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Home , History of seafood, Wild fisheries

The and us 1

The oceans and us Since man first gazed across its watery depths, the has been held in special regard. It has evoked visions of splendour and horror. It has provided life-sustaining riches and taken the lives of many in return. The sea is and continues to be a mystery, a symbolic representation of the forces of good and evil; of things that are beautiful and those that are beastly; of that which is and that which is inspirational.

The History of Of all the things that the oceans provide, perhaps the most important resource for us is the rich array of seafood which we harvest from its depths and shorelines across the world. More importantly, for those of us involved in the seafood industry, from the fishers who catch the , to the restaurant or deli owner that sells it, this seafood represents more than just a source of ; it is part of our culture, our heritage and our livelihood.

Seafood may mean different things to different people. We may not know it but we all depend on the oceans To some, it is the height of luxury; an still fresh in one way or another. from the sea shared over a glass of champagne. To others, it may be the daily , the fish brought home /ƚ ĐŽŶƚƌŽůƐ ŽƵƌ ĐůŝŵĂƚĞ͖ ǁŝƚŚŽƵƚ ƚŚĞ ŽĐĞĂŶ͛Ɛ after a long time at sea or some gathered at low moderating effects on the weather, our days would be along the rocky . Regardless of what seafood unbearably hot and our nights freezing cold. The may mean to us as individuals, it is important not to also naturally recycles our and our air, underestimate the value of seafood in our lives. constantly cleaning it for us to use over and again 24 hours a day, seven days a week. It produces more Today, almost one in every six people in the world relies oxygen than the rainforests and absorbs nearly half of on fish as their primary source of protein, and the carbon that we put into the atmosphere. approximately 200 million people around the world rely on fish for all or part of their income. The ocean touches everyone and everything and is essential to life and human survival on this planet. As Our relationship with seafood stretches right back to the , we are inextricably linked to the oceans, 70 beginnings of the human race. In fact, it has been percent of our body is made up of water, the same suggested that unique substances present in fish percentage that covers the Earth's surface, even the consumed in the early human diet led to some of the blood that runs in our veins has the same earliest development and evolution of the modern concentration as , reminding us of our human brain. And, while a lot may have changed since earliest beginnings ŝŶƚŚĞŽĐĞĂŶ͛ƐǁĂƚĞƌƐ͘ our early ancestors dined on their first seafood dish, in many ways, things are still very much the same. Understanding this connection and the value of the ocean in our own lives is crucial, not just for our own ͞,ŽǁŝŶĂƉƉƌŽƉƌŝĂƚĞƚŽĐĂůůƚŚŝƐ wellbeing but to ensure that future generations will not have to suffer the consequences of poor decisions planet Earth when it is quite made by us today... clearly Ocean͟ -Arthur C. Clarke

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An Ancient Trade We knew how to fish long before we knew how to farm. Over 100 000 years before the first seed was sown, Khoi Strandlopers ǁĞƌĞǁĂŶĚĞƌŝŶŐ^ŽƵƚŚĨƌŝĐĂ͛Ɛ shorelines, harvesting mussels, fish and and any other gifts that the oceans chose to grant our early ancestors. We have come a long way since those early days, and much has changed; we now use very adǀĂŶĐĞĚ ŵĞƚŚŽĚƐ ƚŽ ŚĂƌǀĞƐƚ ƚŚĞ ŽĐĞĂŶ͛Ɛ ƌŝĐŚĞƐ ĂŶĚ markets for seafood have spread across the world. However, despite these changes, in many ways the seafood industry remains the same...

