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Article of and Shellfish Supplies Originating from Wild in Between 1995 and 2015

Tiptiwa Sampantamit 1,*, Pavarot Noranarttragoon 2, Carl Lachat 3 and Peter Goethals 1

1 Department of Sciences and Aquatic Ecology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; [email protected] 2 Marine Fisheries Research and Development Division, Department of Fisheries, 10900 Bangkok, Thailand; [email protected] 3 Department of Technology, Safety and Health, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +32-484175881

 Received: 19 November 2019; Accepted: 12 December 2019; Published: 16 December 2019 

Abstract: Fisheries resources play a crucial role in economic development, food security, and healthy nutrition for . Consequently, fisheries are of paramount importance for several Sustainable Development Goals, in particular SDGs 1 and 8, which are related to poverty and economic growth, as well as SDGs 2 and 3, which are about zero hunger and good health. On the other hand, fisheries can also negatively influence the (SDG 14, life below ). Thailand is one of the world’s most significant producers and exporters of fisheries products. This present work describes the evolution of wild fisheries production in Thailand for over twenty and discusses its impact on fish and shellfish supplies. The present overview uses mainly the official statistical catch data of Thailand. From 1995 to 2015, Thailand’s marine fisheries production gradually decreased from approximately 2.8 million tonnes to 1.3 million tonnes per . Concerning taxonomic composition of the catches, no dramatic shifts were recorded during the 20-year period. The main observation seems that for less abundant taxa, such as Chirocentridae, , Ariidae, , and Psettodidae, their part in the catch was halved between 1995 and 2015. On the other hand, inland capture fisheries remained constant at 0.2 million tonnes per year. The annual value of wild fisheries production was, on average US$1.7 billion. Notably, trawl fishing systematically reduced during these two decennia, resulting in a fishing efficiency of approximately 140 tonnes of demersal fish per trawl unit per year in 2015. During 2008–2015, the number of registered net fishing boats drastically increased from 2,300 to 6,600, and this has led to a dramatic decline in fishing efficiency to about 10% in 2014–2015. More in general, Thailand’s continuous decline in marine capture production was linked to increased fuel prices, tightening restrictions by neighbouring countries for access into their , and the depletion of resources due to overfishing and illegal fishing. Against rising concerns about the sustainability of intensive fishing practices in recent years, Thailand is ramping up efforts to reduce the exploitation of fishery resources to levels that would achieve maximum sustainable yields. In particular, the intensity of fishing based on gill nets needs to be addressed in the future. Hence, Thailand’s fisheries production faces the pressure of realising the importance of sustainable fisheries resources management and its impact on and , in addition to its role as a significant food source for a healthy population.

Keywords: capture fisheries; food production; biological diversity; Thailand’s fisheries

Sustainability 2019, 11, 7198; doi:10.3390/su11247198 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 2019, 11, 7198 2 of 16

1. Introduction The world’s population has increased from 6.5 billion in 2005 to 7.5 billion in 2017 and is expected to reach 9.0 billion by 2050 [1]. Over the next decades, the global food system will hence need to supply enough calories, proteins, and micronutrients to feed the growing population [2,3]. Recent statistics suggested that micronutrient deficiencies continue to affect hundreds of millions of people [4]. More than 250 million children worldwide are at risk of vitamin A deficiency. Nearly two billion individuals are iodine deficient, and 17% of the world’s population have inadequate zinc intake [4,5]. Therefore, providing food and nutrition security to the is a challenge faced by humanity [1,3]. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 2 (‘End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote ’) and SDG 14 (‘Conserve and sustainably use the , , and marine resources for sustainable development’), of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development of the UN, highlight the importance of fisheries resources in developing countries to help sustain essential food production and nutrition, hence safeguarding global food security [1]. Indirectly, fisheries are also important for economic development (related to SDGs 1 and 8) and the health of people (SDG 3), the latter in particular due to the high nutritious value of . Fisheries resources play a critical role in provisioning quality food and nutrition for consumption [3,4,6,7]. Several studies have examined the links between fish and food security, as fish is known to be an excellent source of animal proteins, micronutrients, and vitamins [8–11]. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) [4] recognises that the consumption of a certain amount of fish, in particular, fatty fish, is associated with a reduced risk of coronary heart disease and stroke. More importantly, there is convincing evidence that a variety of fish provide diverse and nutritious food for humans [12,13]. As the benefits of fish to nutrition and health are well-documented, estimated global fish consumption has grown from an average of 10 kg/capita/year (kg/c/y) in the 1960s to 14 kg/c/y in the 1990s and 20 kg/c/y in 2014 [13], and it is expected to increase to 22 kg/c/y in 2024 [7]. Thailand is a global fisheries producer and exporter. According to the FAO [14], the country ranks among the top twenty-five countries in terms of marine fisheries production. The Thai fishery industry has developed rapidly over the last decades and has significantly contributed to socio-economic development [15]. According to the latest available statistics collected by the Department of Fisheries (DoF) [16], Thailand’s fisheries production in 2016 exceeded more than 2 million tonnes, of which 1.5 million tonnes (63%) were from capture fisheries and 0.9 million tonnes (37%) from . The value of the fisheries exports was estimated at US$6.3 billion in 2016 [16]. In 2016, the fisheries sector contributed to around 0.8% of the total gross domestic product and 9.0% of the agricultural sector’s gross domestic product [17]. Employment in the country’s agricultural sector, including fisheries, account for 34% of the country’s workforce [18]. By analysing the trends in fisheries production, one could infer the changes in the global and regional significance of fish stocks, including consumption patterns, human nutrition, and environmental concerns [19]. Hence, the primary purpose of this study is to examine the evolution of wild fisheries production in Thailand and its impact on the available supplies and biological diversity of fish and shellfish. Our analysis focuses on Thailand’s status and the trend of capture fisheries production for the past 20 years. The review is based mainly on official catch statistics dating back to 1995. Furthermore, we also review literature related to Thailand’s fisheries production as a reference in the data analysis.

