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Site requirements of used in British

The following information on the native range, climate and soil requirements, and the effects on site characteristics of each species is taken from Hibberd (1991), Joyce et al. (1998), NMELV (2004), Savill (1991) and Thomasius (1989). Information shown on grey background has been taken from the ESC DSS. The suitability of species is also shown by soil moisture and soil nutrient regime according to Pyatt et al. (2001). Species shown in bold in the tables are considered very suitable; others are suitable.

General information on 60 species is available at: http://www.forestry.gov.uk/fr/INFD-8CVD6H

Alders AR/CAR Common (); native to all parts of the British Isles. Undemanding regarding climate; wind resistant and frost resistant. Requires high, though not stagnant, water table, medium to rich nutrient supply, and pH values above 6. Grows best on deep loams. Tolerates temporary flooding and develops long tap roots reaching below the groundwater level. Important for soil improvement through fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. Common alder (Alnus glutinosa); native to all parts of the British Isles and mainland Europe. Little known about provenance differences so seed from good quality British stands should be preferred. A light demanding pioneer species characteristic of wet areas, stream sides and riparian zones. Cold hardy and frost resistant, but not tolerant of exposure. Requires sites with a high, though not stagnant, water table, with a medium to rich nutrient supply, and pH values above 5. Grows best on deep loams and alluvial soils. Has a valuable role in soil improvement through fixation of atmospheric nitrogen and can be planted on reclamation sites for this reason. Likely to continue as an important tree species wherever the soil moisture requirements are met. GAR Grey alder (A. incana); native to central Europe. RAR Red alder (A. rubra); native to the west coast of .

Soil nutrient regime Very poor Poor Medium Rich Very rich Carbonate Mor, Moder, Oligomull, Humus form Mor Eumull Eumull moder oligomull eumull Very dry Mod. dry

Slightly dry Fresh CAR CAR CAR CAR Moist CAR CAR CAR CAR regime Very moist CAR CAR CAR CAR

Soil moisture Soilmoisture Wet CAR CAR CAR CAR Very wet CAR CAR CAR CAR

Ash AH Ash (); native to the British Isles except the far north. Limited to lower elevations, susceptible to frost damage but windfirm. Grows best both on moist but well-drained deep and rich soils with high nitrogen content, and on shallower calcareous soils; requires pH values of 5 or above. Avoids poor sands and waterlogged soils. Typical heart root system and readily decomposable litter contribute to soil improvement. Ash (Fraxinus excelsior); native to the British Isles and much of western Europe except the far north. Material from good quality British stands should be preferred with provenances in northern France as an alternative in southern Britain. Has intermediate shade tolerance when young but needs early thinning for good growth. The species is cold hardy and moderately tolerant of exposure, but is susceptible to late frost damage which can cause forking. This is a very site demanding species. Grows best on moist, well- drained deep and rich soils with high nitrogen content, and often overlying calcareous bedrock; requires pH values of 5 or above. Nutrient poor dry and waterlogged soils should be avoided. A warming climate should increase the productivity of ash on suitable sites in northern Britain.

Soil nutrient regime Very poor Poor Medium Rich Very rich Carbonate Mor, Moder, Oligomull, Humus form Mor Eumull Eumull moder oligomull eumull Very dry Mod. dry

Slightly dry AH AH AH AH Fresh AH AH AH AH

Moist AH AH AH AH regime il moisture ilmoisture Very moist AH AH AH AH

So Wet AH AH AH AH Very wet

Beeches BE (Fagus sylvatica); native to south-east Britain, naturalised throughout the British Isles. Requires mild and moist climate; windfirm but susceptible to frost damage when young. Thrives on light, medium to fertile soils if they are neither too wet nor too dry. Produces slowly decomposing litter and can contribute to soil acidification. typically develop heart root systems, which in mixed stands make good use of soil resources not accessed by other species. Beech (Fagus sylvatica); native to southern Britain, but widely naturalised throughout the British Isles. Widely distributed across Europe. Material from good quality British stands should be preferred with registered western European seed stands as an alternative. A shade tolerant species which withstands wind exposure and is cold hardy but is susceptible to frost damage when young. It can be found on mineral soils of poor to medium nutrient status including calcareous soils but does not tolerate compacted, waterlogged or very dry soils. Can grow in mixture with a wide range of broadleaved species. It is a comparatively shallow rooted species and mature can suffer dieback or death in drought years. For such reasons, it is probably better suited to areas with more than 700 mm rainfall well distributed across the year. It is very vulnerable to stripping by grey squirrels. Its relatively vulnerability to drought means that its use in parts of southern and eastern Britain should be limited to soils of good moisture status. Conversely, the warming climate may see greater productivity on suitable sites in northern Britain. OBN Roble (Nothofagus obliqua). PRN Raulí (N. alpina [= N. procera]). RAN Raoul (N. nervosa), Southern beeches; native to South America. Well-adapted to oceanic climate; not frost hardy and therefore suited to only the south and west of Britain. Similar site requirements to BE. Rauli southern beech (Nothofagus nervosa aka N. procera and N. alpina); native to the lower slopes of the Andes in central-southern Chile and western Argentina. Provenances from the southern part of the natural range or from good quality British stands should be preferred. A very fast growing light demanding species which will outyield all native British broadleaved species on suitable sites. Not cold hardy throughout Britain and can be killed by temperatures below -180C; an early flushing species which can be damaged by late spring frosts. For this reason, it is currently only recommended for use close to the western coasts and more generally in the western and milder parts of England and Wales. Best suited to well drained fresh soils of poor to medium nutrient status; does not tolerate very poor nutrient status soils or compacted/waterlogged conditions. Is not tolerant of exposure or drought tolerant. Since it is currently cold limited in Britain, this species may benefit from climate warming and be suited to a wider range of sites in northern Britain, wherever its site requirements are met.

