Review Catalog for Regents U.S. History & Government

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Review Catalog for Regents U.S. History & Government Created by the New-York Historical Society’s Student Historians 2014-2015 1

How To Use This Guide:

The New-York Historical Society, one of America’s pre-eminent cultural institutions, is dedicated to fostering research, presenting history and art exhibitions, and public programs that reveal the dynamism of history and its influence on the world of today. Founded in 1804, New-York Historical has a mission to explore the richly layered political, cultural and social history of New York City and State and the nation, and to serve as a national forum for the discussion of issues surrounding the making and meaning of history.

Student Historians are high school interns at New-York Historical who explore our museum and library collection and conduct research using the resources available to them within a museum setting. Their project this academic year was to create a guide for fellow high school students preparing for U.S. History Exams, particularly the U.S. History & Government Regents Exam. Student Historians chose pieces from our collection that they felt represented a historical event or theme often tested on the exam, collected and organized their research, and wrote about their piece within the context of the event or theme. The intent is that this will provide a valuable supplemental review material for high school students preparing for U.S. History exams.

The following summative essays are all researched and written by the 2014-15 Student Historians, compiled in chronological order, and organized by unit. Each essay is prefaced with a title page depicting the object or artwork from the N-YHS collection that serves as the foundation for the US History content reviewed. Review questions and answers, taken from past US History & Government Regents exams, a guide to analyzing primary sources, and a supreme court case review follow the essays. Please use this guide not only as a resource, but as a workbook for your own active study for exams.

For more information on the New-York Historical Society and our opportunities for high school students please visit our website: http://www.nyhistory.org/education/teen-programs

Enjoy!

Chelsea Frosini Manager of Teen Programs

Hannah Batren Student Historian Program Assistant 2

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Unit One: Constitutional Foundations of the United States...... 4-20 a. Essays I. Rebels Vs. Loyalists in the American Revolution, Zuhra Tukhtamisheva...... 5 II. Water Pipes, Banking, and the Federalist Debate: The Story of the Manhattan Water Company and the Hamilton-Burr Conflict, Daniel Hizgilov...... 8 III. An Introduction to Partisan Politics, Balthazar Merrin...... 11 IV. The War Against Slavery, Indira Bridges...... 15 V. Reconstruction and the Early Civil Rights Struggle, Miriam-Helene Rudd...... 17

Unit Two: Industrialization of the United States...... 21-32 a. Essays I. Industrialization’s Effects on Women & Children, Guljar Nahar...... 22 II. Industry and Efficiency During the Gilded Age, Daniel Stambler...... 25 III. Immigration and The Gilded Age, Whitney Tam...... 28 IV. Imperialism, Industrialization, Progressivism & the Childhood Experience, Samuel Clarke...... 30

Unit Three: The Progressive Movement...... 33-41 a. Essays I. The Beginning of Women’s Liberation, Diana Martinez...... 34 II. The Progressive Era, Idalis Gomez...... 37 III. The American Desire of Expansion, Emmanuella Saforo...... 39

Unit Four: At Home and Abroad: Prosperity and Depression...... 42-57 a. Essays I. The Iron-Jawed Angels, Nadia Mushib...... 43 II. The Roaring Twenties, Ivan Lenoyr...... 46 III. Finally Joining the Great Party, The Yanks Enter WWI, Benjamin Lang...... 49 IV. The Evolution of the Gold Standard in the United States, Ethan Gelfer...... 52 V. The New Deal, Ellie Kohn...... 55

3 Unit Five: The United States in an Age of Global Crisis: Responsibility and Cooperation..58-67 I. Total War in World War II, Isaiah Milbauer...... 59 II. Women and African-Americans in World War II, Nicaurys Rodriguez...... 62 III. A Cold War Overview, Asia Matthews...... 65

Unit Six: A World in Uncertain Times...... 68-78 a. Essays I. Civil Rights, Justice Prevailed, Kalani Davis-Grey...... 69 II. The Fight For Civil Liberties and Rights, Abasenia Joie Asuquo...... 71 III. The Controversial 70’s, Mikai Johnson-Harris...... 74 IV. By Any Means Necessary: ACT UP and Art, Ads, and Media, Thea Moerman...... 77

Practice Questions For Each Unit...... 79-90 Answer Key...... 91

Educational Supplements...... 92-101 a. Know These Supreme Court Cases...... 93 b. How To Analyze A Document (Image)...... 95 c. How To Analyze A Document (Text Document)...... 101

Index...... 102-106 4 UNIT ONE: CONSTITUTIONAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES

Essays In This Unit Include: I. Rebels Vs. Loyalists in the American Revolution, Zuhra Tukhtamisheva, Stuyvesant High School...... 5

II. Water Pipes, Banking, and the Federalist Debate: The Story of the Manhattan Water Company and the Hamilton-Burr Conflict Daniel Hizgilov, Tenafly High School...... 8

III. An Introduction to Partisan Politics Balthazar Merrin, United Nations International School...... 11

IV. The War Against Slavery Indira Bridges, Pace University High School...... 15

V. Reconstruction and the Early Civil Rights Struggle Miriam-Helene Rudd, Eleanor Roosevelt High School...... 17 5 Unit One: Constitutional Foundation of the United States

Fragment of the equestrian statue of King George III (tail)

The fragment of an equestrian statue of King George (tail) was initially a part of Joseph Wilton’s statue of King George III. The statue was a replica of a famous equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius on the Capitoline Hill in Rome. Wilton’s statue was placed Joseph Wilton, Fragment of the equestrian statue of King George III (tail), 1770-1776, Collection of the in Bowling Green and it was the first equestrian statue New-York Historical Society, Inventory Number: raised in the American colonies. 1878.6.

The equestrian statue was initially supposed to model William Pitt the Elder, a parliamentarian who helped repeal the hated Stamp Act in 1776. However putting up a statue of Pitt before that of the King in New York City was considered undiplomatic due to the tensions between the colonies and England. The General Assembly of New York settled all the disputes by proposing the project of making an equestrian statue for King George III. The authority over this project was given to Joseph Wilton, who was the chosen artist to sculpt the King in his likeness in 1764 and was well known for his Neoclassical sculptures. The raising of this statue on April 26, 1770, was accompanied by a pompous ceremony. Cadwallader Colden, a Lieutenant Governor who was serving that day recalls that the event: was attended on this occasion by the Gentlemen of the Council, and Members of the Assembly then in Town, the Magistrates of the City, the Clergy of all Denominations and a very large number of the principal inhabitants…Loyalty, firm attachment and affection to his Majesty’s person was expressed by drinking the kings Health. And a long continuance of his reign, under a discharge of 32 pieces of Canon.

The statue weighed 4,000 pounds and was made out of gilded lead. It stood only for six years, until the Declaration of Independence was read aloud in New York on July 9, 1776. After the Declaration of Inde- pendence was read aloud in 1776, a crowd of Rebels tore down the statue from its pedestal with ropes. Legend says that Loyalists in Wilton, Connecticut, captured this tail while the statue was on its way to Litchfield, Connecticut to be melted into 42,088 bullets for the Continental Army. The tail was not the only fragment that was saved; the left arm, thigh and saddle mounting is currently located in the Lambert Family collection, the foreleg is owned by the Glanz Family, the Royal cloak is in the Connecticut State Library, the gilded cloak is in the Wilton Historical Society, pieces of tail, flank and saddle are in the New-York Historical Society, and the location of the other fragments is either unknown or in the Museum of the City of New York. Unit One: Constitutional Foundation of the United States 6

Rebels Vs. Loyalists in the American Revolution

King George III ruled as a monarch of Great Britain and Ireland from 1760 until his death in 1820. In these sixty years, he gained British victory in the Seven Years’ War, also known as the “French and Indian War.” He fought back Revolutionary France and lost the British colonies in North America due to the Ameri- can Revolution. The violence demonstrated towards King George III’s statue was a reflection of the colonists’ anger towards the oppression from the British monarchy. From 1765 to 1774, colonists believed that the Ministry and the Parliament, not the King, enforced the injustices from the Stamp Act to the Coercive Acts. In reality however, the King has a direct role in the passage of these oppressive acts. The passing of the Quebec Act, New England Restraining Act, and the Coercive Acts, made King George III lose the colonists’ loyalty.

The Quebec Act extended the boundaries of Quebec and secured the religious rights of Catholic Ca- nadians. It was a threat to the colonies because the Province of Quebec was extended west to the Mississippi, north to Hudson’s Bay territory, and the islands on the tip of the St. Lawrence river. The religious freedom granted to the Canadian Catholics gave them an advantage of holding public offices, while the colonists were denied from these positions. There were also tensions between the Catholic groups in Quebec and the major Protestant groups in the colonies. Although in Britain Catholicism was viewed down upon, the Quebec Act was put in place so Britain could gain the loyalty of the Canadians. As a result, during the American Revolution, the colonists failed to gain the support of Canadians. The enforcement of the New England Restraining Act by King George III, was aimed to make the British colonies become heavily dependant on Britain. This act pressured the colonies to exclusively trade with Great Britain.

The Coercive Acts were a series of four acts passed as a punishment for the American Patriots. The British Parliament imposed these acts as a response to the Boston Tea Party, during which a revolutionary group, the Sons of Liberty, dumped 342 crates of tea into the water as a protest against the Tea Act. The four Coercive Acts were the Boston Port Act, which closed the Boston port, the Massachusetts Government Act, which prohibited Massachusetts from democratic practices, the Administration of Justice Act, which freed British officials from criminal prosecutions, and the Quartering Act, which obliged colonists to house and provide accommodations for British troops in their homes. 7 Unit One: Constitutional Foundation of the United States

The rebels actioned petitions, demonstrations, and protests. The British Parliament, ministers, and the King were in agreement that all rebel efforts were pointless. The rebels were also known as the Patriots, while their revolutionary adversaries were the Loyalists. Loyalists were against the colonies gaining independence from Britain for several reasons. They were strongly attached to their cultural heritage from Britain and therefore had a sense of loyalty towards the King. In addition, many of them sought financial opportunities in the Trans- Atlantic trade with England. Patriots on the other hand felt that their rights were violated by all the acts passed by the British monarchy and thus had a desire to become an independent nation. Eventually, the Patriots succeeded in their propaganda and these actions sparked the American Revolution. On the day of the statue’s destruction, George Washington was promoted to Commander-in-Chief and read aloud the Declaration of Independence to his troops and the citizens of New York City. Thomas Jefferson stated 27 grievances against the King and said, “A Prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people.” The destruction of the King’s statue symbolized the broken bond between the colonies and tyrannical rule. The Patriots achieved their goal.

Bibliography Marks, Arthur S. “THE STATUE OF KING GEORGE III IN NEW YORK AND THE ICONOLOGY OF REGICIDE.” The American Art Journal 13, no. 3 (1981): 61-82. Staff, History.com. “George III.” History.com. January 1, 2009. Accessed April 1, 2015. http://www.history.com/topics/british-history/ george-iii. Staff, History.com. “British Parliament Adopts the Coercive Acts.” History.com. January 1, 2009. Accessed April 1, 2015. http://www. history.com/this-day-in-history/british-parliament-adopts-the-coercive-acts. Staff, History.com. “King George Endorses New England Restraining Act.” History.com. January 1, 2009. Accessed April 1, 2015. http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/king-george-endorses-new-england-restraining-act. “Loyalists, Fence-sitters, and Patriots.” Ushistory.org. Accessed April 1, 2015. http://www.ushistory.org/us/11b.asp. Ruppert, Bob. “The Statue of George III | Journal of the American Revolution.” Journal of the American Revolution. September 8, 2014. Accessed April 1, 2015. http://allthingsliberty.com/2014/09/the-statue-of-george-iii/. Unit One: Constitutional Foundation of the United States 8 Section of Water Pipe

This section of a water pipe was excavated at Liberty Street and was later gifted to the New-York Historical Society by Stoughton and Stoughton in 1953. Its is made from an amber-brown wood that is circular in shape with a hole bored through the center for water to travel through. The pipes that were laid in 1804 were made from pine that originated in Yonkers, which includes this section of pipe. During that time pine was cheaper and considered to be a wood that was more resilient to moisture than hard woods like oak Section of water pipe, 1770-1805, Collection of the New-York and maple. Historical Society, Inventory Number: 1953.308S. In 1798, New York City was plagued by a Yel- apparent as citizens began noting the poor quality of low Fever epidemic. As part of an effort to combat the the new drinking water. spread of disease, the State Legislature of New York The city of New York officially proclaimed searched for ways to improve the ineffective water the water to be “wholesome,” but accounts from supply system which attributed to the spread of dis- primary sources claimed that, “its quality did not ease. In 1799, a group of suitors emerged, headlined give entire satisfaction” as evidenced by, “the mud- by prominent statesman Aaron Burr. Burr appealed to diness of the water in the glass,” (Project Guten- the State Legislature and ultimately received a charter berg, 14). The reason for this poor quality of drink- along with $2,000,000 to build the pipes, a large bud- ing water was inadequate placement, which allowed get for public works during that time period. the pipes to be contaminated with raw sewage wa- Upon receiving the charter to found the compa- ter. This would become the cause of major Cholera ny, Burr established the Bank of the Manhattan Com- outbreaks over the next half-century. pany which set about installing the new water system. While the water system failed to improve the qual- Unfortunately, he was more focused on politics and ity of drinking water in New York City, The Bank banking than public works. As a result, the quality of of the Manhattan Company continued to grow the project was subpar as funds were diverted from the and develop until its eventual merger with Chase water project to make investments for the Bank of the Bank, and later J.P. Morgan and Co. By 1842, the Manhattan Company. Within the charter was a clause new Croton Aqueduct system was installed, which allowing Burr to spend the budget on any activity “not provided the City with the quality drinking water inconsistent with the Constitution and laws of the necessary for its exponentially growing population. United States,” (Project Gutenberg, 11). The new water system was installed in 1799 under provision of the Manhattan Company. Immedi- ately, the effects of Burr’s misuse of funds became 9 Unit One: Constitutional Foundation of the United States

Water Pipes, Banking, and the Federalist Debate: The Story of the Manhattan Water Company and the Hamilton-Burr Conflict

The Federalist debate and subsequent formation of political parties in the United States has come to define the period of time immediately following the North American Colonies’ victory over British Empire. It was during these years that two upstart politicians waged a bitter war against each other for ideological and political influence over the fledgling nation. Their conflict would be remembered for its tragic climax, but in the years leading up to their fateful confrontation, a duel would be fought over an unlikely source; a polluted water supply in New York and the implications it would have on ideals of the nation. Aaron Burr was born on February 6, 1756 in Newark, New Jersey. As the son of a prominent rever- end, growing up in a wealthy family, Burr was fast-tracked into an officer position in George Washington’s Continental Army but was quickly transferred after constantly arguing with Washington over troop movement decisions. After the American Revolution, he was admitted to the New York State Bar and became a successful lawyer. In 1789, he was appointed Attorney General of the State of New York and used the position to develop strong ties to the State Legislature. He would later serve as a US Senator and as Vice President under Democratic-Republican President Thomas Jefferson. Burr was a masterful politician but along the way he acquired a powerful enemy in Alexander Hamil- ton, the first Secretary of the Treasury. Hamilton came from a background starkly different from that of Burr. Born in the British West Indies, Hamilton was raised in a broken household. His father had fled the family and left the young Alexander and his mother to fend for themselves. Hamilton had to claw his way into politics, developing a friendship with George Washington which allowed him to rise to prominence. He would become the single greatest influence on the early treasury system and spearheaded the campaign to establish the National Debt -- a system of borrowing money from other nations, designed to provide the United States with funding necessary to finance development. Burr and Hamilton first met as young officers in George Washington’s Continental Army. The two were friendly and cordial until a dispute over officer promotions and Washington’s favoritism for Hamil- ton created a divide between them. The rift became a feud in 1791 when Burr was elected over Hamilton’s father-in-law, Philip Schuyler, to become a New York Senator in Congress. Hamilton had become the most prominent politician in New York and Burr’s sudden rise to prominence put Hamilton on the offensive. The two would attempt to politically undermine each other on numerous occasions leading up to 1799 and the formation of Burr’s Bank of the Manhattan Company. The creation of the bank highlighted the core differences regarding Burr and Hamilton's political ideologies. Burr was a Democratic-Republican; a close ally of Thomas Jefferson, who believed in limiting the role of the Federal government to preserve private interests and the rights of the states. Earlier in Burr’s career he had been opposed to ratification of the U.S. Constitution as he feared it would provide the platform for a tyrannical government to suppress individual rights. Hamilton, on the other hand, was a staunch Unit One: Constitutional Foundation of the United States 10 proponent of strengthening the role of central government to provide stability for the young nation. He was a Federalist and had worked with James Madison and John Jay to write The Federalist Papers, a series of pamphlets describing the goals and motivations of the Constitutional Convention. According to Hamilton, “if mankind were to resolve to agree in no institution of government, until every part of it had been adjusted to the most exact standard of perfection, society would soon become a general scene of anarchy, and the world a desert,” (Hamilton et al. 1788, 80). Without a strong governing body, a society would become dis- orderly and cease to provide protection and stability to its citizens. Looking to end the disorganized political system that was in place under the de-centralized Articles of Confederation, the states all eventually ratified the Constitution, establishing our current federal government. After originally planning to propose their plan for the new water system together, Burr increased the ire of Hamilton by excluding him from the charter that would be signed by the State Legislature and by including a clause that would allow him to focus on banking interests. Burr’s intent was to use the bank to promote the privatization of utilities; a way of preventing government influence on necessities such as water. By privatizing the water supply system, Burr hoped to set the precedent for other private companies to form, which could regulate utilities and keep the maintenance of these services in the hands of private citizens. Hamilton’s main grievance was that Burr would use the water system as a political bargaining chip; that the funds generated by the bank would be used to promote corruption and that this would fund Burr’s political allies (all of which did occur). For the federal government to succeed in creating economic stability, Hamilton argued, banking interests must be controlled by the government alone. Having a centralized bank, along with government assumption of State debts, would stimulate the economy and promote national development. Burr and the Democratic-Republicans rebutted this by claiming that centralized control of the banks and State debts would allow for the government to take funding from the states, pressure them into compliance and, as a result, tyrannically infringe on their rights. The fiery debate between Hamilton and Burr serves as a reflection of the political environment present in the young United States. The argument over whether or not to strengthen the federal government laid the foundation for a partisan system to form, which would represent a multitude of diverse political viewpoints. It is the alternating representation of these political perspectives that has directed the growth of the United States and allowed for the varied political expression that has made this nation uniquely successful in it’s rapid development and rise to global prominence. 11 Unit One: Constitutional Foundation of the United States

Aaron Burr Alexander Hamilton Bibliography "Aaron Burr | Biography - Vice President of the United States." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Accessed March 25, 2015. http:// www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/85757/Aaron-Burr "Aaron Burr Opens Earliest Predecessor Firm | J.P. Morgan." Aaron Burr Opens Earliest Predecessor Firm | J.P. Morgan. Accessed March 25, 2015. https://www.jpmorgan.com/pages/jpmorgan/about/history/month/sept "Alexander Hamilton | Biography - United States Statesman." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Accessed March 25, 2015. http://www. britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/253372/Alexander-Hamilton Bank of the Manhattan Company Chartered 1799: A Progressive Commercial Bank. New York, New York: Project Gutenberg, 2005. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/17374/17374-h/17374-h.htm "Federalism." Cornell University Law School. Accessed March 25, 2015. https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/federalism Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison, The Federalist Papers. (Auckland: Floating Press, 2011). 220-226. Gerard Koeppel, "Historic Wooden Water Pipes Unearthed." Friends of the Old Croton Aqueduct. July 14, 2005.Accessed March 7, 2015. http://aqueduct.org/newsletter/pipe-dreams Brian Phillips Murphy, "A Very Convenient Instrument": The Manhattan Company, Aaron Burr, and the Election of 1800." The Wil liam and Mary Quarterly, 2008, 233-66. Accessed March 29, 2015. http://blogs.baruch.cuny.edu//brianmurphy/files/2009/10/ WMQuarterly.Murphy.pdf Andy Newman, "Intact Pipes From 1800s Once Carried Water, Though Not Very Well." New York Times, April 13, 2013. Accessed February 16, 2015.http://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/04/18/early-water-delivery-system-in-the-city-cut-corners-and- trees/?_r=0 James Parton, The Life and Times of Aaron Burr, Lieutenant-Colonel in the Army of theRevolution, United States Senator, Vice-Presi dent of the United States, (New York: Mason Bros, 1858), 233-240.https://books.google.com/books?id=ax9EAQAAMA AJ&lpg=PA487&ots=LhKil45T9u&dq=James%20Parton%2C%20The%20Life%20and%20Times%20of%20Aaron%20 Burr%2C%20Lieutenant-Colonel%20in%20the%20Army%20of&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q=James%20Parton,%20The%20 Life%20and%20Times%20of%20Aaron%20Burr,%20Lieutenant-Colonel%20in%20the%20Army%20of&f=false Staff, NCC. "Burr vs. Hamilton: Behind the Ultimate Political Feud." Constitution Daily. July 11, 2014. Accessed March 31, 2015. http://blog.constitutioncenter.org/2014/07/burr-vs-hamilton-behind-the-ultimate-political-feud/ Alfred Billings Street, The Council of Revision of the State of New York Its History, a History of the Courts with Which Its Members Were Connected, Biographical Sketches of Its Members, and Its Vetoes (New York: W. Gould, 1859), 423. Elise Stevens Wilson, The Battle over the Bank: Hamilton v. Jefferson, Gilder Lehrman, The Battle over the Bank: Hamilton v. Jef ferson. Accessed March 30, 2015. http://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/age-jefferson-and-madison/resources/battle- over-bank-hamilton-v-jefferson 12 Unit One: Constitutional Foundation of the United States H.W. Mortimer & Company, Pair of flintlock dueling pistols with case and accessories, 1780-1800, Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Gherardi Davis and Ellen King, Inventory Number: 1910.30a-h.

Pair of flintlock dueling pistols with case and accessories

The pistols were originally examined in the Smithsonian, then gifted to the New-York Historical Society by Mr. and Mrs. Gherardi Davis and Ellen King. Created by the renowned Wogdon & Barton Gunsmiths in Lon- don circa 1797, these wood, brass, iron and silver flintlock pistols are considered the pinnacle of dueling weap- onry. Using traditional designs, Wogdon Gunsmiths employed an 10 ¾” octagon barrel. Wogdon also chose to create a bagged-shaped checkered wooden handle with a swirl-lined butt. Eloquent iron and silver apparatuses lend a utilitarian yet stylish approach to the pistols. Silver oval wedge escutcheons, nose cap, and shield-shaped escutcheon plates are but a few of the pistol’s components. They are decorated with inlaid brass floral bands, flags, halberds, and Britannia shields. Engraved war trophies can be found at the breech end of the barrel and at the center of the lock plate. Brass floral designs decorate the lock plate tail and barrel tang. As a special request the pistols were made with sensitive hair triggers, giving the wielder an advantage over his opponent. The sleek design is a complete 15 7/8” and was as ornamental as it was practical. These pistols were former Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton’s weapon of choice during the infamous Burr-Hamilton Duel. By 1801, incumbent Vice President Aaron Burr and former Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton were bitter rivals. A number of clashes between the two renowned statesmen precipitated their final brawl. Before ever meeting, Hamilton’s and Burr’s contrasting political views would set the scene for their eventual hostility. Hamilton, a prominent Federalist, believed in a strong central government and national banking system. Conversely, Burr was an Anti-Federalist and favored a strong state government, as well as opposed the idea of a national bank. Their woes began in 1781, when Burr took a senate seat from Hamilton’s father-in-law, Philip Schuyler. Ten- sions continued to rise when Burr released Hamilton’s private criticism of Federalist President John Adams in 1800. In 1804, during Burr’s campaign for Governor of New York, Hamilton attempted to persuade prominent members in New York to work against Burr. In a calculated move, Burr challenged Hamilton to a duel after the scathing remarks regarding him were released to the press. On July 11, 1804, Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr met in Weehawken, New Jersey to duel. Both fired upon each other, but Hamilton’s hair triggers failed, he missed his mark and was subsequently shot by Burr. Hamilton would die the next day due to the gunshot wound in his stomach, but his legacy would continue to live on. 13 Unit One: Constitutional Foundation of the United States An Introduction to Partisan Politics After the events of the Revolutionary War, the newly formed United States of America found itself in a precarious position. Between 1776 and 1790 the US was an empty canvas, ready for the Founding Fathers to lay the framework for what would later become the world’s greatest superpower. The young country stood at a crossroad; it could either consolidate power into a central federal government or it could simply become a com- position of highly powerful states. On July 11, 1804, the Federalist, Alexander Hamilton and the Anti-federalist, Aaron Burr would meet on a dueling ground in Weehawken, New Jersey to settle a long standing dispute. This infamous duel represents the violent clash of two opposing political ideologies in what would later be known as the Federalist Debates.

