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Home , Austromuellera trinervia, Hinchinbrook Island, Indigenous Australians, Musgravea heterophylla, Native Title Act 1993

Rainforest Aboriginal 2012

Past to present, a culture lives on and moves forward...... Caring for Country When Captain Cook sailed up the coast in 1770, the rainforests of north ‘Country’ is the term given by were home to particularly dense populations of Aboriginal people — Aboriginal or Islander a density directly related to the abundance of available food. people to the or tribal area from which they originate. It is not only the Clan or tribal areas were relatively lost. The concept of ‘caring for country’ home from which they harvest their small. Movements of people within persists; significant sites are looked food and other resources but it also them were never random but linked to after and stories and skills passed on. sustains their spirituality. Non- an intimate knowledge of what food Hunting, fishing and the gathering and Aboriginal people have only relatively was available where, when and in what processing of wild food form vital links recently begun to appreciate the quantities. When food was scarce with the past still exercised by a large strength of the bond between small groups scattered and when number of Indigenous people. But Indigenous people and their country; abundant they gathered in large adaptation is a feature of all human the importance of recognising groups. . Metal graters are used on and reestablishing that bond is black beans which formerly would a fundamental principle behind Just as the environment in which they have been ground between two legislation such as the Native Title lived was diverse, so were the people stones. Introduced feral animals such Act. It has also led to the increasing who lived in it; the Rainforest as pigs are hunted. Canvas and acrylic participation by Indigenous people in Aboriginal culture was by no means a paints are used instead of bark and red the management of protected areas homogenous one. The numerous . Traditional dancing is being such as national parks — ‘caring for languages used differed as much as, revived — often with a microphone country’. for example, French and German and placed by the so a wider served to identify members of different audience can be reached. It is appropriate for Aboriginal rangers and guides to not only participate in groups. Social rules varied as did caring for their country but also help uses and implements. Aboriginal culture is often described explain it to outsiders. Cultural tourism in the past tense as if it is dead. is a growing industry in . Aboriginal culture was not an However, while 200 years of European Visual arts and crafts, performing unchanging one, frozen for 40,000 influence has undoubtedly changed arts, cultural centres and guided tours years. Even before the arrival of it radically, it has proved to have all involve increasing numbers of Europeans, ideas were adopted from tremendous staying power. The link with Indigenous as producers, outside; for example, the outrigger the past is very strong and owners, managers and employees. introduced from . should be celebrated. This is a good source of employment European materials were quickly utilised in remote areas, leading to economic — telegraph wire cut down for spear self-sufficiency, but helps to promote heads — but the arrival of Europeans, of interracial understanding — an course, had more profound effects. The important step towards reconciliation. removal of people from their tribal areas and the breaking up of families was The cassowary artwork (right) was devastating for Aboriginal culture. created by Leonard Andy. Leonard is a Djina Man, a Traditional Owner Few Aboriginal people today move from Mission Beach and is a according to food sources or build member of the Girringun Aboriginal shelters in the , but gather their Corporation, specialising in artifacts main supplies in the same supermarkets and art. They can be contacted on Leonard as Australians of more recent origin. 07 4066 8300. Andy However, the old knowledge is far from Land Rights - a brief guide to legislation The Aboriginal Land Act 1991, a Native Title and the High Court Wik across would have a Queensland State act, provides for the decision different form of tenure to land found in granting of land as Aboriginal land. When the was more heavily settled parts of the nation. It provides several mechanisms for being developed, there was a generally Aboriginal people to claim land on accepted legal opinion that the valid The Conservation Act provides, the grounds of traditional affiliation, granting of a pastoral lease would have among other things, for a system to historical association or economic extinguished Native Title. However, manage national parks including those or cultural viability. These claims are although this view was generally successfully claimed under the restricted to transferrable land which accepted, there was also the possibility Aboriginal Land Act; Aboriginal has been gazetted by government as that this view could be successfully people only get title when a lease and available for claim. Almost all national challenged in the courts. management plan for that park have parks in (except been accepted by the Queensland Cedar Bay) have now been regulated as Consequently the Native Title Act 1993 Government. The Nature Conservation transferrable land and are proceeding was drafted in a way which allowed for Act also provides for the recognition of to become National Park (Cape York the possibility that pastoral leases do not Aboriginal traditional practices, such as Peninsula Aboriginal land). necessarily extinguish Native Title. traditional use of flora and fauna, where In December 1996 the High Court found permitted by an Aboriginal traditional The Native Title Act is a Commonwealth that the valid granting of a pastoral lease authority. Act and is complemented by Queensland does not necessarily extinguish Native legislation. It followed the High Court Title. However, where the interests of Originally the Mabo claim included the judgement in the Mabo case which pastoralists and the interests of the surrounding reefs and waters because in found that Native Title was extant Native Title holders are in conflict, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander on Murray Island. was the rights and interests of pastoralists societies there is no tenure distinction a member of the of prevail. between land and sea. The boundaries Murray Island in Torres Strait. For of traditional clan countries extend into 10 years he and three other Murray The High Court decision made clear that and include areas of sea which may Islanders claimed in the courts that it was not the intention of the Colonial contain sites of significance as well as Native Title had not been extinguished Governments, or indeed the subsequent traditional resources. However, the when the British assumed sovereignty. State Governments, to make Aboriginal European-based Australian attitude In June 1992 the High Court upheld that people trespassers on pastoral leases is that, while land can be privately Native Title had existed and that the after the lease was granted. Instead, it owned, there is common access to the doctrine of (meaning was always the intention of both the sea. Several native title claims, which ‘land belonging to no one’) was not instrument of the lease, and the include areas of sea, are currently being valid. legislative head of power (the various mediated by the National Native Title Land Acts) that the vast range lands Tribunal. The Meriam people were, therefore, entitled to ‘possession, occupation, use and enjoyment of Murray Island’. The Native Title Act, which came into effect on January 1st 1994, was the legislative follow-up to the Mabo judgement. Apart from its practical effects it was of tremendous symbolic importance, confirming the status of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people’s Native Title. Where the Aboriginal Land Act was designed to give back land to indigenous people as an act of goodwill, the Native Title Act recognised their pre-existing rights. It also meant that any unalienated land, not just that specifically gazetted by the government, could be claimed. However, the Native Title Act validates all preexisting land grants by governments. In many cases, such as freehold land, Native Title is considered to have been Stone fish traps are a feature on Hinchinbrook Island and other parts of the Queensland coast. Built by hand, semi-circular rock walls formed weirs into which broken oysters attracted fish at high tide. When the tide retreated the fish were stranded and easily collected. Image ‘extinguished’. courtesy of Historical