Soil nutrient regime Very poor Poor Medium Rich Very rich Carbonate Mor, Moder, Oligomull, Humus form Mor Eumull Eumull moder oligomull eumull Very dry Mod. dry BE BE BE BE BE

Slightly dry BE PRN BE PRN BE PRN BE PRN BE Fresh BE PRN BE PRN BE PRN BE PRN BE Moist BE PRN BE PRN BE PRN BE PRN BE regime Very moist

Soil moisture Soilmoisture Wet Very wet

Birches BI/ Silver (Betula pendula), downy birch (B. pubescens); native to all parts of SBI/DBI the British Isles up to the tree line. Frost resistant and windfirm; undemanding in terms of nutrient supply. Silver birch can populate very dry soils whereas downy birch tolerates damp and badly drained sites. Both species have a relatively high water demand and develop a small and shallow root system. Litter is small in quantity and decomposes readily. Silver birch (Betula pendula); native to all parts of the British Isles up to the tree line. A light demanding pioneer species with fast early growth which is both frost resistant and windfirm. British seed sources of good form or material from breeding programmes should be used. Avoid seed sources from more continental European climates. Grows on a wide range of mineral soils from very poor to medium nutrient status but on wetter soils it tends to be replaced by downy birch. It is a relatively short lived species and mature trees often die after a severe drought (e.g. 1976, 2003). It often colonises restock sites where mixtures with both and broadleaves can develop. The use of silver birch in British forestry has increased over recent decades and this is likely to continue but with climate change the species may be increasingly vulnerable to drought on drier sites.

Downy birch (B. pubescens); native to all parts of the British Isles. A light demanding pioneer species with moderate early height growth which is frost resistant and windfirm. British seed sources of good form should be preferred. On equivalent sites it tends to be slower growing and have poorer stem form than silver birch. Found on moister soils of very poor to medium nutrient status and it is one of the broadleaved species that can grow on peaty soils. It is also found in mixture with both broadleaves and conifers. This species is likely to increase in importance, particularly as a component of dominated in western Britain.

Soil nutrient regime Very poor Poor Medium Rich Very rich Carbonate Mor, Moder, Oligomull, Humus form Mor Eumull Eumull moder oligomull eumull Very dry Mod. dry SBI SBI SBI SBI SBI

Slightly dry SBI SBI SBI SBI SBI Fresh DBI SBI DBI SBI DBI SBI DBI SBI SBI Moist DBI SBI DBI SBI DBI SBI DBI SBI SBI regime Very moist DBI SBI DBI SBI DBI SBI DBI SBI SBI

Soil moisture Soilmoisture Wet DBI SBI DBI SBI DBI SBI DBI SBI SBI Very wet DBI DBI DBI DBI

Cedars and redwoods RC Western red cedar (); native to the western parts of North America. Prefers cool oceanic climate; fairly windfirm but suffers from exposure; suited to low elevations (sheltered sites) in the southern half of Britain. Tolerates a wide range of soils but does best on fertile loams and clays with good water supply and humus content. Improves soil structure with its heart root system and its base-rich and readily decomposable litter. Red cedar (Thuja plicata); native to the Pacific north-west of America with a wide range from Alaska to and also inland to the Cascade Mountains. Limited provenance testing suggests that seed sources from western or Island should be preferred. A shade tolerant species with good vigour and volume production, although early growth can be slow. Best suited to more humid regions with an annual rainfall of > 800 mm. Cold hardy throughout Britain, moderately frost tolerant, does not withstand exposure, but is moderately drought tolerant. Vulnerable to fungal attack in nurseries which historically has restricted planting stock availability. Grows best on medium to very rich soils with fresh to moist soil moisture but will tolerate calcareous soils if grown under light shelter. Not suited to very poor and very dry soils but will grow on gleys and occurs on some peat soils in its natural range. Can be grown in mixture with a range of and broadleaved species. Currently a minor species in Britain, but may find an expanded role as a means of diversifying upland conifer forests as an adaptation to projected climate change. RSQ Coast redwood (); native to the west coast of North America. Susceptible to frost damage when young. Similar site requirements to RC but smaller amplitude.

