.14 Jemez Mountain Salamander – 4.15 Species of management concern: Apex Mountain lion – 4.16 predators

Species of management concern: Over-abun- Elk and deer – 4.17 dant species Invasive species Nonnative plant species – 4.08 Ecosystem Pattern Landscape dynamics Fire history and ecology – 4.01 and Processes Parkwide vegetation change – 4.02 Natural Sounds Soundscape – 4.22

4 Natural Resource Conditions 35 Ecosystem Pattern and Processes • frequent; 86% of historic fres recorded in Landscape Dynamics Bandelier were the result of lightning strikes Figure 4-1a (Allen 1984). Fire extents in the 4.01 Fire History and Ecology summer are generally smaller than in the 4.01.1. Description spring because fuel moisture during these months tends to be higher as a result of mon- Fire has played an essential role in shaping soon storms Figure 4-1b. and maintaining the vegetation communities and landscapes in Bandelier NM and The El Nio-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) the Jemez Mountains. Many factors, includ- phenomenon also has signifcant efects on ing climatic conditions, a high occurrence precipitation and fre occurrence in Bande- of lightning strikes, availability of surface lier NM and the Jemez Mountains. ENSO fuels and fammable vegetation, and topog- involves fuctuating ocean temperatures: the raphy make fre one of the dominant natural El Nio or warm phase, where ocean tem- disturbance processes in this region. Most peratures are warmer than normal, causes of the vegetation communities and wildlife enhanced precipitation across the southern that have persisted through time here have U.S., while during the La Nia or cool phase, evolved under the infuence of frequent fre. less precipitation falls (NOAA 2013). Higher However, natural fre processes, to which precipitation levels stimulate the production vegetation communities and species in the of fuels, such as grasses, forbs, and shrubs, region have adapted, have been altered in allowing these fuels to become more abun- multiple ways through human actions and dant and continuous. In the subsequent La now climate change. The term ‘fre regime’ Nia years, these fuels lose moisture and is used to describe attributes, such as the become available for fre ignition and spread frequency, intensity, extent, season, and (Touchan et al. 1995). Accordingly, major duration, of naturally occurring fres as they fre years in the Southwest were historically would typically burn in a particular vegeta- associated with drought conditions that fol- tion community or landscape. lowed periods of precipitation (Touchan et al. 1996). The role of fre as an ecosystem driver is discussed in the following four sections, in rela- Numerous sources reveal a long history tion to landscape-scale vegetation change, of frequent low intensity surface fres that and in relation to three specifc ecosystems— burned through continuous herbaceous pion-juniper woodlands, ponderosa pine understories to create relatively open wood- forests and mixed conifer forests. lands and savannas in this region, as well as the occurrence of infrequent mixed-severity Climate or stand-replacing fres. While Ancestral The warm, semi-arid southwestern envi- Puebloans certainly used fre and likely rein- ronment contributes to fre occurrence in forced the frequent, low intensity fre regime, Bandelier NM and the Jemez Mountains. abundant lightning ignitions appear suf- In May and June, before the onset of the cient to explain most prehistoric fre patterns summer monsoonal rains, temperatures (Allen 2002a). near 100° F are possible and humidity is often extremely low. Strong southwesterly The pre-settlement forest structure and fre winds are also a common occurrence in the regime in the Bandelier NM area and the Je- spring, and precipitation totals during this mez Mountains was maintained until about period are often less than half an inch. When the 1880s, when railroads that linked New fres start in May or June fre extents can be Mexico with other parts of the U.S. brought relatively large (Snyderman and Allen 1997). millions of sheep and cattle (Allen 2002b). Conversely, the number of fre ignitions is The sheep and cattle overgrazed the land, highest in summer months (July, August, and removing the herbaceous vegetation and fne September) when thunderstorms are more fuels that had previously carried surface fre.

36 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Number of Ignitions by Cause/Month (n-4779) 1909-2012 Jemez Mountains 1600 Lightning 1400 Mgmt-Ignited Person 1200 Unknown 1000

800

600

400

200

0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Figure 4-1a. Number of ignitions per month, by type, in the Jemez Mountains, New Mexico, from 1909–2012. Note the large number of ignitions occurring in June and July due to pre-monsoonal dry lightning storms.

Acreage by Cause/Month 1909-2012 Jemez Mountains 250000

Lightning Mgmt-Ignited 200000 Person Unknown

150000

100000

50000

0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Figure 4-1b. Cumulative acres burned per month, by type of ignition, in the Jemez Mountains, New Mexico, from 1909–2012. Notable large fres burning May and June account for the majority of acres burned. Natural ignitions account for relatively few acres burned, in large part due to successful fre suppression. Human-caused ignitions that occur during seasonally dry conditions when natural ignitions are rare can often result in fres that exhibit unnaturally extreme fre behavior and severity.

4 Natural Resource Conditions 37 In addition, widespread and efective fre 156,593 acres, becoming the second largest suppression eforts began in the early 1900s, fre in New Mexico history (Figure 4-2b). resulting in the near cessation of fre (Figure 4-2a). 4.01.2 Reference conditions Fire-scar chronologies show frequent and Over the last century or so, the forest struc- widespread fre in the forests of the Jemez tures and fre regimes that once existed have Mountains before the 1890s (Allen 2002a). been greatly altered, producing signifcant Fire activity (perhaps including multiple ecological efects on the fre prone-landscape ignition points) in Bandelier NM and the (Potter and Foxx 1978; Allen 1989). Most Jemez Mountains commonly occurred over notably, increased tree densities have re- extensive areas in some drought years, such sulted in ‘crown fres’ which can travel in the that networks of fre-scarred trees record canopy across the forest at high speed and many years where fres burned widely across intensity, in stark contrast to the low inten- watersheds in the monument (Allen 1989, sity surface fres of the past. Fires of this type 1994, 2007), throughout most of the Jemez are now becoming more frequent in ponder- Mountains (Allen et al. 1998, Allen 2002a), osa pine forests, where large stand replacing and even across most mountain ranges in the fre events were once anomalous. The large Southwest (Swetnam et al. 1999). amounts of surface fuels and compacted litter and duf can burn with high intensity The fre season was generally in the spring and severity, causing a longer residence time and summer, when climatic and fuel condi- (the amount of time fre burns in a location), tions were conducive to fre ignition: fall fres and increasing the potential for lethal fre were uncommon (Allen 2002a). Fire dura- temperatures and deleterious efects on soil tion varied widely, depending on variables properties and vegetation adapted to less such as precipitation, slope, aspect, and intense fres. elevation. In persistent drought conditions, some fres in ponderosa pine forests could The absence of frequent, low intensity burn for months. surface fre has altered and degraded the forests in Bandelier NM and the Jemez Fire-scar chronologies indicate signifcant Mountains in many ways. The full range of spatial variation in past fre regimes (Allen tree age classes that existed historically has 2004) which can be summarized for the 3 been replaced by extremely high densities of major forest/woodland ecosystems. saplings and and mid-story trees. The high tree density also renders the forests more Mixed conifer forest susceptible to disease and insect infestations, Prior to the 20th century, the mixed conifer causing widespread mortality in trees. The forest experienced frequent fres with a fre forests no longer have an open canopy struc- return interval of approximately 4–9.7 years. ture, limiting light penetration to the forest Most fres were low intensity surface fres, foor and causing herbaceous plant cover but small, patchy crown fres also occurred productivity and diversity to decrease. Forest in mesic mixed conifer forest sites outside fuels, such as branches, twigs, pine cones, Bandelier NM(Touchan et al. 1996). and dead vegetation, have been accumulat- ing to extremely high levels. Ponderosa pine forest/woodland In the 400 years prior to the 20th century, In recent decades, a number of unusually ponderosa pine forests experienced frequent large and intense fres have burned across fres, most of which were low-intensity the the monument landscape. The La Mesa surface fres (Allen et al. 1995; Touchan et Fire of 1977 burned 14,250 acres; the Dome al. 1996). The fre return interval during this Fire of 1996 burned 16,500 acres; the Cerro period was approximately 5–15 years. Fire Grande Fire in 2000 burned 43,000 acres; frequency tended to be reduced at low-ele- and the Las Conchas Fire in 2011 burned vation sites and in sites that are topographi-

38 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Figure 4-2a. Fires that occurred in the Jemez Moun- tains, New Mexico, by decade, from the 1900s to the 1960s. Bandelier NM boundary is in the lower right section. A period of high grazing numbers and successful fre suppression occurred from 1909–1969, and very few acres burned during this period. The circles represent the relative area of only those fres that had acreage records.

Figure 4-2b. Fires that occurred in the Jemez Moun- tains, New Mexico, by decade, from the 1970s to the 2010s. Bandelier is in the lower right section. After decades of effective fre exclusion, forest fuels became overly dense which resulted in a modern fre history of large fres with unprecedented severity both in size and degree. Large portions of the landscape, particularly around Bandelier NM, have effectively been reset. Un- derstanding the trajectory of these post-fre landscapes is a high research priority for the monument.

cally isolated from the larger ponderosa pine the pion-juniper woodland is not forest matrix. completely known and not without controversy (Bowker and Smith 2014). Pion-juniper woodland The fre history is difcult to know because In contrast to our current knowledge of past piyon pine and juniper trees are poor pre- fre regimes in the ponderosa and mixed servers of fre scars from which to recon- conifer forests, the historical fre regime of struct past fre cycles. Understanding the

4 Natural Resource Conditions 39 role of fre in the pion-juniper woodlands is seasonality, and precipitation as far back as further complicated by the diversity of pion 1600 A.D (Allen 1989, Touchan et al. 1996, -juniper community types that occur across Morino et al.1998, Allen 2002a, Falk 2004, the monument landscape. These include Margolis et al. 2007, Dewar 2011). For pion-juniper savannas, pion-juniper-oak example, fre scar samples from multiple communities, and most commonly, persis- ponderosa pine sites in the Jemez Mountains tent pion-juniper woodlands. At higher recorded 1,858 fre events and 221 diferent elevations, pion-juniper woodland inter- fre years over a 400-year period, with an av- sperses with, and, in some sites, has recently erage fre return interval (or average number replaced ponderosa pine savanna. While of years between fre events) ranging from some literature suggests frequent surface fre 5-16 years (Touchan et al. 1996). Fire scar (Gottfried et al. 1995; Jacobs and Gatewood samples collected in ponderosa pine forests 1999), evidence is sparse and mostly from in Bandelier NM documented 113 sepa- ponderosa pine stands near pion-juniper rate fre years between 1480 and 1899, with stands (Bowker and Smith 2014). Patchy widespread fres occurring every 5-15 years stand-destroying crown-fres are well-doc- (Allen et al. 1995). umented in pion-juniper woodlands from elsewhere in the region (Romme et al. 2009). Historic records and journals also support Pre-1900 disturbance regimes in pion-juni- the notion that natural fre was extensive in per savanna are not well understood. the Southwest. For example in 1875, Joseph Rothrock, a botanist with the expedition 4.01.3 Data and methods called the Wheeler Survey (predecessor of Numerous methods have been used to in- the U.S. Geological Survey), wrote of the re- vestigate historic fre conditions. Information gion just south of Gallup, New Mexico: “… gathered from packrat middens and pollen at an altitude of about 8,000 ft. above the sea, deposits support the concept of a long his- was a fne, open, park-like region with a large tory of fre on the landscape by providing growth of yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa) and evidence that ponderosa pine (Pinus ponder- fr covering the hillsides. A diversifed herba- osa), a fre evolved species, has existed in the ceous vegetation was out in the most brilliant southwestern U.S. region for approximately colors, beautifying alike the woods and open 8,000 to 11,000 years (Anderson 1989). grounds. … Good forage was abundant” Charcoal deposits provide evidence of con- (Rothrock 1875). tinuous fre activity extending back at least Finally, aerial and ground based photogra- 9,000 years (Brunner-Jass 1999, Allen et al. phy of landscape conditions in the monu- 2008). Core samples taken from bogs con- ment and the Jemez Mountains demonstrate tain material that is approximately 9,000 to that fre was ubiquitous and played a major 15,000 years old, revealing a long history of role in shaping and maintaining vegetation high frequency fre activity for the past 9,000 communities throughout the area. Repeat years with an unusual gap in fre activity after photography studies (Allen 1984 & 1989, 1880 (Allen et al. 2008). Hogan and Allen 2000) show the vegetative Dendrochronological (tree-ring) analy- and forest conditions as they existed under sis of fre scarred wood shows that, for the infuence of frequent fre, and also illus- many centuries prior to 1900, fres burned trate the striking expansion of local forests frequently and were widespread in these into previously open environments as well landscapes (Allen 2002a). Researchers have as the densifcation of some forests stands in dated over one thousand sampled trees, logs, the absence of periodic fre. and stumps from more than ffty locations in the monument and the Jemez Mountains, 4.01.4 Condition and trend thereby developing well replicated informa- Recent warm and dry climatic conditions tion regarding fre occurrence patterns, fre are important drivers of increased forest

40 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment drought stress and more high severity fre site characteristics, and climate. activity in the Southwest (Williams et al. 2010, 2013), including Bandelier NM and Combinations of fre and drought are hy- the Jemez Mountains. pothesized to interact non-linearly, potentially pushing currently forested systems In general, disruption of fre regimes during beyond thresholds that, once crossed, the 20th century has left many western for- exceed the capacity of some ecosystems to ests susceptible to uncharacteristic wildfre. recover (Allen, 2007; Williams et al. 2013), However, re-establishment of forest struc- resulting in conversion to novel vegetative ture and fre regimes that predominated pri- communities. Once across such resiliency or to European settlement can restore eco- thresholds, additional fres may drive posi- system function (Hurteau, Bradford, Fulé, tive feedback loops, perpetuating novel com- Taylor, & Martin, 2013), mitigate destructive munities and establishing new fre regimes crown fre (Allen et al., 2002; Covington et (Parks et al. 2013; Thompson et al. 2007; al., 1997) and convey greater resiliency in van Wagtendonk et al. 2012). Research that the face of climate warming (Stephens et al., addresses the new fre regime characteristics 2013). In most forests characterized by high- and resiliency of emerging novel ecosystems frequency low-severity fre regimes, ecologi- is important as managers in fre-prone areas cal restoration entails mechanical thinning, already face questions about appropriate followed by reintroduction of low-intensity burn frequencies and their infuences on fres that consume overabundant fuels, speed sustaining or encouraging desired ecosystem nutrient cycling, and encourage the rees- characteristics, as ongoing climate change tablishment of a grass-dominated herba- makes restoration of previous forest condi- ceous understory, with multiple benefts to tions less likely. biodiversity. Wildfre alone may result in a forest structure that is subsequently more 4.01.5 Level of confdence amenable to the reestablishment of historical High level of confdence for history; mod- fre regimes, with its concomitant benefts to erate-to-low level of confdence for future ecosystem structure and function. However, projections. recurrent fre also may have detrimental impacts on high-frequency low-severity fre 4.01.6 Data gaps/Research needs/ regime ecosystems. In extreme cases, a single Management recommendations high-severity burn may cause near com- It will be important to understand the pat- plete tree mortality over large areas, such as terns and drivers that sustain more resilient was the case in portions of the 2000 Cerro forests following multiple fres. Resilience Grande (Allen et al. 2002) and 1996 Dome in forests of the Southwest is often defned (USDI 1996) fres. Subsequent reburning of from the perspective of single species or such areas can further eliminate seed trees groups of species, and rarely assessed at the and soil seed banks, reduce soil organic landscape level. We defne landscape resil- matter, encourage post-fre establishment ience in forests once dominated by surface of shrub and grass communities, and lead to fre (e.g., ponderosa pine) as resistance to long-term conversion of forest to non-forest- widespread crown fre that allows for the ed ecosystem types—exemplifed by exten- incremental adaptation of understory and sive reburning by the 2011 Las Conchas Fire overstory vegetation to warming climate (Allen, 2012). Thus, the impacts of multiple, conditions. Fire has been a key tool for recurrent fres may have strikingly diferent returning ecosystems to a resilient and adap- long-term efects on the future of southwest- tive state. ern U.S. forests, depending on the infuences of multiple factors, including initial forest We provide the following recommendations: composition and structural characteristics, ● Continue with planned fuels treatments fre size and intensity, fre return intervals,

4 Natural Resource Conditions 41 and restoration eforts of extant forests. Southwestern Forests: Proceedings of ● Monitor disturbed landscapes to identify the Second La Mesa Fire Symposium; indications of ecosystem trajectory (such 1994 March 29-31; Los Alamos, New as changed fre regime and successional Mexico. USDA Forest Service Gen. patterns).Identify areas where subse- Tech. Rep. RM-GTR-286. Fort Collins, quent fres may have detrimental efects CO. 216 pp. on landscape trajectories and develop a Allen, C. D. 1996. Overview of Las Mesa wildfre management strategy that aims Fire Studies. Pp. 1-6 in: C.D. Allen (ed.). to reduce fre impact to those areas. Fire Efects in Southwestern Forests: Likewise, identify areas where subse- Proceedings of the Second La Mesa quent fres would have benefcial efects Fire Symposium; 1994 March 29-31; on ecosystem processes and develop Los Alamos, New Mexico. USDA strategies to allow, or encourage, wildfre Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RM- into these areas. GTR-286. Fort Collins, Colorado. 216 ● Consider experimental management pp. techniques to alter trajectories based on information from monitoring and Allen, C. D., J.L. Betancourt, and T.W. research. Swetnam. 1998. Landscape changes in the southwestern United States: 4.01.7 Sources of Expertise Techniques, long-term datasets, and Craig Allen, Matthew Bowker, Terelene trends. Pages 71-84 In: T.D. Sisk Foxx, Laura Trader, and Tom Swetnam (ed.), Perspectives on the Land Use History of North America: A Context 4.01.8 Literature cited for Understanding our Changing Allen, C. D. 1984. Montane Grasslands in Environment. U.S. Geological Survey, the Landscape of the Jemez Mountains, Biological Science Report USGS/BRD/ New Mexico. M.S. thesis, Dept. of BSR-1998-0003. 104 pp. Geography, University of Wisconsin, Allen, C. D. 2002a. Lots of lightning and Madison. 195 pp. plenty of people: An ecological history Allen, C. D. 1989. Changes in the Landscape of fre in the upland Southwest. Chapter of the Jemez Mountains, New Mexico. 5 (pages 143-193) in: T.R. Vale (ed.), Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. of Forestry Fire, Native Peoples, and the Natural and Natural Resources, University of Landscape. Island Press, Covelo, CA. California, Berkeley, CA. 346 pp. 315 pp.

Allen, C. D. 1994. Ecological perspective: Allen, C. D. 2002b. Rumblings in Rio Arriba: Linking ecology, GIS, and remote Landscape changes in the southern sensing to ecosystem management. Rocky Mountains of northern New Pages 111-139 in A.V. Sample (ed.). Mexico. Chapter 12 (pages 239-253) In: Remote Sensing and GIS in Ecosystem J. Baron (ed.), Rocky Mountain Futures, Management. Island Press, Covelo, CA. An Ecological Perspective. Island Press, 369 pp. Covelo, CA. 325 pp.

Allen, C. D., R. Touchan, and T. W. Swetnam. Allen, C. D. 2004. Ecological patterns and 1995. Landscape-scale fre history environmental change in the Bandelier studies support fre management action landscape. Chapter 2 (pp. 19-68) In: at Bandelier. Park Science 15(3):18-19. T.A. Kohler (ed.), Village Formation National Park Service, Denver, CO. on the Pajarito Plateau, New Mexico: Archaeology of Bandelier National Allen, C. D. (tech. ed.). 1996. Fire Efects in Monument. University of New Mexico

42 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Press, Albuquerque. 356 pp. Service General Technical Report RM-GTR-268, Rocky Mountain Forest Allen, C. D. 2007. Interactions across spatial and Range Experiment Station, Fort scales among forest dieback, fre, and Collins, Colorado. erosion in northern New Mexico landscapes. Ecosystems 10:797-808. Hogan, J.T., and C.D. Allen. 2000. The Use of Repeat Photography for Historical Allen, C. D., R.S. Anderson, R.B. Jass, J.L. Ecology Research in the Landscape Toney, and C.H. Baisan. 2008. Paired of Bandelier National Monument and charcoal and tree-ring records of high- the Jemez Mountains, New Mexico. frequency fre from two New Mexico Final report to Southwest Parks and bog sites. International Journal of Monuments Association. Wildland Fire 17:115–130. Hurteau, M. D., Bradford, J. B., Fulé, P. Z., Allen, C. D. (2012). Written testimony to Taylor, A. H., & Martin, K. L. (2013). U.S. Senate Committee on Energy and Climate change, fre management, Natural Resources. Santa Fe, NM. and ecological services in the Retrieved from http://www.energy. southwestern US. Forest Ecology and senate.gov/public/index.cfm/fles/ Management, in press. doi:10.1016/j. serve?File_id=5ec978cd-21ec-4367- foreco.2013.08.007. be5f-f36c38e44681 Jacobs, B. F., and R. G. Gatewood. 1999. Anderson, R.S. 1989. Development of the Restoration Studies in Degraded southwestern ponderosa pine forests: Pinyon-Juniper Woodlands of North- What do we really know? Pp. 15-22 In: Central New Mexico. In Monsen, S. B., USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM- and R. Stevens: Proceedings: Ecology 185. Fort Collins, CO. and management of pinyon-juniper Brunner-Jass, R.M. 1999. ‘Fire Occurrence communities within the Interior West, and Paleoecology at Alamo Bog and 1997 September 15-18, Provo, Utah. Chihuahueos Bog, Jemez Mountains, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest New Mexico, USA’. MS Thesis, Service, Rocky Mountain Research Northern Arizona University. Station. Ogden, Utah. Margolis, E.Q., T.W. Swetnam, and C.D. Covington, W. W., Fulé, P. Z., Moore, M. Allen. 2007. A stand-replacing fre M., Hart, S. C., Kolb, T. E., Mast, J. history in upper montane forests N., Wagner, M. R. (1997). Restoring of the southern Rocky Mountains. Ecosystem Health in Ponderosa Pine Canadian Journal of Forest Research Forests of the Southwest. Journal of 37:22272241. Forestry, 95(4), 23–29. Morino, K.A., C.H. Baisan, and T.W. Dewar, J.J. 2011. Fire History of Montane Swetnam. 1998. Expanded Fire Regime Grasslands and Ecotones of the Valles Studies in the Jemez Mountains, New Caldera, New Mexico, USA. M.S. Mexico. Final report to USGS Jemez Thesis, Univ of Arizona, Tucson. 193 p. Mountains Field Station, Bandelier Falk, D.A. 2004. Scaling rules for fre regimes. National Monument. 143 p. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of NOAA. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Arizona, Tucson. 304 p. Administration. 2013. United States Gottfried, G. J., T. W. Swetnam, J. L. Department of Commerce. http:// Betancourt, and A. L. Chung- oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/ninonina. MacCoubrey. 1995. Pinyon-juniper html. woodlands. Pages 95–132 in U.S. Forest

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44 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment C.I. Millar, J. Michaelsen, C.J. Still, and S.W. Leavitt. 2010. Forest responses to increasing aridity and warmth in southwestern North America. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A. 107(50):21289–21294.

Williams, A.P., C.D. Allen, A.K. Macalady, D. Grifn, C.A. Woodhouse, D.M. Meko, T.W. Swetnam, S.A. Rauscher, R. Seager, H.D. Grissino-Mayer, J.S. Dean, E.R. Cook, C. Gangodagamage, M. Cai, and N.G. McDowell. 2013. Temperature as a potent driver of regional forest drought stress and tree mortality. Nature Climate Change 3:292-297.

4 Natural Resource Conditions 45 Ecosystem Pattern and Processes • is a frst attempt at compiling several of the Landscape Dynamics most information rich datasets available for Bandelier NM and surroundings, and 4.02 Parkwide Vegetation Change synthesizing these to assess the condition and trajectory of the park’s major ecosys- Introduction tems, and possibly the future trajectory of Bandelier NM is rather unique for a monu- southwestern woodlands and forests. The ment of its size in that several decades of Bowker and Smith report forms the basis for vegetation data are available, some of which this section, and for the sections on mixed is from long-term repeatedly measured conifer forests (4.04), ponderosa pine forests studies. The park is also located adjacent (4.05), and pion-juniper woodlands (4.06), to a National Laboratory with substantial covering the major park ecosystems. A por- research infrastructure, which has produced tion of their analysis was directed specif- additional environmental observations over cally toward aspen recovery following fre the same multi-decadal timespan. Thus, in in relation to elk herbivory—those results many ways, the monument has already been are included in section 4.04-1 Aspen. Their serving as a barometer of change. During full report is provided in Appendix B of this the initial project scoping for this Natural document. Resource Condition Assessment, park staf identifed synthesis and analysis of a sub- 4.02.1 Description stantial body of vegetation data, collected by Bandelier NM encompasses vegetation com- park staf and collaborating researchers for a munities ranging from semi-arid woodlands variety of purposes, as an important area of to subalpine forests and meadows (Muldavin focus for the NRCA. et al. 2011). In total, 55 distinct plant communities are mapped in the park, which can In 2011, NPS entered into an Interagency be roughly divided into three major zones Agreement with Matt Bowker, U.S. Geologi- based upon dominant plant communities: cal Survey, Southwest Biological Science mixed conifer / aspen forests, ponderosa Center to conduct a synthesis and analysis pine forests, and pion-juniper woodlands. of Bandelier NM vegetation data. With a focus on 3 major ecosystems within the park Vegetation changes can be simultaneously (pion-juniper woodlands, ponderosa pine rapid and occur over a large spatial extent. A forests, and mixed conifer / aspen forests) severe drought occurred in the 1950s across the project’s objectives were to much of southwest North America, causing widespread tree mortality (Betancourt et 1. evaluate the direction of landscape- al. 1993, Marshall 1957). The low elevation scale vegetation change that has ponderosa pine forests within Bandelier NM occurred in recent decades died during the drought, resulting in a 2 km upslope retreat of ponderosa pine (Allen 2. identify the primary drivers of observed and Breshears 1998). The retreat of the pines change released pion-juniper woodlands from 3. suggest, to the extent possible, the likely competition and those species co-dominated direction of future change. the low elevation mesa tops until the early 2000s. At the turn of the century a drought, In 2014, Matt Bowker, assisted by David driven by warmer than average temperatures, Smith, and in consultation with Craig Allen, decimated the pion population by killing Brian Jacobs, Stephen Fettig, Laura Trader, over ninety percent of the mature pion pine and Jim DeCoster, completed a report of his (Breshears et al., 2005). The low elevation fndings. Assessment of Vegetation Change in mesa tops are now dominated by drought Bandelier National Monument, a “Barom- resistant one-seed juniper, and although pi- eter of Change” in the National Park System on pine seedlings are present across much

46 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment of the pre-drought range, few ponderosa 3. Warmer and drier conditions favor fre seedlings are found in the pre-1950 range of (Williams et al. 2010). the species. 4. Drought stress leads to greater susceptibility of some tree species to bark beetle 4.02.1.1 Major drivers of change in attack (Wallin et al. 2004). Bandelier National Monument At the scale of the entire monument, there 5. Both drought- and beetle-killed plants are four tightly-linked phenomena responsi- contribute to fuel load. ble for most of the change that has occurred 6. Greater fuel load creates larger and more in recent decades: 1) climate change, 2) fre, intense fres. 3) drought/insect and disease outbreaks, and 7. Accumulated fne fuel load has been 4) past land use. Other factors that strongly strongly reduced by past grazing, and afect particular ecosystems, such as elk her- fre suppression activities, which results bivory or persistent accelerated erosion, are in fre exclusion and buildup of woody discussed in later sections. fuels (Allen 2004).

Before discussing these drivers of change Climate change. Climate change infu- individually, it is worth viewing them as a ences vegetation both directly and indirectly. linked complex of the following interacting Recently, Williams et al. (2013) developed a change agents (Figure 4-3; cf. Allen 2007): forest drought-stress index, using a com- 1. Climate change, a pervasive force, modi- prehensive tree-ring data set representing fes soil moisture and vapor pressure the past one thousand years. They found the defcit, which leads to plant drought index to be equally infuenced by warm sea- mortality (Breshears et al. 2005, Williams son vapor pressure defcit and cold season et al. 2013). precipitation (together explaining 82% of the forest drought-stress index). These two 2. Climate change modifes distributions of parameters are likely to change in the near some bark beetles (Bentz et al. 2010). future. All available models converge on a

drought 5. 7. fuel load mortality past & present management 5. (fre suppression & 4. grazing) 1. 6. beetle mortality 2.

limate 3. change fire Figure 4-3. Linked drivers of vegetation change in Bandelier National Monument and the southwestern U.S. Climate change and past and present management have and continue to exert a variety of direct and indirect effects on forests and woodlands. See text for explanation.

4 Natural Resource Conditions 47 scenario where northern New Mexico will 2011. These fres are occurring at higher experience warming (Karl et al. 2009). Pre- frequency and intensity and at increasing cipitation projections are much less certain spatial scale. Fire severities varied within and likely to vary among models, although these fres, but each fre had areas of signif- reduced spring precipitation is predicted by cant stand replacement. a consensus model (Karl et al. 2009). Both of these changes can be expected to infuence Drought and insect outbreaks. Periodi- soil moisture and therefore drought mortal- cally, severe droughts may be associated with ity directly, and indirectly afect fre suscep- pulse mortality of overstory trees (Allen tibility (Figure 4-3). Williams et al. (2010, 1998; Breshears et al. 2005, 2011). One such 2013) project that by 2050, forest drought drought occurred in 2002. It caused major stress values will routinely be equal to or mortality to Pinus ponderosa and P. edulis, es- more extreme than mega-droughts seen in pecially in lower elevations, but also impact- the 1200s and the 1500s. This suggests that ed Pseudotsuga menziesii and Abies concolor areas currently occupied by Southwestern at higher elevations (Muldavin et al. 2011). forests will, to a large degree, no longer be Primarily mature trees were afected rather forest habitat. Breshears et al. (2011) argue than saplings. This extreme drought was not that such climate change impacts on vegeta- the driest on record, but was the most im- tion communities may not be gradual, incre- pactful in centuries. The severity of die-back mental and homogenous (e.g. a small mortal- events has been linked to the fact that warm- ity rate every year). Rather, climate change ing climate interacts with drought to induce impacts on ecosystems may be “big, fast, mass mortality. This was hypothesized by and patchy”. Climate change-linked drought Breshears et al. (2005), and experimentally and fre have already caused high mortality tested by Adams et al. (2009) using Pinus in 18% of southwestern forests (Williams et edulis. Using 50 years of tree ring data from al. 2010). Such impacts give managers and multiple species along an elevation gradient stakeholders few options and little time to in Arizona, Adams and Kolb (2005) found respond to climate change-driven vegeta- that growth rates were related to both water tion change, such as the mass tree mortality availability and temperature, and that species events now being observed globally (Allen et in the hotter and drier parts of their range al. 2010). were more sensitive to these infuences (i.e. their growth tracked climate more closely Fire suppression and subsequent large- than conspecifcs from higher sites). Insects, scale crown fre. Fire is a part of the evolu- such as bark beetles and the fungi they tionary environment of most of the forest, disperse, cause mortality of water stressed woodland and savanna types within Ban- trees because water stress can inhibit defense delier NM (Allen 1989, Moore et al. 1999, mechanisms, such as production of resins Touchan et al. 1996). It is well demonstrated (Wallin et al. 2004, Negron et al. 2009). Our that two phenomena— livestock reduction data cannot distinguish between temporally of fne fuels, and fre suppression—coin- congruent drought mortality episodes and cide with a shift to less frequent fre cycles bark beetle outbreaks; thus we treat them as (Touchan et al. 1996). We consider fre a tightly-linked stressor complex. here as a stressor and a driver of vegetation change because the scale of recent fres 4.02.2 Reference conditions has been unusual (Figure 4-4). The 1977 La At the scale of the entire monument we can Mesa Fire burned 6354 ha in 1977. The 1996 make three broad generalizations about Dome fre burned 6677 ha, and was followed historical reference conditions. First, most of shortly by the 1997 Lummis Fire which the ecosystems have a tree canopy compo- burned another 865 ha. The Cerro Grande nent. It is not thought that large shrublands fre of 2000 burned 16,909 ha. Most recently, and grasslands without trees were abundant the Las Conchas fre burned 63,250 ha in on the landscape. Second, in most ecosys-

48 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Figure 4-4. Cumulative footprint of medium and high severity wildfres in the distributions of the mixed conifer-aspen forest zone (blue green), ponderosa pine forest zone (drab green), and pion-juniper woodland zone (orange), since 1977. Light red shades indicate a high or medium severity burn. Darker red shades indicate areas where high or medium severity burns have occurred twice. tems it is thought that woody canopy cover pected, based upon normal disturbance and increased through the 20th century, and succession cycles, there should be no major under a more natural disturbance regime, directional shifts in the distribution of major forests would be less dense. Nearly a century vegetation types. At the scale of the entire of fre suppression has allowed many forests monument, a vegetation trajectory toward and woodland stands to attain unusually an overall decrease in tree canopy cover, thick canopies, sometimes at the expense without loss of a tree component from the of understory herbaceous biomass. Finally, various ecosystems, and without a direction- although fne scale shifting mosaics of difer- al shift in the broad distribution patterns of ent forest and woodland types would be ex- the major ecosystem types, would approach

4 Natural Resource Conditions 49 reference conditions. The two maps used a diferent system of map units. Allen developed a system that con- 4.02.3 Objectives of vegetation sisted of 43 forest and woodland types and analysis, data sources, and methods 23 additional patch types, identifed primar- Two vegetation maps have been produced ily by the dominant tree component with in recent decades, encompassing most or additional understory information. Mulda- all of Bandelier NM. Allen (1989, hereafter vin et al. collected a series of ground plot `Allen’) produced a map (resolution 1.5 ha) surveys which they analyzed using multivari- based upon aerial imagery from 1981. Mul- ate statistical methods and classifed into a davin et al. (2011, hereafter `Muldavin et al.’) system consistent with the guidelines of the produced a map using supervised automated National Vegetation Classifcation Standard digital processing, assisted by multispectral that identifed 95 plant associations in Ban- imaging techniques at a resolution of 0.5 ha. delier NM. To facilitate comparisons among This map was based upon 2004 imagery. the two maps, both were reduced to their

Figure 4-5. Change in spatial distribu- LEGEND GRSH – Grassland/Shrubland tion of major vegetation map units from TA - Quaking Aspen Woodland/Forest GRAS - Grassland 1981–2004. a.1981, modifed from Allen RH – Ruderal Herbaceous PP & PPPJ – Ponderosa Pine & Ponderosa (1989). b. 2004, modifed from Muldavin MC – Mixed conifer Woodland/Forest Pine/Pion-Juniper Woodland et al. (2011). MC-S – Mixed conifer-Shrubland (P)J-S – Juniper Shrubland (previously with PPMC – Ponderosa Pine/Mixed Conifer pion) Woodland (P)J – Juniper Woodland (previously with PMCS – Ponderosa Pine/Mixed Conifer pion) Shrubland PJ-S –Pion-Juniper Shrubland PP-S & PPJS – Ponderosa Pine Shrubland & PJ – Pion-Juniper Woodland Ponderosa Pine /Juniper Shrubland J, J-SAV & J-S - Juniper Woodland, Juniper SHRU -Shrubland Savanna & Juniper Shrubland SH-O – Oak Shrubland

50 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment intersection, and the Muldavin et al. map was reclassifed to conform to the Allen map (complete details of this process are provided in Bowker and Smith 2014). Although this translation was imperfect, most major Muldavin et al. units corresponded reasonably well to major Allen units. Comparisons of the Allen and Muldavin et al. vegetation maps are reported here and in the 3 following sections.

In addition to the spatial comparison of the maps, two point datasets associated with each of the maps, respectively, were used to estimate where and to what degree canopy cover has changed since the 1980s. The Allen data were analyzed in three ways to estimate canopy cover during the 1980s: 1) using the existing map attribute estimating canopy cover at the spatial scale of polygons; 2) applying an inverse distance weighting interpolation technique (Franke 1982) to the point data; and 3) by averaging the two methods. The three analyses of the Allen Figure 4-6. Change in total area of coverage of major vegetation data were compared with the Muldavin et al. map units from 1981 (white bars) – 2004 (black bars). See Figure 4-5 data to quantify cover change from the 1980s on page 48 for defnition of vegetation codes.. to post-2003; positive values indicate canopy loss, and negative values indicate canopy be a co-dominant. Further upslope, there is a gain. clear shrinkage and fragmentation of stands with Pinus ponderosa as the dominant, or 4.02.4 Condition and trend co-dominant with P. edulis. Grass-dominated stands expanded at the apparent expense of 4.02.4.1 Map analysis P. ponderosa coverage. Vegetation has changed drastically in 23 years between the 1981 and 2004 imagery Many P. ponderosa stands also seem to be (Figures 4-5 and 4-6). At the lowest el- gaining a shrubby understory. Across Bande- evations of the monument, it appears that lier, but particularly in the middle elevations woodlands and savannas, with Juniperus as where P. ponderosa was dominant, shrubs are the canopy dominant, are expanding. This becoming more prevalent, and the coverage pattern appears independent of any changes wherein shrubs are a major component has to other species, such as Pinus edulis. Fur- more than tripled (Figure 4-7). It is difcult ther upslope, the most striking diference in to ascribe such a large pattern to diferences vegetative dominance to have occurred is the in vegetation classifcation or mapping. Allen complete loss of mature P. edulis as a co- (1989) was very cognizant of the distinctive- dominant species due to drought and beetle ness of communities with and without shrub mortality. This change occurred in associa- components in the 1981 imagery, devoting tion with the 2002 drought. These former P. several map units to making this distinc- edulis-dominated or co-dominated stands tion. Compared to P. ponderosa, growth-ring have shifted to Juniperus woodlands via widths of the shrub Quercus gambelii are less subtraction of P. edulis rather than migration sensitive to interannual changes in drought of Juniperus. Although P. edulis is retained severity (Adams and Kolb 2005), providing mostly as saplings, it can no longer be said to one possible reason for shrub proliferation

4 Natural Resource Conditions 51 not captured in this analysis.) Mixed conifer stands with P. ponderosa as a component may be increasing, as are shrubs overall. Finally, it is difcult to draw conclusions about Populus tremuloides stands; they appear to represent a shifting mosaic, as would be expected for a species associated with disturbance, but do not strongly change in coverage on the landscape from the earlier map to the later one.

4.02.4.2 Canopy cover analysis The analysis of canopy cover change supports the conclusions discussed above. Averaged over the whole extent of our analysis, the monument appears to have lost between 14 –15% canopy cover. The lower elevation mesa tops, almost without excep- tion, indicate some degree of canopy loss, generally about 30%, but some areas were even greater. These areas were dominated by pion-juniper woodlands and ecotones of this ecosystem.

The area within the boundary of the La Mesa Fire (at a higher elevation) is experiencing canopy gain, usually less than 20%, indicating that there is some slow recovery of forest canopy after about 30 years. Still higher in elevation in the mixed conifer/aspen forests, the overall pattern is one of very heterogeneous net loss. Near complete loss of canopy is estimated for the upper portions of the canyon, and further north in areas Figure 4-7. Expansion of plant communities with a shrub which were burned by the Cerro Grande component (J-S, PJ-S, SH-O, SHRU, PP-S, PPJS, PMCS, MC-S) Fire as well as outside the fre perimeter. from 1981–2004. a. Spatial distribution of shrubs as a major community component. b. Areal coverage of shrubs as 4.02.4.3 Synthesis a major community component. See Figure 4-5 on page There are several clear directional changes 48 for defnition of vegetation codes.. in the spatial distribution of focal vegetation communities. At higher elevations, Pinus in the middle elevations of the monument. edulis has declined dramatically, leaving Another major reason might pertain to the these areas dominated by juniper. The lower ability of Q. gambelii to resprout after fre boundary of P. ponderosa forests has shifted (Abella 2008, Strom & Fule 2007). Some upslope and these forests have become in- portions of the monument have experienced creasingly fragmented, colonized by shrubs, repeated fres in the last few decades. or otherwise altered. P. ponderosa-mixed co- At the highest elevations the spatial distri- nifer stands appear to have been replaced by bution of mixed conifer-dominated stands P. ponderosa-shrub communities, but other- has declined by probably less than one third wise mixed conifer forests have not strongly (Figures 4-5 and 4-6). (However, changes re- shifted in their spatial location. sulting from the recent Las Conchas Fire are

52 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment The loss of distinctive overstory species, drought. Proceedings of the National directional shifts of some major ecosystem Academy of Sciences 106: 7063–7066. types, proliferation of former subdominants, and drastic or outright loss of some domi- Adams, H. D., and T. E. Kolb. 2005. Tree nant species on the landscape indicate that growth response to drought and the ecosystems of the monument are largely temperature in a mountain landscape well outside of desired conditions. Given in northern Arizona, USA. Journal of that these recent vegetation shifts are directly Biogeography 32:1629–1640. or indirectly driven by climate change, it is Allen C. D. 1989. Changes in the landscape likely that similar patchy, big, fast transfor- of the Jemez Mountains, New Mexico. mations will continue to occur on the monu- Ph. D. Dissertation, University of ment landscape. The role of climate change California, Berkeley, California. in driving vegetation changes across the landscape is discussed in detail in Bowker Allen, C.D. 1998. A Ponderosa Pine Natural and Smith 2014. Area Reveals Its Secrets. Pages 551- 552 In: Mac, M.J., P.A. Opler, and P.D. 4.02.5 Level of confdence Doran (eds.). Status and Trends of There are inherent difculties in making the Nation’s Biological Resources, 2 comparisons between two maps that were volumes. U.S. Dept. of Interior, U.S. produced by diferent researchers using dif- Geological Survey, Washington, D.C. ferent techniques. While some error can be 964 pp. attributed to methods, (and many of these are discussed in detail in the appendices), Allen, C.D. 2004. Ecological patterns confdence in the assessment of the broadest and environmental change in the and strongest patterns is high. Bandelier landscape. In: (Kohler, T.A.) Archaeology of Bandelier National 4.02.6 Data gaps/Research needs/ Monument: Village formation on Management recommendations the Pajarito Plateau, New Mexico. Bowker and Smith suggest management of Albuquerque, New Mexico: University fuel conditions within the remaining stands of New Mexico Press. 19–67. that have not been burned intensely may yet Allen, C. D. 2007. Interactions across spatial discourage similar events from occurring. scales among forest dieback, fre, and erosion in northern New Mexico 4.02.7 Sources of expertise landscapes. Ecosystems 10:797-808. Matt Bowker, Dave Smith and Craig Allen Allen, C. D, and D. D. Breshears. 1998. 4.02.8 Literature cited Drought-induced shift of a forest- Abella, S. R. 2008. Managing gambel oak in woodland ecotone: rapid landscape southwestern ponderosa pine forests : response to climate variation. The status of our knowledge. RMRS- Proceedings of the National Academy GTR-218. Department of Agriculture, of Sciences 95: 14839–42. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, CO. Allen, C. D., A. K. Macalady, H. Chenchouni, D. Bachelet, N. McDowell, M. Adams, H. D., M. Guardiola-Claramonte, Vennetier, T. Kitzberger, A. Rigling, D. G. A. Barron-Gaford, J. Camilo Viegas, D. Breshears, E. H. Hogg, P. Gonzalez, D. D. Breshears, C. B. Zou, P.A. Troch, R. Fensham, Z. Zhang, J. CastroJ, N. and T. E. Huxman. 2009. Temperature Demidova, J-H. Lim, G. Allard, S. W. sensitivity of drought-induced tree Running, A. Semerci, N. Cobb. 2010. A mortality portends increased regional global overview of drought and heat- die-of under global-change-type induced tree mortality reveals emerging

4 Natural Resource Conditions 53 climate change risks for forests. Moore, M. M., W. W. Covington, and P. Z. Forest Ecology and Management 259: Fulé. 1999. Reference conditions and 660–684. ecological restoration: A Southwestern ponderosa pine perspective. Ecological Bentz, B., J. Régnière, M. Hansen, J. L. Applications 9: 1266–1277. Hayes, and J. A. Hicke. 2010. Climate Change and Bark Beetles of the Muldavin, E., A. Kennedy, C. Jackson, P. Western United States and Canada: Neville, T. Neville, K. Schulz, and M. Direct and Indirect Efects. Bioscience Reid. 2011. Vegetation classifcation and 60:602–613. map: Bandelier National Monument. Natural Resource Technical Report Betancourt, J. L., and E. A. Pierson, K. NPS/SCPN/NRTR—2011/438. Aasen-Rylander, J. A. Fairchild-Parks, National Park Service, Fort Collins, and J. S. Dean. 1993. Infuence of Colorado. history and climate on New Mexico pinyon-juniper woodlands. In: Negron, J. F., J. D. McMillin, J. A. Anhold, Aldron, E. F. and D. W. Shaw. (Eds). and D. Coulson. 2009. Bark beetle- Managing Pinyon-juniper Ecosystems caused mortality in a drought-afected for Sustainability and Social Needs: ponderosa pine landscape in Arizona, Proceedings of the Symposium, Santa USA. Forest Ecology and Management Fe, NM, April 26–30. General Technical 257:1353-1362. Report RM-236. USDA Forest Service, Fort Collins, CO. Strom, B. A., and Fulé. 2007. Pre-wildfre fuel treatments afect long-term ponderosa Breshears, D. D., N. S. Cobb, P. M. Rich, K. pine forest dynamics. International P. Price, C. D. Allen, R. G. Balice, W. H. Journal of Wildland Fire 16:128-138. Romme, J. H. Kastens, M. L. Floyd, J. Belnap, J. J. Anderson, O. B. Myers, and Touchan R., C. D. Allen, and T. W. Swetnam. Meyer CW. 2005. Regional vegetation 1996. Fire history and climatic patterns die-of in response to global-change- in ponderosa pine and mixed-conifer type drought. Proceedings of the forests of the Jemez Mountains, National Academy of Sciences 102: 42. northern New Mexico. In: C.D. Allen (ed.). Fire efects in southwestern Breshears, D. D., L. Lpez-Hofman, and L. forests: proceedings of the second J. Graumlich. 2011. When Ecosystem La Mesa Fire symposium; 1994 Services Crash: Preparing for Big, Fast, March 29-31, Los Alamos, NM. RM- Patchy Climate Change. Ambio 40: GTR-286. Fort Collins, CO: USDA- 256–263. Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. p. 33-46. Franke, R. 1982. Scattered data interpolation: tests of some methods: Mathematics of Wallin, K. F., T. E. Kolb, K. R. Skov, and M. Computation 38:181–200. R. Wagner MR. 2004. 7-year results of thinning and burning restoration Karl, T. R., J. M. Melillo, T. C. Peterson treatments on old ponderosa pines (eds.). 2009. United States Global at the Gus Pearson Natural Area. Change Research Program. Cambridge Restoration Ecology 12: 239–247. University Press, New York, NY, USA. Williams, A. Park, Craig D. Allen, Alison K. Marshall Jr., J. T. 1957. Birds of Pine-oak Macalady, Daniel Grifn, Connie A. Woodland in Southern Arizona Woodhouse, David M. Meko, Thomas and Adjacent Mexico. Cooper W. Swetnam et al. 2013. “Temperature Ornithological Society, Berkeley, CA. as a potent driver of regional forest drought stress and tree mortality.”

54 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Nature Climate Change 3:292-297.

Williams, A. P., C. D. Allen, C. I. Millar, T. W. Swetnam, J. Michaelsen, C. J.Still, and S. W. Leavitt. 2010. Forest responses to increasing aridity and warmth in the southwestern United States. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107: 21289–94.

4 Natural Resource Conditions 55 Biological Integrity • Communities of fres were important to their long-term Concern maintenance, and confrmed by fre-scar records of high frequency surface fres pre- 4.03 Montane Grasslands 1900 from old trees adjoining these grasslands (Allen 1989, Dewar 2012). While the 4.03.1 Description climatic conditions of montane grasslands Montane grasslands are found in a distinc- are clearly suitable for conifer establish- tive landscape pattern on upper, south- ment and growth, natural fres at relatively facing slopes (5–40%) with moderate to high high frequencies, but low intensities, acted solar exposure on nearly all of the larger to rejuvenate existing meadows by burning summits and ridge crests in the Jemez Moun- pedestaled grass clumps and killing conifer tains above 9500 ft (2900 m) feet, including regeneration (Allen 1984 & 1989; Coop and the slopes of Cerro Grande within Bandelier Givnish 2008; Dewar 2012). NM (Allen 1984 & 1989; Coop and Givnish 2007a) (Figure 8). 4.03.1.1 Threats Primarily grasslands, these communities are The loss of montane meadows and grass- dominated by the large bunchgrasses Thurb- lands (Figure 4-9) reduces biodiversity er fescue (Festuca thurberi) and oatgrass and other ecosystem services provided by (Danthonia parryi) ( Allen 1984; Muldavin grassland and herbaceous systems (Pat- et al. 2011). Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pra- ton and Judd 1970, Kremer et al. 2014), so tensis) dominates some patches within these the observed occurrence of woody species grasslands and may represent the legacy encroachment and associated loss of herba- of historic livestock grazing (Moir 1967). ceous open spaces is of concern (Dyer and Along with the dominant grasses, forbs can Mofett 1999, Moore and Hufman 2004, be common and diverse. Soils of montane Vankat 2013, Kremer et al. 2014). Trees are grasslands are relatively deep mollisols with common in areas adjacent to these grass- signifcant eolian inputs. These soils are well- lands, so the decrease in grassland/forb developed, indicating the long-term pres- cover at high elevations indicates the increas- ence of grassland vegetation on these sites ing efects of factors that promote woody and possible feedback mechanisms (Allen species persistence (Kremer et al. 2014). 1984; Coop and Givnish 2007). In particular, prior to 1900, historic high The topographic situations of montane fre frequencies and vigorous grass com- grasslands are consistent with the idea that petition acted to maintain largely treeless grasslands (Allen 1984 & 1989). In the Jemez Mountains there is abundant documentation that, with fre suppression since 1900, conifers have invaded sites, creating high montane savannas where there used to be open grasslands and meadows (Allen 1984 & 1989; Swetnam et al. 1999; Coop and Givnish 2007a, Dewar 2012). Encroaching tree overstories suppress grasses and forbs and eventually displace them as tree densities increase, needle litter accumulates, and mature canopies close (Allen 1984). Recent large-scale wildfres have reversed some historic encroachment, killing trees primarily along the forested grassland boundaries. However, mechanical reductions are still Figure 4-8. Montane meadow. NPS photo. required to remove well-established, large

56 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment diameter trees scattered at lower densities in grassland interiors.

Overgrazing by many sheep from the 1880s to about 1920 caused failure of the previous surface fre regime, yet precluded conifer establishment (Allen 1984, 1989). Subsequent reductions in sheep numbers apparently allowed conifers to establish in degraded grasslands where appropriate seed sources existed. Moist spring weather may have promoted pulses of tree establishment. Increasing temperatures may also be supporting increased rates of tree establishment (Dyer and Mofett 1999, Coop and Givnish 2007b).

Because the persistence of montane grasslands is largely dependent on fairly frequent but low intensity fres, fre condition is extremely relevant to determining the condition of these systems. The current fre regime of the Jemez Mountains is very different from what it was pre-settlement, and has diverged even further in the last several decades. This topic is discussed at length in other sections of this report.

Geographic patterns of montane grassland occurrence in the Jemez Mountains and specifcally in Bandelier NM was best documented through aerial photographs (Allen 1984 & 1989), though these only captured changes since 1935, well after Figure 4-9. Changes in montane grassland area, 1935–1981, Jemez grazing and fre suppression had begun. Mountains, New Mexico.