The Constitutional Convention of 1787 was a pivotal moment for the Federalists and the Anti-Fed- eralist. At this momentous event, America’s Founding Fathers debated policy to replace the ineffective government created by the Articles of Confederation. Intense debate between the opposing political foes shaped the Constitution into it’s current form. Prominent Anti-Federalists, such as Thomas Jefferson, Aaron Burr, Samuel Adams, and George Mason, argued the need for a weaker Federal Government. They believed that each state should have the final say regarding their own domestic matters and the ability to impose taxes as they saw fit. Furthermore, they argued that the President should have extremely limited power and that Senate terms should be greatly reduced. The Anti-Federalists represented the interests of rural and agricultural America, they thought a Federal Government would simply forget and dismiss their civil liberties. During 1787-1788, John Jay, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton looked to address and refute the concerns of the Anti-Federalist party in the group of 85 articles and essays called the Federalist Pa- pers. They believed that the United States deserved a strong central government in order to unite the nation. They were reassured that a central government would not be able to abuse power due to the check and balance system created to balance each of the Executive, Legislative and Judicial branches of government. One of the most prominent Federalists, Al- exander Hamilton, greatly furthered the cause of his party. Born in 1755 in the French West Indies, Al- A romanticized view of the Burr-Hamilton duel, July 11, 1804, from an 1890 American history textbook. https://streetsofsalem. exander Hamilton would soon become a household files.wordpress.com/2012/07/duel-hamilton-1890.jpg name and a Founding Father of the United States of America. Hamilton greatly romanticized the idea of war. When fighting between the British and Rebels broke out he quickly joined the ranks of the separatist movement. Hamilton quickly rose through the ranks, by 1777 he was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel of the Continental Army. While serving in New York, Hamilton befriended General George Washington. A close bond quickly developed and Washington recognized the extreme intelligence and pragmatism of young Hamilton.

14 Unit One: Constitutional Foundation of the United States

Upon being named the first president of the United States, George Washington appointed Hamilton as Secretary of Treasury. During this role, Hamilton was able to make his greatest contribution to the Federalist party and solidify the role of the Federal Government. Hamilton decided to nationalize all state debt. Despite vehement opposition, Hamilton was able to enact this policy, believing that putting the government in charge of all debt would firmly secure its importance and power in American politics, and that it was the only way to receive a positive credit on the international level. The likes of Jefferson and Burr bitterly opposed this new system, claiming that it put too much pressure on farmers and was unconstitutional. The Federalist Debates paved the way for our modern pluralistic political culture. The intense rivalry that existed between those such as Hamilton and Jefferson shaped America in its formative years. Ultimately, the policies that Hamilton enacted had widespread success. Hamilton’s foresight allowed him to recognize the importance of emerging businesses and to solidify the position of the Federal Government. His policies set the foundation for America to become the modern financial giant that it is today. Unfortunately, Hamilton’s politics also led to his downfall. In 1804, a series of twistful events led to a bitter hatred between Hamilton and prominent politician Aaron Burr. Hamilton did not want to see this Anti-Federalist become Governor of his home state, New York. The press was able to attain a transcript of remarks Hamilton made while trying to dissuade New York elite from supporting Burr. Once the remarks were made public, Burr challenged Hamilton to a duel. On July 11, 1804, Hamilton sustained a gunshot wound to his stomach and subsequently died the next day. The duel stands as an infamous reminder of the bitter rivalry that existed between the Federalist and Anti-Federal.

Bibliography “Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr’s Duel.” PBS. 2000. accessed April 29, 2015. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/duel/peo pleevents/pande17.html “Alexander Hamilton: The Man Who Made America.” New-York Historical Society. accessed April 29, 2015. http://www.alexander hamiltonexhibition.org/ Burns, Andrew. “Alexander Hamilton’s Point.” Hamilton Point Investment. July 12, 2012. accessed April 29, 2015. http://hamilton point.com/alexander-hamiltons-point/ “Hamilton’s Economic Policy.” Boundless. accessed April 29, 2015. https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/textbooks/boundless-u-s- history-textbook/the-federalist era-1789-1801-10/hamilton-s-economic-policy-87/hamilton-s-economic-policy-484-3380/ “The Pistols that Killed a Founding Father-Behind the Scenes,”. New-York Historical Society, accessed April 29, 2015. http://be hindthescenes.nyhistory.org/the-pistol-that-killed-a-founding-father/ “The Federalist Debates: Balancing Power Between State and Federal Governments,” EDSITEment, accessed April 29, 2015. http:// edsitement.neh.gov/lesson-plan/federalist-debates-balancing-power-between-state-and-federal-governments “The Federalist Papers,” FoundingFathers.info, accessed April 29, 2015,http://www.foundingfathers.info/federalistpapers/ 15 Unit One: Constitutional Foundation of the United States Returned Volunteer: How The Fort Was Taken John Rogers was an American sculptor who primarily created pieces specific to a time period’s social and political issues, which he called groups. In this bronze sculpture called Return Volunteer: How the Fort Was Taken from his Civil War group, Rogers depicts the less explored perspective of wartime art, the families of soldiers. Generally, Civil War art encompasses the emotional and physical struggle of the soldier at war, but Roger brought forth the feelings of those the soldier left behind at home. In this model, Rogers illustrates a soldier returning from battle to a older working man and a young child to tell of the defeat of the Union at the Battle of Fort Sumpter,which initiated the Civil War. It is significant that the soldier tells his story to this man and child because the scene is made up of characters who have a very familial pres- John Rogers, Returned Volunteer: How The Fort Was Taken, 1864, Gift of Miss Miriam Egbert Greenwood ence. The artist poses the question about where praise is due, School in memory of her father, Mr. George Drew Eg- is it those who remained in the household and job oriented or bert, Inventory Number: 1940.845. those who defended the nation during times of war. The model reflects sympathy for both sides.. The young innocent girl holding the older man's hand, possibly her grandfather, shows the importance of a parental figure to be present during a child's development for comfort and economic support, while the soldier telling of the defeat shows how important the men who become involved in war are significant to the outcome and effect on the nation. To Rogers it was important to display both perspectives because both represented his feelings after being drafted. He never viewed himself as a soldier like yet he was aware of how society reacted to those who refused the position. Although he never actively fought, Rogers provided comfort to all who were affected during warfare that they would be appreciated whether they went to the front or stayed at home. The War Against Slavery The Civil War was a culmination of sectional tensions that arose during the first half of the 1800’s, mainly over the question of the federal government’s stance on slavery. Majority of the states in support of slavery and who also seceded to form the Confederate States of America were in the South. The majority of states in the North supported paid labor, and did not secede from the Union. The institution of slavery became entrenched in southern planting states after the explosion of the cotton industry. The southern gentry class de- pended on slavery because the productivity that was garnered from using a system of forced labor generated a large portion of income to the Southern states. As the Northern states expanded the free market economics ideology, feelings toward slavery changed in the North. In 1803, during the presidency of Thomas Jefferson, a large piece of land, the Louisiana Purchase Territory was purchased from the French ruler, Napoleon Bonaparte for fifteen million dollars. The land acquired from this transaction doubled the size of America and made way for the creation of fifteen more states Unit One: Constitutional Foundation of the United States 16

to be added to the nation. Although the tension between the North and South originated before the the addition of the new territory, the new land exacerbated the intensity of the debate. The Northerners wished to keep the new territory free of slavery while the South advocated for the expansion of slavery in the new states. The controversy over slavery in the Louisiana Purchase territory found its way onto the floor of Congress. In an effort to settle disputes within the government, the Missouri Com- promise drew a definite line between free and slave states. Furthermore, the Gag Rule prevented any debate over the abolition of slavery in Congress. For several decades, the issue of slavery was not resolved and debate was suppressed and tensions were muted. Tensions reemerged in full force after the Mexican Cession and Mexican-American War (1846-1848) when the nation grew in size once again with the acquisition of land on the Pacific Coast. The main debates were over the status of the new territories. Some compromises proposed included elongating the Missouri Compromise line, giving power to the states to decide their status, and allowing the people of the new lands to decide the status of the state known as popular sovereignty. As disputes furthered, aggression increased amongst Southerners. In 1860, South Carolina passed an Ordinance of Secession and ten other states followed to create the Confederate States of America. President Abraham Lincoln viewed the secession as an attack on the constitution and vowed to “preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution,” to reestablish the Union . In 1861,a call for arms was issued by both regions, which furthered conflict amongst the citizens of both nations. The demand for soldiers was very high however, willingness to join the war effort lacked in the North. Many men valued family life, their jobs, and their own personal safety over the needs of Lincoln, which led to forced enrollment called military drafts. This tactic revealed to Northerners the underlying economic motives of the drafts, as the rich were able to pay their way out of war and the poor were forced to fight, which coined the phrase a “rich man’s war and poor man’s fight.” In response, large, violent demonstrations were held to resist the draft like the New York City Draft Riots in 1863. Although Lincoln’s primary intentions were to uphold the Union, Congress began to shift the focus of the war to the emancipation of slaves. In 1862, Congress eradicated slavery in the capital, District of Columbia and prohibited Union soldiers from returning fugitive slaves back to their masters. In 1863, President Lincoln issued his Emancipation Proclamation, in which he stated all slaves in the rebelling states will be freed. In practice however, the proclamation was ineffective because it failed to free the slaves in the border states apart of the Union and emancipated slaves based on Union victories in the South. However, it was successful in persuading blacks to fight with the Union for their freedom. It wasn't until Spring 1865 when Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered his troops to Union General Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House, that organized fighting subsided in the nation. How- ever, it did not mean a peaceful, happy ending for all. For the next twelve years America would be on a path of reconstruction, in which the nation struggled to reintegrate and a new fight for civil rights for blacks emerged. Bibliography John Rogers, John Rogers: American Stories (New York: New-York Historical Society, 2010): 34 Michael Clapper, Reconstructing a Family: John Roger’s Taking the Oath and Drawing Rations (Winterthur Portfolio Vol 39, Number 4, 2004): 259-78 John McGeehan and Gall Morris, Let's Review: U.S. History and Government (New York: Barron's Educational Series, 2007): 108-11 17 Unit One: Constitutional Foundation of the United States Return of the 69th (Irish) Regiment, N.Y.S.M. from the Seat of War

Louis Lang, Return of the 69th (Irish) Regiment, N.Y.S.M. from the Seat of War, 1862-1863, Gift of Louis Lang, Inventory Number: 1886.3. This painting depicts the 69th (Irish) Regiment, New York State Militia, returning home from the first Battle of Bull Run, which took place on July 21, 1861. While in the painting the crowd seems to be celebrating the regiment's return, Bull Run was actually a defeat for the Union troops! Colonel Michael Corcoran of the 69th, whose portrait is shown in the lower right of the painting, was even captured. Al- though early in the battle the opposing armies were equally untrained and well matched, after the Confeder- ate army received reinforcements, the Union soldiers were driven back. Since it was one of the first major battles of the American Civil War, people were not yet aware of the horrors to come, and civilians actually came along to picnic and watch the fight! Once there they became frightened and fled, clogging the roads and causing such confusion that the Northern troops panicked and fled as well.This naiveté was shared by both sides, as each were very confident in their success and believed that they would defeat the other in a matter of months. The Union and Confederacy were sadly mistaken, and the Civil War turned out to be the deadliest conflict in American history. Louis Lang, a German immigrant born in 1814, painted the scene between 1862 and 1863 and do- nated it to the New-York Historical Society in 1886. Lang first studied art in Stuttgart and Paris, afterwards coming to America as a young man. By the 1850's he was a member of the National Academy and had established himself as an artist in New York. In the painting above, which is thought to have been commissioned by the 69th regiment themselves, Lang masterfully captured the scene of the return as well as the sense of 18 Unit One: Constitutional Foundation of the United States

joy and celebration. This is especially important as it points to the same naiveté shown by those who came to watch the battle. Lang includes allusions to death, through the weeping willow and injured men, but he most certainly did not intend the onlooker to dwell upon the sadness of the scene. Rather, he wished to portray a celebration of service and patriotism. It is sad that this dedicated service, which resulted in so many deaths, did not end the pain and suffering. At the end of the Civil War, while the Union won and slavery was abolished, the difficult process of Reconstruction had yet to be endured.

Col. Michael Corcoran, at the Battle of Bull Run, Va.-July 21st 1861: The desperate Lt. E.K. Butler, 69th N.Y.S.M., and bloody charge of the "Gallant Sixty Ninth," on the rebel batteries, http://www. http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/ loc.gov/pictures/resource/ppmsca.08407/ cwp2003003448/pp/ Reconstruction and the Early Civil Rights Struggle Even though the Civil War ended and slavery was abolished in 1865, the fight for civil rights continued. The costly battles of the war were replaced with political disagreements concerning how to approach Recon- struction. Slavery was replaced with oppressive policies towards former enslaved people. President Abraham Lincoln’s policy for Reconstruction was a moderate approach based on the belief that the South never legally left the Union. In 1863, he wrote his “Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruc- tion.” It stated that all Southerners, excluding Confederate and military officials, were to be pardoned for their partaking in secession after taking an oath of allegiance to the Union. After at least 10% of voters in a state had taken the oath, that state would be allowed to form a legitimate government recognized by the federal government in Washington, D.C.. Radical Republicans disagreed with Lincoln’s plan, and wanted a more punitive approach. Their plan for Reconstruction was based upon the belief that the states that had seceded from the Union reverted to ter- ritorial status, and thus needed congressional legislature to be readmitted. The Wade-Davis bill, passed in 1864, called for at least 50% of voters to pledge their allegiance before a state could be readmitted to the Union. Lin- coln blocked the bill with a veto because it would have delayed the readmittance of the Southern states to the Union, and he wanted a more tolerant approach.

19 Unit One: Constitutional Foundation of the United States

Abraham Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth only six days after Robert E. Lee’s un- conditional surrender at the Appomattox Court House. Andrew Johnson, a Democrat that had been Lin- coln’s vice president, became president, and enacted his policy of Reconstruction. His party believed that the South should control the reestablishment of their own governments. They reasoned that if secession was illegal, they never left the Union in the first place. In 1865 Johnson pardoned most white Southerners and authorized the South to rebuild their own governments.

Unfortunately, the outcome of this was the elimination The Last speech on impeachment--Thaddeus Stevens closing the of African Americans from the Reconstruction efforts debate in the House, March 2. http://www.loc.gov/pictures/re- and the restoration of the old Southern elite to power. source/cph.3c06848/ The new governments in the South passed Black Codes that suppressed the rights of the former slaves. While the laws did give African Americans some rights such as marriage and limited access to courts, it also restricted them from serving in the state militia, participating on juries, and voting. Radical Republicans in Congress were dismayed with the progress in the South. They succeeded (after many vetoes) with the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which made African Americans United States citizens and banned discrimination against them. They submitted the 14th Amendment, which said that no state shall, “deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law.” It was passed in 1868 when President John- son’s veto was overturned. Thaddeus Stevens was a powerful Radical Republican. Under his influence, the Freedmen’s Bureau Act was passed in 1866. It provided food, clothing, shelter, jobs, and schools to the freed slaves. The Radical Republicans also succeeded with the Military Reconstruction Act in 1867. It called for there to be no lawful governments in the South except where the 14th Amendment was ratified and African Americans were guaranteed certain rights. In addition, it divided the South into five military districts. Federal troops were sent to the South to offer protection and enforce the laws. Under Radical Reconstruction, which was enacted by Republicans in Congress, the Southern states went through what was termed, “[an] experiment in bi-racial democracy.” Black and white men had equal opportunities concerning voting and access to public office, and hundreds of black men were elected or appointed to public office. In 1877, however, federal troops were pulled out of the South, and Reconstruction, which had begun in 1865, ended. When it did come to a close, all of the Southern states had been readmitted to the Union. The Southern states, however, experienced a dramatic reversal of the policies that had been put in place by Radi- cal Reconstruction. The new white Southern governments, called Redeemer governments, began the practice of circumventing the Civil War Amendments in order to suppress the African American vote. In addition, white supremacist terrorist groups such as the Klu Klux Klan (founded in 1865) and the Knights of the White Camellia (founded in 1867) tormented African Americans and intimidated voters. 20 Unit One: Constitutional Foundation of the United States

The economy in the South had been dev- astated by the war and land was rented by the former slave owners in exchange for a percentage of the harvest in an institution known as Sharecropping. Many free African Americans stayed to work for the same people who had previously enslaved them and, for the most part, even had the same jobs as they did when they were enslaved. Laws were put into place that favored the landlords and made it difficult for the sharecroppers to get out of debt, leave the land, and become economically independent.

Ku Klux Klan, Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Divi- Sharecropping, although an improvement from sion Washington, D.C. 20540 USA. http://www.loc.gov/pictures/ slavery, still oppressed the newly freed African resource/npcc.30454/ Americans. In addition, although the black codes had been repealed with the reforms of 1866, with the end of Re- construction in 1877, new laws that were equally limiting came to fruition. These new laws were nicknamed “Pig Laws” and included things such as making it a criminal offense to be unemployed. In addition, African American men were removed from their political offices, making it easier and easier to pass discriminatory laws. The Pig Laws stayed in place for a long time, eventually evolving into even more oppressive versions during the Jim Crow era. It was not until nearly a century later that the oppression the Civil War had tried to end was truly lessened through Lyndon Johnson’s Civil Rights Act of 1964.

Bibliography "Abraham Lincoln Papers at the Library of Congress." Library of Congress. Accessed March 21, 2015, http://www.loc.gov/teachers/ classroommaterials/connections/abraham-lincoln-papers/history8.html Foner, Eric, and Olivia Mahoney. "America's Reconstruction: People and Politics After the Civil War." Digital History. Last modified January 1, 2003. Accessed March 11, 2015. http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/exhibits/reconstruction/section4/section4_intro. html Freidel, Frank, and Hugh Sidey. "Andrew Johnson." The White House. Last modified January 1, 2006. Accessed March 21, 2015. https://www.whitehouse.gov/1600/presidents/andrewjohnson Moyer, Steve. "Remarkable Radical: Thaddeus Stevens." National Endowment for the Humanities. Last modified November 1, 2012. Accessed March 21, 2015. http://www.neh.gov/humanities/2012/novemberdecember/feature/remarkable-radical-thaddeus-ste vens O'Brien Wagner, Nancy, and Kristin Penderson. "Slavery by Another Name." PBS. January 1,2012. Accessed March 4, 2015. http:/ /www.pbs.org/tpt/slavery-by-another-name/home/ Stanchak, John E. Civil War. New York: Dorling Kindersley Pub., 2000. “The First Reconstruction Act Is Passed." History Engine: Tools for Collaborative Education and Research | Episodes. Last modified January 1, 2006. Accessed March 28, 2015. http://historyengine.richmond.edu/episodes/view/1431 21 UNIT TWO: INDUSTRIALIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES

Essays In This Unit Include: I. Industrialization’s Effects on Women & Children Guljar Nahar, Stuyvesant High School...... 22

II. Industry and Efficiency During the Gilded Age Daniel Stambler, Tenafly High School...... 25

III. Immigration and The Gilded Age Whitney Tam, Stuyvesant High School...... 28

IV. Imperialism, Industrialization, Progressivism & the Childhood Experience Samuel Clarke, Brooklyn College Academy...... 30 Unit Two: Industrialization of the United States 22 Willcox & Gibbs Sewing Machine Co., Portable chain stitch sewing machine The Willcox & Gibbs Sewing Machine may have not been the first sewing machine, but it was the first of its kind. James Edward Allen Gibbs, had invented the Willcox & Gibbs sewing machine in 1855. He was a farmer, but spent his free time as an inventor. At this time Gibbs’s invention was different from any other sewing machine due to its single thread chain stitch. This was unique since it had a mechanism that used a lower revolving hook that would catch the top thread and then twist it into a loop to lock it Willcox & Gibbs Sewing Machine Co., Portable chain stitch sewing machine, ca. 1883, Gift of into the fabric. This particular method of sewing had not Mr. Christopher Baldwin, Jr., Inventory Number: been used before and became known as the chain stitch. 1942.245. In order to create this sewing machine, Gibbs had decided to partner up with James Willcox and his son, Charles Henry Willcox. In 1858, the Willcox & Gibbs machine was produced in Providence, Rhode Island, by the company of Brown and Sharpe. Brown and Sharpe at that time made clocks, watches and measuring in- struments. Even though Gibbs was the one to come up with the idea of the Willcox & Gibbs machine, Charles Henry Willcox took a big part in improving it. In 1875, he created the Automatic Tension which turned their machine into a bestseller around the world. One of the first mass produced sewing machines with every single part being easily interchangeable happened to be the Willcox & Gibbs sewing machine. This meant production figures would be significantly high and production time would be lowered to half an hour or less. Due to the outbreak of the American Civil War, sewing machines were being produced in the thousands every year. The Willcox & Gibbs sewing machine was an instant success and became very popular. It was lighter, and ran more smoothly than the competing sewing machine at the time. It was also almost half the price and size, using half as much thread as other machines. A normal sewing machine back then would cost about $100 but the the Willcox & Gibbs cost around $50. The machine was made of metal with measurements of ten inches high, 12 ¼ inches long, and six inches wide. Its size and shape made it a lot more versatile and portable. Valued for their precision engineering and remarkable stitching the Willcox & Gibbs sewing machines are still one of the most collected sewing machines of all time. Industrialization's effects on Women & Children The invention of the sewing machine had one of the biggest impacts on the United States. In 1860, Scientific American claimed that after the Spinning Jenny which was a spinning wheel used to spin more than one ball of yarn or thread and the plough, the sewing machine was “the most important invention that has ever been made since the world began.” Women and children were directly affected by the advent of the sewing machine, creating ripple effects that resulted in major changes almost every industry during the American Industrial Revolution. People have been sewing for thousands of years, but the work had always been done by hand using 23 Unit Two: Industrialization of the United States mainly a sharp ivory needle then later progressing into stronger iron needles. Around the mid 18th century, people started to think of new improved approaches in the system of sewing. Elias Howe invented the first successful sewing machine in 1845 butIsaac Merrit Singer made it wildly popular by adapting it to both commercial and household use. Singer’s machine directly led to a paradigm shift in every corner of the manufacturing sector of the US economy. The sewing machine allowed clothing to become a mass produced item which welcomed its social acceptance. Machine production of garments converted the entire meaning of clothing in the 19th century. Cloth- ing became more affordable for the everyday person. This cultivated the organization of a large garment making industry, and the production of clothing was now moved from homes to factories and sweatshops. As the population began to grow so did its wants and needs. Big manufacturers realized that bulk production cost less and was more efficient. It also provided the quantity of items that were needed by the consumer. This resulted in an immense increase in factories. Women were the main workers in textile mills, so they would use the sewing machines. Many believed this would impose on their craft as skilled seamstresses and the art of sewing would be left behind. On the other hand many thought this was a great opportunity for freedom to pursue things outside of their housework. Before the Industrial Revolution, a woman’s work included housework like cleaning, cooking, and sewing but after the Industrial Revolution the role of women in the workplace had changed as well as the role of children in the workplace. Owners of early factories were interested in hiring workers for cheap pay which meant they employed a large number of women and children. Many factory owners followed Social Darwinism and did not care for their workers properly. Many believed that if a worker wanted a better life they had to do it on their own. Women and children could be hired for lower wages than men but they still had to work for as long as 16 hours a day. Many times the factory owners would pressure the workers in order to make them speed up production. Factories, machines, and the methods of work were not designed for safety, creating highly hazardous situations leading to many fatal accidents. Young working children went through some of the harshest conditions. Child labor had increased during the Industrial Revolution. Factories that employed children were often very dangerous places that led to injuries and deaths. Some of the machinery often ran so quickly that their small body parts could easily get caught. Excluding the equipment, the environment was a threat to children as well since factories produced fumes and toxins which if inhaled by children could result in illness, chronic conditions, or disease. Children who were working lengthy hours had limited access to education. Many families were reliant on the income earned by every family member which meant school and education could not be prioritized for the children of the family. People who were working in the garment industry worked in sweatshops that had very unhealthy conditions. Sweatshops were poorly ventilated, dimly lit rooms where workers all sat next to each other doing piece work. Many employees where forced into working late as well as extra hours so that they could finish the job or they would not get paid. One of the largest incidents in labor history was a result of unsafe sweatshop conditions.The Triangle Unit Two: Industrialization of the United States 24 Shirt Factory Fire killed 146 workers who were predominantly teenage girls working 12 hour workdays. The fire was an extremely preventable accident due to neglected safety procedures. There were no fire escapes and the doors that lead out of the building were all locked. The Triangle Shirt Factory Fire led to many devel- opments of laws and regulations that would help to improve and protect workers’ safety and rights. Harsh working conditions and unfair treatment of workers during the Industrial Revolution were directly related to the new labor unions and reforms. In 1866, the National Labor Union helped push for 8 hour workdays for workers who were employed by the federal government. Other organizations like The Knights of Labor also advocated for the 8 hour workdays, higher wages, and the abolition of child labor. The American Federation of labor also pushed for the passage of state and federal legislature to benefit labor. The Interna- tional Ladies Garment Workers Union represented workers in the women’s clothing industry. They aimed for better wages and working conditions, they were also involved with strikes. The sewing machine had a major impact on people during the Industrial Revolution, directly impacting women and children’s roles in the workforce.