2. Evolution of Fisheries Production in Thailand During 1995–2015

Thailand, situated in the middle of Southeast , lies between 5◦–20◦ N and 97◦–106◦ E, with a total land area of approximately 514,000 km2, and it is divided into 77 Provinces [15]. The country has a total coastal length of more than 2600 km, comprising 1870 km on the and 730 km on the Andaman [20]. The fishing area and the exclusive economic zone of Thailand SustainabilitySustainability 20202019, ,1211, ,x 7198 FOR PEER REVIEW 33 of of 16 16 cover a total area of 420,280 km2, divided into two distinct areas: 304,000 km2 in the Gulf of Thailand, cover a total area of 420,280 km2, divided into two distinct areas: 304,000 km2 in the Gulf of Thailand, Pacific on the east, and 116,280 km2 in the Andaman Sea, the on the west [21]. Pacific Ocean on the east, and 116,280 km2 in the Andaman Sea, the Indian Ocean on the west [21]. The wild capture production is broadly divided into two categories: marine production and The wild capture production is broadly divided into two categories: marine production and inland inland production. Thailand’s marine fisheries consist of two categories: commercial fisheries, and production. Thailand’s marine fisheries consist of two categories: commercial fisheries, and artisanal artisanal fisheries. Based on the Royal Ordinance on Fisheries B.E. 2558 (2015), there are two fisheries. Based on the Royal Ordinance on Fisheries B.E. 2558 (2015), there are two categories that are categories that are distinguished by gross vessel tonnage. On the one hand, commercial distinguished by gross vessel tonnage. On the one hand, commercial fishing vessels are considered vessels are considered powered boats of over ten gross tonnage [21]. On the other hand, artisanal powered boats of over ten gross tonnage [21]. On the other hand, artisanal fishing vessels are those fishing vessels are those smaller than ten gross tonnage, and are either non-powered or have smaller than ten gross tonnage, and are either non-powered or have outboard or inboard engines. outboard or inboard engines. In general, a wide variety of fishing gear including gill nets, falling nets, In general, a wide variety of fishing gear including gill nets, falling nets, traps, and hook and line can traps, and hook and line can be used for artisanal vessels, while commercial vessels mainly use be used for artisanal vessels, while commercial vessels mainly use bottom trawls, purse seines, and bottom trawls, purse seines, and falling nets [21,22]. Artisanal vessels operate with high-efficiency falling nets [21,22]. Artisanal vessels operate with high-efficiency fishing gear, e.g., trawls, surrounding fishing gear, e.g., trawls, surrounding nets, dredges, falling net, and light luring vessels, and nets, dredges, anchovy falling net, and light luring vessels, and need to have a commercial fishing need to have a license. In 2018, there were 37,698 registered fishing vessels in license. In 2018, there were 37,698 registered fishing vessels in Thailand, about 70% of which were Thailand, about 70% of which were artisanal [23]. artisanal [23]. The total marine catch in Thailand had decreased gradually since the late 1990s. The annual The total marine catch in Thailand had decreased gradually since the late 1990s. The annual estimated catch of fisheries exceeded two million tonnes between 1995 and 2007 (Figure 1). After that, estimated catch of fisheries exceeded two million tonnes between 1995 and 2007 (Figure1). After marine fisheries catch gradually declined from 1.6 million tonnes in 2008 to 1.3 million tonnes in 2015 that, marine fisheries catch gradually declined from 1.6 million tonnes in 2008 to 1.3 million tonnes [24–44]. Meanwhile, inland capture remained constant at 0.2 million tonnes. The decline in marine in 2015 [24–44]. Meanwhile, inland capture remained constant at 0.2 million tonnes. The decline in capture production in Thailand resulted from the depletion of resources due to , marine capture production in Thailand resulted from the depletion of resources due to overexploitation, environmental degradation [4,21], and neighbouring countries such as and Myanmar environmental degradation [4,21], and neighbouring countries such as Indonesia and Myanmar tightening restrictions on foreign fishing access within their exclusive economic zone [4,21,45]. The tightening restrictions on foreign fishing access within their exclusive economic zone [4,21,45]. The FAO [46] indicated that fuel price changes could influence whether marine capture increases or FAO [46] indicated that fuel price changes could influence whether marine capture increases or decreases. During 1995–2015, diesel prices increased from 0.3 US$/liter to 0.7 US$/liter (Bank of decreases. During 1995–2015, diesel prices increased from 0.3 US$/liter to 0.7 US$/liter (Bank of Thailand, 2015). A negative correlation between the total marine catch and diesel prices was found Thailand, 2015). A negative correlation between the total marine catch and diesel prices was found in in Thailand (r = −0.901, p < 0.01). Thailand (r = 0.901, p < 0.01). − Marine Inland

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5 duction (million tonnes) 1.0

0.5

0.0 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 Wild capture pro Time (year)

Figure 1. The graph demonstrates Thailand’s wild capture production from 1995 to 2015. Based on the FigureDepartment 1. The ofgraph Fisheries demonstrates [24–44]. Thailand’s wild capture production from 1995 to 2015. Based on the Department of Fisheries [24–44]. From 1995 to 2015, the average marine fisheries catch consisted of 83% fish, 7% and cuttlefish, 3% shrimpFrom 1995 and to , 2015, 2%the , average 2% mollusc,marine andfisheries 3% others catch (Figureconsisted2). Theof 83% monetary fish, 7% value squid of eachand cuttlefish,category accounted3% for and 60%, prawn, 18%, 2% 15%, crab, 6%, 2% 0.8%, mollusc, and 0.2%, and respectively3% others (Figure [24–44 2).]. AccordingThe monetary to the value DoF ofstatistics, each category marine accounted fish catch isfor divided 60%, 18%, into 15%, four categories:6%, 0.8%, and pelagic 0.2%, fish, respectively demersal [24–44]. fish, other According food fish, toand the trash DoF fish.statistics, Based marine on the fish national catch marine is divided fish into catches four from categories: 1995 to pelagic 2015, , demersal fish are, onfish, average, other foodthe largestfish, and contributor trash fish. (42%),Based followedon the national by trash marine fish (32%),fish catches demersal from fish 1995 (17%), to 2015, and pelagic other foodfish are, fish on(9%) average, (Figure the3). largest contributor (42%), followed by trash fish (32%), (17%), and other food fish (9%) (Figure 3). Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 16 Sustainability 2019, 11, 7198 4 of 16 Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 16 Squid&cuttlefish Fish & Molluscs Others

100Squid&cuttlefish Fish Shrimps&prawns Crabs Molluscs Others 10090 9080 8070 7060 6050 5040 4030 3020 2010 100 Group fractions of marine catch (%) marine catch of fractions Group 0 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 Group fractions of marine catch (%) marine catch of fractions Group 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003Time 2005 (year) 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 Time (year) Figure 2. Percentage of marine catch composition in Thailand from 1995 to 2015. Based on the Figure 2. Percentage of marine catch composition in Thailand from 1995 to 2015. Based on the Department of Fisheries [24–44]. FigureDepartment 2. Percentage of Fisheries of [marine24–44]. catch composition in Thailand from 1995 to 2015. Based on the Department of Fisheries [24–44]. 3.0 Demersal fish Other food fish Trash fish Pelagic fish 3.0 2.5 Demersal fish Other food fish Trash fish Pelagic fish 2.5 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.5 1.0 1.0 0.5