Unlike almost all the other types of food that we may find in restaurants and supermarkets today, most of the seafood we eat still comes from the wild. For many people, this is one of the major attractions of seafood; it connects us to those long-forgotten days when humans still had to hunt for their food. For these people, wild caught seafood still evokes romantic images of weathered fishermen practicing their ancient art on a wild ocean in order to bring us fresh fish still smelling of the ocean. ^ŽƵƚŚĨƌŝĐĂ͛ƐKĐĞĂŶƐ On the Southern tip of we are surrounded by the sea, both the Indian and the Atlantic oceans wash More than ever, seafood is a against our 3000km shoreline. As a result, our oceans are incredibly rich with over 11 000 different global commodity... ƚŚĂƚŚĂǀĞďĞĞŶĚĞƐĐƌŝďĞĚŝŶ^ŽƵƚŚĨƌŝĐĂŶǁĂƚĞƌƐ;ƚŚĂƚ͛Ɛ However, today, consumers are attracted to more than 1/20th or over 5% of all marine species globally) and just the romance of seafood. More and more people almost one in every five of them are endemic, which are considering seafood as a healthy and alternative means that they are found nowhere else in the world. natural protein source. At a time when many consumers regard products from conventional commercial land-based farms with increasing suspicion, seafood is growing in popularity. Spurred on by the globalisation of markets, seafood has become the most traded food commodity in the world. Made even more popular by the trend setters in the culinary world, seafood has exploded onto restaurant menus and retail store shelves everywhere.

͞KŶĂǀĞƌĂŐĞĂƌŽƵŶĚƚŚĞǁŽƌůĚ͕ǁĞ are now eating double the amount of fish today compared to just fifty LJĞĂƌƐĂŐŽ͘͟

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Wild caught now produce almost 100 million tonnes of fish every year (source: FAO 2006)

But the times they are a changing... Sadly, we may never know the oceans in the same way that our ancestors did. Regardless of where you come from in the world, anyone involved in the seafood industry will remember a time when the fish being pulled from the ocean were bigger and more plentiful. Ɛ ƚŚĞ ǁŽƌůĚ͛Ɛ ŚƵŵĂŶ ƉŽƉƵůĂƚŝŽŶ ŚĂƐ ŐƌŽǁŶ͕ ƐŽ ŚĂǀĞ our demands on the ŽĐĞĂŶ͛ƐƌĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƐ.

Whether we like it or not, we can no longer afford to ignore the impact that we are having on our marine . Now, more than ever, if we want to ensure the future of the seafood industry and with it, our own livelihoods, we need to start thinking about what sustainability really means to us and our businesses.

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NOTES:

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Something fish is going on 2

Something fishy is going on... zŽƵĚŽŶ͛ƚŚĂǀĞƚŽ be a fisher to know that something is happening to our . It seems clear that all over the world, fish stocks are disappearing, everywhere we look there are signs that the oceans are no longer able to keep up with the demands that human beings are putting on them.

Catches of wild ŵĂƌŝŶĞ ĨŝƐŚ ƉĞĂŬĞĚ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ ϭϵϴϬ͛Ɛ͘ Alarmingly, despite major advances in technology since then, the catches of wild marine fish have not increased. Figures for global fish catches can often be misleading as they include farmed fish (produced by ). They also do not show the changes in the types of fish that are now being caught. If they did we would see a dramatic decrease in popular seafood species such as bluefin and and an increase in smaller, less-desirable fish, many of which are not even eaten by humans but are used in agricultural feed products.

Over the last few decades, many of us involved in the seafood industry have been noticing the telltale signs of ͞/Ĩ ĐŽŵŵĞƌĐŝĂů ĨŝƐŚŝŶŐ ŝƐ ŶŽƚ ŚĞĂǀŝůLJ this disappearance of fish in the seafood market as: regulated, there will be little left to x Fish are getting smaller harvest in the outside the lowest x Some fish are becoming harder to find, some are no longer available at all levels of the food web. So you don't need x There are fewer seafood options to choose from to worry about these problems as long x All fish species are becoming more expensive as your children like " -, Professor of Fisheries, University of Pushing the limits , ,

Around the world, almost all of the commercially important fish stocks are reaching the limits of what they can produce, many stocks are already fished way past what scientists believe is sustainable. A number of other What is ͚ƐƵƐƚĂŝŶĂďůĞ͛? stocks have already collapsed... A sustainable is one that is healthy and managed in a way which ensures that there will be The latest statistics released by the FAO (Food and seafood for future generations. Likewise, sustainable Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, 2006) (aquaculture) respects the surrounding indicate that over three quarters of world's fish stocks environment, uses water and other resources wisely, have been fished at or beyond sustainable levels. Some and does not damage natural, wild fish populations. scientists further report that fishing has wiped out 90% of As yet, only a few fisheries and fish farming ƚŚĞ ŽĐĞĂŶ͛Ɛ ůĂƌŐĞ ƉƌĞĚĂƚŽƌLJ ĨŝƐŚ such as tuna and operations can be considered sustainable, and swordfish. therefore 'ocean friendly'.