Bibliography "Eastern Illinois University Homepage." Childhood Lost. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Feb. 2015. http://www.eiu.edu/eiutps/childhood.php. Goldin, Claudia, and Kenneth Sokoloff. “Women, children, and industrialization in the early republic: Evidence from the manufactur ingcensuses.” The Journal of Economic History 42, no. 04 (1982): 741-774. "Impact on America." Sewing Machine. N.p., n.d. Web. 7 March. 2015. http://sewingmachine.umwblogs.org/the-sewing-machine-its- impact-on-america/. "History of the Sewing Machine." International Sewing Machine Collectors Society. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Mar. 2015. http://ismacs.net/ sewing_machine_history.html. "Sewing Machines: Liberation or Drudgery for Women?" Sewing Machines: Liberation or Drudgery for Women? N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Mar. 2015. http://www.historytoday.com/joan-perkin/sewing-machines-liberation-or-drudgery-women. "Working Conditions." Working Conditions. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Mar. 2015. http://www.socialstudieshelp.com/USRA__Workers_Lives. htm. "WILLCOX & GIBBS, WILLCOX & GIBBS CHAIN STITCH SEWING MACHINE W&G." WILLCOX & GIBBS, WILLCOX & GIBBS CHAIN STITCH SEWING MACHINE W&G. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Mar. 2015. http://www.sewalot.com/willcox_gibbs .htm. 25 Unit Two: Industrialization of the United States Willcox & Gibbs Sewing Machine Co., Portable chain stitch sewing machine In the 1850s, inventor James Gibbs, created a line of portable sewing machines aimed at the Southern domestic market. With the advent of a major Industrial Revolution, Gibbs, an entrepreneur who unlike Andrew Carnegie, could not accurately predict changes in technology, made the mistake of targeting a market that was dwindling. He created the chain stitch sewing machine, at first reaping many benefits. However, Willcox & Gibbs Sewing Machine Co., Portable chain stitch sewing machine, ca. 1883, Gift of by the 1870s, the industrial market began to boom while the Mr. Christopher Baldwin, Jr., Inventory Number: domestic market shrank and Gibbs began making sewing ma- 1942.245. industrial market as well. The Gibbs Willcox Sewing machine is one of the portable, domestic sewing models that was made in 1883. Although the object is considered portable, it is indeed quite heavy to carry around, as it is comprised of iron metal. The sewing machine has a rotary hand crank designed for women and men to easily use. The machine states, “made in the USA,” which at the time was one of the world’s largest industrial manufacturers. It also contains the seal of Gibbs’ company and a Gilded Age art style pattern of leaves and berries etched into it. It has an effective and patented rotary hook. The rotary crank and rotary hook is an early example of the utilization of Taylorism or making efficient attachments so that the person using the machine could maximize their output. Industry and Efficiency During the Gilded Age The United States of America in the late 19th century could be described as a period of industrial growth in the post civil war era. This time period witnessed the rise of many business tycoons as well as many monopolies. Entrepreneurs such as John Rockefeller and Andrew Carnegie, through their use of investments and consolidation, rose from rags to riches, and became some of the wealthiest men in the United States. Rockefeller became the owner of Standard Oil, and Carnegie became the owner of the largest steel company and an in- novator in steel production. Other wealthy families, such as the Vanderbilts, became even more prominent by consolidating railroads and other industries out west. Several other business owners created trusts, alliances with other businesses where they would pool their money together, in order to preserve their status of economic wealth, and keep new companies down. Indeed, business practices in this era were characterized by the concept of survival of the fittest as monopoly men strived to cut down competition and control prices in their industry. These men acquired monopolies through two common methods, vertical and horizontal integration. These methods involved buying out every component of one’s competition. For example, Rockefeller started his career by buying up all oil refineries and then adjusted prices to hurt his oil drilling competition. This way he was able to buy all the drilling sites as well. As a result, the industrial monopolies could abuse both consumers and employees. Around this time period several new technologies were introduced. The production of steel and creation of elevators made it possible to build skyscraper like structures that had never been built before and the drive to make money precipitated the advent of several techniques to cut costs and make production more Unit Two: Industrialization of the United States 26 efficient. The drive to make their factories more efficient led to owners hiring managers and consultants, helping to expand the middle class. Frederick Winslow Taylor was one of the pioneers of industrial efficiency as he patented many tools, such as a specific shovel for coal and snow, and techniques, such as paying laborers for the amount of work they do instead of wages, that would maximize output. In 1911, he published The Principles of Scientific Management where he boasts about the results of his successful experiments and states that “the principal object of management should be to secure the maximum prosperity for the employer, coupled with the maximum prosperity for each employee,” (Taylor, 4). Thus the term for industrial efficiency came to be known as Taylorism. This era of industrial development was known as the Gilded Age (1870’s-1901.) This was an era when the overwhelming majority of registered voters participated in politics. Both political parties were conservative, and argued over the tariff. And many people believed that through hard work, anyone could be as wealthy as Carnegie. However, social mobility was not as easy as it seemed. In order to maximize profit, company management often laid off workers and cut wages whenever they needed to save money. Industrial development mainly benefited company owners and not the workers who often worked for twelve hours a day in poor conditions and without job security. Many women and children also worked in factories for even lower wages. These problems led to the creation of various workers unions such as the Knights of Labor and the American Federation of Labor. These unions bargained with management and fought for the eight hour work week, better conditions, job security, and higher wages. Although many of these unions were pro-labor, they were not against capitalism as union leaders such as Samuel Gompers were often conservative and unions often excluded immigrants and African Americans. Regardless, many factory owners viewed unions as a threat and strove to undermine them. This lead to tension between capitalism and labor. In some cases this tension resulted in the workers going on strike, an event when all workers stop working and cease production, in hopes of getting factory owners to bargain with them. However, oftentimes during this era, these strikes ended badly for the unions. Factory owners, most of the time, would get either the state militia or even the national guard to break up the strike. Politicians often justified their siding with management as their enforcement of theSherman Antitrust Act, a law that was initially passed to ban companies from monopolizing, not workers. As a result, many unions would fall apart. A famous example of a workers strike was the Homestead Strike, when after failing to agree upon a renewed contract with Carnegie's manager, Frick, laborers near Pittsburgh went on strike. They beat off the Pinkertons, mercenaries hired by Frick to break up the strike, but ultimately lost to the Pennsylvania state militia. Unions, during this time, were not favored by the public, mainly because the majority of middle class Americans viewed them as radical. Extremists known as Anarchists, immigrants from Eastern Europe who believed that, “freedom, the right to self-expression, everybody's right to beautiful, radiant things,” can’t ex- ist under any form of government, managed to sneak in amongst striking workers and commit terror attacks (Goldman, 41). At the Homestead strike, a Russian anarchist by the name of Alexander Berkman, the lover of lead Anarchist activist Emma Goldman, attempted to kill Frick at the peak of the strike but were restrained by workers. Unions only started getting national recognition after Theodore Roosevelt became president in 1901. The late nineteenth century has been often overlooked in modern US History courses but is very 27 Unit Two: Industrialization of the United States

important to one’s understanding of US History. This era witnessed incredible industrialization and technological development as factories and businesses strove to maximize their output while minimizing their input. Around this time, many workers came together on the national level and formed unions in order to bargain with their bosses for better conditions. The debate between capitalism and labor became large around this time period and still exists today. Politics around the time period emphasized an uninvolved federal government and thus left problems to fix themselves. Much needed reform and interference from the federal government would be implemented over the course of the next half century but by the conclusion of the 1800s, the United States became a major global manufacturing power.

Bibliography Appleby, Joyce. "Getting Ready to Lead a World Economy: Enterprise in Nineteenth-Century America." The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History. https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/economics/essays/getting-ready-lead-world-economy-en terprise-nineteenth-century-ameri (accessed February 12, 2015). Chatfield, Michael. "History of Accounting: An International Encyclopedia." University of Mississippi Libraries. http://clio.lib.olemiss .edu/cdm/ref/collection/aah/id/658 (accessed March 18, 2015). Cherny, Robert. "Entrepreneurs and Bankers: The Evolution of Corporate Empires." The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American His tory. https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/gilded-age/essays/entrepreneurs-and-bankers-evolution-corporate- empires(accessed February 12, 2015). Freeman, Joshua. "Labor Day: From Protest to Picnics." Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History. https://www.gilderlehrman. org/history-by-era/populism-and-agrarian-discontentgovernment-and-civics/essays/labor-day-from-protest-p (accessed Febru ary 12, 2015). Goldman, Emma. Living My Life. New York: Alfred A Knopf Inc., 1931. http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/emma-goldman-living- my-life.pdf. "History Times: The Industrial Revolution." Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History. https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-by- era/gilded-age/essays/history-times-industrial-revolution (accessed February 12, 2015). McKinley, William. "McKinley, William (1843-1901), to William R. Day." The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History. https:// www.gilderlehrman.org/collections/b2814f51-f4f7-4056-aab2-577117277689 (accessed January 31, 2015). Moenster, Kathleen. "1870s Sewing Machine." National Parks Service.http://www.nps.gov/jeff/blogs/1870s-Sewing-Machine.htm (ac cessed February 12, 2015). "Special Collections - F.W. Taylor Collection." S.C. Williams Library Website. http://web.archive.org/web/20071112144955/http:// www.lib.stevens-tech.edu/collections/fwtaylor/guide/part1/patents.html (accessed March 4, 2015). Frederick Taylor, The Principles of Scientific Management (New York: W.W Norton and Company, 1911), 1-45. "The 1892 Battle of Homestead Foundation." Battle of Homestead Foundation. http://battleofhomestead.org/battle.php (accessed March 25, 2015). Unit Two: Industrialization of the United States 28

Liberty Enlightening the World

“Liberty Enlightening the World” or more commonly known as the “State of Liberty” is a colossal neoclassical sculpture located on Liberty Island in the New York Harbor in New York City. The statue was designed by French sculptor, Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi. It was dedicated to the United States from the people of France on October 28, 1886. Despite this, the statue was not ready for intended presentation until July 4, 1876 because of financial setbacks. The French presented the statue to the United States as a gift to honor the friendship and commitment to liberty between the two countries. The statue is of a robed female figure representing the Roman god- dess, Libertas who bears a torch and tablet. The tablet is inscribed with the date of the American Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776. The statue is an icon of freedom and is a welcoming signal to immigrants arriving from abroad.

Immigration and The Gilded Age “Give me your tired, your poor, your huddled masses yearn- ing to break free, the wretched refuse of your teeming shore. Send these, the homeless, the tempest tost to me, I lift my lamp beside the golden door,” (Lazarus). This is the message that manifests in Frederic-Auguste Bartholdi, Liberty Enlight- our mind when we think of the Statue of Liberty. This is also how ening the World, ca. 1879-1883, Gift of Mr. George A. Zabriskie, Inventory Number: millions of immigrants imagined what it would be like to arrive in 1942.346. the United States during the Gilded Age. During the late 1800s to early 1900s, millions of immigrants poured into the United States. This phenomenon is known as the New Immigration (Digital History). During this time, immigrants from all over the world, particularly Europe and Asia, came in hopes of a better life. Factors of this immigration can be split into two categories known as push and pull factors. The pull factors were the employment and economic opportunities, as well as religious and political freedom. Although these were very attractive factors to immigrants overseas, the push factors were ultimately most decisive. These new immigrants were primarily coming to America to, “escape poverty and oppression in their homelands,” (Brinkley). Some forms of oppression involved political and religious beliefs. Typically an image of a melting pot is conjured in our mind when we picture the people, including immigrants, living in the United States. However, the overall picture is much closer to the idea of a patch- work quilt; different communities of different ethnicities coming together. Different ethnic enclaves arose. Some we can still find today such as “Little Italy” and “Chinatown” in NewYork City. The immigrants faced great adversity when arriving to this new country: There was tension over jobs between different communi- 29 Unit Two: Industrialization of the United States ties as well as those that had been living in the States for multiple generations. The term the Gilded Age implies an age of great opulence and grandiosity. Industrialization changed the country’s economy and in some cases even caused great wealth and prosperity. The United States’ economy experienced a growth of capitalism which is “an economic and social system in which the means of production-capital-is privately owned by individuals,” (Olson-Raymer). Industries of coal, railroads, electricity, steel and oil boomed. There were major advances in science and engineering. These industries also gave way to a captains of industry also known as robber barons. Some of most prominent robber barons include Cornelius Vanderbilt, John D. Rockefeller and Andrew Carnegie. All of whom benefited greatly from capitalism during the Gilded Age (Olson Raymer). These few individuals controlled the biggest industries. All of these industries were one huge company also known as a monopoly which resulted in lack of competition. Even though the Gilded Age was the age of great industry and advancement it also masked an age of social problems and intense poverty. There was a great disparity in the social classes; there lacked a middle class with only a few holding wealth and an enormous lower class. Those particularly who suffered the greatest were the immigrants (U.S. History). Immigrants were often taken advantage of by those who had resided in the states for multiple generations. Upton Sinclair, a journalist who lived during this time first handedly experienced what immigrants and low class Americans experienced by working undercover. He exposed all these conditions by writing the fictional novel, The“ Jungle,” which follows the life of a Lithuanian immigrant. Although a work of fiction, “The Jungle,” is synonymous with the poverty and suffering that immigrants and poor Americans experienced. In the novel, the main protagonist struggles to provide for his family who throughout the whole novel lives under a constant burden to pay off their rent and provide for themselves. An- other expose that was done during this time was Jacob Riis’ book, “How the Other Half Lives.” This book was a work of photojournalism, which featured pictures of the conditions of those living in poverty. It featured tenement buildings with fire hazards, no ventilation, overcrowded apartments, lack of natural light and lack of facilities. These images were impossible to ignore and awakened public consciousness (Brinkley).

Bibliography Olson-Raymer, Gayle. “Industrialization, Urbanization, and Immigration in the Gilded Age.” Humboldt.edu. Accessed March 31, 2015. .http://users.humboldt.edu/ogayle/hist111/industrial.html. “The Rush of Immigrants.” Ushistory.org. Accessed March 31, 2015 http://www.ushistory.org/us/38c.asp. “Digital History.” Digital History. Accessed March 31, 2015. http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/era.cfm?eraid=9. Sinclair, Upton. The Jungle. Cambridge, Mass.: R. Bentley, 1971. Brinkley, Alan. American History: Connecting With the Past - Ap Edition. Macmillan/McGraw-Hill School, 2011. Lazarus, Emma “The New Colossus” Unit Two: Industrialization of the United States 30 A Race Around the World

McLoughlin Bros., Game of Race Around the World, 1898, The Liman Collection, Inventory Number: 2000.399. “A Race Around the World,” an iconic board game of the early 20th century, impacted society's overall perspective of American innovation. Created in 1898 by the McLoughlin Brothers, located on 874 Broadway in New York City, the game was advertised as “instructive as well as amusing character” meant “...for children and young people.” “A Race Around the World” was constructed out of cardboard, wood, and paper, illustrat- ing industrial innovation and the United States’ global presence. A generational board game targeted to children of the early 20th Century, this game instilled valuable concepts of nationalism and unification, while utilizing cultural identification of the time. An illustrated cover is featured, depicting innovative machinery such as steamboats, locomotives, as well as individuals of association such as an engineer. The board is a broad map of the world, detailed with routes, continents, and areas of seemingly key interest. A Race Around the World covers the entire world, allowing players to explore Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Americas. One could select their method of travel in order to win. Every move relies on the spins of the players, allowing an opportunity to advance in the race. Similar to the aggressive pace of the modern day board game “Monopoly.” A Race Around the World is located within the lower level of the New-York Historical Society, this object was acquired in 2002 as a gift and is displayed amongst similar American board and table games as a part of The Liman Collection. Imperialism, Industrialization, Progressivism & the Childhood Experience During the 19th and early 20th centuries the United States began to establish its infrastructure in a far more industrialized manner, utilizing technological gains and immigrant workers for the benefit of its economy. As a result of Imperialism and Capitalism, the nation was in excellent shape. Specifically, through the use of globalization and methods of imperialism such as annexation, the United States prospered .The United States accomplished this through several wars, all of which expanded its size and global presence. Each war brought resources, either land, military strategic advantages or access to regions before their counterparts for trade. 31 Unit Two: Industrialization of the United States

War was a tool as an imperialist nation and was used continuously to expand. From the Mexican-American War, Annexation of Hawaii, and eventually its role in World War I, enabled the United States as a Super- power. The advancements of the United States were documented by individuals such as William R. Hearst, Richard F. Outcault, Frederic Remington as well as Joseph Pulitzer. Their actions became popularly known as yellow journalism, a form of media based upon exaggerations and sensationalism .As a result such progress was promoted throughout media, captivating citizens as well as children. The most vulnerable to nationalistic concepts and aggressive political ideology, children unknowingly became active participants. Due to such cultural incorporation, Imperialism appeared throughout toys, media, and other entities which make up a childhood’s experience. Industrialization was promoted through various forms of media and culture. Toys, movies, plays, radio broadcasts and newspapers serving as key elements of a citizen’s entertainment as well as knowledge during that time period. Industrialization’s impact on childhood were mainly cultural revolutions within businesses from local operations to corporations. These elements were told through board games, cards, stories and other forms of written media. Additionally, toys reflected industrialization, through locomotives, boats, planes, bridges, pretty much any form of vehicle or infrastructure was a toy! A direct comparison of such culture can be seen today through advancements in technology and even politics. Similarly issues of public interest movies, video games, as well as social media consistently expose children to aspects of modern industry. During the Gilded Age, the quality of the life amongst children of immigrant parents was poor; resulting in inaccessible basic needs such as education. Not only does such a dilemma impact the society and the ability of its citizens, but it promotes an atmosphere of disdain and lack of trust toward government agencies. Thus when Progressivism took swing, politicians utilized such policy for popular vote as well as to improve the state of the nation. Progressivism did work, having dramatic results, it reduced child labor, improved worker conditions, and it reestablished trust within the system, one of multiple contributors to the roaring twenties. Such reform has instilled importance of political involvement among children and emphasis on education in society. The Spanish American War, Mexican- American War, and Annexation of Hawaii were all events which influenced children to politically acknowledge these imperial advancements through entertainment e.g. toys, films, newspapers, and magazines. Children grew up in a society built around national accomplishment, respect of the military and an innate sense of American identity began to emerge. Cultural acceptance developed early and far more easily in children, this can be seen historically. Primarily the concept of the cadet holds Imperialists roots within Childhood. Current generations have experienced similar issues as children did over a century ago. After the Gulf War, as well as the Invasion of Iraq & Afghanistan, these actions influenced media towards children.Censorship became a massive part of the campaign for national security. Eventually the definition of our 1st Amendment rights were at stake and not only were children affected on a level of expression but through culture. Soon video games such as Call of Duty 4, Medal of Honor and Battlefield started to pile store shelves.We played these game, we loved them Unit Two: Industrialization of the United States 32

and we became hook on the concept of warfare and the ideology of a soldier. We saw films almost every year about war. We saw Black Hawk Down, Flag of Our Fathers, Green Zone, Generation Kill and most recently American Sniper. American Imperialism is still much alive and has had the same effect in an even more prevalent manner throughout generations of Americans. Child Labor is somewhat of a thing of the past in the United States. Although there are still excep- tions, and those who avoid the law, child labor for most of the USA is not as it was a hundred years ago. Chil- dren during the industrial age were employed usually by manufacturers, and businesses that provided services to the public or private sectors. Children either worked alone or in groups depending upon their occupation. Work culture as it is today, was present amongst children in the past. Children worked in mines, factories, and other labor intensive jobs, working intensive shifts, amounts more than what rest they gained. Children had a culture, it was mainly constructed around the basis of child interaction as we see today. The glory of being a “grown up” is not a new concept, and was present during their lifetimes. Children thought of their occupation in sense of doing chores, but of course with little gratification and poor treatment these beliefs deteriorated. Overtime it became evident, that poor families would be unable to succeed, even if everyone in the family was working. With little pay, and poor conditions came low life expectancy. Thus the culture was quite depressing, poor souls, smaller and weaker than their superiors working endlessly. Quite similar to a twisted fairy tale, set in an alternate Victorian world. But has this culture evolved, or has it died? The answer, well it has evolved. Today we see employment among the young as a means of learning before adulthood to gain responsibility. Working as an intern in a prestigious institution or learning a trade, in a safe, fair, also paid environments are vast improvements in comparison to the past. Work culture among children has evolved, to much more valued experiences grounded in personal agency.

Bibliography Keys, David. “Revealed: Industrial Revolution Was Powered by Child Slaves.” The Independent. August 2, 2010. Accessed March 31, 2015. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/revealed-industrial-revolution-was-powered-by-child- slaves-2041227.html. “Progressive Movement.” Ohio History Central. Accessed March 28, 2015. http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Progressive_ Movement?rec=543. West, Thomas G., and William A. Schambra. “The Progressive Movement and the Transformation of American Politics.” The Heritage Foundation. July 18, 2007. Accessed March 22, 2015. Abbott, Karen. “Paris or Bust: The Great New York-to-Paris Auto Race of 1908.” Smithsonian. March 7, 2012. Accessed March 23, 2015. http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/paris-or-bust-the-great-new-york-to-paris-a uto-race-of-1908-116784616/?no-ist. “Child Labor in America 1908-1912 Photographs of Lewis W. Hine.” History Place. Accessed March 28, 2015. http://www.history place.com/unitedstates/childlabor/. “Imperialism and the Spanish American War.” The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History. Accessed March 25, 2015. http:// www.gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/development-west/resources/imperialis m-and-spanish-american-war. Kroplick, Howard. Vanderbilt Cup Races. January 1, 2012. Accessed March 23, 2015.http://www.vanderbiltcupraces.com/. 33 UNIT THREE: THE PROGRESSIVE MOVEMENT

Essays In This Unit Include: I. The Beginning of Women’s Liberation Diana Martinez, High School for Environmental Studies...... 34

II. The Progressive Era Idalis Gomez, Millennium Brooklyn High School...... 37

III. The American Desire of Expansion Emmanuella Saforo, Collegiate Institute for Math and Science...... 39 Unit Three: The Progressive Movement 34 Pennant Made for the first women’s suffrage parade, this felted pennant symbolizes the fight for women’s rights and gender equality. The first parade of this kind was organized by the Women’s Political Union and held in New York City in 1910. Prior to the ratification of the 19th Amendment, parades were a popular way to bring attention to the cause Henry Schwartz, Pennant,1910-1920, Collection of New-York Historical for women’s suffrage. These parades were Society, Inventory Number: 1946.162. typically attended by thousands of specta- tors who used pennants, like the one described above, to show their support of the cause. One of the most famous women’s suffrage parades was hosted in Washington D.C. on the eve of Woodrow Wilson’s presidential inauguration. It ended abruptly and violently after a mob attacked the women in the parade. No arrests were made that day. Furthermore, parades also inspired new ways of calling attention to the suffragists’ cause. Many women began to protest and one of the biggest protests also occurred in D.C., outside the White House in 1917. Approximately 500 women were arrested that day and 168 were put in jail. They arrested women were not released until 1918. The pennant is marked in black ink with the words, “VOTES FOR WOMEN.” Henry Schwartz designed this pennant specifically for this cause. He was a senator for Wyoming from 1933 to 1935. Schwartz was also elected as a Democrat to the United States Senate in 1936, where he served from 1937 to 1943. Fur- thermore, he was appointed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt to the National Mediation Board from 1943 to 1947. He was a strong democrat who believed in many liberal policies.