Marine fish catch (million tonnes) 0.5 0.0 Marine fish catch (million tonnes) 0.0 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003Time 2005 (year) 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 Figure 3. The contribution of different fish groupsTime to (year) Thailand’s marine fish catch from 1995 to 2015. Based on the Department of Fisheries [24–44]. Figure 3. The contribution of different fish groups to Thailand’s marine fish catch from 1995 to 2015. Among all fishing methods, alone was responsible for 57% of the total production. The FigureBased on3. Thethe Departmentcontribution of of Fisheries different [24–44].fish groups to Thailand’s marine fish catch from 1995 to 2015. rest was from surrounding nets (30%), gill nets (4%), traps (1%), push nets (1%), and other methods Based on the Department of Fisheries [24–44]. (7%),Among e.g., shellfish all fishing collecting, methods, hook trawling and line, alone and was lift nets responsible (Figure4 for). Although 57% of the trawls total areproduction. mainly used The forrest fishingwasAmong from in all Thaisurrounding fishing , methods, thenets total (30%),trawling number gill alone nets of Thai (4was%), trawlresponsible traps fleets (1%), decreasedforpush 57% nets of steadilythe(1%), total and fromproduction. other about methods 8000The restunits(7%), was ine.g., 1995from shellfish to surrounding 3000 collecting, units in nets 2015 hook (30%), (Figure and gill line,5). nets Theand (4 Thailift%), nets traps government (Figure (1%), 4).push implemented Although nets (1%), trawls aand stricter are other mainly regulation methods used (7%),tofor reduce fishing e.g., theshellfish in fishingThai collecting,waters, effort andthe hook fishingtotal and number capacity line, andof toTh lift mitigateai nets trawl (Figure thefleets problem 4).decreased Although of overfishing steadily trawls fromare [21 ,mainly45 about]. Figure used80006 forshowsunits fishing in the 1995 in effi toThaiciency 3000 waters, units of trawls. inthe 2015 total Interestingly, (Figure number 5). ofTh trawl The Thaiai fishingtrawl government fleets systematically decreased implemen reducedsteadilyted a stricter duringfrom about regulation the study8000 unitsperiod,to reduce in leading1995 the to fishing 3000 to a 66% unitseffort reduction in and 2015 fishing (Figure in e capacityffi ciency5). Th eto compared Thai mitigate government tothe its problem peak implemen value of forted fishing a stricter [21,45]. demersal regulation Figure and totrash6 showsreduce fish. the the The efficiency fishing sudden effort of increase trawls. and fishing inInterestingly, the ecapacityfficiency tr toawl of mitigate trawls fishing in the systematically 2007 problem may be of aoverfishing reduced consequence during [21,45]. of the ageneral Figure study 6dropperiod, shows of leadingthe fishing efficiency to gear a 66% during of trawls.reduction 2005–2006 Interestingly, in efficiency (cf. Figure tr awlcompared5 fishing). On to thesystematically its other peak hand,value reduced for the fishing number during demersal of the gill study nets and period,increasedtrash fish. leading fromThe sudden aboutto a 66% 5000 increase reduction units in to the14,000in efficiency efficiency units during compared of trawls the 20-yearinto 2007its peak period.may value be Betweena consequencefor fishing 2008 demersal and of a 2015, general and the trashnumberdrop fish.of offishing The registered sudden gear gillduring increase net fishing 2005–2006 in the boats efficiency (cf. (e.g., Figure Spanish of trawls 5). mackerelOn in the 2007 other gill may nets, hand,be shorta consequence the number gillof of a nets, gillgeneral nets and dropshortincreased of mackerel fishing from encirclingaboutgear during 5000 gill units 2005–2006 nets) to drastically 14,000 (cf. units Figure increased during 5). On fromthe the 20-year 2300 other to period. 6600.hand, While theBetween number pelagic 2008 fishof and gill catches 2015,nets increasedremainedthe number from stable, of registeredabout the e ffi5000ciency gill units net dramatically to fishing 14,000 boats units declined (eduring.g., toSpanish aboutthe 20-year 10%mackerel in period. 2014–2015 gill Betweennets, based short 2008 on mackerel comparison and 2015, gill thenets, number and short of registered mackerel encirclinggill net fishing gill nets) boats drastically (e.g., Spanish increased mackerel from gill 2300 nets, to 6600.short Whilemackerel pelagic gill nets, and short mackerel encircling gill nets) drastically increased from 2300 to 6600. While pelagic Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 16 fishSustainability catches 2020remained, 12, x FOR stable, PEER the REVIEW efficiency dramatically declined to about 10% in 2014–2015 based5 ofon 16 Sustainability 2019, 11, 7198 5 of 16 comparison with the maximum in 1996 (Figure 7). The data were calculated using the amount of fish fish catches remained stable, the efficiency dramatically declined to about 10% in 2014–2015 based on caught and units of fishing gear (Appendix A; Tables A1 and A2). comparison with the maximum in 1996 (Figure 7). The data were calculated using the amount of fish withAccording the maximum to the in DoF 1996 statistics, (Figure7 ).on The average, data were 69% calculated of the marine using catches the amount were offrom fish the caught Gulf andof caught and units of fishing gear (Appendix A; Tables A1 and A2). Thailand,units of fishingwhereas gear 31% (Appendix came fromA; Tablesthe Andaman A1 and A2Sea.). It is estimated that from 2003–2015 the catch According to the DoF statistics, on average, 69% of the marine catches were from the Gulf of per unitAccording effort for tofish the caught DoF statistics,in the Gulf on of average, Thailand 69% by trawling of the marine increased catches slightly were from from 21.4 the kg/h Gulf to of Thailand, whereas 31% came from the Andaman Sea. It is estimated that from 2003–2015 the catch 22.6Thailand, kg/h, while whereas in the 31% Andaman came from sea, the the Andaman increase Sea. was It higher, is estimated from that39.5 fromkg/h 2003–2015to 59.6 kg/h the [47]. for fish caught in the Gulf of Thailand by trawling increased slightly from 21.4 kg/h to (Appendixper unit effort A; Figures for fish A1 caught and A2). in the Recent Gulf assessments of Thailand byon trawlingThailand’s increased slightly estimated from that 21.4 the kg/ h 22.6 kg/h, while in the Andaman sea, the increase was higher, from 39.5 kg/h to 59.6 kg/h [47]. fishingto 22.6 effort kg/h, for while demersal in the Andamanfish in 2015 sea, exc theeeded increase the waslevel, higher, which from would 39.5 produce kg/h to a 59.6 maximum kg/h [47 ]. (Appendix A; Figures A1 and A2). Recent assessments on Thailand’s fish stocks estimated that the sustainable(Appendix yieldA; Figures of 32.8% A1 andin the A2 Gulf). Recent of Thailand assessments and 5.3% on Thailand’s in the Andaman fish stocks Sea. estimated Meanwhile, that the the fishing effort for demersal fish in 2015 exceeded the level, which would produce a maximum fishingfishing effort effort of for pelagic demersal fish fish exceeds in 2015 the exceeded optimum the level level, by which 27.0% would in the produce Gulf of a Thailand maximum and sustainable 16.5% sustainable yield of 32.8% in the Gulf of Thailand and 5.3% in the Andaman Sea. Meanwhile, the inyield the Andaman of 32.8% in Sea the [21]. Gulf of Thailand and 5.3% in the Andaman Sea. Meanwhile, the fishing effort of fishing effort of pelagic fish exceeds the optimum level by 27.0% in the Gulf of Thailand and 16.5% pelagic fish exceeds the optimum level by 27.0% in the Gulf of Thailand and 16.5% in the Andaman in the Andaman Sea [21]. Sea [21]. Trawls Surrounding nets Gill nets Push nets Others Traps