Soil nutrient regime Very poor Poor Medium Rich Very rich Carbonate Mor, Moder, Oligomull, Humus form Mor Eumull Eumull moder oligomull eumull Very dry Mod. dry RC RC RC RC RC

Slightly dry RC RSQ RC RSQ RC RSQ RC RSQ RC Fresh RC RSQ RC RSQ RC RSQ RC RSQ RC Moist RC RSQ RC RSQ RC RSQ RC RSQ RC regime Very moist RC RSQ RC RSQ RC RSQ RC RSQ RC

Soil moisture Soilmoisture Wet RC RC RC RC RC Very wet

Cherries WCH Wild cherry ( avium); native to the British Isles. Prefers the warmer lowlands and suffers from exposure. Requires deep moist soil of good fertility and drainage to grow well. Wild cherry or gean (Prunus avium); native to Britain and much of Europe. This is a pioneer light demanding species which spreads through seed and suckers. There is limited knowledge of provenance variation, so seed from seed orchards or good British stands should be preferred; some selected clones are available. Avoid material from eastern and southern Europe which is not adapted to British conditions. Cold hardy and frost tolerant, but does not tolerate exposure and is sensitive to drought. It grows best on medium to very rich soils of fresh soil moisture status, including on more calcareous sites. Is not suited to dry or waterlogged soils, as well as those of poor soil nutrient status. It is mostly found in mixture with other broadleaves and extensive pure stands are rare. It should generally be favoured by climate warming, other than in eastern Britain where the risks of drought may increase. BCH Bird cherry (P. padus); native to Britain but of little forestry value.

Soil nutrient regime Very poor Poor Medium Rich Very rich Carbonate Mor, Moder, Oligomull, Humus form Mor Eumull Eumull moder oligomull eumull Very dry Mod. dry

Slightly dry WCH WCH WCH WCH Fresh WCH WCH WCH WCH Moist WCH WCH WCH WCH regime Very moist WCH WCH WCH WCH

Soil moisture Soilmoisture Wet Very wet

Chestnut SC Sweet (Castanea sativa); naturalised in south-east England. Requires warm and not too dry a climate; suffers from frost and exposure. Thrives on deep, fertile, light soils with good water supply.

Soil nutrient regime Very poor Poor Medium Rich Very rich Carbonate Mor, Moder, Oligomull, Humus form Mor Eumull Eumull moder oligomull eumull Very dry Mod. dry

Slightly dry SC SC SC Fresh SC SC SC Moist SC SC SC regime Very moist SC SC SC

Soil moisture Soilmoisture Wet Very wet

Douglas DF ( menziesii); native to the western parts of North America. Prefers areas of high humidity but can also cope with droughts during the vegetation period; prone to frost and wind damage and suffering from exposure, therefore suited to sheltered areas only. Does well on soils of medium fertility but requires adequate moisture and good soil aeration. Will not grow well on waterlogged or calcareous sites, or in competition with heather. Litter decomposes readily and does not lead to soil deterioration. Its typical heart root system improves soil structure. Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii); native to the western parts of North America with a wide natural range. Only the ‘green’ Douglas fir from the coastal part of the range is suitable in Britain. Provenances from coastal Washington are recommended for western and more oceanic parts of Britain, while material from the south Washington can be used on suitable soils in drier zones of eastern Britain. This is a high yielding early successional species of intermediate shade tolerance which produces a high quality timber. It is best suited to areas of high humidity with 750-2000 mm of rainfall but it can also cope with summer droughts. It is cold hardy but suffers from exposure and therefore is suited to more sheltered areas such as lower to middle valley sides. It is damaged by late spring frosts and young trees can be prone to toppling. It grows well on mineral soils of poor to medium fertility but requires adequate moisture and good soil aeration. It will not grow well on waterlogged or calcareous sites, or in competition with heather. It can be grown in mixture with or with Sitka spruce. A warming climate is likely to result in greater use of Douglas fir, provided that the sites are not too exposed and have adequate soil moisture.

Soil nutrient regime Very poor Poor Medium Rich Very rich Carbonate Mor, Moder, Oligomull, Humus form Mor Eumull Eumull moder oligomull eumull Very dry DF DF DF DF Mod. dry DF DF DF DF

Slightly dry DF DF DF DF Fresh DF DF DF DF Moist DF DF DF DF regime Very moist

Soil moisture Soilmoisture Wet Very wet

Elms EM (Ulmus spp.); native to lowland Britain. Frost hardy and tolerates salty sea winds. Prefers deep, fertile soils with good water supply and aeration. Contributes to soil improvement with its heart root system and fertile litter. EEM English elm (U. procera). WEM Wych elm (U. glabra). SEM Smooth-leaved elm (U. carpinifolia).