It seems we are just fishing too hard, there are too many ĨŝƐŚĞƌƐŽƵƚƚŚĞƌĞŚƵŶƚŝŶŐƚŽŽĨĞǁĨŝƐŚ͘DŽƐƚŽĨƚŚĞǁŽƌůĚ͛Ɛ commercially important fish stocks just cannot breed fast enough to replace the fish that industrial fishing operations are taking out of the ocean.

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^͛ƐŽůůĂƉƐĞĚ>ŝŶĞĨŝƐŚPopulations In , six out of the ten most important commercial linefish stocks have decreased to critically low levels including: Kob/kabeljou (both the dusky and silver Kob), cape , red stumpnose, red roman and carpenter or silverfish. Some fish, such as kob (kabeljou) have less than 5% of their original breeding stock left. Due to unregulated fishing between the 1970's & 1990's, many linefish have been fished to the point of collapse. Many of these fish are endemic to South Africa - meaning they only occur along our South African coastline. Severe over-exploitation of these fish could mean they would be lost to the world forever and because of this the linefishery was declared in a state of crisis in December 2000. Some other highly prized South African species such as or 'perlemoen' haven't been so lucky and unregulated and illegal fishing has forced the closure of the commercial fishery for these species in South African EĞǁĨŽƵŶĚůĂŶĚ͛ƐŽĚ&ŝƐŚĞƌLJ Newfoundland, a small of the South East of Canada, used to be home to some of the largest ͞hŶůĞƐƐǁĞĨƵŶĚĂŵĞŶƚĂůůLJĐŚĂŶŐĞƚŚĞ fish stocks known to man. At the height of the way we manage our oceans, then this fishery in the 1960͛Ɛ͕ ĨŝƐŚĞƌŵĞŶ ǁĞƌĞ ƉƵůůŝŶŐ ŽƵƚ century is the last century of wild over 800 000 tons of every year ;ƚŚĂƚ͛ƐƚŚĞƐĂŵĞ as 130 000 African elephants). However, the oceans ƐĞĂĨŽŽĚ͟ could not keep up. By 1992, catches had dropped to just 122 000 tons and the Canadian government was -Steve Palumbi, Marine Scientist, Stanford University forced to close the fishery completely in an attempt to allow the fishery to recover. Over 30 000 jobs were lost overnight and sadly, to this day, neither the local economy nor the fish stocks have shown any signs of recovery

The Story of the Seventy-Four Perhaps the most famous example of over exploitation in South Africa is the story of the Seventy-ĨŽƵƌ͘/ŶƚŚĞϭϵϯϬ͛Ɛ͕ the Seventy-four was one of the main linefish species in KZN and the Eastern Cape. In the early years 1910s, fishermen landed over 1000 tonnes per year as they targeted schools of spawning fish. However, this did not last long, by the 1970's catches were down to just 3.5 tons per year. By 1998, fishing for Seventy-four was completely banned, the fish stocks had collapsed. The breeding behaviour of the fish made it completely defenceless to heavy fishing and even after 10 years of protection, it has shown no real signs of recovery.

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But tŚĞƌĞ͛Ɛmore to iƚ͙ /ƚ͛ƐŶŽƚũƵƐƚƚŚĞƚĂƌŐĞƚƐƚŽĐŬƐƚŚĂƚĂƌĞƚĂŬŝŶŐƐƚƌĂŝŶ under the pressure that commercial fisheries are putting them under. We now know that our modern-day fishing practices also have significant impacts on the greater marine outside of the fishery itself.