Tropical Topics 2012 Rights and protection Facts and stats There is much confusion over the issues of data gathering, allocation of traditional on Aboriginal traditions and the protection of the hunting permits and development environment. The issue, however, can be of management plans, decisions on The Wet Tropics is the only area in viewed as one of management. When the sustainable use can be made in Australia where Aboriginal People future of a protected species is in question partnership. lived permanently in the rainforest. the reasons for its decline may be varied and complex. Fishing, for most Australians, is a Aboriginal traditions and dreaming perfectly acceptable activity seen not stories link to volcanic events on the The solution is for all parties concerned, only as a means of obtaining food but Tablelands, demonstrating a long including the appropriate Indigenous as a form of relaxation, linking people of human occupation of the people, to develop management plans with the natural surroundings, and as a area. which achieve the recovery of a species sport, a tradition, a communal activity, while also recognising the traditional rights a means of expressing basic instincts... An intriguing feature of the of Aboriginal people. We have perhaps the list goes on. Jirrbal language is the use of four been slow to recognise the advantages genders. For example, French words of combining For Indigenous people the hunting are divided into two genders, with contemporary management — but of and turtles also has an masculine and feminine. In Jirrbal there this is changing. important social function and traditional are masculine, feminine, neuter and edible plant genders; edible being identified by having the word balam in the name.