100 Trawls Surrounding nets Gill nets Push nets Others Traps 90 100 80 90 70 80 60 70 50 60 40 50 30 40 20 30 10 20 0 10 Total marine catch by fishing gear fishing (%) by Total marine catch 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 0 Time (year) Total marine catch by fishing gear fishing (%) by Total marine catch 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015

Time (year) Figure 4. Percentage of marine catch by of fishing gear from 1995 to 2015. Based on the

DepartmentFigure 4. Percentage of Fisheries of marine[24–44]. catch by type of fishing gear from 1995 to 2015. Based on the Department Figureof Fisheries 4. Percentage [24–44]. of marine catch by type of fishing gear from 1995 to 2015. Based on the Department of Fisheries [24–44]. Trawls Surrounding nets Gill nets Falling nets Push nets Others

24000Trawls Surrounding nets Gill nets Falling nets Push nets Others 22000 2000024000 1800022000 1600020000 1400018000 1200016000 1000014000 800012000

Fishing gear (unit) 600010000 40008000

Fishing gear (unit) 20006000 40000 2000 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 0 Time (year) 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 Figure 5. Amount of fishing gear in Thailand from 1995 to 2015. Based on the Department of Figure 5. Amount of fishing gear in Thailand from 1995Time to 2015.(year) Based on the Department of Fisheries Fisheries [24–44]. [24–44]. Figure 5. Amount of fishing gear in Thailand from 1995 to 2015. Based on the Department of Fisheries [24–44]. Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 16 Sustainability 2019, 11, 7198 6 of 16 Sustainability 2020250, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 16

250 200

200 150

150 100 A Tonnes/Unit B 100 A

Tonnes/Unit 50 B 50 0 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 0 Time (year) 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 Time (year) Figure 6. The efficiency of trawls for demersal fish (tonnes/unit) is determined from the amount of Figure 6. The efficiency of trawls for demersal fish (tonnes/unit) is determined from the amount of demersaldemersal fish fish and and trash trash fish fish caught caught (tonnes) (tonnes) (A), (A), and and the the amount amount of demersalof demersal fish fish (B). (B). Figure 6. The efficiency of trawls for demersal fish (tonnes/unit) is determined from the amount of demersal fish and trash fish caught (tonnes) (A), and the amount of demersal fish (B). 1000 900 1000 800 900 700 800 600 700 500 600 400

500Tonnes/Unit 300 400

Tonnes/Unit 200 300 100 200 0 100 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 0 Time (year) 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 Figure 7. The efficiency of gill nets for pelagicTime fish (tonnes (year) /unit) is determined from the amount of pelagic fish caught (tonnes) divided by some gill nets (e.g., gill nets, short mackerel Figure 7. The efficiency of gill nets for pelagic fish (tonnes/unit) is determined from the amount of gill nets, short mackerel encircling gill nets). Based on the Department of Fisheries [24–44]. pelagic fish caught (tonnes) divided by some gill nets (e.g., Spanish mackerel gill nets, short mackerel 3. TaxonomicFiguregill 7.nets, The Diversity short efficiency mackerel in of Fisheries gill encircling nets for Production gill pelagic nets). fish Based (tonnes/unit) on the Department is determined of Fisheries from the[24–44]. amount of pelagic fish caught (tonnes) divided by some gill nets (e.g., Spanish mackerel gill nets, short mackerel Over the 20-year assessment period (1995–2015), at least 25 families and groups of marine fish 3.gill Taxonomic nets, short Diversitymackerel encircling in Fisheries gill nets). Production Based on the Department of Fisheries [24–44]. and shellfish were recorded on the list of Thailand’s marine fisheries catch. Table1 illustrates the 3.taxonomic TaxonomicOver composition theDiversity 20-year in ofassessment Fisheries total marine Productionperiod fish (1995–2015), caught. All speciesat leastmentioned 25 families onand the groups list of of landings marine of fish Thailand’ shellfish marine were fisheries recorded were on identified the list usingof Thailand a guide’s tomarine the global fisheries fish database,catch. Table Fishbase, 1 illustrates and the the InternationaltaxonomicOver the Union20-yearcomposition for assessment Conservation of total period marine of (1995–2015), fish caught. and Natural at All least species Resources 25 families mentioned (IUCN) and groups Redon the List listof of marine of Threatened landings fish of andSpecies.Thailand’s shellfish The majorwere marine recorded taxonomic fisheries on compositionwere the listidentified of Thailand of pelagic using’s fishamarine guide are tofisheries the global catch. (e.g., fish Tableshort database, 1 mackerel, illustrates Fishbase, Indian the and taxonomicmackerel,the International kingcomposition mackerel, Union oflongtail total for marineConservation , kawakawa,fish caught. of Natu andAllre species frigate and tuna)Naturalmentioned (38.1%), Resources on the list(IUCN) of landings (e.g., Red round List of of Thailand’sscad,Threatened hardtail marine scad,Species. fisheries trevally, The were major bigeye identified taxonomic scad, and using compositio black a guide pomfret) nto of the pelagic (22.1%), global fishfish Clupeidae aredatabase, Scombridae () Fishbase, (e.g., (16.6%), and short theEngraulidae mackerel,International (anchovy)Indian Union mackerel, (19.0%), for Conservation Chirocentridaeking mackerel, of Natu (wolf longtare ) andil tuna, Natural (1.2%), kawakawa, SphyraenidaeResources and (IUCN) frigate (barracuda) Redtuna) List (2.0%),(38.1%), of ThreatenedMugilidaeCarangidae ()Species. (e.g., (0.7%), Theround major Stromateidae scad, taxonomic hardtail (silver compositioscad, pomfret) trevally,n of (0.1%), pelagicbigeye and scad,fish Polynemidae are and Scombridae black (threadfin) pomfret) (e.g., (0.1%).short(22.1%), mackerel,Meanwhile,Clupeidae Indian the (sardine) majoritymackerel, (16.6%), of demersalking Engraulidae mackerel, fish are longta(anchovy) fromil the tuna, Nemipteridae(19.0%), kawakawa, Chirocentridae (26.0%), and frigate specifically (wolf tuna) herring) threadfin(38.1%), (1.2%), CarangidaebreamSphyraenidae and monocle(e.g., (barracuda)round bream, scad, followed(2.0%), hardtail Mugilidae by scad, Priacanthidae trevally, (mullet) bigeye (bigeye)(0.7%), scad, Stromateidae (22.8%), and Synodontidaeblack (silver pomfret) pomfret) (lizardfish) (22.1%), (0.1%), Clupeidae(16.9%),and Polynemidae Sciaenidae (sardine) (croaker)(16.6%), (threadfin) Engraulidae (10.1%), (0.1%). and (anchovy)Meanwhile, Trichiuridae (19.0%), the (hairtail) majority Chirocentridae (4.1%). of Altogether,demersal (wolf herring)fish they are constitute (1.2%),from the Sphyraenidae (barracuda) (2.0%), Mugilidae (mullet) (0.7%), Stromateidae (silver pomfret) (0.1%), and Polynemidae (threadfin) (0.1%). Meanwhile, the majority of demersal fish are from the Sustainability 2019, 11, 7198 7 of 16 about 81% (118,877 tonnes) of the total catches of the demersal groups in 2015 [44]. On the other hand, four families (i.e., , Channidae, Clariidae, and Osphronemidae) were mentioned for freshwater fish. The Cyprinidae , specifically common silver , contributed the most (11.6%) to the national freshwater capture production in 2015 [44]. Concerning taxonomic composition of the catches, no dramatic shifts were recorded during the 20-year period. The main observation seems that for less abundant taxa, such as Chirocentridae, Sillaginidae, Ariidae, Sharks, and Psettodidae, their part in the catch was halved between 1995 and 2015.