Bycatch Fishing methods are never totally selective and as a result will catch a number of other species that they don't intend to catch. Although some of these species may have a commercial value, sadly, the majority of this portion of ƚŚĞĐĂƚĐŚ͕ƚƌĂĚŝƚŝŽŶĂůůLJŬŶŽǁŶĂƐ͚ďLJĐĂƚĐŚ͕͛ŝƐŐĞŶĞƌĂůůLJŶŽƚ Globally it is estimated that fisheries kill: considered valuable, and is usually discarded overboard as ͻ 300,000 /year waste. Globally, it is estimated that almost a quarter of ͻ 200,000 loggerhead the fish caught in operations are turtles/year discarded in this way. ͻ 50,000 leatherback turtles/year Unfortunately, many of the caught as often include vulnerable, threatened or even endangered In South Africa, longliners set approximately 40 species, such as , turtles, marine mammals and million hooks and trawlers set 60 000 net every seabirds. Many of these species play important roles in year, catching over: keeping the healthy, but because of ͻ 20,000 seabirds their biology (i.e. they breed very slowly), killing even a ͻ 5.5 million sharks few animals can put the entire species at risk. In many ͻ 200 turtles cases these unnecessary deaths can be prevented or reduced if the correct mitigation measures are put in place and some fisheries are working very hard to introduce such measures into their fishing practice. For example, trawlers have bird scaring lines which keep the birds at a safe distance from their boats when they are setting their fishing gear. To prevent turtles from drowning in nets, fishers can install turtle ĞdžĐůƵƐŝŽŶĚĞǀŝĐĞƐ;d͛ƐͿǁŚŝĐŚĂůůŽǁƚƵƌƚůĞƐĂŶĚŽƚŚĞƌ larger marine animals to escape while still keeping the rest of the catch.

It is important to realize that not all are the same, some are a lot more selective, and therefore more environmentally-friendly, than others. For example the tuna pole fishery has almost no bycatch because it uses very selective lines with single hooks to catch the tuna, while bottom for with nets can be extremely wasteful, with up to 80% of the catch being untargeted and mostly discarded bycatch.

Bycatch in the prawn trawl fishery 7

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Habitat Damage Foodwebs Different fishing methods also have differing impacts All living things depend on one another to survive. on the marine in which they are fishing. It is The species which we eat in our , in not hard to imagine that the impact of a bottom trawl turn need their own food to grow and develop until net on a marine , which can weigh over two they are big enough for us to catch, and so it goes tons and is dragged over the ocean floor, will be far on down the line. All of these connections between greater than that of a single with a baited the different species in an ecosystem make up what hook. At present, more than half of the world's total is known as a foodweb. marine catch (approximately 81 million tons) is harvested using towed fishing gear.

Coral reefs are incredibly sensitive to habitat damage, this is a picture of a before (left) and after (right) a trawl net has gone over it.

Some are also more fragile than others and can be permanently damaged by fishing gear, such as trawling over a . Deep water coral reefs which can take thousands of years to form, may be wiped out in a few minutes. The destruction of these sensitive bottom habitats can have very serious impacts on marine ecosystems. Many species rely on structures such as coral reefs for refuges or shelters from other predators, or to provide safe spawning and A typical South African marine foodweb nursery grounds. Without these structures these (source: M. Branch, Coastcare Fact Sheet) animals have nowhere to live. Removing key species from the food web can cause an imbalance in the entire ocean ecosystem, as it In Summary may disrupt other food webs which rely on these Over the last century commercial fishing, to supply the key species to live. Many marine ecosystems are ǁŽƌůĚ͛ƐĚĞŵĂŶĚĨŽƌƐĞĂĨŽŽĚ, has dramatically altered our particularly vulnerable to the removal of the marine ecosystems. In order to ensure that seafood will dominant predators which occur at the top of the be available for future generations, we need to such as sharks, and seabirds. understand not only how our fishing practices impact our Without these predators regulating the numbers of marine ecosystems, but also how we can change our animals lower down the food web, populations of fishing methods and seafood choices to prevent further less-desirable/valuable species such as can damage and allow recovery of the damaged ecosystems. often flourish uncontrollably, disrupting the entire balance of the ecosystem.

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Some fish are better choices than others 3

Some fish are better choices ƚŚĂŶŽƚŚĞƌƐ͙ Creating sustainable fisheries does not have to mean that we should stop eating fish, or even reduce the amount of fish we eat. It is important to understand that each seafood species has different environmental impacts associated with it. Some of the fish we eat grow quickly enough to be harvested more regularly while others can take many decades to recover from . Similarly, the different methods used to catch fish also have different environmental impacts, some of which are worse than others. Making the right choice is all about having the right information.