Black bean is known as mirrayn in the Jirrbal language, junggurra in Yindinji and baway in .

Aboriginal populations in were among the densest in Australia. An estimated two square kilometres were required to support one person compared with up to 100 square kilometres per person in the deserts of Australia.

For example there has been growing Whereas ‘’ is the term which involvement of Aboriginal and Torres Strait rules govern how the food is divided and Aboriginal people use when referring Islander people in management of turtle eaten by kin groups. Just as Christmas is a to themselves in and dugong populations. While wishing time for turkey so these marine animals and , the term ‘Murri’ is to continue to hunt these animals, they are important food for indigenous commonly used in Queensland. ‘Bama’ is share a concern with conservationists for communities. used particularly in the rainforest region the species’ survival. With Indigenous west and north of Cairns. people involved in research projects, can be used to catch fish. The mounds are broken open and the termites thrown into the water as bait. Long narrow baskets made from lawyer cane are placed in rivers to catch eels. The eel swims in — but being unable to swim backwards cannot retreat from the basket’s confines.

The oldest archaeological remains found in north-eastern Queensland rainforests have been dated at about 5000 years old but the rainforests were probably inhabited much earlier.

Rainforest Aboriginal People Hawsbill turtle developed specific uses of fire to manage and alter there rainforest home, inlcuding the purposeful use For information on current issues associated with Rainforest of fire to alter vegetation communities Aboriginal Culture go to the Wet Tropics Rainforest Aboriginal News. and specific techniques to control the lawyer vine.

Tropical Topics 2012 Using the plants This information about rainforest Aboriginal plant use was gleaned from a number of sources in the Wet Tropics and would not necessarily be applicable to all parts. As pointed out earlier, Aboriginal societies varied considerably within the area and so too did their uses of plants. For example, black bean, while relished in the Tully area, was looked on as a food of last resort around the Bloomfield River.

A particular feature of Aboriginal rainforest food use is the One of the most Miky pine unusually large number of toxic plants eaten as staples. Some of intriguing traditional these only need to be heated or beaten to become edible but 14 methods of fishing is species also need to be washed with running water to remove the use of plant the poisons. Two of the most important of these are the black poisons. Chemicals bean (a common rainforest tree) and the cycad (found more released from bark, sap in open woodland). The poisons in both these foods are and/or leaves of certain extremely strong, causing vomiting and/or diarrhoea and, plants interfere with a fish’s in the case of the cycad, containing toxins which can cause ability to breathe. Suffocated cancer. fish then rise to the surface Dilly bag where they can be scooped off Black bean trees crop in winter but nuts can be gathered at almost any time and eaten. Over thirty different of year. Traditionally the seeds were steamed, with wet candlenut leaves, in a ground plants can be used for this, oven for a day. Nowadays the beans are generally boiled over a large fire. The beans, including cocky apple, milky pine, now black, are sliced finely — traditionally with a sharp snail shell or, these days, with beach almond and certain vines — a knife or metal grater. The next step is to leach away the toxins with running water. A matchbox bean and Derris species. basket full of the black bean fragments is placed in a river in gently flowing water, secured so that turtles or BEWARE eels cannot tip it over and, nowadays, placed There are many poisonous plants in where pigs will not eat the food. After the rainforest. It is extremely foolish to three to five days, when it is suitably soft, sample wild food unless you are the black bean is ready to be eaten. completely certain of what you are Although bland it can be eaten with rich eating. Even scientists with an extensive food such as eels. knowledge of have ended up in hospital. It is also extremely The preparation of cycads is similar. irresponsible to invite tourists to sample The fruits, after the roasting or boiling bush ‘foods’ — in at least one case a stage, are cracked open and the kernels removed. It whole party has fallen very ill as a result is these which are ground and leached. Why bother of this. To avoid mistakes err on the side with this long process? Well, if we compare it to the of caution — look but don’t taste. Cycad preparation of bread from wheat it doesn’t seem so difficult. Toxic foods were worth the effort for several reasons. They tended to be a good source of basic carbohydrates and contain moderate amounts of fat and protein. They were often abundant and available over extended periods, perhaps when other foods were scarce, and they could be stored easily. This was especially important when large numbers of people gathered together. Black bean Of course many foods are not poisonous and can be eaten without preparation. Numerous fruits such as Syzygium and lawyer cane berries are eaten raw. The soft heart of most palms is a tasty type of ‘cabbage’ while the young fronds of tree ferns can be eaten raw or cooked. Roots, shoots, nuts, seeds, leaves, stems — Pandanus the forest has abundant food for those who know what can be eaten! Cunjevoi