Soil nutrient regime Very poor Poor Medium Rich Very rich Carbonate Mor, Moder, Oligomull, Humus form Mor Eumull Eumull moder oligomull eumull Very dry Mod. dry

Slightly dry EM EM EM Fresh EM EM EM Moist EM EM EM regime Very moist EM EM EM

Soil moisture Soilmoisture Wet EM EM EM Very wet

Firs GF Grand fir (); native to north-west USA and south-west Canada. Adapted to cool and moist climate and therefore suited to western and northern parts of the UK; susceptible to spring frost and sensitive to exposure and pollution. Prefers well-drained light and deep soils. Produces readily decomposable litter and its heart root system improves soil structure. Grand fir (Abies grandis); native to north-west USA and south-west Canada. Provenances from coastal Washington should be preferred. A shade tolerant species which shows high growth rates and yields on suitable sites, but whose timber quality has a poor reputation. Best growth will be found in regions with more than 1000 mm rainfall, but will grow in drier regions provided there is adequate soil moisture. However, drought crack is common in stands in drier areas. Susceptible to spring frost and sensitive to exposure and pollution. Prefers well-drained and deep mineral soils of poor to medium fertility, but sensitive to heather check on sites of very poor nutrient status. Does not tolerate waterlogged or calcareous soils. This is a minor species which may find a niche as a component of stands managed for Continuous Cover Forestry, but which is unlikely to benefit greatly from climate change. NF Noble fir (A. procera); native to the Pacific coast of North America. Prefers cool and moist climate; can cope with exposure and is more frost resistant than other , therefore most suited to north-west Britain including higher elevations. Undemanding in terms of nutrient supply and tolerates acid soils; grows best on deep and moist soils. Noble fir (Abies procera); native to the mountain ranges of the Pacific coast of North America. Provenances from the Washington or north Cascade mountains or from good quality British stands should be used. Prefers a cool and moist (i.e. >1000 mm rainfall) climate; can cope with exposure and is more frost resistant than other firs, therefore most suited to upland Britain including higher elevations. A species of intermediate shade tolerance which is reported to have stronger timber than most other silver firs. Grows best on fresh to moist mineral soils of poor nutrient status, but suffers severely from heather competition. It is a high volume producer under the right conditions, but suffers from drought crack on drier soils. A minor species which is valued for its foliage and as a . It may have an increased role for diversifying spruce forests in western Britain. SF European silver fir (A. alba); native to mountainous regions of central and south- eastern Europe. Adapted to moist and cool climate; tolerates exposure once established but suffers from atmospheric pollution and late spring frost when young. Grows well on deep and heavy soils with good moisture and nutrient supply. Improves soil structure by intensive rooting (heart or tap root system).

Soil nutrient regime Very poor Poor Medium Rich Very rich Carbonate Mor, Moder, Oligomull, Humus form Mor Eumull Eumull moder oligomull eumull Very dry Mod. dry

Sl. dry GF GF GF GF Fresh GF NF SF GF NF SF GF NF SF GF NF SF Moist GF NF SF GF NF SF GF NF SF GF NF SF regime V. moist GF NF SF GF NF SF GF NF SF GF NF SF

Soil moisture Soilmoisture Wet GF SF GF SF GF SF GF SF Very wet

Hemlock fir WH Western hemlock ( heterophylla); native to the western part of North America. Adapted to mild, humid climates and therefore suited to most parts of the British Isles, particularly the north and west; windfirm but may suffer from exposure and late spring frost. Undemanding in terms of nutrient supply; grows best on deep, moist and well-aerated soils.

Soil nutrient regime Very poor Poor Medium Rich Very rich Carbonate Mor, Moder, Oligomull, Humus form Mor Eumull Eumull moder oligomull eumull Very dry Mod. dry WH WH WH WH

Slightly dry WH WH WH WH Fresh WH WH WH WH Moist WH WH WH WH regime Very moist WH WH WH WH

Soil moisture Soilmoisture Wet Very wet

Hornbeam HBM (Carpinus betulus); native to the south-east of England. Frost resistant but requires warm summers; suited to parts of Britain with a more continental climate. Rather accommodating in terms of nutrient and water supply but does best on fertile soils. Best on moist loams and clays; will also grow on drier, but not on waterlogged soils. Produces readily decomposable litter and is able to break up heavy soils through intensive rooting.

Soil nutrient regime Very poor Poor Medium Rich Very rich Carbonate Mor, Moder, Oligomull, Humus form Mor Eumull Eumull moder oligomull eumull Very dry Mod. dry

Slightly dry HBM HBM HBM HBM Fresh HBM HBM HBM HBM Moist HBM HBM HBM HBM regime Very moist HBM HBM HBM HBM