Biology & Lifestyle Territorial Like humans, some fish ĚŽŶ͛ƚůŝŬĞƚŽůĞĂǀĞƚŚĞĂƌĞĂ Not all seafood species are equal! Some species may they grew up in, while others may never come back even look similar but many of them have completely to where they were born and spend their lives different biological characteristics, all of which make moving from one place to another. Many of the ƚŚĞŵŵŽƌĞŽƌůĞƐƐǀƵůŶĞƌĂďůĞƚŽĨŝƐŚŝŶŐƉƌĞƐƐƵƌĞ͘>Ğƚ͛Ɛ territorial fish such as red roman tend to be found take a quick look at some fish biology... around reefs, while the more nomadic fish such as snoek tend to be found in the open ocean. If Long-lived & Sexual Maturity fishermen target territorial reef fish, many of which Some fish species can live for an incredibly long time. are long-lived, they are likely to have a significant These fish tend to grow very slowly and only become impact on their local populations as it will take many sexually mature late in their lives. Some fish, such as the years for new fish to re-colonise these areas. Their red roman, are even more complicated, as they tend to predictable behaviour also makes it easy for change sex as they grow older, starting life as a female fishermen to know exactly where they can be found. and then becoming a male later in life. Removing even Catch-and-release tagging studies of galjoen have just a few of these fish from the ocean means that it will shown that it is not uncommon to find the same fish take many years for the population to recover. The red in exactly the same place it was caught 10 years steenbras is a good example of a long-lived fish, taking earlier! more than 7 years to reach breeding age and able to reach an age of more than 30 years. In comparison, Because of their unpredictable movements, nomadic dorado grow very quickly and can reach breeding age in fish such as snoek and yellowtail are far less less than a year which makes them much more resilient vulnerable to heavy fishing pressure and are also to fishing pressure. relatively fast growers which means that their populations can recover faster than resident fish.

Rare Some fish are just naturally rarer than others. Just like on the land where there are large herds of antelope but only a few rhinos, the same is true in the oceans. Targeting these rare fish could almost be compared to poaching like rhinos, the only ĚŝĨĨĞƌĞŶĐĞŝƐƚŚĂƚďĞĐĂƵƐĞǁĞĐĂŶ͛ƚƐĞĞƚŚĞŝŵƉĂĐƚŽƵƌ fishing is having on these species, we tend to ignore it. In South Africa, many of our linefish species, such as black musselcracker and white steenbras are also endemic, meaning they are only found here and nowhere else in the world.

This rockfish could be over 150 years old

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LĞƚ͛ƐůŽŽŬĂƚƚŚĞϯŵŽƐƚĐŽŵŵŽŶĨŝƐŚŝŶŐ methods and some of their impacts:

Trawling Also known as dragging, trawling is the most widely used industrial fishing method. It involves towing a large net across the (bottom or demersal trawling) or through the water (mid-water trawling) to catch fish that live there.

Fishing Methods Not only do fish differ in terms of their lifestyles, but they also differ in the methods used to catch them, some of which may be more destructive than others. All Hake, , and prawns are all species in South Africa fishing methods have some degree of environmental commonly targeted using bottom trawl gear. impact. This could be something as simple as a seagull Retained bycatch include other fish (kingklip, becoming entangled by a piece of discarded nylon monkfish, chub , john , gurnard), fishing line from a recreational angler, to the sharks, , deep water and . The main destruction of centuries-old by heavy issue with trawling is that it is non-selective, and trawling gear. Therefore, in order to decide how depending on the target species may have a sustainable our seafood choices are, we also need to substantial bycatch. Prawn trawling is one of the consider the environmental impacts of bycatch, fishing sectors with the highest discarded bycatch habitat damage and the foodweb impacts of each (over 70%), accounting for one third of the global fishing technique. discarded catches. can also alter the structure of the seabed. Mid-water trawling is more selective and does not damage the seabed, and In South Africa, there are 21 commercial fisheries mainly targets horse mackerel or maasbanker. targeting different species. These are some of the more common fishing methods used: In South Africa, there are a number of regulations in place aimed at reducing the environmental impact of x Trawling x Purse seining ƚƌĂǁů ĨŝƐŚĞƌŝĞƐ͘ &Žƌ ĞdžĂŵƉůĞ͕ ĐůŽƐĞĚ ͚ŶŽ-ƚƌĂǁů͛ ĂƌĞĂƐ x Beach seining x Longlining have been declared for areas in which kingklip are x Linefishing x Tuna pole fishing known to breed. Annual catch limits have also been x Squid x Hand harvesting set for valuable bycatch species such as monk and kingklip. x Pots, traps and hoop-nets

South African fishing companies are also See Appendix B for detailed descriptions of the fishing implementing measures to reduce their impacts. For methods and their impacts. example trawlers using bird-scaring lines behind their boats have already reduced their bycatch by as much as 90%.