4.03.2 Reference conditions vegetation changes (including montane Many higher elevation south-facing moun- grasses) from 1935–1981, however no rigor- tain slopes were dominated by montane ous comparison has been made between meadows prior to the efects of fre suppres- Allen’s delineations and that of Muldavin et sion and historical grazing. al. (2011). In fall of 1983 twelve permanently-marked 4.03.3 Data and methods photopoints were established in the up- In his Masters thesis, Allen used historic per portions of the Cerro Grande montane photo analysis, tree cores, and soil analysis grassland to visually document changes (4–6 to examine historic conditions of montane photos/pt, including the cardinal directions). grasslands (Allen, 1984). Allen (1989) identi- These have been visited periodically and fed grassland and meadow vegetation types rephotographed (on fle with Bandelier Ecol- using GIS and feldwork. ogy Group). Montane grasslands were also identifed by Muldavin et al. (2011). Allen compared

4 Natural Resource Conditions 57 4.03.4 Condition and trend 4.03.6 Data gaps/Research needs/ Change analysis using historic air photos Management recommendations clearly reveals recent conifer tree invasion A proposal to girdle larger trees and leave of Jemez montane grasslands, with an 85% them standing to fall naturally in coming decrease in open grassland area on Cerro years was suggested as a minimally inva- Grande, from 110 ha in 1935 to 17 ha in 1981 sive approach to incrementally address the (Allen 1989). Overall, in the southeastern encroachment issue without the negative portion of the Jemez Mountains, open mon- aesthetic impacts of cutting, or environ- tane grassland area decreased 55%—from mental concerns associated with herbicides. 554 ha in 1935 to 250 ha in 1981. Several This would partially mitigate heavy fuel small montane grasslands present in 1935 loads which could sterilize soils locally when have disappeared, while the larger grasslands burned. Prescribed fre could be used in have been fragmented (Allen 1989). concert with these practices to maintain herbaceous open spaces within mostly forested Encroachment continued through the mid- systems. 1990s until the Cerro Grande (2000) and Las Conchas (2011) fres removed additional An NAU graduate student is inventorying trees (personal communications with Brian montane meadows using Southern Colorado Jacobs and Craig Allen), although neither of Plateau Network vegetation monitoring these fres killed many mature invasive trees methods. Results will be available in 2016. in the interior of the meadows. The fres also rejuvenated existing grasses by burn- 4.03.7 Sources of expertise ing pedestaled clumps, decadent with dead Craig Allen, Esteban Muldavin, Division growth, and promoting forb growth, though Leader, New Mexico Heritage Program. mechanical reductions are still required to remove well established large diameter 4.03.8 Literature cited trees scattered at lower densities in meadow Allen, C. D. 1984. Montane Grasslands in interiors (Brian Jacobs, personal communi- the Landscape of the Jemez Mountains, cation, Halpern et al. 2012). Ironically most New Mexico. M.S. thesis, University of of the trees that have invasively inflled the Wisconsin, Madison. 195 p. ancient montane grassland have survived the recent fres, while the adjoining upper slope Allen, C. D. 1989. Changes in the Landscape old-growth forests were completely killed by of the Jemez Mountains, New Mexico. the Cerro Grande and especially Las Con- PhD Dissertation, University of chas fres. For several years, from the mid- California, Berkeley. 346 p. 1980s to the early 1990s, there was sporadic Coop, J. D. and T.J. Givnish. 2007. Gradient management cutting to harvest trees (mostly analysis of reversed treelines and small) that were expanding into upper slope grasslands of the Valles Caldera, New montane grasslands on Cerro Grande. Man- Mexico. Journal of Vegetation Science, agement fres have also been utilized during 18: 43–54. the past several decades to remove mature invading trees, which has had limited but im- Dyer, J.M., and K.E. Mofett. 1999. Meadow portant efects on preserving grassland areas invasion from high-elevation spruce-fr (Craig Allen, personal communication, NPS forest in south-central New Mexico. unpublished GIS data). The Southwestern Naturalist 44: 445–457. 4.03.5 Level of confdence The level of confdence for this analysis is Halpern, C. B., R. D. Haugo, J. A. Antos, S. high for changes occurring up to the present. S. Kaas, and A. L. Kilanowski. 2012. Grassland restoration with and without fre: evidence from a tree-removal

58 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment experiment. Ecological Applications National Park Service, Fort Collins, 22:425–441. Colorado. Kremer, N. J., C. B. Halpern and J. A. Antos. Patton, D. R., and B. I. Judd. 1970. The role 2014. Conifer reinvasion of montane of wet meadows as a wildlife habitat meadows following experimental tree in the southwest. Journal of Range removal and prescribed burning. Forest Management. 23:272–275. Ecology and Management 319:128-137. Online publication date: 1-May-2014. Swetnam, T. W., C. D. Allen, and J. L. Betancourt. 1999. Applied historical Moir, W. H. 1967. The subalpine tall grass, ecology: Using the past to manage for Festuca thurberi, community of Sierra the future. Ecological Applications Blanca, New Mexico. The Southwestern 9:1189–1206. Naturalist, 12: 321–328. Vankat, J.L. 2013.Subalpine-Montane Moore, M. M. and D. W. Hufman. 2004. Grassland. In: Vegetation Dynamics Tree encroachment on meadows of the on the Mountains and Plateaus of the North Rim, Grand Canyon National American Southwest, pp. 334–370. Park, Arizona, U.S.A. Arctic, Antarctic Springer Netherlands, 2013. and Alpine Research 36:474–483.

Muldavin, E., A. Kennedy, C. Jackson, P. Neville, T. Neville, K. Schulz, and M. Reid. 2011. Vegetation classifcation and map: Bandelier National Monument. Natural Resource Technical Report NPS/SCPN/NRTR—2011/438.

4 Natural Resource Conditions 59 Biological Integrity • Communities of sapling understories in many mixed conifer Concern forests, with tree regeneration dominated by Douglas-fr and white fr, and also aspen and 4.04 Mixed Conifer / Aspen Forest ponderosa pine in some areas. This is a brief summary of the information provided by Bowker and Smith (2014) in Ap- 4.04.2 Reference conditions pendix B. The data used, analysis methods, Mixed conifer forest includes a mosaic of and all references are included therein. The forest types in various stages of disturbance. information below is mostly interpreted or Old-growth stands tend to be uneven- taken directly from that report. aged and contain multiple species and age classes, with an open structure and patchy 4.04.1 Description understory. The Mixed Conifer / Aspen vegetation type is a mosaic of distinct forest types that difer On south-facing sites in Bandelier NM, in both overstory and understory compo- such as much of the headwaters area of nents. Within this group, forest stands, in- the Rito de los Frijoles, dry mixed conifer forests generally experienced frequent, cluding signifcant amounts of aspen (Popu- low-intensity surface fres, with a mean fre lus tremuloides), are of particular interest for both their aesthetic and ecological value. interval of about 10 years before 1900, and Aspen stands will be discussed separately in crown fres rare or absent (Allen 1989). In section 4.04-1. mesic mixed conifer forest—largely absent on Bandelier but found elsewhere in north- Muldavin et al. (2011) described fve mixed ern New Mexico forests – past fre regimes conifer alliances within Bandelier NM. On included a mixed-severity fre regime with north aspects at the highest elevations, dense a combination of surface fres and patchy Engelmann spruce forests occur in the Jemez crown fres of low frequency, which gener- Mountains, but occupy minimal area within ally corresponded with periods of drought the boundaries of the park, particularly after (Touchan et al. 1996; Margolis et al. 2007; recent high-severity fres. In the elevation Margolis & Swetnam, 2013). Mesic mixed zone between 2130 and 2750 m, forests are conifer crown fre gaps would be expected co-dominated by mid-elevation conifers to become aspen stands if the species was (Douglas-fr, white fr, blue spruce, pon- locally present prior to fre. With post-1900 derosa pine, southwestern white pine, limber suppression of surface fres, both xeric and pine). Muldavin et al. describe two distinct mesic mixed conifer forest understories mixed conifer forest groups within this zone in-flled with high densities of tree regen- that refect an inherent moisture gradi- eration, particularly aspen and pine species ent. Which tree species dominate a site is a initially, in the then-open forest stands, but function of site conditions and disturbance later, increasingly dominated by shade-toler- history. For example, white fr and blue ant Douglas-fr and white fr regeneration as spruce (shade tolerant but fre intolerant) stands densifed. With the long-term absence dominate mesic sites. In contrast, Douglas-fr of fre, overstory aspen stands have gradu- (less shade tolerant, more fre resistant and ally in-flled and been overtopped by conifer drought tolerant) is more common on dry species, until fre or other disturbances allow sites with the potential for higher fre fre- aspen regeneration again. quency (Muldavin et al. 2011). 4.04.3 Data and methods Over the last 125 years, the structure and Numerous methods and data sets were composition of local mixed conifer forests included in Bowker and Smith’s analysis. A have changed dramatically (Allen 1984, vegetation map based upon 1981 imagery 1989, 2002). Fire suppression in the 20th was used to delineate the former location century allowed the development of dense of various types of mixed conifer forest and

60 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment aspen stands (Allen 1990). Available maps of It is too early for substantial data to be fre severity were overlayed on the 1981 dis- available to track the long-term response tribution of Mixed Conifer / Aspen forests to of the recent Las Conchas Fire in mixed illustrate the cumulative footprint of moder- conifer forests. However it is possible to ate to high severity fre since 1977. observe change among major cover types from 1981–2004 within the Cerro Grande Two vegetation maps, Allen (1989) and Mul- Fire perimeter. About 40% of areas mapped davin et al. (2011)), were compared to detect as mixed conifer by Allen (1989), retained changes in vegetation cover over time. See this cover type following the Cerro Grande section 4.02.3 (p. 11) for an explanation of Fire, and approximately 25% best matched the two diferent maps and how they were a ponderosa pine/mixed conifer/shrub compared. See also section 4.04-1.4 Condi- community, perhaps signaling a transition tion and trend for analysis of elk exclosure to fre- adapted species. One notable fre and refuge plot data to determine the rela- disturbance-linked community type that tive impacts of browsing on aspen growth does not appear to be increasing is aspen. and regeneration. See Bowker and Smith After the Cerro Grande Fire, ruderal herba- (2014) for detailed descriptions of data and ceous communities comprised about 25% methods. of the former area of communities mapped as mixed conifer within the burn perimeter. 4.04.4 Condition and trend Spatially, the overall trends are the apparent Vegetation change, specifcally in the mixed decline in total coverage of ponderosa pine/ conifer zone of Bandelier NM, is largely mixed conifer communities, the increase in driven by fre, herbivory, and drought and ruderal herbaceous vegetation, and a decline drought-associated insect and disease in contiguous patches of similar community outbreaks. After about a century of fre types (Figure 4-10). suppression and relatively few fres, large and often intense fres have been strongly However, most impacts of the Cerro Grande impacting the mixed conifer/aspen forests of Fire within Bandelier NM were actually the park. The current millennium has been low intensity, so we cannot attribute all characterized by “mega-fres” in the region. vegetation change within this time period The 1977 La Mesa Fire, 1996 Dome Fire, and to the fre, which occurred in 2000. An- 2001 Cerro Grande Fire all burned mixed other important event was the 2002–2004 conifer/aspen forests within Bandelier NM drought-induced pulse of tree mortality (Figure 4-4, p. 47). Each of these fres burned which afected many white fr and Douglas- moderately to intensely in patches, open- fr trees within portions of Bandelier’s mixed ing canopies in patches up to hundreds of conifer forests, though less dramatically than hectares in size. The scale of these openings the extreme mortality of pion in the park’s was reasonably close to historical conditions lower-elevation woodlands. of the mixed conifer/aspen forests within the park. The Las Conchas Fire was much Finally, saplings and suckers of aspen are larger and followed only 10 years after Cerro extremely palatable to elk, and following Grande. Virtually the entire southern half fre, aspen recovery can be suppressed and of the 1981 distribution of Mixed Conifer / even nearly eliminated due to elk herbivory Aspen forests was impacted by Las Conchas (Kay 1990, Kay 1997, Kay and Bartos 2000, (Figure 4-4). The scale of this event is clearly Wooley et al. 2008). outside of historical conditions. The cumula- The recent post-fre trajectories of mixed tive outcome of these fres is that more than conifer or aspen forests in Bandelier do not half of the 1981 distribution of Mixed Coni- seem to be toward proliferation of aspen fer / Aspen has experienced at least moder- clones. Aspen is a difcult community type ate severity fre. to map unless it is a pure stand. Relatively pure stands could be expected to increase

4 Natural Resource Conditions 61 LEGEND PP-S & PPJS – Ponderosa Pine Shrubland TA - Quaking Aspen Woodland/Forest SH-O – Oak Shrubland RH – Ruderal Herbaceous GRSH – Grassland/Shrubland MC – Mixed conifer Woodland/Forest GRAS - Grassland MC-S – Mixed conifer-Shrubland PP & PPPJ – Ponderosa Pine PPMC – Ponderosa Pine/Mixed Conifer Woodland

Figure 4-10. Vegetation communities within the Cerro Grand Fire perimeter as mapped based on 1981 imagery (Allen 1990) and 2004 imagery (Muldavin 2011).

after stand-opening fres, which in small lier’s mixed conifer forests. One clear change patches likely allowed pre-1900 recruit- between the two maps is the new ruderal ment of some current mature aspen groves. herbaceous communities, which would be However, other current aspen groves in expected in a fre-disturbed environment Bandelier refect early 1900s inflling into for this ecosystem type. According to Mul- glades, small openings, and canopy gaps in davin et al. (2011) these are dominated by formerly much more open mixed conifer Pascopyrum smithii along with Bouteloua forests due to post-1900 suppression of his- spp. and a high diversity of forbs. We cannot toric surface fres, just as associated conifer yet determine if these ruderal patches will species regeneration similarly inflled these eventually be colonized by trees (aspen or stands. Between the 1981 and 2004 maps, conifers), as these patches are still young and aspens were mapped as neither gaining nor there are insufcient data available currently losing total area within the area of the 2000 to determine longer-term trends. It also ap- Cerro Grande Fire; rather they show a shift- pears as though a fner-scaled heterogeneity ing mosaic on the landscape, gaining area in is emerging (Figure 10), although this obser- some places while losing a similar amount in vation may be infuenced by a slightly smaller others. As discussed in the separate section grain size used in the Muldavin (2011) map on “Aspen”, there is evidence that brows- compared to the Allen (1989) map. ing herbivory on aspen by ungulates (elk and deer) is suppressing recent post-fre 4.04.5 Level of confdence aspen regeneration in portions of Bande- The level of confdence for this analysis is

62 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment moderate to high. of long-term exclosures. Journal of Range Management 53: 145–153. 4.04.6 Data gaps/Research needs/ Management recommendations Margolis, E. Q., T. W. Swetnam. 2013. Research needs are to update the park Historical fre–climate relationships vegetation map to refect post-Las Conchas of upper elevation fre regimes in Fire vegetation, monitor post-disturbance the south-western United States. ecosystem recovery, and investigate potential International Journal of Wildland Fire fre management actions to contribute to 22:588–598. ecosystem resilience. These are all discussed Margolis, E. Q., T. W. Swetnam, and C. D. in more detail in chapter 5. Allen. 2007. A stand-replacing fre history in upper montane forests 4.04.7 Sources of expertise of the southern Rocky Mountains. Matthew Bowker and David Smith Canadian Journal of Forest Research 37:2227–2241. 4.04.8 Literature cited Allen, C. D. 1984. Montane Grasslands in Muldavin, E., A. Kennedy, C. Jackson, P. the Landscape of the Jemez Mountains, Neville, T. Neville, K. Schulz, and M. New Mexico. M.S. Thesis, University of Reid. 2011. Vegetation classifcation and Wisconsin, Madison. 195 p. map: Bandelier National Monument. Natural Resource Technical Report Allen, C. D. 1989. Changes in the landscape NPS/SCPN/NRTR—2011/438. of the Jemez Mountains, New Mexico. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Ph. D. Dissertation, University of Colorado. California, Berkeley. Touchan, R., Allen CD, Swetnam T. 1996. Allen, C. D. 2002. Rumblings in Rio Arriba: Fire history and climatic patterns in Landscape changes in the southern ponderosa pine and mixed-conifer Rocky Mountains of northern New forests of the Jemez Mountains, Mexico. Chapter 12 (pages 239–253) In: northern New Mexico. In: C. D. Allen J. Baron (ed.), Rocky Mountain Futures, (ed.). 1994. Fire efects in southwestern An Ecological Perspective. Island Press, forests: proceedings of the second La Covelo, CA. 325 pp. Mesa Fire symposium; March 29-31, Los Alamos, NM. RM-GTR-286. Fort Kay, C. E. 1990. Yellowstone’s northern Collins, CO: USDA-Rocky Mountain elk herd: a critical evaluation of the Forest and Range Experiment Station. “natural regulation” paradigm. Utah p. 33–46. State University, Logan, Utah. Wooley S. C., S. Walker, J. Vernon, R. L. Kay C. E. 1997. Is aspen doomed? Journal of Lindroth. 2008. Aspen decline, aspen Forestry 95: 4–11. chemistry and elk herbivory: are they Kay C. E. and D. L. Bartos. 2000. Ungulate linked? Rangelands 30:17–21. herbivory on Utah aspen: Assessment

4 Natural Resource Conditions 63 Biological Integrity • Species of Many living aspen clones may be ancient, for Management Concern example it has been proposed that most extant aspen clones in western North America 4.04-1 Aspen established by 10,000 years ago (Mitton and Portions of this section are a summary of Grant 1996), and the long-lived root systems information provided by Bowker and Smith of these clones make aspen one of the oldest (2014). Their full report is provided in Ap- living life forms on earth (Mitton and Grant pendix B. 1996). There is a long history of concern about 4.04-1.1 Description browsing on aspen across the western Quaking Aspen (Populus tremuloides), is United States (Sampson 1919; Leopold et the most widely distributed native tree in al. 1947; Beetle 1962; Basile 1979; Mueg- North America and the only aspen species gler 1988; Mueggler 1989; Krebill 1972; in western North America (DeByle and Murie 1994; Mueggler and Bartos 1997; Kay Winokur 1985, Jones 1985, Worrall 2013). and Bartos 2000; Ripple and Larsen 2001), Vegetation communities dominated by aspen including in national parks (Wright and have numerous ecological and human values Thompson 1935; McLaren and Peterson including high biological diversity (Chong et 1994; White et al. 1998; Baker et al. 1997; al. 2001), means by which they can indicate Ripple and Larsen 2000). greater ecological health of a region (White et al. 1998), importance as wildlife habitat, Historic rise and recent declines of aspen ability to yield high-quality water in greater Aspen regeneration and succession are volume than other forest types in similar closely linked with historical and current settings, ability to function as fre mediators fre regimes. Thus the story of recent as- in highly fammable coniferous forests (Fech- pen declines needs to be prefaced with an ner and Barrows 1976; DeByle and Winokur understanding of historical aspen expan- 1985), and the generally high value that sions. Based on extensive fre-scar studies humans place on the visual contribution of (Allen 1989), over at least the last 400 years, aspen stands in western landscapes. the dry mixed conifer and ponderosa pine The reproductive biology of aspen is of bio- forests of Bandelier NM were characterized logical interest and greatly afects their cur- by frequent surface fres ( approximately 10- rent ability to persist. In the West, aspen does year mean fre intervals) with less common, not typically regenerate from seed; aspen patchy mixed-severity fres. With the advent seeds are very sensitive to drying and need to of fre suppression by 1900, aspen began to stay wet for extended periods of time as well expand due to release from this fre regime. as in contact with mineral soil during early Over the last century or so, the forest struc- seedling growth. Intermittent dry conditions, tures and fre regimes that once existed have or insufcient contact between the roots and been greatly altered, producing signifcant mineral soil lead to seedling death (Quinn ecological efects on the fre prone-land- and Wu 2001; Turner et al. 2003). However, scape (Foxx and Potter 1978; Allen 1989). abundant aspen regeneration by seed can oc- Most notably, increased tree densities have cur, particularly after fres when mineral soils resulted in ‘crown fres”, which can travel in are widely exposed (e.g., Turner et al. 2003). the canopy across the forest at high speed and intensity, in stark contrast to the low In contrast, aspen vigorously reproduce veg- intensity surface fres of the past. The pat- etatively from existing clones (Barnes 1996). terns of aspen forest structure that emerged A clone is specifcally defned as a group by the late 1900s were just as altered by fre of individual stems and the associated root suppression as the rest of the mixed coni- system that has been vegetatively propagated fer forests, with inflling of gaps by aspen from a single seedling, called an ‘ortet’. sprouts that no longer were killed or thinned

64 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment by frequent landscape-scale fres. History of elk and aspen in or near Bandelier National Monument Although it is the most widespread tree spe- Elk were not abundant before the 20th cen- cies in North America (Worral et al. 2013), tury. Despite, or because they were relatively Populus tremuloides is generally declining easy for Native Americans to hunt, they ap- in the western U.S. (Kay 1990, Kay 1997, pear only relatively scarcely in archaeological Kulakowski et al. 2013, Schier 1975), with records regionally in the Southwest (Truett trends varying from place to place. Declines 1996) and locally in the Jemez Mountains may be caused by a variety of factors. First, (Allen 2004). Mexican gray wolves and griz- without fre, Populus tremuloides generally zly bears inhabited the local area until extir- cannot compete with conifers. In some pation in the 1930s, and likely played some ecosystems, such as spruce-fr forest or role in reducing elk numbers. Another pred- high elevation, mesic mixed conifer forest, ator, the cougar, has been the target of eradi- where long fre intervals allow conifers to cation eforts throughout the 20th century close canopies and build high fuel loads, fre but has persisted in low numbers. Although suppression throughout the 20th century the elimination of these predators was likely largely omitted the fre-caused openings that a boon for elk, human hunting pressure and typically provide opportunities for Populus limited surface water were probably greater tremuloides clones to proliferate. However, constraints. Another diference between this sort of fre regime characterizes very the 19th century and now is that elk are not little of the Monument landscape, as its high naturally a forest species. They prefer open elevation forests are southerly in aspect and areas where they feed on herbaceous plants were connected as part of high-frequency and can see their predators form a distance. fresheds pre-1900 (Allen 1989, Touchan et With the advent of the rife, elk can be killed al. 1996,Morino et al. 1998). Secondly, herbi- from a distance and, therefore, they have vore populations in the Southwest have seen found an advantage in spending greater a substantial increase in the last century due amounts of time under forest cover in areas to predator suppression, increase in ground with hunting. Consequently elk are browsing water availability in the form of cattle tanks forest species more heavily. A reference state (Binkley et al. 2006), and re-introduction would ideally be signifcantly after Puebloan eforts (Truett 1996). Now when fres occur, occupation, before large-scale introduction herbivory can constrain the growth of new of livestock and fre suppression and during ramets (Kay and Bartos 2000, Binkley et a period of time when elk were present in al.2006). Sheppard and Fairweather (1994) low densities. estimate some 10-15 years of protection from herbivores might be necessary to allow There is no reason to believe that aspens an aspen ramet to attain a sufcient size to did not regenerate well after high-frequency make it safe from herbivory. Finally, in recent watershed-wide fres in the Bandelier NM years, the so-called “Sudden Aspen Decline” landscape prior to 1900, as they have been has led to mass mortality of mature Populus shown to do so when not constrained by clones. Recently researchers have asserted other factors, like herbivory (Patton & Avant the cause to be the combination of severe 1970). Aspens were much less likely to have drought and warm temperatures (Anderegg been constrained by elk herbivory because et al. 2013, Worral et al. 2013). While this is a elk are believed to have been a relatively mi- concern regionally, thus far in Bandelier NM nor species (<3% of large mammals) in the there are no such cases of unexplained death western U.S. before Euro-American settle- of mature aspens (Stephen Fettig, personal ment since they are poorly represented in communication), though it remains a possi- archaeological and paleontological records bility in the future. (Allen 2004). This contrasts strongly with the current situation in which there has been major concern about elevated levels of elk

4 Natural Resource Conditions 65 herbivory cross the West (Murie 1944, Beetle and Loftin 1999). Bowker and Smith (2014) 1962, Basile 1979), and a paucity of aspen used classifcation and regression trees to regeneration for much of the 20th century model aspen height, and percentage of tips (Ripple & Larsen 2001). Rocky Mountain browsed as a function of spatial coordinates, elk (Cervus canadensis) were native in the elevation, pre-fre vegetation type, slope, Jemez Mountains until extirpated by about aspect, and whether or not a site was located 1900 (Bailey 1931). This same subspecies within the Cerro Grande Fire. was reintroduced to the Jemez Mountains in 1948 with elk from Yellowstone National 2006 aspen recovery in “refuge” plots in Park, and in 1964-65 with elk from the Jack- the Cerro Grand Fire vicinity; 2006 data. son Hole, Wyoming area (Allen 1996). The During the collection of the previous data- main diference between the pre-1900 and set, it was observed that palatable saplings current role of elk in the ecosystem is based and shrubs appeared to be refuged by on-site on population numbers (See section 4.17). elements, such as downed logs or rocks. This dataset focused on characterizing the 4.04-1.2 Reference conditions properties of sites in which Populus tremuloi- Aspen is not browsed at a level that sup- des or elk-susceptible shrubs may be refuged presses stand development. from elk browsing. Field crews searched the entire Cerro Grande burn area looking 4.04-1.3 Objectives of data analysis, for examples of an aspen or shrub that may data sources and methods be benefting from a refuge element. When 2001 through 2006 elk exclosure data. such a case was located, crews marked and 2 Five elk exclosures were established in mixed sampled a 100 m plot centered on the ref- conifer forests to track the infuence of elk uged individual or individuals. A total of 115 herbivory on aspen recovery, in addition to plots were sampled in this way. Bowker and impacts on higher trophic levels. For each of Smith used classifcation and regression trees the fve exclosures and their adjacent con- to model aspen height and cover as a func- trols, surveys counted the number of aspen tion of refuge site characteristics. individuals, and their frequency by height class. One pair of plots was burned in the Pooled data. 2000 Cerro Grande Fire. Bowker and Smith Bowker and Smith (2014) pooled the above (2014) used a paired repeated measures de- data to produce maps of percent aspen sign to examine the impact of elk herbivory browsing in 2002 and 2005, and maximum on aspen growth following the Cerro Grande aspen height in 2006. All of these data were Fire. plotted through time as a simple means of gauging park-wide aspen recruitment and Aspen and shrub recovery, random plots the impact of elk browsing. in Cerro Grande Fire vicinity; 2002 and 2005 data. 4.04-1.4 Condition and trend Maximum height and number of growing Aspen is currently decreasing in abundance tips of aspen and elk herbivory-susceptible because of the lack of successful regen- shrub species were measured in one set of eration on uplands with level or moder- random plots in 2002 (mostly located within ate slopes that are not protected from elk the Cerro Grande Fire boundary) and in browsing. another set of random plots in 2005 (mostly Bowker and Smith (2014) found clear evi- located outside the Cerro Grande Fire dence that elk herbivory constrains aspen boundary). Between 1992 and 2004, 3 dis- growth (Figure 4-11). In the frst fve years tinct but similar studies were conducted that following the Cerro Grande Fire, elk ex- manipulated pion-juniper canopy cover closures and nearby controls did not have (Chong 1993; Jacobs and Gatewood 1998; clearly diferent numbers of aspens. The

66 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment numbers of aspens were highly variable among the diferent exclosure-control pairs, and in some pairs the exclosure had a greater number of sprouts, while in others control plots had more sprouts. This variability likely results from three linked factors:

● whether the plot burned ● the degree of shading in the understory ● soil temperature fuctuations due to different degrees of canopy closure

This suggests that the ability of aspen to initially resprout in an area, as suckers from roots of a surviving clone, is not clearly reduced by elk in this dataset. Elk browsing and debarking of mature aspens could reduce sprouting vigor, but these data account only for exclusion of such impacts since 2000.

Regardless of their numbers, aspen individuals are currently subject to intense herbivory which constrains their size. On average, saplings were constrained to around 40 cm in height and did not show an upward growth trend. Inside exclosures, aspens were clearly becoming larger over time and the growth rate increased at each increment. In 2006, they had attained a height about 4 times that of their elk-afected counterparts. While in the short-term, this herbivory does not seem to result in mortality of aspens, it is reasonable to assume that a long-term continuation of this pattern would eventually result in the depletion of energy reserves and death of these stems as observed in two 10-acre areas within Bandelier NM and elsewhere (Lin- droth &and St. Clair 2013). Perhaps most interesting was the fact that fre intensity and elk exclusion seem to interact. In Figure 11c, we can see that control plots have similar, small aspen heights regardless of fre inten- Figure 4-11. Number and mean height of aspen stems sity. But, when protected from herbivory, inside elk exclosures and in control plots outside of exclosures over fve years. a. None of the considered factors the burned plot had aspens sprouts nearly affected number of aspen stems (Exclosure: F=1.6, P=0.26 double the size of the unburned plots. This Time: F=1.3, P=0.39), b. Mean aspen height was much suggests that aspen are well-equipped to greater inside exclosures, increased over time inside ex- recover from fre as long as they are not closures, and increased most inside burned exclosures constrained by herbivory. These results are (Exclosure: F=137277, P<0.0001; B × E : F=57.2, P=0.0003; not surprising, and are in line with several Time: F= 160.0, P 0.0001; E × T: F=8.9, P=0.10), c. Illustra- tion of the B × E interaction. other studies of the elk-aspen interaction in

4 Natural Resource Conditions 67 western North America. monument in lower lying areas, i.e. Valle Grande. Also in 2005, the smallest maximal Several of Bowker and Smith’s analyses tree heights were observed in the Bandelier focused on the variation in indicators of NM portions of the Cerro Grande Fire area, elk herbivory on aspen across the land- but were about twice as large east of the park scape. They wished to determine which boundary. The 2006 aspen height data sug- were the strongest infuences upon intensity gests more northerly locations had shorter of herbivory, and whether these could be aspens, and that in between 3967997N and predictively modeled. Three datasets were 3968536N, no aspens were observed. Again available, dating from 2002, 2005, and 2006, this suggests a spatial heterogeneity in herbi- that were pertinent to the recovery from the vore pressure. Some places experience much Cerro Grande Fire. In 2002 and 2005 there greater herbivory than other locations, and were direct observations of browsed tissue this patterning may shift from year to year on aspen, supplemented with information (Wolf 2003). on maximal sapling height, which would be expected to be under the infuence of elk 4.04-1.5 Level of confdence herbivory, but also infuenced by climate and High; this is a highly researched topic across soil characteristics. In 2006, two indirect in- the western U.S. dicators of elk activity were available: aspen maximal height and cover. 4.04-1.6 Data gaps/Research needs/ Perhaps the most striking conclusion that Management recommendations can be drawn from this set of analyses is that Trophic cascades associated with the loss elk herbivory has a strong spatial compo- of key predators has been shown to be an nent, regardless of the year. Krantz (2001) urgent global issue known to specifcally compiled elk observations in Valles Caldera be acting in U.S. national parks (Estes et National Preserve in 2001, and found that al. 2011). The loss of large predators in the the Rincon area of Valle Grande consistently 1900s has left a characteristic signal in re- had the largest number of elk, numbering duced tree growth rates at Isle Royal Nation- in the hundreds for most observations. This al Park (McLaren and Peterson 1994) and result is attributed to the fact that it is a large recruitment failure at Yellowstone National area with considerable forest edge. Valles Park (Beschta and Ripple 2009). The monu- Caldera elk prefer to spend the night in open ment’s studies of aspen supports the synthe- areas and spend days under tree cover, so sis provided by Estes et al. (2011). the Rincon area attracts large numbers of Two management recommendations surface animals. This demonstrates that the natural clearly from our current scientifc under- distribution of elk is highly variable spatially, standing. First, land management planning and that there can be consistent hotspots of eforts need to address the cascading eco- elk activity in a given year. system changes when consumers such as The spatial pattern of elk browsing indica- ungulate increase with the loss or continued tors in Bandelier NM may be demonstrating absence of predators (Estes et al. 2011). something similar. Interestingly, in 2002, it Through planning eforts (e.g. compliance was the far eastern edge of the northern por- with NEPA), managers should seek to edu- tion of the monument which experienced cate the public regarding the ecological role the greatest herbivory. However, the north- of apex predators and how their loss threat- ernmost portion of this area exhibited the ens biodiversity (Estes et al. 2011). Second, smallest aspen heights. In 2005, models were the best management solution is likely the much poorer in explanatory power (not restoration of an efective predation regime shown: % browsing R2 = 0.05; maximum (Estes et al. 2011)—clearly not an easy task. height R2 = 0.18) but the % browsing model indicates the greatest browsing north of the

68 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Management considerations in the face of of Bandelier National Monument. climate change University of New Mexico Press, Beschta et al. (2012) summed up the topic, Albuquerque, New Mexico. saying that if efective adaptions to the adverse efect of climate change are to be Anderegg, L. D. L., W. R. L. Anderegg, J. accomplished on western public lands, Abatzoglou, A. M. Hausladen, and J. A. large-scale reduction or cessation of ecosys- Berry. 2013. Drought characteristics’ tem stressors associated with ungulate use role in widespread aspen forest are crucial. Active ecosystem management, mortality across Colorado, USA. Global including the elimination of non-climate in Change Biology 1526–1537. situ threats, such as herbivory, are important Bailey, V. 1931. Mammals of New Mexico. in the face of climate change (Welch 2005). United States Department of The park should conduct monitoring to Agriculture Bureau of Biological Survey determine regeneration of unprotected North American. Fauna No. 53. 412 pp. aspen stands within the footprint of the Las Baker, W. L., J. A. Monroe, and A. E. Hessl. Conchas Fire. 1997. The efects of elk on aspen on the winter range in Rocky Mountain 4.04-1.7 Sources of expertise National Park. Ecography, 20: 155–165. Stephen Fettig, Matthew Bowker, and David Smith Barnes, B. V. 1966. The clonal growth habit of American aspens. Ecology 47: 4.04-1.8 Literature cited 439-447. Allen, C. D. 1989. Changes in the Landscape of the Jemez Mountains, New Mexico. Basile, J. V. 1979. Elk-Aspen Relationships Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. of Forestry on a Prescribed Burn. USDA Forest and Natural Resources, University of Service Research Note INT-271. California, Berkeley, California. 346 pp. Ogden, Utah. Over browsing has been a concern for decades and later cites Allen, C.D. 1996. Overview of Las Mesa Fire Murie (1994) and Beetle (1962). Studies. Pp. 1-6 in: C.D. Allen (ed.). Fire Efects in Southwestern Forests: Beetle, A. A. 1962. Range Survey in Teton Proceedings of the Second La Mesa County, Wyoming. Part 2. Utilization Fire Symposium; 1994 March 29-31; and condition classes. University of Los Alamos, New Mexico. USDA Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RM- Station Bulletin 400, 38pp. GTR-286. Fort Collins, Colorado. 216 Beschta, R. L., W. J. Ripple. 2009. Large pp. predators and trophic cascades Allen, C. D. 2002. Lots of lightning and in terrestrial ecosystems of the plenty of people: An ecological history western United States. doi:10.1016/j. of fre in the upland Southwest. Chapter biocon.2009.06.015. 5 (pages 143-193) in: T.R. Vale (ed.), Beschta, R. L., and B. L. Donahue, D. A. Fire, Native Peoples, and the Natural DellaSala, J. J. Rhodes, J. R. Karr, M. Landscape. Island Press, Covelo, CA. H. O’Brien, T. L. Fleisehner, and C. D. 315 pp. Williams. 2012. Adapting to Climate Allen, C. D. 2004. Ecological patterns and Change on Western Public Lands: environmental change in the Bandelier Addressing the Ecological Efect of landscape, Chapter 2. In: T.A. Kohler, Domestic, Wild, and Feral Ungulates. ed., Village formation on the Pajarito Environmental Management DOI Plateau, New Mexico: Archeology 10.1007/s00267-012-9964-9.

4 Natural Resource Conditions 69 Binkley D., M. M. Moore, W. H. Romme, 26pp. Rocky Mountain Forest and P. M. Brown. 2006. Was Aldo Leopold Range Experiment Station, Fort Collins, right about the Kaibab deer herd? CO 80521. Ecosystems 9: 227-241. Fox, T. S. and L. D. Potter. 1978. Fire Ecology Chong, G. W. 1993. Revegetation of pion- at Bandelier National Monument, Final juniper woodlands with native grasses. Report. University of New Mexico, Pp. 34-41 In: Aldon E. F., Shaw D. Albuquerque, New Mexico. W. (tech.coords.) Managing pion- juniper ecosystems for sustainability Jacobs, B.F., and R. G. Gatewood 1999. and social needs; proceedings of the Restoration studies in degraded symposium 1993 April 26-30; Sante Fe, pinyon-juniper woodlands of north- New Mexico. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-236. central New Mexico. Pages 294-298 in U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Proceedings of Proceedings of the U.S. Service, Fort Collins, Colorado. Forest Service RMRS-P-9.294-298

Chong, G. W., S. E. Simonson, T. J. Stohlgren, Jones, J. R. 1985. Distribution. Pages 9-10 and M. A. Kalkhan. 2001. Biodiversity: In DeByle, Norbert V. and Robert P. Aspen Stands Have the Lead, But Winokur eds. Aspen: Ecology and Will Nonnative Species Take Over? management in the western United In Sustaining Aspen in Western States. General Technical Report RM- Landscapes: Symposium Proceedings; 119. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department 13-15 June 2000; Grand Junction, CO. of Agriculture, Rocky Mountain Forest USDA Forest Service Proceedings and Range Experiment Station, 283pp. RMRS-P-18, Fort Collins, CO. pp Kay CE. 1990. Yellowstone’s northern 261-271. elk herd: a critical evaluation of the DeByle, N. V. and R. P. Winokur. 1985. “natural regulation” paradigm. Utah Introduction. Page 1 In DeByle, State University Logan, Utah. Norbert V. and Robert P. Winokur Kay CE. 1997. Is aspen doomed? Journal of eds. Aspen: Ecology and management Forestry 95: 4-11. in the western United States. General Technical Report RM-119. Fort Collins, Kay, C. E. and D. L. Bartos. 2000. Ungulate CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, herbivory on Utah aspen: Assessment Rocky Mountain Forest and Range of long-term exclosures. Journal of Experiment Station, 283 pp. Range Management 53(2):145-153.

Estes, J. A., J. Terborgh, J. S. Brahares, M Krebill, R. G. 1972. Mortality of aspen .E. Power, J. Berger, W. J. Bond, S. on the Gros Ventre elk winter range. R. Carpenter, T. E. Essington, R. D. USDA forest Service Research Paper Holt, J. B. C. Jackson, R. J. Marquis, L. INT-129. Oksanen, T. Oksanen, R. T. Paine, E. K. Pikitch, W. J. Ripple, S. A. Sandin, M. Kulakowski D., M. W. Kaye, and D. M. Schefer, T.W. Schoener, J. B. Shurin, A. Kashian. 2013. Long-term aspen cover R. E. Sinclair, M. E. Soulé, R. Virtanen, change in the western US. Forest and D. A. Wardle. 2011. Trophic Ecology and Management 299:52–59. Downgrading of Planet Earth. Science Leopold, A., L. K. Sowls, and D. L. Spencer. 333:301–306 1947. A survey of over-populated deer Fechner, G. H. and J. S. Barrows. 1976. ranges in the United States. Journal of Aspen Stands as Wildfre Fuel Breaks. Wildlife Management 11:162-183. Eisenhower Consortium Bulletin 4, Lindroth R. L., and S. B. St. Clair. 2013.

70 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Adaptations of quaking aspen (Populus Quinn, R. D. and L. Wu. 2001. Quaking tremuloides Michx.) for defense Aspen Reproduce from Seed against herbivores. Forest Ecology & After Wildfre in the Mountains of Management 299:14-21. Southeastern Arizona. In Sustaining Aspen in Western Landscapes: Loftin, S. R. 1999. Initial response of soil and Symposium Proceedings; 13-15 understory vegetation to a simulated June 2000; Grand Junction, CO. fuelwood cut of a pinyon-juniper USDA Forest Service Proceedings woodland in the Santa Fe National RMRS-P-18, Fort Collins, CO. pp Forest. Pages 311-314 in Proceedings of 369–76. Proceedings of the U.S. Forest Service RMRS-P-9.294-298. Ripple, W. J. and Larsen, E. J. 2000. Historic aspen recruitment, elk and wolves McLaren, B. E. and Peterson, R.O. 1994. in northern Yellowstone National Wolves, moose, and tree rings on Isle Park, USA. Biological Conservation Royale. Science 266:1555-1558. 95:361–370.

Mitton J. B., and M. C. Grant. 1996. Genetic Ripple W. J. and Larsen E. J. 2001. The Role variation and the natural history of of Postfre Coarse Woody Debris in quaking aspen. BioScience 46:25-31. Aspen Regeneration. Western Journal Morino, K. A., C. H. Baisan, and T. W. of Applied Forestry 16(2):61-64. Swetnam. 1998. Expanded Fire Regime Sampson, A. W. 1919. Efect of grazing upon Studies in the Jemez Mountains, New aspen reproduction. USDA Bulletin No. Mexico. Final report to USGS Jemez 741. Mountains Field Station, Bandelier National Monument. 143 p. Schier, G. A. 1975. Deterioration of Aspen clones in the Middle Rocky Mountains. Mueggler, W. F. 1988. Aspen community USDA Forest Service Research Paper types of the intermountain region. INT-170. Intermountain Forest and USDA Forest Service General Technical Range Experiment Station, National Report INT-250. Ogden, Utah. Forest Service, U.S. Department of Mueggler, W. F. 1989. Age distribution and Agriculture, Ogden, Utah 84401. reproduction of aspen stands in the Sheppard W. D., and M. L. Fairweather. Intermountain Region. Western Journal 1994. Impacts of large ungulates in of Applied Forestry 4:41-45. restoration of aspen communities Mueggler, W. F. and D. L. Bartos 1997. in a southwestern Ponderosa Pine Grindstone Flat and Big Flat exclosures ecosystem. Pp. 344-347 In: Covington -- a 41-year record of changes in WW, DEBano LF (tech. coordinators), clearcut aspen communities. USDA Sustainable ecological systems: Forest Service Res. Paper INT-195. implementing an ecological approach Ogden, Utah. to land management, 1993 July 12-15, Flagstaf, Arizona. GTR RM-247, USDA Murie, O. J. 1994. Our big game in winter. Forest Service, Fort Collins, Colorado. 9th North American Wildlife Conference Transactions, pp. 173–176. Touchan, R., C. D. Allen, and T. W. Swetnam. 1996. Fire history and climatic patterns Patton, D. R. and H. D. Avant. 1970. Fire in ponderosa pine and mixed-conifer Stimulate Aspen Sprouting in a Spruce- forests of the Jemez Mountains, Fir Forest in New Mexico. USDA northern New Mexico, in Allen, C. Forest Service Research Note RM-159. D., technical editor, Fire Efects in 3pp. Southwestern Forests: Proceedings of

4 Natural Resource Conditions 71 the Second La Mesa Fire Symposium, Wright, G. M. and B. H. Thompson. Los Alamos, New Mexico, U.S. 1935. Fauna of the National Parks Department of Agriculture Forest of the United States. Unite States Service General Technical Report RM- Department of the Interior, National GTR-286, p. 33–46. Park Service Fauna Series No.2. United States Government Printing Ofce, Truett, J. C. 1996. Bison and elk in the Washington, DC. American Southwest: in search of the pristine. Environmental Management Wolf, E. D. 2003. Modeling distribution of 20: 195–206. elk in Bandelier National Monument, Turner, M.G., W. H. Romme, R. A. Reed, New Mexico. MS Thesis, Texas Tech and G. A. Tuskan. 2003. Post-fre University. aspen seedling recruitment across the Yellowstone (USA) landscape Worrall J. J., G. E. Rehfeldt, A. Hamann, E. H. Landscape Ecology 18:127–140. Hogg, S. B. Marchetti, M. Michaelian, L. K. Gray. 2013. Recent declines of Welch, D. 2005. What Should Protected Populus tremuloides in North America Areas Managers Do in the Face of linked to climate. Forest Ecology and Climate Change? George Wright Management 299:35–51. Forum 22(1):75–93. White, C. A., C. E. Olmstead, and C.E. Kay. 1998. Aspen, elk, and fre in the Rocky Mountain national parks of North America. Wildlife Society Bulletin 26:449–462.

72 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Biological Integrity • Communities of (Breshears et al. 2005; Gitlin et al. 2006). Concern 4.05.1.2 Fire 4.05 Ponderosa Pine Forest and Fire patterns in southwestern ponderosa pine forests have changed considerably over Woodland the last several centuries. Until about the late This is a brief summary of the information 1800s, fres were common, but remained provided by Bowker and Smith (2014) in Ap- mostly on the ground (rather than burned pendix B. Detailed descriptions of pondero- in the crowns of trees). Fire behavior was sa pine forest ecology, the data used, analysis driven by forests that had fewer trees and methods, and all references are included a greater understory of grasses and shrubs therein. The information below is mostly in- that maintained surface fres and minimized terpreted or taken directly from that report. long-term damage to mature trees (Allen 1989, Allen et al. 1995). The average fre 4.05.1 Description return interval was about 5–15 years, which Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa; ‘pon- limited survival of all but a few tree cohorts derosa’) vegetation communities can be (Figure 4-13). described as forest, woodland or savanna, depending on canopy density, but generally With the introduction of grazers (cattle and have ponderosa as the dominant overstory sheep), much of the herbaceous under- species. Ponderosa pine forests across the story was consumed or trampled, fres were southwestern U.S. are threatened by several routinely suppressed, and ponderosa pine factors, primarily changes in fre regimes forests across the southwest grew thicker and that have led to unnaturally high tree densi- older. The result was much higher tree densities, and the interacting impacts of climate ties, a situation that greatly increases the change and drought (Negron et al. 2009, potential for crown and high intensity fres Wallin et al. 2004), factors that are described that kill large trees which would otherwise in detail in Bowker and Smith (2014) and explained briefy below.

4.05.1.1 Climate One of the most important expressions of climate change is increasing warm drought periods (Williams et al. 2012). The western U.S. is currently experiencing the warmest temperatures observed in a millennium (In- tergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC] 2007), and models strongly suggest climate scenarios wherein northwestern New Mexico will very likely experience continued warming, possibly along with less spring precipitation (Karl et al. 2009).

Within Bandelier NM, the 1950s drought and associated bark beetle outbreak killed mesatop ponderosa pines across a several kilometer band along its lower elevational distribution over a brief 5-year timespan Fig- Figure 4-12. Changes in vegetation cover, 1954–1963, in the study ure 4-12 (Allen and Breshears 1998). Region- area at Bandelier National Monument, showing persistent ponderosa pine forest (green), persistent pion-juniper woodland (yellow), ally, in the years following the 2002 drought and the ecotone shift zone (red) where forest changed to wood- many individuals or even entire stands died land.

4 Natural Resource Conditions 73 Figure 4-13. Fire scar chronology for samples collected in Frijoles Canyon. The horizontal lines depict individual tree lifespans. The dots along the lines represent recorded fre scars. Many trees record fre in the same year. Fires burned at a regular interval until after 1900.

survive low intensity surface fres (Potter and have been dissimilar to the surface fres Foxx 1978, Allen 1989, Moore et al. 1999, that occurred from ca. 1500–1900, and can Allen et al. 2002). In addition, exotic grasses be characterized as having a much greater (particularly cheatgrass, Bromus tectorum, extent of high-severity fre efects. Since and other brome species) are now perma- the 1970s, several major crown fres have nently present in the seed bank of many occurred in and around Bandelier N. M. southwestern forests or areas adjacent to The 1977 La Mesa Fire (6,354 ha), the 1996 them, and following fres, can now outcom- Dome Fire (6,677 ha), the 1997 Lummis Fire pete many native herbaceous species (Korb (607 ha), the 2000 Cerro Grande Fire (16,909 et al. 2003, Barclay et al. 2004, McGlone et al. ha), and the catastrophic 2011 Las Conchas 2009). Fire (63,250 ha) all burned at least some ponderosa pine forests (Figure 4-14a), with the Fire is a part of the evolutionary environ- La Mesa, Dome and Las Conchas impact- ment of the ponderosa pine forest (Moore ing ponderosa pine forests most severely( et al. 1999). However, fres in recent decades Figure 4-14b). These large, stand-replacing

74 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment 75 Figure 4-14b. Bandelier National Monument and the areas of high and moderate burn severity for the three fres (1997 La Mesa Fire, 1996 Dome Fire and 2011 Las Conchas Fire) that represent areas of tree cover loss. Fire, 1996 Dome Fire, 1997 Lummis Fire, 2000 Cerro Grande Fire and 2011 Las Fire, 1996 Dome Fire, 1997 Lummis Fire, 2000 Cerro Grande Fire and 2011 Conchas Fire. Figure 4-14a. Bandelier National Monument and outlines of 1997 La Mesa Figure 4-14a. Bandelier National Monument and outlines of 1997 La Mesa

4 Natural Resource Conditions 75 fres were a result of over a century of fre of fre by around AD 1900. In the 400 years suppression and fuel build-up interacting prior to the 20th century, ponderosa pine with warmer temperatures brought about by forests experienced frequent fres, most of recent climate trajectories. which were low-intensity surface fres. The fre return intervals were largely about 5–15 As has occurred elsewhere in the region, years. Large crown fres were absent from 20th century fre suppression resulted in ponderosa pine forests in local and regional rapid recruitment of ponderosa pine sap- fre scar records (Swetnam and Baisan 1996). lings, resulting in “doghair thickets” of small diameter trees. One local example of 4.05.2 Reference conditions old-growth ponderosa pine densities, and An extensive body of research has addressed subsequent stand thickening, comes from the defnition of reference conditions for the Monument Canyon Research Natural southwestern ponderosa pine forests in gen- Area of Santa Fe National Forest to the west eral (e.g. Covington and Moore 1994, Fule of Bandelier NM. This stand displayed a et al. 1997, Moore et al. 1999 Swetnam et al. two-tiered tree distribution with an old- 1999). The conclusions from these stud- growth density of 100 stems/ha and an un- ies are that prior to European settlement, derstory thicket of saplings and poles with a ponderosa pine communities were mostly tree density of 21,500 stems/ha (Allen 1989). open canopied forests and savannas, with Similar stand conditions and high fuel loads tree densities ranging from 8–25 trees per were evident in the area burned by the 1977 hectare (Fule et al. 1997, Allen et al. 2002, La Mesa Fire which converted the heart of Woolsey 1911). Understories included native the monument’s ponderosa pine forest into grasses and shrubs, such as Quercus gam- grasslands (Allen 1989). belii— compositions maintained by frequent, low-intensity surface fres (Allen et al. 1995; The historical fre regimes of ponderosa pine Abella 2008). forests in the Jemez Mountains have been relatively well reconstructed using tree-ring In the Jemez Mountains, open ponderosa methods and charcoal (Touchan et al. 1996, pine forests covered the middle and upper Allen 2002, Anderson et al. 2008). Prior to portions of the Pajarito Plateau 125 years the 1860s, Utes, Apaches and Navajos using ago. By 1900, heavy livestock grazing had the Jemez Mountains area were a deterrent degraded the grassy understory, leading to to settlement by Euro-Americans (Allen de facto fre suppression, which was later 2004). Shortly afterward, in the 1870s and continued as 20th century fre suppression 1880s, livestock were introduced in large policy (Allen 1989). numbers into what is now Bandelier NM, at very high stocking rates (Allen 2004). The 4.05.3 Objectives of vegetation grazing pressure diminished fne herbaceous analysis, data sources, and methods fuels, curtailing the spread of fre and the The data used and all analysis methods are size of fres. The previously high-frequency described in detail in Bowker and Smith fres were further curtailed by the adoption 2014 (Appendix B). of fre suppression policies in the early 20th century. Long-term fre scar records confrm 4.05.3.1 Vegetation maps that this omission of fre since the late 1880s Two vegetation maps, Allen 1989 (`Allen’) in the Jemez Mountains is an anomaly. The and Muldavin et al. 2011 (`Muldavin’), were fre regime can be tracked over periods of compared to detect changes in vegetation centuries rather than just a window of time cover over time. The Allen map was based just before the 20th century. Touchan et al. upon 1981 imagery while the Muldavin map (1996) and Allen (2002), documented the was based upon 2004 imagery. To facilitate last 500 years of burn scars, and provide comparisons among the two maps, both strong evidence of a near complete cessation were reduced to their intersection and the

76 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Muldavin map reclassifed to conform to the and tree regeneration counted within a plot Allen map (complete details of this process centered around the transect (Barclay et al. provided in Bowker and Smith 2014). Al- 2004). All of the plots were measured in 1997 though this translation was imperfect, most and 1998, the park’s plots were re-measured major Muldavin units corresponded reason- in 2002, and the SFNF plots were re-mea- ably well to major Allen units. For ponderosa sured in 2008. pine, Muldavin’s eight types were reduced to Allen’s four types (Bowker and Smith 2014). 4.05.3.5 Data analysis PerMANOVA (Anderson 2001) was used to 4.05.3.2 Fire maps statistically test for diferences in the overall Fire severity maps for each of the fres men- cover composition of functional groups. Us- tioned above (or fre perimeter, only if sever- ing the same community matrix, non-metric ity was not available), were spatially oriented multi-dimensional scaling (NMDS) (Mc- with the vegetation maps. Multiple methods Cune and Grace 2002) was used to graph were used to compare seeded vs. unseeded, functional group composition across fre in- and variable fre intensities with vegetation tensities (high, moderate and unburned) and composition to analyze changes in cover of seeding (seeded vs. unseeded). An ANOVA various functional groups (forbs, grasses, was used to evaluate changes in cover of in- shrubs, subshrubs and trees). dividual functional groups, species richness, total live canopy, and specifcally for Bromus 4.05.3.3 Fire effects monitoring plot data tectorum and B. inermis. Fire monitoring plots were established to examine shifts in vegetation characteristics 4.05.4 Condition and trend after prescribed burns, mechanical thin- Vegetation change in the ponderosa pine ning, and wildfre. This analysis used only zone of Bandelier NM is largely driven by data from plots representative of various fre and associated invasive species impacts, types of ponderosa pine stands, or former and by drought and associated pathogen ponderosa pine stands. Plots were defned as outbreaks. After about a century of fre being from one of four areas: upper eleva- suppression and relatively few fres, large, tion ponderosa, low elevation ponderosa, and often intense, fres are strongly impact- previous ponderosa (area of La Mesa Fire) ing the ponderosa pine forests of Bandelier and the area of mechanical thinning. Burned NM (Figure 4-4, p. 49). The 1977 La Mesa plots were surveyed before a prescribed Fire had a major efect on the distribution burn, immediately after the burn, and at one, of ponderosa pine forests (Potter and Foxx two, fve, and 10 years after the burn. Similar 1978, Allen 1989). Within Bandelier NM, to burned plots, thinned plots were surveyed nearly all of the area that experienced at least immediately before and after thinning. moderate severity burns, was mapped from 1981 air photos as vegetation types other 4.05.3.4 Post-Dome Fire transects than ponderosa pine forests—usually grass- In 1996, following the Dome Fire, an emer- lands or shrublands (Allen 1989). Since it is gency seeding operation was initiated on known that most of the burned areas were the Santa Fe National Forest (SFNF) por- ponderosa pine forests, this observation sug- tion of the burn, but not on the monument’s gests a fre-triggered type conversion. Most portions. In 1997, 49 vegetation sampling of these areas have still not reverted back to transects were established in and around ponderosa pine forests based on more recent the burn, ten in the park and the remainder 2004 mapping. in SFNF. Transects were located to sample areas that varied in pre-fre forest type, eleva- The 1996 Dome Fire impacted ponderosa tion, fre intensity, and seeding treatment. pine forests, but mostly forest outside of the At each location, herbaceous vegetation Bandelier NM boundary on the national was sampled using line-intercept methods, forest side. Within the park, west of Capulin

4 Natural Resource Conditions 77 Canyon, a sizable block (~ 1km2) of contigu- as either dominant species or major com- ous ponderosa pine forests experienced munity components, along with grasses. moderate to high intensity fre (Fig. 4-2b, p. Shrublands or shrub-grassland associations, 39 ). in which shrub species re-sprout after fre, are common in various parts of the U.S. and The 1997 Lummis Fire was almost entirely the world. It seems likely that increasing fre within ponderosa pine habitat, including frequency would perpetuate these commu- some areas previously converted during the nity types and constrain recruitment of Pinus La Mesa Fire ). This fre occurred in the larg- ponderosa. est remaining contiguous block of ponderosa pine forest remaining in the monument, and Bowker and Smith (2014) used the Post- its perimeter encompassed more than half of Dome Fire transect data (transects were that block. The Las Conchas Fire was a much primarily in ponderosa pine, but ranged larger fre, but its impacts on ponderosa pine from mixed conifer forest to pion-juniper forests within the monument were smaller, woodland) and fre monitoring plot data to perhaps because of the fuel consumption examine the components of ponderosa pine efects of other recent fres (Figure 2d). community structure and composition that On adjacent National Forest lands, many changed with fre. They observed that spe- ponderosa pine and former ponderosa pine cies richness was highest at moderate burn stands that were impacted by the Dome Fire severities. Their analysis also suggested that reburned in Las Conchas. total vegetative cover difered across burn severities, such that cover was highest in un- In summary, ponderosa pine forests with burned plots and lowest at high burn severi- herbaceous understories have been greatly ties. In examining canopy cover of individual reduced in coverage on the monument functional groups, they found signifcant landscape by high severity fres since 1977, diferences in the cover of forbs, shrubs, and and are becoming increasingly fragmented trees across burn severities. Tree cover in (Figure 4-15). Shrubs appear to be emerging unburned sites was approximately 58%, but

LEGEND RH – Ruderal Herbaceous PPMC – Ponderosa Pine/Mixed Conifer Woodland PP-S & PPJS – Ponderosa Pine Shrubland SHRU -Shrubland SH-O – Oak Shrubland GRSH – Grassland/Shrubland GRAS - Grassland PP & PPPJ – Ponderosa Pine (P)J-S – Juniper Shrubland (previously with pion) (P)J – Juniper Woodland (previously with pion) PJ-S –Pion-Juniper Shrubland PJ – Pion-Juniper Woodland J, J-SAV & J-S - Juniper Woodland, Juniper Savanna & Juniper Shrubland

Figure 4-15. Vegetation communities within the Dome (1996) and Lum- mis (1997) fre perimeters as mapped based on 1981 imagery (Allen 1990) and 2004 imagery (Muldavin 2011).