The Beginning of Women’s Liberation A combination of the Second Great Awakening, the abolitionist movement, utopian communities, reform movements, and industrialization led to the first wave of feminism. The goal of this wave was to open up opportunities for women, especially in the political arena, which they were successful in by establishing the 19th amendment. Soon after the ratification of the 19th amendment in 1920, a plethora of opportunities opened up to women. Many focused on giving social welfare concerns attention. In addition, World War I had horrified many women. As a result of these two things, women began to form different organizations to ensure the well- being of others. For instance, the Women’s Joint Congressional Committee helped pass the Sheppard-Towner Federal Maternity and Infancy Act, which sought to reduce infant and maternal mortality through the federal funding of health clinics, nurses, and pregnancy education. The International League for Peace and Freedom aimed to bring world peace. It rejected the use of military pressure and denounced economic imperialism. Aside from pushing these two causes to the political spotlight, women continued to fight for equality. Women under- stood that being granted the right to vote did not fulfill equality between both genders which led to the Equal Rights Amendment. In 1923, Alice Paul, president of the National Woman’s Party, 35 Unit Three: The Progressive Movement created this amendment in order to ensure that “men and women…have equal rights throughout the United States.” However, this amendment became a source of heated debate over the next couple of decades and it would not be considered for ratification until the 1970s. It was eventually overturned due toPhyllis Schlafly’s campaign against the amendment, called STOP ERA. Her conservative viewpoints appealed to thousands of religious Americans, many of whom happened to be part of the rising 1980s conservative movement. Although women could vote, democrats and republicans had little interest in winning their votes since women did not vote as a unified group- their political views varied. This led to politicians undermining the women’s growth towards equal rights. The 19th amendment did not automatically open prestigious political opportunities for women- it took time for women to assert their power. It would not be until Franklin D. Roosevelt’s presidential term that women in political power would contribute to the work of the White House. During his term, Frances Perkins became the first woman named to a cabinet post. After witnessing workers, most of them women, jumping to their deaths at what became known as the Triangle Shirtwaist Company Fire, Perkins devoted the rest of her life towards helping the labor industry. Perkins became Roosevelt’s secretary of labor. In addition to Perkins, El- eanor Roosevelt, the first lady, also made huge strides in asserting women’s political power. She worked hard in expanding women’s positions in political parties, labor unions, and education. After the introduction of the New Deal during the Great Depression, many thought it would only be directed towards men since they were the breadwinners of the house. However, Mrs. Roosevelt ensured that women were helped in the New Deal as well. Mrs. Roosevelt did not just fight for the inclusion of women, she also persistently fought to include and meet the needs of the disadvantaged, which makes it no surprise that she became know as the New Deal’s conscience. Although women were winning political ground in Washington, many men were still viewing women as second-class citizens. This would change during World War II. Women played huge roles both abroad and at home. In May of 1942, Congress helped institute the Women’s Army Corps. During World War II, women flew military cargo and participated in target missions. These women, part of the Women’s Airforce Service Pilots, or WASPs, helped free many American pilots who were being held in Japanese prisoner of war camps. Regardless of these extraordinary achievements, the army still limited women’s roles in combat. They were not able to command men and most of their duties mirrored the types of jobs they had back home, such as being nurses, clerical workers, or receptionists. On the home front, women were taking the jobs that many men had left behind. By 1945, about 37% of women were filling up the gaps in the industrial force. Rosie the Riveter became the most popular and symbolic figure of the time. Illustrated with a bandana and a look of confidence and power, she inspired women to become airplane riveters, ship welders, and drill-press operators. With the help of influential women, like Eleanor Roosevelt, and iconic propaganda, like that of Rosie the Riveter, women were inspired to join the workforce. Although women were demonstrating their ability to perform just as well as men, they still suffered from discrimination in the workplace. Regardless, this new experience taught many women that they were not just destined for childbearing and cooking. Women could do the same things as men and be successful in their completion. Unit Three: The Progressive Movement 36

World War II made a huge impact on women’s lives. For example, when men came back from fighting in the war, they expected their jobs to be reinstated. The women who were currently placed in those jobs were fired upon the men returning from war. As more and more women began to find the doors close for these types of jobs, they grew discouraged. Secondly, following World War II, there was a baby boom- more babies were born from 1948 to 1953 than in the previous thirty years. This encouraged new middle-class domestic ideals, which encouraged suburbanization, urged women to care for their children, and obligated them to please their husbands. In addition, following the war, there was an obsession with a certain type femininity and motherhood, which was promoted by advertisements and television. However, most importantly, it was encouraged by the economy. Women were seen as consumers who could help the nation economically by shopping for the family and home. Although there were still women working as secretaries or stereotypical feminine jobs, many were expected to marry young and take on their wifely duties instead of working. These ideas psychologically affected women. Many had been independent and powerful during World War II; however, by the 1950s, many were expected to be housewives. Fear of public disapproval led many to be unhappy and eventually, depressed. Furthermore, this depression would come to be acknowledged in Betty Friedan’s famous book, The Feminine Mystique. Friedan used this revolutionary and controversial book to bring attention to what she called “the problem with no name”. Through this, she referred to what many unhappy housewives were feeling: a lack of purpose and motivation, a result of middle-class ideals. In 1966, she used the fame that her writing brought her to create the National Organization for Women (NOW), which aimed to ensure gender equality. This era also saw huge gains for women in the labor force. Many working women advocated for equal pay and maternity leave. They were successful when in 1963, Congress passed the Equal Pay Act, which declared they would be paid equally as men. Furthermore, many women began to see 1960s feminism, known as women’s liberation, as a time to not only change society through law, but to also ideologically change its views towards women. Women began to focus more on their rights to make independent choices about their bodies. They no longer wanted to be seen as sexual objects or to be portrayed as baby-makers. They wanted to be seen for their intellectual beauty as well. As a result, during this time period, many large universities, such as Yale and Princ- eton, finally decided to allow women to enroll. This was a groundbreaking achievement. However, women’s rights to make decisions about their own bodies is still very controversial as well as during that time. Many religious conservatives have backlashed against this because it implied that women could have abortions. This case eventually made it to the Supreme Court in 1973. In Roe v. Wade, the Supreme Court ruled that abortions were a fundamental right within the first trimester and privacy would be given the women who make that decision.

Bibliography James Henretta et al., America's History (Massachusetts: Bedford St. Martins, 2014), 754, 777, 851, 854, 908, 909, 924, 925. "American Women in WWII," History Channel. January 1, 2010, accessed April 22, 2014. 37 Unit Three: The Progressive Movement

Snowstorm in the Village John Sloan was born in Pennsylvania in 1871, and became an artist of the twentieth century who was described as a realist painter, one who captured the “personality” of the so to speak forgotten aspects that many lived within in New York City. Sloan also embraced the aspects of socialism throughout most of his paintings, one of the very reasons that they had gained popularity overtime. Sloan was a part of the Ashcan School movement in art. This in particular was a school of many realist artists who decided to challenge the standpoint made by American Impressionists. This non-organized movement had been brought up by several artist who possessed a passion of painting the unseen surroundings that many Americans during the 20th century had looked beyond. Other realist artists such as Ste- phen Crane, Frank Norris and Theodore Dreiser were one of the very firsts artist to have joined the Ashcan School and gained popularity because of the great John Sloan, Snowstorm in the Village, 1925, Collection of the New-York Historical Society. imagery of the slum conditions that many families had to live with, by the point of view of paintings. The overall uniqueness that made this movement interesting was the fact that many of the members who were enlisted and decided to join weren’t at all alike, being it political views and standpoints of general identification when it came to the way they chose to express themselves through a paintings although it may have been about the same context. It was not until 1907 when Sloan had moved to New York City when his career had eventually been triggered and his paintings were being made and recognized for their striking meanings. In a sense he wanted to capture several scenes of the American life while not giving it away entirely but while also hinting that aside from beauty there was purpose and a message being made about society at the time. The impact of Sloan’s works can still be seen today as he’s gained immense popularity over the years. His paintings and drawings (including this one) are often set in museums and other public displays because of the social impact they have made. The Progressive Era The period of Progressivism in the United States was a period of time of struggle and perseverance. Starting around the early 1900s the progressive movement branched off into different issues varying on region and eventually ended with the outbreak of World War I. Progressivism occurred during a time of rapid industrialization in America, as well as vast changes in social and economic issues, and was a crucial movement for American history. Unit Three: The Progressive Movement 38

The Progressive Movement put emphasis of important aspects of civilization that in other situations would be ignored, muckraking for instance became widely known after the term had been used because of President Theodore Roosevelt. The act of muckraking was a controversial method because of some of the ways people used it in order to bring attention to things people were not used to seeing on a day to day basis. Individuals had the ability to remain anonymous while also bringing forth imagery in order to paint a visual for those who were unaware of the atrocities occurring. Important figures such as Lincoln Steffens were an important part of the Progressive movement, exposing the living and working conditions many were enduring. Popular readings like “The Jungle” by Upton Sinclair were turning points for society because of the reforms that followed right afterward (such as The Meat Inspection Act of 1906 passed by Congress that regulated factory facilities that handled meat to prevent any frauds that were made in the past.) The Progressive Movement was important because it gave the American government something to think about and eventually implement a series of reforms in response to exposed societal problems. The progressive movement was a time where several amendments that we currently have within our constitution were influenced by this time period such as the 19th amendment for women, as well as the 16th regarding income taxes, the 17th and the election of senators, and the 18th amendment prohibition of liquors (later repealed). Hence, this was a period of great change in the United States. Many of which primarily involved the government recognizing the less fortunate and making social and economic changes that would directly impact them along with giving others in the public more of a voice and acceptance to participate within the political press. It was also a very significant time because of the amendments being passed during this time period (early 1900s) while also being a time where the government played a strong role in passing legislation to better societal norms.

John Sloan, Easter John Sloan, Swinging in Eve, 1926, Collection the Square, 1912, Col- of the New-York His- lection of the New-York torical Society. Historical Society.

Bibliography Caswell, Thomas. "Progressive Era Reform." US Regents Prep. 2001. Accessed May 20, 2015. Anderson, William. "Tysknews." The Legacy of Progressivism. January 10, 2000. Accessed May 20, 2015. Mintz, Steven. "Reform Movement of The Progressive Era." Gilder Lehrman. 2009. Accessed May 20, 2015. Hillegass, Cliffton. "Political and Social Reforms." Cliff Notes. 2014. Accessed May 20, 2015. 39 Unit Three: The Progressive Movement

View of The Yosemite Valley

Thomas Hill, View of Yosemite Valley, 1865, Collection of the New- York Historical Soci- ety, Inventory Number: 1897.2

The painting titled View of The Yosemite Valley was painted by Thomas Hill. Thomas Hill was a well- recognized English born landscape painter. His painting of the Yosemite Valley has captured the public’s interest and has touched the hearts of all historians and political figures. This painting has further captivated all who acknowledge the American policy of Manifest Destiny and Westward Expansion. The painting symbolizes a new freedom and hope in a nationalistic spirit. Thomas Hill was an active painter in Boston before he relocated to California because of poor health. This drove Hill to seek a warmer climate. Upon settling in his new home in California, Hill opened an art studio in San Francisco in 1861.President Abraham Lincoln signed a bill to preserve the Yosemite Valley by granting the site to California for many to enjoy. Hill took advantage of this blessing and visited the Yosemite in 1862 where he was captivated by the beautiful scenery. Thomas Hill then began his project on capturing the beauty of the Yosemite Valley in his art work. The monumental landscape was completed in 1865.Thomas Hill painted this landscape from an inspirational point that displayed the beauty of the El Captin, the Bridal Veil Falls, and the Cathedral Rocks while also capturing a glimpse of the Merced River below on the valley floor. In the distance Thomas Hill also captured a well-dressed couple on a horse enjoying the view of the Valley and a young Indian hunter. Thomas Hill’s ability to capture the panoramic vistas of the Yosemite Valley has led him to have a reputation as the “most ardent devotee at the shrine of Yosemite and the most faithful priest of the valley.” The painting has been widely recognized at a national level and was presented to the NYHS by Charles T.Harbeck in the summer of 1897.The painting of the view of the Yosemite Valley also made its way into the Whitehouse. The painting was highly requested by the white house. The NYHS Museum permitted the famous painting to be recognized by President Obama at his 2009 Inaugural address. The theme of the Inaugural address was “A New Birth of Freedom”. President Obama credited the painting and recognized it as a great effort to convey “the majestic landscape of the American West and the dawn of a new era. The View of The Yosemite Valley further tells a historic account of Manifest Destiny, Imperialism, Westward Expansion and The Spanish American War. Unit Three: The Progressive Movement 40

Throughout history, the topics of Manifest Destiny and Westward Expansion have been explored. These historic events proved to be the turn of the century, a new America, a new nationalism, an ever growing vision. Along with Manifest Destiny and Westward Expansion, The Spanish American War and the role of Theodore Roosevelt in America’s expansion were key. Manifest Destiny can be described as the divine right given from God to explore and take on new territories. The spreading of western influence and democratic ideas were introduced from the concept and belief of Manifest Destiny. The fairly developed nation took on a nationalistic spirit. America had a vision of spreading democracy to the ends of the earth. They began to imperialize vast nations of various sizes. Imperialism can be defined as the policy of extending a country’s power and influence through force. The United States worked through military actions, diplomatic talks and formed alliances with other nations such as Great Britain to accomplish the goal of Manifest Destiny. The United States worked towards a goal of possess- ing the entire North American continent.The nation used methods of moral diplomacy and provided financial aid to foreign nations to further accomplish this goal. Like the mother nation England, the United States wanted power over nations who couldn't govern themselves. The desire to conquer actually came from the motherland during the time when England formed American colonies and promoted westward settlement. Land at the time meant power, it symbolized authority, strength and economic prosperity. The United States wanted to gain control of these important factors and encountered trouble during their process of imperializing other nations. One of the major stumbling blocks in American History was the war fought with Spain. The Spanish American War was fought for a variety of reasons. These reasons include the Cuban Revo- lution, the U.S Yellow Press, the sinking of the USS Maine and the overall desire for expansion. The Cuban Revolution was used as a justification for the United States declaring war on Spain. The Cubans fell under the Spaniards control and fought a war for independence and freedom. The United States aided the Cubans whose suffering was over exaggerated by the use of Yellow Press by journalists such as William Randolph and Jo- seph Pulitzer. The use of sensationalism in newspapers garnered sympathy from the American public. Pulitzer and Randolph stated that the Spaniards were using brutality against the Cubans when the Cubans were only fighting for freedom and justice. The sinking of the USS Maine in the harbor of Havana, Cuba further escalated the tension between the Spaniards and the Americans.This led to the Spanish American War. 266 Americans lost their lives in this war. The use of Yellow Press issued blame at Spain for the incident in which the accurate cause of the sinking of the ship remains unknown. The United States was well aware of the declining power of the once well respected Spanish empire. Declaring war on Spain would help the United States gain territory outside North America. This territory would provide an open window for globalization and the uprising of a strong American economy. Theodore Roosevelt, the 26th president of the United States became involved in United States-Latin Ameri- can relations. The United States had the desire to act as the police power of nations that couldn't govern themselves. This further led to the introduction of democratic principles in the nations the United States governed. Roosevelt coined and implemented Big Stick Diplomacy. Roosevelt further expanded on this political 41 Unit Three: The Progressive Movement

strategy in the Roosevelt Corollary, an addition to the Monroe Doctrine. The Monroe Doctrine was a Unit- ed States policy that stated that any efforts by European nations to colonize land or interfere with states in North or South America would be looked upon as acts of provoking terror by the United States. Roosevelt’s Big Stick policy allowed the United States to get involved in Latin American affairs. The policy served as a second warning to European nations that had interests in Latin American countries. “Speak softly and carry a big stick; you will go far.” Roosevelt stated. Roosevelt’s policy allowed the nation to increase its power over other nations . It enabled the United States to press on with its desire of accomplishing Manifest Destiny.

Bibliography “Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary.” Oxforddictionaries.com. http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english /imperialism (accessed March 31,2015). “Regents Prep: U.S. History: Foreign Policy.” Regentsprep.org. http://www.regentsprep.org/regents/ushisgov/themes/foreignpolicy/im perialism.htm (accessed March 29,2015). “Monroe Doctrine.” Wikipedia.org. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine (accessed March 29,2015). “Big Stick policy United States history.” Britannica.com. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/65006/Big-Stick-policy (ac cessed March 31,2015). 42 UNIT FOUR: AT HOME AND ABROAD: PROSPERITY AND DEPRESSION

Essays In This Unit Include: I. The Iron-Jawed Angels Nadia Mushib, Preston High School...... 43

II. The Roaring Twenties Ivan Lenoyr, A. Philip Randolph Campus High School...... 46

III. Finally Joining the Great Party, The Yanks Enter WWI Benjamin Lang, Frank Sinatra School of the Arts...... 49

IV. The Evolution of the Gold Standard in the United States Ethan Gelfer, Horace Mann School...... 52

V. The New Deal Ellie Kohn, Bard High School Early College...... 55 43 Unit Four: At Home and Abroad: Prosperity and Depression

Ballot Box

Housed in a square iron framework, the spher- ical blown glass vessel is equipped with a circular, iron lid opening at the top, with a loop for a lock. With support from four iron pillars, the two square horizontal members exhibit exquisitely pierced decora- tive ironwork of scrolling foliage. At the base, a pontil mark can be seen. This mark comes from the pontil, which is an iron rod on which molten glass is handled while being shaped and worked. An engraved brass plaque can be found at the top stating, “Ballot Box used in the City of New York Prior to 1870. Presented by George H. Dean March 8, 1919.” The purpose behind Samuel C. Jollie’s transparent ballot box design was quite simple, so “that the bystanders may see ev- Samuel C. Jollie, Ballot box, ca. 1857, Gift of George H. Dean, ery ballot which is put in, see all the ballots that Inventory Number: 1919.10ab. are in, and see them taken out.” Jollie ended up selling around 1,200 of his cast iron and glass boxes to New York, just in time for the November 3rd election of 1857, in which the Secretary of State, State Comptroller, Attorney General, State Treasurer, State Engineer, a Judge of the New York Court of Appeals, a Canal Com- missioner, an Inspector of State Prisons, and members of the New York State Assembly and the New York State Senate were elected. While many citizens voted during this election, there were two groups that were legally prohibited from participating– African Americans and women. Although the Preamble of the United States’ Constitution “secures the blessings of liberty” to “the people of the United States”, for a very long time the only people allowed to vote were white, property-owning males of a certain religion. Over time, suffrage had been extended so there was no discrimination against white males; nonetheless, African American men did not receive the right to vote until the ratification of the 15th Amendment in 1870. Moreover, women did not receive the legal approval to practice their rights as American citizens until 1920 with the ratification of the19th Amendment. The first documented woman to vote was Su- san B. Anthony in 1872. She was, however, swiftly arrested for illegally voting, but her ordeal provided her with a much more public platform to spread her message. Women such as Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Alice Paul fought their hardest to have women treated equally – to have the women’s vote placed into a ballot such as this one. These women worked to inspire not only men to recognize the women’s potential, but had to encourage and draw support of other women too. It is quite difficult to imagine what the plight of women would today, had it not been for the tireless efforts of such suffragettes. 44 Unit Four: At Home and Abroad: Prosperity and Depression The Iron-Jawed Angels Right from the United States’ inception, women have fought for equality. One of the best examples of this is Abigail Adams’s famous “Remember the Ladies” letter, dated March 31, 1776, to her husband, future president John Adams. She penned, I ...desire you would Remember the Ladies, and be more generous and favourable to them than your ancestors. Do not put such unlimited power into the hands of the Husbands. Remember all Men would be tyrants if they could. If particular care and attention is not paid to the Ladies we are determined to foment a Rebellion, and will not hold ourselves bound by any Laws in which we have no voice, or Representation. In a way, the future first lady foreshadowed the immense drive suffragettes would display in their fight to win women's rights denied them from the creation of the government. By the 1830s, reform-minded women recognized that they faced discrimination. Working-class women often had to hold jobs outside the home. In addition to jobs women had traditionally filled, such as household services, sewing, or laundering, women took some new jobs created by recent inventions such as the typewriter and telephone. Middle and upper class women also sought jobs. Many of these women had long been active in reform movements, including abolition and temperance, and had attended college in increasing numbers through the 1800s. They sought to apply their educations and social concerns in the job market - often struggling against public disapproval. Before 1880 and 1910, the number of working women drastically grew. Con- ditions women met in the workplace - hostility, laws that barred them from certain jobs, unequal pay - led more women to seek legal remedies. To gain the political power to force change, however, women first needed to win the right to vote, called suffrage. The women’s suffrage movement began as part of a larger drive for women’s rights in 1848 at Seneca Falls, New York. There Elizabeth Cady Stanton, the intellectual leader, along with Lucretia Mott organized the Women’s Rights Convention, where the Declaration of Rights and Sentiments was issued. In 1853, the two women were joined by Susan B. Anthony, who provided the driving leadership of the movement. A decade later, the women’s suffrage movement split over the best way to achieve its goals; the more radical organization was led by Stanton and Anthony, while the more moderate organization was headed by Lucy Stone and her husband Henry Blackwell. Incredibly radical for her time, the first documented woman to vote was Susan B. Anthony in 1872. She was, unfortunately, swiftly arrested for illegally voting, but her ordeal provided her with a much more public platform to spread her message. The radical and moderate organizations then merged in 1890 to form the National American Women Suffrage Association (NAWSA). Stanton died in 1902 and Anthony died in 1906 without achieving the objective of their lives’ work. Nonetheless, the Progressive spirit gave the movement a new surge. In the early 1900s, leadership of NAWSA and the campaign passed to Carrie Chapman Catt, who devised the strategy that was to secure women the vote. She concentrated on achieving the vote for women by a constitutional amendment while coordinating the national effort with a state by state movement to put more pressure on Congress and build grassroots support for ratification when the time came. Alice Paul, a young women’s rights activist who had experience in the English suffrage movement, formed the rival Congressional Unit in 1913, until she was expelled from NAWSA. 45 Unit Four: At Home and Abroad: Prosperity and Depression

Forming the National Women’s Party, her group freely adopted the more militant tactics of its English counterparts, picketing and conducting mass rallies and marches to raise public awareness and support. Embracing a more confrontational style, Paul drew a younger generation of women to her movement, helped resuscitate the push for a federal equal rights amendment, and relentlessly attacked the Democratic administration of President Woodrow Wilson for obstructing the extension of the vote to women. The National Women’s Party specifically campaigned against the reelection of Woodrow Wilson in 1916. The Silent Sentinels, specifically organized by Paul and the National Women’s Party, was a group of women who protested in front of the White House during Wilson’s presidency. These women, along with the other suffragettes became known as “iron- jawed angels” thanks to Massachusetts Representative Joseph Walsh. In 1917 he opposed the creation of a committee to deal with women’s suffrage, thinking it would be yielding to the “nagging of the iron-jawed angels” and also referred to the Silent Sentinels as”bewildered, deluded creatures with short skirts and short hair.” Catt’s strategy of securing voting rights state by state and Paul’s vocal and partisan protest campaign coincided with the Wilson administration’s decision to intervene in World War I - a development that provided powerful rhetoric for a measure of expediency for granting the vote. The NAWSA publicly embraced the war cause. Suffrage leaders suggested that the effort to “make the world safe for democracy” ought to begin at home, by extending the franchise. Moreover, they insisted, the failure to extend the vote to women might im- peded their participation in the war effort just when they were most needed to play a greater role as workers and volunteers outside the home. Responding to these overtures, the House of Representatives initially passed a voting rights amendment in 1918, but the Senate did not follow suit before the end of the 65th Congress. It was not until after the war, however, that the measure finally cleared Congress with the House again voting its approval and the Senate concurring in 1919. A years later, on August 26, 1920, Harry T. Burn, a representative from Tennessee, received an eight-page handwritten letter from his mother urging him to take up the suffragist cause. Ultimately, he casted the deciding vote for the ratification of the 19th Amendment, providing full voting rights for women nationally.