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Longlining Linefishing Longlining is the other major industrial fishing The traditional linefishery is the oldest commercial method and involves using a main line with hundreds fishery in South Africa. It uses hand lines and of baited hooks. fishing rods with baited hooks to catch fish like snoek, geelbek, cob/kob, yellowtail and many others. There are over 200 different fish caught in this fishery, 95 of which are considered economically valuable. Commercially legal linefish are caught from commercial ski-boats and sometimes larger deck-boats. It is a fairly selective method with little bycatch, as fishers use varying hook sizes and bait types. The fish caught are also of very good quality as they are individually handled. The biggest problem associated with linefishing is that many of our linefish cannot sustain heavy fishing pressure, the illegal sale of these species by recreational has added further pressure on the stocks, some of which have now been fished to the point of collapse; many of these stocks are in urgent need of recovery. Longlines can be up to 100km long with as many as 20 000 baited hooks. Longlines may be set on the seabed Some popular linefish species (demersal), or near the surface (pelagic), depending on the target species. Species targeted include , sharks and swordfish, hake, and . The main issue with longlining is the bycatch of threatened seabirds, turtles, and and sharks that have vulnerable biologies. These bycatches may be reduced through preventative measures. Yellowtail (Seriola lalandi) In South Africa, longline fisheries are also making an effort to reduce their ecological impacts by flying bird- scaring lines and setting their hooks at night to reduce seabird bycatch as well as using circle hooks to reduce turtle bycatch.

Dusky cob (Argyrosomus japonicus)

Black musselcracker/Poenskop A drowned albatross caught on a longline (Cymatoceps nasutus)

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Is fish farming an alternative? One of the suggested solutions to overfishing and the increased pressure being placed on wild fish stocks is the farming of seafood species, known as aquaculture. Often referred to as the '', farming of fish and seafood products is promoted as a way to increase seafood supply when greater quantities of fish cannot be obtained from the ocean. Although South Africans are less familiar with aquaculture, it has become an increasingly important source of food around the world and currently almost 40% of all fish directly consumed by humans worldwide comes from aquaculture farms.

Aquaculture may be conducted either in land-based artificial tanks and in coastal areas or floating net cage enclosures at sea, usually in sheltered bays. Fish farming facts: ͻ To date most aquaculture has involved the Local consumers may not realise it, but there are farming of fish- specifically already many farmed seafood products in our retailer and . freezers, such as oysters, mussels, salmon and ͻ Marine aquaculture-particularly of salmon prawns. Most of the that is available and prawn/ has been a fairly recent fresh on our markets is farmed and imported from development but is growing rapidly. countries such as Norway, Canada and . ͻ Salmon farming originated in Norway in the Similarly, many of the prawns South Africans enjoy 1970's. are farmed in the east and imported from , ͻ Global production of farmed Atlantic salmon India, Thailand, Vietnam and . now constitutes 60% of fresh and frozen salmon sold on international markets. But the rapid onset of fish farming has not been ͻ Numerous other fin fish species are now without its own set of problems and environmental being farmed, many of them depleted concerns. Some aquaculture methods are better than through overfishing such as , others, for example the farming of mussels and Atlantic , and bluefin tuna. oysters (also practised in South Africa) is seen as a ͻ Some aquaculture practices supplement wild good environmental seafood choice, as these animals fish populations with hatchery fish. This is are filter feeders and need no nutritional input. On known as stock enhancement. the other hand, farming of carnivorous fin-fish such as salmon, especially under intensive conditions (not unlike cattle in a feedlot) can pose a number of problems. farming in Saldanha Bay

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What are some of the problems associated with aquaculture?