78 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment only 3% and 1% respectively, in moderate behavior and fuel characteristics. It would severity and high severity burn sites. Shrub, seem that ponderosa pine may have a lesser forb and grass covers in moderately or role in the resulting systems. If future climate severely burned sites were roughly two-fold conditions include multi-decadal wet spells that of unburned sites. between drought episodes, ponderosa pine may persist, but perhaps at lower densities, Over the past several decades, there have especially in shrub dominated portions of been major transformations in the distribu- the landscape. tion and vegetation structure of the ponderosa pine forests of Bandelier NM. Some Major drought events, such as that of 2002 of these changes have been induced by (Breshears et al.2005), are another force deliberate human action (thinning, pre- infuencing vegetation dynamics. As stated scribed burning and seeding), while others elsewhere in this report, the future will very have been brought about by inadvertent likely be characterized by increasingly warm, human perturbation (climate change and and therefore more severe droughts (Adams wildfre). Wildfre in particular has had the et al. 2009, Williams et al. 2010). It is clearly greatest impact, resulting in fragmentation a factor which reduces the probability of the of the ponderosa pine forests, and establish- persistence of ponderosa pine stands (Allen ment of large grassland patches. Wildfre has & Breshears 1998, Gitlin et al. 2006). Less also promoted shrubs, both as a dominant well understood are its efects on the recruit- species, and as an understory subdominant. ment of shrubs and exotic grasses. In the As climate change increasingly favors fres, fre monitoring plots, shrub cover increased it can be expected that their frequency and consistently each year from 1993 to 2000, re- magnitude will continue increasing (Wil- sulting in an approximately 18-fold increase liams et al. 2010). in shrubs. After the drought of 2002, shrub cover decreased to 1993 levels, consistent The recent fres were the outcome of chang- with observations of shrub canopy diebacks ing climate and fuel and canopy conditions that year (Brian Jacobs and Craig Allen, per- brought about by a century of fre suppres- sonal communication). sion. Since canopy cover and the continuity of ponderosa pine forests has already In the remaining ponderosa pine stands changed so much, we can expect that future that have withstood crown fre and drought, fre behavior and outcomes could be difer- management activities may alter the suc- ent. Grassland patches are likely to experi- cessional course. Prescribed burning and ence frequent low intensity fre, but are mechanical thinning reduced overstory tree being colonized by shrubs which will change density by about 50 and 40%, respectively, their fre behavior. Shrublands and forests from undisturbed controls. The reduction in with shrub understories are likely to experi- overstory trees is consistent with historical ence moderate to high intensity fre. If trees conditions, and would likely avert or reduce are part of the community or adjacent to the extent of crown fre runs in the future, these communities, the fre may be capable allowing the persistence of ponderosa pine of jumping to tree crowns. The major shrubs as a major community member. Interestingly, (oak and locust) are fre resprouters. While in contrast to wildfre, we did not fnd an we are seeing signifcant departure from his- infuence of prescribed burning or thinning torical vegetation conditions which formerly on shrub or understory herbaceous cover supported a surface fre regime, one posi- vegetation, suggesting that the treatments tive aspect is that a more crown fre-resilient have not thinned the overgrown forests vegetation type is emerging. These scenarios sufciently to restore pre-1900 surface fre would logically lead to a future where grasses conditions. and shrubs become more prevalent and promote their own persistence by modifying fre In this ecosystem, which is so prone to change, desired conditions should be viewed

4 Natural Resource Conditions 79 as a moving target. The extent, abundance, sensitivity of drought-induced tree and continuity of ponderosa pine wood- mortality portends increased regional land have been compromised, and the best die-of under global-change-type guess at the future is a continuation of this drought. Proceedings of the National trend; an increasing “shrubifcation” and an Academy of Sciences 106: 7063–7066. increasing presence of exotic grasses. This future does depend on which management Allen, C. D. 1989. Changes in the landscape actions are undertaken. There is some evi- of the Jemez Mountains, New Mexico. dence that thinning and prescribed burning Ph. D. Dissertation, University of could slow this trend, by reducing the prob- California, Berkeley. ability of crown fre in the remaining stands, Allen, C.D. 2004. Ecological patterns and and by removing the force which converts environmental change in the Bandelier forests to shrublands—high-severity fre. landscape.Pp 19–67 in: (Kohler, T.A.) Archaeology of Bandelier National 4.05.6 Data gaps/Research needs/ Monument: Village formation on Management recommendations the Pajarito Plateau, New Mexico. ● Generally, post-fre seeding is not likely University of New Mexico Press, to lead to desirable long-term vegetation Albuquerque, New Mexico. outcomes and is not efective in reducing erosion. Seeding results in increased Allen, C. D., and D. D. Breshears. 1998. cover of exotic species that persists Drought-induced shift of a forest- indefnitely. woodland ecotone: rapid landscape ● There is some evidence that thinning response to climate variation. and prescribed burning could slow the Proceedings of the National Academy process of conversion from forests to of Sciences 95: 14839–42. shrub and grasslands by reducing the Allen, C. D., M. Savage, D. A. Falk, K. F. probability of crown fres in remain- Suckling, T. F. Swetnam, T. F. Schulke, ing stands. See discussion of forest P. B. Stacey, P. Morgan, M. Hofman, management under Jemez Mountain and J. T. Klingel. 2002. Ecological salamander. restoration of southwestern ponderosa ● Climate change scenarios strongly pine ecosystems: a broad perspective. indicate that northwestern New Mexico Ecological Applications 12: 1418–1433. will experience continued warming and possibly less spring precipitation (Karl Allen, C. D., R. Touchan, and T. Swetnam. et al. 2009), conditions that will continue 1995. Landscape-scale fre history to inhibit, through various mechanisms, studies support fre management action the regrowth of ponderosa forests. This at Bandelier. Park Science 15:18–19. increases the importance of landscape- Anderson, M. J. 2001. A new method of for wide conservation measures targeted at non-parametric multivariate analysis of ponderosa pine forests. variance. Austral Ecology 26:32–46. 4.05.7 Sources of expertise Anderson, R. S., C. D. Allen, J. L. Torrey, R. Matthew Bowker, David Smith, and Stephen B. Jass, and A. N. Blair. 2008. Holocene Fettig vegetation and fre regimes in subalpine and mixed conifer forests, southern 4.05.8 Literature cited Rocky Mountains USA. International Adams, H. D., M. Guardiola-Claramonte, Journal of Wildland Fire, 17: 96–114. G. A. Barron-Gaford, J. Camilo Viegas, D. D. Breshears, C. B. Zou, P. A. Troch, Barclay, A. D., J. L. Betancourt, and C. D. and T. E. Huxman. 2009. Temperature Allen. 2004. Efects of seeding ryegrass

80 Bandelier National Monument Natural Reource Condition Assessment (Lolium multiforum) on vegetation Korb, J. E., N. C. Johnson, and W. W. recovery following fre in a ponderosa Covington. 2003. Arbuscular pine (Pinus ponderosa) forest. mycorrhizal propagule densities International Journal of Wildland Fire respond rapidly to ponderosa pine 13:183–194. restoration treatments. Journal of Applied Ecology, 101–110. Breshears, D. D., N. S. Cobb, P. M. Rich, K. P. Price, C. D. Allen, R. G. Balice, W. H. McCune, B., and J. B. Grace. 2002. Analysis Romme, J. H. Kastens, M. L. Floyd, J. of ecological communities. MJM Belnap, J. J. Anderson, O. B. Myers, C. Software Design, Gleneden Beach, W. Meyer. 2005. Regional vegetation Oregon. die-of in response to global-change- type drought. Proceedings of the McGlone, C. M., J. D. Springer, and D. National Academy of Sciences 102: 42. C. Laughlin. 2009. Can pine forest restoration promote a diverse Covington WW, Moore MM. 1994. and abundant understory and Southwestern ponderosa pine forest simultaneously resist nonnative structure: Changes since Euro- invasion? Forest Ecology & American settlement. Journal of Management 258: 2638–2646. Forestry 92: 39–47. Moore, M. M., W. W. Covington, and P. Z. Fulé, P. Z., W. W. Covington, and M. M. Fulé. 1999. Reference conditions and Moore. 1997. Determining reference ecological restoration: a Southwestern conditions for ecosystem management ponderosa pine perspective. Ecological of southwestern ponderosa pine. Applications 9: 1266–1277. Ecological Applications 7:895–908. Negron, J. F., J. D. McMillin, J. A. Anhold, Gitlin, A. R., C. M. Sthultz, M. A. Bowker, S. and D. Coulson. 2009. Bark beetle- Stumpf, K. L. Paxton, K. Kennedy, A. caused mortality in a drought-afected Muoz, J. K. Bailey, and T. G. Whitham. ponderosa pine landscape in Arizona, 2006. Mortality gradients within and USA. Forest Ecology and Management among dominant plant populations as 257:1353–1362. barometers of ecosystem change during extreme drought. Conservation Biology Potter, L. D. and T. Foxx. 1981. Postfre 20: 1477–86. recovery and mortality of the ponderosa pine forest after La Mesa Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Fire. La Mesa Fire Symposium, October Change (IPCC). 2007. Climate Change 6–7. Los Alamos, New Mexico. 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to Swetnam, T. W., C. D. Allen, and J. L. the Fourth Assessment Report of the Betancourt. 1999. Applied historical Intergovernmental Panel on Climate ecology: Using the past to manage for Change [Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. the future. Ecological Applications Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K. B. 9:1189-1206. Averyt, M. Tignor, and H. L. Miller Swetnam, T. W., and C. H. Baisan. 1996. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Historical fre regime patterns in the Cambridge, United Kingdom and New southwestern United States since York, NY, USA, 996 pp. AD 1700. Pp. 11-32. In Allen CD: Karl, T. R., J. M. Melillo, and T. C. Peterson Fire Efects in Southwestern Forests: (eds.). 2009. United States Global Proceedings of the Second La Mesa Change Research Program. Cambridge Fire Symposium. Los Alamos, NM. University Press, New York, NY, USA. March 29-31, 1994. US Forest Service,

4 Natural Resource Conditions 81 Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Meko, T. W. Swetnam, S. Rauscher, Experiment Station. Fort Collins, R. Seager, H. D. Grissino-Mayer, J. S. Colorado. Dean, E. R. Cook, C. Gangodagamage, M. Cai, and N. G. McDowell. 2012. Touchan, R., C. D. Allen, and T. W. Swetnam. Temperature as a potent driver of 1996. Fire history and climatic patterns regional drought stress and tree in ponderosa pine and mixed-conifer mortality. Nature Climate Change 3: forests of the Jemez Mountains, 292–297. northern New Mexico. In: C.D. Allen (ed.). Fire efects in southwestern Williams, A. P., C. D. Allen, C. I. Millar, T. W. forests: Proceedings of the second La Swetnam, J. Michaelsen, C. J. Still, and Mesa Fire symposium; 1994 March S. W. Leavitt. 2010. Forest responses 29–31, Los Alamos, New Mexico. RM- to increasing aridity and warmth GTR-286. Fort Collins, Colorado. in the southwestern United States. Proceedings of the National Academy Wallin, K. F., T. E. Kolb, K. R. Skov, and M. R. of Sciences 107: 21289–94 Wagner. 2004. 7-year results of thinning and burning restoration treatments on Woolsey, T. S., Jr. 1911. Western yellow pine old ponderosa pines at the Gus Pearson in Arizona and New Mexico. U.S. Forest Natural Area. Restoration Ecology 12: Service Bulletin 101. U.S. Government 239–247. Printing Ofce, Washington, D.C., USA.

Williams, A. P., C. D. Allen, A. K. Macalady, D. Grifn, C. A. Woodhouse, D. M.

82 Bandelier National Monument Natural Reource Condition Assessment Biological Integrity • Communities of impacts to Douglas-fr and white fr were Concern observed, the 2002 drought decimated pion pine, with over 90% mortality of mature 4.06 Pion-Juniper Woodland trees. This has resulted in substantial transformations in vegetation community distri- This is a summary of the information provid- bution and canopy cover on the landscape ed by Bowker and Smith (2014) in Appendix (Bowker and Smith 2014). Juniperus mono- B. More in-depth descriptions of pion-ju- sperma, the most common co-dominant niper woodland ecology, the data used, and of Pinus edulis in the monument, is more analysis methods, are included therein. The drought-tolerant than pion but also experi- information below is mostly interpreted or enced stand-level mortality during the recent taken directly from that report. drought periods (Bowker et al.2012, Brian Jacobs and Craig Allen, personal communi- 4.06.1 Description cations and unpublished data from Bandelier Pion-juniper woodlands occur on nearly 40 NM plots and transects). million ha in North America (Romme et al. 2010) and include many diferent community 4.06.1.2 Fire types. In all cases, however, they occur in In addition to variation in species composi- semi-arid climates, usually at medium elevation, pion-juniper woodlands can difer tions (~1200 –2500m), and contain at least fundamentally in disturbance regimes. The one Pinus species and a Juniperus species. In natural fre regime of these ecosystems Bandelier NM, until recently, pion-juniper is not completely known because, unlike woodlands were dominated by Pinus edulis larger fre-resistant species, such as pon- and Juniperus monosperma, with Juniperus derosa pine, pions and junipers often do deppeana either a subdominant or co-dom- not survive fre, so tree-ring data commonly inant in local areas (Muldavin et al. 2011). are unavailable for use in reconstructing fre While a variety of woodland types that occur histories. Understanding the role of fre in in Bandelier NM can be described as pion- the pion-juniper woodlands of Bandelier juniper (described in detail in Bowker and NM is complicated by the diversity of pion- Smith 2014), most pion-juniper woodlands juniper community types that occur across in the monument best ft the persistent the landscape. These include juniper savan- woodland type. nas, pion-juniper savannas, pion-juniper -oak communities, and most commonly, 4.06.1.1 Climate persistent pion-juniper woodlands. One of the most important expressions of climate change is increasingly warm drought At higher elevations, pion-juniper wood- periods (Adams et al. 2009). The western land intersperses with, and in some sites, has U.S. is currently experiencing the warm- recently replaced ponderosa pine savanna. est temperatures observed in a millennium Some have suggested that a major herba- (IPCC 2007), and models strongly suggest ceous understory component historically climate scenarios wherein northwestern existed in pion-juniper communities of New Mexico will very likely experience the region and that surface fres may have continued warming, possibly along with less preserved this condition (Gottfried et al. spring precipitation (Karl et al. 2009). 1995, Jacobs & Gatewood 1999). However, evidence is sparse and mostly from pondero- In the Southwestern U.S., pion pine is sa pine stands near pion-juniper stands (cf. susceptible to mass mortality during drought Allen 1989). (Allen and Breshears 1998, Breshears et al. 2005, Gitlin et al. 2006). The impact of Patchy stand-destroying crown-fres are the 2002 drought across the Bandelier NM well-documented in pion-juniper wood- landscape provides a stark example. While lands from elsewhere in the region (Romme major mortality of ponderosa pine and some

National Park Service 83 et al. 2009). Pre-1900 disturbance regimes in been documented and cannot be estimated pion-juniper savanna are not well under- well, but are thought to be much lower stood. Pion-juniper woodlands have been than after the 1860s. Thus, the period from less afected by fre than other ecosystems, 1860–1870 is one of the better periods to use but large areas of pion-juniper have been as a reference to compare current conditions lost in recent fres, particularly in the 1996 to because it is over 300 years after occupa- Dome Fire and the 2011 Las Conchas Fire. tion by Ancestral Puebloans, yet just before the introduction of large livestock herds. The Persistent erosion has also had substantial introduction of livestock quickly compro- negative impacts on pion-juniper commu- mised herbaceous plant cover, as stocking nities in Bandelier NM. Overgrazing and the rates were an order of magnitude greater resulting loss of the herbaceous understory than what would be considered carrying likely accelerated this process (Allen 1989, capacity today (Foxx and Tierney 1984) Miller and Wigand 1994, Brockway et al. By 1913, grass cover was described by the 2002). High erosion rates create a positive General Land Ofce as “scant”, compared feedback loop, whereby herbaceous plants with descriptions from 30-40 years before as cannot colonize the unstable surface, and “excellent” or “fne” growth of grass (Allen because there are few plants in between 2004). trees, erosion is unchecked. One major result of a degraded herbaceous The past conditions of the pion-juniper layer was erosion. The creation of the na- woodlands are characterized by change, tional monument in 1916, and the transition and can be coarsely reconstructed based to management by the National Park Service on historical or archaeological evidence. in 1932 led to the termination of commercial Signifcant portions of pion-juniper ranching in Bandelier NM, but trespassing woodlands may have been cleared on the or feral livestock has remained a problem monument’s mesa tops during the period of (Allen 2004). Erosion and hydrological Ancestral Puebloan settlement (Allen 2004). impacts lingered after the cessation of com- The period of abandonment coincided with mercial grazing. As early as 1938 the inability a megadrought in the 1500s. Both settlement of the soil to retain moisture was noted by and mega-drought could be viewed as likely the General Land Ofce (Allen 2004). A 1948 triggers of ecological state transition. Recov- internal park memorandum described the ery and regrowth from this event must have large extent of the problem and suggested occurred during the cool period known as means to correct it. High erosion rates may the Little Ice Age. have been further accelerated by the 1950s It is known that the ecosystems that grew drought which resulted in vegetation mortal- back from these earlier perturbations were ity. Accelerated erosion has persisted up to woodlands with a substantial grass cover, the present as possibly the foremost manage- as noted in the Ramon Vigil Land Grant of ment issue in the pion-juniper woodlands. 1877 and later adjacent Land Grants sur- The sharp decrease in herbaceous vegeta- veyed by the General Land Ofce (Allen tion corresponds with a cessation of fres in 2004). This land grant and the resettling of the general area. An oft-stated belief is that nomadic Native Americans onto reservations because this major herbaceous component around the 1860s marked the introduction had previously existed in the understories of large scale livestock grazing (Allen 2004), of pion-juniper communities in the park since the Navajo, Apache and Utes had and nearby, surface fre may have preserved previously served as a deterrent to Euro- a relatively open canopied confguration American use of the area. (Gottfried et al. 1995, Jacobs and Gatewood Although livestock had certainly been 1999). The fre history is difcult to know introduced earlier, their numbers have not with certainty because pion-juniper wood-

84 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment lands are poor preservers of fre scars from ture on known ecosystem dynamics, expert which to reconstruct past fre cycles. The knowledge, and ecological principles to evidence for frequent surface fre is indirect develop an a priori state-and-transition but comes from two lines of reasoning: model for the park’s pion-juniper ecosystems (Figure 16). They then used hierarchical 1. Most individual trees are young, whereas cluster analysis of data from the watershed- older trees are more widely scattered scale thinning study to validate the existence (Jacobs et al. 2008). Since woodlands of the proposed states (Figure 17). generally become thick without maintenance by fre, this implies the presence Between 1992 and 2004, three distinct but of fres, which did not destroy whole similar studies were conducted that manipu- stands, i.e. low intensity surface fre. lated pion-juniper canopy cover (Chong 2. A frequent fre cycle is well established 1993; Jacobs and Gatewood 1998; and Loftin for directly adjacent and interfngered 1998). The goal of the analysis was to deter- ponderosa pine savannas (Allen et al. mine the relative importance of interannual 1995), and it is reasonable to believe that climate variability, overstory reduction and these fres carried into pion-juniper slash redistribution, ground surface manipu- stands with herbaceous understories. lations, age of treatments, and fre on the This series of events may have led to relative functional group composition of the thickening tree canopies, which rein- understory. Bowker and Smith pooled data force a more closed woodland rather from the three studies and analyzed it using than an open grassy woodland. Jacobs et regression tree models. al. (2008) use a predictive model to con- Bowker and Smith used a dataset from 46 clude only about a third of the monu- monitoring plots established in pion-juni- ment’s current pion-juniper woodlands per woodland in 2008–2010 by the Southern were recently encroached savannas. The Colorado Plateau Network to examine the other two-thirds likely were persistent relationship between soil aggregate stability woodlands that may have thickened in (a negative index of erodibility; low scores the past century and which did not have indicate high erodibility) and factors thought a frequent-fre regime. to contribute to soil stability. These factors 4.06.2 Reference conditions include mechanical thinning, canopy clo- Prior to historic grazing, Colorado pion sure, total biocrust cover, total litter cover, pine (Pinus edulis Engelm.) – one-seed juni- and cover of major plant functional groups per (Juniperus monosperma (Engelm.) Sarg.) (forb, annual grass, perennial grass, and woodlands were largely restricted to un- shrub). productive (e.g. steeper and rocky) settings Bowker and Smith used two Bandelier NM adjoining and interspersed with the (swales, datasets: 1) line intercept vegetation data pumice patches, and gentle mesa) locations collected in 1999 and 2003 from nine 300 m dominated by ponderosa savanna (Allen long transects (so-called JRM LTER tran- 1989, Gottfried et al. 1995, Jacobs et al. sects); and 2) erosion bridge measurements 2008). Age-class and observational data sug- of microtopographic soil surface changes gest the historic woodland component was from the same nine transects (plus two ad- relatively open canopy, but mostly persistent ditional erosion transects measured annually, in nature (sensu Romme et al. 2009) with 1999-2007), to examine possible relation- sparse understories and only supporting ships between vegetation structure and patchy crown fre (Jacobs et al., 2008). erosion. They used perMANOVA and non –metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) 4.06.3 Objectives of vegetation for the analysis. analysis, data sources, and methods Bowker and Smith incorporated the litera- 4.06.4 Condition and trend

4 Natural Resource Conditions 85 Figure 4-16. State-and-transition diagram for pion-juniper mesa tops. Solid boxes represent ecosystem states. Dashed boxes indicate phases within states. Arrows indicate transitions. In some cases, phases within the reference state are not connected to any others by arrows; this is our method of representing spatial variants of the reference state that are determined by abiotic factors, or cases where we simply do not have a strong hypothesis for the relationship among phases.

The trajectory of pion-juniper woodlands than desired. The current woodlands can be in Bandelier NM has diverged from refer- thought of as a mosaic of persistent, unpro- ence conditions. However, it is important ductive woodlands (averaging 21% or less to note that these woodlands are hetero- tree canopy cover, up to 45% bare ground geneous, and not all sites have the poten- cover, and < 5% herbaceous cover), persis- tial to support the same desired outcome. tent productive woodlands (averaging 38% Woodlands would have interfngered with or more tree canopy cover, 17% or less bare ponderosa pine savannas which may have ground cover, and < 5% herbaceous cover), played a large role in spreading frequent fre open woodlands (20% tree cover, 55% lit- to grassier, open pion-juniper woodlands ter cover), and thinning-induced savannas and savannas. Highly productive persistent which have the potential to support surface woodlands would have been subject to low fre (averaging 7% or less tree cover, and up frequency crown fre. Generally speak- to 32% herbaceous cover). ing, many of the woodlands and savannas recently supported too much tree canopy The frst characteristic, overgrown canopy, is compared to desired conditions, and some reversing due to three drivers: 1) intentional of them support much less herbaceous cover canopy reductions (thinning), 2) fre, and

86 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Figure 4-17. Diagrams showing six versions of the same non-metric multidimensional ordination with symbols coding for the eight clusters found in our cluster analysis. In each panel a point is a transect in a given time point; the position of each point is identical in all panels. The panels differ in that the size of symbols is scaled proportionally to a particular element of the community that is characteristic of one or more clusters. (a.) Symbols are scaled according to percent cover of bare ground, which is especially high in clusters 3 and 4. (b.) Symbols are scaled according to percent cover of litter, which is high in clusters 1, 2, 5 and 7. (c.) Symbols are scaled according to live P.edulis cover, which is high in clusters 1, 2, and to a lesser extent 3. (d.) Symbols are scaled according to dead P. edulis cover, which is high in cluster 5. (e.) Symbols are scaled according to live forb cover, which is high in clusters 6, 7 and 8. (f.) Symbols are scaled according to dead grass cover, which is high in cluster 7.

3) drought-induced dieback and mortality thinning is not highly likely to promote a of trees. Thinning may induce ecosystem transition, i.e. unproductive woodlands. This state transitions which are favorable, but are was actually expected to some degree. The probably best applied to situations where watershed-scale thinning study attempted the large majority of trees are younger rather to avoid such areas by selecting mesatops than older. Stands that are primarily young with favorable soil types, gentle slopes, and are likely stands that have thickened rela- little exposed bedrock. However, individual tively recently, and would change in a desired transects were heterogeneous mosaics of trajectory if thinning was applied. These productive and unproductive types. Treat- areas are more likely to be former savannas ments were applied uniformly, regardless or former open grassy woodlands (Jacobs of individual transect characteristics, in et al. 2008). There are also situations where the process, treating some unproductive

4 Natural Resource Conditions 87 woodlands. This allows us to experimentally normal outcome of a fre in a pion-juniper demonstrate that less productive woodlands woodland. Another dataset mapping fre are less responsive to canopy treatment. severity does not include most of the woodlands in question, suggesting that burning There is comparatively little data on the ef- had been low severity or patchy, allowing the fects of fre in pion-juniper woodlands of woodlands to persist. Another reason why Bandelier NM and environs, though various there may have been relatively little conver- fres have burned woodlands in the park sion of woodlands to other vegetation types since 1996, including the Dome Fire of 1996, is that a large proportion of these woodlands the 2005 Capulin Fire, the 2011 Las Conchas in question are co-dominated by Juniperus Fire, and various other wildfres and pre- deppeana and Quercus undulata, both re- scribed burns. Thinning and drought mor- sprouters post-fre. These dominant species tality make stand destroying crown fres less are atypical of most of the woodlands in the likely in the future because afected canopies park. Virtually all of these stands lost mature are less continuous. The 1996 Dome Fire en- pion pine between 1981 (before the fre) compassed thousands of hectares of pion- and 2004 (after the fre), but these transfor- juniper woodlands, apparently creating mations were almost certainly due to the some conversions to shrublands, grasslands drought rather than the fre. or ruderal herbaceous cover (Figure 4-15, p. 78 ). However most fre-impacted stands Drought mortality in the tree canopy is the within the Dome Fire boundary in the Ban- most problematic of these three drivers. Pi- delier NM fre atlas remained as woodlands, on-dominated woodlands in Bandelier NM and apparently did not experience crown and on the Pajarito Plateau recently have fre, though that would be the expected been decimated by the related impacts of

Figure 4-18. Landscape transformation associated with a die-off of pion pine trees triggered by a global change-type drought. Pion pine trees, evergreen when alive, (left) exhibiting reddish- brown foliage indicating mortality (October 2002); (right) after they have lost their needles, exposed gray trunks of standing dead tree carcasses remain (May 2004). Almost all of the surviving green trees in (b) are junipers. (Breashears et al. 2008)

88 Bandelier National Monument Natural Reource Condition Assessment drought and beetle infestation; between 2002 was not the expected result, it likely indicates and 2003, over 90% of the mature pions that most sediment yield in the park is regu- were killed by a combination of these factors lated more by the connectivity of patches (Figure 4-18). Despite the fact that canopy which can intercept and store runof (Dav- has been reduced overall, we cannot con- enport et al. 1996) than by the erodibility of fdently say that the woodlands are moving soil per se. closer to desired conditions because mature individuals of the previously co-dominant In general, the literature and our analyses Pinus edulis have been lost. The future of this of existing data indicate that: 1) herbaceous species is uncertain within Bandelier NM. understories can be promoted by slash Currently it persists in the understory as redistribution, though this does not always saplings established before the early 2000s happen, 2) erosion is reduced by herbaceous mortality pulse, but because future climate is understories and slash, and 3) promotion of likely to bring increasingly severe and warm herbaceous understories and reduction of droughts (Williams et al. 2013), it is not clear erosion are consistent with desired trajecto- that this species will rebound (Adams et al. ries for the pion-juniper ecosystem. 2009). Just as troubling are observations of Since a large proportion of the park’s pion- substantial Juniperus monosperma mortality juniper woodlands have undergone thinning since 2003 in portions of the monument, and slash redistribution, can the understory documented in multiple park data sets (e.g., stratum of these woodlands be said to be on PJ demography plots, LTER transects, SCPN a desired trajectory? There are reasons to be plots). If both species are lost, afected optimistic, but recent drought conditions stands will efectively undergo a shift in cast some doubt on the permanence of older growth form dominance to grasslands and/or treatments, and whether similarly successful shrublands. results will continue to be replicable. Bowker The second major element of these ecosys- and Smith (2014) demonstrate that under- tems is the understory and its control over story productivity is just as tightly controlled accelerated erosion (Davenport et al. 1996). by climate as by overstory reduction and The efect, at the scale of a whole watershed, slash redistribution. A fortuitous redistribu- of a thinning and slash redistribution study tion of slash during a wetter than average on promotion of understory herbs is well period is most likely to promote understory documented (Chong 1993, Hastings et al. production because two constraints (ad- 2003, Jacobs 2002, Loftin 1999). We inter- equate moisture, and unstable soil surfaces) pret successful promotion of understory are simultaneously omitted. using slash redistribution as an ecosystem However for reasons poorly understood, state change—a transition to a structural and wet years in the recent past seem to lead to functionally distinct ecosystem. lesser understory production. Long-term This state change is very much in line with transects suggest that established herba- the desired conditions of more open wood- ceous understories can be compromised by lands with herbaceous understories. Our extreme drought, and that, proportionately, examination of long-term transects con- grasses may experience more cover loss than frms that greater development of a grassy the tree canopy (Figure 4-19). Other results understory is associated with less emitted from the small-scale thinning plots of Jacobs sediment. In our analysis of the SCPN moni- and Gatewood (1999) seem to directly toring plots, greater soil aggregate stability confict with this observation. Most of the seems to be promoted by greater canopy grass species would be able to rebound from cover, despite that thicker-canopied wood- a drought die-back due to vegetative growth lands tend to yield more sediment in erosion from surviving patches, but it is not known events (Hastings et al. 2003). Though this how resilient these herbs are to repeated drought events which may be more com-

4 Natural Resource Conditions 89 We would conjecture that very high herbaceous biomass would be possible in wet years, whereas much reduced cover and ac- A celerated erosion could characterize drought years.

4.06.5 Level of confdence Reference conditions are poorly understood due to successive intensive human uses, high confdence for last approximately 300 years of history and moderate confdence for trajectory.

4.06.6 Data gaps/Research needs/ Management recommendations ● Develop fre management recommendations for treated pion-juniper wood- B land areas to promote grassy understory and maintain open canopy. ● Continue SCPN monitoring of pion- juniper woodlands. ● Develop remote sensing monitoring methods to track post-treatment vegetation response.

4.06.7 Sources of expertise Matthew Bowker and David Smith

4.06.8 Literature cited Forb GrassCacShrub Tree Sub- Adams H. D., Guardiola-Claramonte M, Shrub Barron-Gaford GA, Camilo Viegas J, Breshears DD, Zou CB, Troch PA, Figure 4-19. Bar graphs showing the mean and stan- Huxman TE. 2009. Temperature dard error for total (A) and percent (B) abundance of sensitivity of drought-induced tree individual functional groups. Asterisks denote signifcant differences between years. Even though it is mortality portends increased regional diffcult to tell from the graph, the percent cacti is dif- die-of under global-change-type ferent in the two years (means are .0186 and .0249 for drought. Proceedings of the National 1999 and 2003, respectively). Academy of Sciences 106: 7063–7066.

Allen C. D. 1989. Changes in the landscape mon in the future (Karl et al. 2009). Some of the Jemez Mountains, New Mexico. short-lived forbs produce large quantities of Ph. D. Dissertation, University of long-lived seed in favorable years, thus may California, Berkeley. Allen, C.D. 2004. retain considerable resiliency. As drought Ecological patterns and environmental eliminates more and more canopy, the un- change in the Bandelier landscape. In: derstory will become increasingly important. (Kohler, T.A.) Archaeology of Bandelier Since herbaceous plants are less long-lived, National Monument: Village formation and leave less recalcitrant residues, we can on the Pajarito Plateau, New Mexico. expect an emerging dynamic ecosystem that Albuquerque, NM: University of New varies strongly from wet years to dry years. Mexico Press. 19-67.

90 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Allen, C.D. 2004. Ecological patterns New Mexico. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-236. and environmental change in the Bandelier landscape. In: (Kohler, T.A.) Davenport, D. W., D. D. Breshears, B. Archaeology of Bandelier National P. Wilcox, and C. D. Allen. 1996. Monument: Village formation on Viewpoint: sustainability of pion- the Pajarito Plateau, New Mexico. juniper ecosystems—a unifying Albuquerque, NM: University of New perspective of soil erosion thresholds. Mexico Press. 19-67. Journal of Range Management 51: 231–240. Allen, C. D. and D. D. Breshears. 1998. Drought-induced shift of a forest- Gitlin, A. R., C. M. Sthultz, M. A. Bowker, S. woodland ecotone: rapid landscape Stumpf, K. L. Paxton, K. Kennedy, A. response to climate variation. Muoz, J. K. Bailey, and T. G. Whitham Proceedings of the National Academy TG. 2006. Mortality gradients within of Sciences 95: 14839–42. and among dominant plant populations as barometers of ecosystem change Allen, C. D., R. Touchan, and T. Swetnam. during extreme drought. Conservation 1995. Landscape-scale fre history Biology 20: 1477–86. studies support fre management action at Bandelier. Park Science 15:18-19. Gottfried, G. J., T. W. Swetnam, J. L. Betancourt, and A. L. Chung- Bowker, M. A., A. Munoz, T. Martinez, and MacCoubrey. 1995. Pinyon-juniper M. K. Lau. 2012. Rare drought-induced woodlands. Pages 95–132 in U.S. Forest mortality of juniper is enhanced by Service General Technical Report edaphic stressors and infuenced RM-GTR-268, Rocky Mountain Forest by stand density. Journal of Arid and Range Experiment Station, Fort Environments 76:9-16. Collins, Colorado.

Breshears, D. D., N. S. Cobb, P. M. Rich, K. Hastings, B. F., F. M. Smith, and B. F. P. Price, C. D. Allen, R. G. Balice, W. H. Jacobs. 2003. Rapidly eroding pion- Romme, J. H. Kastens, M. L. Floyd, J. juniper woodlands in New Mexico— Belnap, J. J. Anderson, O. B. Myers,and Response to slash treatment: Journal of C. W. Meyer. 2005. Regional vegetation Environmental Quality 32: 1290–1298. die-of in response to global-change- type drought. Proceedings of the International Panel on Climate Change National Academy of Sciences 102: 42. (IPCC). 2007. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Brockway, D. G., R. G. Gatewood, and R. Contribution of Working Group I B. Paris. 2002. Restoring grassland to the Fourth Assessment Report savannas from degraded pinyon- of the Intergovernmental Panel on juniper woodlands: Efects of Climate Change [Solomon S, Qin mechanical overstory reductions and D, Manning M, Chen Z, Marquis slash treatment alternatives. Journal M, Avery KB, Tignor M, Miller HL of Environmental Management (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, 64:179–197. Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, New York. Chong, G. W. 1993. Revegetation of pion- juniper woodlands with native grasses. Jacobs, B. F. 2002. Reintroduction of fre Pages 34-41 In: Aldon, E. F. and D. W. maintains structure of mechanically Shaw (tech.coords.) Managing pion- restored Pinyon-Juniper Savannah juniper ecosystems for sustainability (New Mexico). Ecological Restoration and social needs; proceedings of the 20: 207–208. symposium 1993 April 26-30; Sante Fe,

4 Natural Resource Conditions 91 Jacobs, B. F., and R. G. Gatewood RG. 1999. Restoration studies in degraded pinyon-juniper woodlands of north- central New Mexico. Pages 294–298 in Proceedings of Proceedings of the U.S. Forest Service RMRS-P-9.294–298.

Jacobs, B. F., W. R. Romme, and C. D. Allen. 2008. Mapping “old” vs. “young” pion-juniper stands with a predictive topo-climatic model. Ecological Applications 18:1627–41.

Karl, T. R., J. M. Melillo, and T. C. Peterson (eds.). 2009. United States Global Change Research Program. Cambridge University Press, New York, New York.

Loftin, S. R. 1999. Initial response of soil and understory vegetation to a simulated fuelwood cut of a pinyon-juniper woodland in the Santa Fe National Forest. Pages 311–314 in Proceedings of Proceedings of the U.S. Forest Service RMRS-P-9.294-298.

Miller, R. F., and P. E. Wigand. 1994. Holocene changes in semiarid woodlands: Response to climate, fre and human activities in the US Great Basin. Bioscience 44:465–474.

Romme, W. H., C. D. Allen, J. D. Bailey, W. L. Baker, B. T. Bestelmeyer, P. M. Brown, K. S. Eisenhart, L. Floyd, D. W. Hufman, B. F. Jacobs, R. F. Miller, E. H. Muldavin, T. W. Swetnam, R. J. Tausch, and P. J. Weisberg. 2009. Historical and modern disturbance regimes, stand structures, and landscape dynamics in pion-juniper vegetation of the western United States. Rangeland Ecology & Management 62:203–222.

92 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Geology and Soils • Soil Erosion From 2007–2010, nearly 5,000 acres (consti- tuting about ½ of the total woodland acreage within the park, and representing nearly all 4.06-1 Erosion in Pion-Juniper of the woodland area deemed favorable for Woodlands mechanical restoration treatments, minus 4.06-1.1 Description several hundred acres of uncut control) were Accelerated rates of soil erosion within large mechanically treated using a thinning-slash portions of the semi-arid pion-juniper restoration method. This method was devel- woodland zone of Bandelier NM (occur- oped and tested at several scales, including ring primarily in mesa-top settings between within a 100-acre paired watershed study 1830–2135 m [6000-7000 ft] elevation) were area (ref; Hastings et al. 2003). Results from frst identifed as a management issue in the these studies demonstrated that mechani- 1970s in connection with early soil mapping cal thinning and slash treatments increase and eforts to control a feral burro (Equus understory cover by 3-fold, while reducing asinus) population (Earth Environmental runof and sediment yields by 1–2 orders of Consultants 1978, Chong 1992). However, magnitude (Hastings et al. 2003, Jacobs et al. it was not until the mid-1980s that park- 2002b). wide archaeological survey eforts began to systematically document erosional impacts History to cultural sites. At the same time, a graduate Most researchers agree that prior to Euro- student researcher (later the park ecologist) American settlement the region of the Jemez articulated the erosional problem in pion- Mountains now occupied by Bandelier juniper systems (Allen 1989); and these and NM was predominantly an open woodland other eforts cumulatively presented the system that was abandoned around 1600 widespread impacts that erosion was having after several hundred years of intense human on park resources. occupation by Ancestral Pueblo farmers. For the next 200 hundred years, until around In the early 1990s, long-term monitor- 1800, the area recovered in part, and pre- ing of vegetation and erosion within the sumably both tree and herbaceous under- woodland zone was initiated. The goal was story cover increased in many locations. In to determine whether erosion was accel- ponderosa pine communities, conditions erating or the systems were still recovering were somewhat diferent, as a frequent from prior landuse impacts. A number of surface fre regime may have kept productive focused research eforts were also initi- grassy savanna areas more open and wood- ated to quantify rates of runof and erosion lands restricted to shallow rocky soil loca- within woodlands (Wilcox et al. 1994, 1995a, tions (Bowker and Smith 2014). 1995b, 1996a, 1996b; Wilcox et al. 2002), assess methods to mitigate runof and ero- Arguably the biggest changes to the land- sion (Chong 1993, Chong 1994, Hastings et scape took place when Euro-Americans al. 2003, Jacobs 1999, Jacobs and Gatewood arrived in the area. Spanish colonists in the 1999, Jacobs et al. 2002b), and reconstruct 1600s brought sheep, cattle, goats, horses, historical vegetative and soil conditions and burros, along with tools such as metal (Allen and Breshears 1998, Allen 2004, axes. What had been small-scale use of the Julius 1999, ). Several collaborative eforts Bandelier NM area for livestock changed attempted to provide ecohydrologic frame- dramatically with when the railroad arrived works linking observations and data, argu- at Buckman in the 1880s and very heavy ing that the spatial arrangement and critical grazing ensued, promoted at the federal threshold of efective cover within an area level. This quickly proved unsustainable. The could be used to model hydrologic response railroad also turned what had been sporadic in degraded woodland systems (Davenport timber collection into a full-fedged indus- el al. 1998). try, though the inaccessible terrain on the

4 Natural Resource Conditions 93 southern part of the plateau to some extent can be inferred from treated areas where limited the exploitation of the lands that sediment production was reduced by an would became the monument. Even so, the order of magnitude relative to untreated combination of grazing and logging proved control (Hastings et al, 2003). devastating for the fragile soils of the Pajarito Plateau, and began a cycle of erosion that 4.06-1.3 Data and methods continues to this day. Research indicates that Surface runof and soil erosion has been as- a pattern of increasing woodland cover rein- sessed by a variety of methods and at several forced initial grazing impacts on the under- spatial scales. The most reliable methods are story and facilitated initiation of accelerated based on direct measurements of vegetative surface runof and soil erosion. cover, precipitation, and runof and sediment transport using instrumented water- An intense multi-year drought during the sheds with line transects, rain gauges, fumes, mid-1950s shifted the distribution of pon- and sediment traps. Integrated ecohydro- derosa pine communities several kilometers logic measures have been collected primarily up-mesa, representing a shift up in elevation at two study sites located on the mesa im- at the lower end of ponderosa distribution. mediately south of park headquarters. These This shift is now thought of as a tipping provide comparative data across multiple point when ecohydrologic degradation spatial scales within untreated woodlands processes in the woodland (pion-juniper) (Frijolito Experimental Watershed) and system became self-reinforcing (Allen and across matched treatment-control areas Breshears 1998, Bowker and Smith 2014d). (Paired Watershed Study). Data collected During the 1970s, a feral burro population within these discrete study areas are then was likely a contributing factor in wood- incorporated into predictive models that can land soil erosion (Allen 1989). In the 1990s infer hydrologic condition indirectly using large populations of elk and deer further measures of efective soil cover. increased soil erosion (Chong 1992). More recently a dry period that began around 1996 Vegetation cover (% of total) by species was and intensifed with several severe multi-year collected for basal intercept and canopy droughts (2000–2004, 2010-present) resulted overstory along permanent line transects. in widespread mortality of pion (exceed- Sediment production (kg-ha) was estimated ing 90%). However, there has been a pion using sediment traps for defned contribut- seedling response in many locations. ing areas (i.e. 0.1-ha microwatersheds).Run- of (cfs) was estimated using instrumented Finally, fre has become a more common fumes for defned contributing areas (i.e. disturbance in regional woodlands with 0.3-ha microwatersheds). Detailed data and increased severity and extent. Consequently, methods for individual studies are docu- post-burn woodlands are initially somewhat mented in the cited references. sterile and may be more vulnerable to weed invasion and accelerated erosion. However, 4.06-1.4 Condition and trend prior mechanical treatments may prime the After the 1950s drought, through the mid- systems response to burning and promote 1990s, pion-juniper woodlands increased post-fre recovery of the understory (Jacobs in both extent and density, in part facilitated and Gatewood 2002a). by an unusually wet period during the 1980s. By the time long-term monitoring eforts 4.06-1.2 Reference conditions were initiated in the early 1990s, average Erosion levels were likely low due to large woodland tree densities exceeded 1000 amounts of herbaceous cover in a landscape stems/ha, compared to forest age reconstruc- dominated by savanna type woodland with tions that suggested tree densities were <250 pion-juniper and ponderosa pine trees. A stems/ ha prior to 1850 (Julius 1999). Higher rough estimate of pre-grazing erosion rates tree densities were accompanied by a gener-

94 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment ally sparse herbaceous understory cover. ● Characterize ecohydrologic system response to cumulative efects of me- Recent measures of runof and erosion sug- chanical thinning, drought, and fre gest that rates are highly accelerated because disturbance. extrapolated over time, current rates yield unsustainable levels of sediment production. ● Implement long-term monitoring of For example, at measured soil-loss rates of the restoration response using re- ~10 mm/decade (Wilcox 1994), the existing mote sensing methods to complement soil resource in these locations, which is less ground based (erosion and vegetation) than 10 cm, could be eliminated within one measurements. century. ● Conduct research to assess the role of biological soil crusts in degraded and The long-term benefts of landscape-scale restored semi-arid woodland systems. woodland restoration treatments in the face of developing warmer and drier conditions Going forward, we are developing new are unclear. Recent accelerating climate- methods to remotely sense understory re- induced changes in woodland overstory sponse to restoration treatment at landscape include increased fre activity and near scales using satellite imagery which would complete loss of mature pion. Partial, but support monitoring of the woodland soils ongoing and progressively more expansive and embedded cultural resources. Monitor- die-of of juniper overstory due to drought ing of the entire 5,000-acre treatment foot- stress suggests that type conversion of this print will allow management to determine system to more of a scrubland (sparse grass spatial and temporal patterns of treatment and shrub cover with scattered trees) could response and identify locations which may happen within 20-50 years (Bowker and beneft from supplemental treatment. Smith 2014). 4.06-1.7 Sources of expertise 4.06-1.5 Level of confdence Brian Jacobs, Craig Allen Historical reference conditions are inferred from a number of lines of evidence, but 4.06-1.8 Literature cited these are mostly indirect and confdence Allen, C.D. 1989. Changes in the landscape is generally fair to poor. Measurements of of the Jemez Mountains, New Mexico. soil erosion are highly variable from year Ph.D. Dissertation. University of to year and driven by the relative strength California at Berkeley, California. of summer monsoonal patterns with a few large events producing most of the ob- Allen, C.D. and D. D. Breshears 1998. served erosion in a given year. Hydrologic Drought-induced shift of a forest measures are extremely scale dependent, woodland ecotone: Rapid landscape with the response mediated by antecedent response to climate variation. Proc. conditions and subject to threshold efects. Natl. Acad. Sci. 95: 14839-14842. Current conditions and response to restora- Allen, C.D. 2004. Ecological patterns and tion treatment are well documented for a few environmental change in the Bandelier well-studied locations, but future trends are landscape, Chapter 2. In: T.A. Kohler, highly speculative relative to anticipated ef- ed., Village formation on the Pajarito fects of climate change on this system. Plateau, New Mexico: Archeology of Bandelier National Monument. UNM 4.06-1.6 Data gaps/Research needs/ Press, Albuquerque, NM. Management recommendations ● Reconstruct the temporal and spatial Chong, G.W. 1992. Seventeen years of grazer patterns of recent drought-beetle in- exclusion on three sites in pinyon- duced tree mortality. juniper woodland at Bandelier National

4 Natural Resource Conditions 95 Monument, New Mexico. Unpublished communities within the interior west. report, Bandelier National Monument, 1997 Sept. 15-18, Provo, UT. USDA, Los Alamos, NM. Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, General Technical Report INT- Chong, G.W. 1993. Revegetation of pinyon- 000. Ogden, UT. juniper woodlands with native grasses. In: Managing Pinon-Juniper Jacobs, B.F. and Gatewood, R.G. 2002a. Ecosystems for Sustainability and Social Reintroduction of fre maintains Needs, E.F. Aldon, and D.W. Shaw, eds. structure of mechanically restored USDA Forest Service GTR RM-236. pinyon-juniper savanna (New Mexico). Ecological Restoration:20:3. Chong, G.W. 1994. Recommendations to improve revegetation success in Jacobs, B.F., Gatewood, R.G., and Allen, a pinyon-juniperwoodland in New C.D. 2002b. Watershed restoration in Mexico: a hierarchical approach. degraded pion-juniper woodlands: A M.S. thesis, Univ. of New Mexico, paired watershed study. Unpublished Albuquerque, NM. report to USGS-BRD and NPS-NRPP. Bandelier National Monument, Los Davenport, D.W., Breshears, D.D., Wilcox, Alamos, NM. B.P. and Allen, C.D. 1998. Viewpoint: Julius, C. 1999. A comparison of vegetation sustainability of pinon-juniper structure on three diferent soils at ecosystems--a unifying perspective of Bandelier National Monument, New soil erosion thresholds. Journal of range Mexico. M.S. thesis. Rheinischen management 51(2): 231-240. Friedrich-Wilhelms University, Bonn, Earth Environmental Consultants, Inc., Germany. 1978, Soil Survey of Bandelier National Wilcox, B.P. 1994. Runof and erosion Monument: Unpublished Report to in intercanopy zones of pinyon- U.S. Department of Interior National juniper woodlands. Journal of range Park Service, Southwest Region, Santa management 47(4): 285-295. Fe, 29p. Wilcox, B.P., and Breshears, D.D. 1995a. Hastings, B.K., Smith, F.M., and Jacobs, B.F., Runof and erosion in intercanopy 2003. Slash treatment greatly reduces zones of pinyon juniper woodlands. sediment yield from a rapidly eroding Journal of Range Management pinyon-juniper woodland. Journal 47:285-295. Environmental Quality. Wilcox, B.P., Newman, B.D., Allen, C.D., Reid, K.D., Brandes, D., Pitlick, J. Jacobs, B.F. 1999. Ecological restoration of and Davenport, D.W. 1996a. Runof a wilderness and cultural landscape, and erosion on the Pajarito Plateau: Bandelier National Monument, NM. In: Observations from the feld. New Proceedings of the 10th Conference on Mexico Geological Society Guidebook, Research and Resource Management in 47th Field Conference, Jemez Mountain Parks and Public Lands. George Wright Region, Los Alamos, NM. Society Bulletin. Wilcox, B.P., Pitlick, J., Allen, C.D., and Jacobs, B.F. and Gatewood, R.G. 1999. Davenport, D.W. 1996b. Runof and Restoration studies in degraded erosion from a rapidly eroding pinyon- pion-juniper woodlands of north- juniper hillslope. In: Advances in central New Mexico. In: Monsen, S.B., Hillslope Processes. Vol. 1. eds: M.G. Stevens, R., Tausch, R.J., Miller, R. and Anderson and S.M. Brooks. John Wiley Goodrich, S., eds. Proceedings: ecology and Sons LTD. and management of pinyon-juniper

96 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Biological Integrity • Species of Man- indicate some level of impairment. agement Concern – At-risk Biota 4.07.2 Reference conditions 4.07 Rare Plant Species All of these species were likely present in appropriate settings, but locally rare even prior 4.07.1 Description to Euro-American contact primarily due to Five plant species of management concern restricted habitat requirements have been identifed by monument staf because they require monitoring due to their 4.07.3 Data and methods restricted distribution and/or existing threats Data exist for the abundance or distribution to their persistence in the park (Brian Jacobs, of the species described below. In addition, personal communication). At present, no previous surveys have been conducted and federally-listed species occur in the park, local botanists and park staf are generally fa- but several are (or have been) identifed by miliar with historic locations and the general the State of New Mexico as endangered, or number of individuals that were present at by NatureServe as imperiled or vulnerable each site in past years. (http://www.natureserve.org). See Appendix D for a complete list of species of manage- Data from surveys conducted in the late ment concern for Bandelier NM. 1980s for grama grass cactus in the Tsankawi Unit of the park, and from ladyslipper and All of the mesic species (yellow ladyslipper, grape fern surveys in the 1990s, are available rattlesnake orchid, grape fern, wood lily and in Bandelier NM. Plot data collected during cerro hawthorn) have been signifcantly the pilot study for the Southern Colorado impacted by recent fre, food, and drought Plateau Network (SCPN) integrated ripar- events, to the point where source material ian protocol (Scott and Reynolds 2007) in (seeds, spores, rhizomes and bulbs) may now Capulin Canyon did not include observa- be extremely rare, or even extirpated within tions of any of the mesic species of concern. the park. In addition, the historic riparian Plot data collected for the park’s vegetation landscape where these species were once map (Muldavin et al. 2011) likewise did not found has been permanently altered. Conse- include any of these species. All other infor- quently, in establishing reference conditions mation on abundance and location comes for these species, managers should consider from park staf observations. that many sites that once supported them are now in the very early stages of second- 4.07.4 Condition and trend ary successional processes. It may or may not be reasonable to consider long-term Greater or large yellow ladyslipper measures of abundance and distribution that (Cypripedium parviforum var. pubescens) fall within the historic ranges of variation Description noted for each species. For the near-term, Cypripedium parviforum var. pubescens (yel- the park may simply want to document the low ladyslipper) is an orchid that produces presence or absence of each as riparian one or two bright systems recover. Reference conditions for yellow fowers be- the single xeric species (grama grass cactus) tween May and Au- are likewise problematic due to the absence gust. Plant height of existing information on current or historic ranges from 10–50 populations. cm, and the large, showy lip petal Regardless of current ecological condition, of the fower is negative anthropogenic impacts (e.g. from between 15 and 55 grazing, recreation, collecting) to habitats mm long. The spe- where populations of these species are cur- cies can reproduce rently or have historically been found, would

4 Natural Resource Conditions 97 both vegetatively from rhizomes, (so that all, of the known populations were likely individual plants observed growing close destroyed by foods and debris fows in 2011 together are likely one clone), and sexu- and 2012. Some individual clones may have ally (Deller). Reproduction by seed is rare, survived in areas above food zones, but if however, because seeds are very small and so their locations are at present unknown dependent on mycorrhizal fungi for germi- and it will likely be some time until they nation, and because seedlings that do emerge can be discovered (Brian Jacobs, personal rarely survive (Deller). Rhizomes may be vi- communication). able below ground even though they do not produce fowers every year (Deller). Threats The high-intensity fres and post-fre foods Distribution and debris fow events that followed the Las Greater yellow ladyslipper is widely distrib- Conchas Fire in 2011 destroyed much of the uted throughout North America, occurring riparian habitat upon which this species de- across much of Canada and in 42 of the pends. While occasional low-intensity fres lower 48 states. In New Mexico it has been may provide areas of open habitat for lady- documented in both the Jemez and the slippers, the extreme fres that have occurred Sangre de Cristo Mountains at elevations recently have probably eliminated most, if between 1,830 and 2,900 meters (Coleman not all, of the previously documented oc- 2002). currences of this plant along Capulin and Frijoles creeks (Brian Jacobs, personal com- Ecology munication). Because fowering individuals This species tolerates shade to nearly full re-sprout from rhizomes and sexual repro- sun conditions in fairly open sites within duction is rare, signifcant re-establishment riparian-associated forest communities, from seed is unlikely for this species. Contin- meadows and clearings. Individual plants are ued drought may further restrict population found in generally mesic conditions but not growth if it alters the mesic environment this directly adjacent to water, and prefer neutral plant requires. to slightly acidic soils. Many of the populations documented in the monument prior Condition and trend to the Las Conchas Fire in 2011 were lo- The current condition of this species in the cated near small spot fre locations from the park is poor; the 2011-2012 foods probably 1977 La Mesa Fire (Brian Jacobs, personal destroyed or buried most of the existing in- communication). dividuals, source populations are extremely limited, and habitat has been altered or lost. Status Trend is a steep decline precipitated by the NatureServe assesses the global status of this events of 2011-2012. species as secure and the national status as apparently secure, though there are currently few documented occurrences of large and secure populations anywhere in North America (NatureServe). The species is classifed by NatureServe as imperiled in New Mexico where it was previously listed as endangered. It is listed by Los Alamos National Laboratory (adjacent to the park) as a sensitive species (Hathcock et al. 2010). Extirpation of two populations has been documented in Arizona and populations in New Mexico and Arizona are considered to be in decline. In Bandelier NM most, if not

98 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Rattlesnake Orchid (Epipactis gigantea Resource condition and trend Douglas ex Hook.) The current condition of this species in the park is poor; the 2011-2012 foods likely Description destroyed or buried most of the existing in- Epipactis gigantea dividuals, source populations are extremely is an erect pe- limited, and habitat has been altered or lost. rennial reaching Current population trends are on a steep anywhere from 30 decline. centimeters to one meter in height. Its stems have wide or narrow lance- shaped leaves 5 to 15 centimeters long and inforescences of two or three showy fowers near the top. Each fower has three straight sepals which are light brownish or greenish with darker veining, each one to two centimeters long. The fruit is a hanging capsule 2 or 3 centimeters long which contains thousands of tiny seeds.