Soil moisture Soilmoisture Wet HBM HBM HBM HBM Very wet

Larches EL European larch (Larix decidua); native to the mountains of central Europe. Adapted to sub-continental climate with low temperatures; windfirm but suffers from exposure; susceptible to damage by spring frost. Suited to middle and higher elevations in the UK. Undemanding in terms of nutrient supply but requires light, moist but free-draining soils to grow well. Avoids waterlogging and poor sandy soils. The typical heart root system improves soil structure, but the slowly decomposing litter may contribute to soil acidification. European larch (Larix decidua); native to the Alps and parts of eastern Europe (Sudeten region, Tatras mountains). Collections from good British seed stands or Sudeten provenances or from Slovakia should be preferred. Such material shows much less vulnerability to larch canker, while sources from high elevations in the Alps are very susceptible to canker and should be avoided. Adapted to sub-continental climate with low temperatures; windfirm but suffers from exposure; susceptible to damage by early spring frosts. Needs sites of poor to medium nutrient status and light, moist but free- draining soils to grow well. However, on such sites it is generally outyielded by other species such as Douglas fir. Does not tolerate waterlogged, compacted or very nutrient poor mineral soils. A pioneer species with rapid early height growth and good stem form while the light shade makes it suitable for growing in mixture with broadleaves or other conifers. Currently a minor species whose position is unlikely to alter with projected climate change. HL Hybrid larch (L. eurolepis); cross between EL and JL. Silvicultural characteristics and site requirements are similar to JL. JL Japanese larch (L. kaempferi); native to the island of Honshū. Differs from EL through its adaptation to even cooler climates, its slightly lower demand on nutrient supply but higher requirements on soil moisture, and its better resistance to larch canker. Japanese larch (Larix kaempferi); native to a limited mountainous zone in the central island (Honshu) of Japan, although also widely planted in the northern island of Hokkaido. Collections from British seed stands should be preferred or if these are not available provenances from the central part of the natural range should be used. A light demanding pioneer species which needs more than 1000 mm of rainfall for good growth. Cold hardy and withstands moderate exposure, although stem form can be poor especially on exposed or more fertile sites. Vulnerable to spring and autumn frosts. Best suited to mineral soils of poor nutrient status (i.e. less fertile than for European larch), and will also grow on very poor soils and on better drained peats. Very fast early height growth means that it is better suited for mixture with conifers. A species whose role could increase in western Britain with climate change, especially if planted on mineral soils to diversify spruce forests. However, currently affected by Phytophthora which may affect future use.

Soil nutrient regime Very poor Poor Medium Rich Very rich Carbonate Mor, Moder, Oligomull, Humus form Mor Eumull Eumull moder oligomull eumull Very dry Mod. dry EL EL EL EL EL

Slightly dry EL JL EL JL EL JL EL JL EL Fresh EL JL EL JL EL JL EL JL EL Moist EL JL EL JL EL JL EL JL EL regime Very moist EL JL EL JL EL JL EL JL EL

Soil moisture Soilmoisture Wet JL JL JL JL Very wet

Limes LI Lime ( spp.); native to southern and central England and Wales. Suited to milder lowland climates. Prefers deep, rich soils with sufficient moisture supply, including stagnogleys. Improves soil structure and fertility through far-reaching heart root system and plentiful, readily decomposable litter. SLI Small-leaved lime (T. cordata). LLI Large-leaved lime (T. platyphyllos).

Soil nutrient regime Very poor Poor Medium Rich Very rich Carbonate Mor, Moder, Oligomull, Humus form Mor Eumull Eumull moder oligomull eumull Very dry Mod. dry

Slightly dry LI LI LI LI Fresh LI LI LI LI Moist LI LI LI LI regime Very moist LI LI LI LI

Soil moisture Soilmoisture Wet Very wet

Maples NOM Norway (Acer platanoides); native to central and eastern Europe. Ecological characteristics generally similar to those of SY; less tolerant of exposure and therefore more suited to southern and lowland areas of Britain. Also slightly less demanding in terms of soil moisture. SY Sycamore (A. pseudoplatanus); native to mountainous areas of central and south- eastern Europe; considered naturalised in Britain. Prefers cool and moist sites; rather frost hardy and tolerant of exposure, salt spray and air pollution, therefore suited to most climatic regions of Britain. Grows on a wide range of soils but does best on deep, fertile, moist but free-draining soils. Avoids heavy clays and poor sandy soils, and does not tolerate waterlogging and flooding. Develops a deep- reaching heart root system that improves soil structure and contributes to soil stabilisation on slopes; the litter decomposes readily. Sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus); native to mountainous areas of central and eastern Europe; considered naturalised in Britain. Material from good quality British stands or selected stands in western Europe should be preferred. Young regeneration is quite shade tolerant and the species often colonises the understorey of broadleaved woodlands. Cold hardy and tolerant of exposure, salt spray and air pollution, therefore suited to all climatic regions of Britain. Grows on a wide range of soils but does best on deep, fresh to moist free- draining soils of medium to rich nutrient status. It is not suited to heavy clays and poor sandy soils, and does not tolerate waterlogging and flooding and is not drought tolerant. In most parts of Britain, the warming climate will result in greater productivity but in eastern areas more prone to drought this species may prove vulnerable. It is also at risk from bark stripping by grey squirrels.