Table 1. Taxonomic composition of marine and inland fish groups caught by Thai fishing vessels during 1995–2015 based on the Department of Fisheries [24–44].

Percentage of Total Wild Fish Catch Taxon Average from 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 1995–2015 Marine fish catch 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Pelagic fish group 41.0 39.0 40.0 46.0 48.0 42.0 Demersal fish group 14.0 17.0 19.0 13.0 14.0 17.0 Other food fish group 7.0 9.0 8.0 9.0 12.0 9.0 Trash fish group 38.0 35.0 33.0 32.0 26.0 32.0 Pelagic fish group 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Scombridae 38.4 36.4 42.7 35.6 32.3 38.1 Carangidae 20.7 23.1 22.4 21.4 27.4 22.1 Clupeidae 20.0 19.1 13.9 15.3 15.6 16.6 Engraulidae 17.1 16.7 17.4 22.9 19.6 19.0 Chirocentridae 1.6 1.7 1.1 0.9 0.6 1.2 Sphyraenidae 1.2 1.9 1.7 2.5 3.7 2.0 Mugilidae 0.5 1.0 0.5 1.2 0.6 0.7 Stromateidae 0.2 <0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1 Polynemidae 0.2 <0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 Demersal fish group 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Nemipteridae 27.2 26.6 24.3 25.0 33.5 26.0 Synodontidae 20.4 18.1 12.3 18.1 22.4 16.9 Priacanthidae 20.1 19.6 28.1 21.4 15.7 22.8 Sciaenidae 6.9 10.4 11.5 14.2 4.9 10.1 Trichiuridae 4.2 4.2 3.6 4.1 4.0 4.1 Latjanidae 4.1 2.1 3.8 1.9 7.1 3.2 Cynoglossidae 3.7 4.2 1.7 3.3 1.6 3.1 Rays 2.9 3.5 3.0 2.7 2.2 3.0 Serranidae 2.7 2.0 1.7 2.8 3.4 2.1 Sillaginidae 1.9 2.0 3.9 1.4 0.9 2.5 Ariidae 1.6 2.9 2.4 1.0 0.9 2.3 Sharks 1.5 2.9 1.8 1.1 0.7 2.0 Psettodidae 1.3 0.6 1.1 0.8 0.4 0.9 Muraenesocidae 1.2 0.4 0.7 1.8 1.6 0.8 Plotosidae 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.6 0.2 Latidae <0.1 0.2 <0.1 <0.1 0.1 0.1 Inland fish catch 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Cyprinidae 12.0 20.4 25.0 19.7 11.6 16.9 Channidae 11.6 10.2 6.5 10.8 8.2 9.3 Clariidae 4.3 9.7 3.5 5.3 4.6 4.7 Osphronemidae 0.1 0.3 0.6 2.3 1.6 1.1 Fish mixed group 71.9 59.3 64.4 61.9 74.0 68.0

4. The Value of Thailand’s Wild Capture Production Fisheries play a significant role in sustaining the country’s food security, as well as contributing to the local and national economies [6]. From 1995 to 2015, the annual value of marine fisheries catch was Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 16

4. The Value of Thailand’s Wild Capture Production Sustainability 2019, 11, 7198 8 of 16 Fisheries play a significant role in sustaining the country’s food security, as well as contributing to the local and national economies [6]. From 1995 to 2015, the annual value of marine fisheries catch wasabout about US$1.5 US$1.5 billion billion (2.2 (2.2 million million tonnes) tonnes) on average,on average, whereas whereas the the value value of inland of inland capture capture fisheries fisheries was wasestimated estimated to be to around be around US$0.2 US$0.2 billion billion (0.2 (0.2 million million tonnes) tonnes) (Figure (Figure8). 8).