Distribution Widespread and locally abundant in suitable habitats, native to western North America from British Columbia to central Mexico

Ecology This plant grows in wet areas in a variety of wetland settings; including riverbanks, hot springs, and meadows.

Status Populations of this species are widespread and abundant across western U.S. but local populations have been impacted by recent widespread fre and food disturbance. Na- tureServe assesses the status of this species as secure nationally and it is has no protected status in New Mexico.

Threats Spring habitats within White Rock Canyon were destroyed during reservoir holding events during the mid-1980s. Recent high- intensity fres and post-fre foods and debris fow events have subsequently degraded much of the riparian habitat upon which this species depends. Continued drought may further restrict population growth if it alters the mesic environment this plant requires.

4 Natural Resource Conditions 99 Wood Lily (Lilium philadelphicum var. Condition and trend andinum) The condition of this species in Bandelier NM is currently poor. As with the ladyslip- Description per and the grape fern, the riparian habitats The wood lily is a upon which wood lilies depend have been geophytic monocot greatly altered and existing populations that fowers from largely destroyed. Given their much higher June to August. A reproductive rates from seed, wood lilies single stalk grows may be more likely than ferns or orchids to up to 0.5 meters re-establish if conditions are good. Trend is and produces one a steep decline, precipitated by the events of to three orange-red 2011-2012. fowers.

Distribution This species is distributed across most of Canada and much of the eastern, midwest- ern, and Rocky Mountain regions of the U.S. It is rare, however, in New Mexico and Colo- rado, and absent from Utah and Arizona. In New Mexico it is patchily distributed in only four or fve counties. In the Jemez Mountains it ranges from 2,130 to 2,440 meters in elevation, and in the monument is found only in upper Frijoles Canyon.

Ecology In the southwest this lily prefers moist, open understory habitats in mixed conifer riparian forests and higher mountain meadows. Peri- odic low-intensity fres may enhance habitat by providing openings in forests canopies.

Status NatureServe assess the global and national status of this species as secure. In New Mexico it is assessed as vulnerable, and was previously listed by the state as endangered. Wood lilies were formerly common in the upper Frijoles riparian zone but few individuals have been observed since the events of 2011 (B. Jacobs).

Threats Similar to the species described above, recent fres and foods in riparian zones have likely extirpated most of the previously known wood lily populations. If populations do re-establish, threats noted to wood lily populations in other locations have included woody encroachment and risk from collectors.

100 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Cerro hawthorn (Crataegus erythropoda) Threats Relatively little seems to be known regard- Description ing the status of this species in the wild or This shrub or threats to it throughout its range. Many indi- small tree grows viduals in the Frijoles drainages were either to a maximum damaged or killed in the Las Conchas Fire, height of about though re-sprouting is occurring. Minimal fve meters. Plants published information is available on the have dark green ability of this species to recover from fre. leaves and thorny Populations in New Mexico seem to be scat- branches. Clusters tered, and the general lack of information on of white fowers the species has been identifed as a concern. are produced in late spring, and Condition and trend the fruit (berries) are palatable to birds and The condition of this species in the park rodents. Due to its relatively low stature in is likely poor, given that it was only known riparian woodlands, individual hawthorns from riparian sites that were both burned also provide important habitat for songbirds and fooded in 2011. The number of surviv- and other small vertebrates. The species is ing individuals is likely quite low. Without often cultivated, and appears to have a fairly surviving reproductive individuals, signif- wide range of drought and wind tolerance in cant population growth in the short term is urban settings. unlikely. Trend is likely a steep decline precipitated by the events of 2011-2012, though Distribution it was probably historically rare. This species is only found in the Rocky Mountain states of Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, Wyoming and Utah. In the Jemez Mountains it is found between about 2,130– 2,440 meters in elevation, and within Bande- lier NM it occurs in upper Frijoles Canyon.

Ecology Cerro hawthorn is found in relatively open, well-drained sites within riparian woodlands. It is not found where there is a closed canopy above it.

Status NatureServe assesses the global status of this species as secure. It is assessed as vulnerable in Colorado, Arizona and New Mexico, and critically imperiled in Wyoming and Utah. It may have been extirpated from Bernalillo and Sandoval counties in New Mexico. Prior to 2011 it was uncommon in the monument, but locally abundant in moist areas of upper canyons (NPS 2007). Though directly impacted by the 2011 and 2013 food events, re-sprouting by several individuals has subsequently been observed (B. Jacobs).

4 Natural Resource Conditions 101 Gramma Grass Cactus (Sclerocactus were feld-checked and found to represent papyracanthus) a mixture of Echinocereus and Escobaria species. The identifcation of this species in the upland vegetation plots has since been corrected. Sclerocactus papyracantha has only been encountered in one plot [42] during upland monitoring from 2008 to 2010). A project to enhance a population of this cactus in the monument was undertaken in 1989 when hundreds of individual plants were transplanted to the park’s Tsankawi unit (from a salvaged site outside the park), however, none of the plants survived after Description fve years. This small cactus is a perennial, but relatively short-lived species that grows only to Threats about 8 cm in height. Small, white fowers Current threats to this species within the are produced in April or May, but during park are unknown. Given likely habitats that the remainder of the year the plant is cryp- exist in exposed soils, erosion may be a fac- tic, covered with papery-like spines, mak- tor. In other locations the species is at risk ing the plant appear similar to the gramma from cattle grazing and of-road activities, grass (Bouteloua spp.) with which it is often but these impacts are not a factor in the park. associated. Condition and trend Distribution The status of this species in the park is gen- Gramma grass cactus is distributed across erally unknown. Assuming that plants were New Mexico and adjacent portions of Ari- historically common prior to grazing but are zona and Texas at elevations between about now rarely observed, the condition is likely 1,525 and 2,290 meters. poor. The trend is unknown.

Ecology This species prefers open sites in fne, sandy clay loams on basaltic canyon rims and mesa tops, usually in pion-juniper woodlands and desert grassland habitats. In Bandelier NM, the plant is found at lower elevations in open and grassy pion-juniper habitats (NPS 2007) but basalt exposures and associated soils that this plant prefers are relatively rare in the main park unit (B. Jacobs).

Status NatureServe assesses this cactus as critically imperiled in Texas, imperiled in Arizona, and apparently secure in New Mexico, though it may have been extirpated from Cibola and Grant counties. This is inherently a cryptic species within the habitats where it is found. (This species was reported as occurring fairly frequently during the SCPN upland vegetation monitoring in 2009 [DeCoster and Swan 2011], however, in 2013 these occurrences

102 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Grape or Rattlesnake Fern (Botrychium Threats virginianum) Catastrophic high-intensity fres and associ- Description ated foods, such as those that have occurred This small decidu- recently have probably eliminated the popu- ous fern grows lations that previously existed along Frijoles to about 30 cm in creeks (B. Jacobs). Like the ladyslipper or- height. The plant chid, the absence of a source population for produces two leaf this species greatly reduces the likelihood of types: a single ster- short-term re-colonization at historic sites. ile leaf which is Because spore producing plants are particu- pinnately divided larly dependent on moist habitat conditions, into subleafets continued drought may also impede estab- and appears early lishment in this species. in the spring and Condition and trend lasts through the summer, and a shorter, fertile leaf which produces sporangia and The current condition of this species in the is short-lived compared to the sterile leaf. park is poor, though it may have always been Wind-dispersed (anemochorous) spores are rare. The riparian habitats in which this released during the early summer. fern was found have been greatly altered or destroyed and there is no regional source Distribution population. Trend is a steep decline precipi- Grape ferns are widely distributed across tated by the events of 2011-2012. North America and exist often at relatively 4.07.5 Level of confdence high elevations. Confdence in the presence or absence of Ecology the mesic species at likely locations is fairly In Bandelier NM, this fern is found in habi- high given the existing knowledge of park tats similar to those described for the lady- staf and ongoing monitoring eforts. Conf- slipper: shady to mostly-sunny open patches dence in the status of the riparian species in and bogs in riparian mixed conifer forests. relation to successional processes, however, Prior to the 2011 foods it was only known will probably be very low for the foreseeable to occur in one bog location that was sub- future. Confdence in the condition or trend sequently destroyed (Brian Jacobs, personal of grama grass cactus populations is low. communication). 4.07.6 Data gaps/Research needs/ Status Management recommendations The park botanist conducts annual informal NatureServe assesses the global and national walking surveys of existing sensitive plant status of this species as secure. The status of populations and potential habitat primar- the species in New Mexico is unknown, but ily to assess habitat condition, numbers of it is listed as critically imperiled in California, individuals and reproductive status at known Arizona and Colorado. Known locations locations, and to opportunistically census for this species in the park were inundated presence of new individuals in potential by the post-fre foods and debris fows in habitat. If status of any of these species was 2011 and 2012, likely extirpating grapefern elevated to federally listed, the park would from the park. Targeted surveys in 2013 have work with the Natural Heritage Program of found no occurrences remaining (B. Jacobs). New Mexico and the USFWS to conduct more formal assessments of suitable habitat and population status.

4 Natural Resource Conditions 103 4.07.7 Sources of expertise Colorado Plateau: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2007-1266. Brian Jacobs, Megan Swan U.S. Geological Survey.

4.07.8 Literature cited Web Sites Coleman, R. A. 2002. The Wild Orchids of NatureServe: http://www.natureserve.org Arizona and New Mexico. Cornell (accessed July-August 2013) University Press, Ithaca, New York. Cypripedium parviforum var. pubescens DeCoster, J. K., and M. C. Swan. 2011. Integrated upland vegetation and soils http://plants.usda.gov/core/ monitoring for Bandelier National profle?symbol=cypap3 Monument: 2009 summary report. Botrychium virginianum Natural Resource Data Series NPS/ SCPN/NRDS—2011/168. National http://eol.org/pages/597549/overview Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado. http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/serv- Deller, M. No date. Cypripedium let/NatureServe?searchName=Botrychi parviforum Salisbury var. pubescens um%20virginianum (Willd.) Knight. Large Yellow Lady’s- Lilium philadelphicum var. andinum slipper. Conservation Assessment for USDA Forest Service Region 9. http://nmrareplants.unm.edu/droplist/liland. http://www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_ htm: DOCUMENTS/stelprdb5335864.pdf Crataegus erythropoda Hathcock, C. D., L. A. Hansen, and D. C. Keller. 2010. Sensitive Species http://pick4.pick.uga.edu/mp/20q?search= Best Management Practices Source Crataegus+erythropoda&guide=Trees&fa Document, Version 1. U.S. Department gs=not_no:#http://nmrareplants.unm.edu/ of Energy, Los Alamos National droplist/craery.htm Laboratory, LA-UR-08-1464. Sclerocactus papyracanthus Muldavin, E., A. Kennedy, C. Jackson, P. http://plants.usda.gov/core/ Neville, T. Neville, K. Schulz, and M. profle?symbol=SCPA10 Reid. 2011. Vegetation classifcation and map: Bandelier National Monument. http://www.eforas.org/forataxon. Natural Resource Technical Report aspx?fora_id=1&taxon_id=242415297 NPS/SCPN/NRTR—2011/438. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.

NPS [National Park Service]. 2007. Bandelier National Monument, Final Ecological Restoration Plan and Environmental Impact Statement. National Park Service, Bandelier National Monument, Los Alamos, New Mexico.

Scott, M. L., and E. W. Reynolds. 2007. Field-based evaluation of sampling techniques to support long-term monitoring of riparian ecosystems along wadeable streams on the

104 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Biological Integrity • Invasive Species exotic species (Keeley and McGinnis 2007; Fornwalt et al. 2010; Sherrill and Romme 4.08 Nonnative Plants 2012; Shive et al. 2013). Bromus species have invaded and now dominate many arid- 4.08.1 Description ecosystems across the west, further altering Exotic or non-native plant species are those natural fre regimes (D’Antonio and Vi- that are not naturally a component of pre- tousek 1992). Bromus tectorum (cheatgrass), Euro-American settlement ecosystems. B. inermis and B. japonicas are present in the However not all exotic species necessarily monument. pose a threat to existing communities. For management purposes exotic species can 4.08.2 Reference condition: be categorized by their degree of invasive- No nonnative plants present. ness— ecologically how well they out- compete native species— and/or how well 4.08.3 Data and methods they can be controlled. For example, while At present, information on exotic species non-native ornamental species are often distribution and abundance comes from 1) easily controlled if needed, they usually do the Exotic Plant Management Team (EPMT) not compete well with native species, and so work that is conducted annually, 2) anec- pose little threat to native populations. Such dotally from park staf and cooperators, species consequently may be of lower man- and 3) incidentally from upland vegetation agement concern than those that are more monitoring. Post-Las Conchas Fire data on aggressive and survive unaided under natural vegetation have been collected but are not conditions. yet available. In Bandelier NM, exotic species comprise 4.08.4 Condition and trend approximately 15% of all the plant species Bromus tectorum (cheatgrass), B. inermis and found within the park. However, <5% (e.g. B. japonicas are present in Bandelier NM, ~40 of ~800 taxa) are considered invasive and appear to be increasing in distribution. (NPS 2006). Of those, only about 10-12 Cheatgrass has expanded across the lower species are both high risk and easy to treat. elevations of the park, likely facilitated by Several species are considered nuisance both drought and fre conditions of recent species in that they are common and fairly decades (B. Jacobs). The other two species wide-ranging, usually in disturbed areas, but are less abundant but possibly increasing as they are either weak competitors or treat- well. Given the enormous impacts of recent ment on a large scale is not practical. The fres, these species should be of particular most challenging management species are concern to managers. those that are so invasive that they are ubiquitous across the landscape and very difcult Several additional weed populations (e.g., to constrain. The common and widespread Cirsium vulgare, C. arvense, Carduus nutans, exotic plant species found in the monu- Cardaria draba), around the main headquar- ment are listed in Table 4-2 along with basic ters and visitor service areas have been large- information about their ecology and status, ly extirpated by EPMT eforts (B. Jacobs). if known. Fire impacts have prevented most work from being conducted in the riparian corridors, Post-disturbance conditions, in particular so very little is known about invasive plant those that result from large wildfres, often changes in those areas. facilitate the expansion of exotic grasses and other invasive species (Keeley 2006; Balch et Fires in the southwest are probably going al. 2013). Additional factors, such as pre- to increase with changing climate. Along fre landcover, fre intensity, elevation and with predicted increasing temperatures and climate, also afect post-fre abundance of continued drought conditions in this region,

4 Natural Resource Conditions 105 the potential for additional invasions and H. Nagendra. 2011. Benefts of persistence of exotic species is high (Hurteau hyperspectral remote sensing for et al. 2014). tracking plant invasions. Diversity and Distributions 17:381-392. 4.08.5 Level of confdence: The level of confdence for this analysis is Hurteau, M. D., J. B. Bradford, P. Z. Fule, low to moderate. A. H. Taylor, and K. L. Martin. 2014. Climate change, fre management, and 4.08.6 Data gaps/Research needs/ ecological services in the southwestern Management recommendations US. Forest Ecology and Management 327:280-289. ● Additional surveys for noxious species in riparian and burn areas should be Keeley, J. E. 2006. Fire management impacts conducted. on invasive plants in the Western ● The use of remote sensing data, now United States. Conservation Biology available at relatively fner scales than 20:375-384 used previously, could be considered for detecting new invasions (He et al. 2011). Keeley, J. E., and T.W. McGinnis. 2007. Impact of prescribed fre and other ● All prescribed fre plans and wildfre factors on cheatgrass persistence in a management and recovery actions Sierra Nevada ponderosa pine forest. should consider the potential for post- International Journal of Wildland Fire fre invasive species impacts, as well 16:96-106. as the ability to couple fre impacts to invasives with re-introduction and/or NPS [National Park Service]. 2006. Exotic facilitation of native propagation (Keeley Plant Management Plan. National Park 2006; Keeley and McGinnis 2007). Service, Bandelier National Monument, Los Alamos, New Mexico. 4.08.7 Sources of expertise Brian Jacobs Sherrill, K. R., and W. H. Romme. 2012. Spatial variation in postfre cheatgrass: 4.08.8 Literature cited Dinosaur National Monument, USA. Balch, J. K., B. A. Bradley, C. M. D’Antonio, Fire Ecology 8:38-56. and J.Gmez Dans. 2013. Introduced annual grass increases regional fre Shive, K. L., A. M. Kuenzi, C. H. Sieg, and activity across the arid western USA P. Z. Fulé. 2013. Pre-fre fuel reduction (1980–2009). Global Change Biology treatments infuence plant communities 19:173-183. and exotic species 9 years after a large wildfre. Applied Vegetation Science D’Antonio, C. M., and P. M. Vitousek. 16:457-469. 1992. Biological invasions by exotic grasses, the grass/fre cycle, and global change. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 23:63-87.

Fornwalt, P. J., M. R. Kaufmann, and T. J. Stohlgren. 2010. Impacts of mixed severity wildfre on exotic plants in a Colorado ponderosa pine–Douglas- fr forest. Biological Invasions 12:2683-2695.

He, K. S., D. Rocchini, M. Neteler, and

106 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Table 4-2. Common and widespread nonnative plant species found in Bandelier National Monument, their location, and status post-Las Conchas Fire (LCF), if known; website provided if available. Organized according to type of nonnative species.

Scientifc name Type Locations in Bandelier NM Comments/post-LCF status, if known common name Invasive non-native plants for which there is an effective suppression method Ailanthus altissimaa woody Lost Canyon (approx. 2 acres), and pre- often reproduces by root sprouting so is often dif- Tree of Heaven viously extirpated from historic orchard fcult to treat; highly adapted to disturbance; early successional species following fre but can persist in shade once established; treated in Lost Canyon area by EPMT in 2013 http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/ailalt/all.html

Elaeagnus angustifoliab woody Rio Grande Corridor and scattered common and spreading throughout the southwest Russian olive swales; lower tributary canyons and mouths (and associated willow patches) including Frijoles, Lummis, and Alamo; Developed District http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/elaang/all.html Ulmus pumilab woody RGC and roadsides; lower tributary reproduces by seed and root sprouting Siberian elm canyons and mouths (and associated willow patches) including Frijoles, Lum- mis, and Alamo; Developed District http://www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb5410128.pdf Tamarix ramosissimac woody RGC; lower tributary canyons and resprouts from root meristem after fre (Drus 2013); salt cedar/tamarisk mouths (and associated willow patches) including Frijoles, Lummis, and Alamo. http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/tamspp/all.html Linaria vulgarisa perennial forb RGC, and Capulin mesa; lower tributary infestations are expanding in New Mexico (USFS butter and eggs (yellow canyons and mouths (and associated 2012); treated on Capulin Mesa by EPMT in 2013 toadfax) willow patches) including Frijoles, Lum- mis, and Alamo http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/forb/linspp/all.html http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/plants/toadfax.shtml Cirsium arvensea perennial forb RGC; lower tributary canyons and can produce new shoots from roots; treated along Canada thistle mouths (and associated willow patches) the Highway 4 corridor by EPMT in 2013 including Frijoles, Lummis, and Alamo. http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/forb/cirarv/all.html Lepidium latifoliuma perennial forb RGC; lower tributary canyons and peppergrass mouths (and associated willow patches) including Frijoles, Lummis, and Alamo. Centaurea repens perennial forb RGC; lower tributary canyons and reproduces from seeds and vegetative buds on Russian knapweed mouths (and associated willow patches) roots including Frijoles, Lummis, and Alamo http://www.colostate.edu/Depts/CoopExt/TRA/knapweed.html Invasive non-native plants for which there is currently no effective suppression method Bromus tectorumb annual grass widely distributed at lower elevations, winter annual, so abundance dependent on winter- cheatgrass expanding into canyons and possibly spring rainfall; expanding, especially in post-fre burned areas post-LCF areas http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/graminoid/brotec/all.html B. japonicas annual grass widely distributed in disturbed areas Japanese brome near horse corral, developed park areas, Rio corridor, and lower canyon slopes http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/graminoid/brojap/all.html

4 Natural Resource Conditions 107 Table 4-2. Common and widespread nonnative plant species found in Bandelier National Monument, their location, and status post-Las Conchas Fire (LCF), if known; website provided if available. Organized according to type of nonnative species (continued).

Scientifc name Type Locations in Bandelier NM Comments/post-LCF status, if known common name B. inermis perennial grass roadsides, Dome Fire area spreading vegetatively smooth brome http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/plants/exoticab/pipebrom.htm

Widespread nuisance species Cirsium vulgareb biennial forb local patches in Cerro burn area; dis- treated along the Highway 4 corridor by EPMT in bull thistle turbed or burned meadow areas along 2013 Hwy 4 Carduus nutansa biennial forb roadside, Hwy 4 post-fre invader (Floyd-Hanna et al. 1993); repro- musk thistle duces only from seed; treated along the Highway 4 corridor by EPMT in 2013 Kochia scoparia annual forb RGC and disturbed sites kochia Kali tragus annual forb disturbed sites Russian thistle/ tumbleweed Taraxacum offcinale perennial forb riparian, canyons, and lawns dandelion Verbascum thapsus biennial forb disturbed and recently burned areas treated on Capulin Mesa by EPMT in 2013 mullein Chenopodium glaucum annual forb disturbed and recently burned areas goosefoot Poa pratensis perennial grass riparian, lawns, developed canyon area; blue grass persisting where planted Non-native plants (including ornamentals) that do not currently pose a risk to ecosystem health Euphorbia esulaa perennial forb near Corral Hill (~0.10 acre) substantial root systems leafy spurge Cardaria drabaa perennial forb horse corral treated within the horse corral area and along the hoary cress Highway 4 corridor by EPMT in 2013;

Melilotus offcinalis annual/biennial forb roadsides yellow sweet clover (legume) Juglans nigra ornamental; woody historic orchard and Frijoles Creek black walnut Coronilla [securigera] varia ornamental; peren- residential area crown vetch nial forb (legume) Lathyrus latifolius ornamental; peren- residential area sweet pea nial forb (legume) Salvia pratensis ornamental; peren- roadside, Hwy 4 meadow clary nial forb Mentha arvensis ornamental; peren- lower Frijoles Creek spearmint nial forb Althea rosea ornamental; peren- roadside, Hwy 4 hollyhock nial forb a New Mexico (2009) Class A or B noxious weed species (limited or regional distribution) b NPS Exotic Plant Management Team (EPMT) c New Mexico Class C noxious weed species (widespread) 4 Rio Grande Corridor (RGC)

108 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Water • Hydrology; tary which joins the Rio Grande just north of Espanola, NM. And although White Rock Geology and Soils • Geomorphology; Canyon is not managed cooperatively, and Biological Integrity • Communities of several of the entities are not land manage- Concern ment agencies per se, the unit is ecologically coherent and the habitat was identifed by 4.09 Rio Grande Corridor and the New Mexico State Department of Game Associated Riparian Vegetation and Fish as having high potential for supporting reintroduction of extirpated desert 4.09.1 Description bighorn sheep. The Rio Grande forms the eastern boundary of Bandelier NM from the mouth of Frijo- Human Impacts to Rio Grande les Canyon on the north to a point midway As a natural community, the riparian ecosys- between Alamo and Capulin Canyons to the tem along the Rio Grande has experienced south, approximately six river miles. This enormous change during the last century, section of the river is bordered to the east largely due to water impoundments and fow by the Caja del Rio, a basaltic upland man- management, both upstream and down- aged by the Espanola District of the U.S. stream of the park, but also as a consequence Forest Service (USFS) primarily for graz- of domestic grazing and exotic vegetation. ing and ORV recreation. The park does not Regional water usage has increased dramati- manage the river system proper since the cally since the 1950s and water rights within monument’s boundary is defned as being the Rio Grande watershed are fully appro- the western-side of the active river channel. priated. Indeed portions of the Rio Grande However, the park does manage its portion south of Albuquerque routinely go dry dur- of the terrestrial riparian river corridor and ing the summer months as water is variously participates as a principal stakeholder to diverted, consumed, and evaporated. How- infuence how river fow and water holding ever the major impacts to Bandelier NM events are managed by the upstream and have resulted from construction and man- downstream water managers, specifcally the agement of fow and sediment impoundment U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (ACE). structures, in particular the Cochiti Dam and Reservoir system. About 12 miles upstream of Frijoles Canyon, the Rio Grande enters White Rock Canyon, In addition, within the last couple of years a deeply cut gorge of relatively recent geo- the city of Santa Fe established a water logic origin, and the river remains within this uptake and fltration plant several miles canyon system until it emerges downstream upstream of the park at Buckmans Cross- at the Cochiti Reservoir Dam some six miles ing, where river water is pumped overland below the park’s southern boundary. White for domestic use by the capital city. In the Rock Canyon is a scenic river corridor ad- summer of 2013, the town of Los Alamos ministered by several diferent federal, state, announced plans to drill several new wells and local agencies including the Depart- along the west rim of White Rock Canyon ment of Energy’s Los Alamos National Lab near the community of White Rock to ex- (LANL, White Rock Canyon Preserve), tract shallow aquifer river water (technically Espanola District-Santa Fe National Forest San Juan Basin-Chama water) to supplement (SFNF), Los Alamos County Open Space, municipal water supplies and replace old Bureau of Indian Afairs San Ildefonso Pueb- deep aquifer well felds. Finally, feral cattle, lo, and the Bureau of Land Management. probably escaped from the pueblo upstream or crossing from the Caja del Rio, have been The river section within White Rock Canyon a perennial problem and contribute to a de- is generally well watered, although major graded riparian zone. Periodically the park reductions in spring runof fow peaks have attempts to trap and/ or shoot feral cattle in been imposed by upstream dam regulation, collaboration with the NM state livestock primarily on the Rio Chama, a major tribu- 4 Natural Resource Conditions 109 board and under legal guidance of the 1995 runof, as well as to point out the negative feral cattle EA (NPS 1995); recent actions impacts of long-term water holding events include those in 1995 and 2009. (e.g., on native vegetation,particularly recently colonized sediment bars and willow Cochiti Dam and Reservoir fy catcher nesting habitat). The Cochiti Dam, completed in 1977, created a food and sediment control reservoir Sedimentation system which encompasses the entire river In addition to holding water, the Cochiti corridor within Bandelier NM. Operation- Dam and Reservoir traps large quantities of ally, this means that the reservoir is used to sediment within the afected portions of the hold back spring runof in excess of certain river system—as the sediment builds up- thresholds, but excess water is supposed stream, the river becomes braided, creating to be evacuated within a 3-month period; a complex mosaic of bars and backwaters, however this authority was exceeded during with the bars commonly colonized by na- the mid-1980s resulting in several extended tive willows. This has created some unique water holding events at the maximum food (although artifcial) and high quality riparian pool level (~5,460ft). These extended water habitat which, if not altered by future river holding events severely impacted the ripar- operations, could support a host of sensi- ian corridor, initially killing all vegetation tive species including southwestern willow both native and exotic, depositing many feet fy catcher. A darker-side to the reservoir of nitrogen-rich silt, extinguishing springs sediment storage is the buried contaminant and seeps and their unique foras, and releas- plume originating from Los Alamos Na- ing a succession of exotic plant invasions tional Laboratory (LANL) just upstream of post-fooding. the monument park. Recently the Cochiti Pueblo and ACE have begun coring these Prior to this water holding event the river sediments to assess levels of various con- corridor reportedly supported extensive taminants in the sediment. This same envi- patches of woody exotics, along with en- ronmental program is beginning to collect croachment stands of one-seed juniper on baseline vegetation data as well. river fats. The fooding eradicated these populations, along with the native under- Recent fre events have contributed large story vegetation. It was primarily the exotic amounts of sediment to a reservoir system species which recovered and expanded already aggrading much faster than originally strongly in the aftermath of fooding with a forecast due to the sediment inputs from host of new invasive species colonizing the degraded woodland systems. Whether the nutrient-rich sediments. In the mid-2000s a lifespan of the systems can be extended is major invasive plant control efort focused an open question. Ironically the absence of on three woody exotic species (e.g. Salt sediment in fows below Cochiti Dam has Cedar, Siberian elm, Russian Olive) allowed promoted scouring and down-cutting of native willow and cottonwood a chance to those reaches which degrades the riparian regain ground along the reach that borders corridor, as well as habitat for the endan- the monument. gered silvery minnow.

Since the mid-1980s water holding, the park 4.09.2 Reference conditions has been productively engaged with the ACE Reference conditions of the river system (responsible for river operations upstream are not well documented but we can infer and downstream, including Cochiti Dam) to a relatively pristine system prior to 1850, promote the benefts of mimicking historic when the hydrologic regime characterized fow regimes (e.g., on channel morphology by spring snow melt runof would generate and cottonwood recruitment) by allowing peaks exceeding 10,000cfs in the absence of short duration, high volume spring peak upstream dams. Summer monsoonal events

110 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment would have created temporary pulses in fow ited by sediment storage, passing sediment and sediment-turbidity, variability that is through the system is problematic, given the now greatly moderated by the presence of presence of contaminants from LANL. The the dam. The riparian corridor would have sediment deltas, braided channels, backwa- supported stands of cottonwood at tributary ters, and lush riparian vegetation associated canyon mouths where sediment fans accu- with reservoir deposits have created valu- mulate and willow thickets along the banks, able riparian habitat which supports winter while scattered seeps and springs emerging migratory birds, including water fowl and at the base of steep canyon slopes would raptors. have supported unique foras, including hackberry overstory and sensitive fowering Frijoles Spring, which was extinguished by species (e.g., rattlesnake orchid and cardinal sediment deposition for more than a decade fower). has now re-emerged as a spring fed pond and marsh, although much of the supported 4.09.3 Data and methods wetland fora is exotic. Available data are limited, but include hydro- Recently there are fresh signs of trespass logic fow records from Otowi Gauging Sta- cattle in the park (creating trails, droppings, tion about 12 miles upstream from the park and impacting Frijoles Spring) despite an in- boundary. This information and a historical tact boundary fence. This situation suggests perspective are provided in the Cochiti Base- that the animals were able to walk around line Biological Report (Allen et al. 1993). the fence in the river during low river levels Almost no terrestrial vegetation data are during the winter of 2012-2013. available, aside from foristic reports and Although the magnitude of mid-1980s water an early assessment of post-Cochiti Dam holding events has not been repeated (due to sediment bar formation. Time-series remote a combination of dryer-warmer conditions, sensing reconstructions may ofer the best earlier snow melt runof, increased water option for assessing landscape scale changes. usage, reduced channel capacity, and more Baseline documentation of the emerging responsible reservoir management), and the wetlands and deltas within the monument system is progressing through a successional was provided by mapping eforts in 1996 and recovery phase, visual impacts will continue 1997 (Promislow 1996; Wechsler and Fettig to be evident for many decades, while the 1997); more recent changes could be recon- impacts on springs and associated riparian structed using time-series orthoimagery and foras and the promotion of exotic weed lidar. foras is a longer-term legacy.

4.09.4 Condition and trend Human demand for water in the region con- River fow regimes have been signifcantly tinues to increase, and with predicted drying altered from historical conditions. A com- and warming climatic trends, the prospects bination of upstream water impoundments, for additional resource impacts loom while loss of channel capacity, encroachments into ecological management of the river system the foodplain, and insufcient snowpack in become ever more constrained. most years constrain the ability to generate high spring runof peaks, which are consid- 4.09.5 Level of confdence ered benefcial to river dynamics and ripar- Confdence in the changes of water fow is ian community health. high due to the presence of gauging station records. Confdence in the assessment of Sediment continues to accumulate within the overall ecological integrity of the sys- the reservoir system, and rates of deposition tem is low to moderate given the absence of have spiked in recent post-fre years. While resource sampling or monitoring. Histori- the life-span of this reservoir system is lim- cal reference conditions are inferred from a

4 Natural Resource Conditions 111 number of lines of evidence, but these are 4.09.8 Literature cited mostly indirect and confdence is generally Allen, C. D., B. Hanson, and C. Mullins, eds. fair to poor. 1993. Cochiti Reservoir Reregulation Interagency Biological Report: Report 4.09.6 Data gaps/Research needs/ on File, Bandelier National Monument, Management recommendations Los Alamos, New Mexico. Acquisition of additional remote sensing products (e.g., ortho-imagery and LiDAR), National Park Service [NPS]. 1995. and time-series change analysis to determine Bandelier Feral Cattle EA. Unpublished status and trends for riparian habitat would report on fle at Bandelier National be helpful. Monument, Los Alamos, New Mexico.

The park should continue to participate with Promislow, M. 1996. Willow and riparian other agencies and stakeholders (such as habitats along the Rio Grande at Cochiti Pueblo, ACE, LANL, SFNF) in the Bandelier National Monument. management of the river corridor to main- Unpublished Report. tain as natural a fow regime as possible. Wechsler R.J. and Fettig S.M. 1999. Willow and riparian habitats along the 4.09.7 Sources of expertise Rio Grande at Bandelier National Brian Jacobs Monument: A comparison of 1996 and 1997 Observations. Unpublished Report.

112 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Water • Hydrology; or regionally restricted species (Sabo et al. 2005). In arid systems where water is natu- Geology and Soils • Geomorphology; rally scarce, riparian systems also provide particularly critical connections between up- Biological Integrity • Communities of land, riverine, and downstream communities Concern (Wilcox et al. 2003, Osterkamp and Hupp 4.10 Rito de los Frijoles and 2010), but may be relatively more vulnerable Capulin Creek and Associated to disturbance and climate change efects (Friedman and Lee 2002, Perry et al. 2012). Riparian Vegetation 4.10.1 Description Disturbance and recovery Maintaining and protecting proper hy- Several large wildfres and subsequent food drologic function and natural riparian and events since 1977, (most recently the mas- aquatic communities of park streams is a sive Las Conchas Fire (LCF) of 2011; fres priority management goal for Bandelier NM are summarized in section 2.2.2 ), have had (Mott 1999, Weeks 2007). To function holis- substantial impacts, at multiple scales, on tically, riparian ecosystems—the biological the biological communities and hydrologic and structural elements of areas adjacent to processes in Capulin and Frijoles canyons in streams and rivers—require both physical Bandelier NM (Mott 1999, Veenhuis 2002, and ecological integrity. Physical character- Stumpf and Monroe 2012). Disturbance is istics of healthy riparian zones include intact a natural process in all ecosystems, includ- foodplains, good water quality, sufcient ing riparian zones (Lake 2000, Shafroth et fows, and in-stream structural components al. 2002, Stanley et al. 2010), and periodic (e.g. sediment) that provide habitat for fooding is required for the persistence of aquatic species and streamside communities many stream-associated species (Bornette et (Pof et al. 1997, Bendix and Hupp 2000). al. 2008). However, the events occurring in Biological elements include native vegetation the monument over the last 30 years, while communities adapted to periodic fooding not always directly human-caused, have had and appropriately diverse communities of increasingly cumulative negative impacts on aquatic-adapted and reliant species (Karr natural and cultural park resources. Conse- 1991, Dwire and Kaufman 2003). quently, there has been concern that park ecosystems may have lost resilience and are Vegetation types occurring along Rito de now moving toward threshold states from los Frijoles (perennial) and Capulin Creek which they may not recover (Dwire and (perennial) are classifed as Rocky Moun- Kaufman 2003, Jackson and Sullivan 2009, tain Subalpine-Montane Riparian Forest Bowker and Smith 2014). Moreover, ongo- and Woodland, with specifc types of box ing and anticipated impacts of prolonged elder-alder-cottonwood, white-fr-box-elder drought and climate change may hinder mixed, ponderosa pine-broadleaf mixed, the recovery and successional processes in ponderosa pine dry wash, and oneseed riparian systems following disturbance more juniper dry wash (Muldavin et al. 2011). In than would otherwise be expected (Perry et Bandelier NM these are fairly narrow zones al. 2012). that include dominant species of ponderosa pine, thinleaf alder, box elder, narrowleaf The primary impacts of the LCF on Capu- cottonwood, mountain maple, gambel oak, lin Creek and Rito de los Frijoles were the beech, cherry, and New Mexico olive (Mul- following: davin et al. 2011). 1. Large portions of riparian vegetation Riparian systems contribute to the overall communities sufered direct mortality diversity of regional landscapes, often sup- from the fre, so much so that in some porting relatively higher numbers of rare areas 100% of the riparian canopy was

4 Natural Resource Conditions 113 lost (Stumpf and Monroe 2012). In Naiman 2007, Ellis 2001). However, ruderal Capulin Canyon, approximately 60% of species often establish in heavily disturbed the riparian zone was severely burned, sites, such as food zones, more rapidly than and 40% was slightly to moderately native species (Bornette et al. 2008, Ringold burned. Linearly this translates to about et al. 2008). Most studies conducted in ripar- 7 km severely burned and 3 km less so. ian ecosystems have determined that succes- For Frijoles Canyon, approximately 7.6 sional responses to large-scale disturbance km of high severity impacts and 11.4 can take from years to decades, and are km of low to moderate severity afected dependent on multiple factors of geography, the riparian zone (unpublished GIS climate, and human activities (Fisher et al. analysis). Aerial photography shows near 1982, Lake 2000, Lite et al. 2005). In addition complete loss of vegetation along much to the direct loss of riparian forest stands due of both streams. to fre and fooding, the absence of herba- 2. The extreme reduction in live upland ceous and woody plants removes signifcant vegetation combined with reduced soil food and habitat resources for numerous integrity substantially increased runof vertebrate and invertebrate species (Bess et during post-fre precipitation events. al. 2002, Lecerf et al. 2005). For example the post LCF peak fow in Frijoles Canyon on September 13, Landforms and geomorphology 2013 was three times as large as any Stream channel morphology is defned by previously recorded for that stream a complex series of interactions between (Veenhuis 2002, NPS 2011). Flow in hydrologic regimes and watershed geologic southwestern streams is highly variable characteristics. Metrics used to describe and riparian ecosystems in the region are channel morphology include substrate size, adapted to disturbance caused by large channel cross-sectional form, and planform food events. However, extreme food of the channel and foodplain. These all events following landscape scale fres infuence a stream’s habitat abundance and can be particularly destructive to ripar- diversity, sensitivity and resilience to natural ian ecosystems because they typically and human-induced disturbances, retention transport large volumes of sediment and of surface and sub-surface water, sediment woody debris (Wilcox et al. 2003, Neary transport and retention, nutrient capacity, et al. 2005). Post-fre foods frequently and connectivity both within the aquatic result in deepening and widening of system and between the stream and adjacent stream channels, conditions which in uplands. Large foods such as those occur- turn alter the attributes of the existing ring in the streams at Bandelier NM, post foodplain (Mott 1999, Friedman and LCF, periodically restructure stream chan- Lee 2002, Veenhuis 2002, Neary et al. nel morphology. Prior to the LCF, Rito de 2005). Flooding and peak fow events, los Frijoles had been relatively unimpacted particularly when large debris are trans- by disturbances for nearly thirty years, and ported, not only cause direct mortality to the stream was in a relatively stable condi- understory plants that may have survived tion, supporting a healthy riparian ecosys- the original fre, but may also bury or tem and aquatic communities with high remove the existing seed bank (Yount abundance and diversity. Large food events and Niemi 1990). occurred in Capulin Canyon following the 1996 Dome Fire and at the time of the LCF, Riparian ecosystems are resilient, and after Capulin Canyon was in a state of transition. fres, riparian plant communities often It is probable that the LCF and subsequent recover more rapidly than upland communi- foods may have exacerbated geomorphic ties due to the moist conditions and because and vegetation changes in Capulin intiated fre severity is often lessened in riparian by the Dome Fire (B. Jacobs pers. comm.). zones (Dwire and Kaufman 2003, Pettit and

114 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Resource managers at Bandelier NM have conditions may continue for the foreseeable observed noteworthy sediment displace- future, consideration should be given to the ment and landform change since the LCF, validity of using past community condi- particularly in canyon settings that are tions as a reference (Stoddard et al. 2006). characterized by steep slopes and fractured For example, species that are more adapted bedrock. Limited analysis of LiDAR datas- to fooding and periodic inundation may ets collected over Frijoles Canyon between become less common than more drought- 2010 and 2013 identifed areas of canyon tolerant taxa. Also, the potential for exotic bottom sediment deposition of +/- 20–40m species to proliferate in post-disturbance in severely burned portions of the canyon conditions is likely an undesired outcome (Jacobs 2014). The unburned lower canyon with which managers should be concerned also exhibited landform change, particularly (Rindgold 2008). near the Lower Falls of Frijoles Canyon that has seen major landslide and rockfall 4.10.2 Reference conditions episodes since the 1930s. During the August Landforms and geomorphology 2011 major post-fre food event, the toe of In the context of the last 10,000 years, the the slope below the falls was scoured by the recent fooding observed post-Las Conchas stream and thin vertical bedrock blocks fell Fire is not unprecedented. The last hundred into and broke up in the stream channel. The years, however, have been very quiet in terms site is poised to experience another major of geomorphic stability, as a result of vegeta- landslide and/or rock slope failure that could tion conditions due to fre suppression. For very easily obliterate the remaining remnants example, Reneau (2000) identifed periods of of the Falls Trail in this area. rapid downcutting in Frijoles Canyon during the early Holocene (8000-10000 years ago). Vegetation recovery Succession processes after foods should Vegetation facilitate the transition from essentially bare The fairly narrow montane riparian zones ground and buried vegetation to herbaceous along interior streams support well-devel- emergence, woody species recovery (often oped and diverse forest or woodlands, in- from resprouting, Engelhardt et al. 2011), cluding dominant species of ponderosa pine, and culminating again in a riparian wood- thinleaf alder, box elder, narrowleaf cotton- land. Riparian vegetation can be particularly wood, mountain maple, Gambel oak, beech, resilient to long-term fre impacts, though cherry, and New Mexico olive. Periodic fres response and recovery trajectories appear to and foods result in patchy loss of riparian vary depending on fre severity, availability of vegetation followed by succession. source populations, and climatic conditions in the immediate post-fre years (Ellis 2001, 4.10.3 Data and methods Dwire and Kaugman 2003). Characteristics that would be relevant in assessing vegeta- Landforms and geomorphology tion community structure could include Staf observations, review of historic pho- woody species diversity (Jackson and Sul- tographs, repeat photo points and repeat livan 2009), tree cover (canopy area), woody LiDAR all contribute to understanding of species recruitment rates (either from seed ongoing landform changes. or re-sprouting, Jackson and Sullivan 2008), Measures of stream morphology, including population dynamics of dominant tree spe- substrate particle size, habitat type, and geo- cies, herbaceous species diversity, and exotic morphic channel unit, are all useful indica- species abundance. tors of channel condition and are collected However, given how much the riparian zone as part of the SCPN’s aquatic macroinverte- has been altered by direct fre and food brate monitoring program. These data have impacts, and the likelihood that drought been collected from two sites on both Rito

4 Natural Resource Conditions 115 de los Frijoles and Capulin Creek for more likely due to scouring. Cover at that site than fve years and provide a picture of these declined from an average of 75% prefre to streams functional condition (Stumpf and 27% postfre. Monroe (2009, 2010, 2011, 2012a, 2012b). Landforms Streamfow Staf observations, review of historic pho- At present, there is one active streamfow tographs, repeat photo points and repeat gauge in Rito de los Frijoles and no gauges LiDAR all contribute to understanding of on other streams in Bandelier NM. The ongoing landform changes. streamfow gauge on Rito de los Frijoles was destroyed by the food on August 21, 2011. A 4.10.4 Condition and trend new gauge was installed by the USGS at the Geomorphology and streamfow same location and data from this station are Stream geomorphology data collected by available online at: (http://nwis.waterdata. SCPN since 2009 provided the following usgs.gov/nm/nwis/uv/?site_no=08313350). information: Since the 2011 food the accuracy of base fow data from this gauge has been poor due ● Substrate particle size. Gravel, silt, and to high volumes of sediment moving through cobbles were abundant channel sub- the system and numerous moderate to large strate types prior to the LCF in both food events. Capulin and Frijoles creeks. In the years since the fre and subsequent fooding While only one streamfow gauge is currently sand and small gravel have become the active in the monument, there are data avail- dominant substrates. able from gauges that had been previously deployed in Rito de los Frijoles and Capulin ● Habitat type. Prior to the LCF, aquatic Creek. Table 4-3 provides information about macroinvertebrate habitat data collected the gauges and the data available. at sites on Rito de los Frijoles and Capu- lin Creek showed a wide diversity of Vegetation habitat types, including both substrate Very few data exist that quantitatively bottom materials and primary produc- describe the historic riparian vegetation tion materials (leaf packs, woody debris, community structure of Capulin or Frijoles vegetation and root wads). Post fre data creeks. A small number of plots were estab- show that the majority of those habitat lished in riparian areas during the vegetation types are no longer present. Since 2011 mapping project (Muldavin et al.2011) and available habitat in these streams ap- there appear to be three within the Capu- propriate for aquatic macroinvertebrates lin riparian zone but none in the Frijoles ranged from 5% to 35%. area. SCPN estimates of riparian vegetation ● Geomorphic channel units. Rifes, runs, canopy cover at four sites, two on Rito de los and cascades were the most abundant Frijoles and two on Capulin Creek, as part geomorphic channel units found along of the network’s aquatic macroinvertebrate Rito de los Frijoles and Capulin Creek monitoring program. The riparian canopy prior to the LCF. The infux of large was dense at sites along both streams prior volumes of fne sediments since the fre to the LCF, ranging from a low of 63% at has resulted in the burial or loss of gravel Rito de los Frijoles to 99% at Capulin Creek. and cobble substrates and has greatly re- In the years since the LCF, no live riparian duced the number of rifes and cascades vegetation has been recorded at 3 of the 4 in the streams. Long sandy runs are now SCPN monitoring sites. SCPN’s site on Rito the dominant geomorphic channel units de los Frijoles near the monument visitor present. center site did not burn during the LCF, but The LCF had substantial physical impacts has seen a reduction in riparian cover most on both Capulin Creek and the Rito de los

116 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Frijoles (Stumpf and Monroe 2012), greatly severity, while upper Frijoles burned less altering stream morphology, at least for the severely. short-term. Continued erosion and food events can be expected for the next several Under historic regime conditions, fres years. Numerous food events have oc- and foods alone in these systems would curred since the fre, the largest of these in likely support future healthy riparian for- July 2013, suggesting watershed conditions ests following secondary succession (Scott remain impaired (S. Monroe pers. comm.). and Reynolds 2007). But the severity of the However, assuming that upland conditions impacts, along with the potentially stronger improve in coming years, peak fows and infuences of prolonged drought and up- associated debris and high-fow impacts will land and landscape (watershed) responses decline. However, it is possible a prolonged to climate change (Bendix and Hupp 2000, reduction in streamfow resulting from Engelhardt et al. 2011), alter that scenario climate changed-induced drought will have substantially. The potential for invasive spe- signifcant impacts on Capulin and Frijoles cies to quickly establish and afect succes- riparian systems (Lake 2000). sional trajectories is also a concern.

Vegetation 4.10.5 Level of confdence If the assessment was for present and stand- The level of confdence in this assessment is ing conditions only, the current condition of moderate. riparian vegetation communities in Capulin and Frijoles canyons afected by recent fre 4.10.6 Data gaps/Research needs/ and food events is poor. However, what is of Management recommendations ecological importance is how well these sites ● Monitoring of riparian zones to docu- are poised to recover. Capulin Canyon is in ment recovery processes and detect much worse shape following the LCF than introductions of invasive/exotic species. Frijoles. This is probably due to the relatively ● Aerial photography could greatly assist short time since the Dome Fire, and because in documenting vegetation recovery. a greater percent of the Capulin watershed, ● Monitor the rate of landform change us- including upper Capulin, burned at high ing LiDAR.

Table 4-3. Data available from streamfow gauges on Capulin Creek and Rito de los Frijoles in Bandelier National Monument.