ͻ Farming fish does not necessarily mean that there are more fish left in the wild. Small fish caught in the wild are used to make fishmeal for the farmed fish, and it can take between 2-5 times more wild- caught fish to raise those harvested through aquaculture. The small fish used to make fishmeal and oil are critical food sources for wild marine predators, including many commercially valuable fish. ͻ Farmed fish regularly escape from farms and pens into the wild. Here they can compete for resources Is farmed fish safe to eat? with wild fish, and if the same species, may even Many questions have been raised about whether interbreed with wild ŝŶĚŝǀŝĚƵĂůƐ ĂŶĚ ƐŽ ͞weaken͟ farmed fish is safe to eat. Some media reports wild stocks. This can result in there eventually being suggest that some fish and farmed salmon contain ŶŽ͚ŐĞŶĞƚŝĐĂůůLJƉƵƌĞ͛ǁŝůĚƐƚŽĐŬƐůĞĨƚ͘ toxic substances. Studies have found that farmed ͻ Fish farmed intensively means that waste, salmon can have up to 16 times the levels of PCBs and hormones pollute the water and in them than wild salmon, and 3 times the levels in surrounding environment. other seafood. (PCBs stand for polychlorinated biphenyls and are a known cause of cancer) Diseases and parasites from farmed fish can be ͻ transferred to wild populations. Why do farmed Salmon contain more PCB's ͻ Conflicts over user and property rights can take than Wild Salmon? place in coastal and offshore areas. ͻ PCBs accumulate in the fishmeal that is fed to ͻ Significant amounts of fresh water are required. farmed salmon (as well as added toxins, ͻ Subsistence fishers of wild caught fish could antibiotics and hormones to control disease) potentially lose their livelihoods as fish farming ͻ Farmed salmon are "fatter": they are generally replaces wild catches. bigger in size, exercise less and therefore contain ͻ Fish farming can result in habitat loss for natural more fat than wild salmon. PCBs are stored in fat populations of wildlife. and remain there for an extended period of time. ͻ Wildlife conflicts can take place, especially efforts to reduce predators (i.e. shooting seabirds or marine Key Message: mammals that feed on penned fish). Don't give up farmed fish and salmon completely. ͻ Additives in seafood such as antibiotics, hormones Try to find alternative sources that are toxin free. and artificial colourants and dyes are harmful to Fish is good for you, so rather choose a variety of human health. fish, reduce your salmon intake to twice a month, ͻ Genetically engineered organisms. and include it in a healthy well-balanced diet.

However aquaculture will undoubtedly become Follow these extra guidelines: more and more important as an alternative source ͻ Trim the skin and visible fat as PCBs are stored in of seafood and could have many benefits such as: fat ͻ Cook lean - grill your fish ͻ Supplies a stable and consistent supply of seafood- ͻ Try canned salmon instead as almost all of them which can help to offset the decline in the capture are from wild salmon populations. of . ͻ Provides jobs in some coastal areas. Better yet, give our oceans a break and try a ͻ Responsible hatchery programmes can to sustainable wild-ĐĂƵŐŚƚĨŝƐŚƚŚĂƚ͛ƐŶĞǁƚŽLJŽƵ͊ Or improved numbers of wild populations. try omnivorous farmed fish like tilapia or .

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So, is there a better way? Prawn Aquaculture Retailers, restaurateurs and consumers need to Prawn or shrimp is the most popular type of consider that there are some production methods seafood in the world. Approximately 5 million tons that can have serious negative impacts on both the are consumed annually. One third of the shrimp environment and human health. Luckily, we eat is produced at farms instead of caught in developments are under way globally to develop best the wild, making prawn aquaculture one of the practice standards and guidelines for more fastest growing types of aquaculture. Most prawn responsible aquaculture production. One example is aquaculture occurs in China, followed by Thailand, an integrated system where fish, mussels, , India, Vietnam, Brazil, Ecuador and and other species are being grown close together to Bangladesh. The majority of farmed shrimp is recycle wastes. imported to the , the EU and . The growth has generated substantial income for developing and developed countries- particularly The Aquaculture in , Central America and east Africa, but has Dialogues also raised concerns about how shrimp farming affects the environment and society. However, developments are under way for implementing WWF has initiated a number of minimum standards for responsible shrimp farming working groups referred to as which will reduce the key environmental and social ͚ĚŝĂůŽŐƵĞƐ͛ ǁŚŽ Ăŝŵ ƚŽ ĚĞǀĞůŽƉ impacts (e.g. WWF Aquaculture dialogues). better practice standards for aquaculture. The dialogues draw from producers, buyers, non- WƌĂǁŶĂƋƵĂĐƵůƚƵƌĞ͛ƐŵĂŝŶŝŵƉĂĐƚƐ͗ governmental organizations and other stakeholders. Once finalized, the standards will minimize the Farm design: ecologically sensitive habitats, such environmental and social impacts responsible for three as forests, can be cleared to create quarters of the problems caused by aquaculture. Since ponds for shrimp production. work started in 1999, the dialogues have identified 12 Water use/: salt water from shrimp species for review. To date discussions have focused on farms can seep into ground water and onto tilapia, salmon, molluscs, prawn/shrimp, and catfish. agricultural land, organic waste, harsh chemicals and antibiotics can pollute water, and aquifers can be drained to supply shrimp farms with fresh