Soil nutrient regime Very poor Poor Medium Rich Very rich Carbonate Mor, Moder, Oligomull, Humus form Mor Eumull Eumull moder oligomull eumull Very dry Mod. dry SY NOM SY NOM SY NOM SY NOM SY

Slightly dry SY NOM SY NOM SY NOM SY NOM SY Fresh SY NOM SY NOM SY NOM SY NOM SY Moist SY NOM SY NOM SY NOM SY NOM SY regime Very moist SY NOM SY NOM SY NOM SY NOM SY

Soil moisture Soilmoisture Wet SY SY SY SY SY Very wet

Oaks POK Pedunculate (Quercus robur); native to the British Isles except the far north. Windfirm, requiring mild summer climate and therefore best suited to low and middle elevations; susceptible to damage by late spring frost at young age. Undemanding in terms of nutrient supply although productivity depends on soil fertility; prefers heavy and moist soils with low aeration and can tolerate some waterlogging. Produces readily decomposable litter, develops tap roots initially and a heart root system later, which is ecologically valuable for its structure- improving and drainage effects on heavy and compacted soils. Pedunculate oak (Quercus robur); native to the British Isles except the far north, and to much of Europe. Has been planted in parts of western Britain where sessile oak might be better suited. Material from selected British or north-west European seed stands are to be preferred. Considered to be more light demanding than sessile oak. Windfirm, and cold hardy but is susceptible to damage by late spring frost at young age. Prefers soils in the medium to rich nutrient status; prefers heavy and moist soils and can tolerate some waterlogging provided such soils do not dry out in summer. Its ability to root in to heavier soils is ecologically valuable for its structure-improving and drainage effects. A species likely to benefit from climate change in terms of greater productivity and more frequent seed years, but which may suffer on sites prone to summer drought. SOK Sessile oak (Q. petraea); generally as POK except for its preference for lighter, drier and better-drained soils with good aeration, and its intolerance of flooding. Sessile oak (Quercus petraea); native to the British Isles and to much of western, central and eastern Europe. In Britain it tends to have a more westerly and upland distribution than pedunculate oak but the natural distribution has been much influenced by in previous centuries. Provenances from selected British or north-west European seed stands are to be preferred. Sessile oak is cold hardy and generally windfirm, but can be damaged by late spring frosts. A species of intermediate shade tolerance which can grow well on mineral soils of poor or medium nutrient status. Will tolerate slightly drier soils than pedunculate oak and is not suited to compacted or wet soils. The greater tolerance of drier soils may result in greater use of this species on suitable sites in eastern Britain under a warming climate. ROK Red oak (Q. rubra); native to the eastern parts of North America. Similar climate requirements to POK and SOK; tolerates air pollution. Does best on deep, sandy loams but generally accommodating in terms of soil fertility and superior to other species on poor and acid soils; intolerant of waterlogging. Similar root system to native , but with slowly decomposing litter.

Soil nutrient regime Very poor Poor Medium Rich Very rich Carbonate Mor, Moder, Oligomull, Humus form Mor Eumull Eumull moder oligomull eumull Very dry Mod. dry SOK SOK SOK SOK

Sl. dry POK SOK POK SOK POK SOK POK SOK Fresh POK SOK POK SOK POK SOK POK SOK Moist POK SOK POK SOK POK SOK POK SOK regime V. moist POK SOK POK SOK POK SOK POK SOK