Stream Station IDs Location History Data available Capulin Creek USGS # 083133655 Capulin Canyon at NPS station destroyed by the frst post- 4/85-6/96; 6/97-11/98; Ranger Cabin Dome Fire food 6/26/96; new gauge 7/97 installed by USGS near the previous sta- upgraded to satellite sys- tion so are considered one record. tem (DCP) Capulin Creek USGS # 08313365 Capulin Canyon above Crest-stage gauges to monitor stream- 7/96-11/98 Ranger Cabin fow after the Dome fre Capulin Creek USGS # 08313366 Capulin Canyon below Crest-stage gauges to monitor stream- 7/96-11/98 Ranger Cabin fow after the Dome fre Capulin Creek USGS # 08313368 Capulin Canyon below Crest-stage gauges to monitor stream- 7/96-11/98 Painted Cave fow after the Dome fre *Rito de los Frijoles USGS # 08313350 Rito de los Frijoles near 7/63-9/69 and 7/77-9/79: USGS, location 7/63-9/69; VC upstream of VC. 10/79-present: USGS 7/77-present and LANL, site downstream of VC. Rito de los Frijoles USGS # 08313300 Rito de los Frijoles near 1960-1963 Los Alamos *Data available at: http://nwis.waterdata.usgs.gov/nm/nwis/uv/?site_no=08313350; http://wdr.water.usgs.gov/wy2012/pdfs/08313350.2012.pdf

4 Natural Resource Conditions 117 ● Continue operation of a discharge gauge riparian forest, Central New Mexico, on the Rito de los Frijoles. USA. Biological Conservation ● The known food history within Frijoles 97:159-170. Canyon and projected increase in ex- Engelhardt, B. M., P. J. Weisberg, and J. treme food events should be fully valued C. Chambers. 2011. Infuences of by managers in future infrastructure watershed geomorphology on extent development eforts. and composition of riparian vegetation. ● Repeat LiDAR over multiple years, with Journal of Vegetation Science online analysis, to assess how long accelerated 23(1):127-139. landform changes continue once episodes of mass movement are underway. Fisher, S. G., L. J. Gray, N. B. Grimm, and D. E. Busch. 1982. Temporal succession 4.10.7 Sources of expertise in a desert stream ecosystem following Brian Jacobs, Stephen Monroe fash fooding. Ecol. Monog. 52:93-110.

4.10.8 Literature cited Friedman, J. M., and V. J. Lee. 2002. Extreme Bendix, J., and C. R. Hupp. 2000. foods, channel change, and riparian Hydrological and geomorphological forests along ephemeral streams. Ecol. impacts on riparian plant communities. Monog. 72:409-425. Hydrological Processes 14:2977-2990. Jackson, B. K., and S. M. P. Sullivan. 2009. Bess, E. C., R. R. Parmenter, S. McCoy, Infuence of wildfre severity on and M. C. Molles Jr. 2002. Responses riparian plant community heterogeneity of a riparian forest-foor arthropod in an Idaho, USA wilderness. Forest community to wildfre in the middle Ecol. and Mgmt. 259:24-32. Rio Grande Valley, New Mexico. Karr, J. R. 1991. Biological integrity: A long- Environmental Entomology neglected aspect of water resource 31:774-784. management. Ecological Applications Bornette, G., E. Tabacchi, C. Hupp, S. 1:66-84. Puijalon, and J. C. Rostan. 2008. A Lake, P. S. 2000. Disturbance, patchiness, model of plant strategies in fuvial and diversity in streams. J.N. Am. hydrosystems. Freshwater Biology Benthol. Soc. 19:573-592. 53:1692-1705. Lecerf, A., M. Dobson, C. K. Dang, and E. Bowker, M. A., and D. S. Smith. 2014. Chauvet. 2005. Riparian plant species Assessment of vegetation change in loss alters trophic dynamics in detritus- Bandelier National Monument: A based stream ecosystems. Oecologia “barometer of change” in the National 146:432-442. Park system. Unpublished report prepared for the Southern Colorado Lite, S. J., K. J. Bagstad, and J. C. Stromberg. Plateau Network and Bandelier 2005. Riparian plant species richness National Monument. Los Alamos, New along lateral and longitudinal gradients Mexico. of water stress and food disturbance, San Pedro River, Arizona, USA. J. Arid Dwire, K. A., and J. B. Kaufman. 2003. Fire Environs. 63:785-813. and riparian ecosystems in landscapes of the western USA. Forest Ecology and Mott, D. 1999. Water Resources Management 178:61-74. Management Plan, Bandelier National Monument, New Mexico. National Ellis, L. M. 2001. Short-term response of Park Service, Water Resources Division, woody plants to fre in a Rio Grande Denver, Colorado.

118 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Muldavin, E., A. Kennedy, C. Jackson, P. Sabo, J. L., R. Sponseller, M. Dixon, K. Gade, Neville, T. Neville, K. Schulz, and M. T. Harms, J. Hefernan, A. Jani, G. Reid. 2011. Vegetation classifcation and Katz, C. Soykan, J. Watts, and J. Welter. map: Bandelier National Monument. 2005. Riparian zones increase regional Natural Resource Technical Report species richness by harboring diferent, NPS/SCPN/NRTR—2011/438. not more, species. Ecology 86:56-62. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado. Scott, M. L., and E. W. Reynolds. 2007. Field-based evaluation of sampling Neary, D. G., K. C. Ryan, L. F. DeBano, eds. techniques to support long-term 2005. (revised 2008). Wildland fre in monitoring of riparian ecosystems ecosystems: efects of fre on soils and along wadeable streams on the water. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42- Colorado Plateau. Open-File Report vol.4. U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2007-1266. U.S. Geological Survey, Fort Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Collins Science Center, Colorado. Research Station, Ogden, Utah. Shafroth, P. B., J. C. Stromberg, and D. Osterkamp, W. R., and C. R. Hupp. 2010. T. Patten. 2002. Riparian vegetation Fluvial processes and vegetation – response to altered disturbance and Glimpses of the past, the present, and stress regimes. Ecological Applications perhaps the future. Geomorphology 12:107-123. 116:271-285. Stanley, E. H., S. M. Powers, and N. R. Perry, L. G., D. C. Andersen, L. V. Reynolds, Lottig. 2010. The evolving legacy S. M. Nelson, and P. B. Shafroth. 2012. of disturbance in stream ecology: Vulnerability of riparian ecosystems concepts, contributions, and coming to elevated CO2 and climate change challenges. J. N. Am Benthol. Soc. in arid and semiarid western North 29:67-83. America. Global Change Biology Stoddard, J. L., D. P. Larsen, C. P. Hawkins, 18:821–842. R. K. Johnson, and R. H. Norris. 2006. Pettit, N. E., and R. J. Naiman. 2007. Fire in Setting expectations for the ecological the riparian zone: characteristics and condition of streams: the concept ecological consequences. Ecosystems of reference condition. Ecol. Appl. 10:673-687. 16:1267-1276.

Pof, N. L., J. D. Allan, M. B. Bain, J. R. Karr, Stumpf, S. E., and S. A. Monroe. 2009. K. L. Prestegaard, B. D. Richer, R. E. Aquatic macroinvertebrate and physical Sparks, and J. C. Stromberg. 1997. habitat monitoring for Bandelier The natural fow regime. BioScience National Monument: 2007 summary 47:769-784. report. Natural Resource Data Series NPS/SCPN/NRDS—2009/003. Reneau, S. L. 2000. Stream incision and National Park Service, Fort Collins, terrace development in Frijoles Canyon, Colorado. Bandelier National Monument, Stumpf, S. E., and S. A. Monroe. 2010. New Mexico, and the infuence of Aquatic macroinvertebrate and physical lithology and climate. Geomorphology habitat monitoring for Coyote Gulch 21:171-193. in Glen Canyon National Recreation Ringold, P. L., E. K. Magee, and D. V. Peck. Area: 2008 summary report. Natural 2008. Twelve invasive plant taxa in US Resource Data Series NPS/SCPN/ Western riparian ecosystems. J. N. Am. NRDS—2010/032. National Park Enthol. Soc. 27:949-966. Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.

4 Natural Resource Conditions 119 Stumpf, S. E., and S. A. Monroe. 2011. Veenhuis, J. E. 2002. Efects of wildfre on Aquatic macroinvertebrate and physical the hydrology of Capulin and Rito habitat monitoring for Capulin Creek de Los Frijoles Canyons, Bandelier and the Rito de los Frijoles in Bandelier National Monument, New Mexico. National Monument: 2009 summary Water Resources Investigations Report report. Natural Resource Data Series 02-4152. U.S. Department of Interior, NPS/SCPN/NRDS—2011/284. U.S. Geological Survey, Information National Park Service, Fort Collins, Services, Denver, Colorado. Colorado. Weeks, D. 2007. Water resources foundation Stumpf, S. E., and S. A. Monroe. 2012a. report, Bandelier National Monument. Aquatic macroinvertebrate and physical Natural Resource Technical Report habitat monitoring for Capulin Creek NPS/NRPC/WRD/NRTR—2007/060. and the Rito de los Frijoles in Bandelier National Park Service, Fort Collins, National Monument: 2010 summary Colorado. report. Natural Resource Data Series NPS/SCPN/NRDS—2012/236. Wilcox, B. P., D. D. Breshears, and C. National Park Service, Fort Collins, D. Allen. 2003. Ecohydrology of Colorado. a resource-conserving semiarid woodland: efects of scale and Stumpf, S. E., and S. A. Monroe. 2012b. disturbance. Ecol. Monog. 73:223-239. Aquatic macroinvertebrate and physical habitat monitoring for Capulin Creek Yount, J. D., and G. J. Niemi. 1990. Recovery and the Rito de los Frijoles in Bandelier of lotic communities and ecosystems National Monument: 2011 summary from disturbance – a narrative review of report. Natural Resource Data Series case studies. Env. Mgmt. 14:547-569. NPS/SCPN/NRDS—2012/415. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.

120 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Water • Water Quality and because Rito de los Frijoles is the stream most accessible to visitors. A separate section Biological Integrity • Communities of of this report will address vegetation and Concern physical properties of the two streams, and an overview of the two canyon systems is 4.11 Water Quality and Aquatic provided in Section 4.10. Macroinvertebrates 4.11.1 Description 4.11.1.2 Impacts on aquatic systems at Bandelier National Monument 4.11.1.1 Background Historic and continuing impacts to aquatic Maintaining and improving surface water systems have made maintaining good water quality at Bandelier NM has been an impor- quality and protecting stream ecosystems a tant natural resource goal since the establish- particular challenge for park managers (Mott ment of the park (Mott 1999, Weeks 2007). 1999). Signifcant past impairments to sur- Under the National Park Service Organic face water quality in the park include the use Act (1916, 16 USC1), national park waters of organochlorides (e.g. DDT; Mott 1999); should remain unimpaired for future genera- high nutrient loads resulting from human tions, and, in addition, Bandelier NM has and livestock use in the watershed (Thomas identifed surface waters as an important et al. 2006); and the introductions of trace natural and cultural resource (Weeks 2007). and heavy elements into the groundwater Riparian vegetation, stream fow, chan- system by Department of Defense activities nel morphology, stream water quality, and at the adjacent Los Alamos National Labora- aquatic macroinvertebrate communities have tory (LANL; Mott 1999, Weeks 2007). all been identifed as priority vital signs for monitoring in the monument by the South- In addition, a series of extreme wildfres that ern Colorado Plateau Network (SCPN) of began in the 1970s, and associated post-fre the NPS (Thomas et al. 2006). foods have increased sedimentation, altered existing aquatic invertebrate communities, Aquatic macroinvertebrates serve as the pri- and damaged or destroyed streamside forest mary food base for many aquatic vertebrates vegetation (Veenhuis 2002, Vieira et al. 2004, and they function as the primary processors Stumpf and Monroe 2012b). Fire can have of energetic inputs in low order streams, like both direct and indirect impacts on riparian the streams found in Bandelier NM. Con- communities. Direct efects occur during sequently, they are important indicators of the fre and consequent major runof events ecosystem health. Communities of aquatic (Neary et al. 2005), while indirect efects are macroinvertebrates in streams are commonly a consequence of subsequent vegetative and monitored alongside physical and chemical geomorphologic changes (Minshall 2003, properties of water because of their poten- Oliver et al. 2012). Aquatic communities in tial to provide indications of water quality Bandelier NM have repeatedly experienced and overall hydrologic condition (Brasher et both types of efects. Interactions between al. 2011). persistent drought conditions and continued This assessment will focus on the water introductions of contaminants (from both quality and macroinvertebrate communities natural and anthropogenic sources), with of the Capulin Creek and the Rito de los repeated disturbance, may further limit the Frijoles (‘Frijoles’), and associated upland potential for long-term aquatic and ripar- catchment areas. These sites each have a ian ecosystem recovery (Allen 2007, Weeks substantial data record, and were selected 2007). for long-term monitoring by SCPN because of their history of impairment; the substan- 4.11.1.3 Water quality standards tial impacts that have occurred to each as The state of New Mexico has developed a result of recent large-scale disturbances; statewide water quality standards and

4 Natural Resource Conditions 121 criteria for surface waters and specifc ad- During the period since 2005 water qual- ditional criteria relevant to streams to meet ity data have been collected at the park by requirements of the Federal Clean Water various agencies and contractors focused on Act (NMED 2013). A water quality standard issues that include an assessment of surface refers to a specifc parameter and its associ- water quality in relation to state of New ated designated use, in conjunction with a Mexico water quality standards, an NPS criterion, which is the numeric component contracted study updating the status of pre- against which a result is compared. For ex- viously detected high levels of DDT in Rito ample, the standard for chronic mercury (the de los Frijoles, a sampling program designed specifc parameter) for aquatic life (desig- by EPA and SCPN to establish baseline levels nated use) is 0.77 μg/L (numeric criterion). for potential contaminants that include For this assessment results of water quality pharmaceuticals, personal care products, core parameter measurement as well as other waste indicators, and pesticides in Rito de frequently sampled analytes are summarized los Frijoles. Brief summaries of each of these and evaluated in Appendix E. The National eforts are provided below. Park Service does not have regulatory authority over waters in the U.S., or even the In 2010 SCPN began monitoring water qual- authority to make assessments for designated ity in two perennial streams in Bandelier NM use. For a complete summary and explana- —the Rito de los Frijoles and Capulin Creek. tion of water quality standards see Dyer and Reports and water quality data collected at Monroe (2013). the monument since 2005, are summarized in Table 4-4.

4.11.1.4 Research and monitoring history Aquatic macroinvertebrates Water quality Previous studies investigating the aquatic Ongoing eforts to understand and protect macroinvertebrate community of streams aquatic ecosystem integrity in Bandelier NM at the monument have focused on relating have resulted in a substantial body of work community structure to water quality, re- describing data collection and summary ef- searching biomonitoring techniques (Hop- forts for hydrologic resources (Weeks 2007, kins 1992, Stevens 1996), or examining the Brown 2008). Specifcally, the NPS Water short-term (Pippin and Pippin 1980, Pippin Resources Division completed a compre- and Pippin 1981, MacRury and Clements hensive summary of existing surface water 2002) and long-term (Vieria et al. 2004) ef- quality data for the monument (NPS 1997); fects of large wildfres on community struc- Brown (2008) summarized and evaluated ture and recovery. In 2005 SCPN and USGS available water quality data for Bandelier conducted a pilot study to determine the NM and four other park units in the SCPN most appropriate methods for the long-term through 2004; and Macy and Monroe (2006) monitoring of aquatic macroinvertebrates at collected and presented water quality data Bandelier NM (Brasher et al. 2010). SCPN for multiple SCPN parks, including Bande- began monitoring aquatic macroinverte- lier NM, in 2005 and 2006. See these existing brates in Capulin Creek in 2007 and in the data syntheses for detailed descriptions of Rito de los Frijoles in 2009. data collection methods and data sources. For additional background information, the 4.11.2 Reference conditions reader is directed to the above-mentioned The preferred status for water quality is a references as well as Mott (1999), Appendix condition that minimizes the presence of C in Thomas et al. (2006), Weeks (2007), contaminants associated with 20th century Brasher et al. (2011), and Monroe et al. (in human activities. preparation). Water quality data for streams and springs in the monument and nearby Prior to the 20th century, abundant and di- areas are available at www.intellusnm.com. verse macroinvertebrate communities were

122 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment likely present in monument streams, with ● tolerance: percent of individuals and local loss and recolonization following fre taxa sensitive to perturbation or food events. ● functional – feeding: actual and relative abundance of individuals and richness 4.11.3 Data and methods of taxa. SCPN has been monitoring water quality at Bandelier NM since 2010. The objectives ● composition: abundance and relative are to determine the status and trends of abundance of Ephemeroptera, Plecop- NPS core water quality parameters (water tera and Tricoptera (EPT). temperature, pH, specifc conductance dis- ● habitat factors: (stream width, stream solved oxygen, turbidity, and discharge) and depth, discharge, water quality selected water quality constituents, includ- parameters ing bacteria, nutrients, major elements, and As of this writing the SCPN aquatic inver- trace metals (Appendix E) in relation to fow, tebrate monitoring program has collected season, and climatic conditions. There are six years of data for Capulin Creek, and four currently fve SCPN water quality monitor- years of data for the Rito de los Frijoles. Six ing sites in the monument, two on Capulin years is considered a minimum period need- Creek and three on Rito de los Frijoles, each ed to begin to assess the range of natural of which is sampled three to four times per variability in community dynamics (Brasher year (Dyer and Monroe 2013). et al. 2011). However, given the substantial Long-term annual monitoring of aquatic disturbance caused by the Las Conchas Fire macroinvertebrates at Bandelier NM be- (LCF) and subsequent hydrologic events, gan in Capulin Creek in 2007 and in Rito Capulin and Frijoles creeks have experi- de los Frijoles in 2009. SCPN is currently enced instability during the years since the monitoring four sites, two each on Capulin fre. Several more years of sampling will be and Frijoles creeks. Two sites on Rito de los necessary to determine whether future com- Frijoles and one site on Capulin Creek are munities will be similar to those that existed co-located with a water quality monitoring prior to 2011 (e.g. during the pilot study in site. Detailed sampling methods are de- 2005-2006 when abundance and diversity in scribed in Brasher et al. 2011 and are based Capulin creek appear to have been relatively on the USGS NAWQA and the EPA EMAP high), or be markedly diferent. programs. Sampling is conducted once each year in either September or October. 4.11.4 Resource condition and trend Biological and physical habitat data are 4.11.4.1 Water quality standards collected at each of the four sites (Brasher Rito de los Frijoles in Bandelier NM is on et al. 2011). Sampling includes both qualita- New Mexico’s 2012–2014 303(d) list of tive and quantitative methods; qualitative impaired waters for aluminum and DDT data provide a species list for each site, while in fsh tissue. Past sources of impairment quantitative samples result in estimates of have also included fecal coliform bacteria, abundance that can be spatially and tempo- temperature, turbidity, and radium 226 and rally compared (Brasher et al. 2011, Stumpf 228. Some aspects of water quality in Ban- and Monroe 2012b). The SCPN is currently delier NM had improved prior to the LCF in using a broad suite of metrics to summarize 2011; Capulin Creek was listed as impaired key aquatic macroinvertebrate community due to sedimentation and turbidity from characteristics (Brasher et al. 2011). These 2002–2006 and is no longer listed. However, metrics describe: recent water quality data collected after the LCF indicate that the status of both streams ● abundance/richness/diversity: total will likely change due to large-scale inputs abundance, number of taxa, and Simp- of sediment into the streams and increased son’s Diversity Index temperatures caused by the complete loss of

4 Natural Resource Conditions 123 Table 4-4. Reports of water quality data collected from streams at Bandelier National Monument since 2004, and aquatic macroinvertebrate data collected since 2005.

Collection years Reference Source Water Quality

2005–2006 Macy and Monroe 2006 SCPN 2010 Dyer, Monroe and Lawrence 2012 SCPN 2011 Dyer and Monroe 2013 SCPN

2012–2013 In prep., data available from SCPN SCPN 2004–2008 New Mexico Environment Department 2010 NMED Macroinvertebrates 2005-2006 Brasher et al. 2010 SCPN 2007 Stumpf and Monroe 2009 SCPN 2008 Stumpf and Monroe 2010 SCPN 2009 Stumpf and Monroe 2011 SCPN 2010 Stumpf and Monroe 2012 SCPN 2011 Stumpf and Monroe 2012 SCPN

2012–2013 In prep., data available from SCPN SCPN

riparian vegetation. the State of New Mexico showed high concentrations of DDT and subsequent studies New Mexico Environment Department Pa- also found evidence of contamination in jarito Plateau Water Quality Assessment sediment and fsh tissue. A risk assessment In 2006 the New Mexico Environment De- and Environmental Analysis resulted in a ban partment (NMED) conducted an assessment on fshing in the afected reach of Rito de los of surface water quality focused on streams Frijoles. Resampling for DDT in 2012 found fowing across the Pajarito Plateau, including concentrations similar to those identifed in three sites on Rito de los Frijoles and one in the 1990s (Baker 2013). Lummis Canyon in Bandelier NM. The as- Bacteria sessment covered the period 2004–2008 and Water samples collected by NPS and others included collection of water quality samples in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s from multiple analyzed for trace metals, radionuclides, bac- sites on the Rito de los Frijoles identifed teria, ions, and PCBs. Among these analytes, high levels of fecal coliform at various times aluminum was found to be in exceedance of (NPS 1995). Some of the samples had fecal state of New Mexico water quality standards coliform levels in exceedance of established in samples collected at Rito de los Frijoles state of New Mexico water quality standards (New Mexico Environment Department (New Mexico Water Quality Control Com- [NMEDNMED 2010). mission 1995). Generally coliform levels are DDT higher during summer months when visitor During the 1950s and 1960s NPS applied use and water temperatures are both high, DDT and other chlorinated hydrocarbons and at sites in the more heavily used por- for pest control in lower sections of Frijoles tion of Frijoles Canyon (Mott 1999). Various Canyon. Chemicals also entered canyon researchers have suggested that the source of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems through coliform could be point sources or ground the NPS drainage system or via leakage from water. Possible sources identifed included storage containers (NPS 1995). Samples spills at the lift station; spillovers at the horse collected from Rito de los Frijoles in 1975 by corral due to heavy rain; a continuously leak- ing sewage pipe; leachate from unlined pit

124 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment toilets at Ceremonial Cave; natural sources, line dataset documenting the occurrence such as the turkey vulture roost in the Fri- of these contaminants. At Bandelier NM joles riparian area; or washing of naturally SCPN collected samples for CEC analysis occurring bacteria, and backcountry human from two sites in Rito de los Frijoles during and horse waste, into the stream by storm 2011 through 2013. Eighteen contaminants fows (Mott 1999). were detected in samples collected near the visitor center, and 15 contaminants In 2009 SCPN initiated regular collection were detected in samples collected near the of water samples for E. coli analysis at sites Wilderness Boundary. Results between the on Rito de los Frijoles and Capulin Creek in two sites were similar, and the most common Bandelier NM. From 2009–2014, summer E. detections were cafeine, fame retardants, coli levels frequently exceeded New Mexico and bisphenol A (BPA). Though the sources State water quality standards in lower Fri- of these contaminants are unknown, they joles, while sites upstream and on Capulin may be introduced into park surface water Creek only occasionally experienced ex- through wastewater treatment, recreational ceedances (Figure 4-20). use of surface waters, atmospheric deposi- Water temperature tion, watershed runof, or management ac- Water temperature data collected at 15-min- tions, such as invasive plant treatments, park ute intervals with temperature loggers maintenance and landscaping. deployed in Rito de los Frijoles (unpub- Radionuclides lished data) by SCPN near the monument’s Runof from areas burned by wildfre visitor center during the period 8/1/2009 mobilizes high concentrations of ash and –8/13/2013 indicated regular exceedances of sediment, which potentially contain con- the New Mexico water quality criteria for the taminants concentrated by the fre. Contami- high-quality coldwater aquatic life designa- nants may be present naturally in the forest tion currently applied to this stream (Figure overstory, understory, and litter, or may have 4-21). The number of water temperature been transported by smoke generated by the exceedances per year has increased signif- fre. These contaminants could be a complex cantly since the LCF, probably due to greater mix of particles, liquids and gaseous com- solar radiation input to the stream caused by pounds, including polynuclear aromatic hy- loss of vegetation resulting from the fre and drocarbons, organic acids, particulate matter subsequent fooding. While similar datasets (PM), semi-volatile and volatile organic do not exist for the Upper Crossing of Rito compounds and the inorganic fraction of de los Frijoles or Capulin Creek, tempera- particles. They could also be elevated levels ture measurements during periodic site visits of radionuclides (gross alpha emitters) or indicate that temperature exceedances occur other radioactive contaminants of concern. at these sites as well. In order to assess radionuclide levels in Contaminants of emerging concern Bandelier NM streams after the LCF, SCPN Beginning in 2011, SCPN has partnered with collected surface water and streambed the United State Environmental Protection sediment samples at two sites on the Rito Agency (USEPA) to assess the occurrence of de los Frijoles, at a site on Alamo Creek, “contaminants of emerging concern” (CEC) and at a site on Capulin Creek in 2011 and in water sources in SCPN parks. Included 2012. These samples were analyzed for gross in this project are approximately 250 ana- alpha, beta, gamma, isotopic uranium, and lytes, consisting of pesticides, personal care radium 226/228. products, pharmaceuticals and waste water indicators. For many of these contaminants, Of the analytes, only gross alpha and radium the risks of long-term, low-level exposure have New Mexico State drinking water cri- to human and ecosystem health are not teria. None of the results from the four sites known and the goal was to develop a base- exceeded these criteria. Results for analysis

4 Natural Resource Conditions 125 of water samples for gross alpha, beta, gamma, and isotopic uranium results were lower in the 2012 samples than in the samples collected during 2011. Conversely, levels of gross alpha, beta, and isotopic uranium in streambed sediment samples were higher in 2012 than they were in 2011.

4.11.4.2 Aquatic macroinvertebrates Given the increase in catastrophic wildfre over the last several decades, we recognize that the SCPN monitoring record is not long enough to describe reference conditions for Bandelier NM streams. However, this six-year monitoring efort can be used to describe the condition of aquatic macroinvertebrate communities prior to and after the LCF. SCPN has collected 4 years of prefre data at Capulin Creek and 2 years of prefre data at Frijoles. Post-fre quantitative aquatic macroinvertebrate data exist for 2 years at Frijoles and for 1 year at 1 site on Capulin Creek. Data were not collected at CAP02 in 2011 or either site in 2012 due to a lack of Figure 4-20. E. coli. Results of bacteria samples collected from Rito appropriate habitat. The data presented in de los Frijoles and Capulin Creek in Bandelier, 2001–2014, showing this section refer to quantitative samples col- E. coli counts and State of New Mexico water quality criteria. lected at targeted rife habitats.

Pre-fre condition Prior to the LCF and subsequent foods, samples collected at SCPN monitoring sites were species rich and high in abundance. Average sample abundances from Rito de los Frijoles in 2009 and 2010 ranged from 688.0 individuals per sample to 760.6. In the 4 years preceding the LCF, 2007–2010, Capu- lin Creek sample abundance averaged from a low of 229.2 individuals per sample to a high of 757.0. Pre-fre taxa richness at SCPN sites on Frijoles Creek ranged from 27 to 30 taxa per sample. At sites on Capulin Creek, pre-fre taxa richness ranged from 13.4 to 31.6 taxa.

Pre-fre samples collected at sites on both streams possessed rich and diverse aquatic macroinvertebrate communities. At monitoring sites along Frijoles, the Simpson’s Diversity Index averaged 0.87. At Capulin Figure 4-21. Water temperatures in Rito de los Frijoles at Bandelier Creek pre-fre diversity was slightly lower, National Monument from August 1, 2009 to March 1, 2014. with an average Simpson’s Diversity index of

126 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment 0.80. Coleopterans (beetles) were the most abundance for shredders (76.55), collector- abundant orders sampled at the Frijoles flterers (72.09), scrapers (65.31), and preda- prior to the fre, averaging 244.10 individu- tors (61.45) were considerably lower. als per sample. Sensitive taxa in the orders Ephemeroptera (mayfies) (159.25), Plecop- Post-fre condition tera (stonefies) (52.85), and Trichoptera Impacts to aquatic macroinvertebrate com- (110.30) were also found in high abundances munities have been recorded in the park at our sites on the Frijoles. Pre-fre samples from every fre/food disturbance event collected from the SCPN sites at Capulin of the previous three decades. Pippin and Creek were dominated by both Chironomids Pippin (1980) reported a 98% reduction in (midges), averaging 352.46 individuals per macroinvertebrates in Rito de los Frijoles sample, ephemeropterans at 290.60, and following fooding after the La Mesa Fire, plecopterans at 92.95 individuals per sample. a condition Mott (1999) attributed, at least Coleopterans (91.45), and trichopterans partially, to increased sedimentation. Vieira (72.92), while still present, were found in et al. (2004) found signifcantly greater lower abundances at Capulin Creek. change between time periods in the burned (Capulin) than in the unburned (Frijoles) Because of their sensitivity to disturbance, stream after the Dome Fire, and likewise at- aquatic macroinvertebrate taxa are often tributed this largely to habitat changes, such monitored as barometers for change or stress as the destruction of pool and rife habitat in aquatic ecosystems. Prior to the 2011 (Mott 1999). disturbances, individuals categorized as intolerant to disturbance dominated samples The Rito de los Frijoles and Capulin Creek collected at of SCPN’s monitoring sites. The aquatic macroinvertebrate communities average abundance of intolerant individuals appear at present to be in a period of con- collected in samples at Frijoles Creek prior siderable instability following the LCF and to the fre was 491.23. Moderately toler- the hydrologic events that followed. Samples ant individuals averaged 209.23, followed collected in 2011 and 2012 show that the by tolerant individuals at 1.30 individuals. aquatic communities of both streams have A similar pattern of dominance was found seen massive declines in abundance and in samples collected from Capulin Creek. shifts in community structure. Along Capu- Intolerant individuals dominated samples, lin Creek the loss of appropriate habitat has averaging 387.98 individuals per sample. prevented SCPN from collecting quantita- Moderately tolerant individuals averaged tive samples at the lower monitoring site 156.65 individuals and tolerant abundance (CAP02) since 2010. Average abundance and averaged 8.55 individuals. richness values at SCPN monitoring sites plummeted to near zero in 2011 and 2012 Aquatic macroinvertebrates are grouped into (Figures 4-22 and 4-23). functional groups based on specialized feeding appendages. Prior to the fre, samples While very few individuals of any taxa were collected from monitoring sites along Frijo- found after the LCF, post-fre samples from les Creek were dominated by collector-gath- monitoring sites on both streams show a erers, which averaged 540.68 individuals per change in aquatic macroinvertebrate com- sample. Scrapers and collector-flterers were munity structure, with a shift in dominance also abundant, averaging 214.21 and 148.71 to chironomids (midges) and non-chrion- individuals per sample, respectively. Few omid dipterans (fies). Post-fre sampling predators (40.64) or shredders (37.45) were on both streams indicated that moderately found at sites on Frijoles. Similar to Frijoles, tolerant taxa predominated. The dominant samples from Capulin Creek were domi- post-fre functional group in both streams nated by collector-gatherers, which averaged was collector-gatherers. 180.63 individuals per sample. Mean total Functional groups describe how energy is

4 Natural Resource Conditions 127 processed and turned into biomass, based lack of bottom substrates available for forag- on the structure of the aquatic macroinver- ing and habitat. Prior to the fre, gravel and tebrate community. Prior to the LCF, sites cobble size particles dominated at Frijoles on both streams had healthy and diverse Creek (Figure 4-24) and gravels dominated functional communities capable of process- at Capulin (Figure 4-25). Larger substrates ing much of the instream primary produc- provide surfaces that shelter organisms, tion and riparian inputs that fowed through as well as providing surfaces to cling to the streams. Scrapers and collector-gatherers while feeding. After the repeated hydro- were among the most abundant individu- logic events that have occurred along both als at all sites in the years leading up to the streams, SCPN data show a shift from larger LCF. Scrapers are important because they grained particles to fner grained particles, can process primary production in the form particularly sand. The overwhelming domi- of algae, bacteria, and fungi, while collec- nance of sand may be restricting the aquatic tor gatherers process fne particulate matter community to those organisms adapted to found on sediments and detritus. Another burrowing into softer surfaces. The loss of ecologically important group found in high riparian vegetation in the moderately and abundance along Capulin Creek before severely burned sections of the streams also the LCF was the shredders. Shredders are infuences the stream conditions. Ripar- responsible for instream processing of live ian vegetation contributes allochthonous and dead plant materials. Like scrapers, inputs to the stream’s trophic structure and the processing of macrophytes in the water also shades the streams, thus reducing water column results in additional resources for temperature. both collector gatherer and flterer taxa. Scrapers have been absent from all samples A third factor infuencing both substrate collected at Capulin and Frijoles in the years availability and riparian vegetation recovery since the LCF. Shredders have been found is hydrologic condition. Previous studies of at RIT01, but in very low abundances since the aquatic macroinvertebrate communities the fre. The loss of these taxa is ecologically at Bandelier NM following the La Mesa and signifcant because they are responsible for Dome fres showed the vulnerability these breaking down large pieces of organic matter populations have to large-scale hydrologic instream. As a result of their absence, much events that commonly occur as a result of of the organic matter created or deposited high severity wildfres (Pippin and Pippin in these streams via riparian vegetation goes 1980, Vieira et al. 2004). However these stud- unused. An additional consequence of the ies also show how quickly richness, abun- loss of these groups is less resource avail- dance, and density numbers can rebound in ability for the generalist taxa in the collector the months following disturbance. Vieira et flterer and gatherer groups. These results al. (2004) found density values comparable suggests that post-fre aquatic communities to their pre-fre collections within in a year at SCPN monitoring sites are ill-equipped of the Dome Fire. These numbers were to process energetic inputs to the stream, a attributed to taxa whose adult stages have primary function of lower order or headwa- high rates of dispersal. Data collected from ter streams. Additionally, these results align SCPN monitoring sites have not yet yielded with those of Vieira et al. (2004), who found signs of such a recovery following the LCF. that specialized feeders, such as grazers and Dipterans, which primarily accounted for shredders, that appeared prior to the distur- the recovery in the Vieira study, have been bance were absent in the years immediately found in extremely low numbers in samples following. collected since the LCF.

One factor that undoubtedly led to the de- Diferences in post-fre aquatic macroinver- pauperate conditions of the aquatic commu- tebrate community recovery may be the re- nity at SCPN sites in Bandelier NM was the sult of greater hydrologic instability follow-

128 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment ing the LCF in comparison to earlier fres. Large fow events carrying debris fows and depositing fne sediments continued to occur in 2013. These events can impede the recolonization of riparian vegetation and bury or move medium gravel and cobble substrates that are considered vital habitat (Cannon and Reneau 2000, Brasher et al. 2011). This lack of habitat and riparian vegetation undoubtedly afects community structure and diversity. Previous studies suggest that frequency and magnitude of hydrologic events may not diminish until vegetation recovery begins to occur in the watersheds (Veenhuis 2002).

The data collected by SCPN in the years following the LCF suggest that instream conditions are currently unfavorable for most aquatic macroinvertebrate taxa. Vieira et al. (2004) point out that studies from other watersheds around the country experiencing similar disturbance patterns indicate that Figure 4-22. Site abundance. Average quantitative sample abun- pre-fre community structure may not be dance of individuals collected from SCPN sites in Bandelier National Monument. No quantitative samples were collected from CAP01 regained for 10 years or more following the in 2011, or CAP01 and CAP02 in 2012 due to a lack of appropriate fre. Given the scale and severity of the LCF, habitat. Error bars represent +/- 1SE. and the post-fre monitoring data collected thus far, it seems reasonable that recovery of the aquatic macroinvertebrate communities at Bandelier may take 10 years or more. The rate of recovery of the aquatic community will likely be dependent on how quickly hydrologic conditions stabilize and large fow events subside.

Condition and trend The time to recovery (resilience) or to a new community state will depend on many factors, including future hydrologic conditions and the level of habitat degradation (Neary et al. 2005), and the availability of source populations (Fisher et al. 1982, Hall and Lombardozzi 2008, Vieira et al. 2011). For example, several short-term studies found rapid recovery of both abundance and diversity of riparian invertebrates, attributing this response in part to an infux of nutrients resulting from burned and downed material Figure 4-23. Taxa richness. Taxa richness of quantitative samples transported to stream habitats (Malinson collected from SCPN sites in Bandelier National Monument. No and Baxter 2010). However, multiple stud- qualitative samples were collected from CAP01 in 2011, or CAP01 and CAP02 in 2012 due to a lack of appropriate habitat. Error bars ies also found that riparian systems within represent +/- 1 SE.

4 Natural Resource Conditions 129 Figure 4-24. Physical habitat. Pre-Las Conchas Fire (2010) and Post- Las Conchas Fire (2011–2012) percentage of particle grain sizes found at RIT01 and RIT02 at the Rito de los Frijoles in Bande- lier National Monument.

Figure 4-25. Physical habitat. Pre-Las Conchas Fire (2010) and Post- Las Conchas Fire (2011– 2012) percentage of particle grain sizes found at CAP01 (red) and CAP02 (blue) at the Capulin Creek in Bandelier National Monument.

130 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment catchments that experienced high fre sever- Brasher, A. M. D., C. M. Albano, R. N. ity exhibited delayed or impaired ecosystem Close, Q. H. Cannon, and M. P. Miller. response (Minshall 2003). For example, the 2010. Macroinvertebrate communities absolute abundance of invertebrates may and habitat characteristics in the increase long-term following disturbance Northern and Southern Colorado (Malinson and Baxter 2010), though taxon Plateau networks: pilot protocol diversity overall decreases and some func- implementation. Natural Resource tional groups are lost (Neary et al. 2005). Technical Report NPS/NCPN/NRTR— 2010/320. National Park Service, Fort Many studies have found that generalists and Collins, Colorado. tolerant species are relatively more common the frst few years post-disturbance (Hall Brasher, A. M. D., C. M. Albano, R. N. and Lombardozzi 2008, Oliver et al. 2012). Close, M. L. Freeman, C. L. Lauver, Numerous studies have found that fne sedi- S. A. Monroe, S. E. Stumpf, A. E. C. ments, as those now predominant in both Snyder, and L. P. Thomas. 2011. Aquatic streams, provide poor quality habitat com- macroinvertebrate monitoring protocol pared to pebble and cobble sediments, and for the Southern Colorado Plateau that the pace at which habitat improves will Network. Natural Resource Report be refected in more rapid increases in both NPS/SCPN/NRR—2011/460. National abundance and diversity (Vieira et al. 2004, Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado. Henne and Buckley 2005, Oliver et al. 2012). Brown, J. B., 2008. Review of available water- Because of the ephemeral nature of stream quality data for the Southern Colorado invertebrates, (e.g. entire communities can Plateau Network and characterization be lost from a site in a matter of hours during of water quality in fve selected park catastrophic fooding (Neary et al. 2005), units in Arizona, Colorado, New current conditions may have little or no Mexico, and Utah, 1925 to 2004. relationship with past community structure U.S. Geological Survey Scientifc and composition (Fisher et al. 1982). Succes- Investigations Report 2008–5130. sion as a valid concept for streams has been debated (Fisher et al. 1982), but clearly the Cannon, S. H., and S. L. Reneau. 2000. recent fres—La Mesa (1978), Dome (1996), Conditions for generation of fre- and Las Conchas (2011)—and subsequent related debris-fows, Capulin Canyon, foods at Bandelier NM have changed the New Mexico. Earth Surface Processes macroinvertebrate communities in both and Landforms 25:1103-1121. streams substantially, at least in the near- Dyer, M., and S. A. Monroe. 2013. Water term if not permanently. quality monitoring for the Rito de los Frijoles and Capulin Creek in Bandelier 4.11.7 Sources of expertise National Monument: 2011 summary Stephen Monroe and Stacy Stumpf report. Natural Resource Data Series NPS/SCPN/NRDS—2013/566. 4.11.8 Literature cited National Park Service, Fort Collins, Allen, C. D. 2007. Interactions across spatial Colorado. scales among forest dieback, fre, and erosion in northern New Mexico Dyer, M., S. A. Monroe, and K. Lawrence. landscapes. Ecosystems 10:797-808. 2012. Water quality monitoring for the Rito de los Frijoles and Capulin Creek Baker Jr. Inc., M. 2013. Final DDT in Bandelier National Monument: 2010 investigation report for Frijoles Canyon summary report. Natural Resource Visitors Center maintenance area Data Series NPS/SCPN/NRDS— Bandelier National Monument. Moon 2012/344. National Park Service, Fort Township, Pennsylvania.

4 Natural Resource Conditions 131 Collins, Colorado. 67:570-579.

Fisher, S. G., L. J. Gray, N. B. Grimm, and D. Minshall, G. W. 2003. Responses of stream E. Busch. 1982. Temporal succession benthic macroinvertebrates to fre. in a desert stream ecosystem following Forest Ecol. and Manage. 178:155-161. fash fooding. Ecol. Monog. 52:93-110. Monroe, S. A., M. Dyer, C. A. Bliss, and C. Fresquez, P. R., and G. Z. Jacobi. 2012. Parker. (In preparation). Water quality Bioassessment of the Rio Grande monitoring protocol for the Southern upstream and downstream of Colorado Plateau Network. Natural Los Alamos National Laboratory, Resource Technical Report NPS/ New Mexico, USA. J. Envir. Prot. SCPN/NRR—201#/###. National Park 3:1596-1605. Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.

Hall, S. J., and D. Lombardozzi. 2008. Short- Mott, D. 1999. Water Resources term efects of wildfre on montane Management Plan, Bandelier National stream ecosystems in the Southern Monument, New Mexico. Rocky Mountains: one and two years post-burn. West. N.,A. Nat. 68:453-462. Neary, D. G., K. C. Ryan, and L. F. DeBano, eds. 2005 (revised 2008). Wildland Henne, L. J., and K. J. Buckley. 2005. fre in ecosystems: efects of fre on Evaluation of macroinvertebrate soils and water. Gen. Tech. Rep. communities and habitat for selected RMRS-GTR-42-4. U.S. Department stream reaches at Los Alamos National of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Laboratory. U.S. Department of Energy, Mountain Research Station. Los Alamos National Laboratory, LA-14240-SR. New Mexico Environment Department [NMED]. 2010. Pajarito Plateau Hopkins, J. S. 1992. Rapid bioassessment Assessment for the 2010-2012 of fve Rio Grande tributaries in Integrated List. Also available online White Rock Canyon, New Mexico. at http://www.nmenv.state.nm.us/ Unpublished report. swqb/303d-305b/2010-2012/Pajarito/ index.html Macy, J. P., and S. A. Monroe. 2006. Water- quality data for selected National Park New Mexico Environment Department units in the Southern Colorado Plateau [NMED]. 2013. Standards for Interstate Network, Arizona, Utah, Colorado, and Intrastate Surface Waters. New and New Mexico, water years 2005 and Mexico Water Quality Control 2006. U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Commission, Santa Fe, NM. Also Report 2006–1300.. available online at ftp://ftp.nmenv.state. nm.us/www/swqb/Standards/2013/20.6 MacRury, N., and W. Clements. 2002. .4NMACStandards2013-02-14.pdf. Ecological, hydrological, and geochemical efects of fre on canyon National Park Service [NPS]. 1995. Natural watersheds in Bandelier National Resources Management Plan: Bandelier Monument, New Mexico. National National Monument. National Park Park Service. Final Technical Report. Service, Bandelier National Monument, Los Alamos, New Mexico. Malinson, R. L., and C. V. Baxter. 2010. The fre pulse: wildfre stimulates fux National Park Service [NPS]. 1997. of aquatic prey to terrestrial habitats Baseline Water Quality Data Inventory driving increases in riparian consumers. and Analysis, Bandelier National Can. J. Fisheries and Aquatic Sci. Monument. NPS/NRWRD/NRTR-

132 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment 97/103. National Park Service, Water National Monument: 2009 summary Resources Division, Fort Collins, report. Natural Series NPS/SCPN/ Colorado. NRDS—2011/284. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado. Oliver, A. A., M. T. Bogan, D. B. Herbst, and R. A. Dahlgren. 2012. Short-term Stumpf, S. E., and S. A. Monroe. 2012a. changes in stream macroinvertebrate Aquatic macroinvertebrate and physical communities following a severe fre habitat monitoring for Capulin Creek in the Lake Tahoe Basin, California. and the Rito de los Frijoles in Bandelier Hydrobiologia 694:117-130. National Monument: 2010 summary report. Natural Resource Data Series Pippin, W. F., and B. D. Pippin. 1980. Aquatic NPS/SCPN/NRDS—2012/236. invertebrates of Rito de lo Frijoles National Park Service, Fort Collins, Bandelier National Monument, New Colorado. Mexico, Final Report. National Park Service, Natural Resource Program Stumpf, S. E., and S. A. Monroe. 2012b. Center, Fort Collins, Colorado. Aquatic macroinvertebrate and physical habitat monitoring for Capulin Creek Pippin W. F., and B. D. Pippin. 1981. Aquatic and the Rito de los Frijoles in Bandelier invertebrates from Capulin Creek, National Monument: 2011 summary Bandelier National Monument, New report. Natural Resource Data Series Mexico. National Park Service, Natural NPS/SCPN/NRDS—2012/415. Resource Program Center, Fort Collins, National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado. Colorado.

Stevens, L. I. 1996. Benthic Thomas, L. P., M. N. Hendrie (ed.), C. L. macroinvertebrates as indicators of Lauver, S. A. Monroe, N. J. Tancreto, S. water quality: comparison of full and L. Garman, and M. E. Miller. 2006. Vital subsample techniques. Master’s thesis, Signs Monitoring Plan for the Southern Colorado State University. Colorado Plateau Network. National Stumpf, S. E., and S. A. Monroe. 2009. Park Service, Natural Resource Report Aquatic macroinvertebrate and physical NPS/SCPN/NRR-2006/002. habitat monitoring for Bandelier Veenhuis, J., 2002. Efects of wildfre on the National Monument: 2007 summary hydrology of Capulin and Rito de los report. Natural Resource Data Series Frijoles Canyons, Bandelier National NPS/SCPN/NRDS—2009/003. Monument, New Mexico. Water National Park Service, Fort Collins, Resources investigation report 02-4152, Colorado. U.S. Geological Survey, Albuquerque, Stumpf, S. E., and S. A. Monroe. 2010. New Mexico. Aquatic macroinvertebrate and physical Vieira, N. K. M., T. R. Barnes, and K. A. habitat monitoring for Capulin Creek Mitchel. 2011. Efects of wildfre and in Bandelier National Monument: 2008 postfre foods on stonefy detritivores summary report. Natural Resource of the Parajito Plateau, New Mexico. Data Series NPS/SCPN/NRDS— West. N.A. Natural. 71:257-270. 2010/030. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado. Viera, N. K. M., W. H. Clements, L. S. Guevara, and B. F. Jacobs. 2004. Stumpf, S. E., and S. A. Monroe. 2011. Resistance and resilience of stream Aquatic macroinvertebrate and physical insect communities to repeated habitat monitoring for Capulin Creek hydrologic disturbances after a wildfre. and the Rito de los Frijoles in Bandelier Freshwater Biology 49:1243-1259.

4 Natural Resource Conditions 133 Weeks, D. 2007. Water Resources Foundation Report, Bandelier National Monument. Natural Resource Technical Report NPS/NRPC/WRD/ NRTR—2007/060. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.

134 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Biological Integrity • Communities of trout between 1919 and 1931, while Capulin Concern Creek received 10,500 brook trout, 17,000 rainbow trout, and 1,500 cutthroat trout be- 4.12 Native Fish tween 1922 and 1931. Undocumented introductions of brown trout (Salmo trutta) have 4.12.1 Description also occurred in these monument streams. Fish habitats occur in montane streams at Bandelier NM. While park managers don’t More recently, based on fsh collecting manage the Rio Grande, they are interested (Platania 1992) at Bandelier NM on August in habitat status of the river as it informs 23, 1990 and August 13, 1991, brook, rain- management considerations within the bow, and brown trout were found in Rito de monument, (see section 4.09, 4.10 and 4.11) los Frijoles. for related background information). In the spring of 1996, the Dome fre burnt The New Mexico portion of the Rio Grande 16,516 acres of Bandelier NM and the is thought to originally have hosted between adjacent Dome Wilderness of the Santa Fe 16 and 27 native species (Hatch 1985, Smith National Forest (Veenhuis 2002). Much of and Miller 1986, and Propst et al. 1987), the fre was stand-replacing crown fre with three of which were endemic to the up- debris fows which removed all fsh from per Rio Grande as far north as the Chama Capulin Creek. This was unprecedented River—Rio Grande shiner (Notropis jemeza- in the watershed in the previous 330 years nus), bluntnose shiner (Notropis simus simus), (Cannon and Reneau 2000), and Rio Grande silvery minnow (Hybogna- thus amarus). Noteworthy is the fact that the On March 30, 2006, after watching the creek type locality for the Rio Grande shiner and and macroinvertebrate populations slowly the Rio Grande bluntnose shiner is the Rio recover over ten years, a crew moved 100 Grande at Otowi Bridge (currently where Rio Grande cutthroat trout from Caones New Mexico Highway 502 crosses the Rio Creek in the northern part of the Jemez Grande in Santa Fe County). Both species Mountains on the Coyote Ranger District have been extirpated from the Rio Grande of the Santa Fe National Forest to Capulin (Platania 1991). Today, there are no endemic Creek in Bandelier NM and the Santa Fe Na- fsh species found in the Rio Grande in the tional Forest (Ferrell et al. 2006). Cutthroat reach along the Bandelier NM (Platania trout from these waters had been tested for 1992). The silvery minnow is the only en- genetic purity and overall health and were demic fsh species surviving in New Mexico, determined to be the best donor population and is restricted to below Albuquerque and (personal communications between Stephen above Elephant Butte Reservoir (Bestgen Fettig and Kirk Patten, 2006). and Platania 1991). By 2009, Rio Grande cutthroat trout had reached a self-sustaining population, ex- 4.12.2 History of fsh planting in ceeding the population viability criteria of Bandelier National Monument streams >500 adult fsh or a total population of 2,500 (Allen 1989) individuals (Patten and Cook 2009). In 2011, New Mexico Department of Game and Fish post-Las Conchas Fire fooding in Capulin records on fle at Bandelier NM show that removed all fsh from the creek (Stumpf and 36,750 brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis), Monroe 2012). 82,740 rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri), and 368,404 cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarkii Rio Grande cutthroat trout are one of 14 virginalis) of Yellowstone origin were planted recognized subspecies of cutthroat trout in Frijoles Creek between 1912 and 1955. native to western North America. Cutthroat Alamo Creek received 13,000 brook trout, trout are distinguished by the red-orange 4,000 rainbow trout, and 6,000 cutthroat slashes in the gular folds below the jaw. Cut-

4 Natural Resource Conditions 135 throat trout once inhabited most cold-water and that fsh were gone by 1914. Hender- streams throughout western North America. son and Harrington (1914) also referenced The Rio Grande cutthroat trout is consid- fooding and drying, as well as large volumes ered the southernmost subspecies of cut- of debris coming into the creek, as possible throat trout, and is diferentiated from other reasons for fsh vanishing from Rito de los cutthroat trout by the large spots that are Frijoles between 1900 and 1914. concentrated towards the tail and colorful pink or orange hues on its belly and sides. 4.12.3 Data and methods Sampling was by electrofshing (Smith-Root Most subspecies of cutthroat trout have Type VII, 12-volt backpack unit) and by sufered large declines within their native small mesh seines and preserving (using 10% ranges. These declines have occurred formalin) in the feld for identifcation and primarily since the early 1900s due to exotic analysis in the laboratory (Platania 1992). species introduction, habitat degradation, Specimens were subsequently transferred to and over-harvesting (Duf 1996). Cutthroat 70% ethyl alcohol and catalogued into the trout thrive in clear mountain streams that Museum of Southwestern Biology’s research provide clean spawning gravel, feeding and collection of fsh. resting sites, and food in the form of aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates (Sublette et 4.12.4 Condition and trend al. 1990). Ideal habitat conditions have Internal streams: condition good (non-native been altered in many locations by human fsh naturally removed), trend improving activities, including grazing, mining, logging, (habitat improving). As of the summer of road building, and agriculture. Since the late 2014, the stream habitats had not yet sta- 19th century, stocking of nonnative trout bilized to the point where there was suf- has been a common practice throughout cient macroinvertebrate presence to sup- the western states. Brook trout and brown port native fsh (See section 4.11 for more trout out-compete the native cutthroats for information). prime habitat areas (Grifth 1988). Behnke (1992) describes a population of greenback 4.12.5 Level of confdence cutthroat trout that was virtually replaced by Knowledge of the historical condition of brook trout in fve years. internal creeks is low; knowledge of current condition is high; understanding of whether Rio Grande cutthroat trout populations Rio Grande cutthroat populations could currently occupy less than 10% of their survive long-term in monument creeks is original range (Stumpf and Cooper 1996). moderately low. However, in October 2014, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service issued a 12-Month Finding 4.12.6 Data gaps/Research needs/ on a Petition to List Rio Grande Cutthroat Management recommendations Trout as an Endangered or Threatened Creeks internal to the park lack historical Species as Not Warranted ( http://ecos.fws. baseline data. gov/speciesProfle/profle/speciesProfle. action?spcode=E05D). Native fsh of New Mexico montane streams are at high risk due to expected climate 4.12.2 Reference conditions warming and drying in northern New It is possible, but not certain, that native cut- Mexico, It is thought that the near perennial throat trout existed prehistorically in Frijoles fowing waters of Rito de los Frijoles and Creek (Allen 1989). Historical information Capulin Creek may be an important asset on native fsh occurring within creeks inter- that can aid in regional conservation eforts. nal to the park is lacking. Henderson and However, given the recent loss of large por- Harrington (1914) reported that fsh were tions of the riparian overstory vegetation present in Rito de los Frijoles before 1900, in Frijoles, Alamo, and Capulin Canyons, and projected climate warming, it is unclear

136 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment whether any streams will be cold enough to Dome Wilderness and Bandelier support Rio Grande cutthroat populations National Monument. Unpublished into the future. report, Bandelier National Monument fles, 2pp. Viewing fsh management in a regional context is especially important given the likeli- Henderson, Junius and John P. Harrington. hood that large fres in the future will result 1914. Ethnozoology of the Tewa in undesirable extirpations of native fsh. Indians. Smithsonian Institution, Having well distributed populations is the Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin best way of insuring the long-term survival 56. of native fsh. Bandelier NM can play an important role in these conservations eforts Patten, Kirk A., and Chantel M. Cook. 2009. with the following steps: Status of Rio Grande Cutthroat Trout (Oncorhynchus clarkia virginalis) in 1. Develop a fsheries management plan the Rio Capulin, Bandelier National to support regional eforts to manage Monument and Dome Wilderness, metapopulations of native fsh species Santa Fe National Forest. Unpublished of conservation concern across land report, Bandelier National Monument management agencies, with the goal of fles, 7pp. establishing multiple native fsh species within the internal creeks of the park. Platania, Steven P. 1991. Fishes of the Rio Chama and upper Rio Grande, New 2. In support of this recommendation, park Mexico with preliminary comments management should (a) work with SCPN on their longitudinal distribution. to determine when there is sufcient Southwestern naturalist 36(2):186-193. food for native fsh species, as network staf continue to monitor the recovery of Platania, Steven P. 1992. Fishes of Bandelier aquatic macroinvertebrate populations, National Monument, New Mexico. (b) work with the New Mexico Depart- Unpublished report, April 20, 1992. ment of Game and Fish to conduct Department of Biology/ Museum of additional electrofshing surveys, prior Southwestern Biology, University of to any potential transplants of native fsh New Mexico. 23pp. species, to establish a confdence level of essentially 100% that non-native fsh 4.12.8 Literature cited will not interbreed with the transplanted Allen, C.D. 1989. Changes in the Landscape native fsh, (c) strictly follow NPS poli- of the Jemez Mountains, New Mexico. cies on fshing because cutthroat trout Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. of Forestry are 20 times easier to catch than brown and Natural Resources, University of trout (Behnke 1992), making them more California, Berkeley, CA. 346 pp. susceptible to over harvesting, and (d) assess reintroduction of other non-trout Behnke, R. J. 1992. Native Trout of Western native fsh species (e.g., long-nose dace, North America American Fisheries Rio Grande chub, Rio Grande sucker Society Monograph 6. dace), which may be more resilient to Bestgen, K. R. and S. P. Platania. 1991. Status projected climate warming. and conservation of the Rio Grande 4.12.7 Sources of expertise silvery minnow, Hybognathus amarus. Stephen M. Fettig Southwestern Naturalist 36(2): 225-232.