Figure 8. Quantity and value of wild capture production in Thailand from 1995 to 2015. Based on the FigureDepartment 8. Quantity of Fisheries and value [24– of44 ].wild capture production in Thailand from 1995 to 2015. Based on the Department of Fisheries [24–44]. As mentioned in the DoF database, trends in the price of all marine species slightly increased overAs the mentioned past decade in (Appendixthe DoF database,A; Table trends A3). For in the instance, price of the all price marine of short species mackerel slightly ( Rastrelligerincreased overbrachysoma the past) grewdecade from (Appendix 0.8 US$/ kgA; Table in 1995 A3). to 1.4ForUS$ instance,/kg in the 2015. price The ofaverage short mackerel price of ( marineRastrelliger fish brachysomaspecies grew) grew from from 0.1 to 0.8 4.6 US$/kg US$/kg. in The 1995 species to 1.4 with US$/kg the highestin 2015. price The wasaverage the silver price pomfret of marine (Pampus fish speciesargenteus grew) (4.6 from US$ 0.1/kg), to 4.6 followed US$/kg. by The blackbanded species with kingfish the highest (Seriolina price was nigrofasciata the silver) pomfret (3.4 US$ (/Pampuskg) and argenteusgroupers) (4.6 (3.4 US$/kg), US$/kg). followed The average by blackbanded price of giant kingfish tiger prawn (Seriolina (Penaeus nigrofasciata monodon) (3.4) was US$/kg) the highest and groupersamong all (3.4 shrimp US$/kg). and prawnsThe average (8.2 US$ price/kg). of giant tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) was the highest among all shrimp and prawns (8.2 US$/kg). 5. Discussion Fisheries resources play an essential role in supplying food and essential nutrition to feed the country’s growing population as well as generating economic activities nationally [48,49]. However, based on the DoF database from 1995 to 2015, there was a downward trend in the landings of Thailand’s Sustainability 2019, 11, 7198 9 of 16 marine fisheries in the Indian and Western Pacific Oceans. According to past assessments, fishing efforts had exceeded the levels that produce the maximum sustainable yield in the waters of Thailand, and many marine fish stocks had dwindled. For example, commercial fish species such as ( kanagurta), lizardfish (Saurida undosquamis and S. elongata), and bigeye scad ( crumenophthalmus) were estimated to be overfished in 2007 [50–53]. Many fisheries in Thai waters face substantial pressures due to increased human population, overexploitation of marine resources, and weak enforcement of existing laws or insufficiency of necessary regulations targeting stock sustainability [45]. In 2015, the EU gave a “yellow card” status to Thailand’s marine fisheries as a warning that Thailand needs to strengthen its laws against illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing, and it needed to improve its monitoring, control, surveillance systems, and traceability of landings. Otherwise, it will face a ban on its exports to the EU [54]. As a result, Thailand has started addressing its illegal fishing and unsustainable fishing practices [45,54]. The government attempts to deter illegal fishing activities and amend fisheries laws in to prevent marine resources from being damaged and to promote sustainable utilisation of fisheries resources [21,45]. To reform Thai marine fisheries and to address the aforementioned issues, three critical documents have been approved by the Cabinet of Thailand since 2015: the Royal Ordinance on Fisheries B.E. 2558 (2015), the Plan of Thailand 2015–2019, and the National Plan of Action to Prevent, Deter, and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated Fishing 2015–2019 [45,48]. As a result of Thailand’s enormous effort fighting with illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing, the EU has lifted its yellow card in 2019 [55]. Among all fishing methods used, trawling accounted for 57% of the total catch in Thai waters, with an average catch of 2.2 million tonnes from 1995–2015. However, the number of trawlers has been decreasing steadily over the last decade as a result of stricter regulations aimed to mitigate the problem of overfishing [21,45]. Consequently, the number of boats using gill nets drastically increased during the same period. Based on available data from the DoF, we estimated the efficiency of fishing gear (i.e., trawls and gill nets) from the number of registered boats (by type of fishing gear) and the total amount of catch. Our estimations can be used to monitor the management of fishery resources. We recognise several factors that can influence the amount of catch per boat, i.e., the size of the gear, the frequency of fishing activity, fish abundance in the area, and the captain’s skill have not been taken into account [56,57]. Consequently, collecting more quantitative evidence is of paramount importance in obtaining more accurate data on maximum sustainable yield. This could be obtained via better and more standardized monitoring of the fish communities, monitoring, and assessment of the fishing yields for each type of gear, particularly gill nets and obtain more quantitative and integrated insights in impacts of fishing via models. According to the international online fish database, the Scombridae consists of about 54 species of fifteen genera that are found throughout the world in tropical and subtropical seas [58]. Most species are considered commercially important [59]. For example, short mackerel (Rastrelliger brachysoma) is distributed over the Pacific Ocean and in the Andaman Sea to Thailand, Indonesia, , the , Solomon , and Fiji. IUCN [59] indicated that this species is highly targeted in commercial and artisanal fisheries and is caught using a variety of equipment (e.g., gill nets, purse seines, and stake trap). In Thailand, (Rastrelliger spp.) are the most abundant pelagic fish caught [22], accounting for about 11% (116,900 tonnes) of the total national marine fish caught in 2015 [44]. The identification of fish species diversity can show a unique regional source of species occurrences [13], and can help estimate the nutritional contribution of marine fish to human diets [60]. As different fish species can provide differing proteins, micronutrients, and vitamins, having extensive marine biological diversity is vital for a well-rounded diet [9,12,61]. Around 2500 species of fish are available for human consumption [46]. Fish in different , e.g., in the and demersal zone, also produce different compositions of fish oils [62]. Several authors provide examples of the nutritional significance of different fish species [7,63–65]. For example, Bogard, et al. [65] analysed Sustainability 2019, 11, 7198 10 of 16 the profiles of 55 local fish, shrimp, and prawn species in to demonstrate the variation in potential nutrient contributions of different species. They found that the contribution from a standard portion (50 g/day for pregnant and lactating women and 25 g/day for infants) of some fish species, including chapila (Gudusia chapra), darkina (Esomus danricus), mola (Amblypharyngodon mola), and najari icha (Macrobrachium malcolmsonii), would meet ~25% of the iron recommended nutrient intake for pregnant and lactating women and infants. Similarly, Thilsted [66] found that some small indigenous fish in Bangladesh, e.g., mola (Amblypharyngodon mola) and chanda (Parambassis ranga), have a high vitamin A content of >2500 and 1500 µg retinol activity equivalents (RAE)/100 g raw edible parts, respectively. Several studies have suggested that the identification of food species can improve diets in different local contexts and ensure diet quality [67,68]. The database of Thailand’s Department of Fisheries however, does not include the catches at the species level. We propose that in the future, the species of catch should be identified with its family and . This information could be used for a more accurate nutritional evaluation, and potentially for devising the country’s policies in order to optimize nutrition and safeguard food security.