Bibliography Adams, Colleen. Women's Suffrage: A Primary Source History of the Women's Rights Movement in America. New York: Rosen Cen tral Primary Source, 2003. Burgan, Michael. The 19th Amendment. Minneapolis, Minn.: Compass Point Books, 2006. Buchanan, Paul D. The American Women's Rights Movement: A Chronology of Events and of Opportunities from 1600 to 2008. Bos ton: Branden Books, 2009. Davis, Lucile. Susan B. Anthony: A Photo-illustrated Biography. Mankato, Minn.: Bridgestone Books, 1998. Ford, Linda. Iron-Jawed Angels: The Suffrage Militancy of the National Woman's Party, 1912-1920. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1991. Letter from Abigail Adams to John Adams, 31 March - 5 April 1776 [electronic edition]. Adams Family Papers: An Electronic Archive. Massachusetts Historical Society. Accessed April 1, 2015. http://www.masshist.org/digitaladams/. McMillen, Sally G. Seneca Falls and the Origins of the Women's Rights Movement. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008. 46 Unit Four: At Home and Abroad: Prosperity and Depression William Henry Walker, Collection of profile portraits This sketch portrays a man who appears to be a butler at the St. George Society at the Waldorf Astoria, dated 1926. The Waldorf Astoria catered to the wealthy and was regarded as one of the most prestigious and regal hotels in the world. This sketch derives the significant amount of wealth that was present during the 1920’s. Just a small glimpse of this sketch automatically leaves you with a sense of a powerful and striv- ing era. William Henry Walker created this sketch. He was a cartoonist and illustrator in New York City. He built his career through political and satirical cartoons for LIFE, Harper’s, and the New York Herald Tribune. His most active period was 1919-1937, when he made 226 portrait, sketches, and caricatures. Most of these portraits were of members of the Dutch Treat Club, his friends, notable artists, musicians, actors, and politicians. The Dutch Treat Club was a literary and artistic society founded by Thomas Masson who was a LIFE magazine editor. He wanted a New York City club for creative people like writers, illustrators and later, musical artists and actors. LIFE contributors brought their friends over and the numbers slowly began to swell until one Tuesday in 1905 the group officially organized themselves as the Dutch Treat Club. This William Henry Walker, Collection of profile portraits, institution grew quickly and soon had up to 350 members, ca. 1920-1930. Gift of the Family of William Henry Walker, Inventory Number: 1990.1.1-123 including some of country’s creative minds. Members included artist, James Montgomery Flagg, known for his famous illustration of Uncle Sam. Walker sketched some of its notable members such as mayor, Fiorello H. La Guardia, and art collector, Gertrude Stein.

The Roaring Twenties

The Roaring Twenties signified the arrival of an age of innovation and wealth across the United States. The twenties saw large scale mechanization of factories and other consumer based inventions. This new age also marked significant change in lifestyle and culture. The twenties was a decade of optimism and everyone sought a better society after the devastation and atrocities of World War I. This was a new age of prosperity. In the beginning of the 1920s the 18th amendment was ratified. This caused the manufacturing, sale, and distribution of alcohol to be illegal. Prohibition was know as the “noble experiment” by the Dry’s. The Dry’s consisted of the anti-saloon league and the woman’s Christian temperance union. They all shared the common 47 Unit Four: At Home and Abroad: Prosperity and Depression idea that alcohol was “America's national curse”. They believed that the ban of alcohol would increase the nation’s revenue by having other Americans spend their income on other commodities such as entertainment. In fact prohibition turned out to be a crippling blow to the economy. Thousands of Americans were laid off mostly those who worked in breweries, distilleries, and saloons. The federal government also saw a loss during prohibition. It lost $11 billion in tax revenue and spent more than $300 million enforcing it. The Dry’s also believed that prohibition would lower the national crime rate, but in fact it rose due to the circumstances during that period. It turned thousands of law abiding citizens into criminals who were now aligned with the mafia to satisfy their need for alcohol. Although this amendment was only in existence for about a decade, the 21st amendment repealed the 18th amendment. This was the first constitutional amendment to be repealed in history. America saw radical change in its society with anti-immigration policies. At the heart of all of this was nativism. Nativism can be best described as a policy of protecting the interest of the native inhabitant mainly Americans of Anglo-Saxon descent. Immigrants were deemed sub-human, stealing jobs from Americans. On July 14, 1921, two men by the names of Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti, were arrested for the murder of a paymaster and his bodyguard. The Sacco-Vanzetti case was a controversial murder trial in Mas- sachusetts that extended over seven years resulting in their execution. Many people felt that the trial had been less fair and that the defendants were convicted for their radical, anarchist beliefs rather than the crime they had allegedly committed. Authorities failed to provide sufficient evidence and most of the supporting evidence was discredited. Nativism sought the demise of caution and rationality within the justice department. There was also another shockwave of revolutionizing American society, which was influenced by Afri- can Americans. The Harlem Renaissance was a concentration of intellect and talent of African Americans and served as symbolic mecca for those who wished to prosper in this new changing society. It primarily focused on the creative arts such as literature, music, and theatre produced by African Americans. These bohemians sought to break racial barriers by expressing their aspects of living and embracing their heritage. This movement laid down the foundation for African American literature and gave birth to respectable authors such as Langston Hughes. After World War I, the United States had emerged as Europe’s largest creditor. The United States was able to receive at least $12.5 billion in collections. From this point America would stand on the pedestal as one of the most powerful nations in the world. The main reason in which the United States was able to achieve in such a prosperous age was due to the industrialization of factories; the need for more labor was implicated. One worker could not fulfill the task and demands that were being asked of them to do; the average worker fell from 55.9 hours of work time in 1900 to 44.2 in 1929. While the average worker lost a fraction of their hours, their wages rose by 25%. No longer could the average worker work for long hours for miniscule pay. People were being employed and you can see the amount of riches being swelled up into the economy. Between 1921 and 1924 the country’s national product jumped from $69 billion to $93 billion. Productivity increased by 72% in the manufacturing of goods and services. 48 Unit Four: At Home and Abroad: Prosperity and Depression

As wealth began to amount in the economy, entrepreneurs sought to buy their stake in this consumer based society. In 1911, the US patent office issued its one millionth patent, 15 years later it issued its two millionth. These innovations can be seen today such as scotch tape, Welch’s grape juice, Listerine mouthwash, and Kleenex tissue paper. All of this was due to improvements in production and distribution. There was a new urge for families to spend more on appliances such as radios, automobiles, and phonographs. Objects they could not previously afford. Americans spent over 20% of their household incomes on consumer appliances. This new crazed consumer based society came with disastrous side effects. Much of the spending was through credit and by the mid-1920’s Americans could not repay their loans, which created widespread bankruptcy. The twenties were the nation’s first modern decade, many of its social and cultural revolutions would later be the foundations for the advancement of society. A prosperous age in which many Americans came to enjoy the blessings of consumerism and excess, only to see it all crash around them with the Great Depression that arrived in 1929.

Bibliography "William Henry Walker Papers, 1892-1937," Summary of the William Henry Walker Papers, accessed April 1, 2015, http://www.aaa. si.edu/collections/william-henry-walker-papers-8158. Bernardo, Mark. Mad Men's Manhattan the Insider's Guide. Berkeley, Calif.: Roaring Forties Press, 2010. Joshua Zeitz "The Roaring Twenties." The Roaring Twenties. accessed April 1, 2015, https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/ roaring-twenties/essays/roaring-twenties. Joshua Zeitz "F. Scott how did nationals go? and the Age of Excess." F. Scott Fitzgerald and the Age of Excess. accessed April 1, 2015, https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/roaring-twenties/essays/f-scott-fitzgerald-and-age-excess. Felix Frankfurter, "The Case of Sacco and Vanzetti," The Atlantic (1927): accessed April 1, 2015, http://www.theatlantic.com/maga zine/archive/1927/03/the-case-of-sacco-and-vanzetti/306625. Bio.com. “Famous Harlem Renaissance People”. accessed April 1, 2015. http://www.biography.com/people/groups/movement-har lem-renaissance. 49 Unit Four: At Home and Abroad: Prosperity and Depression

This master piece was created by the artist Chil- Flags on 57th Street de Hassam in 1918. The primary colors are defining the Flag. This shows America conquers and becomes a new nation. They dominate the painting showing off the dark red, white, and blue. The painting goes from light to dark which would show American going into the unknown after WWI. The figures at street level in the center of the painting shows Americans looking for a leader, but they only really elected war heroes for presidency. The use of a lot of black can symbolize all of the dead soldiers America specifically lost in the war. The Painter, Childe Hassam was a patriot for America supporting its entry into war. The cars in the foreground, shows American loans to everyone and they are leading out of debt and into the “roaring twenties”. All of the cars are going in one direction, The Brush strokes show that this was a messy time in history, known as the “lost generation” a literary term used by writers, most notably Ernest Hemingway. The trains in the background of the painting show America’s use with technology specifically trains; becoming more and more popular. The three flags are shown in light dark light order. This is still Childe Hassam, Flags on 57th Street, Winter 1918, 1918, in the Victoria era of art. Bequest of Julia B. Engel, Inventory Number: 1984.68.

Chide Hassam created the painting in the winter of 1917 and the autumn of 1918. This painting was created by Hassam viewing out the window of his studio overlooking 57th street. This painting was part of the American Impressionist movement in America. The size of the painting could symbolize how much America participated in the war; not very long. The roads on the painting look similar to a trench. In WWI the tactic of trench warfare was created. The setting was during the winter. From afar the buildings and people fade as you look around the painting. The painting also puts an emphasis on the center, surrounded by the Flags of the United States. Looking at the painting from the right side, the cars look like tombstones. This could also again symbolize the many lives lost, similar to the lack of people in the painting in general. However the American Flag seem to be the main point of view, and the side buildings have a whole new outlook. The multiple flags on the side now look like trees and the background becomes more noticeable specifically the platform/bridge. The snow on the street looks dirty and peach and green are seen much more from this angle. You also can’t see any people from this angle.

50 Unit Four: At Home and Abroad: Prosperity and Depression

While sitting down you notice the people again, and the details from the cars look more glaring. The green and lighter shade is unnoticeable as the painting becomes darker. The setting of the urban area has a rush hour Thursday afternoon New York feel. It looks comfortable. You also a lot more detail of the bottom of the painting such as the lights of the cars and the back window of multiple cars. The painting is darker, but the snow doesn’t seem dirty. Even sitting down the flags are very glaring to the interpreter. A message of the painting is the WWI affected us (the United States), we came out damaged, and we’re trying to be mended.

Finally Joining the Great Party, The Yanks Enter WWI

The United States joined the war in 1917 helping the Triple Entente to defeat the Triple Alliance. The triple entente included Great Britain, France and Russia, but later they would become the allied powers when Italy (1915), the United States (1917), Japan, Portugal & Romania (1916), Serbia, Belgium & Greece (1917), Montenegro and Siam (now Thailand) joined them. The triple Alliance was Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire (Now Turkey). They would later become the central powers when Bulgaria joined in 1915. World War I ended in 1918 after the allied powers finally broke through the German defensive lines during the Meuse-Argonne Offensive and drove on toward Germany. The war lasted a total of four years (1914- 1918) but the United States didn’t join until late in the war because Americans felt that the US should not intervene in European wars, as per the Monroe Doctrine, which had been observed for over a century. While the war was going on, the United States economy started to boom by selling supplies and resources specifically food and products to both powers, but overwhelmingly US economic support went to the Allies. The United States was neutral until the Ocean liner The Lusitania was sunk by a German submarine. This passenger ship held 1,900 passengers on board and 1,100 died in the incident with 120 Americans being killed. This wasn’t the tipping point of the United States joining the Allied powers, but it caused an uproar support from the American public which allowed people sympathetic to the Allied powers to push for US involvement. The United States still remained neutral until the Germans started to become skeptical with the United States’ relation with the Allied powers. The Germans decided to send a telegram to Mexico requesting to have an alliance with them and have them attack the United States if the US was going to join the Allied Powers. Unfortu- nately for the Germans, British espionage intercepted this message and sent it to President Wilson alerting him of Germany’s intention. This telegraph of the Germans contacting Mexico is known as the Zimmerman Telegram. Though Mexico posed no threat to the United States, the government claimed that this was the main push. It was ridiculous then and now to assume that Mexico would ever dream of attacking the US, for economic and political reasons. Moreover, at the time, Mexico didn’t even have a standing army as it had just experienced the Mexican Civil War a decade prior. The main push for the United States to join the war were for economic reasons. The American Banks were very invested toward the central powers compared to the allied powers, from all the loans they gave for supplies and weapons. If the allies lost the war the American economy would’ve crashed and been in shambles.

51 Unit Four: At Home and Abroad: Prosperity and Depression

From then on the Americans joined the war and helped the Allies win the war. After World War I in the Treaty of Versailles, President Wilson proposed the Fourteen Points, hoping for “peace without victory” believing that pushing Germany after WWI would lead to another war. The other nations denied President Wilson’s points and Germany was forced to pay for damages they caused during the war. From there the United States initiated the Dawes Plan where they loaned Germany money to help boost back their economy to eventually pay England, France and Belgium the fees they owned. This effort was not enough to stave off the economic challenges of the 1930s and lead to the World War II.

Bibliography “America’s Favorite Impressionist,” Sullivan Goss: An American Gallery, accessed April 3, 2015, http://www.sullivangoss.com/ childe_hassam/. “American Impressionism and Realism,” National Gallery of Art, accessed April 3, 2015, https://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/horo_has sam.shtm. Barron, James, “With Mad Men Shoot, Unwittingly Adding to Atelier’s Colorful Past,” New York Times, accessed on April 19, 2015. http://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/20/nyregion/a-studio-and-sanctuary-to-artists-and-don-draper.html?_r=0. “Childe Hassam: American Impressionist,” Metropolitan Museum of Art, accessed April 2, 2015, http://www.metmuseum.org/exhibi tions/listings/2004/childe-hassam. “Childe Hassam: American Impressionist.” Metropolitan Museum of Art, Interactive art feature, downloaded April 2, 2015 http:// www.metmuseum.org/metmedia/interactives/art-trek/childe-hassam-american-impressionist Dudley, William, editor. "World War I: Opposing Viewpoints." Greenhaven Press. 1998 Firstworldwar.com “battles: All by date”, firstworldwar.com. downloaded April 12, 2015 http://www.firstworldwar.com/battles/all.htm Genocchio, Benjamin, “From an American Master, Impressions of the South Fork,” New York Times, December 22, 2008, accessed April 20, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/28/nyregion/long-island/28artsli.html?ref=topics. "The Great War: The Complete History of World War I." Video Koch Vision, 2006 Hamilton, John. "Battles of World War I." ABDO Publishing Co. 1959 History Channel. “This day in History, October 11: Bulgaria enters World War I.” History Channel.com. Downloaded April 10, 2015. http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/bulgaria-enters-world-war-i Public Broadcasting Service. “The Great War and the Shaping of the 20th Century.” PBS.org. downloaded April 10, 2015 http://www. pbs.org/greatwar/timeline/ World War I: Beginnings and the Aftermath.” Mtholyoke.edu. downloaded April 11, 2015 https://www.mtholyoke.edu/~raina20s/ ww1/play.html 52 Unit Four: At Home and Abroad: Prosperity and Depression Saint-Gaudens Double Eagle Coin

Augustus Saint-Gaudens, Saint-Gaudens Double Eagle, 1933, Property of a Private Col- lector on loan to the New-York Historical Society. The 1933 Double Eagle Coin was designed by Augustus Saint-Gaudens and has been described by the U.S Mint as “the most beautiful coin ever minted in the U.S and perhaps the world.” Valued at $20 and first minted in 1907, the coin was in circulation as part of the U.S currency. Saint-Gaudens, a émigré from Ireland, was an acclaimed professional sculptor responsible for keystone sculptures like “Admiral Farragut,” which today still stands in New York’s Madison Square Park. When President Theodore Roosevelt decided he wanted to try to bring the beauty of ancient Greek coins to American currency, so he commissioned Saint-Gaudens to work with him. The obverse side of the coin features Lady Liberty advancing upon the beholder in front of the sun’s rays at the dawn of a new day. In her right hand she holds a torch, in her left an olive branch. The lower left background depicts the U.S Capitol building and stars run along the border representing the states of the Union. The reverse depicts an American eagle soaring above a blazing sun. The coin was meant for regular use but because of the extremely high quality of the relief it was much more complicated to make than other coins. Because of that it was immediately struck in a less high relief but the U.S Mint found that it had no authority to mint it. Eventually it was produced in even lower quality it was more suited for mass production and 12,000 were produced. Finally, when President Franklin D. Roosevelt passed an executive order to stem the hoarding of gold, the Double Eagle coins were collected and melted down for the U.S Treasury. Only one legally usable coin survives today, legitimately sold at auction for over 10 million dollars. It is on display at the New-York Historical Society. The Evolution of the Gold Standard in the US The original Gold Standard Act tied the dollar to an equivalent gold amount and created the U.S Trea- sury as guarantor of the stability of the conversion rate. In other words, gold was given a dollar value, appreciated at $20.67 per ounce. If the gold standard were in place today an ounce of gold would be worth roughly $500, adjusted for inflation. The Federal Reserve, established as the central banking system of the United States, was then responsible for holding the gold that would guarantee the value of U.S dollars. This guarantee was in place until the Great Depression, but it was not unchallenged. A major opposing platform was comprised of the working 53 Unit Four: At Home and Abroad: Prosperity and Depression class and the yeoman farmers. The farmers created the Farmer’s Alliance and the workers created the Knights of Labor. Both groups were part of the Populist movement, advocating social, political and economic reforms that would later be reorganized into the Progressive movement. Their platform was comprised of egalitarian ideas like a flexible money supply, free silver (whereby the U.S dollar would be guaranteed by both gold and silver), a graduated income tax (tax brackets divided by income), and the popular election of senators. The most prominent Populist was William Jennings Bryan, who vehemently opposed U.S monetary policy. In a strong dissenting speech he vowed; “we will answer the demand for a gold standard by saying to them: You shall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns, you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold.” Not surprisingly, this speech became known as the Cross of Gold speech. Another, more progressive concept was also discussed, “fiat money,” where the Federal Reserve would guarantee the value of U.S currency through government regulation or law. In effect, the fiat money concept acknowledged the arbitrary value of money and aimed to harness it for democratic ends. And by the 1970s, fiat money became the standard. Indeed, the money in today’s American wallets is guaranteed by the strength of the U.S government and its military. But for the time, the concept was too radical, and the coinciding discovery of gold in Alaska and higher commodity prices from the increase of production of staple crops leading to an alleviation of farm debt solidified the gold standard. Issues with money came to a head in the early 1930s. A massive wave of bank runs collapsed the economy, triggering the worst period of economic decline in American history- the Great Depression. The U.S Fed- eral Reserve failed to provide sufficient liquidity (in effect, they could not keep up with the monetary demands) and as a result, banks could not meet their customers’ demands for cash. Many banks filed for bankruptcy. This failure was due in part to the gold standard. Because of an inherent contradiction where the Federal Reserve had to embrace a policy of expansion in order to keep the economy from collapsing (i.e., print more money) even though such a policy would result in foreign outflows of gold by investors seeking higher returns abroad, thus making it harder to maintain the dollar at its legal gold value. As part of his economic relief package, the newly inaugurated Franklin D. Roosevelt sought to reconcile this contradiction. Immediately after taking office, Roosevelt declared a three-day bank holiday to stop the bank runs and gold outflows. Three days later, Congress passed the Emergency Banking Act, retroactively approving the President’s actions and giving him the power to regulate or prohibit the payment of gold. Roosevelt promptly issued Executive Order 6102 on April 5, 1933, nationalizing the country’s gold by banning “hoarding.” Gold had to be turned in to the government at a price of $20.67 per troy ounce. The U.S government forcibly seized Saint-Gaudens’ beautiful Double Eagle Coin and almost all were melted down in order for the Federal Reserve to continue guaranteeing U.S currency. Roosevelt also implemented multiple paradigm-shifting and groundbreaking socioeconomic reforms packaged in his New Deal. By 1933 the national unemployment rate reached a high of 25%. Millions of out-of-work Americans stood in bread lines, lived in crude tent cities (dubbed Hoovervilles due to resentment at President Herbert Hoover over his mishandling over the crisis), and struggled to survive. Roosevelt, in fact, won his election largely on the backdrop of unemployment. As a result, his first hundred days in office were marked with a 54 Unit Four: At Home and Abroad: Prosperity and Depression flurry of legislative activity. Specifically, the headline legislation included the establishment of FERA (Fed- eral Emergency Relief Administration) as a charitable organization for America’s impoverished, later reorganized into the Works Progress Administration (WPA); the Civilian Conservation Corps as an employment scheme that put Americans to work for six months on public works projects; NIRA (National Industry Recov- ery Act) setting up the Public Works Administration and the National Recovery Administration to conduct public works projects involving infrastructure, and the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) that both increased employment and allowed for the penetration of electricity into the Ohio River Valley, drastically improving the residents’ quality of life. Roosevelt’s intense reforms that culminated in massive social and economic reforms like the Social Se- curity Act, a social welfare act creating the Social Security system in the United States, and the Federal Deposit Insurance Company, insuring Americans’ bank deposits up to $250,000 were exactly what were necessary to stop the cascading crisis that nearly toppled the U.S economy. Roosevelt’s reforms, coupled with the entry of the United States into the Second World War, eventually succeeded in pulling the country out of the Depression and setting the path towards its current status as the economic powerhouse of the world. Partially because of Roosevelt’s nationalization of gold in 1933, when the Allied nations convened at Bretton Woods in New Hamp- shire in 1944, the international monetary policy that established the IMF as well as conversion rates between foreign currencies, the U.S’ control of two-thirds of the world’s gold gave American delegates an advantage. And when Richard Nixon’s administration unilaterally terminated convertibility of gold in 1971, the U.S currency became free-floating, the fiat money concept was put in place, and the U.S dollar became the standard. Today, the world operates on a “dollar standard,” whereby almost all international trades are underwritten by the dollar and almost all nations use the dollar as their reserve currency. In effect, even though only one authen- tic legal Saint-Gaudens Double Eagle Coin remains, its gold has contributed greatly to the economic status of the United States today.