Ferrell, Sean, Stephen M. Fettig, and Kirk Cannon, Susan H. and Steven L. Reneau. Patten. 2006. Re-introduction of Rio 2000. Conditions for generation of fre- Grande Cutthroat Trout into Rio related debris fows, Capulin Canyon, Capulin, Santa Fe National Forest, New Mexico. Earth Surface Processes

4 Natural Resource Conditions 137 and Landforms 25:1103–1121. Department of Biology/ Museum of Southwestern Biology, University of Duf, Donald A. 1996. Conservation New Mexico. 23pp. assessment for inland cutthroat trout status and distribution. U.S. Propst, D. L., G. L. Burton, and B. H. Department of Agriculture, Forest Pridgeon. 1987. Fishers of the Rio Service, Intermountain Region. Ogden, Grande between Elephant Butte and Utah. Caballo Reservoirs, New Mexico. Southwestern Naturalist 32(3): 408-411. Ferrell, Sean, Stephen M. Fettig, and Kirk Patten. 2006. Re-introduction of Rio Smith, M. L. and R. R. Miller. 1986. The Grande Cutthroat Trout into Rio evolution of the Rio Grande Basin Capulin, Santa Fe National Forest, as inferred from its fsh fauna. Pp. Dome Wilderness and Bandelier 457-485, in zoogeography of North National Monument. Unpublished American freshwater fshes (C. H. report, Bandelier National Monument Hocutt and E. O. Wiley, eds.). John fles, 2pp. Wiley and Sons, New York, 866pp. Henderson, Junius and John P. Harrington. Sublette, James E., Michael D. Hatch, and 1914. Ethnozoology of the Tewa Mary Sublette. 1990. The Fishes of New Indians. Smithsonian Institution, Mexico. University of New Mexico Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin Press. Albuquerque, New Mexico. 56. Stumpf, S. E., and S. A. Monroe. 2012. Hatch, M. F. 1985. Native fshes of the Aquatic macroinvertebrate and physical major drainages east of the Continental habitat monitoring for Capulin Creek Divide, New Mexico. Unpublished and the Rito de los Frijoles in Bandelier Master’s thesis, Eastern New Mexico National Monument: 2011 summary University, Portales, New Mexico. report. Natural Resource Data Series 85pp. NPS/SCPN/NRDS—2012/415. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Murphy, Wally. 2013. Letter from US Fish Colorado. and Wildlife Service to Bandelier National Monument dated October 30, Stumpf, W. K. and J. Cooper. 1996. Rio 2013. 2pp. Grande Cutthroat trout, Oncorhynchus clarki virginalis. In Duf, D. E. (editor), Patten, Kirk A., and Chantel M. Cook. 2009. Conservation Assessment for Inland Status of Rio Grande Cutthroat Trout Cutthroat Trout. USDA Forest Service, (Oncorhynchus clarkia virginalis) in Intermountain Region, Ogden, Utah. the Rio Capulin, Bandelier National Monument and Dome Wilderness, Veenhuis, Jack E 2002. Efects of Wildfre Santa Fe National Forest. Unpublished on the Hydrology of Capulin and Rito report, Bandelier National Monument de Los Frijoles Canyons, Bandelier fles, 7pp. National Monument. Water-resources Investigations Report 02-4152. U.S. Platania, Steven P. 1991. Fishes of the Rio Geological Survey, Albuquerque, New Chama and upper Rio Grande, New Mexico. Mexico with preliminary comments on their longitudinal distribution. Southwestern naturalist 36(2):186-193. Platania, Steven P. 1992. Fishes of Bandelier National Monument, New Mexico. Unpublished report, April 20, 1992.

138 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Biological Integrity • Communities of U.S. alone, 46 million birders spent $32 bil- Concern lion to observe, photograph or feed wildlife. The overall economic output of this activ- 4.13 Landbirds ity was $85 billion (La Rouche 2003). More importantly, through consumption of pest 4.13.1 Description insects, pollination of plants, dispersal of na- Between 1967 and 2007, the average popu- tive seeds, and other services, birds contrib- lation of common birds across the United ute to the maintenance of ecosystems that States declined steeply, falling 70 percent, also support human life. from 17.6 million to 5.35 million individuals (Butcher and Niven 2007). These alarm- In 2004, PIF published the North American ing fndings document landbird declines Landbird Conservation Plan (Rich et al. which are persistent and based on 40 years 2004) that provided a continental synthesis of data across 550 bird species (Butcher and of priorities and objectives to guide landbird Niven 2007a). The analysis of DeSante and conservation actions for 448 native land- Kaschube (2009) further suggests that the birds that breed in the U.S. and Canada. The observed declines are not something of the plan identifed the priority species, research, past, but an immediate and on-going cause monitoring, and management within Bird of concern. Conservation Region (BCR) 16, which includes Bandelier NM. The list of the priority Furthermore, DeSante and Kaschube (2009) species found at the park are listed in Table suggest that the declines are geographically 4-5). extensive, based on data from 653 monitoring stations across North America. With In 2009, the frst State of the Birds report 192 landbird species contributing to the made it clear that birds are bellwethers of observed average decrease of 1.77% in adult our natural and cultural health as a na- birds per year, this decline translates to a loss tion—they are indicators of the integrity of more than 23% of the adult birds over the of the environments that provide us with 15-year study. With overall landbird popula- clean air and water, fertile soils, abundant tions declining by nearly 2% per year, the wildlife, and the natural resources on which prospect of losing another 23% of our birds our economic development depends (U.S. in 15 years means the situation is critical. Committee of the North American Bird With more than 25% of the bird species for Conservation Initiative [NABCI] 2009). At which we have reliable data showing signif- the same time the report made clear that in cant and worrisome population trends, it is western forests, 38 obligate forest species likely that further and irreversible declines collectively are showing a declining trend of landbirds will occur within many national (NABCI 2009). parks. This is especially worrisome because In 2010, the second State of the Birds report national parks and other public lands play focused on climate change impacts. Climate a disproportionately large role in providing change is producing new threats to birds and habitat for North American birds. vegetation, which may be particularly severe Partners in Flight (PIF) was founded in in arctic and alpine regions. Birds are a vital 1990 with broad public support as a result element of every terrestrial habitat in North of widespread and alarming declines in America. Conserving habitat for birds will North American birds (National Fish and therefore contribute to meeting the needs of Wildlife Foundation 1990). Birds stand out other wildlife species and entire ecosystems above other wildlife groups as perhaps the (NABCI 2010). most highly valued and actively appreciated The 2014 State of the Birds report identifed component of North America’s biological western forest birds that need conservation diversity (Rich et al. 2004). In 2001 in the eforts, as well as common birds in steep

4 Natural Resource Conditions 139 Table 4-5. Status in Bandelier National Monument of bird species identifed in the North American Landbird Conservation Plan (Rich et al. 2004) for Bird Conservation Region 16 and species that are found in the park.

Common name Status at Bandelier National Monument Dusky grouse regular breeding species Flammulated owl breeding numbers have likely decreased greatly since 1980s Spotted owl likely no longer breeds at the park Black swift accidental White-throated swift characteristic species of the park’s dry canyons Calliope hummingbird south-bound migrant Rufous hummingbird south-bound migrant Lewis’ woodpecker mostly a very rare visitor to the park, usually during migration Williamson’s sapsucker regular breeding species; likely to decline with the loss of snags and cavities for nesting Red-naped sapsucker regular breeding species; likely to decline with the loss of snags and cavities for nesting Olive-sided fycatcher rare breeding species Willow fycatcher very rare visitor to the park, usually during migration Gray fycatcher regular breeding species Dusky fycatcher regular breeding species Pinyon jay rare breeding species, may not be present every year, nomadic nature makes monitoring diffcult Clark’s nutcracker rare breeding species Mountain bluebird rare breeding species Sage thrasher accidental Virginia’s warbler regular breeding species Grace’s warbler regular breeding species Green-tailed towhee regular breeding species Brewer’s sparrow migrant species Cassin’s fnch rare breeding species Rich, T. D., C. J. Beardmore, H. Berlanga, P. J. Blancher, M. S. W. Bradstreet, G. S. Butcher, D. W. Demarest, E. H. Dunn, W. C. Hunter, E. E. Iigo- Elias, J. A. Kennedy, A. M. Martell, A. O. Panjabi, D. N. Pashley, K. V. Rosenberg, C. M. Rustay, J. S. Wendt, T. C. Will. 2004. Partners in Flight North American Landbird Conservation Plan. Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology. Ithaca, NY.

decline (NABCI 2014). The report identifes 4.13.1.1 Bird monitoring at Bandelier Yellow-Watch-List species which are range National Monument restricted (small range and population), or The Southern Colorado Plateau Inventory are more widespread, but with troubling and Monitoring Network (SCPN) com- declines and high threats. For Bandelier pleted bird community monitoring within NM these species include (see Table 4-9 pion-juniper habitats in 2008, and within for scientifc names): band-tailed pigeon, mixed conifer habitats in 2008, 2009, and fammulated owl, Mexican whip-poor-will, 2012 (Holmes and Johnson 2012a, 2012b, rufous hummingbird, Lewis’s woodpecker, 2014). The approach used variable circular olive-sided fycatcher, pinyon jay, Virginia’s plot (VCP) counts each sampling year, with warbler, Cassin’s fnch, and evening gros- 100 plots originally established in the mixed beak. On the list of common birds in steep conifer forest. (See Appendix F for a discus- decline that regularly occur at Bandelier NM sion of the point count method for collecting are common nighthawk, Wilson’s warbler, avian data). In 2012, after the Las Conchas and pine siskin. Fire, which burned approximately half of the mixed conifer bird sampling plots at high or

140 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment moderate severity, the remaining habitat was frst decade of the 2000s. The data show a assessed and sampling was conducted only decline in both the number and subspecies in monitoring plots with no evidence of fre captured over six years. The decline is robust (unburned), or with low canopy burn sever- for scaling, based on efort measured in birds ity—plots with little to no changes in vegeta- per net-hour (Table 4-6). tion structure. In 2010, the park began operating three A preliminary comparison of relative abun- MAPS stations following continent-wide dance between pre-fre (100) and post-fre protocols (DeSante et al. 2007). Data for unburned and low-severity burn (48) plots 2010 through 2013 show low adult return found that of the 9 most commonly detected rates (data not presented) and low reproduc- species that increased after the fre, 7 were tion rates (Table 4-7) (Fettig unpublished either long distance migrants (chipping spar- data). row, Hammond’s fycatcher, warling vireo, western tanager, and western wood peewee) 4.13.1.2 Presidential directive to protect or species that move to lower elevations in migratory birds the winter (hermit thrush and Williamson’s Executive Order 13186 of January 10, 2001, sapsucker). This increase may have been due identifed the responsibilities of federal agen- to the movement of individuals, upon arrival cies to protect migratory birds and required from their wintering grounds, from unsuit- the NPS to sign a Memorandum of Un- able burned territories to already occupied derstanding (MOU) with the U.S. Fish and post-Las Conchas forest areas where foliage Wildlife Service (USFWS) for the protection for nesting or tree sap was available. Just two of migratory birds. Such an MOU was signed of the species that increased postfre were in 2010 and committed the NPS to evaluat- resident species—the hairy woodpecker and ing migratory birds species identifed in one pine siskin (Holmes and Johnson 2014). or more of the following sources: (1) the US- FWS periodic report Birds of Conservation Of the 9 most commonly detected species Concern (www.fws.gov/migratorybirds); (2) that decreased in mixed conifer habitat post- federally-listed threatened and endangered Las Conchas Fire, 6 were resident species bird species; (3) priority bird species docu- (brown creeper, dark-eyed junco, moun- mented in conservation plans completed tain chickadee, northern ficker) or species under NABCI (Partners in Flight North that move to lower elevations and diferent American Landbird Conservation Plan, habitats in winter (ruby crowned kinglet, U.S. Shorebird Conservation Plan, North yellow-rumped warbler). Three migrant American Waterbird Conservation Plan, species also decreased in abundance (Cordil- and North American Waterfowl Manage- leran fycatcher, house wren, violet-green ment Plan); and (4) listed as priority species swallow, Holmes and Johnson 2014). It is or species of highest conservation concern important to note, however, that these data in State Wildlife Action Plans. For Bandelier are from only one year postfre and are likely NM these references include Butcher et al. not indicative of long-term patterns. (2007), NMDGF (2006), NMPIF (2007), Within pion-juniper habitats, bird band- Norris et al. 2005), Rich et al. (2004), and ing data specifc to Bandelier NM are USFWS (2008). consistent with broader trends pointing to Table 4-8 lists bird species of concern which large-scale declining bird populations. The are regular breeding species with moder- data are from a juniper-woodland mesa-top ate or high abundances at Bandelier NM. sites south of the park’s headquarters with In contrast, Table 4-9 lists bird species methods following the national Monitoring of concern which are accidental, rare, or Avian Productivity and Survivorship (MAPS) migrants at the park. Because of the species protocol (DeSante et al. 2007). The site was abundances, investigations and management not treated in the restoration work of the

4 Natural Resource Conditions 141 Table 4-6. Bird capture rates by year at a Juniper-woodland mesa-top site at Bandelier National Monument (S. Fettig unpublished data). Note that the rate has been declining each year.

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Total birds banded 80 162 55 60 40 37 Total banding mornings 8 11 10 11 11 10

Total net hours (9–12 nets) 324.64 477.77 369.19 417.20 575.87 525.12 Birds banded per net hour 0.24 0.34 0.15 0.14 0.07 0.07 Total subspecies banded 20 24 19 16 18 15

Table 4-7. Number of hatch-year (HY) birds banded per 600 net-hours, for three sites (Alamo Drainage (ALDR), Frijoles East (FREA), and Frijoles West (FRWE)) at Bandelier National Monument from 2010 through 2013. Percent hatch-year birds is equal to hatch year birds banded divided by total birds banded.

Site/Year 2010 2011 2012 2013 Hatch-year birds banded ALDR 33 5 50 18 FREA 4 0 10 3 FRWE 24 0 58 9 Totals 61 5 118 30 Hatch-year birds/600 net hours ALDR 38.60 8.61 64.66 23.39 FREA 4.99 0.00 12.77 4.03 FRWE 27.68 0.00 76.18 11.36 Mean 24.17 2.89 50.90 13.01 All age birds banded ALDR 171 45 89 72 FREA 58 29 31 32 FRWE 132 48 129 249 Totals 361 122 249 181 Percent hatch-year birds ALDR 19.30 11.11 56.18 25.00 FREA 6.90 0.00 32.26 9.38 FRWE 18.18 0.00 44.96 11.69 Mean 16.90 4.10 47.39 16.57

actions directed at species in Table 4-9 are 4.13.3 Data and methods less likely to contribute to landscape-level Johnson and Wauer (1996) documented conservation eforts than actions directed at changes in bird communities using a line- species in Table 4-8. transect method that mapped bird observations along one-mile routes in the footprint 4.13.2 Reference conditions of the 1977 La Mesa Fire. Additional data for Populations of selected landbirds in promi- fve of the transects extend into the 1990s nent monument habitats maintain viable (Wauer unpublished). Point count data with population levels. variable circular plot (VCP) distance sam-

142 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Table 4-8. Birds identified as species of concern by existing published conservation plans, USFWS (2008), Rich et al. (2004), Butcher et al. (2007), Norris et al. 2005), NMDGF (2006), NMPIF (2007), that are regular breeding species with moderate or high abundances at Bandelier National Monument.

Standard English name Scientific name Habitats White-throated swift (Aeronautes saxatalis) Canyon and cliffs Black-chinned hummingbird (Archilochus alexandri) Lower elevation shrublands Broad-tailed hummingbird (Selasphorus platycercus) Higher elevation shrublands Lewis’s woodpecker (Melanerpes lewis) Mid-elevation open woodlands Williamson’s sapsucker (Sphyrapicus thyroideus) Higher elevation forest with snags Red-naped sapsucker (Sphyrapicus nuchalis) Higher elevation forest with snags Hammond’s flycatcher (Empidonax hammondii) Closed canopy forests Gray flycatcher (Empidonax wrightii) Juniper woodlands Dusky flycatcher (Empidonax oberholseri) Open canopy forests and shrublands Cassin’s kingbird (Tyrannus vociferans) Open canopy forests Plumbeous vireo (Vireo plumbeus) Forests across the park Warbling vireo (Vireo gilvus) Forests across the park Western scrub-jay (Aphelocoma californica) Open canopy forests and shrublands Clark’s nutcracker (Nucifraga columbiana) Mid-elevation open woodlands Juniper titmouse (Baeolophus ridgwayi) Juniper woodlands Pygmy nuthatch (Sitta pygmaea) Ponderosa forests Western bluebird (Sialia mexicana) Open canopy forests and shrublands Mountain bluebird (Sialia currucoides) Open canopy forests and shrublands Virginia’s warbler (Oreothlypis virginiae) Shrublands Black-throated gray warbler (Setophaga nigrescens) Juniper woodlands Grace’s warbler (Setophaga graciae) Ponderosa forests Green-tailed towhee (Pipilo chlorurus) Mid-elevation open woodlands

pling for some piñon-juniper habitats are potential breeding bird, the species, breeding available from 2008 (Holmes and Johnson behavior, date, and cover type are recorded 2012a). Additional point count data with onto standard forms. MAPS constant-effort VCP are available for mixed conifer forest bird banding data (DeSante et al. 2007) exist for 2008, 2009, and 2012 with limited com for six years (2008–2013) at one site within parison of post Las Conchas Fire changes piñon-juniper woodlands and at three sites (Holmes and Johnson 2012a, 2012b; 2014). for five years (2010–2014). Park-wide data for landbirds are from Fettig (2004), who utilized Breeding Bird Atlas 4.13.4 Condition and trend (BBA) sampling methods (Laughlin 1981, Reliable trend data are not yet available but Kingery 1998, Fettig et al. 2002). Briefly, BBA reproductive rate information pooled across observations are conducted within a 5 km x all species from MAPS stations suggests low 5 km area, called a block. Observers develop reproduction in both piñon-juniper habitats a comprehensive species list by spending and mixed conifer habitats. approximately 20-40 hours actively survey ing a block during 5–10 visits throughout the 4.13.5 Level of confidence breeding season. For each observation of a The level of confidence for the condition

4 Natural Resource Conditions 143 Table 4-9. Birds, identifed as species of concern by existing published conservation plans, USFWS (2008), Rich et al. (2004), Butcher et al. (2007), Norris et al. (2005), NMDGF (2006), NMPIF (2007), that are accidental, rare, migrant, etc. at Bandelier NM, and their status at the park.

Standard English name Scientifc name Status at Bandelier NM Dusky grouse (Dendragapus obscurus) Rare Turkey vulture (Cathartes aura) Common, breeding is very diffcult to confrm Bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) Rare, winter only Northern harrier (Circus cyaneus) Accidental Northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) Accidental Swainson's hawk (Buteo swainsoni) Accidental Zone-tailed hawk (Buteo albonotatus) Rare, probably no longer a breeding species Ferruginous hawk (Buteo regalis) Accidental Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) Accidental Peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) Rare Prairie falcon (Falco mexicanus) Accidental Western sandpiper (Calidris mauri) Accidental Stilt sandpiper (Calidris himantopus) Accidental Wilson's phalarope (Phalaropus tricolor) Migrant Band-tailed pigeon (Patagioenas fasciata) Rare, breeding is very diffcult to confrm Yellow-billed cuckoo (Coccyzus americanus) Never has been documented at Bandelier Flammulated owl (Psiloscops fammeolus) Rare Northern pygmy-owl (Glaucidium gnoma) Rare [Mexican] spotted owl (Strix occidentalis) Extripated Black swift (Cypseloides niger) Accidental Calliope hummingbird (Selasphorus calliope) Migrant, Common Rufous hummingbird (Selasphorus rufus) Migrant, Common Olive-sided fycatcher (Contopus cooperi) Rare breeding species Willow fycatcher (Empidonax traillii extimus) Migrant, no breeding records Gray vireo (Vireo vicinior) Never has been documented at Bandelier Pinyon jay (Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus) Rare, may breed at Bandelier in some years Sage thrasher (Oreoscoptes montanus) Migrant Yellow warbler (Setophaga petechia) Migrant Brewer’s sparrow (Spizella breweri) Migrant Black-chinned sparrow (Spizella atrogularis) Accidental Black-throated sparrow (Amphispiza bilineata) Accidental Lincoln's sparrow (Melospiza lincolnii) Migrant Lazuli bunting (Passerina amoena) Accidental Bullock's oriole (Icterus bullockii) Rare breeding species Cassin's fnch (Haemorhous cassinii) Uncommon

144 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment and trend of landbirds at Bandelier NM is 2007a. The 2007 WatchList for United low, due to the lack of rigorous analysis of States Birds. American Birds 61 (The existing MAPS data. Large-scale vegetation 107TH Christmas Bird Count issue): changes associated with the Las Conchas 18-25. Fire will afect population levels over coming decades. Defnitive information will require Butcher, G. S., and D. K. Niven. 2007b. targeted feld work to answer management Combining Date from the Christmas questions. Bird Count and the Breeding Bird Survey to Determine the Continental 4.13.6 Data gaps/Research needs/ Status and Trends of North American Management recommendations Birds. National Audubon Society, The lack of local information on Grace’s Audubon Science Ofce, 545 warblers is the most signifcant data gap. Almshouse Road, Ivyland, PA 18974. Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data show sharp 32pp. +3 appendices. annual declines of 5.5% in New Mexico DeSante, D. F., K. M. Burton, P. Velez, for Grace’s warblers (a relatively easy to D. Froehlich, and D. Kaschube. detect species) and an annual decline of 2007. MAPS manual, 2007 protocol, 2.3% throughout western states. An analysis instructions for the establishment by Butcher and Niven (2007) suggests the and operation of constant-efort species has declined an average of 1.93% bird-banding stations as part of the per year over 40 years (1965–2005) in the Monitoring Avian Productivity and U.S., a 54% decrease. Thus, the decline is Survivorship (MAPS) program. The persistent and appears to be range-wide in Institute for Bird Populations. P.O. the U.S. SCPN bird community monitoring Box 1346, Point Reyes Station, CA and MAPS stations at the monument should 94956-1346. continue with integrated analyses linked to weather to provide information to manage- DeSante, D. F., and D. R. Kaschube. 2009. ment on likely causes of population changes. The Monitoring Avian Productivity Unpublished data by Ro Wauer should be and Survivorship (MAPS) Program computerized and analyzed to provide addi- 2004, 2005, and 2006 Report. Bird tional historical information on bird num- Populations 9:86-169. bers. Repeat breeding bird atlas work would provide park-wide spatial data with relative Fettig, Stephen M., Melanie Asaki, abundance information as well as specifc Brendan Gallagher, Linda Mowbray, information on level of breeding and links to Jo Osterhouse, Mary Ristow, and habitats. Tom and Kathy Stephens. 2004. New Mexico Breeding Bird Atlas Results 4.13.7 Sources of expertise for Bandelier National Monument: Stephen Fettig Summary of 2000-2003 Observations. Unpublished report to the National 4.13.8 Literature cited Park Service, NPS fles, Los Alamos, Butcher, G. S. and D. K. Niven. 2007. New Mexico. 4pp. Combining Data from the Christmas Fettig, Stephen M., Jeanne M. Fair, Gail Bird Count and the Breeding Bird Garber, Jim Place, Christopher Rustay, Survey to Determine the Continental Roberta Salazar, Jim Travis, Rebecca Status and Trends of North America Wechsler (Corporation Directors). Birds. National Audubon Society, 545 2002. Atlas Handbook, March 18, 2002 Almshouse Road, Ivyland, PA 18974. Edition. The New Mexico Breeding Bird Atlas Project, Inc., Los Alamos, Butcher, G. S., D. K. Niven, A. O. Panjabi, New Mexico. 39 pp. D.N. Pashley, and K. V. Rosenberg.

4 Natural Resource Conditions 145 Holmes, J. A., and M. J. Johnson. 2012a. Bird between the U.S. Department of the community monitoring for Bandelier Interior National Park Service and National Monument: 2008 summary the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to report. Natural Resource Data Series Promote the Conservation of Migratory NPS/SCPN/NRDS—2012/329. Birds. NPS fles, Signature date April 12, National Park Service, Fort Collins, 2010. 33pp. Colorado. National Fish and Wildlife Foundation. Holmes, J. A., and M. J. Johnson. 2012b. Bird 1990. Neotropical Migratory Bird community monitoring for Bandelier Conservation Program. National Fish National Monument: 2009 summary and Wildlife Foundation. Washington, report. Natural Resource Data Series DC. NPS/SCPN/NRDS—2012/413. National Park Service, Fort Collins, New Mexico Department of Game and Colorado. Fish (NMDGF). 2006. Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy for New Holmes, J. A., and M. J. Johnson. 2014. Bird Mexico. New Mexico Department of community monitoring for Bandelier Game and Fish. Santa Fe, New Mexico. National Monument: 2012 summary 526 pp + appendices. report. Natural Resource Data Series NPS/SCPN/NRDS—2014/621. New Mexico Partners in Flight (NMPIF). National Park Service, Fort Collins, 2007. New Mexico Bird Conservation Colorado. Plan Version 2.1. C. Rustay and S. Norris, compilers. Albuquerque, New Johnson, T.H. and R.H. Wauer. 1996. Mexico. Avifaunal response to the 1977 La Mesa fre. Pp. 70-94 In: Fire efects in Norris, S, Howe, B., Mitchusson, T. southwestern forests. Proceedings of Reiser, H., Williams, S. III, Legler, R. the second La Mesa Fire Symposium and Garbor, G. 2005. Coordinated (C.D. Allen, ed.). U.S. Dept. of Agric., Implementation Plan for Bird For Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM- Conservation in Western New Mexico. GTR-286, Los Alamos, New Mexico. New Mexico Steering Committee, Intermountain West Joint Venture. 49 Kingery, Hugh E. 1998. Colorado Breeding pp. Bird Atlas. Colorado Bird Atlas Partnership and Colorado Division North American Bird Conservation Initiative of Wildlife. Distributed by Colorado (NABCI), U.S. Committee. 2009. The Wildlife Heritage Foundation. Denver, State of the Birds 2009 Report. U.S. Colorado. 636 pp. Department of Interior, Washington, D.C. Laughlin, Sarah B 1982. Proceedings of the Northeastern Breeding Bird Atlas North American Bird Conservation Conference. November 6-8, 1981. Initiative, U.S. Committee, 2010. Vermont Institute of Natural Science, The State of the Birds 2010 Report Woodstock, Vermont. 122pp. on Climate Change, United States of America. U.S. Department of the La Rouche, G. P. 2003. Birding in the United Interior: Washington, DC. States: a demographic and economic analysis. Report 2001-1. U.S. Fish and North American Bird Conservation Initiative Wildlife Service. Washington, DC. (NABCI), U.S. Committee. 2014. The State of the Birds 2014 Report. U.S. National Park Service (NPS). 2010. Department of Interior, Washington, Memorandum of Understanding D.C.

146 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Rich, T. D., C. J. Beardmore, H. Berlanga, P. The State of the Birds 2010 Report J. Blancher, M. S. W. Bradstreet, G. S. on Climate Change, United States Butcher, D. W. Demarest, E. H. Dunn, of America. U.S. Department of the W. C. Hunter, E. E. Iigo-Elias, J. A. Interior: Washington, DC. 32pp. Kennedy, A. M. Martell, A. O. Panjabi, D. N. Pashley, K. V. Rosenberg, C. M. U.S. Committee of the North American Bird Rustay, J. S. Wendt, T. C. Will. 2004. Conservation Initiative (NABCI). 2014. Partners in Flight North American The State of the Birds 2014 Report. U.S. Landbird Conservation Plan. Cornell Department of Interior, Washington, Laboratory of Ornithology. Ithaca, NY. D.C. 16pp. 84pp. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). U.S. Committee of the North American Bird 2008. Birds of Conservation Concern Conservation Initiative (NABCI). 2009. 2008. United States Department The State of the Birds, United States of Interior, Fish and Wildlife of America, 2009. U.S. Department of Service, Division of Migratory Bird Interior: Washington, DC. 36 pp. Management, Arlington, Virginia. 85 pp. [Online version available at ] Conservation Initiative (NABCI). 2010.

4 Natural Resource Conditions 147 Biological Integrity • Species of lished home ranges in pion-juniper habitat Management Concern - At-risk Biota (Ganey et al. 1998). In Bandelier NM, Mexican spotted owls nest 4.14 Mexican Spotted Owl in canyons having a cool micro-environment 4.14.1 Description and vegetation dominated by cool-moist species typical of mixed conifer forests. The 4.14.1.1 Ecology majority of MSO habitat is located within The Mexican spotted owl (MSO; Strix occi- the Bandelier Wilderness. Nesting-roosting dentalis lucida) occupies primarily mixed co- zones cover approximately 2,800 hectares nifer forests dominated by Douglas-fr, true (6,900 acres or 20% of the park), have areas fr and pine, or pine with an oak or other with steep slopes (>40%) in mixed conifer broad-leafed understory component. Their habitat types, and have been consistently favored habitat is usually steep, forested monitored prior to any planned management canyons, often with rocky clifs, perennial action. water and riparian vegetation (Gutierrez et al. 1995, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service [US- The prey base of the species in New Mexico FWS] 1995, Willey 1993). The species prefers is strongly afected by climatic variation. A old growth forests but also occupies uneven- recent study shows annual survival and re- aged stands with complex vertical structure production of MSOs is positively correlated (Ganey and Balda 1989a). with previous year’s precipitation (Seamans et al. 2002). Adult MSOs are highly faithful to breeding sites, with territory sizes in Arizona and New 4.14.1.2 Status Mexico ranging from 7–11 square kilometers MSOs were frst reported at Bandelier NM (Kroel 1991). In mixed conifer communi- in 1910. Management-related surveys began ties, breeding MSOs select sites with more in 1985. As part of the park’s 1998 Fire mature Douglas-fr and pine canopy closure Management Plan, nine nesting-roosting of 75% or more, and the presence of an oak zones (NRZs) and suitable nesting areas understory (Seamans and Gutierrez 1995, (SNAs) were created and mapped (Johnson Peery et al. 1999). In pine-oak habitat, ter- 1998). Through formal consultation, the U.S. ritories may be located on more moderate Fish and Wildlife Service approved the use slopes with 60% or greater canopy cover, of such designations. The park continues to and are less concentrated in canyon bottoms manage all potential MSO habitat based on (Ganey et al. 2000). In steep-walled canyons, the 1998 NRZ and SNA defnitions. Analysis owls may also nest in clif crevices (Gutier- of observations from 1977 to 1997 within rez et al. 1995). In winter, lower-elevation the park and surrounding areas suggested pion-juniper habitat may be used. that fre benefts MSOs, provided it occurs at intensities low enough to maintain essential MSOs may forage and roost in a wider range characteristics of nesting habitat. Thus, in of habitats than are used for nesting, but gen- the 1998 Fire Management Plan, the park erally prefer sites with high canopy closure, proposed treating NRZs with low intensity live-tree basal area, available snags, and fall- fre in an efort to reduce the threat of crown en logs (Ganey and Balda 1989b). Fledglings fres. Since then, 170 hectares (430 acres) of may depend on oak thickets for roosting NRZ habitat have been treated with pre- and to avoid predator detection (Gutierrez scribed fre. et al. 1995). The majority of dispersing birds are juveniles (Arsenault et al. 1997), and 4.14.2 Reference conditions nearly all isolated patches of mixed conifer The maximum number of occupied sites or ponderosa pine in New Mexico and the within Bandelier NM known prior to 2002 southwest can be reached by dispersing owls was three. (USFWS 1995). Dispersers have also estab-

148 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment 4.14.3 Data and methods Paul, MN, pp. 47-57. Mexican spotted owls are typically located by visiting potential habitat and looking for Ganey, J. L., and R. P. Balda. 1989a. fresh signs (feathers and droppings). Noctur- Distribution and habitat use of Mexican nal calling surveys are also used to elicit calls Spotted Owls in Arizona. Condor from owls, at least three times each season, if 91:355-361. owls are not found in other ways. Ganey, J. L., and R. P. Balda. 1989b. Home range characteristics of Spotted Owls 4.14.4 Condition and trend in northern Arizona. Journal Wildlife The last breeding MSOs in the monument Manage. 53:1159-1165. were observed in 2002. No MSOs were detected by standard survey methods from Ganey, J. L., W. M. Block, J. K. Dwyer, B. E. 2003–2013. In 2011, the Las Conchas Fire Strohmeyer, and J. S. Jenness. 1998. destroyed most potential MSO breeding Dispersal movements and survival habitat in the park. rates of juvenile Mexican Spotted Owls in northern Arizona. Wilson. Bull. 4.14.5 Level of confdence 110:206-217. The level of confdence for the condition and trend of MSO in Bandelier NM is high. The Ganey, J. L., Block, W. M., and King, R. M. physical structure provided by trees in cool 2000. Roost sites of radio-marked canyon settings is now gone because of the Mexican Spotted Owls in Arizona and Las Conchas Fire of 2011. Our confdence is New Mexico: sources of variability and high that the owls are currently not breeding descriptive characteristics. Journal of in the park. Raptor Research 34:270-278. Gutierrez, R. J., A. B. Franklin, and W. S. 4.14.6 Data gaps/Research needs/ Lahaye. 1995. Spotted Owl (Strix Management recommendations occidentalis). In Birds of North Recommendations to consider are (1) main- America, No. 179 (A Poole and F. tain large stands of mature and old-growth Gill, eds.). The Academy of Natural ponderosa pine and mixed conifer forest, Sciences, Philadelphia, PA, and The particularly in areas with steep slopes; (2) American Ornithologists’ Union, protect and restrict activity in 243-hectare Washington, D.C. (600-acre) areas around known nest sites, or around roost sites if nest sites are unknown Johnson, T.H. 1998. Topographic-Landsat (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1995, Peery et model of suitable spotted owl al. 1999) and (3) restore riparian habitats and habitat around Los Alamos National restrict human use of appropriate riparian Laboratory. Los Alamos National areas. Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico. 9 pp. 4.14.7 Sources of expertise Stephen Fettig Kroel, K. W. 1991. Home range and habitat use characteristics of the 4.14.8 Literature cited Mexican Spotted Owl in the southern Arsenault, D. P., A. Hodgson, and P. B. Sacramento Mountains, New Mexico. Stacey. 1997. Dispersal movements of M.S. Thesis, New Mexico State juvenile Mexican Spotted Owls (Strix University. Branson BC 2999 K74 1991. occidentalis lucida) in New Mexico. Peery, M. Z., R. J. Gutierrez, and M. E. In Biology and conservation of owls of Seamans. 1999. Habitat composition the northern hemisphere. J. R. Duncan, and confguration around Mexican D. H. Johnson, and T. H. Nichols, eds. Spotted Owl nest and roost sites in the USDA Forest Service GTR NC-190. St.

4 Natural Resource Conditions 149 Tularosa Mountains, New Mexico. of climatic variation on survival and Journal of Wildlife Management reproduction. Auk 119:321-334. 63:36-43. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1995. Seamans, M. E., and R. J. Gutierrez. 1995. Recovery plan for the Mexican Spotted Breeding habitat of the Mexican Owl. Albuquerque, NM. Spotted Owl in the Tularosa Mountains, New Mexico. Condor 97:944-952. Willey, D. W. 1993. Movement and habitat utilization by Mexican Spotted Owls Seamans, M. E., R. J. Gutierrez, and C. within the canyonlands of Utah. Ph.D. A. May. 2002. Mexican Spotted Owl Diss. Northern Arizona University, population dynamics: the infuence Flagstaf, AZ.

150 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Biological Integrity • Species of Man- does not possess lungs, and does not use agement Concern - At-risk Biota standing surface water for any life stage. Respiration occurs through the skin, which 4.15 Jemez Mountain Salamander requires a moist microclimate for gas ex- change. The absorption and conservation 4.15.1 Description of substrate moisture is probably the most The Jemez Mountain (JM) salamander important factor in the ecology of this ter- (Plethodon neomexicanus) is a federally restrial salamander, as it is in other strictly endangered species restricted to the Jemez terrestrial salamander species (Heatwole and Mountains of northern New Mexico in Los Lim 1961). The species is rarely observed Alamos, Rio Arriba, and Sandoval Counties, aboveground, and can only been found on and around the rim of the collapsed Valles the surface when environmental conditions Caldera, with some occurrences within the are moist and temperatures warm (typically caldera. The majority of salamander habitat July through September; but occasional is located on federally-managed lands, in- salamander observations have been made cluding the Santa Fe National Forest, Bande- in May, June, and October (USFWS 2012). lier NM, Valles Caldera National Preserve, Snow infltration and summer monsoon- and Los Alamos National Laboratory, with generated thunderstorms provide needed some habitat located on tribal land and pri- environmental moisture (USFWS 2012). vate lands (New Mexico Endemic Salaman- der Team [NMEST] 2000). The overall range-wide population size of the JM salamander is unknown because Relatively warm and wet environmental surveys tend to cover small areas (approxi- conditions suitable for salamander above- mately 256 ft by 256 ft (200 m by 200 m). ground activity are likely infuenced by snow Like most plethodontid salamanders, moni- infltration and rain from summer thun- toring population size or trends of the Jemez derstorms (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Mountains salamander is inherently difcult [USFWS] 2012). When active above ground, because of the natural variation associated the species is usually found under decaying with the species’ behavior (Hyde and Simons logs, rocks, bark, moss mats, or inside decay- 2001). For example, when the species is un- ing logs or stumps. The salamander’s subter- derground, individuals cannot be detected. ranean habitat appears to be deep, fractured, The available data cannot be used to esti- subterranean rock in areas with high soil mate population size or trends in the range- moisture (NMEST 2000). Compacting soil wide abundance of the salamander. Even makes the habitats unusable for JM salaman- though we are not able to estimate popula- ders. Thus, parking areas, hardened walking tion trends, the number of surveys resulting areas, and trails make habitat unusable. JM in no salamander detections is increasing. salamanders are normally found in mixed conifer communities, including areas domi- 4.15.2 Reference conditions nated by Douglas-fr (Pseudotsuga menziesii), As explained above, determining popula- blue spruce (Picea pungens), Engelmann tion sizes for JM salamanders is problematic spruce (Picea engelmannii), ponderosa pine because most of their lives are spent below (Pinus ponderosa), and white fr (Abies concol- ground. Instead, the amount of available or) with occasional aspen (Populus tremuloi- habitat can be used as a proxy for popula- des), Rocky Mountain maple (Acer glabrum), tion status. Critical habitat for an endangered New Mexico locust (Robinia neomexicana), species is defned by the USFWS as the spe- ocean spray (Holodiscus sp.), and various cifc areas within the geographical area occu- shrubby oaks (Quercus sp.) (Degenhardt et al. pied by the species which (a) are essential to 1996, Hathcock 2008, Whitford 1976, Wil- the conservation of the species and (b) may liams 1973). require special management considerations or protection. For the JM salamander, the The JM salamander is strictly terrestrial,

4 Natural Resource Conditions 151 Primary Constituent Elements (PCE; areas that drive above- and below-ground activi- of potential habitat a species is known to use; ties (Hyde and Simons 2001). Consequently USFWS 2013) include: population size estimates using existing data cannot be made accurately, and the available ● elevations from 6,988 to 11,254 feet data cannot be used to estimate population (2,130 to 3,430 meters) size or trends in the range-wide abundance ● moderate to high tree canopy cover with of the salamander. greater than 50 % canopy closure that provides shade and maintains moisture Despite an inability to quantify population and high relative humidity at the ground size or trends for the salamander, we can use surface, and that information provided by qualitative data to make potential inferences. For example the ○ consists of the following tree spe- number of surveys completed where no sala- cies alone or in any combination: manders are detected is increasing. Disease Douglas-fr; blue spruce; Engelmann has been implicated in the decline of many spruce; white fr; limber pine; pon- amphibians, and it is an unknown, but cred- derosa pine; and aspen ible threat to the JM salamander. Cummer et ○ has an understory containing New al. (2005) reported chytridiomycete fungus Mexico locust or oak (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis) in an individual P. neomexicanus from Sierra Toledo on ● ground surface in forest areas with structural features, such as rocks, bark, or the Valles Caldera in Sandoval County. Since moss mats that provide the species with then at least one other individual has tested food and cover positive for B. dendrobatidis. Based on these inferences, the status of salamanders is likely ● underground habitat in forest or mead- variable across their range, and persistence ow areas containing interstitial spaces may be at risk in some locations. For exam- provided by ple, in places where the salamander was once ○ igneous rock with fractures or loose considered abundant or common, it is now rocky soils rarely detected or not detected at all (unpublished data, New Mexico Heritage Program). ○ rotted tree root channels There also appears to be an increase in the ○ burrows of rodents or large number of areas with the above Primary invertebrates Constituent Elements (PCE) where salamanders once were present, but have not been 4.15.3 Data and methods observed during more recent surveys (New A complete overview of the available survey Mexico Heritage Program 2010 unpublished data and protocols for the Jemez Moun- data). tain salamander is reported in the USFWS 12-month fnding (USFWS 2010). In summa- There are, however, two localities in the ry, there are approximately 20 years of sala- Valles Caldera National Preserve (VCNP) mander survey data that provide detection where JM salamanders are relatively abun- information at specifc survey sites for given dant compared to other locations—Redondo points in time. However, like most plethod- Border located in the central portion of ontid salamanders, monitoring population the VCNP, and on a slope in the northeast size or trends of the JM salamander is prob- portion of the VCNP. Still, the number of lematic due to the life history and behavior individuals found at these two localities is of the species (Hyde and Simons 2001). For at present far below the number noted in example, when the species is underground, historical surveys (e.g. 659 individuals were individuals cannot be detected, therefore, captured in a single year in 1970 and 394 of the probability of detecting a salamander those individuals were captured in a single is highly variable and dependent upon the month (Williams 1976). Currently, there is environmental and biological parameters

152 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment no known location where the number of maintain high percent cover of forest canopy salamanders observed is similar to that ob- in habitats most valuable to the salamander. served in 1970. High percent canopy cover provides shade and maintains moisture and relative humid- 4.15.4 Condition and trend ity at the ground surface. Thus, signifcant The overall range-wide population size of fre management efort should be devoted to the JM salamander is unknown, however, protecting forest canopy in areas of the park all qualitative information and observa- with north facing slopes and fractured-rock tions suggest declining trends. Salamander habitats or other rocky habitats that may populations are known to be susceptible contain small underground air pockets for to fre-related efects, including decreased salamander movement and overwintering. forest humidity, desiccation of habitat, loss Surface habitats with bark, or moss mats, in of microhabitat (such as downed logs and addition to fractured-rock habitat, may be litter), erosion, and flling in (by runof) of especially important for providing this spe- subterranean habitat utilized by salaman- cies with food and cover. ders (USFWS 2012). Post-fre management actions that have negatively impacted JM 4.15.7 Sources of expertise salamanders and their habitat include the Stephen Fettig mulching and reseeding of occupied habitat with soil-binding, non-native grasses. 4.15.8 Literature cited Cummer, M.R., D. E. Green, and E.M. 4.15.5 Level of confdence O’Neill. 2005. Aquatic chytrid pathogen We are highly confdent that JMS habitat is detected in terrestrial plethodontid declining and that the overall population is salamander. Herpetological Review likely following a similar trend. There are 36(3):248-249. many aspects of the species’ biology that are unknown, which limits the development of Degenhardt, W. G., C. W. Painter, and A. H. management recommendations. Price. 1996. Amphibians and Reptiles of New Mexico. Albuquerque, NM, 4.15.6 Data gaps/Research needs/ University of New Mexico Press. Management recommendations Hathcock, C. D. 2008. The status of A great deal of JM salamander biology the Jemez Mountains Salamander is unknown. Specifc information on all (Plethodon neomexicanus) at Los subterranean aspects of the species’ biology Alamos National Laboratory, 2008. Los remains uninvestigated and would be valu- Alamos Nat’l. Lab Unpubl Rept. LA- able for developing monitoring protocols or UR-08-0826. 6pp. recovery strategies. Currently there are no reliable monitoring methods for the JM sala- Heatwole, H. and K. Lim. 1961. Relation mander that do not disrupt or destroy their of substrate moisture to absorption aboveground (under logs, rocks, moss mats) and loss of water by the salamander, or subterranean habitats. Developing and Plethodon cinereus. Ecology implementing a monitoring protocol that 42(4):814–819. can be used consistently across land management units would be valuable. If such a Hyde, E. J., and T. R. Simons. 2001. protocol was also robust with climate change Plethodontid salamanders: sources forecasts, forest restoration treatments, and of variability. The Journal of Wildlife wildfre impacts, management options for Management 65(4):624-632. promoting salamander resiliency would like- New Mexico Heritage Program 2010a. ly be greatly expanded. As summers become Excel spreadsheet JMSTrends_ warmer and drier, and winter precipitation SumCountPerYear.xls. becomes more variable, it will be critical to

4 Natural Resource Conditions 153 New Mexico Heritage Program 2010b. Excel Wednesday, September 12, 2012. spreadsheet JMSTrends.xls. United States Fish and Wildlife Service New Mexico Endemic Salamander Team (USFWS). 2013. Determination of (NMEST). 2000. Conservation Endangered Species Status for Jemez Agreement for the Jemez Mountains Mountains Salamander (Plethodon Salamander Between and Among New neomexicanus) Throughout Its Range. Mexico Department of Game and Fish Federal Register, Vol. 78, No. 175 / USDA Forest Service and US Fish and Tuesday, September 10, 2013 / Rules Wildlife Service. 5 pp. and Regulations, pp55599-55627.

United States Fish and Wildlife Service Whitford, W. G. 1976. The biota of the Baca (USFWS). 2010. 12-Month Finding on Geothermal site. Unpublished report. a Petition to List the Jemez Mountains Salamander (Plethodon neomexicanus) Williams, S. R. 1976. Comparative ecology as Endangered or Threatened With and reproduction of the endemic New Critical Habitat. Federal Register, Vol. Mexico plethodontid salamanders, 75, No. 174 / Thursday, September 9, Plethodon neomexicanus and Aneides 2010 / Proposed Rules, pp54822-54845. hardii. PhD dissertation, University of New Mexico. 152pp. United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 2012. Proposed Endangered Williams, S. R. 1973. Plethodon Status for the Jemez Mountains neomexicanus. Catalogue of American Salamander and Proposed Designation. Amphibians and Reptiles: 131.1-131.2. Federal Register, Vol. 77, No. 177,

154 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Biological Integrity • Species of Manage- large kittens to one every 16 days for a lone ment Concern - Apex Predator adult (Lindzey 1987). Mountain lions are reclusive, usually avoiding people, with fatal attacks on humans (Homo sapiens) being rare. 4.16 Mountain Lion Attacks have trended upward in recent years 4.16.1 Description as more people build homes and spend time Mountain lions (Puma concolor; synonym: in mountain lion habitats (Beier 1991, Ches- cougar) are ambush predators, unlike wolves ter 2006). New Mexico reported an attack in which are short-distance pursuit preda- 2008, the frst there since 1974 (New Mexico tors. This hunting style conforms well to Department of Game and Fish [NMDGF] mountain lions being essentially solitary, 2008). with individual adults deliberately avoiding one another, except during the brief period 4.16.2 Reference conditions of courtship (Nowak 1991, p.1205). These Mountain lions are present in the monument behaviors permit mountain lions to thrive at unknown densities. in many habitats—at one time, mountain lions had the most extensive natural distri- 4.16.3 Data and methods bution of any mammal in the new world, Approximately 64% of New Mexico’s except humans. However, mountain lions 315,194 km2 (121,589 mi2) is considered have been extirpated from much of eastern mountain lion habitat (NMDGF 2010). North America (Dixon 1982). By the early NMDGF classifes mountain lion habitat as twentieth century, mountain lions appeared fair, moderate, good, and excellent based to have been eliminated everywhere in the on the density of mountain lions. Excel- United States north of Mexico except the lent habitat has an adult cougar density of mountainous part of the West and southern 3.0–4.0/100 km2; good habitat has an adult Texas and in Florida (Nowak 1991, p1206). cougar density of 1.2–1.7/100 km2; moderate habitat has an adult cougar density of Their territorial nature means that mountain 0.6–0.9/100km2; fair habitat has an adult lions can be well-spaced across the land- cougar density of 0.4–0.5/100 km2. scape. When prey densities are low, mountain lion populations can survive at low 4.16.4 Condition and trend densities. Individual territory sizes depend New Mexico Game Management Unit 6, on terrain, vegetation, abundance of prey, which includes Bandelier NM and includes gender, and whether a female has kittens all of Los Alamos County, parts of northern or not. While mountain lions are relatively Sandoval County, northwestern Santa Fe large in size, the species is not always the county, and southern Rio Arriba County is apex predator in its range. Mountain lions roughly delineated by a circle that intersects are known to yield to other predators, such the cities of Bernalillo, Cuba, Espaola, and as jaguar (Panthera onca), gray wolf (Canis Santa Fe (NMDGF 2011). Unit 6 contains lupus), black bear (Ursus americanus), and approximately, 6,659 km2 of mountain grizzly bear (Ursus arctos), a behavior that lion habitat with an estimated population comports well with its solitary nature. of 156–209 animals in 2011. Thus, Unit 6 is Solitary mountain lions typically are able to considered excellent mountain lion habi- ambush a variety of ungulate prey including tat (NMDGF 2011). If Bandelier NM has deer (Odocoileus sp., the most common food a mountain lion population in proportion item for mountain lions in North America), to its area and is typical of unit 6, we would elk (Cervus canadensis), moose (Alces alces), expect 4-6 cougars in the park. Given that and bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis). Es- mountain lion territories may cross park timates of deer kill frequency vary from boundaries from neighboring agencies, about one every three days for a female with the park may occasionally see additional animals.