6. Conclusions In this study, we examined Thailand’s fishing industry, which is involved in wild captures. Although wild fisheries constitute a significant source of food and income, unsustainable practices had made negative impacts on the . Recently, catches on the coastal waters of Thailand exceeded the maximum sustainable yield substantially, and many marine fish stocks are being depleted. Consequently, the landings of Thai marine fisheries had decreased gradually in the past two decades, simultaneously with an increase in fish and shellfish price. In order for future generations to coexist with the ocean and adequately consume seafood, both quantitively and financially, the Thai fishing industry must fully recognize the importance of sustainable resource management and take immediate action.

Author Contributions: Main idea, T.S. and P.G.; The structure of the manuscript and analysis, T.S., P.N., C.L., and P.G.; Writing—original draft, T.S.; Writing—review and editing, T.S., P.N., C.L., and P.G. Funding: Thaksin University supported this work through a PhD scholarship. Acknowledgments: Special thanks are extended to anonymous reviewers and numerous colleagues for an informal review of our manuscript. We thank Srisuwan Kuankachorn, Stijn Bruneel, Adhinand Indrapim, Thanompong Buabanjong, and Jaturong Amonchaisup for their helpful comments and suggestions. We also thank Thailand’s Department of Fisheries for providing the fisheries database. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The sponsor had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, and in the decision to publish the results.

Appendix A

Table A1. The amount of demersal fish and trash fish caught and the number of trawls in Thailand from 1995 to 2015. The efficiency of trawls is calculated as the number of fish caught per trawl.

The Efficiency of Demersal Fish and Trawls for Demersal Fish Trash Fish Trash Fish Caught Number of Year Demersal Fish and (tonnes) (A) (tonnes) (B) (tonnes) Trawls (unit) Trash Fish Caught C = (A) + (B) (tonnes/unit) 1995 344,728 915,944 1,260,672 7995 157.7 1996 356,552 864,130 1,220,682 8972 136.1 1997 360,916 822,110 1,183,026 8165 144.9 1998 382,152 764,991 1,147,143 9161 125.2 1999 386,707 765,209 1,151,916 8324 138.4 2000 385,391 775,079 1,160,470 8008 144.9 2001 414,680 738,538 1,153,218 6689 172.4 Sustainability 2019, 11, 7198 11 of 16

Table A1. Cont.

The Efficiency of Demersal Fish and Trawls for Demersal Fish Trash Fish Trash Fish Caught Number of Year Demersal Fish and (tonnes) (A) (tonnes) (B) (tonnes) Trawls (unit) Trash Fish Caught C = (A) + (B) (tonnes/unit) 2002 478,538 696,641 1,175,179 6675 176.1 2003 457,129 697,145 1,154,274 6949 166.1 2004 468,638 771,723 1,240,361 6439 192.6 2005 431,036 754,416 1,185,452 5757 205.9 2006 394,984 672,686 1,067,670 5246 203.5 2007 361,864 583,076 944,940 4363 216.6 2008 165,856 442,648 608,504 4013 151.6 2009 167,143 468,807 635,950 3751 169.5 2010 177,185 418,990 596,175 3663 162.8 2011 172,839 355,813 528,652 3466 152.5 2012 189,100 321,732 510,832 3384 151.0 2013 214,531 323,632 538,163 3192 168.6 2014 184,700 301,942 486,642 3038 160.2 2015 147,578 281,027 428,605 2997 143.0 Mean SD 316,297 117,494 606,489 209,623 922,787 315,184 5726.0 2169.0 163.8 24.3 ± ± ± ± ± ±

Table A2. The amount of pelagic fish caught and number of gill nets (e.g., Spanish mackerel gill nets, short mackerel gill nets, and short mackerel encircling gill nets) in Thailand from 1995 to 2015. The efficiency of gill nets is calculated as the number of fish caught per gill net.

The Efficiency of Gill Pelagic Fish Caught Number of Gill Year Nets for Pelagic Fish (tonnes) Nets (unit) (tonnes/unit) 1995 980,742 1283 764.4 1996 931,939 1015 918.2 1997 885,279 1278 692.7 1998 894,259 1475 606.3 1999 885,680 1339 661.4 2000 857,917 1716 500.0 2001 822,006 1490 551.7 2002 851,184 1680 506.7 2003 868,637 1508 576.0 2004 892,565 1802 495.3 2005 916,531 1315 697.0 2006 844,184 1123 751.7 2007 748,980 1787 419.1 2008 568,724 2358 241.2 2009 581,371 4281 135.8 2010 605,831 3330 181.9 2011 610,149 4490 135.9 2012 578,771 5437 106.5 2013 575,395 3900 147.5 2014 589,722 6594 89.4 2015 520,656 6658 78.2 Mean SD 762,405.81 154,667.13 2660 1831.7 286.6 84.4 ± ± ± ± Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 16

Sustainability 2019, 11, 7198 12 of 16 Sustainability 202030.0, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 122.0 of 16

1.8 30.0 2.0 25.0 1.6 1.8 25.0 1.4 20.0 1.6 1.2 1.4 20.0 15.0 1.0 1.2 0.8 15.0 1.0 10.0 0.6 Total catch (million tonnes) Total catch

Catch Per Unit Effort (kg/hr) 0.8 10.0 0.4 5.0 0.6 Total catch (million tonnes) Total catch Catch Per Unit Effort (kg/hr) CPUE Total catch Catch by trawl 0.2 0.4 5.0 0.0 0.0 CPUE Total catch Catch by trawl 0.2 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

0.0 Time (year) 0.0 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Time (year) Figure A1. Total catch (million tonnes) in Thai water, catch per unit effort (kg/h) of capture fisheries, and catch by trawl in the Gulf of Thailand. Adapted from an official report of the Department of Figure A1. Total catch (million tonnes) in Thai water, catch per unit effort (kg/h) of capture fisheries, and Fisheries in Thailand [32–44] and the Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Figurecatch A1. Total by trawl catch in (million the Gulf tonnes) of Thailand. in Thai Adapted water, fromcatch anper o ffiunitcial effort report (kg/h) of the of Department capture fisheries, of Fisheries Planning [47]. and catchin Thailand by trawl [32 in–44 the] and Gulf the of O Thailand.ffice of Natural Adapte Resourcesd from an and official Environmental report of Policythe Department and Planning of [47]. Fisheries in Thailand [32–44] and the Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning70.0 [47]. 1.0 0.9 70.060.0 1.0 0.8 0.9 60.050.0 0.7 0.8 0.6 40.0 50.0 0.7 0.5 30.0 0.6 40.0 0.4 0.5 20.0 0.3