Soil moisture Soilmoisture Wet POK POK POK POK Very wet

Pines CP Corsican (Pinus nigra var. maritima); native to Corsica, southern Italy and Sicily. Requires warm summer climate with low rainfall, tolerates heat and drought, windfirm but susceptible to frost damage, therefore suited to the drier lowland areas of Britain. Will grow on virtually all soils except very wet ones; preferable on infertile mineral soils with poor moisture supply, where it does better than any other species. Develops deep-reaching tap or heart root system; ample litter production contributes to soil improvement on extremely poor sites. Corsican pine (Pinus nigra var. laricio); native to Corsica. Related black pine species (e.g. Calabrian pine) are found in Italy and Spain but do not have as good form. The best seed sources are from good British seed stands or imports from Corsica. A light demanding pioneer species with the best growth found on acid freely draining sandy loams. Requires a warm summer climate, tolerates heat and drought, windfirm but susceptible to frost damage, therefore best suited to the drier lowland areas of Britain where it produces higher volumes than other . Will grow on most soils except moist or compacted ones, and will grow on calcareous soils provided these are well drained. It tolerates exposure and pollution and will grow well on sand dunes provided it is not directly exposed to salt spray. A species that was predicted to increase in importance with climate change, but its current vulnerability to Red Band Needle Blight means that its future role is uncertain. Austrian black pine (P. nigra var. austriaca) shows greater tolerance of chalk and limestone, and also withstands exposure. However, it is not as vigorous as and has poorer form than Corsican pine and so would only be used in special situations. LP Lodgepole pine (P. contorta); native to western North America. Adapted to cold and humid climate; windfirm; resistant to spring frost, exposure, air pollution and salt-laden winds, therefore suited to upland sites in north and west Britain. Will grow well even on poor and acid peats, and under any soil moisture regime. The litter is readily decomposable; on waterlogged sites the species shows shallow rooting, otherwise the initial tap root develops into a heart root system. Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta); native to western North America where it has an extensive natural range. A number of different provenances are distinguished which vary appreciably in form and vigour. South coastal origins should not be used, while Alaskan provenances are best suited for use in nursing mixtures. If pure stands are being planted, then Skeena or other interior provenances should be used – expert advice may be helpful. This is a pioneer and light demanding species which grows well on a wide range of nutrient poor soils from podsols through to peats. Its tolerance of acid peat soils explains its extensive use in upland afforestation and slower growing provenances (e.g. Alaskan LP) can be used as nurses for more sensitive species. It is resistant to winter cold, spring frost, exposure, air pollution and salt-laden winds, therefore suited to upland sites in north and west Britain. Interior provenances will tolerate dry conditions. The more vigorous and coarse coastal provenances can be seriously damaged by wind and snow. Unthinned stands have proved vulnerable to Red Band Needle Blight. It is unlikely to be a major species in the future but the tolerance of poor soils and extensive natural regeneration mean that mixtures with other species are likely to develop on many sites. SP Scots pine (P. sylvestris); native to north and west Britain. Adapted to continental climate, with low humidity and temperatures; frost hardy and windfirm but suffers from exposure. Grows well on acid to pH-neutral, light soils even of low fertility, provided they are well drained. Slowly decomposing litter may contribute to soil acidification; the typical tap root system may be modified by soil rootability. Scots pine (); native to north Scotland, and widespread in Europe from Scandinavia to central Spain. This wide distribution means that careful thought needs to be given to provenance choice. In the native pinewoods of north Scotland the appropriate local seed origin should be preferred. Elsewhere, material from seed orchards is recommended, although in western Britain seed from the western native pinewood zone should be considered. A light demanding pioneer species that grows well on acid to neutral, light soils of low fertility. Is better suited to drier soils but will colonise and grow slowly on peat. Does not tolerate alkaline soils. Will grow vigorously when planted on more fertile sites, but stem form is often poor. The species is frost hardy, drought tolerant and windfirm but suffers from exposure. A traditional afforestation species because of its ability to survive and grow under difficult conditions, and it can be a useful nurse for more demanding species. The tolerance of dry conditions makes this a valuable species for sites in eastern Britain where drought risk is likely to increase under climate change, although it has shown sensitivity to Red Band Needle Blight.

Soil nutrient regime Very poor Poor Medium Rich Very rich Carbonate Mor, Moder, Oligomull, Humus form Mor Eumull Eumull moder oligomull eumull Very dry CP LP SP CP LP SP CP LP SP CP LP SP CP LP SP CP Mod. dry CP LP SP CP LP SP CP LP SP CP LP SP CP LP SP CP

Slightly dry CP LP SP CP LP SP CP LP SP CP LP SP CP LP SP CP Fresh CP LP SP CP LP SP CP LP SP CP LP SP CP LP SP CP Moist CP LP SP CP LP SP CP LP SP CP LP SP CP LP SP CP regime Very moist CP LP SP CP LP SP CP LP SP CP LP SP CP LP SP CP

Soil moisture Soilmoisture Wet CP LP CP LP CP LP CP LP CP LP CP Very wet LP LP LP LP LP

Poplars ASP ( tremula); native to the British Isles. Very adaptable regarding climate conditions; frost hardy. Also adaptable in terms of site conditions but grows best on fertile, well-aerated soils with a high water table and sufficient moisture supply; does not tolerate stagnant water. Suitable for ‘problem sites’ such as moors, heavy loams and dry sandy soils. Improves humus layer by producing readily decomposable litter. Root system depends on soil conditions; lateral roots can reach very far.

PO Poplar (P. spp.); black poplar (P. nigra) native to Britain. Needs warmer climate than ASP, therefore more suited to sheltered sites in British lowlands. More demanding than ASP, requiring base-rich, highly fertile and well-aerated soils with ample water supply for good growth; tolerates seasonal flooding. Best on loams and deep sandy soils. Litter and root system similar to ASP. Black poplar (Populus nigra) and a number of black poplar clones (Populus x interamericana hybrids; P. trichocarpa clones); black poplar is a native species with a relict distribution along river valleys, mostly in southern Britain. Black poplar clones have been planted on suitable sites across much of lowland Britain. The various clones have been produced through breeding programmes in mainland Europe and vary in their quality and resistance to pathogens (e.g. rusts). Generally cold hardy throughout Britain, but can be damaged by late spring frosts. Reasonably tolerant of exposure which explains the use of this ‘species’ in shelterbelts for fruit farms. Clones from P. trichocarpa are better suited to the cooler climate of northern and western Britain while the black hybrids are favoured by the warmer conditions in southern Britain. They require fertile soils, of rich to very rich nutrient status, with fresh to moist soil moisture but not waterlogged or dry conditions. Alluvial soils or deep rich loams are ideal. Climate warming may allow the use of clones that are currently not hardy in Britain. Specialist advice should be obtained on the best clones to grow in a given location.