4 Natural Resource Conditions 155 4.16.5 Level of confdence Great Basin Desert. Conservation This assessment is based on currently avail- Biology 5(2):244-248. able information (NMDGF 2011) and the level of confdence is high. Chester, T. 2006. Mountain Lion Attacks on People in the U.S. and Canada. Website 4.16.6 Data gaps/Research needs/ accessed November 20, 2013: http:// Management recommendations tchester.org/sgm/lists/lion_attacks.html Communication with the public should fo- Dixon, K. R. 1982. Mountain lion. Pages cus on the importance of predators for long- 711-727 in J.A. Chapman and G.A. term healthy ecosystem function (Estes et al. Feldhamer, eds. Wild mammals 2011) and on the importance of predators of North America. John Hopkins in limiting or reducing grazing, as a climate University Press. Baltimore, Maryland. change mitigation strategy (Welch 2005). Estes, J. A., J. Terborgh, J. S. Brahares, Managers should be aware that NMDGF M.E. Power, J. Berger, W. J. Bond, S. may seek to protect bighorn sheep intro- R. Carpenter, T. E. Essington, R. D. duced west of the park in August 2013 by Holt, J. B. C. Jackson, R. J. Marquis, L. reducing mountain lion populations in some Oksanen, T. Oksanen, R. T. Paine, E. K. areas. NPS management policies do not Pikitch, W. J. Ripple, S. A. Sandin, M. support such reductions within the Bande- Schefer, T.W. Schoener, J. B. Shurin, A. lier NM. Park managers should undertake R. E. Sinclair, M. E. Soulé, R. Virtanen, monitoring to establish population densi- and D. A. Wardle. 2011. Trophic ties and be vigilant to possible reductions in Downgrading of Planet Earth. Science mountain lion use of the park, if reductions 333:301-306 are conducted on adjacent public lands. Lindzey, F. 1987. Mountain Lion. Pages 4.16.6.1 Management considerations in 656-669 In Novak, Baker, et al. the face of climate change Wild Furbearer Management and With wolves gone from the landscape, it is Conservation in North America. essential to maintain mountain lion popu- Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. lations as an essential ecosystem element. xviii + 1150pp. Any decrease in mountain lion populations is likely to exacerbate ungulate herbivory Martin T. E. and J. L. Maron. 2012. (Ripple and Beschta 2006; Estes et al. 2011) Climate Impacts on Bird and Plant and a predator-prey imbalance (Berger and Communities from Altered Animal Wehausen 1991) and lead to a less stable Plant Interactions. Nature Climate situation in the face of increased climate Change 2:195-200. variability (Welch 2005 p. 87; Martin and Nowak, R. M. 1991. Walker’s Mammals of Maron 2012). the World, Firth Edition, Volume II. The Johns Hopkins University Press. 4.16.7 Sources of expertise Baltimore and London. Stephen Fettig New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 4.16.8 Literature cited (NMDGF). 2008. Search Continues for Beier, P. 1991. Cougar Attacks on Humans in Lion that Killed Pino Altos Man. Press the United States and Canada. Wildlife Release, New Mexico Department of Society Bulletin 19:403-412. Game and Fish, contact: Dan Williams, (505) 476-8004; dan.williams@state. Berger J. and J. D. Wehausen. 1991. nm.us; June 23, 2008. Website accessed Consequences of a Mammalian November 20, 2013: http://www. Predator-Prey Disequilibrium in the wildlife.state.nm.us/publications/press_

156 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment releases/ documents/2008/062308pinos Accessed from website November altoslion.html 20, 2013, . (NMDGF). 2010. Cougar Management Strategy for Hunting Seasons 2011- Ripple, W. J. and R. L. Beschta. 2006. Linking 2015. Document efective date given as a cougar decline, trophic cascade, April 1, 2011. Accessed from website and catastrophic regime shift in Zion November 20, 2013, . Welch, D. 2005. What Should Protected Areas Managers Do in the Face of New Mexico Department of Game and Fish Climate Change? George Wright (NMDGF). 2011. Cougar Zone Map. Forum 22(1):75-93.

4 Natural Resource Conditions 157 Biological Integrity • Species of Man- as reference areas. This park and adjacent agement Concern - Overabundant mountain community are physically dis- Species rupted by the migration of the elk, ranging in size from calves to full-grown 700-pound adults. Several butterfy and plant species 4.17 Elk and Deer are harmed by over-browsing by elk, especially the aspen groves that the elk herd of 4.17.1 Description perhaps 3,000 animals decimates in its search Elk (Cervus canadensis) are the largest for food. The elk population, while taxing ungulates in New Mexico. Elk were long the common food resources, also adversely believed to be a subspecies of the European afects native species that share the same red deer (Cervus elaphus), but evidence from food supply, such as beaver. a study of the mitochondrial DNA indicates that the two are distinct species (Ludt et al. Excerpt from Allen (1996). 2004). The Merriam’s Elk (Cervus canadensis Faunal remains in local archeological sites merriami) is the extinct subspecies of elk and historic information suggest that elk once found in the arid lands of the south- populations in the Jemez Mountains were western United States, including southern low from ca. 1200 A.D. through ca. 1900 New Mexico. Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus A.D., when they were extirpated from this canadensis nelsoni) were native in the Jemez region. Elk were reintroduced to the Jemez Mountains until extirpated due to overhunt- country in 1948 and 1964–1965, and their ing by around 1900 (Bailey 1931). population apparently grew exponentially, Although elk were present prior to 1900, reaching 1000 animals in the 1970s and there is no evidence to suggest that elk were about 7000 by 1991. Elk populations in plentiful in the region during prehistoric or Bandelier NM and adjoining areas increased historic times (Allen 1996). In 1948 and again rapidly after the 1977 La Mesa Fire. Winter in 1964–1965, elk were reintroduced to the use by elk in the La Mesa Fire area, occur- region and their population grew exponen- ring in the monument grew from about 100 tially, reaching around 7000 individuals by animals in 1978 to around 1500 elk by 1992. 1991. Data from New Mexico Department The dramatic increase in the monument’s elk of Game and Fish suggest that by the late herd (an annual growth rate of 21.3% and a 1980s or early 1990s, the Jemez Mountains 3.6 year population doubling time) was due population of reintroduced elk had grown to in part to the creation of about 6000 hectares levels greater than were known since at least of grassy winter range in and around the 1200 A.D. (Allen 1996). park by the La Mesa Fire. Some of this local population increase refects concentration During the 1990s, grazing and browsing by of elk into this favorable wintering habitat elk and livestock became a pressing issue of from surrounding portions of the Jemez public concern in the Jemez Mountains. An Mountains. Existing data are inadequate to interagency and citizen group called “Seek- determine whether elk populations are still ing Common Ground” struggled with this growing rapidly in the Jemez Mountains. issue. Current information suggests that While annual aerial surveys since 1990 undesirable impacts on vegetation are visible reveal no clear population trend, a variety of in widely distant places across the Jemez observations demonstrate increasing elk use Mountains of North Central New Mexico, of lower elevation areas. Negative resource including in Bandelier NM (Krantz 2001, impacts from today’s high elk populations Fettig 2001, Fettig 2002a, Fettig 2003a, and are beginning to be widely noted across the Fettig 2003b). Jemez Mountains, especially in high-use portions of the Bandelier NM area. Afected The Rocky Mountain National Park and resources range from plant communities Estes Park environments could also be used to soils and even archeological sites. Given

158 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment the large uncertainties associated with the In addition to aspen (Populus tremuloides) current data on elk populations, care should sprouts, the crew searched for shrubs species be taken to avoid further population in- within each plot to evaluate browsing by creases until the resource impacts of this elk. These species included: wild raspberry new phenomenon (large numbers of elk) (Rubus strigosus), chokecherry (Prunus virgin- can be identifed, desirable population levels iana), red elderberry (Sambucus microbotrys), identifed (based to a signifcant degree upon serviceberry (Amelanchier utahensis), moun- ecological information and resource carrying tain maple (Acer glabrum), dogwood (Cornus capacities, as well as social considerations), stolonifera), thimbleberry (Rubus parviforus), and appropriate cooperative management ocean spray (Holodiscus dumosus), mountain strategies implemented. mahogany (Cerocarpus montanus), clifbush (Jamesia americana), ninebark (Physocarpus 4.17.2 Reference conditions monogynus), barberry (Berberis fendleri), Prior to Euro-American arrival, elk and deer Gambel oak (Quercus gambelii), currant populations were low due to Native Ameri- (Ribes sp.), wild rose (Rosa sp.), whortleberry can hunting and occurrence of apex carni- (Vaccinium myrtillus), mock orange (Philadel- vores on the landscape. phus microphyllus), mountain lover (Paxistima nyrsinites), New Mexico locust (Robinia neo- 4.17.3 Data and methods mexicana), buckbrush (Ceanothus fendleri), In 2002 and 2005, feld workers investigated snowberry (Synphoricarpos oreophilus), and the infuences of browsing by elk on aspen shrubby cinquefoil (Potentilla fruticosa). sprouts and shrubs species at randomly Additional information is available (Krantz selected sites from a universe predomi- 2001, Fettig 2001, Fettig 2002a, Fettig 2003a, nantly located within Bandelier NM’s Cerro and Fettig 2003b). Grande area, using the Alaska Pack extension to ArcView 3.3 (Alaska Region 2005). 4.17.4 Condition and trend The selection universe overlapped slightly Since 2000, feldwork at Bandelier NM has onto the neighboring Santa Fe National examined the infuence of browsing by elk Forest and Valles Caldera National Pre- on aspen sprouts and other woody shrubs serve. The crew visited additional randomly within the park’s mixed conifer forests (Fet- selected sites outside of Bandelier NM in tig 2002b, Fettig 2003a, and Fettig 2003b). order to evaluate any potential similarities Results have shown widespread browsing of or diferences for the efects of browsing regenerating aspen sprouts. In 2002, feld- vegetation adjacent to the park. These sites work on randomly selected burned plots were specifcally located on Mesa del Rito documented a clear decline in the density of and Sawyer Meadow. regenerating sprouts within multiple aspen clones covering a total area of 8.3 ha (20 ac). In 2006, a study took place in which a crew The sprout density has declined from an of 3–4, spaced out approximately 10-75 m estimated 6,000–8,000 stems/ha (2400-3200 apart to cover the target area and identify stems/ac) to fewer than 300 stems/ha (120 refuges, visually surveyed the high elevations stems/ac) with the mean stem height less (areas of approximately 2000 m or more, or than 0.5 m (1.6 ft) and all sprouts browsed. approximately 8,800 or more ft). Refuges are Such a low sprout density with 100% brows- defned as places where woody shrubs and ing during the growing season, and no aspen saplings are being protected from un- live canopy-height trees means that clone gulate browse. These refuges or safe zones survival is questionable. An additional 10.1 (Turner et al. 2003) consisted primarily of ha (25 ac) of regenerating aspen have simi- fallen trees, rocks, and other natural ob- lar stem heights but densities are over 6,000 stacles which inhibit ungulates from reaching stems/ha (2430 stems/ac). These higher stem the young trees. densities suggest that near-term clone survival is not in question, even with no sprouts

4 Natural Resource Conditions 159 able to reach tree size due to browsing. From moisture levels (Beschta et al. 2012; also see these observations we expect that some Appendix G, ecological impacts of grazing aspen clones have a relatively high chance of by livestock), thus perhaps exacerbating the declining in spatial extent over the next few impacts of warmer summers on stressed veg- years. In other places the prognosis for clone etation and related animal communities. survival is good, even while aspen sprouts are not able to grow into trees. 4.17.7 Sources of expertise Craig Allen, Stephen Fettig 4.17.5 Level of confdence Our level of confdence is high for this 4.17.8 Literature cited analysis—the data are spatially robust and Alaska Region GIS Team. 2005. AlaskaPak supported by photographs which can be Extension for ArcView3.x available for re-examined. free download from . 4.17.6 Data gaps/Research needs/ Management recommendations Allen, Craig D. 1996. Elk Response to the Additional observations of shrubs not pro- La Mesa Fire and Current Status in ducing seed or fruits in burned and browsed the Jemez Mountains. Pages 179-195 settings leads to a management question, in Craig D. Allen technical editor, “What is the spatial distribution of woody Fire efects in southwestern forests: shrubs able to reproduce under the current Proceedings of the Second La Mesa level of elk browsing?” Fire Symposium; 1994 March 29-31; Los Alamos New Mexico. General Managers should stay informed on Chronic Technical Report RM-GTR-286, 216 Wasting Disease (CWD). CWD afects the pp. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department brain tissue of infected elk and is similar of Agriculture, Rocky Mountain Forest in symptoms to bovine spongiform en- and Range Experiment Station. cephalopathy (BSE), commonly known as mad-cow disease (MCD). There is yet no Bailey, V. 1931. Mammals of New Mexico. evidence to conclude that elk CWD is trans- United States Department of mutable to humans, and research concerning Agriculture Bureau of Biological Survey CWD efect on the ecosystem is underway. North American. Fauna No. 53. 412 pp. As of 2010, environmental and Chronic Beschta, R. L., and B. L. Donahue, D. A. Wasting Disease problems in Estes Park, DellaSala, J. J. Rhodes, J. R. Karr, M. Colorado and on a greater scale throughout H. O’Brien, T. L. Fleisehner, and C. D. the Western U.S. and North America have lo- Williams. 2012. Adapting to Climate cal, state, and federal policy-makers search- Change on Western Public Lands: ing for solutions. Addressing the Ecological Efect of Domestic, Wild, and Feral Ungulates. 4.17.6.1 Management considerations in Environmental Management DOI the face of climate change 10.1007/s00267-012-9964-9. At their current densities within Bandelier NM and the Valles Caldera National Pre- Fettig, Stephen M. 2001. Aspen Observations serve, elk are likely to inhibit some vegeta- from the Western Jemez Mountains, tion responses to climate change by reduc- New Mexico. Manuscript (Summary ing tree establishment and shrub growth. Version) dated November 2001. Although the interaction efects of ungulate Author’s fles, Bandelier National browsing with vegetation responses to Monument, Los Alamos, New Mexico climate change are not well understood, the 87544. 9pp w/ map and 28 color photos. removal of vegetative biomass by elk may increase soil temperatures and decrease soil Fettig, Stephen M. 2002a. Aspen

160 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Observations from the Western Jemez Manuscript dated November 4, 2003. Mountains, New Mexico. Manuscript Author’s fles, Bandelier National (Summary Version) dated October Monument, Los Alamos, New Mexico 2002. Author’s fles, Bandelier National 87544. 2pp w/ map and 3 bar graphs. Monument, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87544. 10pp w/ map and 22 color Krantz, D. J. 2001. Browsing inventory, photos. elk observations, and other wildlife observations on the Valles Caldera Fettig, Stephen M. 2002b. Browsing is National Preserve. Unpublished report Limiting Aspen Sprout Heights in 2001 to the Valles Caldera Trust dated and 2002. Manuscript dated October December 31, 2001. 74pp. 11, 2002. Author’s fles, Bandelier National Monument, Los Alamos, New Ludt C. J. L., W. Schroeder, O. Rottmann, Mexico 87544. 3pp w/ 4 bar graphs. and R. Kuehn. 2004. Mitochondrial DNA phylogeography of red deer Fettig, Stephen M. 2003a. Variations in (Cervus elaphus). Molecular Shrub Re-growth Across the Southern Phylogenetics and Evolution End of the Cerro Grande Burn. In 31:1064-1083 Proceedings of the Seventh Symposium of Biological Research in the Jemez Turner, M. G., W. H. Romme, and D. B. Mountains, New Mexico, Thursday, Tinker. 2003. Surprises and Lessons February 27, 2003 Symposium. Author’s from the 1988 Yellowstone fres. Front. fles, Bandelier National Monument, Ecol. Environ. 1(7):351-358. Los Alamos, New Mexico 87544. 2pp Weisberg, Sanford. 1985. Applied Linear w/ map and 22 color photos. Regression, Second Edition. John Wiley Fettig, Stephen M. 2003b. Summary of & Songs, Inc., New York. ISBN #0-471- Browsing on Aspen by Elk, 2001-2003. 87957-6. 324pp.

4 Natural Resource Conditions 161 Biological Integrity • Species of Man- ter survival of pikas has been shown to be agement Concern strongly dependent on the amount and quality of food collected and stored for the winter (Dearing 1997, Morrison et al. 2009). 4.18 American Pika 4.18.1 Description Pikas have an unusually high resting body temperature. This adaptation allows them to 4.18.1.1 Ecology survive cold temperatures at high elevations, American pikas (Ochotona princeps) are small but also requires that they avoid behaviors lagomorphs (rabbit family) that are distribut- and/or environments that could lead to over- ed across most of the high altitude regions of heating (Smith 1974). Consequently both western North America. There are currently seasonal and diurnal behaviors are related fve recognized subspecies of O. princeps. O. to temperature. At lower elevation (warmer) p. saxatilis, the Goat Peak pika, is endemic sites, collecting and storing food for winter to the Jemez Mountains, and is marginally (called haying) begins earlier in the season found at (or closely adjoining) Bandelier and lasts later into the fall, (thus avoiding NM (Hafner and Smith 2010). A diferent the hottest periods of the summer), and species, the collared pika, O. collaris, ranges daily activity during warmer mid-day hours from southeast Alaska to northwestern is reduced compared to at higher elevations Canada and is not sympatric with O. princeps. (Smith 1974, Moyer-Horner 2010). Pikas inhabit talus felds and felsenmeers (felds of broken surface rocks) located 4.18.1.2 Threats and status near low-stature grasses and forbs. Such While pikas do occupy low elevation and sites are located near or above tree-line in anthropogenic sites, such as mine tail- alpine habitats. However, the Goat Peak pika ing piles and rock quarries (Beever et al. is found in felsenmeers well below alpine 2008, Simpson 2009, Rodhouse et al. 2010, zones and often with trees adjacent to the Manning and Hagar 2011), it is largely ac- felsenmeers. Pikas do not dig burrows, but cepted that the availability of appropriate rely on existing spaces between and under habitat strongly determines pika distribu- rocks for homes. However, they can enlarge tion (Hafner 1994). The contraction of the their homes by digging. Pikas require rocky pika’s range with general warming during habitat near forage plants, and have specifc the Holocene left isolated populations at temperature requirements. They are gener- high elevations separated by uninhabitable ally restricted to cool, moist habitats at high areas (Grayson 2005, Galbreath et al. 2009). elevations. However, in the northern portion Though pikas are relatively poor dispersers of their range they may be found near sea across non-suitable areas (Smith 1974, Aho level. et al. 1998, Jefress et al. 2013), until recently the dynamics of source-sink habitats and Found primarily above 1,600 m, pikas do not metapopulations apparently sustained pikas hibernate and spend much of the relatively across their range (Hafner 1994, Molainen et short, high-altitude summer foraging and al. 1998, Kreuzer and Huntly 2003). stockpiling vegetation for winter use in ‘haypiles’ (Conner 1983, Dearing 1996). Interacting, multiple efects of climate Plant types selected for haypiles can be change (e.g. declining precipitation, higher distinctly diferent from plants immediately temperatures, reduced snowfall), now ap- consumed—summer foods appear to be pear to be reducing the number of sites that chosen in relation to fowering times and support pikas in some places (Smith 1974, nutritional value (Smith 1974, Huntly et al. Molainen et al. 1998, Kreuzer and Huntly 1986), while plants collected for storage are 2003, Beever et al. 2003, Morrison and Hik often high in phenols which can function 2007, Beever et al. 2011, Erb et al. 2011, as preservatives (Dearing 1996). Overwin- Stewart and Wright 2012, Jefress et al. 2013).

162 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Pika distribution is shrinking as a result, not warranted, and that, based on existing (Beever et al. 2003, Wolf et al. 2007, Calkins climate and other models applied in their et al. 2012; though see Millar and Westfall analysis (specifcally Ray et al. 2010), there 2010a, Millar and Westfall 2010b, and Wolf was not a threat to the species or the any 2010 for discussion). subspecies now or in the foreseeable future (USFWS 2010). Pikas are found across the high mountain ranges of southern Colorado and Utah and As far as is known there are no available northern New Mexico in appropriate talus population estimates from any pika popula- habitat (Hafner 1994). In the Jemez Moun- tions within the Jemez Mountains. Likewise tains they occur in most rocky areas above presence/absence monitoring has not been about 8,800 ft, including areas of the Valles conducted for sites that have previously been Caldera National Preserve and Bandelier identifed as occupied. NM (Valles Caldera National Preserve [VCNP] 2013, Allen 1989, Hathcock et al. 4.18.2 Reference conditions 2011). The Southern Colorado Plateau Net- Pikas are present at unknown population work (SCPN) mammal inventory noted pika levels within Bandelier NM. sign in 2003 and observed individual pikas in 2004 at high elevations on Cerro Grande 4.18.3 Data and methods (Bogan et al. 2007). As far as is known there have been sporadic observations that indicate the presence of A petition to list American pikas as endan- pika in the park in the past. gered or threatened within the Endangered Species Act was submitted to the U.S. Fish 4.18.4 Condition and trend and Wildlife Service (USFWS) in 2007 by the New Mexico’s Comprehensive Wildlife Center for Biological Diversity (CBD; Wolf et Conservation Strategy (CWCS) lists O. p. al. 2007). CBD described rising temperatures saxatilis as a subspecies of greatest conser- resulting from global climate change as the vation need, as well as vulnerable and state primary threat to pika persistence. Increased sensitive (New Mexico Department of Fish summer temperatures as a result of climate and Game [NMDGF] 2006), and Beever and change may have the potential to adversely Smith (2008) have assigned O. p. saxatalis a afect some lower and mid-elevation pika status of vulnerable. Largely as a response populations of Ochotona princeps princeps, to climate change threats, NPS has initiated O. p. fenisex, O. p. schisticeps and O. p. saxatilis pika monitoring and research as a unique in the foreseeable future; however, this does program (‘Pikas in Peril’) within the NPS not equate to a signifcant portion of the Inventory and Monitoring Program (Garret suitable habitat for any of the fve subspecies et al. 2011). or the species collectively. American pika can tolerate a wider range of temperatures Persistence of O. p saxatilis populations and precipitation than previously thought within New Mexico and across the south- (Millar and Westfall 2009, p. 17). The Ameri- ern Rocky Mountains appears to be good can pika has demonstrated fexibility in its (Colorado Division of Wildlife [CDOW] behavior, such as using cooler habitat below 2009, Utah Division of Wildlife [UDW] the surface to escape hotter summer daytime 2009), though density and trend data are not temperatures, and physiology that can allow available for populations in New Mexico it to adapt to increasing temperature (Smith (NMDGF 2009, U.S. Forest Service [USFS] 2009, p. 4). Cooler temperatures below the 2009). Rock and grassland habitats where talus surface can provide favorable thermal this species breeds at Bandelier NM are at conditions for pika survival below relatively low risk in the foreseeable future, even in warm surface environments. In 2010 US- the face of regional drying and increased fre FWS determined that listing at any level was frequencies. Furthermore, any behavioral

4 Natural Resource Conditions 163 adaptions to increased summer temperature, J. Mamm. 84:37–54. such as reducing activity during the warmest part of summer days, may be compen- Beever, E. A., and A. T. Smith. 2008. sated for by increased length of the growing Ochotona princeps. In: IUCN 2009. season or frost-free days. However, based on IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. other status reviews (Beever and Smith 2008; Version 2009.1. www.iucnredlist.org. NatureServe 2009), further monitoring may Beever, E. A., J. L. Wilkening, D. E. McIvor, be wise for O. p. saxatilis in the Jemez Moun- S. S. Weber, and P. F. Brussard. 2008. tains of New Mexico to obtain information American pikas (Ochotona princeps) on the current status of this population of in northwestern Nevada: a newly the subspecies. discovered population at a low- elevation site. Western North American 4.18.5 Level of confdence Naturalist 68:8–14. The level of confdence for this analysis is high. Beever, E.A., C.Ray, J.L. Wildening, P.F. Brussard and P.W. Mote. 2011. 4.18.6 Data gaps/Research needs/ Contemporary climate change alters the Management recommendations pace and drivers of extinction. Global During SCPN’s vital signs development, the Change Biology 17:2054–2070. monitoring of high elevation or “boreal” mammals was considered, but not selected. Bogan, M. A., K. Geluso, S. Haymond, and E. No demographic rate information or popula- W. Valdez. 2007. Mammal Inventories tion size information is available for pikas at for Eight National Parks in the Southern Bandelier NM. Currently there is no infor- Colorado Plateau Network. Natural mation that would suggest local populations Resource Technical Report NPS/ of pikas are at risk; however studies in other SCPN/NRTR-2007/054. National Park areas have shown that populations can dis- Service, Fort Collins, Colorado. appear without physical changes to habitat. Calkins, M. T., E.A. Beever, K.G. Boykin, J.K. Monitoring of the Goat Peak pika (O. p. saxa- Frey, and M.C. Andersen. 2012. Not-so- tilis) at Bandelier NM could provide helpful splendid isolation: modeling climate- information to regional land managers. mediated range collapse of a montane mammal Ochotona princeps across 4.18.7 Sources of expertise numerous ecoregions. Ecography, Stephen Fettig 35:780–791.

4.18.8 Literature cited Conner, D.A. 1983. Seasonal changes in Allen, C. D. 1989. Changes in the Landscape activity patterns and the adaptive of the Jemez Mountains, New Mexico. value of haying in pikas (Ochotona Ph.D. dissertation. University of princeps). Canadian Journal of Zoology California at Berkeley. 346pp. 61:411–416.

Aho, K. N. Huntly, J. Moen, and T. Oksanen. Colorado Division of Wildlife (CDOW). 1998. Pikas (Ochotona princeps: 2009. Status evaluation of American Lagomorpha) as allogenic engineers pika (Ochotona princeps) in in an alpine ecosystem. Oecologia Colorado. Data for use by USFWS 114:405–409. 12-month status review. Public Submission to the 90-Day Finding on Beever, E. A., P. F. Brussard and J. Berger. a Petition To List the American Pika 2003. Patterns of apparent extirpation as Threatened or Endangered with among isolated populations of pikas Critical Habitat. Submission FWS-R6- (Octotona princeps) in the Great Basin. ES-2009-0021-0023.2 26 pp.

164 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Dearing, M. D. 1996. Disparate determinants of grazing versus haying. J. Mamm. 67: of summer and winter diet selection 139–148. of a generalist herbivore, Ochotona princeps. Oecologia 108:467–478. Kreuzer Jr, M. P. and N. J. Huntly. 2003. Habitat-specifc demography: evidence Dearing, M. D. 1997. The function of for source-sink population structure haypiles of pikas (Ochotona princeps). in a mammal, the pika. Oecologia Journal of Mammalogy 78:1156-1163. 134:343–349.

Erb, L.P., C. Ray, and R. Guralnick. 2011. On Jefress, M.R., J. Apel, L. K. Garrett, G. the generality of a climate-mediated Holm, D. Larson, N. Nordensten, and shift in the distribution of the American T. J. Rodhouse. 2011. Monitoring the pika (Ochotona princeps). Ecology American pika (Ochotona princeps) in 92:1730–1735. the Pacifc West Region - Crater Lake National Park, Craters of the Moon Galbreath, K. E., D. J. Hafner and K. R. National Monument and Preserve, Zamudio. 2009. When cold is better: Lassen Volcanic National Park, and climate-driven shifts yield complex Lava Beds National Monument: patterns of diversitifcaiton and Narrative Version 1.0. Natural Resource demography in an alpine specialist Report NPS/UCBN/NRR—2011/336. (America pika, Ochotona princeps). National Park Service, Fort Collins, Evolution 63: 2848–2863. Colorado.

Garrett, L., M. Jefress, M. Britten, C. Epps, Jefress, M.R., T. J. Rodhouse, C.R., C. Ray, and S. Wolf. 2011. Pikas in Peril: S.Wolf, and C.W. Epps. 2013. The Multiregional vulnerability assessment idiosyncrasies of place: geographic of a climate-sensitive sentinel species. variation in the climate-distribution Park Science 28:1,3,16–17,95. relationships of the American pika. Grayson, D. K. 2005. A brief history of Great Ecological Applications 23:864-878. Basin pikas. Journal of Biogeography Manning, T. and J. C. Hagar. 2011. Use of 32:2103–2111. nonalpine anthropogenic habitats by Hafner, D. J. 1994. Pikas and Permafrost: American pikas (Ochotona princeps) Post-Wisconsin Historical in western Oregon. Western North Zoogeography of Ochotona in the American Naturalist 71:106–112. Southern Rocky Mountains, U.S.A. Millar, C. I. and R. D. Westfall. 2010a. Arctic and Alpine Research 26:375–382. Distribution and climatic relationships Hafner, D. J. and A. T. Smith. 2010. Revision of the American pika (Ochotona of the subspecies of the American pika, princeps) in the Sierra Nevada and Ochotona princeps (Lagomorpha: western Great Basin, USA; periglacial Ochotonidae). J. Mamm. 91: 401–417 landforms as refugia in warming climates. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Hathcock, C. D., L. A. Hansen and D. Research 42:76–88. C. Keller. 2011. Sensitive Species Best Management Practices Source Millar, C. I. and R. D. Westfall. 2010b. Document, updated November 2011. Distribution and Climatic Relationships Los Alamos National Laboratory, of the American Pika (Ochotona LA-UR-11-06406. princeps) in the Sierra Nevada and Western Great Basin, USA; Periglacial Huntly, N.J., A.T. Smith and B.L. Ivins. Landforms as Refugia in Warming 1986. Foraging behavior of the pika Climates. Reply. Arctic, Antarctic, and (Ochotona princeps), with comparisons Alpine Research 42:493–496.

4 Natural Resource Conditions 165 Moilanen, A., I. Hanski and A .T. Smith. Simpson, W. G. 2009. American pikas inhabit 1998. Long-term dynamics in a low-elevation sites outside the species’ metapopulation of the American pika. previously described bioclimatic The American Naturalist 152:530–542. envelope. Western North American Naturalist 69:243–250. Morrison, S. F. and D. S. Hik. 2007. Demographic analysis of a declining Smith, A. T. 1974. The distribution and pika (Ochotona collaris) population: dispersal of pikas: Infuences of linking survival to broad‐scale climate behavior and climate. Ecology patterns via spring snowmelt patterns. 55:1368–1376. Journal of Animal Ecology 76:899–907. Stewart, J. A. E. and D. H. Wright. 2012. Morrison, S. F., G. Pelchat, A. Donahue, Assessing persistence of the American and D. S. Hik. 2009. Infuence of food pika at historic localities in California’s hoarding behavior on the over-winter Northern Sierra Nevada. Wildlife survival of pikas in strongly seasonal Society Bulletin, 36:759–764. environments. Oecologia 159:107–116. Stock, A.D. 1970. Notes on mammals Moyer-Horner, L. 2010. American pika of Southwestern Utah. J. Mamm. (Ochotona princeps) monitoring 51:429–433. and model development in Glacier National Park, Montana. University of US Fish and Wildlife Service. 2010. Wisconsin - Madison, WI. Published Endangered and threatened wildlife Report-2165554. and plants; 12-month fnding on a petition to list the American pika as NatureServe. 2009. NatureServe Explorer: threatened or endangered; proposed An online encyclopedia of life [web rule, 50 CFR Part 17. Federal Register application]. Version 7.1. NatureServe, 75, no. 26:6438–6471. Arlington, Virginia. Available online http://www.natureserve.org/explorer. Utah Division of Wildlife (UDW). 2009. The status of the American pika in Utah, New Mexico Department of Fish and Game 2008 – Draft Report. 23pp. (NMDFG). 2006. Comprehensive wildlife conservation strategy for New US Forest Service (USFS). 2009. Public Mexico. Santa Fe, New Mexico. 526 Submission to the 90-Day Finding on pp + appendices. a Petition to List the American Pika as Threatened or Endangered with Critical Ray, A.J., J. J. Barsugli, K. Wolter and J. Habitat. Submission. Received July 6, Eischeid. 2010. Rapid Response 2009 6pp. Climate Assessment to Support the FWS Status Review of the American Valles Caldera National Preserve. 2013. 2012 Pika. Unpublished report prepared by State of the Preserve. Unpublished the NOAA Earth Systems Research report to the Valles Caldera Trust, Laboratory, Univ. Colorado, Boulder. 258pp.

Rodhouse, T. J., E.A. Beever, L. K. Garrett, Wolf, S., B. Nowicki, and K. Siegel. 2007. K. M. Irvine, M. R. Jefress, M. Munts Petition to list the American pika and C. Ray. 2010. Distribution of (Ochotona princeps) as threatened or American pikas in a low-elevation lava endangered under the United States landscape: conservation implications Endangered Species Act. Center for from the range periphery. J. Mamm. Biological Diversity, San Francisco, 91:1287–1299. California, USA.

166 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Wolf, S.G. 2010. Distribution and climatic relationships of the American pika (Ochotona princeps) in the Sierra Nevada and Western Great Basin, USA; periglacial landforms as refugia in warming climates. Comment. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 42:490t492.

4 Natural Resource Conditions 167 Biological Integrity • Species of Man- and in the early morning hours and rest in agement Interest their dens during the day. They appear to be adept at conserving energy, often sliding along snowbanks and mudfats in a fashion Note: In contrast to Species of Management that appears playful but is most likely sim- Concern, Species of Management Interest ply an efcient means of travel. Otters do are not directly managed by monument man- not hibernate and are active throughout the agers, but have been of recurring interest by winter, when they feed and travel under the internal or external conservation partners ice. Breeding occurs throughout the winter in recent decades. They are reviewed here to beginning in December, and small litters of summarize early or more recent discussions. 1-3 pups are born between February and April. 4.19 River Otters River otters occur in the Rio Grande, but are 4.19.1.2 Distribution not managed by Bandelier staf. They do not River otters historically ranged across North inhabit the internal streams of Bandelier NM America, including Canada and all U.S. and were not observed in the most recent states (except Hawaii). Otter populations mammal survey of the monument (Bogan et were decimated by the cumulative efects of al. 2007). fur trapping, habitat loss (stream and river impoundments) and water pollution, and 4.19.1 Description were extirpated from Colorado and most of 4.19.1.1 Biology the Rocky Mountain and plains states by the The river otter (Lontra canadensis ) is a early 20th century (Boyle 2006). relatively large member of the weasel family (Mustelidae), with a combined body and tail 4.19.1.3 Status length of between 90 and 140 cm (3–4.5 ft). Otters are considered a Sensitive Species by River otters are much larger than American the USFS throughout Region 2 (includes mink (Neovison vison), the only other aquatic Colorado). River otters have no other federal carnivore in Colorado, and much smaller status, though NPS considers them a species than beaver (Castor Canadensis; Rodentiae) of concern. The principle threats to river with whom they are often sympatric. An otters in Colorado are habitat destruction, adult river otter weighs between 5–14 kg particularly water development eforts that (11–31 lb). Males have been known to range result in stream fow and channel morphol- up to 50 miles. Females typically stay within ogy alteration, water pollution, and human three to 10 miles of their den. settlement and recreational use along rivers and lakes (Boyle 2006). River otters are well-adapted to freshwater habitats and cold climates—webbed feet According to the International Union of with non-retractable claws facilitate swim- Conservation of Nature (IUCN, 2009) popu- ming, capturing live prey and living in dens, lations of otters currently occur in 1) the Rio a long, tapered tail propels the animal in the San Pedro of Chihuahua, a tributary of the water, and two layers of fur provide critical Rio Conchos entering the Rio Grande from insulation. All otters are carnivorous. River the southeast, 2) the upper Rio Grande near otters are primarily fsh-eaters, but will also the Colorado/New Mexico border, and 3) consume a variety of other small prey, such the middle Pecos River in southeastern New as crayfsh, birds and small mammals. Mexico, which enters the Rio Grande from the west. These observations are corrobo- Otters occasionally construct dens, but more rated by multiple observations by competent commonly inhabit existing cavities in areas observers, and in the case of the frst popu- adjacent to calm waters, particularly beaver lation, otter photos and sign. These popu- dens. Otters forage mostly during twilight lations are centered in areas with macro-

168 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment habitats characterized by a river fowing The Upper Rio Grande was chosen as the frst ot- through deep canyons or ancillary wetlands. ter release site because of its reliable water fows, Considerably more detailed survey work good food sources and relatively undisturbed is needed to determine the full extent of habitat with little human activity. Adjacent the distribution of otters in the Rio Grande lands are controlled by the U.S. Bureau of Land drainage. A genetic study is critically needed Management and Taos Pueblo, both supporters to determine the true taxonomic afliation of otter restoration. A feasibility study conducted of these recently discovered populations. A by the New Mexico River Otters Working Group moratorium on translocations should be put and the Department of Game and Fish identifed in place for the Rio Grande to conserve the six suitable release sites: the Upper Rio Grande, native populations already existing. the Rio Grande in White Rock Canyon, the Rio Chama from El Vado Dam to Abiquiu Lake, 4.19.1.4 River otter re-introduction efforts the Upper Gila River, Lower Gila River and the in New Mexico Lower San Francisco River. In 2006, the State Excerpt from D. Williams. Restoration Game Commission approved the study and begins in Rio Grande Basin in New Mexico directed the Department to initiate eforts to Wildlife Vol. 53, No. 4, Winter 2008-2009. restore otters in the Upper Rio Grande and the Gila River.” “On Oct. 14, the magic of six federal and state agencies, one Indian Pueblo, several conserva- “If future releases around the state are successful, tion organizations and many individuals came limited trapping of otters may be possible,” Stu- together with New Mexico’s frst release of wild art said. River otters currently are not on federal river otters. It was the frst time anyone had seen or state endangered or threatened species lists. “ a wild otter in New Mexico waters since 1953, when one was caught in a Gila River beaver “In New Mexico, otters are considered protected trap”…. furbearers with no take allowed,” he said. “It’s quite possible that at a future date that we could River otters are highly social, playful, semi- see a harvest, but we’ll have to wait and see.” aquatic members of the weasel family. They are believed to have once inhabited the Gila, He said historic records indicate otters were upper and middle Rio Grande, Mora, San not numerous enough in New Mexico to Juan and Canadian river systems. Early set- provide trappers a good income. tlers occasionally mentioned otters in their In 1931, mammalogist Vernon Bailey, chief journals, but references were infrequent, naturalist for the U.S. Bureau of Biologi- leading biologists to speculate that otter cal Survey, noted in his book, “Mammals populations were small. In 2004, scat and of New Mexico,” (1931) that otters were tracks discovered in Navajo Lake indicated a too uncommon to be of any marketing few otters have migrated south from Colo- importance. rado, one of many states that have reintroduced otters in the past 30 years. Whether New Mexico’s river otter population ever reaches the numbers required to Jim Stuart, the New Mexico Department support limited hunting and trapping will of Game and Fish mammalogist, said river depend upon the initial success of the New otters have thrived almost everywhere Mexico Friends of River Otters. The group they have been reintroduced (personal is one of the state’s largest, most diverse and communication). dedicated organizations formed to support “Putting otters in the Rio Grande Basin will be a a single species. Members include Amigos good learning experience while we consider put- Bravos, Taos Pueblo, Earth Friends Wild ting more in the Gila, and possibly other rivers,” Species Fund, New Mexico Wildlife Federa- Stuart said. “Right now we don’t know how tion, Center for Biological Diversity, Defend- many otters the Rio Grande system can support. ers of Wildlife, Four Corners Institute, Rio

4 Natural Resource Conditions 169 Grande Chapter of the Sierra Club, Upper 4.19.8 Literature cited Gila Watershed Alliance, and the U.S. Bureau Bailey, V. 1931. Mammals of New Mexico. of Land Management. Melissa Savage, a United States Department of member of the New Mexico Friends of River Agriculture Bureau of Biological Survey Otters, said the group is keeping its goals North American. Fauna No. 53. 412 pp. modest for now. “Our target is 60 otters—30 in the Rio Grande and 30 in the Gila,” she Bogan, M. A., K. Geluso, S. Haymond, and E. said. “We think that’s what it will take to re- W. Valdez. 2007. Mammal Inventories ally get them started.” ’ for Eight National Parks in the Southern Colorado Plateau Network. Natural 4.19.2 Reference conditions Resource Technical Report NPS/ River otters occur intermittently in the Rio SCPN/NRTR-2007/054. National Park Grande today and forage in Bandelier NM. Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.

Due to the lack of sufciently large fsh Boyle, S. (2006, September 2). North populations as a food source. river otters American River Otter (Lontra most likely would not persist in the internal canadensis): a technical conservation streams of the monument. assessment. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Region. Available: 4.19.3 Data and methods http://www.fs.fed.us/r2/projects/scp/ See Bogan et al. 2007 assessments/northamericanriverotter. pdf.

4.19.4 Condition and trend Polechla Jr., P .J. and E. Carrillo-Rubio. 2009. River otters are making a remarkable come- Historic and current distributions of back in many parts of their original range in river otters (Lontra Canadensis) and the U.S. (Lontra longicaudis) in the Rio Grande or Rio Bravo del Norte drainage of 4.19.5 Level of confdence Colorado and New Mexico, USA and Level of confdence for this analysis is high. of Chihuahua, Mexico and adjacent areas. IUCN Otter Spec. Group Bull. 4.19.6 Data gaps/Research needs/ 26(2). Management recommendations No recommendations at this time. Williams, D. 2009. Otter recovery on track: Restoration begins in Rio 4.19.7 Sources of expertise Grand Basin. New Mexico Wildlife. Stephen Fettig Available at http://www.wildlife. state.nm.us/download/publications/ wildlife-news/Volume_53-Number_4- Winter-2008_2009.pdf

170 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Biological Integrity • Species of Man- 4.20.4 Condition and trend agement Interest Canada lynx are not present at Bandelier NM and there are no verifed observations 4.20 Lynx for the park. 4.20.1 Description 4.20.5 Level of confdence Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis) feed pre- The level of confdence for this analysis of dominantly on snowshoe hares (Lepus the condition and trend of Canada lynx at americanus). They will also eat rodents and Bandelier NM is very high. birds, and sometimes hunt larger prey, such as deer. Like many cats, they will eat carrion 4.20.6 Data gaps/Research needs/ when it is available. They hunt both by am- Management recommendations bush and by actively seeking out prey, vary- No management action is recommended. ing their tactics depending on the available prey species. The lack of any documented 4.20.7 Sources of expertise snowshoe hare observations in the Jemez Stephen Fettig Mountains means that the presence of any sustained population of Canada lynx would 4.20.8 Literature cited be highly unlikely. Bailey, V. 1931. Mammals of New Mexico. Until one radio collared animal from Colo- United States Department of rado wondered onto the Valles Caldera, Agriculture Bureau of Biological Survey Canada lynx had never been documented in North American. Fauna No. 53. 412 pp. the Jemez Mountains (Bailey 1931). Bogan, M. A., K. Geluso, S. Haymond, and E. W. Valdez. 2007. Mammal Inventories 4.20.2 Reference conditions for Eight National Parks in the Southern There are no faunal records indicating that Colorado Plateau Network. Natural lynx occurred in the Bandelier NM land- Resource Technical Report NPS/ scape during historic or prehispanic times. SCPN/NRTR-2007/054. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado. 4.20.3 Data and methods n/a

4 Natural Resource Conditions 171 Biological Integrity • Species of Man- 1933). However, pre-Hispanic era popula- agement Interest tions are hypothesized to have been more widespread than recent historical account- ing. In 2004, there were an estimated total of 4.21 Bighorn Sheep 950 Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep among 4.21.1 Description three alpine and three low-elevation popula- Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep (Ovis tions. In 2004 all three alpine populations canadensis canadensis) occupy open, moun- were estimated to be > 100, and each of tainous habitat, either above timberline, or in the three low-elevation populations were open canyons and slopes below forests and estimated to be < 100. Populations with more woodlands. The species is characterized by than 100 bighorn sheep have an increased low reproductive rates, long life spans, and probability of long-term persistence (Berger populations that can be bottom-up regu- 1990) in New Mexico. lated by nutritional constraints (i.e., populations are limited by food availability) or Two of three alpine populations are current- top-down limited by predation (i.e., popula- ly at carrying capacity and require trapping tions are limited primarily by mountain lion and removal to keep herds below carrying predation). capacity (Hacker et al. 2000). Declines in the three low-elevation populations in New In the past 20 years, the state of New Mexico Mexico are associated with habitat loss has made two attempts to start an interagen- resulting from fre suppression and live- cy planning process for reintroduction of stock grazing (Huddleston-Lorton 2000), bighorn sheep into White Rock Canyon. The increased predation from mountain lions New Mexico Department of Game and Fish (Puma concolor) (Ahlm 2001, Huddleston- (NMDGF) assessed the post-Las Conchas Lorton 2000, Rominger and Dunn 2000), Fire landscape in the vicinity of Cochiti Can- train-strike kills (NMDGF fles), and dis- yon and determined that post-fre vegetation ease (Ahlm 2001). Other factors infuencing conditions were favorable for reintroduction bighorn sheep populations include: recre- of bighorn sheep. An introduction location ation use, roads, fences, exotic ungulates, was selected that was reasonably distant poor range conditions, feral dogs, and illegal from suburban sites and entirely within the harvest. boundary of the Santa Fe National Forest (SFNF), thus avoiding the interagency and Bighorn sheep have been extirpated from domestic animal interaction issues that have Bandelier NM. The species is known characterized previous reintroduction ef- through scientifc and archeological evi- forts. Acting under a permit issued by SFNF, dence to have existed in the park in historic the department released ffty Rocky Moun- and prehistoric times. Based on one skull in tain bighorn sheep into Cochiti Canyon in the Smithsonian Museum, the population of August 2014, captured from a high-elevation bighorn sheep in White Rock Canyon at the Sangre de Cristo population. Introduced ani- time of collection may have been intermedi- mals represented a range of ages, both male ate in physical form between rocky mountain and female. NMDGF will monitor this new and desert bighorn sheep. population closely in coming years using their standard protocols. 4.21.2 Reference conditions Bighorn sheep were rare and concentrated Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep are thought on rocky steep slopes within White Rock to have never been widespread in New Canyon. Mexico, with historical evidence for just four populations in Wheeler Peak, Pecos Wilder- 4.21.3 Data and methods ness, White Rock Canyon, and Manzano/ See Ahlm (2001). Los Pinos Mountains (Bailey 1931, Leopold

172 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment 4.21.4 Condition and trend New Mexico State University, Las Rocky Mountain sheep were extirpated from Cruces. 67pp. Bandelier NM around 1890. The NMGF reintroduced them into Cochiti Canyon in Bailey, V. 1931. Mammals of New Mexico. August 2014, and continues to monitor the United States Department of population’s status.. Agriculture Bureau of Biological Survey North American. Fauna No. 53. 412 pp.

4.21.5 Level of confdence Berger, J. 1990. Persistence of diferent-sized The level of confdence for the condition and populations: an empirical assessment trend of Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep in of rapid extinctions in bighorn sheep. the monument is very high. Conservation Biology 4:91-98.

4.21.6 Data gaps/Research needs/ Hacker, W. D., E. M. Rominger, W. C. Management recommendations Dunn, and T. G. Velasquez. 2000. Based on discussions during the 1990s, there Management options for Rocky are many non-biological considerations to Mountain bighorn sheep populations contemplate in any consideration of put- at carrying capacity. Page 133 in ting bighorn sheep back into White Rock Transactions of the 2nd North Canyon. American Wild Sheep Conference. April 6-9, 1999, Reno, NV. 470pp. NMDGF will have the primary responsibility for preventing nose-to-nose contact between Huddleston-Lorton, R. 2000. Habitat wild sheep and domestic sheep and goats, changes and visual obscurity in a unregulated hunting, and predation manage- low elevation population of Rocky ment. Bandelier NM may need to establish Mountain bighorn sheep (Ovis MOUs with American Indian pueblos to canadensis canadensis) in southwestern clarify what access tribes would have to ani- New Mexico. M. S. Thesis. New mal parts (if any) for religious use. Mexico State University, Las Cruces. 29 pp. Recommendations 1. The state of New Mexico needs to take a Leopold, A. 1933. Memorandum on leading role in any establishment efort be- mountain sheep. U. S. Forest Service, cause they are in control of all source popu- Southwestern Region. New Mexico lations of bighorn sheep in New Mexico. Department Game and Fish fles, Santa Fe, NM. 1pp. 2. In the 1990s, potential impacts from bighorn sheep browsing were identifed as an Rominger, E. M. and W. C. Dunn. 2000. issue. This topic needs to be examined again Reducing mountain lion predation on in the light of fre-related habitat changes bighorn sheep in four New Mexico and expected warmer and dryer summers in mountain ranges: A study design. New the future. Mexico Department of Game and Fish Unpublished Report. 17pp. 4.21.7 Sources of Expertise Stephen Fettig

4.21.8 Literature cited Ahlm, M. 2001. Distribution and demographics of Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis canadensis) in the San Francisco River Drainage, New Mexico. M. S. Thesis,

4 Natural Resource Conditions 173 Ecosystem Patterns and Processes • impacts on wildlife (as opposed to inputs Soundscape such as overfights; Barber et al. 2011, New- man et al. 2014). Road noise can alter animal 4.22 Natural Sounds behavior, movement patterns, ability to fnd prey, and breeding processes (Reijnen and 4.22.1 Description Foppen 2006, Bee and Swanson 2007, Barber Soundscapes are generally defned as the et al. 2011, Siemers and Schaub 2011), while total amount of ambient noise in an area, noises associated with energy development measured in terms of frequency and ampli- are often incessant, causing increased levels tude (decibels; Ambrose and Burson 2004). of chronic stress for animals near these sites Because national parks are often (perhaps (Bayne et al. 2008, Barber et al. 2009, Francis wistfully) considered ‘islands’ of quiet et al. 2011b, Blickley et al. 2012, Souther et (Lynch et al. 2011, Miller 2008), NPS has al. 2014). Some species are able to adapt to been working for several decades to establish long-term additions of noise in their envi- baseline conditions and develop measuring ronment but others are not (Barber et al. and monitoring methods for soundscapes 2010). Research further suggests that due to in national parks (Miller et al. 2008). Simi- the complex nature of sounds and the fact lar to the topic of light pollution, however, that impacts at individual and population soundscapes have primarily been addressed scales translate up to ecosystem and pro- in relation to visitor experiences (Rogers cess levels, ambient and pulsed noise levels and Sovick 2001, Sovick 2001, Miller 2008, perceived by wildlife should be addressed at Lynch et al. 2011) with relatively little atten- multiple spatial and temporal scales (Slab- tion given to ecological and landscape-scale bekoorn and Halfwerk 2009, Barber et al. impacts of anthropogenic noise (Barber et al. 2011, Dumyahn and Pijanowski 2011a and 2011, Francis and Barber 2013). b). ‘Soundscape ecology’ is an emerging feld 4.22.2 Reference Conditions within landscape ecology that attempts NPS policies direct that the absence of to connect ecological processes with hu- anthropogenic noise be the baseline against man and natural sounds at landscape scales which impacts are measured, though there (Dumyahm and Pijanowski 2011b, Pijan- are places where human-generated noise is owski et al. 2011, Traux and Barrett 2011). appropriate for the given purpose of a park When evaluated ecologically, the impacts of (e.g. battle re-enactments at Gettysburg; anthropogenic sounds are most commonly Lynch et al. 2011). However, because the considered in terms of efects on wildlife. primary cultural resource protection mis- (Marine studies are abundant, but herein sion of Bandelier NM is to preserve a period only terrestrial systems will be discussed.) of human occupation wherein human noise For example, studies have demonstrated the was minimal, aside from occasional perfor- negative impacts of human-generated noise mances or demonstrations, natural quiet on birds (Dooling and Popper 2007, Slab- should be considered the reference condi- bekoorn and Ripmeester 2008, Francis et al. tion for visitor experiences. Given the rela- 2009, Francis et al. 2011a), bats (Schaub et al. tive absence of information on the efects of 2008), rodents (Shier et al. 2012), frogs (Bar- noise on wildlife, measurements of anything ber et al. 2010, Bee and Swanson 2007), and over natural sounds should be considered invertebrates (Morley et al. 2014). Human ecologically undesirable. noise is perhaps most detrimental to prey species because it can both mimic predator 4.22.3 Data and methods sounds and mask them (Landon et al. 2003, Methods for measuring and monitoring Chan et al. 2010, Brown et al. 2012). sound are well-established; however, these The presence of roads and energy develop- are objective measures only, without a con- ment facilities appear to have the greatest text of relevance to wildlife impacts (Miller

174 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment et al. 2008, Villanueva-Rivera et al. 2011). Barber, J.R., K.M. Fristrup, C.L. Brown, In terms of human perception, a relatively A.R. Hardy, L.M. Angeloni and K.R. high level of information on the local sound- Crooks. 2010. Conserving the wild life scape has been collected at the park, with therein: protecting park fauna from methods described in Newman et al. (2014) anthropogenic noise. Park Science and White (2014). Data collection methods 26:26-31. included on- and of-site instruments as well as visitor surveys. As far as is known Barber, J.R., C.L. Burdett, S.E. Reed, K.A. there have been no studies investigating the Warner, C.Formichella, K.R. Crooks, impacts of anthropogenic noise on wildlife D.M. Theobald and K.M. Fristrup. at Bandelier NM. 2011. Anthropogenic noise exposure in protected natural areas: estimating 4.22.4 Condition and trend the scale of ecological consequences. Bandelier NM is a relatively very quiet place, Landscape Ecology 26:1281-1295. but the most common sources of noise at Bayne, E. M., L. Habib, and S. Boutin. 2008. the park are aircraft overfights and vehicles Impacts of chronic anthropogenic (White (2014). Nothing is known regarding noise from energy-sector activity on the ecological impacts of noise at any loca- abundance of songbirds in the boreal tion in the park nor, the trend in noise levels forest. Cons. Bio. 22:1186–1193. across any time period. Bee, M. A., and E. M. Swanson. 2007. 4.22.5 Level of onfdence Auditory masking of anuran the level of confdence for this analysis is low advertisement calls by road trafc to moderate. noise. Animal Behav. 74:1765–1776.