30.0 (million tonnes) Total catch 0.4 Catch Per Unit Effort (kg/hr) 0.2 20.010.0 0.3 0.1 (million tonnes) Total catch Catch Per Unit Effort (kg/hr) CPUE Total catch Catch by trawl 0.2 10.00.0 0.0 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 0.1 CPUE Total catch Catch by trawl 0.0 Time (year) 0.0 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 Figure A2. Total catch (million tonnes) in Thai water, catch per unit effort (kg/h) of capture fisheries, Figure A2. Total catch (million tonnes) in Thai water, catch per unit effort (kg/h) of capture fisheries, and catch by trawl in the Andaman sea of Thailand.Time (year) Adapted from an official report of the Department and catchof Fisheries by trawl in in Thailand the Andaman [32–44 sea] and of Thailand. the Office Ad ofapted Natural from Resources an official and report Environmental of the Department Policy and of Fisheries in Thailand [32–44] and the Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and FigurePlanning A2. Total [47 catch]. (million tonnes) in Thai water, catch per unit effort (kg/h) of capture fisheries, Planning [47]. and catch by trawl in the Andaman sea of Thailand. Adapted from an official report of the Department of Fisheries in Thailand [32–44] and the Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning [47]. Sustainability 2019, 11, 7198 13 of 16

Table A3. Prices of fish and shellfish products during 1995–2015, based on the Department of Fisheries [24–44].

The Average Price of Year Marine Species Marine Species (US$/kg) 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 Anchovy (Stolephorus spp.and Encrasicholina 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.4 spp.) ± Barracuda (Sphyraena spp.) 1.1 0.3 1.2 0.8 0.9 1.4 1.5 ± Black pomfret (Parastromateus niger) 2.4 0.9 3.1 1.3 2.0 3.0 3.6 ± Blackbanded kingfish (Seriolina nigrofasciata) 3.4 1.0 3.9 2.6 2.5 5.1 4.7 ± Bigeye (Priacanthus spp.) 0.5 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 ± Bigeye scad (Selar crumenophthalmus) 0.6 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.2 ± Catfish (Plotosus spp.) 2.1 0.7 1.3 1.5 1.5 2.6 2.9 ± Croaker (Croaker groups) 0.8 0.2 0.8 0.6 0.6 1.0 1.0 ± Conger eel (Congresox spp.) 0.9 0.1 0.9 0.7 0.8 0.7 1.0 ± Kawakawa (Euthynnus affinis) 0.7 0.3 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.9 1.1 ± Flatfish (Paraplagusia spp.) 1.0 0.3 1.0 0.6 0.8 1.3 1.4 ± Hairtail (Trichiurus spp.) 0.9 0.2 0.7 0.7 0.9 0.7 1.2 ± Indian (Psettodes erumei) 1.4 0.4 1.5 0.9 1.1 1.4 1.7 ± Indian mackerel (Rastrelliger kanagurta) 0.8 0.3 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.9 1.3 ± Narrow-barred Spanish mackerel 2.6 0.8 1.9 1.7 2.2 3.2 3.9 ( commerson) ± Lizardfish (Saurida spp.) 0.5 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.5 0.6 0.7 ± Longtail tuna (Thunnus tonggol) 0.9 0.3 0.6 0.6 0.7 1.2 1.3 ± Monocle bream (Scolopsis spp.) 0.9 0.4 0.4 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.2 ± Mullet (Liza spp.) 1.5 0.5 1.4 1.2 1.2 1.8 2.0 ± Red snapper (Lutjanus argentimaculatus) 2.6 1.0 2.2 1.4 2.3 3.9 4.1 ± Round scad ( spp.) 0.6 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.7 0.8 1.0 ± Sand ( sihama) 1.8 0.6 2.8 1.7 1.0 1.8 2.3 ± Sardine (Sardinella spp.) 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.6 ± Sea bass (Lates calcarifer) 3.2 1.1 3.6 3.5 2.6 3.8 4.3 ± Sea catfish (Arius spp.) 1.0 0.3 0.8 0.8 0.9 1.2 1.5 ± Short mackerel (Rastrelliger brachysoma) 0.9 0.2 0.8 0.6 0.7 1.1 1.4 ± Silver pomfret (Pampus argenteus) 4.6 1.0 5.7 3.8 4.1 4.1 7.6 ± Trevally (Selaroides leptolepis) 0.7 0.3 0.6 0.4 0.6 0.9 1.1 ± Threadfin (Eleutheronema tetradactylum) 2.5 0.6 2.5 1.8 2.3 2.2 2.8 ± Threadfin bream (Nemipterus hexodon) 0.8 0.3 0.7 0.4 0.7 1.0 1.2 ± Wolf herring (Chirocentrus spp.) 0.9 0.2 1.1 0.6 0.9 1.0 1.4 ± (Epinephelus coioides) 3.4 1.2 3.4 2.3 3.2 4.9 4.8 ± Rays 0.7 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.5 1.2 1.1 ± Sharks 1.0 0.4 0.8 0.5 0.9 1.5 1.6 ± Trash fish 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 ± Acetes (Acetes spp.) 0.4 0.1 0.7 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 ± Banana prawn (Fenneropenaeus merguiensis) 6.4 0.8 7.7 5.6 5.5 6.9 7.9 ± Flathead (Thenus orientalis) 3.9 0.9 3.8 2.9 3.4 4.4 5.1 ± Giant tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) 8.2 1.0 9.6 8.2 7.7 7.1 8.8 ± King prawn (Penaeus latisulcatus) 4.4 1.4 6.6 2.6 5.6 6.9 4.7 ± School prawn (Metapenaeus spp.) 3.4 0.4 3.6 3.0 3.0 3.3 4.0 ± Sustainability 2019, 11, 7198 14 of 16

Table A3. Cont.

The Average Price of Year Marine Species Marine Species (US$/kg) 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 Swimming crab (Portunus pelagicus) 2.6 1.2 1.8 1.4 1.9 3.5 4.9 ± crabs (Scylla serrate) 3.2 1.4 4.8 1.8 2.6 4.8 4.3 ± Squid (Loligo spp.) 2.1 0.7 2.3 1.4 1.6 2.3 3.1 ± Cuttlefish (Sepia pharaonis) 2.0 0.5 2.4 1.4 1.6 2.3 2.6 ± (Octopus spp.) 1.2 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.9 1.6 2.3 ± Short-necked clam (Paphia undulata) 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.6 0.9 ± (Amusium spp.) 1.5 0.5 2.2 1.0 2.2 1.2 1.9 ±

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