Soil nutrient regime Very poor Poor Medium Rich Very rich Carbonate Mor, Moder, Oligomull, Humus form Mor Eumull Eumull moder oligomull eumull Very dry Mod. dry

Slightly dry ASP ASP ASP ASP Fresh ASP ASP PO ASP PO ASP PO Moist ASP ASP PO ASP PO ASP PO regime Very moist ASP ASP PO ASP PO ASP PO

Soil moisture Soilmoisture Wet ASP ASP PO ASP PO ASP PO Very wet

Spruces NS Norway spruce (Picea abies); native to mountain areas of central Europe, and most of eastern and northern Europe. Accommodating with regard to climatic conditions as long as annual rainfall exceeds 850 mm; moderately windfirm; suffering from exposure, air pollution, and late spring frost at young age. Best growth on moist, sufficiently aerated soils of medium fertility such as sandy loams. The typical flat root system may contribute to soil compaction and the slowly decomposing litter can lead to accumulation of raw humus. Norway spruce (Picea abies); native to mountain areas of central and southern Europe, and most of eastern and northern Europe. Provenances from eastern Europe are generally preferable. Accommodating with regard to climatic conditions as long as annual rainfall exceeds 850 mm although can grow well on moist soils in drier regions. It is cold hardy but suffers from exposure, air pollution, and is vulnerable to late spring frosts at a young age (although less than Sitka spruce). It is an early successional species that is moderately shade tolerant. Best growth on moist, sufficiently aerated soils of poor to medium fertility such as sandy loams. Suffers from heather check and nitrogen deficiency on very nutrient poor soils. It is a lower volume producer than Sitka spruce on equivalent sites. The relatively slow early height growth made this a traditional nurse species for broadleaves in much of eastern Britain. Norway spruce is less tolerant of a windy climate than Sitka spruce, while its vulnerability to drought suggest that it will remain a minor species under climate change scenarios. SS Sitka spruce (P. sitchensis); native to a narrow belt along the west coast of North America. Adapted to maritime climate with high atmospheric moisture. Tolerant of exposure and more windfirm than NS, therefore suited to the upland parts of north and west Britain; suffers from late spring frost and air pollution. Similar soil condition requirements to NS, growing well on drained peats and gleys. If rooting is not restricted, SS produces a flat root system with tap roots. The flat root system and the slow litter decomposition can lead to long-term soil alterations similar to NS if the species is grown repeatedly on certain sites. Sitka spruce (); native to a narrow zone along the west coast of North America. Adapted to a maritime climate with high atmospheric moisture. Sites with less than 1000 mm rainfall per year should be avoided unless the soil is moist; therefore the species is therefore best suited to the upland parts of north and west Britain. Provenances from Queen Charlotte Islands (QCI) or Washington were preferred in the afforestation programmes of the last century, but genetically improved material is now widely available. This is a pioneer or early successional species of intermediate shade tolerance. It is tolerant of exposure and cold hardy, but suffers from late spring frosts and air pollution. It grows best on soils of poor or medium nutrient status with good moisture status and will tolerate drained peats and gleys. Sensitive to heather check on very poor soils, where it should be grown in mixture with pine or Japanese larch. Under the exposed humid conditions of much of upland Britain it is a high volume producer whose growth is mainly constrained by wind damage. In much of western Britain, the greater warmth and higher rainfall projected under climate change scenarios is likely to result in increased growth of Sitka spruce, whereas in eastern Britain drier conditions may increase the risk of drought crack and dieback.

Soil nutrient regime Very poor Poor Medium Rich Very rich Carbonate Mor, Moder, Oligomull, Humus form Mor Eumull Eumull moder oligomull eumull Very dry Mod. dry

Slightly dry NS SS NS SS NS SS NS SS NS Fresh NS SS NS SS NS SS NS SS NS Moist NS SS NS SS NS SS NS SS NS regime Very moist NS SS NS SS NS SS NS SS NS

Soil moisture Soilmoisture Wet NS SS NS SS NS SS NS SS NS Very wet

References:

Hibberd, B. G. (Ed.) (1991). Forestry Practice. Forestry Commission Handbook 6. HMSO, London. Joyce, P. M., Huss, J., Pfeifer, A., McCarthy, R., Hendrick, E. (1998). Growing broadleaves. Silvicultural guidelines for ash, sycamore, wild cherry, beech and oak in Ireland. COFORD, Dublin. NMELV (2004). Langfristige ökologische Waldentwicklung. Richtlinie zur Baumartenwahl [Long-term ecological development. Guideline to species selection]. Schriftenreihe Waldentwicklung Niedersachsen, Heft 54. Niedersächsisches Ministerium für den ländlichen Raum, Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz, Hannover. Pyatt, G., Ray, D. and Fletcher, J. (2001). An Ecological Site Classification for Forestry in . Forestry Commission Bulletin 124. Forestry Commission, Edinburgh. Savill, P.S. (1991). The of Trees used in British Forestry. CAB International, Wallingford. Thomasius, H. (1989). Waldbau. Monographien der forstwirtschaftlich wichtigsten Baumarten [Silviculture. Monographs of tree species important in forestry]. University of Technology, Dresden. Wagenführ, R. and Scheiber, C. (1989). Holzatlas. [Atlas of timber species.] VEB Fachbuchverlag, Leipzig.