4.22.6 Data gaps/Research needs/ Blickley, J.L., D. Blackwood, and G.L. Management ecommendations Patricelli. 2012. Experimental evidence Data collected by White (2014) in 2012 could for the efects of chronic anthropogenic serve as a baseline against which to measure noise on abundance of greater future noise levels, though again there is no sagegrouse at leks. Conservation information on wildlife impacts from condi- Biology 26:461-471. tions measured in 2012. Brown, C.L., A.R. Hardy, J.R. Barber, K.M. Fristrup, K.R. Crooks and L.M. 4.22.7 Sources of Expertise Angeloni. 2012. The efect of human White, C. L. 2014. Bandelier National Monu- activities and their associated noise on ment: Acoustic monitoring report. Natural ungulate behavior. PlosOne 7: e40505. Resource Technical Report NPS/NRSS/ NRTR—2014/844. National Park Service, Chan, A. A.Y., P. Giraldo-Perez, S. Smith, and Fort Collins, Colorado. D.T. Blumstein. 2010. Anthropogenic noise afects risk assessment and 4.22.8 Literature cited attention: the distracted prey Ambrose, S. and S. Burson. 2004. hypothesis. Biology Letters 6: 458-461. Soundscape studies in national parks. George Wright Forum 21:29-38. Dooling R. J. and A. N. Popper. 2007. The efects of highway noise on Barber, J.R., K.R. Crooks and K.M. Fristrup. birds. Report to the California 2009. The costs of chronic noise Department of Transportation, contract exposure for terrestrial organisms. 43A0139. California Department Trends in Ecology and Evolution of Transportation, Division of 25:180-189. Environmental Analysis, Sacramento, California, USA.

4 Natural Resource Conditions 175 Dumyahn, S.L. and B.C Pijanowski. 2011a. 281:20132683. Soundscape conservation. Landscape Ecol. 26:1327-1344. Newman, P., B.D. Taf, D. Weinzimmer, J. Newton and C. Leslie. 2014. Dumyahn, S.L. and B.C Pijanowski. Soundscape social science survey for 2011b. Beyond noise mitigation: air tour management and soundscape managing soundscapes as common- planning at Bandelier National pool resources. Landscape Ecol. Monument. Natural Resource 26:1311-1326. Technical Report NPS/BAND/NRTR— 2014/845. National Park Service, Fort Francis, C.D., C.P. Ortega, and A. Cruz. Collins, Colorado. 2009. Noise pollution changes avian communities and species interactions. Pijanowski, B.C., L.J. Vllanueva-Rivera, S.L. Current Biology 19:1415-1419. Dumyahn, A. Farina, B.L. Krause, B.M. Napoletano, S.H. Gage and N. Pieretti. Francis, C.D., C.P. Ortega and A. Cruz. 2011. Soundscape ecology: the science 2011a. Noise pollution changes avian of sound in the landscape. Bioscience communities and species interactions. 61:203-216. Current Biology 19:1415-1419;DOI 10.1016/j.cub.2009.06.052. Reijnen, R. and R.U.U.D. Foppen. 2006. Impact of road trafc on breeding Francis, C.D., J. Paritsis, C.P. Ortega and A. bird populations. In The ecology of Cruz. 2011b. Landscape patterns of transportation: managing mobility for avian habitat use and nest success are the environment, pp. 255-274. Springer afected by chronic gas well compressor Netherlands, 2006. noise. Landscape Ecol. 26:1269-1280. Rogers, J. and J. Sovick. 2001. Let There Be Francis, C.D. and J.R. Barber. 2013. Dark: The National Park Service and A framework for understanding the New Mexico Night Sky Protection noise impacts on wildlife: an urgent Act. George Wright Forum 18:37-45. conservation priority. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment Schaub, A., J. Ostwald, and B. M. Siemers. 11:305-313. 2008. Foraging bats avoid noise. Journal of Experimental Biology Landon, D. M., P. R. Krausman, K. K. 211:3174–3180. G. Koenen, and L. K. Harris. 2003. Pronghorn use of areas with varying Shier, D. M., A. J. Lea, and M. A. Owen. sound pressure levels. Southwestern 2012. Beyond masking: Endangered Naturalist 48:725–728. Stephen’s kangaroo rats respond to trafc noise with footdrumming. Lynch, E., D. Joyce and K. Fristrup. 2011. Biological Conservation 150:53-58. An assessment of noise audibility and sound levels in U.S. National Parks. Siemers, B.M. and A. Schaub. 2011. Landscape Ecol. 26:1297-1309. Hunting at the highway: trafc noise reduces foraging efciency in Miller, N.P. 2008. U.S. National Parks and acoustic predators. Proceedings of the management of park soundscapes: A Royal Society B: Biological Sciences review. Applied Acoustics 69:77-92. 278:1646-1652.

Morley, E.L., G. Jones, and A.N. Radford. Slabbekoorn, H. and W. Halfwerk. 2009. 2014. The importance of invertebrates Behavioural ecology: noise annoys when considering the impacts of at community level. Current Biology anthropogenic noise. Proceedings of 19:R693-R695. the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

176 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Slabbekoorn, H. and E.A. Ripmeester. Truax, B. and G.W. Barrett. 2011. 2008. Birdsong and anthropogenic Soundscape in a context of acoustic noise: implications and applications and landscape ecology. Landscape for conservation. Molecular Ecology Ecology 26:1201-1207. 17:72-83. Villanueva-Rivera, L. J., B.C. Pijanwski, J. Souther, S., M.W. Tingley, V.D. Popescu, Doucette and B. Pekin. 2011. A primer D.T.S. Hayman, M.E. Ryan, T.A. of acoustic analysis for landscape Graves, B. Hartl, and K. Terrell. 2014. ecologists. Landscape Ecology Biotic impacts of energy development 26:1233-1246. from shale: research priorities and knowledge gaps. Frontiers in Ecology White, C. L. 2014. Bandelier National and the Environment 12:330-338. Monument: Acoustic monitoring report. Natural Resource Technical Sovick, J. 2001. Toward an appreciation of Report NPS/NRSS/NRTR—2014/844. the dark night sky. The George Wright National Park Service, Fort Collins, Forum18:4-15. Colorado.

4 Natural Resource Conditions 177 Air and Climate • Air Quality above natural conditions (NPS-ARD 2014).

4.23.2.2 Ozone 4.23 Air Quality Ozone is formed when nitrogen oxides from 4.23.1 Background vehicles, power plants, and other combus- tion sources combine with volatile organic The Clean Air ActT (CAA) requires that the compounds from gasoline, solvents, and air quality of national parks and ‘…other vegetation in the presence of sunlight. The areas of special national or regional natural, National Ambient Air Quality Standard recreational, scenic or historic value be pre- (NAAQS) for ozone is set by the U.S. Envi- served and protected’ (42 U.S.C. §7470(2)). ronmental Protection Agency (EPA), and The CAA further designates 48 NPS units, is based on human health efects. The NPS including Bandelier NM, as “Class 1” areas, ARD recommends a benchmark for good where special protections are provided for ozone condition of 60 parts per billion (ppb) air quality and scenic views. Consequently, or less, which is 80% of the human health- managers of Class 1 areas are required by based NAAQS (NPS-ARD 2013). the CAA as well as the Title 54 (54 USC 100101(a) et seq.), commonly known as the In addition to being a concern for the health NPS Organic Act, and Management Policies of park staf and visitors, long-term expo- to protect these values. The greatest exist- sures to ground-level ozone can cause injury ing threats to maintaining good air quality to ozone-sensitive plants . The W126 metric at Bandelier NM include regional and local is a biologically relevant measure that focus- sources of air pollution, such as power es on plant response to ozone exposure and plants, oil and gas development, industrial is a better predictor of vegetation response facilities, agriculture, urban developments, than the metric used for the human health and wild fre (NPS-ARD 2014). standard. The W126 preferentially weighs the higher ozone concentrations most likely 4.23.2 Reference conditions to afect plants and sums all of the weighted The NPS Air Resources Division (ARD) concentrations during daylight hours. The focuses on four indicators to evaluate air highest 3-month period that occurs during quality conditions and trends in national the growing season is reported in “parts per parks: visibility, ozone, nitrogen and sulfur million-hours” (ppm-hrs). The NPS ARD deposition, and mercury and toxics deposi- recommends a W126 of < 7 ppm-hrs to pro- tion. Benchmarks have been established tect most sensitive trees and vegetation. using regulatory standards and best available scientifc evidence. 4.23.2.3 Sulfur and Nitrogen Sulfur (S) and nitrogen (N) compounds 4.23.2.1 Visibility in the air can deposit into ecosystems and Visibility is a human-centered concept that cause acidifcation, excess fertilization (eu- can also be valuable for assessing ecological trophication), and changes in soil and water impacts because it indirectly measures pol- chemistry (Allen and Geiser 2011). lutant particles in the atmosphere from both Nitrogen, together with sulfur, can also natural and human-caused sources. The acidify surface waters and soils, which can CAA established a national goal to return result in changes in community structure, visibility to “natural conditions” in Class I biodiversity, reproduction, and decomposi- areas, which are those conditions estimated tion (Bobbink et al. 2010; De Schrijver et al. to exist in a given area in the absence of 2011). NPS ARD recommends a nitrogen or human-caused visibility impairment. Vis- sulfur wet deposition of less than 1 kilogram ibility is often measured using deciview (dv) per hectare per year (kg/ha/yr) as condition metric measures, and ARD recommends that to protect sensitive ecosystems (Ellis et al. mid-range visibility days should be < 2 dv 2013; NPS-ARD 2013).

178 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment 4.23.2.4 Mercury and toxics ity identifed above, data from national air Mercury and other toxic pollutants (e.g., quality monitoring networks were reviewed pesticides, dioxins, PCBs) accumulate in the and 5-year averages (2008–2012) were calcu- food chain and can afect both wildlife and lated for monitoring sites with at least 3 years human health (Eagles-Smith et al. 2014). of complete annual data. The Inverse Dis- High mercury concentrations in birds, mam- tance Weighted (IDW) interpolation method mals, and fsh can result in reduced foraging was then used to estimate 5-year average efciency, survival, and reproductive success. values for all locations in the contiguous U.S. Other toxic air contaminants of concern The condition for Bandelier NM is the value include pesticides (e.g., DDT), industrial by- derived from this national analysis at the products like PCBs, and emerging chemicals, geographic center of the park. The estimated such as fame retardants for fabrics (PBDEs). 5-year averages (conditions) for the park These pollutants enter the environment from were compared to established benchmarks historically contaminated soils, current day to be assigned one of three status categories: industrial practices, and air pollution. ● Warrants Signifcant Concern, The ARD does not currently assess the ● Warrants Moderate Concern, or condition for mercury, as condition thresholds for mercury deposition have not been ● Resource is in Good Condition. established. Environmental conditions play 4.23.3.3 Visibility a signifcant role in the potential for mercury Visibility conditions are measured using to accumulate in the food chain. Therefore, Haze Index in deciviews (dv). Annual aver- the ARD recommended condition, once age measurements for visibility on mid-range developed, will take into account physical, days (40th to 60th percentile) were aver- chemical, and biological parameters. aged over a 5-year period (2008–2012) and subtracted from the estimated natural vis- 4.23.3 Data and Methods ibility condition on mid-range days at each 4.23.3.1 Condition methods Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Air quality status assessments are based on Environments (IMPROVE) monitoring site. current conditions compared to NPS ARD The diference between current visibility and benchmarks for specifc measures of visibil- natural visibility conditions on mid-range ity, ozone, and atmospheric deposition. NPS days were interpolated for all IMPROVE ARD uses six specifc measures for three locations with an Inverse Distance Weighted indicators to summarize current air quality (IDW) estimation method to estimate 5-year conditions at the park (Table 4-10). average values for the contiguous U.S. The estimated current visibility condition for 4.23.3.2 Overview Bandelier NM is the value derived from this For each of the specifc measures of air qual- national analysis at the geographic center

Table 4-10. National Park Service indicators of air quality and specifc measures. The W126 metric is a biologically relevant measure that focuses on plant response to ozone exposure.

Indicator of air quality Specifc measure Visibility Visibility on mid-range days minus natural visibility condition on mid-range days Ozone Human health: 4th-highest daily maximum 8-hour concentration Vegetation health: 3-month maximum 12-hour W126 Atmospheric deposition Sulfur wet deposition Nitrogen wet deposition

4 Natural Resource Conditions 179 of the park. A resulting condition greater the value derived from this national analy- than 8 dv is assigned a Warrants Signifcant sis at the geographic center of the park. A Concern status. A current visibility condition resulting condition greater than 13 ppm-hrs from 2–8 dv is assigned Warrants Moderate is assigned a Warrants Signifcant Concern Concern status. Resource is in Good Condi- status. A current ozone condition from 7–13 tion if the current visibility condition is less ppm-hrs is assigned Warrants Moderate than 2 dv. Concern status. Resource is in Good Condi- tion if the current ozone condition is less 4.23.3.4 Ozone than 7 ppm-hrs. Current condition for human health risk 4.23.3.5 Atmospheric deposition from ozone is measured using the 4th-high- Conditions of atmospheric deposition are est daily maximum 8-hour ozone concen- based on wet deposition in kilograms per tration in parts per billion (ppb). Annual hectare per year (kg/ha/yr) only because dry 4th-highest daily maximum 8-hour ozone deposition data are not available for most concentrations were averaged over a 5-year areas. Wet deposition for sites within the period (2008–2012) at all Clean Air Status contiguous U.S. was calculated by multiply- and Trends Network (CASTNET) and Air ing nitrogen or sulfur concentrations in Quality System (AQS) monitoring sites. For precipitation by a normalized precipitation 5-year average calculations, annual ozone amount. Annual nitrogen and sulfur wet de- data must meet a 75% data completeness position measurements were averaged over criterion, meaning that there must be 115 or a 5-year period (2008–2012) at all National more valid days within a year. Five-year aver- Atmospheric Deposition Program – National ages were interpolated for all ozone moni- Trends Network (NADP-NTN) monitoring toring locations with an IDW estimation sites. Five-year averages were interpolated method to estimate 5-year average values for for all atmospheric deposition monitoring the contiguous U.S. The estimated current locations with an IDW estimation method to ozone condition for human health risk at estimate 5-year average values for the con- Bandelier NM is the value derived from this tiguous U.S. The estimated current nitrogen national analysis at the geographic center of and sulfur condition for the monument is the the park. A resulting condition greater than value derived from this national analysis at or equal to 76 ppb is assigned a Warrants the geographic center of the park. A resulting Signifcant Concern status. A current ozone condition greater than 3 kg/ha/yr is assigned condition from 61–75 ppb is assigned War- a Warrants Signifcant Concern status. A rants Moderate Concern status. Resource current nitrogen or sulfur condition from is in Good Condition if the current ozone 1–3 kg/ha/yr is assigned Warrants Moderate condition is less than 2 ppb. Concern status. Resource is in Good Condi- Current condition for vegetation health risk tion if the current nitrogen or sulfur condi- from ozone is measured using the maximum tion is less than less than 1 kg/ha/yr 3-month 12-hour W126 in parts per mil- 4.23.3.6 Trend methods lion hours (ppm-hrs). Annual maximum Trends were computed from data collected 3-month 12-hour W126 were averaged over over a 10-year period at on-site monitors. a 5-year period (2008–2012) at all Clean Air Trends were calculated for sites that have at Status and Trends Network (CASTNET) least 6 years of annual data and an annual and Air Quality System (AQS) monitoring value for the fnal year of the 10 year period, sites. Five-year averages were interpolated i.e. 2012. for all ozone monitoring locations with an IDW estimation method to estimate 5-year 4.23.3.7 Visibility average values for the contiguous U.S. The Visibility trends were computed from the estimated current ozone condition for Haze Index values on the 20% haziest days vegetation health risk at Bandelier NM is and the 20% clearest days, consistent with

180 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment visibility goals in the Clean Air Act, which in- dv), and falls within the moderate concern clude improving visibility on the haziest days category. On the haziest days, visual range and allowing no deterioration on the clearest has been reduced from approximately 120 days. If the Haze Index trend on the 20% miles (without the efects of human caused clearest days was deteriorating, the overall pollution) to 60 miles because of human visibility trend was reported as deteriorat- caused pollution at the park. Severe haze ing. Otherwise, the Haze Index trend on the episodes can occasionally reduce visibility 20% haziest days was reported as the overall to approximately 4 miles (IMPROVE 2013). visibility trend. Visibility monitoring data During the last decade (2003−2012), visibility were retrieved from the BAND IMPROVE improved on the clearest days and remained monitor (BAND1). relative unchanged on the haziest days at the BAND IMPROVE monitor (BAND1) 4.23.3.8 Ozone (NPS-ARD 2014). However, visibility on the Typically, annual 4th-highest daily maximum clearest days appears to have deteriorated 8-hour average ozone concentrations (ppb) over the last three years (2010–2012). and maximum 3-month 12-hour W126 are used to calculate 10-year trends for ozone. 4.23.4.2 Ozone However, no trend information was available Current condition for human health risk for Bandelier NM because there were not from ozone at Bandelier NM does not sufcient on-site or nearby ozone monitor- meet the ARD recommended benchmark ing data. condition. The estimated 4th-highest daily maximum 8-hour ozone concentration from 4.23.3.9 Atmospheric deposition 2008−2012 is at 66.1 ppb and falls within the Wet deposition trends were evaluated using moderate concern status category (NPS- pollutant concentrations in precipitation ARD 2014). Bandelier NM lies within Los (micro equivalents/liter) so that yearly varia- Alamos and Sandoval counties that meet tions in precipitation amounts do not infu- the NAAQS ozone standard of an 8-hour ence trend analyses. average concentration of 75 parts per billion (ppb). For this reason, these counties are For sulfur wet deposition trends, sulfate con- EPA-designated “attainment” area for ozone. centrations measured in precipitation were trended over a 10-year period. For nitrogen Current condition for vegetation health risk wet deposition trends, total nitrogen in from ozone warrants moderate concern precipitation was estimated using molecular status category based on estimated W126 weight ratios to calculate the nitrogen por- metric of 11.3 ppm-hrs for 2008−2012 tions of nitrate and ammonium. The result- (NPS-ARD 2015). A risk assessment that ing ratios were summed to estimate total considered ozone exposure, soil moisture, nitrogen concentration in precipitation and and sensitive plant species concluded that trended over a 10-year period. Wet deposi- plants in the park were at low risk of foliar tion monitoring data were retrieved from ozone injury (Kohut 2007; Kohut 2004); BAND NADP monitor (NM07). however, estimated ozone concentrations and cumulative doses at the park are high 4.23.4 Resource condition and trend enough to induce foliar injury to sensitive vegetation under certain conditions (Binkley 4.23.4.1 Visibility et al. 1997). The visibility condition at Bandelier NM does not meet the ARD recommended 4.23.4.3 Sulfur and nitrogen benchmark for good condition. Based on Sulfur deposition is in good condition and 2008−2012 estimated visibility data, visibility nitrogen deposition condition warrants on mid-range days at the monument was 3.8 moderate concern at Bandelier NM in ac- dv above estimated natural conditions (3.0 cordance with ARD benchmarks. During

4 Natural Resource Conditions 181 the period of study (2008–2013), estimated goal. The estimated maximum 2010–2012 wet sulfur deposition at the park was 0.8 kg/ average for total nitrogen deposition in ha/yr and estimated wet nitrogen deposition the North American Deserts ecoregion of was 1.9 kg/ha/yr (NPS-ARD 2014). During Bandelier NM was 2.6 kg/ha/yr and 4.5 kg/ the last decade (2003−2012), the trend in ha/yr in the Northwestern Forested Moun- wet sulfur and nitrogen deposition in rain tains ecoregion (NADP 2014). Therefore, and snow remained relatively unchanged (no total deposition levels in the park are below statistically signifcant trend) at the BAND ecosystem critical loads in the North Ameri- NADP monitoring station (NM07) (NPS- can Deserts ecoregion and above ecosystem ARD 2014). critical loads in the Northwestern Forested Mountain ecoregion, suggesting that in Nitrogen deposition at Bandelier NM is at some parts of the park, lichen, forest, and levels known to afect diversity of plants and herbaceous vegetation are at risk for harmful lichens (Pardo et al. 2011), and ecosystems efects. in the park were rated as having high sensitivity to nutrient-enrichment efects relative 4.23.4.4 Mercury and other toxins to other NPS units (Sullivan et al. 2011a; Landers et al. (2008) detected airborne Sullivan et al. 2011b). Plants in arid ecosys- toxics in passive air samples and vegetation tems such as Bandelier NM are particularly (lichen, conifer needles) at Bandelier NM. vulnerable to changes caused by nitrogen Compared with concentrations at all 20 deposition; for example, invasive grasses western national parks, concentrations de- tend to thrive in areas with elevated nitro- tected in the park’s air sampler were near the gen deposition, displacing native vegeta- median. Pesticides detected included both tion adapted to low nitrogen conditions current-use and historic-use. Baker (2013) (Brooks 2003; Schwinning et al. 2005; Allen also detected persistent toxic compounds, et al. 2009). The 2011 Las Conchas Fire such as DDT, in the park soils at levels that at Bandelier NM burned over 75% of the may pose a health risk to humans and wild- Frijoles Canyon watershed, further impact- life, including fsh. The predicted concentra- ing the park’s waterways and susceptibility tions of methylmercury (the toxic, bioavail- to acidifcation and nutrient enrichment. In able form of mercury) in surface waters at addition, weed density is known to increase the park are moderate, as compared to other in post-fre environments with higher soil N NPS units (USGS 2015). levels (Floyd-Hanna et al. 2004).

In addition to assessing wet deposition lev- 4.23.5 Level of confdence els, critical loads can also be a useful tool in The degree of confdence in the condition determining the extent of deposition im- and trends of visibility at Bandelier NM is pacts (i.e., nutrient enrichment) to park re- high because there is an on- site visibility sources. A critical load is defned as the level monitor. The degree of confdence in the of deposition below which harmful efects to condition and trends of ozone at the park is the ecosystem are not expected. medium because there is not an on-site or nearby representative ozone monitor with Pardo et al. (2011) suggested a critical load of enough data to calculate a trend. The degree 3.0−8.4 kilograms nitrogen per hectare per of confdence in the condition and trends year (kg N/ha/yr) to protect lichen and her- of sulfur and nitrogen at the park is high baceous vegetation in the North American because there is an on-site wet deposition Deserts ecoregion; and 2.5−17.0 to protect monitor. lichen, forest, and herbaceous vegetation in the Northwestern Forested Mountains 4.23.6 Data gaps/Research needs/ ecoregion. To maintain the highest level of Management recommendations protection in the park, the lower end of this Data and planning priorities for improving range would be an appropriate management air quality at Bandelier NM include:

182 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment ● continued support for existing in-park Brooks, M.L. 2003. Efects of increased soil air quality monitoring; nitrogen on the dominance of alien ● increased monitoring of ozone; annual plants in the Mojave Desert. Journal of Applied Ecology 40:344–353. ● additional support for monitoring air quality and mitigating impacts during Bobbink, R., K. Hicks, J. Galloway, T. wildfre events; Spranger, R. Alkemade, M. Ashmore, ● applied research to better understand air M. Bustamante, S. Cinderby, E. pollution impacts on sensitive park eco- Davidson, F. Dentener, B. Emmett, systems, including the potential impact J-W. Erisman, M. Fenn, F. Gilliam, A. of mercury and other toxics; Nordin, L. Pardo, and W. De Vries. 2010. Global assessment of nitrogen ● continued management direction that deposition efects on terrestrial plant emphasizes eforts to protect air quality diversity: a synthesis. Ecological and minimize impacts to biota; Applications 20:30–59.

4.23.7 Sources of expertise De Schrijver, A., P. De Frenne, E. Ampoorter, Colleen Flanagan Pritz, Ecologist, Air Re- L. Van Nevel, A. Demey, K. Wuyts, and sources Division: 303-969-2806 K. Verheyen. 2011. Cumulative nitrogen Ksienya Pugacheva, Natural Resource Spe- input drives species loss in terrestrial cialist: 303-969-2524 ecosystems. Global Ecology and Biogeography 20:803-816.

4.23.8 References Eagles-Smith, C. A., J. J. Willacker, and C. Allen, E.B. and L.H. Geiser. 2011. North M.Flanagan Pritz. 2014. Mercury in American Deserts. In L.H. Pardo, M.J. fshes from 21 national parks in the Robin-Abbott and C.T. Driscoll (Eds.). Western United States—Inter and intra- Assessment of Nitrogen Deposition park variation in concentrations and Efects and Empirical Critical Loads of ecological risk: U.S. Geological Survey Nitrogen for Ecoregions of the United Open-File Report 2014-1051, 54 p. States. General Technical Report NRS-80. U.S. Forest Service, Newtown Ellis, R. A., D. J. Jacob, M. P. Sulprizio, L. Square, PA. pp. 133-142. Available at: Zhang, C. D. Holmes, B. A. Schichtel, http://nrs.fs.fed.us/pubs/38109. T. Blett, E. Porter, L. H. Pardo, and J. A. Lynch. 2013. Present and future Baker, M. Jr, Inc. 2013. Final DDT nitrogen deposition to national parks Investigation Report for Frijoles in the United States: critical load Canyon Visitors Center Maintenance exceedances. Atmospheric Chemistry Area, Bandelier National Monument. and Physics 13:9083-9095. Environmental Surveillance and Legacy Contaminants. Bandelier National Floyd-Hanna, L., D. Hanna, W.H. Romme, Monument. Published Report-2193483. T. Crews. 2004. Non-native invasions following fre in Southwestern Binkley, D., C. Giardina, I. Dockersmith, Colorado: Long-term efectiveness D. Morse, M. Scruggs, K. Tonnessen. of mitigation treatments and future 1997. Status of Air Quality and Related predictions. Joint Fire Science Program, Values in Class I National Parks and product number 1496–BLM2–454. Monuments of the Colorado Plateau. National Park Service, Air Resources Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Division, Denver, Colorado. Chapter Environments [IMPROVE]. 2013. 4: Bandelier National Monument. Improve Summary Data. Available at Available at http://nature.nps.gov/air/ http://vista.cira.colostate.edu/improve/ pubs/pdf/reviews/cp/CP4band. pdf. Data/IMPROVE/summary_data.htm.

4 Natural Resource Conditions 183 Kohut, R.J. 2007. Ozone risk assessment Air Quality Status and Trends for for Vital Signs Monitoring Networks, Park Planning and Assessments. Appalachian National Scenic Trail, and National Park Service, Denver, Natchez Trace National Scenic Trail. Colorado. Available at http://www. NPS/NRPC/ARD/NRTR—2007/001. nature.nps.gov/air/Planning/docs/AQ_ National Park Service, Fort Collins, ConditionsTrends_Methods_2013.pdf. Colorado. Available at: https://irma.nps. National Park Service, Air Resources gov/App/Reference/DownloadDigitalFi Division. 2014. Air and Scenic le?code=152846&fle=OzoneRiskAsses Resources Summary for Planning sment_NRTR2 007_001.pdf. Documents of Bandelier National Monument. Resource Brief-2220769. Kohut R.J. 2004. Ozone risk assessment for Available at: https://irma.nps.gov/App/ Southern Colorado Plateau Network. Reference/Profle/2220769. National Park Service. Fort Collins, Colorado. Available at: https://irma.nps. NPS-ARD. “Air Quality Conditions & gov/App/Reference/DownloadDigitalFi Trends by NPS Units: Bandelier NM, le?code=442216&fle=scpnO3RiskO 2012 End Year.” National Park Service. ct04.pdf. Denver, CO. Accessed February 26, 2015. http://www.nature.nps.gov/air/ Landers, D. H., Simonich, S. M., Jafe, data/products/parks/index.cfm. D. A., Geiser L. H., Campbell, D. H., Schwindt, A. R., Schreck, C. B., National Park Service [NPS]. 2000. Results Kent, M. L., Hafner, W. D., Taylor, of 1999 ozone injury surveys at Bryce H. E., Hageman, K. J., Usenko, S., Canyon NP, Cedar Breaks NM and Ackerman, L. K., Schrlau, J. E., Zion NP. Memorandum. Available Rose, N. L., Blett, T. F., and Erway, at /irma.nps.gov/App/Reference/ M. M. 2008. The Fate, Transport, Profle/581126. and Ecological Impacts of Airborne Contaminants in Western National Pardo, L.D., M.J. Robin-Abbott, C.T. Parks (USA). EPA/600/R—07/138. U.S. Driscoll, eds. 2011. Assessment Environmental Protection Agency, of nitrogen deposition efects and Ofce of Research and Development, empirical critical loads of nitrogen for NHEERL, Western Ecology Division, ecoregions of the United States. Gen. Corvallis, Oregon. Available at http:// Tech. Rep. NRS-80. Newtown Square, www.nature.nps.gov/air/studies/ PA. air_toxics/WACAPreport.cfm. National Schwinning, S., B.I. Starr, N.J. Wojcik, M.E. Atmospheric Deposition Program Miller, J.E. Ehleringer, R.L. Sanford. [NADP]. 2014. Total Deposition Maps 2005. Efects of nitrogen deposition v2014.02. Available at: http://nadp.sws. on an arid grassland in the Colorado uiuc.edu/committees/tdep/tdepmaps. plateau cold desert. Rangeland Ecology November 3, 2014. and Management. 58: 565–574.

National Park Service, Air Resources Sullivan, T.J., G.T. McPherson, T.C. Division [NPS-ARD]. 2014. Air McDonnell, S.D. Mackey, D. Moore. and Scenic Resources Summary for 2011a. Evaluation of the sensitivity Planning Documents of Bandelier of inventory and monitoring national National Monument. Resource parks to acidifcation efects from Brief-2220769. Available at: https:// atmospheric sulfur and nitrogen irma.nps.gov/App/Reference/ deposition: main report. Natural Profle/2220769. Resource Report NPS/NRPC/ARD/ [NPS-ARD. 2013. Methods for Determining NRR—2011/349. National Park

184 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment Service, Denver, Colorado.

Sullivan, T.J., G.T. McPherson, T.C. McDonnell, S.D. Mackey, D. Moore. 2011b. Evaluation of the sensitivity of inventory and monitoring national parks to nutrient enrichment efects from atmospheric nitrogen deposition: main report. Natural Resource Report NPS/NRPC/ARD/NRR—2011/313. National Park Service, Denver, Colorado.

U.S. Geological Survey [USGS]. Last modifed February 20, 2015. “Predicted surface water methylmercury concentrations in National Park Service Inventory and Monitoring Program Parks”. U.S. Geological Survey. Wisconsin Water Science Center, Middleton, WI. Accessed February 26, 2015. http://wi.water.usgs.gov/mercury/ NPSHgMap.html.

4 Natural Resource Conditions 185

Chapter 5: Toward Ecosystem Integrity in a Warmer Drier Future: Don’t Panic!

5.1 State change century levels of soil erosion were much For centuries, people living and working higher than in the past, likely a reverbera- within the current boundaries of Bandelier tion efect from historic grazing. Following National Monument (NM) have both driven, the recognition of pervasive and accelerated and responded to, landscape change. Since erosion rates, managers initiated the pion- the transfer of the land to National Park juniper ecological restoration efort, which Service management, that fact has remained treated large portions of the low elevation the same. Heavy grazing prior to and during mesa tops within Bandelier NM (see section early federal management of Bandelier initi- 4.06-1 Pion-Juniper Erosion). ated fre exclusion across most of the monument. Combined with a policy of active fre In recent decades Bandelier resource manag- suppression and the timing of favorable wet ers have shifted management philosophy to- climate windows, land managers were able to ward trying to preserve processes and basic manage ecosystem processes and temporar- ecological capital to foster incremental land- ily create an artifcial semblance of stability scape adaptation to changing conditions; the across much of the landscape for most of the pion-juniper woodland restoration project 20th century. is a strong example of this approach. Be- cause of historical human intervention prior The fragility of this fabricated state became to the park’s establishment, many keystone apparent when historical ecologists recon- ecosystem processes and species are miss- structed fre histories from local sources and ing or declining (see section Plant Species found that, at least since the 1500s until the of Management Concern). Events like the 1890s, fres were frequently burning across early 2000s pion mortality and the 2011 the Jemez Mountains, including on the Las Conchas Fire have caused widespread Bandelier NM. These frequent, low sever- and rapid ecosystem state change that have ity fres, left behind open forests with grassy forced Bandelier land mangers into a reactive understories (see section 4.01 Fire History & stance. Ecology). Following an ecosystem state change, many Fire exclusion has promoted dramatic organisms strongly associated with or depen- increases in upland forest density and fuel dent on particular vegetation communities loading during the early and mid-20th cen- are at risk, as these systems reorganize into tury. Subsequently, large and severe crown new states, degrade, and/or become more fres have burned over large areas, con- limited in extent, even though new eco- verting many forested areas into savannas, system conditions will beneft some set of shrublands, or grasslands. Large patch sizes current and/or new species. The post-distur- of high-severity burn areas may preclude bance ecosystems (e.g., treeless landscapes) natural tree seed recruitment for centuries, may follow successional trajectories that while shrub and grass understories, which result in characteristics and processes that now dominate many sites, will reinforce difer from the pre-disturbance ecosystem type conversion through altered disturbance (e.g., forested landscapes), ranging from dif- regimes. ferent habitat availabilities and fre regimes to altered hydrologic properties. Manage- Surveys of archaeological site conditions, ment intervention may be required to shift along with intensive ecohydrological re- the post-disturbance trajectories away from search near the ancestral pueblo of Frijolito, undesirable landscape conditions. At Bande- provided evidence of other widespread lier NM, where more than half of the park landscape changes by revealing that late 20th

5 Toward Ecosystem Integrity in a Warmer Drier Future 187 is congressionally-designated as wilderness, (Monahan and Fisichelli 2014; Appendix A). any such management actions would need The ecological responses to recent climate to be considered within the context of the change efects have been so profound that park’s legislated purpose and with regard to they likely constitute tipping points for wilderness values. many vegetation communities; i.e., the sort of ecological system changes anticipated in Many ecological systems within the monu- response to predicted patterns of warming ment are currently at high risk of rapid and drying in the American Southwest, and system shifts away from historical condi- beyond. tions due to cumulative impacts of recent drought-insect-fre-food disturbance and Future climate projections for the Southwest, ongoing climate warming. These risks are including Bandelier NM, have been gener- not spatially homogenous and the efects of ated from multi-model averaged data by disturbance interaction will likely be patchy. Kunkel et al. (2012). Mean annual tempera- For example, in the aftermath of the 2011 ture, compared with the 1971-1999 average, Las Conchas Fire, it appears that upland is projected to increase 3–5 °F by mid-cen- forests and woodlands within the monument tury and 5–8 °F by the end of the century, fared much better than those on adjacent depending on the greenhouse gas emissions national forest lands where large expanses scenario. Current greenhouse gas emissions are now treeless. This could be a result of are on a trajectory similar to the higher emis- many factors, such as multiple fres, daily sions scenarios (Peters et al. 2013). Warming fre behavior, or vegetation densities, all of by mid-century is projected for all seasons, which are associated with a high degree of with the greatest increases likely in summer. randomness. Wide agreement exists among individual climate models in the direction and magnitude In short, if the Bandelier landscapes of the of warming over the coming decades. Total 20th century were defned by an illusion of annual precipitation may decrease slightly by artifcial stasis brought on by management’s mid-century (Kunkel et al. 2012); however, aim for control of nature, the landscapes of precipitation variability is likely to remain the 21st century will be defned by substan- large over the coming decades, and there is tial dynamic changes, with management aim- greater uncertainty in precipitation than in ing to foster ecological integrity and adaptive temperature projections (Kunkel et al. 2012). capacities of natural systems. 5.3 State of management 5.2 Future state Bandelier serves as a potential harbinger The American Southwest is projected to of the types of changes projected for the experience dramatic changes in tempera- Southwestern U.S. driven by anthropogenic ture and precipitation patterns in response global warming. The recent decadal drought, to increasing levels of anthropogenic CO , 2 fres, and insect outbreaks have all created which, if realized, would fundamentally a landscape much diferent from one that alter vegetation composition and structure would be familiar to the park’s namesake. within the park, probably through a series of Under current conditions, agency manag- severe disturbances not unlike what we have ers need to fully realize that the window already been experiencing since 2000 (cf. of opportunity for restoration of degraded Williams et al. 2013). systems is closing with each passing dry year. Recent climatic conditions for Bandelier The rapid changes unfolding may preclude NM are already shifting beyond the histori- management actions beyond monitoring in cal range of variability, with average annual the near term, as many ecological systems are temperature for the decade from 2003 to simply overwhelmed and make adjustments 2012 exceeding that of any other decade to the new conditions. Although drought for all 10-year periods from 1901 to 2012 conditions and destructive fres have seem-

188 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment ingly become the norm, it is likely that ocean plines, scales, and approaches currents will create conditions that result in a ● engage in broad landscape-scale eforts wetter period for the Southwest and Bande- across jurisdictions lier NM. Given the high likelihood of climate change Managers should both prepare for a continu- to drive big, fast, and patchy landscape rear- ation of recent dry conditions AND contin- rangements (Breshears et al. 2011), manag- gently plan for wet conditions and be pre- ers should anticipate a quickening pace pared to take advantage of what may be the for acquiring and incorporating resource last window to restore ecosystem processes information as a basis for management or intervene in current ecosystem trajecto- action. Successful managers will confront ries. Such planning will be more likely to suc- and overcome bureaucratic constraints on ceed if managers can fundamentally change management action. These are difcult chal- their management emphasis away from a lenges, but if not accomplished we will fall traditional approach that attempts to main- short of our NPS obligations to the public as tain historical conditions toward one that caretakers of “America’s Best Idea.” incorporates promoting ecosystem integrity and resilience (NPS 2010). Generally, man- 5.4 Opportunities for success aging for ecological integrity (sensu Wood- The authors of this report provide the ley et al. 1993, Woodley 2010) or resilience following guiding recommendations for (sensu Holling and Gunderson 2002) means Resource Managers at Bandelier NM. an ecosystem maintains its full complement of native species and the processes to ensure 5.4.1 Facilitate conservation planning their survival, as well as the means to with- across a broader landscape and stand and recover from disturbances caused develop multi-partner, multi-agency by natural environmental or human factors. approaches to resource management. Managing for such broadly defned goals Conversations across jurisdictional bound- as ecosystem integrity or resilience can be aries are likely to yield positive outcomes for challenging, to say the least. Identifying key landscape conservation. As stressors become ecosystem characteristics or processes that recognized at landscape scales, action on lead to integrity or resiliency may provide a similar scale would likely be appropriate. an initial starting point for a discussion on Without local relationships in place, it would management in an uncertain, and changing be a much more difcult and slower pro- future. For example, managers could choose cess to react to problems as they arise. The broad ecological integrity objectives with the separate agencies in the Jemez Mountains intent of 1) relying on historical information all have obligations that may be diferent on for guidance but not as blueprint for future the edges but are all based around a similar designs, and 2) maintaining landscape-scale core set of conservation principles. Foster- adaptive capacity by retaining keystone spe- ing conversations and/or planning eforts cies and ecosystem processes. Regardless around shared core management principles of the exact details of future management could go a long way to furthering, or healing, strategies, Bandelier NM managers should relationships with neighboring land manage- seek to: ment agencies.

● document the changes occurring across 5.4.2 Support a climate change our landscape vulnerability assessment for the Jemez ● promote constructive and transparent Mountains landscape. discussions about management strategies Use climate change vulnerability assessment planning eforts to theorize potential ● broaden resource management frame- management actions. Search for proactive works by integrating a range of disci- strategy options; identify afrmative steps

5 Toward Ecosystem Integrity in a Warmer Drier Future 189 and options for management action. Retro- agement approach. Methods, restoration spectively analyze the previous decades of targets, and supporting documentation for fre management eforts, BAER programs, mechanical and other restoration treatments and pion-juniper restoration to learn from to thin mature tree size classes are available past successes and failures. regionally, but have not been evaluated or adapted for local conditions. Modeling is a 5.4.3 Initiate NPS Resource useful tool, especially if used retroactively Stewardship Strategy planning efforts with existing, local response data to refne for Bandelier National Monument. expected outputs. At Bandelier, mechani- As a Resource Stewardship Strategy (RSS) cal thinning techniques may be considered is undertaken, we see the following lines of for forested systems to produce selected inquiry based on Parks Canada’s approach mortality in canopy components, while to assessing ecological integrity (Wood- leaving heavy fuels vertical, at least in short ley 2010), as helpful for getting that efort term. Pre-treatment mechanical thinning started: and litter fuels treatments may also be useful for protecting old growth or high value, fre ● What are the status and trends of spe- intolerant individuals. Using prescribed fre cies and communities in the park and as a blunt but intelligent tool that restores ap- in the encompassing Jemez Mountains propriate stand structure across variable site landscape? conditions through time is a low intervention ● What are the status and trends in ecosys- approach that is desirable for many natural tem processes (e.g., disturbance regimes, areas. However, it may require longer time pollination)? periods to reach historical structural densities; leaving the system vulnerable to crown ● Are ecosystem trophic levels intact? For fre during the interim period. Conversely, example, is hunting of predators (or increasingly more frequent and larger scale predator control) outside the park infu- occurrences of crown fre and other land- encing predator populations and thereby scape scale disturbances (e.g., drought and ecosystems within Bandelier NM? associated disease/ insect outbreaks am- ● Do biological communities exhibit an plifed by high stand densities) should be appropriate mix of age classes and spa- modeled to determine if longer term, less tial arrangements that will support native intrusive, restoration approaches are timely biodiversity? enough to meet management goals. ● Are productivity and decomposition At Bandelier NM, focused restoration stud- processes operating within acceptable ies have primarily addressed lower elevation limits? woodland communities. A ten-year research ● Are ecosystems cycling water and nutri- program documenting the efects of past ents within acceptable limits? land use, as well as testing proposed treatment options, won support for its uniquely 5.4.4 Evaluate options to integrate interventionist restoration treatments from the Resource Management and Fire many environmental and wilderness ad- Management programs. vocates, including the original three pro- A programmatic transition of fre manage- ponents for establishment of the Bandelier ment from hazard fuel reduction to more Wilderness. Ecological restoration of the bal- ecologically based objectives, using combi- ance of Bandelier’s vegetation communities, nations of available restoration techniques, mostly higher-elevation forested areas, has will require 1) focused research to refne been pursued primarily through the reintro- restoration targets and methods; 2) coordi- duction of fre disturbance with the goal of nated application at landscape scales, and providing some stability and ecosystem resis- 3) validation by a companion monitoring tance (see Fulé et al. 2012). While the central component that enables an adaptive man-

190 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment role of fre in maintenance of these forested “natural experiments” (e.g., between NPS systems is well documented from a histori- and USFS strategies or diferences between cal perspective, there is some question as to treated vs. untreated forest). To learn from whether fre treatments alone will continue such “natural experiments”, the difering to constitute a viable, long-term restoration management treatments must be well-doc- strategy. For example, during the past 37 umented, and the managers involved must years, nearly half of the park’s ponderosa adopt a shared monitoring plan that includes pine community has experienced destructive pre-treatment data. crown fre. Despite an active prescribed fre program for nearly 15 years, restoration of 5.4.7 Interpret climate change-driven fre process and historic structure/composi- landscape changes and the human tion to forested systems at Bandelier NM response to them, both past, present, remains a challenging goal. and future. The dynamic landscape of Bandelier NM 5.4.5 Be alert to the potential for provides a core story that is ripe to be shared nonnative plant species already through the monument’s interpretive pro- present in the park to become major gram, incorporating both current events and ecosystem stressors. earlier climate stress events that reshaped Bandelier NM has been extensively in- human occupancy of the Jemez Mountains. vaded by cheat grass, and smooth brome is poised to expand into the monument from 5.5 Addressing uncertainty the Santa Fe National Forest on the west- Ongoing learning about the landscape will ern boundary. If heating and drying trends be essential for successful resource manage- continue in the region, the presence of these ment. It must include provision for real-time species within the monument may become or near real-time information development more impactful. The legislatively-mandated at multiple scales, ranging from routine back- Alamo Watershed Ecosystem Study of three country observations, to long-term plot- watersheds adjacent to and within Bandelier based monitoring and research, to remote NM may provide an opportunity to evaluate sensing. There should be agency fexibility management actions for smooth brome. The to ramp up monitoring for locations that study is intended to provide a unifed vision exhibit rapid dynamic change. and determine best ecosystem management practices for watersheds that are jointly 5.5.1 Data gaps and research needs managed by the Santa Fe National Forest and Many data gaps in basic inventory, long-term Bandelier National Monument. Investigation monitoring, and research have been identi- of cheat grass is ongoing at multiple loca- fed during this NRCA process. Closing tions throughout the American Southwest, these information gaps will be an important refecting the difculty of controlling this frst step toward informed decision-making. damaging plant. ● Investigate geomorphic and vegetation 5.4.6 Develop opportunities for land changes in Frijoles Canyon. Analyze management experiments and take recently acquired LiDAR data and advantage of available “natural acquire/analyze multi-spectral remote experiments.” sensing imagery to better understand Given high levels of uncertainty in future recent changes in Frijoles Canyon. The landscape conditions, managers should work wealth of LiDAR data collected for to design experiments to compare alterna- this canyon and watershed between tive management strategies in order to fnd 2010 and 2014 has created a promising potential solutions to challenges brought research opportunity that would inform on by rapidly changing conditions. There is park managers on the pace and extent of also potential to take advantage of ongoing geomorphic and vegetation change.

5 Toward Ecosystem Integrity in a Warmer Drier Future 191 ○ Acquire a complete time-series of ment actions to contribute to ecosys- remote sensing products from a tem resilience. Ecological restoration consistent source (e.g., Landsat) of Bandelier’s montane forests has been with multi-spectral remote sensing pursued primarily through the reintro- imagery to track changes in physical duction of fre disturbance with the goal landform and vegetation cover. of providing some stability and ecosys- ○ Analyze recently acquired LiDAR tem resistance. While the central role of data to better understand recent fre in maintenance of these forested sys- changes in Frijoles Canyon where tems is well documented from a histori- most of the LiDAR was taken. cal perspective, there is some question whether fre treatments alone continue ● Update the park vegetation map to to constitute a viable, long-term restora- refect changes since 2004 due to wide- tion strategy. For example, during the spread drought, insect outbreaks, fre, past 37 years, nearly half of the park’s and food efects. During a multi-year ponderosa pine community has experi- drought from 2000 to 2004, over 95% of enced destructive crown fre, with lim- the mature pion pine within the monu- ited prospects for conifer regeneration in ment died, including the oldest trees some areas. Despite an active prescribed which exceed 300 years in age. Mature fre program for over 30 years, the pion was nearly erradicatedfrom the restoration of fre as a natural process woodland zone, essentially type convert- and of historic vegetation structures and ing the pion-juniper zone where the compositions to forested ecosystems at majority of cultural resources are located Bandelier continues to be challenging in to juniper woodland. an increasingly dynamic global-change In 2011 the Las Conchas Fire burned world. over 60% of the monument, severely ● Research poorly known groups like: altering monument vegetation. In addi- soil bacteria, earthworms, fungi, moths, tion to these natural disturbances, park pathogens, insects (e.g., native bees as management implemented a landscape- pollinators), and non-vascular plants scale mechanical thinning restoration (e.g., mosses) and lichens). efort within the woodland zone to mitigate soil erosion issues between 2007 ● Quantify predator population sizes to and 2010. track this key trophic layer. ● Replicate breeding bird atlas data col- Thus, a vegetation map of the park based lection from the early 2000s to provide on 2004 photography is now well out-of- documented spatial changes in breed- date along with soils information based ing species with explicit connections to on 2000-era surveys. The timing and pat- habitat types. (See Appendix F for infor- tern of drought and fre induced vegeta- mation on bird demographic needs). tion and soil-hydrologic changes need to be fully documented and quantifed ● Monitor post-disturbance ecosystem to support efective management of this recovery to rapidly changing cultural landscape in ○ Identify areas of potential post- order to inform activities to protect the disturbance landscape-scale embedded archeological resources. type-conversion.

Status: development of an updated veg- ○ Assess suitability and timing of etation map is ongoing through a Coop- native fsh reintroduction by moni- erative Agreement with the University of toring riparian vegetation, channel New Mexico Natural Heritage Program. geomorphology, water chemistry and macroinvertebrates. ● Investigate potential for fre manage-

192 Bandelier National Monument Natural Resource Condition Assessment ○ Identify trajectory of pion-juniper decades of research and pilot treatments systems following ecological restora- into developing a restoration strategy. It also tion, and drought mortality. demonstrates a philosophical shift toward ○ Assess efectiveness of wildfre fuels fostering incremental landscape adaptation treatments and prescribed fre. to changing conditions. Even if near-term management is tilted toward natural recov- ○ Detect exotic invasions in disturbed ery of post-disturbance landscapes, those and successional areas. decisions should be made in an open and ● Monitor plant phenology to provide active decision-making framework. proxy for climate change and incorpo- With the pace of landscape changes likely to rate into national phenological networks. quicken, managers may not have the luxury Plant-based phenology observations of decades of research to support future would complement SCPN land surface management decisions. However, amidst the phenology monitoring using MODIS uncertainty of modeling system trajectories, imagery. the questions remain—what interventions 5.6 Conclusions are possible to foster resilience and reduce stressor impacts, and when do we have As Bandelier NM approaches its centennial enough knowledge, even if it is far from as a protected natural area and federally- complete, to act? designated wilderness, managers have come to recognize that its protected status neither The best management strategies will incor- heals nor hides the wounds of past land porate all aspects of ecosystem understand- use; thus monument landscapes bear stark ing. Such a holistic approach will require tribute to past mistakes and mismanage- integration of solid science, across all dis- ment. Although set aside and protected, it ciplines, at a landscape level. The beneft of has sustained losses of ecological integrity, exercises like a resource stewardship strategy biological capital, component species, and or climate change vulnerability assessment connectivity. Even so, the application of resis that they provide opportunities to develop toration treatments in an attempt to repair multi-management possibilities and under- past damage remains controversial because stand the tradeofs that are inherent in inte- it challenges basic philosophical and legal grated landscape scale management. Impor- tenets for land management in national parks tant ecosystem components of the Bandelier and wilderness areas to let nature be ‘free landscape are presented in Chapter 4 in a willed’ or largely absent the efects of hu- compartmentalized manner with the hope man intervention—including federal agency of simplifying complex systems. It would be management. Among many environmental a mistake to view any one component as iso- advocates, there is both concern and suspi- lated from the rest, and only by thinking of cion that if intensive, broad-scale restoration them as an integrated whole can we hope to treatments can be justifed and implemented avoid deleterious intervention and long-term in one natural area, then the door is open landscape scars. for all public land to become more vulnerable to both well-intentioned and potentially Maintaining the stability of core manage- damaging management actions. ment principles will serve as a strong foundation from which to build successful resource Understanding that these concerns are management strategies as priorities shift founded on previous adverse experience, with changing conditions. The landscape we advise future managers to rely on the that comprises Bandelier National Monu- best available science as they weigh alterna- ment, through its associated native cultures tive management decisions and actions. The and post-Hispanic land-based cultures, has recent pion-juniper woodland restoration exemplifed strong linkages between human project exemplifes the incorporation of and “natural” worlds for many centuries.

5 Toward Ecosystem Integrity in a Warmer Drier Future 193 Moving forward, we must remember that Monahan, W. B., and N. A. Fisichelli. 2014. both worlds are, and will remain, closely Climate exposure of US national parks intertwined as we seek to steward a healthy in a new era of change. PLoS ONE and sustainable future. 9(7): e101302. doi:10.1371/journal. pone.0101302. 5.7 Literature cited NPS [National Park Service]. 2010. National Breshears, D. D., L. Lopez-Hofman, and L. Park Service Climate Change Response J. Graumlich. 2011. When ecosystem Strategy. National Park Service Climate services crash: preparing for big, Change Response Program, Fort fast, patchy climate change. Ambio Collins, Colorado. 40:256–263. Peters, G. P., R. M. Andrew, T. Boden, J. Fulé, P. Z., J. E. Crouse, J. P. Roccaforte, G. Canadell, P. Ciais, C. Le Quéré, and E. L. Kalies. 2012. Do thinning G. Marland, M. R. Raupach, and C. and/or burning treatments in western Wilson. 2013. The challenge to keep USA ponderosa or Jefrey pine- global warming below 2 °C. Nature dominated forests help restore natural Climate Change 3:4-6. fre behavior? Forest Ecology and Management 269:68-81. Williams, A. P., C. D. Allen, A. K. Macalady, D. Grifn, C. A. Woodhouse, D. M. Holling, C. S., and L. H. Gunderson. 2002. Meko, T. W. Swetnam, S. A. Rauscher, Resilience and adaptive cycles. Pp. 25– R. Seager, H. D. Grissino-Mayer, J. S. 62 in L. H. Gunderson and C. S. Holling Dean, E. R. Cook, C. Gangodagamage, (eds.), Panarchy: Understanding M. Cai, and N. G. McDowell. 2013. Transformations in Human and Natural Temperature as a potent driver of Systems. Island Press, Washington, D.C. regional forest drought stress and tree Kunkel, K. E., L. E. Stevens, S. E. Stevens, L. mortality. Nature Climate Change Sun, E. Janssen, D. Wuebbles, and J. G. 3:292-297. Dobson. 2012. Regional Climate Trends Woodley, S., J. Kay, and G. Francis (eds.). and Scenarios for the U.S. National 1993. Ecological integrity and the Climate Assessment: Part 5. Climate of management of ecosystems. St. Lucie the Southwest U.S. National Oceanic Press, Delray, Florida. and Atmospheric Administration Technical Report NESDIS 142-5, Woodley, S. 2010. Ecological integrity and Washington, D.C. http://www.nesdis. Canada’s National Parks. The George noaa.gov/technical_reports/NOAA_ Wright Forum 27:151-160. NESDIS_Tech_Report_142-5-Climate_ of_the_Southwest_U.S.pdf.

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