Bibliography T. J. Jackson Lears, Rebirth of a Nation: The Making of Modern America 1877-1920 (New York: HarperCollins, 2009) Ellwell, Craig K. A Brief History of the Gold Standard in the United States. The Congressional Research Service. Washington, D.C, U.S Government Printing Office, 2011. "Double Eagle Coin $20," APMEX. Accessed March 25, 2015, http://www.apmex. com/category/11902/20-double-eagles-saint-gaudens-1907-1933. Nick Taylor, "The Great Depression, " Great Depression (1930's) News. Accessed March 25, 2015. http://topics.nytimes.com/top/ref erence/timestopics/subjects/g/great_depression_1930s/index.html. "The United States Mint · About The Mint," The United States Mint · About The Mint. Accessed March 25, 2015. http://www.usmint.gov/mint_programs/ultrahigh/?action=History. “Gold Standard.” Gold Standard. Iowa State University. Accessed April 1, 2015. http://www2.econ.iastate.edu/classes/econ355/choi/ golds.htm. 55 Unit Four: At Home and Abroad: Prosperity and Depression

Empire State Building

This painting of the Empire State Build- ing was commissioned by the Works Project Administration, and was painted by Victor Perelli in 1940. Many of the aspects of this painting represent the way The United States of America attempted to portray itself during this time. Even the subject of the painting, The Empire State Building, is a conscious and significant choice: The Empire State Building was tallest building in the world during the time at which this painting was created. It towers over everything else. The rest of the buildings are disproportionately small compared to the Em- pire State Building, even the plane in the background looks miniscule and irrelevant when juxtaposed against the building. The painting’s dark, seemingly ominous color scheme and the angular, sharp lines of each building conveys a sense of stark power, and, according to the art- Victor Perelli, Empire State Building, N.Y.C., 1940, Gift of the Federal ist, seems to embody the imperialistic attitude Works Agency, Works Projects Administration, Inventory Number: of the United States at the time. 1940.978. This painting was made prior to the involvement of the United States in World War II, which occurred the following year in 1941. It is possible that the timing of the commissioning of the painting is related to the war. The United States government was supporting the allies economically, and was an international presence. Commissioning this painting would have sent the message that the U.S. is a force to be reckoned with; both to international foes and to skeptics at home. The timing of the commission of this painting also coincides with the end of the Great Depression. At the close of the Great Depression, the U.S. would have wanted to send the message that despite the Great Depression, it was still invincible — that the U.S. had overcome such a significant obstacle and was able to financially support the allies in the war was momentous. The essence of this painting represents that accomplishment, and celebrates the tremendous power of the States. Contrarily, although the painting conveys a sense of the United States’ sheer, unmitigated power, it also attaches a negative sentiment to that power. The coloring and mood of the painting are not just intimidatingly vast, but dark, gloomy, and sinister. If the Empire State Building is intended to be representative of America, then America comes across as an Orwellian power, and the painting begins to seem like propaganda. 56 Unit Four: At Home and Abroad: Prosperity and Depression The New Deal In the years prior to the commission of this painting, the United States of America was deep in the throes of the Great Depression. The US was struggling with a large disparity in the distribution of wealth. Heavy reli- ance on the use of credit managed to balance the scales temporarily, but eventually the economy drastically declined. Other factors contributed to the collapse of the economy, like the overproduction of goods, the loss of jobs due to technological advances, and and the over-inflation and consequent crash of the stock market on Black Tuesday (October 29, 1929). President Hoover was reluctant to use government aid to help people because he firmly believed in rugged individualism: the idea that one must be completely self-reliant and independent in social and economic respects. Personal liberty, independence, and free competition are critical to this belief. Hoover also maintained that the depression would rectify itself, and that it was largely due to international debts as opposed to economic failings at home. He proposed a program to loan money to state governments, banks, and large businesses to help the economy. This was called the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, and was enacted in 1932. Due to Hoover’s failed attempts to reconstruct the economy, the Re- publicans lost the white house in the next election. Franklin D. Roosevelt was elected in Hoover’s place, and his opinions were in direct contrast to Hoover’s. Unlike Hoover, who believed the people should support the government, Roosevelt advocated government aid for its people. When the Great Depression hit, Roosevelt was the governor of New York. As governor, Roosevelt enacted a system of welfare that preceded the federal system of reform that he would enact as president. The New Deal was a series of reforms and acts to help relieve the people of the United States of their financial turmoil. Examples of these acts include: The Emergency Banking Relief Act, which was intended to alleviate the banking crisis; the Federal Emergency Relief Act, which allotted $500 million for local governments to enact relief programs; the Fair Labor Standards Act, which established maximum hours and minimum wages; and many others. The New Deal also included the formation of the Works Progress Administration, which commissioned the painting of the Empire State Building. The Works Progress Administration was an attempt to curtail and remedy the unemployment epidemic. During the worst years of the Great Depression, nearly a quarter of the United States’ workforce was unemployed. The New Deal as a whole was intended to ease the economic tension, but the Works Progress Administration was specifically enacted to create jobs. The act provided jobs building schools, post offices, courthouses, roads, and bridges. It also included roles for artists, musicians and authors, such as creating government commissioned art. The New Deal was also an effort to reestablish faith in the United States government, which is shown in the painting of the Empire State Build- ing. The Civil Conservation Corps was another effort to mitigate unemployment, and was quite successful. It provided jobs for people in the forests of the United States. Roosevelt’s system of reform was paramount, and colossally impacted the U.S. The United States still carries the impacts of Roosevelt’s presidency. One of the most critical aspects of reform enacted by Roosevelt was the Social Security Act. The Social Security Act provided insurance for unemployed people, pensions for retired people, and aid for people who were otherwise unable to work, like children and handicapped people, and it was all funded by taxes. The United States still relies on Social Security to aid its people today. In addition to the New Deal, Roosevelt is remembered for being the only president to serve more than two terms. 57 Unit Four: At Home and Abroad: Prosperity and Depression

The New Deal, although it provided considerable relief for the people of the United States, was somewhat controversial because it required the government to be far more involved in the lives of people during the Roosevelt administration than it had been in previous administrations. The New Deal was also criticized because although it provided relief, it did not fix the economy or end the depression. However, the onset ofWorld War II closely followed the Depression, and provided the means for the United States to pull itself out of economic turmoil.

Bibliography “Franklin Roosevelt’s Alter Ego; A Digest of Harry Hopkins' Notebooks Underlines the Vital Role He Played,” New York Times, 24 Oct. 1948, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9F05E6D71339E632A25757C2A9669D946993D6CF. “New Deal,” History.com, http://www.history.com/topics/new-deal. “New Deal Network: The Great Depression, the 1930s, and the Roosevelt Administration,” http://newdeal.feri.org. “The New Deal,” PBS, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/general-article/dustbowl-new-deal/. “The New Deal,” Roosevelt Institute, http://rooseveltinstitute.org/policy-and-ideasroosevelt-historyfdr/new-deal. “Truman Woos Liberals But Wars On Dixiecrats; President Is Expanding His Strategy, Which First Seemed Based Merely On Attack ing the GOP,” New York Times, 26 Sep. 1948, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9506E3DB153DE03ABC4E5 1DFBF668383659EDE. 58 UNIT FIVE: THE UNITED STATES IN AN GOLDEN AGE OF GLOBAL CRISIS: RESPONSIBILITY AND COOPERATION

Essays In This Unit Include: I. Total War in World War II Isaiah Milbauer, Hunter College High School...... 59

II. Women and African Americans in World War II Nicaurys Rodriguez, The Nightingale-Bamford School...... 62

III. A Cold War Overview Asia Matthews, York Early College Academy...... 65

Irving Boyer, Prospect Park, ca. 1942-1944, Gift of Selwyn L. Boyer, Collection of New-York Historical Society, 2002.49. 59 Unit Five: The United States in an Age of Global Crisis: Responsibility and Cooperation “Americans All” Poster

“Americans All” poster, War Manpower Commission, Washington DC, 1942. Gilder Lehrman Col- lection. The Americans All poster was printed in 1942, at the height of World War II. It was printed by the War Manpower Commission, the governmental body that was established by Executive Order 9139, “... for the purpose of assuring the most effective mobilization and utilization of the national manpower.” The poster depicts a number of men working on a tank. The figures are labeled with their last name. The last names indicate that the men come from various ethnic groups. The poster also features a quote from Executive Order 8802 in which Franklin D. Roosevelt states that the employers cannot discriminate based on, “race, creed, color, or national origin.” The colors of the poster are the colors of the American flag, most likely to inspire patriotic feelings in the viewer. Total War in World War II

World War II was an all encompassing, total war. Unlike previous wars, except World War I, World War II affected every aspect of a state’s society. Not only were nations fighting on the battlefield, they were fighting on the homefront. Wartime production played a major role in battlefield victories and defeats. On the homefront, United States citizens were expected to sacrifice for their country. This meant sacrificing for the war effort in a number of ways such as, working in factories to increase wartime production, donating rubber and metal, and buying war bonds. Government policies effectively organized the war industry, galvanized the war industry and stirred nationalist sentiment in the hearts and minds of the American public. Thus, the American public joined together for the common purpose of winning the war on the homefront. Unit Five: The United States in an Age of Global Crisis: 60 Responsibility and Cooperation

During the war, production reached incredible levels. By 1942, US war production was equal to the production of the three axis powers. The US wartime industry churned out an incredible amount of weapons. By the end of the war the US had manufactured 300 thousand aircraft, 70 thousand ships, and 80 thousand tanks. In addition, the US created 15 million guns and 41 billion rounds of ammunition. This wartime production was not matched by other countries. By 1945 the US GDP (growth domestic product) or the value of goods created by a country, was at one and a half trillion dollars by 1990 prices. In comparison, the combined GDP of the axis powers at the end of the war was almost 500 billion. A primary reason for incredible war production was the ability of the government to coordinate with the business sector. As Secretary of War, Henry L. Stimson observed, “If you are going to try to go to war, or to prepare for war, in a capitalist country, you have got to let business make money out of the process or business won’t work.” During World War II business leaders were brought to Washington D.C. to lead wartime production organizations. Multiple organizations were created. Franklin Roosevelt commissioned the National Defense Advisory Commission, then an Office of Production Management, then a War Production Board, and later an Office of War Mobilization to coordinate the war industry.

Because of the demand for labor on the homefront, people who normally did not work in factories we called upon to work. Women and African Americans saw their roles in the workplace transform. In the past, women were relegated to a domestic work, raising the children and completing household chores. Few jobs were readily available for women, especially manual labor jobs. Women welcomed the opportunity to substantially aid in the war effort. In 1941 there were around 15 million working women in the US. By the end of the war almost 20 million women were in the workforce. African Americans also greatly benefited from the labor demands. At 61 Unit Five: The United States in an Age of Global Crisis: Responsibility and Cooperation

the beginning of the war their unemployment rate was twice the unemployment rate of white people. However in 1942, Franklin D. Roosevelt wrote Executive Order 8802 which stated that discrimination based on race, creed, color or national origin was not tolerated. This resulted in the rise of African American labor. After Executive Order 8802 federal government employment of African Americans rose from 40 thousand to 300 thousand by the end of the war. Propaganda played a major role in stirring nationalist sentiment among the American public. F.D.R. created The Office of War Information which produced copious amounts of posters, pamphlets, and films. A major success of The Office of War Information was their war bond campaigns. The Federal Government raised almost 100 billion dollars as a result of seven war bond drives. Propaganda also played a major role in encouraging women to join the defense production effort. For example, one propaganda poster stated that helping war production was, “a lot more exciting than polishing the family furniture.” The American homefront during World War II is reminisced as The US’s “finest hour” for good reason. The American public sacrificed immensely for the war effort and greatly aided defense production. Further, the government was incredibly effective in mobilizing the people and unifying the people for the war effort.

Bibliography Collins, WIlliam. "Race, Roosevelt, and Wartime Production: Fair Employment in World War II Labor Markets." The American Eco nomic Review 91, no. 1 (2001): 272-86. Gerhard, Peters, and John Woolley. "Franklin D. Roosevelt: "Executive Order 8802 - Reaffirming Policy Of Full Participation In The Defense Program By All Persons, Regardless Of Race, Creed, Color, Or National Origin, And Directing Certain Action In Furtherance Of Said Policy." The American Presidency Project. 2012. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=16134. Gerhard, Peters, and John Woolley. "Franklin D. Roosevelt: "Executive Order 8802 Reaffirming Policy Of Full Participation In The Defense Program By All Persons, Regardless Of Race, Creed, Color, Or National Origin, And Directing Certain Action In Furtherance Of Said Policy." The American Presidency Project. 2012. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=16134. Goodwin, Doris Kearns. No Ordinary Time: Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt : The Home Front in World War II. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994. Jeffries, John W. Wartime America: The World War II Home Front. Chicago: I.R. Dee, 1996. Leff, Mark. "The Politics of Sacrifice on the Home Front in World War Two." The Journal of American History 77, no. 4 (1991): 1296-1318. 62 Unit Five: The United States in an Age of Global Crisis: Responsibility and Cooperation Women’s Army Auxiliary Negro Digest, “Color Craze” Corps, “Life in the WAAC”

Negro Digest, “Color Craze”, April 1945, Vol. 3, Number Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps, “Life in the WAAC”, 1943, 6, Collection of the New-York Historical Society. Collection of the New-York Historical Society.

Life in the WAAC is a poster from 1943 in a question and answer format recruiting women to join the Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC), which shows the enormous demand for labor during the war to the extent where the United States had to look to women, an overlooked part of the population at that time. The poster advertises working for the war as something exciting and patriotic, implying that the WAAC provides opportunities for promotion and freedom from other obligations. The poster reads that “the most beautiful women in America today are the girls in khaki!” in order to positively promote the war effort. Another section reads that, “There are few civilian jobs in which you could earn clear income as WAAC enrolled members do. WAAC pay is equal to soldier’s pay.” This is deliberately done to stress the monetary value which greatly implies independence acquired when working for the WAAC. Crossing racial barriers, something unusual before the war, the poster says the WAAC takes women, “regardless of race, color or creed,” to encourage as many people as possible to meet the demands of America during this booming time. Before the war, an opportunity like this “Color Craze” by Richard Burns, is a magazine article published in 1945 by the Negro Digest denoting the struggles of African Americans that were accepted into the war effort. In this article he shares anecdotes from African Americans and their experiences around the country. One snippet, “identity unknown,” goes on to declare that a California scientist, “...confessed that scientifically he couldn’t tell Negroes from whites.” 63 Unit Five: The United States in an Age of Global Crisis: Responsibility and Cooperation

This shows a positive growth circulating around the era of World War II, but it is contrasted by African American women in the Nation Navy Medical Center having to eat their lunches in a toilet due to Jim Crow Laws. This article is neither pessimistic nor optimistic. It was tailored toward an African American audience, highlighting issues of the time and reporting insights of how African Americans experienced life during the war. Moreover, the last anecdote described a Negro woman at a store intentionally requesting separate rooms, which at first appeared to be an application of the Jim Crow laws: One can infer that although they were probably allowed to work with whites, they chose to self-segregate due to the issues that they faced at work.

Women and African Americans in World War II World War II was a breakthrough for African Americans and women. After having worked in the factories and joining the armed forces, more freedoms were gained. As white men were off to war, new opportunities were provided for both women and African Americans. Women on the home front had more economic possibilities outside of doing household chores, especially since more workers were in demand to fill the space of the men who went off to war. During World War II African Americans were called to help in segregated divisions, but that came mostly after 1941 when Japan bombed Pearl Harbor, which is when the United States officially started to join the war. Most women were encouraged to become nurses and help the US Army (but not in combat) in segregated divisions as well, such as the Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps. Rosie the Riveter was an iconic symbol used to recruit women to work in factories as the demand for war supplies and weapons increased. “We can do it,” begins to make a new American ideal, shattering the old expectation of women forced to solely work in the home. According to the History Channel, “Between 1940 and 1945, the female percentage of the US workforce increased from 27% to nearly 37%, and by 1945 nearly one out of every four married women worked outside the home.” Astoundingly enough, the source goes on to cite that: “More than 310 thousand women worked in the US aircraft industry in 1943, representing 65% of the industry’s total workforce (compared to just 1% in the pre-war years).” Women started to work outside the home for the first time. After the war ended there was a lot of pressure from the media that painted liberated women of the work force as unglamorous (in contrast to the previously mentioned poster). Most women were given an opportunity to experience a freedom they had not known previously and wanted to keep. African Americans were another marginalized group that gained from the war, although they had to fight against discrimination while serving for their country. Clarence Taylor of the Gilder Lehrman Institute for American History mentions that 2.5 million African Americans signed up for the draft and that 1 million served as draftees or volunteers during the war, since it provided economic benefits. However, African Americans had to fight for the right to serve and be employed during the war. Although there were tens of thousands of workers needed during factories to make war supplies, owners blatantly refused to give jobs to African American people. PBS references the Pittsburgh Courier, the most popular African American newspaper which declared a “Double V Campaign,” denoting that African Americans were fighting the enemies of injustice abroad and at home. 64 Unit Five: The United States in an Age of Global Crisis: Responsibility and Cooperation

There was an overwhelming support from the African American community to end prejudice at home during this time. Most notably, Walter White and A. Philip Randolph, civil rights leaders, organized the march on Washington as a response to the fact that African Americans were being discriminated against in the defense industry. Although they were asked to cancel the march by the president and met up with Eleanor Roosevelt, they refused to cancel the march. With that pressure, President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 8802, which says that, “there shall be no discrimination in the employment of workers in defense industries or government because of race, creed, color, or national origin.” Finally, in April of 1942, African Americans were recruited into the Navy. Although the Executive Order 8802 was a huge step in changing the status quo, its true effective- ness was questioned because African American mostly fought in segregated units. Despite this, the Lisa Krause of the National Geographic declares that over two thousand African Amer- ican soldiers temporarily fought alongside white men because “General Dwight D. Eisenhower [was] faced with Hitler's advancing army on the Western Front.” The source spotlights the Tuskegee Airmen, part of another segregated infantry, which in 1944, “...began flying with white pilots in the European theatre,” and “... becom[e] the only US unit to sink a German destroyer.” The Tuskegee Airmen received hundreds of medals for their service. That year, African American women also fought to helped the war effort as nurses when they were able to join the Army Nurse Corps. Krause continues to say that, “More than two million African Americans went to work for defense plants, and another two million joined the federal civil service,” which really pushed African Americans into cities. Working and fighting in the war empirically encouraged mobility. The University of Akron corroborates that, “Between 1940 and 1970 African Americans in urban environments increased from 50% to more than 80%.” This was because African Americans got a taste of a better life and wanted to move to cities where their opportunities were similar to the ones they got while abroad and fighting. This was especially a contrast to the bleak employment rates of African Americans during the Great Depression and even before that time, when they had to work for free as slaves. Civil rights leaders and organizations continued to fight for equality after the war. In 1948, three years after the war ended, President Truman signed Executive Order 9981, which desegregated the army and the government.

Bibliography "American Women in World War II." History.com. January 1, 2010. Accessed March 29, 2015. http://www.history.com/topics/world- war-ii/american-women-in-world-war-ii. "Black, White & Beyond: Multiculturalism in Greater Akron, An Interactive History." Black, White & Beyond: Multiculturalism in Greater Akron, An Interactive History. Accessed March 29, 2015. http://learn.uakron.edu/beyond/ww2_civilRights.htm. "National Geographic News @ Nationalgeographic.com." National Geographic. February 15, 2001. Accessed March 29, 2015. http:// news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/02/0215_tuskegee.html. Taylor, Clarence. "Patriotism Crosses the Color Line: African Americans in World War II." Patriotism Crosses the Color Line: African Americans in World War II. Accessed March 29, 2015. http://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/world-war-ii/es says/patriotism-crosses-color-line-african-americans-world-war-ii. Louis Gates Jr., Henry. "What Was Black America’s Double War?" PBS. May 24, 2013. Accessed March 29, 2015. http://www.pbs. org/wnet/african-americans-many-rivers-to-cross/history/what-was-black-americas-double-war/. 65 Unit Five: The United States in an Age of Global Crisis: Responsibility and Cooperation Atom Bombing of New York City: Illustration for "Hiroshima, U.S.A.”

Chesley Bonestell, Atom Bombing of New York City: Illustration for "Hiroshima, U.S.A." in Collier's, 5 August 1950, 12-13, 1950, Gift of Chesley Bonestell, Inventory Number: 1956.8. As a cry for Democratic supremacy, the August 1950 issue of Collier’s Magazine featured Chelsey Bonestell’s, “Atom Bombing of New York City.” The painting depicted the beloved New York City instantly turning to smoke and flames, as it was virtually hit with a nuclear bomb. At a first glance, the painting may seem to be of Hiroshima after the bomb was dropped only five years earlier in 1945. A closer look, however, reveals a depiction of lower Manhattan, as it would look in the event of a nuclear attack. At this point in Ameri- can history, the idea of atomic diplomacy and nuclear relations with the USSR were trending topics and a major fear for many Americans. This painting served as an attempt to make the potential effects of a nuclear attack more realistic for Americans. No American, much less a New Yorker, could ever fathom the idea of having their entire city destroyed as a result of hostile nuclear weapon discussion between the United States and the Soviet Union. Many Americans were either misinformed or oblivious to the significant damage that could be caused from a possible atomic bomb. Publishing this painting was an attempt for Chelsey Bonestell, an American artist, to promote democracy while revealing to the American public the dangers associated with communism. This painting only perpetuated the stigmatisms surrounding communism. This time in American History was defined by an intense fear of communism along with unhealthy tensions between America and distinctly communist countries, such as the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union was the strongest Communist force, and was the heart of tensions during the Cold War. During the late 1940s and early 1950s, Truman and other influential American leaders advocated for the implementation of American policies that eased tensions overseas, negotiated nuclear agreements, contained communism, and most importantly, would steer the country clear of atomic diplomacy. Some of which included the House Committee to Investigate Un-American Activities (HUAC), the Smith Act, Executive Order 9835, The National Security Act of 1947, National Security Council Paper NSC-68, and the The McCarran Internal Security Act. Each of these were designed to maintain a purely democratic body of 66 Unit Five: The United States in an Age of Global Crisis: Responsibility and Cooperation

American citizens. Vividly, this painting was used to promote pride in American Democracy and to discourage practices and beliefs related to communism. Bonestell was able to scare Americans, New Yorkers especially, into understanding the pressing concerns about nuclear relations with communist forces and ultimately, the influence of communism around the world.

A Cold War Overview

The Cold War, which began in 1945, was a result of unresolved issues between the US and the Soviet Union during World War II. A series of events led up to the cold war, or a political state of being characterized by a non-violent and hostile relationship between political powers. In 1945, the same year World War II ended, the Three Allies had a conference at Yalta to discuss the future of Germany after the war. Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill feared the spread of Communism throughout Germany, however, Joseph Stalin wanted to use parts of Eastern Germany for ports into Soviet territory. Eventually, they compromised and divided Eastern Germany and Berlin between France, The United States, Great Britain and The Soviet Union. Each country had a section of Germany and the capital, Berlin. In addition to the division of Germa- ny, the discussion about the United Nations continued, and was then founded in 1945. The U.N. would serve as an international peace-corps that would mediate international conflicts.Although Germany and Berlin had been peacefully divided, mistrust for Stalin and Communism peaked. As Stalin maintained communist governments in Eastern Europe, the entire Western part of Germany eventually became democratic. There was a huge divide between eastern and Western Europe that Winston Churchill described as an Iron Curtain. He coined this term to characterize the fierce division between Western and Eastern Germany. By this time, Franklin D. Roosevelt had suddenly passed away, so Vice President Harry Truman took his place as president. Truman and Churchill shared the extreme fears of the spread of communism and did not think that peaceful negotiations could be made with the Soviet Union. Tru- man turned to George F. Kennan who suggested that the United States should practice containment, limiting the spread of Communism, to limit and reduce Soviet influence through both militaristic and non-militaristic methods. The United States would do anything in its power to practice containment and stop the spread of communism. In 1947, Truman requested money from Congress to aid Greece and Turkey in the war, and this later became known as the Truman Doctrine. The Truman Doctrine asserted ideas about how money should be allocated to other democratic countries. At this point Greece was experiencing a Civil war between the pro- Communists and the pro-Westerners within the country, and Turkey was being pressured by the Soviet Union to give up their straits for access to the Mediterranean Sea. The United States saw this as an opportunity to help Turkey and Greece. Later in 1947, George Marshall, the US secretary of State, wanted to provide aid to Western European countries, whose economies were in ruins. Congress approved what later became known as the Marshall Plan, and spent 13 billion dollars on aid, machinery, and food to strengthen Western Euro- pean countries in the event of Soviet influence. 67 Unit Five: The United States in an Age of Global Crisis: Responsibility and Cooperation

The United States, France, and Britain decided that they were going to create a republic with their sections of West Germany and Berlin. Going into Berlin was a big risk, because even though West Berlin was owned by the Americans, French and British, it was located deep in Soviet Territory. Instead of allowing France, Britain, and the US to control Berlin and Eastern Germany, the Soviets created a blockade on the border of Western Berlin and Eastern Berlin to prevent Democratic forces from coming into the city. The Berlin Blockade stopped necessary supplies from coming into Western Berlin from the Soviet controlled Eastern Berlin. The Berlin Airlift took place to avoid war with the USSR. American and British planes began flying in food and supplies to the citizens of Western Berlin who were cut off from access to food, supplies, and fuel. In the final analysis, the Cold War was a significant part of American history, and all of the events -di rectly related to this war accurately portray tough decisions having to be made by the American government. The Cold War also epitomizes American interference in politics and affairs of foreign nations. Not only was the Cold War not an actual war, but the tensions between Communist and Democratic didn’t reach a minimum until the early 1990s.