water. Feed management: wild stocks of fish are depleted for use in formulated feeds for shrimp production. : genetic diversity and health of can be compromised due to inbreeding and disease. Escapes: escaped farmed shrimp can affect wild species by competing for food, transferring diseases and interbreeding with them. Socio-economic issues: jobs can be lost when there are fewer wild-caught to harvest or shrimp farms are forced to close. Communities are also socially affected as livelihoods are lost when local mangrove forests are cleared. are important habitats for many species of fish and shellfish, and their loss leaves coastal communities with reduced food security and potential for income generation and land seizures result in displacement of those communities. 14

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Shellfish Aquaculture Histamine levels in fish? Histamine fish poisoning is one of the third most Farmed shellfish frequently reported illnesses associated with the Shellfish like clams, oysters, and do not consumption of seafood. It occurs as a result of require artificial food after their captive larval period. improper preservation and inadequate Shellfish exploit naturally occurring refrigeration. Histamines develop in the muscles of and depend on the natural water filtration and food fish belonging to the Scrombroidae family, which supply that come from coastal . They often include mackerel and tuna, if the fish are not kept help keep the water clean by filtering sediment and cool after they have been harvested. , unwanted . A more indirect environmental pilchards, , dorado and yellowtail may also benefit of mollusc aquaculture is that because this be common culprits. type of farming depends on clean water, coastal communities that farm shellfish are often dedicated to protecting water quality. Worldwide, cultured Histamine poisoning can cause severe discomfort shellfish comprises nearly half of all shellfish but is mild in nature, rarely lasting for more than (excluding ) consumed. one day. Symptoms are sometimes mistaken for those of allergic reaction and includes skin flushing, headache (severe & throbbing), dizziness, Potential problems: dry mouth, nausea and vomiting, diarrhoea, ͻ Gene transfer to wild populations, introduced abdominal cramps, palpitations, respiratory species can often out-compete native ones using distress and chest tightness non-native species in shellfish farming operations

can spread diseases to native populations, in fish? sometimes with serious consequences. All fish contain some level of mercury and other ͻ Habitat interactions, modifications to ecological elements found in nature. Mercury gets into the community structures, harvesting techniques (e.g. ocean, and subsequently into fish, from natural dredging), production techniques (e.g. netting). gasses released from the Earth's crust, and also ͻ Pollution from loading of pathogens, use of from burning wastes, industrial pollution, and chemicals and other physical means to prevent and fossil fuels. Fish accumulate mercury in their control diseases and pests. tissues as water passes over their gills and from what they eat. The larger and older the fish, the higher the level of mercury. Because they are at the top of the food chain fish species such as tuna, swordfish and sharks tend to concentrate more of these elements. Pregnant women are advised not to eat fish that may potentially contain any traces of mercury, as mercury is known to cause birth defects in young children.

So which is better? Some species, such as prawns, may be fast growing and able to withstand heavy fishing pressure but the fishing or aquaculture techniques used to catch/farm them may be incredibly destructive for surrounding marine ecosystems. At the same time, some fishing methods may be highly selective and have relatively minor environmental impacts, such as linefishing, but their target species cannot sustain heavy fishing pressure. In order to make the most sustainable choice, it is important to understand not only how the fish itself lives but also the impact of the fishing method used to catch it.

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