Lawyercane berries Pandanus plants provide leaves used extensively for thatching, bags, baskets, mats and so on. The ‘cabbage heart’ can be eaten as can the fruit, Numerous plants have medicinal uses. For although it is called ‘old persons’ food’ example, sap from heated leaves of the because the picking away of fibres cordyline lily can be applied to cuts while the requires so much patience. A white large leaves of the cunjevoi (another toxic food liquid from crushed stem and roots is plant) can be pounded and applied to and snake applied to wounds or used as a bites and to stingray stings. The sap of milky pine is said mouthwash for sore throats and to sooth the pain of stings from the stinging tree. toothache.

Tropical Topics 2012 In order to understand the plants of a particular area it is best to be guided by a local Aboriginal inhabitant. Not only is this important for correct plant identification (especially if bush tucker is to be sampled) but avoids the potential problem of infringing ‘cultural and intellectual copyright’. Access to knowledge is strictly controlled within Aboriginal societies. A local guide will know what can, and what cannot, be communicated to outsiders. As interest in indigenous grows, the inclusion of a local guide on tours is often welcomed by tourists who appreciate the chance for genuine interaction.

A range of tools can be Plants and animals can provide While, traditionally, men did most of made from ingenious useful seasonal cues. Particular the hunting of larger animals like use of rainforest plants. animal calls or developments wallabies, possums and snakes, Firesticks, an essential among ‘calendar plants’ indicate the women and children item, come in two parts. the time to hunt or collect collected the ‘reliable For the upper stick a certain things. When the tail food’ such as plants, eggs, soft wood such as the feathers of the willy wagtail turn witchetty grubs, honey flowering stem of the white, cycads, on coastal hills, and smaller animals. grass tree or a fine are ripe so groups used to move While ‘farming’ is branch of macaranga down from the Tablelands generally not been or native guava on this cue. When the black as part of a hunting is used. The base locust first sang they knew it and gathering culture, is of less soft was time to go back to the some plants can wood, milky pine Tablelands to harvest black be manipulated to being a favourite. pine nuts. A rush grass flowers produce food. When The upper stick is when it is time to collect scrub fowl yams are gathered, part slotted into a notch eggs while other plants signal the best of the plant is replanted in the base and time for building up fish traps. This to grow again. Ring- twirled rapidly is very logical; fish are easier to catch barked candlenut between the palms of in the dry season when food is scarce trees encourage beetles the hand. The than later on in the year when fruit Native to lay eggs — which hatch grass tree resulting spark is caught on a falling into the rivers provides them with yam into tasty grubs. soft material such as coconut fibre and abundant alternatives. fanned until a flame appears. Shelters built in the past ranged from semi-permanent shelters designed to give protection through the wet season to basic shade or overnight shelters. They are still The buttresses of rainforest trees were occasionally built. Materials depend on availability. The basic framework is usually often cut, in the past, for shields and constructed from saplings stuck in the ground and bent towards . Spears can be made by each other to be tied together with vines or lawyer cane cutting the end of a straight long in a series of arches. A variety of materials such as fan stick into four and inserting palm fronds, blady grass, lawyer cane and ginger leaves stones or sand for weight. The can be used for thatching. An important waterproof pointed wood or bone end material is paperbark, sheets of which are cut from can then be glued on with the trunks — traditionally with a stone , but now the softened sap of trees with metal tools. Starting from the bottom, sections such as the euodia and tied of bark are built up, overlapping so rain will run off. on with macaranga fibre. Lawyer cane over the top prevents the bark from being blown off. Lawyer cane has edible berries and sections of cane can be roasted and eaten. The sap is drunk to Gingers relieve colds and have long Macaranga, the young tips leaves which a very chewed and are commonly common tree, swallowed to used to wrap fish has soft timber stop dysentery and meat cooking in which provides light while water can be a ground oven, as thatching on shelters spears for fishing and fire sticks. The obtained by cutting and or to make spouts to direct water bark fibres can be used for string and draining the cane. The strong flexible through baskets during the leaching the large leaves for plates and cups cane itself is used to make baskets, of toxic foods. The rhizome tips and and for wrapping food, such as snake traps, shelters, handles and for binding berries are edible, the latter making a segments, when being cooked in the axe heads and so on. The infamous good bait for bush turkeys. fire. thorns can be made into fish hooks and the seeds can be used as beads.