Bibliography Joyce Appleby, Alan Brinkley, Albert S. Broussard, James M. McPherson, Donald A. Ritchie, The American Journey: New York Edi tion, 842-849. (New York: McGraw-Hill Companies & National Geographic, 2009) 68 UNIT SIX: A WORLD IN UNCERTAIN TIMES

Essays In This Unit Include: I. Civil Rights, Justice Prevailed Kalani Davis-Grey, Urban Assembly School for Law and Justice...... 69

II. The Fight For Civil Liberties and Rights Abasenia Joie Asuquo, Frederick Douglass Academy 1...... 71

III. The Controversial 70s Mikai Johnson-Harris, Williamsburg Preparatory High School...... 74

IV. By Any Means Necessary: ACT UP and Art, Ads, and Media Thea Moerman, Hunter College High School...... 77

Button, 1960, Gift of Toni Ellen Heisler, Collection of New-York Historical Society, 2002.74.150 69 Unit Six: A World in Uncertain Times

Photograph by Stephen Somerstein, [Men sneer at marchers from side of street]

This picture is demonstrating the absolute dis- respect African Americans got even when trying to gain peace and equal rights. The Selma march was very controversial especially since it was a march to preserve equality and put the voting act in effect for African Americans. Not only was it a march for voting rights but also to ensure equality for African Americans in the future. The picture provided shows one of the many obstacles blacks faced during the Sel- ma March. Although they had many setbacks with Dr. Martin luther King by their side they were able to March to Montgomery. The second gentleman in the front appears to be standing on the sidelines and spit- ting off into the crowd of marchers. If this image isn’t horrifying enough there was also pictures of tear gas being thrown at them and them being pulverized to the Stephen Somerstein, [Men sneer at marchers from side of ground. street], 1965. Courtesy of the photographer Martin Luther King led a group of non violent individuals to the steps of the Capitol in Montgomery Alabama. He and thousands of others mainly marched for voting rights but there was a whole story behind that. Not only were they marching for voting rights but for equality and for segregation to end and integration to be born unto the people of the south. Civil rights is the rights of citizens to political and social freedom and equality. African Americans and some whites both worked hand in hand to try to support the March but as in the picture above many obstacles were in their way. To involve yourself in such a controversial topic must have meant you were willing to die for what you believed in and i think that is what got the whites upset. The thought of them not having superiority or being able to have the utmost control must have made their blood boil. On Bloody Sunday, March 7, 1965, some 600 civil right marchers headed east out of Selma on U.S. Route 80. They only got as far as the Edmund Pettus bridge six blocks away, where state and local men attacked them with billy clubs and tear gas and drove them back into Selma. A fun fact about the date the Voting Acts were signed was that on that day in 1861 President Lincoln issued the Confiscation act - the first of two- which freed all slaves who were being used by the confederacy. The act was a precursor for the Emancipation Proc- lamation. That document freed all slaves in rebel south states. Unit Six: A World in Uncertain Times 70 Civil Rights, Justice Prevailed Martin Luther King was a man of many beliefs. He was looked upon as a role model from an Afri- can American perspective but a threat from whites. This being because he was “the man with the plan”. He motivated blacks to stand for what they believed in and not only believe it but express it to others. Unlike Malcolm X, King believed in non-violent protests , and that words had a greater impact than fists. The march included a little more than 250,000 people,as it was one of the largest movements ever seen in the nation's capital, and one of the first to have massive television coverage. King wanted to be able to send his children to school without having to fear for their lives due to the color of their skin. Along with him stood many other brave leaders who stood by Kings side through the march. Not only would their protest Impact them now, but America forever. The march to Selma was only the beginning of African Americans cry for a change in american civilization. Not only was the march happening but the year of 1965 was very busy. The Vietnam War continued to worsen due to all the men they were losing, along with the race riots in california that left 34 dead and 1,032 reported injuries. Along with those events former president John F. Kennedy passed the New Frontier a package of laws and reforms that sought to eliminate injustice and inequality in the United States. As soon as the legislation had been introduced southerners did whatever they could to try and shoot it down and block it. In 1964 Lyndon B. Johnson said that he would make the United states into a “Great Society” in which poverty and racial injustice had no place. He developed a set of programs that would give poor people “ a hand up or a shoulder to lean on” and not a handout. This included Medicare and Medicaid , which helped elderly and low income people pay for health care , including blacks. Selma wasn’t only just about ensuring voting rights but also to demolish the discrimination between black and whites and to end the feud. According to the 15th amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits the federal and state governments from denying a citizen the right to vote based on that citizen's “race, color, or previous condition of servitude”. Although this amendment was passed people in the south still refused to accept the fact that times were changing. They gave them literacy tests which were hard to pass and me myself completing one stumbled across some questions. Southern blacks had the worse downfall and risked harassment, intimidation , economic reprisals, and physical violence when they tried to register or vote. As a result of this African Americans had little political power both locally and nationally. For example in mississippi in 1960 only five percent of eligible blacks were registered to vote. Martin Luther Kings “I Have A Dream”speech basically shows America how one day he would love to see the prosperity of the country where both races are working hand and hand. Although kings speech was mostly improvised it is still one of the most important speeches to occur in american history. The Selma march sought to put an end to Jim crow in which in later times jim crow was eventually ruled unconstitutional. Selma not only impacted the black community but also showed the whites how urgent it was for there to be an integration and an opportunity for equal rights. Bibliography The King Institute, Accessed April 8, 2015. http://mlk-kpp01.stanford.edu “We Shall Overcome,” The National Park Service, Accessed April 8, 2015, www.nps.gov/nr/travel/civilrights/. “5 Things You Should Know About Selma,” The Root, Accessed April 8, 2015, http://www.theroot.com/articles/history/2015/01/_5_ things_you_should_know_about_the_selma_march.html. 71 Unit Six: A World in Uncertain Times Photograph by Stephen Somerstein, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Looks out at crowd in Montgomery

Stephen Somerstein, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Looks out at crowd in Montgomery, 1965. Courtesy of the photographer Photographing the Selma to Montgomery March in 1965, Stephen Somerstein worked to display the civil rights movement. At the time of the march, Somerstein was a 24-year-old physics major and was working as a photo editor for the City College newspaper. Upon his learning of the movement, Somerstein deserted his work, and found a new passion. Arriving in Alabama on the last day of the march, Somerstein recorded the events as they unfolded. Different newsworthy events were occurring during this time, and Alabama was under a microscope, as many were watching the events closely while they were being documented and spread throughout the United States of America. Upon short notice and with five cameras strung around his neck, he created incredibly moving and touching photographs as protesters walked 54 miles in the fight for gaining civil rights for African Americans, specifically their right to vote. To capture this photo, Somerstein is said to have snuck on the stage as speeches were held in front of the 25,000 people in the audience. His positioning right behind Dr. Martin Luther King, and his capturing of the large crowd ahead of him, allowed the photograph to become iconic. The photograph exemplifies the support of the civil rights movement, as many activists were present. Dr. King is the focal point of the photo, as his prominence and leadership is implied. A prominent civil rights leader, Dr. King allowed for much of the civil rights movement’s success. Various news stations microphones, as displayed in the photograph, are being spoken into by Dr. King, as his words are eagerly an- ticipated by the crowd and the media – words that King knew would go down in history. These photographs of King, as well as other photographs of other marchers in this protest at Selma are historical reminders of the injustice black people, and other races in America have long fought for and sought after- in ways that were not always easy. With these images, Somerstein himself garnered a lot of attention, and brought well needed attention to the movement with this touching photos, allowing him to be regarded as an instrumental figure in the American Civil Rights Movement. Unit Six: A World in Uncertain Times 72 The Fight For Civil Liberties and Rights Unfair treatment has always surrounded minority groups in the United States of America. Since the arrival of slaves from Africa, and throughout history, the harsh treatment of black people has been apparent. Af- ter over 250 years of servitude, between 1865 and 1870, amidst and following the American Civil War, Con- gress passed amendments towards the abolishment of slavery, and continued enacting amendments towards the slow advancement of those of African descent. The amendments passed include the 13th amendment, which abolished slavery, the 14th amendment, which guaranteed citizenship to African Americans, and the 15th amendment, that granted African American males suffrage (the right to vote). Despite these newly granted rights, equality was still deterred in a variety of ways. In the south, many whites hated and resisted such changes to their established social order. Jim Crow Laws, introduced in reaction to the establishment of rights for African Americans, further segregated the races. Furthermore, the prevalence of the Ku Klux Klan, an organization designed to terrorize Black Americans and other minority groups, showed how much whites disliked African Americans. These laws, organizations and acts of segregations were met with protest from blacks and whites alike. The American Civil Rights Movement of the 20th century was marked by many important historical events and a struggle for equality. As the Civil Rights Act of 1875 remained in force, the segregation system continued well into the 20th century. The Plessy v. Ferguson case of 1896 proved that “separate but equal” laws were said to not to be in violation of the 14th amendment. World War II promoted the civil rights movement, as the demand for soldiers in the 1940s left African Americans, Latinos, and women with new jobs. Segregation in schools and discrimination of blacks, however, remained. Various activists sought for an end to school segregation. With the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education case, the Supreme Court struck down segregation in schools, overturning the decision of the Plessy case by declaring that the segregated facilities were in fact unequal, thus ordering for the integration of the nation's public schools in a pivotal moment. Many Southern States, however, refused to comply with the court order. Thus, the Little Rock Nine event garnered attention whites fought to block integration in an Arkansas high school. Segregation of public facilities was also protested. In 1955, Rosa Parks, a seamstress and member of the NAACP, propelled the Montgomery Bus boycott. She had infamously refused to give up her seat to a white rider prompted many other protest movements. Rosa Parks’ act got the attention of Martin Luther King Jr, as he emerged as a civil rights leader; a leader who organized the Montgomery Bus Boycott, an event which eventually resulted in the end of segregation on buses. The boycott evoked change, but there was a lot more work to be done. King’s views promoted passive and peaceful protest, even amidst violence. Conversely, Malcolm X, another civil rights leader during this time period, had views of a more violent nature, as he demanded that civil rights be achieved, "by any means necessary, " as blacks were urged to fight back against the violence they were faced with. The events of King and Parks sparked the modern Civil Rights movement that allowed African-Americans to exercise their rights. Martin Luther King’s powerful use of rhetoric in his speeches, organized events like the March on Washing- ton, a demonstration of massive proportions in Washington, D.C. where he delivered his famous "I Have a Dream" speech. A few years after, different civil rights laws were passed, including the Civil Rights Act of 73 Unit Six: A World in Uncertain Times

1964 submitted by President Lyndon B. Johnson which “provides criminal penalties for discrimination in employment or voting and integrates most public facilities”. In 1964, the 24th amendment was passed, banning poll taxes. The peak of the Movement included primarily three significant marches from Selma, Alabama to its capital, Montgomery. On March 7, 1965, 600 people peacefully set out on a march to Selma, as state troop- ers, who were armed with tear gas and clubs, beat the protesters and crowd which ended the march. Another attempt was made by Martin Luther King Jr., as on March 9th followers set out on a march to Montgomery, stopping where the previous march had been attacked, knelt down, and prayed and returned back. As they now were joined with U.S. government protection, on March 21 3,200 people made their third attempt, as they successfully reached the Montgomery, Alabama on the 25th. There, 25,000 watched as Dr. King swept away the crowd with powerful words. After submitting a bill on March 21, the Voting Rights Act of 1965, signed by President Johnson, was passed as it banned literacy tests in counties, where over half of eligible voters have been banned from voting. The Civil rights Movement achieved a lot, resulting in the advancement of black people in America. Although many still suffer as a result of past events, the movement sparked a lot of change.

Bibliography Albert, Peter J. and Ronald Hoffman Ed. We Shall Overcome: Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Black Freedom Struggle. New York: Da Capo Press, c. 1990 "Brown v. Board of Education." ThinkQuest. Oracle Foundation. Web. 15 May 2012. . Brunner, Borgna. "Civil Rights Timeline." Infoplease. Infoplease, 2007. Web. 18 Oct. 2012. . "The Philosophy of Nonviolence." Nonviolence in Civil Rights. Web. 14 May 2012. Murphy, Bruce Allen. "Montgomery bus boycott." World Book Advanced. World Book, 2011. Web. 25 May 2011. Unit Six: A World in Uncertain Times 74 Graffiti door The Graffiti Door in the New-York Historical Society collection features over 190 tags of over 80 graffiti artists. The door belonged to the bathroom of the late Jack Stewart’s art studio in the East Village. This door represents the defiance of Jack Stewart. He was an artist forced in art academia for financial stability. When acquired to obtain his PHD as the vice president of Rhode Is- land School of Design, he chose to write his thesis on graffiti art of 1970s. Stewart, opposed his prestigious peers in the art industry, saw graffiti as a great American art form from the eyes of poor youth. He immersed himself into the techniques the neighbourhood kids used and what drove them to create the art in the first place. Learning about their experiences firsthand, he met with popular ‘writers’ like Taki 183, Clash (“King of the Buses”) and Phase 2. He would meet with them while they would write on the walls. They would try styles like “Cartoon” and “3-D.” Stewart conducted over sixty hours of interviews in his East Village studio. Jack Stewart’s wife, Regina, made them agree to not tag all over the studio, but the inside of the bathroom door. This is is how this remarkable artifact came to be. Jack Stewart collected all his research later into the crit- ically acclaimed Graffiti Kings: New York City Mass Transit Art of the 1970’s.This book shares an in depth history of graffiti in New York City and its impact on the poor neighbourhoods. Graffiti door, 1970s, Gift of Regina Serniak Stewart, Inventory Number: 2011.3. This Graffiti door is an example of a revolution that literally emerged from nothing. Stewart saw the organic rawness of graffiti, an art that was really nonexistent until the late 60s. The graffiti was not just a tag from some street kids, but a chance to leave a mark. The door serves as a staple of the desperate economic times for many people of inner city neighborhoods. and the need for an creative outlet. It also represents the rebellion that youth desired in a time period filled with controversial actions by presidents and a lost war. Those who were economically poor were not really put into public policies, and were treated as second class citizens. The door is a direct correlation of the tur- bulent 70s. Creative expression (in other words, running from the police painting the sides of whole trains) can be the only way to escape from troubled times. The door is an emotional, beautiful display of modern times. 75 Unit Six: A World in Uncertain Times

The Controversial 70s The Vietnam War is probably one of the most controversial events in American history. Communist North Vietnam tried to invade Democratic South Vietnam (1954- 1975). North Vietnam was allied with Soviet Union and China, strong communist superpowers. Ho Chi Minh, the leader of the North, was winning in his attacks against the South Vietnam and the American allies. In America’s reaction towards failure to overpower the Viet Cong, armed North Vietnamese forces, America ended up sending more than half a million soldiers by the end of the 60s. In Lyndon B. Johnson’s presidency, he promised the voters that his goal was to remove American involvement in the Vietnam War. He stated that the war should remain between Northern and Southern Vietnamese citizens. Johnson didn’t fulfill this promise. Actually, he increased US participation with the passing of the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (1964). This act allowed Johnson to make any military decision he felt needed without approval from Congress. This was the first time the United States took an highly active role in a foreign war. Following the alienation caused by Johnson’s approval of this law, different events were happening which made the moral cause (controlling the spread of Communism in Southeast Asian countries “Domino Theory”) of the Vietnam War less validated. One of the tragedies is the My Lai Massacre. Soldiers under Lieutenant William Calley went into a South Vietnamese village, and murdered women, children, and the elderly. Adding to the public’s frustration was the Tet Offensive (1968), an attack and siege by Viet Cong soldiers in Northern cities on the lunar new year. The aim was for United States to halt support for the South Vietnamese and retreat. As the American public watched this attack on television, it became clear that the war was not going to end sufficiently. Following the broadcasting of the Tet Offensive, Johnson announced that he would not be running for reelection. In an attempt to mitigate the chaos of the 1960s, the President Richard Nixon started exercised what is called the Nixon Doctrine. This proclaimed that the United States would give the resources to its Asian allies, but not the use of its armed forces in sight of conflict. In response to the outrage over the Vietnam War, Nixon slowly pulled back 500,000 American troops from South Vietnam, and funded and trained South Vietnamese soldiers. This first example was called “Vietnamization” in 1973. This proved to be unnecessary because by April 1970, Nixon invaded Cambodia, a neutral country on the border of Vietnam, to eliminate communist in- fluences in that region. Nixon reassured that this was part of the process of mitigating tensions in the war, but the public didn’t follow. Frustration with disapproving public led to the deaths of four college students in Kent State University. Students were protesting the war in Cambodia, when the National Guard fired into a peaceful protest. Another Cambodia peaceful protest at Jackson State College, a predominantly black college, resulted in the 2 deaths. These incidents gained public sympathy and forced the Vietnam War into a more negative light. Additionally was the Daniel Ellsberg’s release of the Pentagon Papers , a secret government document that exposed the capital’s mistakes and decisions when dealing with Vietnam. The document was given to the New York Times, who started publishing stories that included information found in the papers. The Department of Defense thought this harmful to its confidentiality. In New York Times Co v. United States(1971), the Su- preme Court stated that the publishing of the articles was constitutional under the 1st amendment, which allows freedom of press. US Foreign Policy did improve between Communist China and Soviet Union, where both Unit Six: A World in Uncertain Times 76 parties enacted Detente- a purposeful reduction of Cold War tensions. Domestically, Nixon started to steer the American public towards conservatism. He stated he was an advocate of the “silent majority” who wanted to stride from progressive reform. This was an attempt to win over the white Southern voters who supported segregation and little government support. This would be effective in the campaigns of the 80s and 90s. In an attempt to make a more conservative standing, he appointed Warren E. Burger as Chief Justice. Ironically, the Chief Justice ruled liberally on many rulings including 7- 2 on Roe v. Wade (1973). This disregarded any state laws prohibiting abortion and considered it a “woman's right to privacy”. Watergate was the controversial scandal over a 1972 break in of the Democratic National Committee headquarters in Washington DC. A team President Nixon created called CREEP (Committee to ReElect the President) was connected to the break-in. The purpose was to bug the offices to gain favorable information that would help Nixon in reelection. Nixon’s involvement in the incident was proved by his refusal to give over the recordings to the Congressional Committee. And then his repeated firings and bribing of capital prosecutors further tarnished his reputation. Next, Supreme Court demanded the tapes over, where which the President complied. But, the tapes were extremely edited, which implied tampering. In 1974, the House Judiciary Com- mittee opened hearings of impeachment, but Nixon quickly resigned. Many key members of the Nixon administration resigned as well including Vice President Spiro Agnew (he was replaced by Ford). Nixon was the first American president to resign from office. The Gerald Ford Presidency started with his pardoning of Nixon, which excused Nixon from any crimes related to the Watergate Scandal. A pardon is the president's power to the forgive the crimes and remove the penalties of a criminal. President Ford’s goal in the 70s was to heal the nation from the Watergate Scandal and the Vietnam war. Along with the pardon, Ford granted the thousands of men who ran from Selective Ser- vice a pardon called amnesty. The men were able to do community service to replace any crime and enter back into the United States. Those who rebelled against the Vietnam War felt that the poor were fighting a war supported by the middle class. Even Nixon titled middle class citizens as the “silent majority” as opposed to the louder, younger opponents of the war. Ford wanted to steer the country back towards healing, which was halted by the economic decline of the late 70s. One component that led to the inflation of the 1970s was the formation of Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). Oil producers in Middle East, Asia, Africa, and Latin America could could now, with this monopoly, charge the United States five times higher than earlier in the year. This event crippled Ford’s presidency and reelection. Bibliography Ed McCormack, When Graffiti King: Jack Stewart's Long Awaited Book (Gallery & Studio, 2009) Frere- Jones, Sasha. "Set List: “Graffiti Kings” Book Party at Alphabeta, Greenpoint, Brooklyn, April 10, 2009 - The New Yorker." The New Yorker. April 26, 2009. accessed April 20,2015, http://www.newyorker.com/culture/sasha-frere-jones/set- list-graffiti-kings-book-party-at-alphabeta-greenpoint-brooklyn-april-10-2009 Howard Zinn, A People's History of the United States (New York: Harper & Row, 1980), 426-515,545-562. Jack Stewart and Regina Stewart, Graffiti Kings: New York City Mass Transit Art of the 1970s (New York: Melcher Media/Abrams, 2009), 9-19. John McGeehan and Gall Morris, Let's Review: U.S. History and Government (New York: Barron's Educational Series, 2001), 514- 555. John J. Newman and John M. Schmalbach, United States History: Preparing for the Advanced Placement Examination (New York: Amsco School Publications, 2013),609-632. 77 Unit Six: A World in Uncertain Times Silence = Death Poster One strategy of ACT UP was to tie their movement against AIDS to the history of queer activism. In Anders als die Andern (Different From The Others), a film produced by Magnus Hirschfeld, a notable queer German activist in the Weimar period, there is a scene where queer historical figures such as Alexander the Great and Frederick, walking somberly in a line under a banner inscribed with the phrase, “Paragraph 195,” which was the Ger- man anti-sodemy law. ACT UP, similarly, utilized references to historical events in order to raise awareness about the vast history of anti-queer oppression, and perhaps most importantly, the history of activism against that oppression. Their central motif, the striking image of “Silence = Death” underneath a pink triangle (with the point facing up), grabbed the attention of the public and media. The triangle was in reference to the pink triangle (with the point down) that the Nazis imposed onto homosexuals in the death camps. Even before the AIDS crisis, activists had begun to reclaim the upended symbol, but ACT UP went further; they branded it Silence = Death poster, 1987. ACT UP New York records, Manuscripts and Archives Division, The as a symbol of radical queer activism. Other pieces of activist art New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden utilized this strategy in a variety of ways. Let the Record Show Foundations. was an installation art piece created by members of ACT UP and displayed in the New Museum in 1987. The piece consisted of a neon sign of the pink triangle with the words “Silence = Death.” Below the sign was a photomural of the Nuremburg trials, with six additional figures added. The additional six figures were all contemporary political figures, and below their images was a stone plaque that had a quote of theirs inscribed into it. This piece drew upon the history of homophobia, specifically during the Holocaust, in order to make a point about how dire the AIDS crisis really was. Beyond the “Silence=Death” sign, which was a common slogan that was printed on countless pins, signs, and shirts, the reference to the Nuremberg trials intensified and clarified the intended message. The artists were not simply referencing an example of historical oppression, they were claiming that it was ongoing by inserting the contemporary political figures into the Nuremberg trial. As Robert Sember and David Gere wrote in an article about art as activism, “the pink triangle… adds a critical historical dimension and underscores the urgency of the slogan.” The group Gran Fury, who created this installation, formed “to [exploit] the power of art to end the AIDS crisis.” They succeeded in this goal with pieces such as this one, which emblematizes much of AIDS activist’s work in that it managed to simultaneously be a piece of art as well as contain biting political commentary. By Any Means Necessary: ACT UP and Art, Ads, and Media In the early 1980s, cases of a rare form of cancer, Kaposi’s Sarcoma, pneumonia, and Pneumocystis Pneumonia Carinii (PCP) began to surface in the United States. As more and more men were diagnosed with these illnesses, the media, as well as doctors began to group the cases together because all the men afflicted Unit Six: A World in Uncertain Times 78 identified as gay. In 1982, the term GRID, or gay-related immune deficiency, was first proposed despite the existence of other categories of individuals who had contracted the disease. AIDS was also referred to informally as the gay cancer, the gay disease, and other similarly derogatory terms. Education campaigns utilized posters and pamphlets to spread the message of safe sex. Campaigns with names such as ‘How to Have Sex in an Epidemic’ and ‘Safe Sex is Hot Sex’ promoted condoms as a way to prevent the spread of AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases. However, the government vehemently opposed AIDS education. Govern- ment animosity toward gay people (as well as all other affected groups, such as intravenous drug users, African Americans, and poor people) and the fear that taking any action that in their words might encourage homosexu- ality led to the unnecessary death of countless Americans. Reagan’s economic policies mandated less internal government spending, even in the case of such a devastating epidemic. This policy of non-spending was only exacerbated by institutionalized homophobia. The government, media, and public simply did not care that people were dying, as long as the victims were gay. President Reagan did not even mention the word AIDS for many years, let alone acknowledge an epidemic that was killing hundreds of thousands of citizens. Another way this expressed itself was in multitudes of newspaper articles with headlines such as “Homosexual Plague Strikes New Victims,” and “Epidemic Affecting Gays Now Found in Heterosexual.” These types of fear mon- gering stories were one of the few things being published about AIDS for decades, even as swaths of gay men were being struck down by the illness. Activist groups, such as the AIDS Coalition To Unleash Power (ACT UP), formed to fight this indifference. The movements against AIDS borrowed strategies from many earlier movements for equality, but also pioneered their own tactics. They utilized graphic design in new and powerful ways, using the striking image of “Silence = Death” underneath a pink triangle (with the point facing up) to grab the attention of the public and media. Other slogans targeted specific figures such asEd Koch, the Mayor of New York City, Ronald Reagan, George Bush, Sr., leaders of the FDA, and the Pope. ACT UP drew on the history of gay oppression and movements against that oppression in order to strengthen their movement. Bibliography Arthur David Khan, The Many Faces of Gay: Activists Who Are Changing the Nation (Connecticut: Praeger, 1997). "A Timeline of AIDS," A Timeline of AIDS, accessed February 23, 2015, https://www.aids.gov/hiv-aids-basics/hiv-aids-101/aids timeline/. Brett C Stockdill, Activism against AIDS: At the Intersection of Sexuality, Race, Gender, and Class, (Colorado: Lynne Rienner Pub, 2003). Crimp, Douglas, and Adam Rolston. “Fight Back, Fight AIDS: 15 Years of ACT UP.” ACT UP, 1:15:50. 2004. http://www.actupny. org/video/index.html. Elinor Burkett, The Gravest Show on Earth: America in the Age of AIDS (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1995). Gay Men's Health Crisis. The State of AIDS in New York. New York: 1992. Leigh W. Rutledge, The Gay Decades: From Stonewall to the Present: The People and Events That Shaped Gay Lives (New York: Plume, 1992). Michael P Brown, Replacing Citizenship: AIDS Activism and Radical Democracy (New York: Guilford Press, 1997). Nathan H Madson. “The Legacy Of Act Up's Policies And Actions From 1987- 1994,” National Lawyers Guild Review 69.1 (2012): 45-64. Randy Shilts, And the Band Played On: Politics, People, and the AIDS Epidemic (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1987). "Report of AIDS Jokes Roils San Franciscans." New York Times, October 3, 1986. Robert Sember and David Gere, “‘Let the Record Show . . .’: Art Activism and the AIDS Epidemic,” American Journal of Public Health 96 (2006): 967-69. Warren Johansson and William A. Percy, Outing: Shattering the Conspiracy of Silence (New York: Haworth Press, 1994). The White House. Office of the Press Secretary. “White House Press Briefing.” News release, December 3, 2013. The Washington Post. http://www.scribd.com/doc/189038822/White-House-Press-Briefing-Oct-15-1982. "Why We Fight." YouTube video, 11:45. Posted by “Dr. Atmos,” July 21, 2012. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e4ctXqdoVwk. 79 Regents Practice Questions and Answers

Don't miss your great opportunity— The Navy needs you in the WAVES, 1944. Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division. Practice Questions 80

Unit One Practice Questions 81 Practice Questions Practice Questions 82

Unit Two Practice Questions 83 Answers to Practice Questions Practice Questions 84

Unit Three Practice Questions 85 Practice Questions Practice Questions 86

Unit Four Practice Questions 87 Practice Questions

Unit Five Practice Questions Practice Questions 88 89 Practice Questions Unit Six Practice Questions 90 Practice Questions 91 Answers to Practice Questions

Unit One Answers Unit Three Answers Unit Five Answers

1. 1 1. 4 1. 2 2. 1 2. 4 2. 3 3. 3 3. 3 3. 2 4. 4 and 2 4. 3 4. 4 5. 3 5. 1 5. 1 6. 3 6. 2 7. 3 7. 1 8. 1 8. 4 9. 2 9. 4 10. 4 10. 3 and 1 11. 4 12. 2 13. 1 14. 4

Unit Two Answers Unit Four Answers Unit Six Answers 1. 3 1. 2 1. 2 2. 4 2. 4 2. 4 and 1 3. 2 3. 4 3. 3 4. 3 4. 4 4. 2 5. 3 5. 4 6. 2 6. 1 7. 3 8. 2 9. 3 10. 3 and 1 11. 4 12. 4 13. 1 14. 4 15. 3 16. 3 17. 2 92 EDUCATIONAL SUPPLEMENTS

I. Know These Supreme Court Cases...... 93

II. How to Analyze Documents for a DBQ (Images)...... 95

III. How to Analyze Documents for a DBQ (Text Document)...... 101

Thomas Paine, Common Sense, 1776, Collection of the New-York Historical Society, LIB.Y1776.Paine.com 93 Educational Supplements Know these Supreme Court Cases for the Regents US History Exam

Unidentified Artist, Dred Scott (ca. 1795- 1858), After 1857, Collection of New- York Historical Society. Inventory number: X.174

Marbury v Madison, 1803 Constitutional Issue: Was William Marbury entitled to an appointed job he got in the final days of a previous president's term? Outcome: The Court ruled in favor of Marbury, and judicial review, which is the judicial branch's ability to review the actions of the other branches, was the precedent set from this case. Key Terms: Judicial Review

McCulloch v Maryland, 1819 Constitutional Issue: Whether or not Congress was allowed to establish a National Bank and whether or not the state of Maryland was allowed to impose taxes on that bank. Outcome: It was ruled that Congress was allowed to establish the bank because of unenumerated powers. Unenumerated powers are those that are not written in the Constitution, but are assumed to be powers of Congress. It was also ruled that Maryland could not impose a tax on the bank because the Constitution is the supreme law of the land, and could not be overridden by the state Key Terms: Unenumerated Powers, Congress, National Bank

Dred Scott v Sandford, 1856 Constitutional Issue: Missouri Compromise Outcome: Because Dred Scott was a slave in Missouri, his residence in Illinois (a free state) did not make him a free man back in Missouri. The Missouri Compromise was decided to be unconstitutional. Key Terms: Slave, Missouri Compromise

Plessy v Ferguson, 1895 Constitutional Issue: 14th Amendment, Louisiana law that mandated that blacks and whites have separate train cars Outcome: The Court ruled that Louisiana's law did not violate their rights as a state. Train cars could be sepa- rated in this way, as long as the train cars were in equal conditions. Key Terms: Separate-but-Equal Doctrine Educational Supplements 94

Schenck v US, 1918 Constitutional Issue: 1st Amendment, Free Speech Outcome: It was ruled that the actions of Schenck were not protected under the 1st Amendment because it was war time and his flyers were not in national interest. His flyers had the potential to put the country in clear and present danger because they were anti-war flyers. Key terms: Clear and Present danger test, Free speech

Korematsu v US, 1945 Constitutional Issue: Was Presidential Executive Order 9066 a violation of war powers of the President and Congress? Executive Order 9066 excluded people of Japanese descent from being in certain vulnerable areas in the United States during war time. Outcome: The Court ruled that the executive order was needed to protect national defense and that this protection, was more important than Korematsu's rights. Key Terms: Exclusion, War Powers, Japanese

Brown v Board of Education, 1954 Constitutional Issue: 14th amendment Outcome: Brown argued that the racial segregation of children in public schools violated the 14th Amend- ment's guarantee to equal protection of all laws for all citizens. The Supreme Court voted in favor of Brown, arguing that inequities within schools based on racial factors was unconstitutional. Key Terms: Segregation, School

Engel v Vitale, 1961 Constitutional Issue: Establishment of Religion Clause of the 1st Amendment Outcome: NY schools were not allowed to have prayers read at the start of each day. Even if the prayers were not specified for one religion, it was still a form of religious promotion. Key Terms: Religion

Miranda v Arizona, 1965 Constitutional Issue: 5th Amendment Outcome: Statements can not be used by prosecutors in court unless police officers gave warnings, and read the citizen their rights during initial interrogation. Citizens must now have their rights read to them upon an arrest. Key Terms: Police, Miranda Rights

Roe v Wade, 1971 Constitutional Issue: A Texas law that banned abortions if they weren't being used to save a woman's life,14th amendment Outcome: The Supreme Court ruled that the Texas law conflicted with the right to privacy guaranteed by the 14th amendment. Key Terms: Abortion 95 Educational Supplements How to Analyze Documents for a DBQ (Images)

When presented with an image (cartoon,photograph,etc.) on the Regents Exam, always ask yourself, when was this created? Where? What's happening & Why? Who created this image? What was their intent? What is the message/theme?

The Period: When did this happen? How do I know the time?

When events occur and they are recorded, they provide an excellent resource for knowing a time period or particular events in at most chronological order. For example if you're into photography, then film types and their evolution over time would enable you to identify time periods and allow you construct a response. But what happens if you're not into the history of film or photography when it comes to photographic documentation? Don't worry about it! Paying attention to buildings, people, and general surroundings will be just as helpful. Scanning images, looking for written information such as a date (hopefully), dated objects, clothing and even a phrase written on a postcard or poster. Luckily photography is fairly new, unlike paintings and other forms of illustration. Photography has been around since the beginning of the 19th Century, therefore you now have a starting point to operate from. Additionally, most photographs were taken during the 20th and 21st Centuries, with this information it should be easy combined with your U.S History knowledge for the Regents. Attire & Artwork: Types of clothing and fashion? Are any artworks or monuments such as a mural, mo- saic, painting, or sculpture present?

Asking yourself these questions allows you, as the test taker to pinpoint time periods and valuable essay content. For example in the 1970s bell bottom pants and hushpuppies as well as several variations of hair were extremely popular. As a student you can figures things out such as this by looking for fashion, image quality and surroundings. Fashion is a massive help in old photographs, and illustrations. This allows almost anyone to succeed during the U.S History Regents.

As for artwork, statues such as Lady Liberty, or The Charging Bull all provide historical information due their association. Identifying paintings, mosaics, and even artistic forms of currency can assist in the Re- gents, due to their contextual relevance and information for essays.

Technology: What forms of communication are present? Forms of transportation? What's the infrastructure like? Any form of architectural & engineering designs? What methods or skills are present?

When observing a historical document such as a photograph, analyzing any element or human activity is key. Communication has progressed rapidly since the invention of the telephone, and even more so after the computer. It would be important to observe elements such as landlines, radio towers, antennas, and even television/cellular towers in certain cases. The types of devices, the size of their properties, such as the size of old and new phones, TVs, radios as well as appliances. Not only is communication a clue, but transportation. The types of locomotion and the method of choice are very important! From carriages, cars to trains, ocean liners and airliners. For example an image of helicopters with soldiers in a jungle environment in an American conflict should be at least from the 60s during the Vietnam War. Such information allows you to figure out time periods and might assist in solving questions. 96 Educational Supplements

Another element of technology would be what was the infrastructure like? What form of architectural styles were used? Is it Beaux-art, Romanesque, or Art Deco? What do the bridges, subways, buildings and roads look like? Additionally what form of engineering was present? Do the bridges look different from today? What's the difference from today's infrastructure? Answering such questions will allow you to pinpoint historical events and to understand the time period of an image, poster or document.

Why create this? What were the goals of this document (image, poster etc.)? Why record this?

The goals of a document, image or poster are usually targeted to an audience, with a mission to inform, to persuade, or demand a change of some sort. Documents, specifically photographs and posters can serve as propaganda, or promote public awareness, in addition to acts of journalism and for the purpose of historical record. Thus it is important to be aware of these concepts during the Regents exam. The Purpose: What were the intentions for this image? Who was it for, and why is it so important? Although similar to a goal, a purpose is somewhat permanent; it is one's intention or objective and the reason why something is done. A purpose might reflect issues such as society, economics, politics, ideologies, beliefs and ethics. A purpose can be quite convoluted, but as a test taker you must use known information to analyze as well as to draw conclusions about what the document's purpose is.

Themes: What's the message? Is this patriotic, nationalistic or anarchist? Who benefits from this ? Any les- sons, morals or values?

Themes are the subject of the document, conveyed or exhibited messages to the intended audience. They revolve around topics such as the Civil War or Great Depression. Themes are always present and can assist interpretations as well as providing essay content. A theme relates to a topic that was or still is relevant. Once you identify a theme through analyzing, you may use this conclusion for an essay or short answer. Themes help to gather more information out of documents, therefore knowing this can enable you to figure out every historical aspect of any question presented to you.

Social Context: How did society view this? Was this considered positive or negative? How did society frame this in history?

Such questions are important when trying to analyze the context in which a poster or image was received to an audience. For example in today's world, the 'meme' is used for satire, parody, comedy or to express a message with an intended audience; a 'meme' has social context. Therefore, while analyzing an image try to figure out its relationship among audiences, and how they might react to. Utilize this information as a resource for your own advantage to figure out the social and psychological constructs of those associated with a particular archive and that time period to understand its significance. 97 Educational Supplements

Shantytown Twelfth Avenue at 40th Street New York City by Irving Browning ca.1930. Collec- tion of the New-York Historical Society. Period: Besides the known date as labeled, sometimes documents such as images lack dates. Therefore you must utilize what information is relevant in American History and think about what could have occurred. In the middle of the image there is a man dressed, seemingly casual for the time period. There are cranes that seem to be used for shipping and the land flows downhill possibly to a pier, or river of some sort. Across from the body of water are factories that are in operation because there is smoke leaving each smokestack. The rumble seems to be near an industrial area, and judging by the cranes, buildings and area this is an area in the Northeast. The era seems to be early 20th century and the quality of the film indicates proper care. The information I just observed would be enough to place us in the 20th Century. Therefore this is not a war and reconstruction is not relevant. Therefore the next event that would depict such qualities such as a shantytown or "Hooverville" would be the Great Depression.

Attire & Artwork: Within the photograph there are items such as scattered fabrics or what seems to be tarp, but most obvious an individual, a man, wearing a bowler hat, coat and seems to have an object, maybe a pipe, cane or straight rod. Considering that bowler hats were popular between the 1850s and 1920s, these fashion- able items could speak to quality of hope that resides in this individual. To wear items that reminds one of the 'good ol'days' , and considering he's placed within this shantytown, he's probably a resident who calls this place home. Other than just this man, this image contains no writing nor artwork other than a few common designs seen on a building in the far rear. 98 Educational Supplements Technology: If we observe this photograph we notice that there are telephone wires, most likely made from copper that carry electricity and communication to others. Furthermore an industrial like port with cranes and factories on the other side of water indicate advance logistics thus placing it in modern time. Additionally, the pull cart, street lamp, and water towers all indicate 20th Century America. This image was taken at what once an industrial area, now part of the West Side Highway in New York City. Since this is an image from a scene of the depression, infrastructural analysis is both easy and difficult. Easy, if you know about the Great Depres- sion but difficult to date if you know nothing of that event and if you lack small hints in a photograph.This image is one of a shantytown, a form of living otherwise confined to the worst and poorest neighborhoods in the world. A sign of failing infrastructure and that was the story of America during the Great Depression, a slow and painful economic collapse.

Why create this? The photographer of this image desired to portray and inform the public of the effects of economics hardship or in this case during the 1930s, the Great Depression. Furthermore the Depression served as a time that was unknown to America, thus it would have been common to record or document such a national issue.

Purpose: Irving Brown sought to document the deterioration of the nation, specifically NewYork City as a result of the Great Depression. With public demand for government action, his duty as photographer served his fellow citizens through raising awareness. Furthermore the Great Depression was unprecedented, therefore Brown felt compelled to record such an event for history.

Themes: Brown is informing his audience as he attempts and succeeds at capturing the experiences of citizens during the Great Depression. As a photographer he seeks to collect these events to share and to record. The Great Depression was a time of economic hardship that struck every American, thus Brown's actions would be described as patriotic, in order to inform the government of economic deterioration.

Social Context: At least every American was aware and/or experienced the Great Depression, therefore this image would have supported feelings among citizens, whether they were those of self pity or anger against government action. It would be quite difficult to understand whether at the time this image was a positive or negative thing. Positive in the sense that is promoted awareness and served as an excellent archive for historians to observe. But on the other hand it reminded citizens of their failing, crumbling world, one of which they already knew and saw too well. Thus a reminder as such might have been acknowledged only in the sense of a depiction rather than a larger message. Irving Brown's work is seen as a story of events which, if not valued would not have survived to be within the New York Historical Society in such excellent condition. Therefore you may say this image did serve a purpose, one of speaking for those without a voice or influence. 99 Educational Supplements

Oppenheim Collins & Company, 34th Street. Window During World War II 1944 by Worsinger, Collection of the New-York Historical Society. Period: Besides the caption, we can gather information from the details of the image to figure out a time period. The only time period in American history that the terms "Buy More Bombs" and the word "Tokyo" appear next to a bomb would be World War Two. If that wasn't enough for you, the attire, or fashion being exhibited is iconic to that time period. Furthermore, if you know the events of the Pacific War the United States did not consistently bomb mainland Japan until the year 1944, therefore such information would land you near the date in the caption.

Attire & Artwork: There's plenty of fashion and artwork in this image, from the posters of Revolutionary figures to the attire of the female mannequins. The artwork may hint that the society is promoting patriotism, and usually this occurs for war efforts or in time of national lost. But as a test taker distinguishing between symbols of war and lost are quite important. The revolutionary soldier present, is in fact one meant for war, but if it were one that expressed sorrows then it would be different. The fashion present in the image is dated and should allow you to figure out the time period quite easily, through the types of styles, fabrics and cuts as well as the hairstyles of that time.

Technology: An image such as this is quite low in the amount of indicators to technological advancements. But the style of exhibit and the presence of a bomb position this image as a time period were bombs were somewhat perfected and lighting was perfected for even uses in commercial, promotional settings. Such a statement allows you the test taker to figure out a time period and some basis of society. 100 Educational Supplements

Why create this? Photographed during the Second World War, Worsinger intended to document as well as to draw attention to the use of marketing in relation to current events, specifically war. Oppenheim Collins & Company was a major women's clothing company in NYC, somewhat comparable to today's Bloomingdales. The use of the war effort as a means of corporate marketing could be another reason for recording this. But the overall goal was to target the citizens of the United States in relation to the war effort, even if in the form of a department store.

Purpose: From what's present in the image, Worsinger probably sought to convey the following messages 1. Corporate America & the War Effort 2. The Desensitization of citizens and the reality of war and 3. The Na- tion's effort for the war effort. More concepts can be constructed through further analysis but these are just a few. Worsinger's audience was the American people, he desired to inform and convey his message through the documentation of this promotional setup. As a result, its importance varies depending upon the message you receive, but it seems to be aware of the events in the war, such as the bombing of civilian targets such as the city of Tokyo. Therefore I would assume the nature, and attitude of this window exhibit seems to be patriotic but also insensitive to the realities of war, in an attempt to promote the company’s alignment with popular opinion and in an effort to generate profit from consumers.

Themes: The photographer is conveying an image that can be interpreted multiple ways and would therefore serve as means to both criticize society and government while displaying a basic message of patriotism if not analyzed. Worsinger seems to have good intentions and so I wouldn't say this would be negative, but it would serve as a "public message" in a way. The presence of Corporate America utilizing the war effort this way dem- onstrates not only the company’s viewpoint, but it depicts the nation’s opinion towards Japan and the actions against the nation such as civilians during bombing raids.

Social Context: Society would have viewed this as normal for the time period during the 40s and post war. It was a common sight in major cities throughout the country, and the war effort was advertised heavily throughout all levels of society. Therefore this was considered positive, and depending upon your political and historical opinions, some may view this as negative due to the promotion of civilian targets, while others might view this as positive to win a war that would ensure an American victory. 101 Educational Supplements

How to Analyze Documents for a DBQ (Text Document)

1.Think about what the DBQ is saying. What is point the author is trying to make? What is his point of view on a topic/ issue? Think about the MAIN points of the document.

2. Analyze the document. What does the document mean in terms of the prompt? You must break down the contents of the document in a way relevant to answering the prompt. Always keep the exact terms of the prompt in mind.

3. How does the source of the document affect its use, interpretation, or reliability?

Sample: (June 2014 U.S. History Regents)

1.“Silent Spring” started the environmental movement. Even when Rachel Carson died, the movement she created went beyond her time. The issues that the book brought up could not be ignored in the world.

2. Prompt: Describe the historical circumstances surrounding an issue addressed by the writer. Discuss how the writer influenced the United States and/or American society: Silent Spring changed the way the world saw modern technologies impacted the natural world, such as the spraying of DDT on mosquitos. The book made environmental action one of the most powerful movements of all time. 102 Index

E. & H.T. Anthony, Abraham Lincoln, April 1865, Col- lection of New-York Historical Society, PR.011.10 103 Index Note: this catalogue is full of information, but here is a quick guide for important people, places, events, and topics that you might want to review:

13th amendment (72) Big Stick Diplomacy (40) 14th Amendment (19, 72) Black Codes (19) 15th Amendment (43, 70, 72) Black Tuesday (56) 18th amendment (46) Bloody Sunday (69) 19th amendment (34, 43) Boston Tea Party (6) 21st amendment (47) British West Indies (9) 69th (Irish) Regiment (17) Brown v. Board of Education (72) Aaron Burr (8, 12) Burr-Hamilton Duel (12) Abraham Lincoln (16, 39) Capitalism (29) ACT UP (77) Carrie Chapman Catt (44) Activism (77) Censorship (31) AIDS (77) Chase Bank (8) Alexander Hamilton (9, 12) Child labor (23, 31) Alice Paul (34, 44) Civil Rights Act of 1866 (19) Allied powers (50) Civil Rights Act of 1964 (20, 72) American Civil Rights Movement (71) Civil War Amendments (19) American Civil War (15, 17, 72) Civilian Conservation Corps (54) American Federation of Labor (26) Coercive Acts (6) American Industrial Revolution (22) Cold War (65) American Revolution (6) Communism (65) Anarchists (26) Confederate army (17) Andrew Carnegie (25) Confederate States of America (15) Andrew Johnson (19) Confiscation Acts (69) Annexation of Hawaii (31) Constitution (8) Anti-federalist (12) Constitutional Convention (10) Appomattox Court House (16) Consumerism (48) Articles of Confederation (10) Containment (66) Augustus Saint-Gaudens (52) Continental Army (5, 13) Baby boom (36) Cuban Revolution (40) Bank of the Manhattan Company (8) Dawes Plan (51) Bartolomeo Vanzetti (47) Declaration of Independence (5) Battle of Bull Run (17) Declaration of Rights and Sentiments (44) Berlin (66) Democrat (19) Berlin Airlift (67) Democratic-Republican (9) Berlin Blockade (67) Detente (76) Index 104

Dollar standard (54) Gulf War (31) Double Eagle Coin (52) Harlem Renaissance (47) Dr. Martin Luther King (69) Harry S. Truman (66) Ed Koch (78) Henry Blackwell (44) Eleanor Roosevelt (35) Herbert Hoover (53, 56) Elias Howe (23) Hiroshima (65) Elizabeth Cady Stanton (43) Ho Chi Minh (75) Emancipation Proclamation (69) homefront (59) Emergency Banking Act (53) Homestead Strike (26) Emma Goldman (26) Hoovervilles (53) Equal Pay Act (36) House Committee to Investigate Equal Rights Amendment (45) Un-American Activities (HUAC) (65) Executive Order 6102 (53) How the Other Half Lives (29) Factories (23) Imperialism (31, 40) Federal Deposit Insurance Company (54) Industrial Revolution (25) Federal Reserve (52) Industrialization (31) Federalist (12) Integration (69) Federalist debate (13) International Ladies Garment Workers Union (24) FERA (54) International League for Peace and Freedom (34) First wave of feminism (34) Invasion of Iraq & Afghanistan (31) Fourteen Points (51) Iron Curtain (66) Frances Perkins (35) Isaac Merrit Singer (23) Franklin D. Roosevelt (52, 56, 59, 66) J.P. Morgan and Co. (8) Frederick Winslow Taylor (26) Jackson State College (75) Free silver (53) Jacob Riis (29) Freedmen’s Bureau Act (19) Jim Crow (20, 70, 72) Gag Rule (16) John Adams (12) George Bush Sr. (78) John Rockefeller (25) George Mason (13) John Wilkes Booth (19) George Washington (7, 13) Joseph Pulitzer (40) Gerald Ford (76) Kent State University (75) Gilded Age (25, 29, 31) King George III (5) Gold Standard Act (52) Ku Klux Klan (19, 72) Graduated income tax (53) Knights of Labor (26) Great Depression (48, 52, 55) Langston Hughes (47) Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (1964) (75) Little Rock Nine (72) 105 Index Lost generation (49) Partisan system (10) Louisiana Purchase (15) Patriots (6) Loyalists (5) Pearl Harbor (63) Lucretia Mott (44) Pentagon Papers (75) Lucy Stone (44) Philip Schuyler (12) Lusitania (50) Phyllis Schlafly (35) Lyndon B. Johnson (20) Pig Laws (20) Malcolm X (70, 72) Pinkertons (26) Manifest Destiny (39) Plessy v. Ferguson (72) March on Washington (72) Populist (53) Marshall Plan (66) Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruc- Mexican Cession (16) tion (18) Mexican-American War (16, 30) Progressivism (31) Military Reconstruction Act (19) Prohibition (46) Missouri Compromise (16) Public Works Administration (54) Monroe Doctrine (41) Quartering Act (6) Montgomery Bus boycott (72) Quebec Act (6) My Lai Massacre (75) Race riots (70) National American Women Suffrage Radical Reconstruction (19) Association (44) Radical Republicans (18) National Labor Union (24) Rebels (5) National Mediation Board (34) Reconstruction (18) National Organization for Women (36) Reconstruction Finance Corporation (56) National Recovery Administration (54) Revolutionary War (13) National Women’s Party (45) Richard Nixon (54) Nationalism (30) Roaring Twenties (31, 46) Nativism (47) Robber barons (29) New Deal (35, 53) Robert E. Lee (19) New Immigration (28) Roe v. Wade (1973) (36, 76) New York Times Co v. 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