Tropical Topics 2012 Nature notes - October A diary of natural events creates a pleasing journal which grows richer with the passage of time. Watching for the recurrence of an event after noting it in a previous year, and trying to understand what could have caused changes in timing, is intriguing.

Palatable orange fruit of a tree sometimes called corky bark (below) will be ripening in October, to the satisfaction of many frugivorous birds. This tree (Carallia brachiata) is a member of the Rhizophoraceae family of mangroves but one which adapted to rainforest habitats and even makes a good street or garden specimen. The glossy leaves of corky bark are food Xylopia maccreae (above), an for the caterpillar of the attractive four Australian member of the custard o’clock moth, so named because it is Brown gardenia (above) is a common apple family, will be carrying globular often seen on the wing tree in the coffee and gardenia family brownish fruit about the size of a in the afternoon. (Rubiaceae) which will probably gain bantam egg. When ripe these follicles attention as its sweet scented white usually split open, revealing a brilliant blossom is often prolific in October. orange-red interior set with a few black This small tree (Randia fitzalanii) has seeds. The seeds are not flattened for distinctive, spiky green stipules wind dispersal but may be carried by sheathing each set of leaf buds. The birds attracted to the red and black many-seeded fruit are listed as being display. eaten by cassowaries and it is recorded that Aborigines ate the pulp without preparation.

Corals will be preparing to spawn as water temperatures rise. This usually happens three full days after the full Fruit of some ‘oak’ species in moon in early summer, the event the family will come Northern continuing over the following three silky oak to maturity as the weather warms nights. Predicted dates for reefs Honeyeaters will up. Examples are the widespread around (where the be busy among northern silky oak ( sublimis) water warms faster) are 22nd-23rd the flowers of pink moderately common briar silky oak October while the rest of the reef is satinash which ( heterophylla) and quite expected (hypothetically) to perform sometimes blossoms narrowly distributed Mueller’s silky oak on the 21st-22nd November. It is heavily at this time of ( trinervia). The fruits important to bear in mind that many year. The creamy white ‘shaving — known as follicles — are often factors, other than the moon, influence brush’ flowers are quite strongly opened by sulphur-crested cockatoos, the exact timing. It is notoriously scented, leading to pleasantly which consume the seeds before they difficult to pin-point exactly. aromatic fruit. Pink satinash (Syzygium are quite mature. However, those sayeri) has a very distinctive leaf as it which develop to maturity split open displays large oil glands easily visible to expose flattened seeds for wind with the naked eye. Buttresses are dispersal. prominent in this species, each plank being whitish in colour and looking as though it was built up in layers.

Briars silky oak

Tropical Topics 2012