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Atlantic States Marine Commission Management Series #16 Spring 2020

Aquaculture: Effects on Habitat Along the Atlantic Enhancing, preserving, and protecting Atlantic diadromous, estuarine, and Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission Habitat Management Series #16 Spring 2020

Aquaculture: Effects on Fish Habitat Along the Atlantic Coast

prepared by the Habitat Committee

Approved by the ISFMP Policy Board October 31, 2019

A report of the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission pursuant to U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Grant No. F19AF00174 Cover Photo Credit: Jay Rutkowski, Atlantic Capes Fisheries Aquaculture Impacts s. Top: Drone footage of rack and bag grow-out structures footage Drone of rack Top: Photo New Jersey. May, Cape at Bay Ridge , Bay Ridge Ned Gaine, Oystercredit: Company. FVCenter: Cage-cultured aboard being processed Jay Rutkowski, credit: NJ. Photo Bay, Delaware Bay, Stormy Fisheries. Capes Atlantic Photo as the recedes. racks ExposedBottom: oyster Fisherie Capes Atlantic Jay Rutkowski, credit: 2 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 9 1 1 1 2 2 16 16 10 13 14 11 ...... ������������������������������������������������ ��������������������������������������������������� �������������������������������������������������������� ��������������������������������������������������������� ��������������������������������������������������������������������� ������������������������������������������������������������������������ ������������������������������������������������������������������������� ����������������������������������������������������������������������������� ������������������������������������������������������������������������������ �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ ......

...... Culture Seaweed Aquaculture Multi-trophic Integrated and Nurseries and Raceways Upwellers Systems Recirculation Bivalve Culture Bivalve Non-structured/Bottom Planting FLUPSYs nets and bag/predator Bags/rack screens Cages/bottom Suspension culture Farming Fish References Cited References Resources for BMPs for Resources Guidance Policy Leasing Information Permitting and Specific State State by Practices Current Minimizing Conflicts Use Habitats Protecting Land-Based Mariculture Tidal Mariculture Water Tidal Sediment and Communities Populations Water Quality Water

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS on various manuscript drafts and layouts; and Lisa Hartman, Toni Kerns, and Kerns, Toni and Lisa Hartman,on various manuscript drafts and layouts; final edits and layout. ASMFC for from Berger Tina The Habitat Committee would like to thank Russ Babb (New Jersey Marine like to would Committee Habitat The (Maryland DepartmentTopolski of and Marek Administration) Fisheries Brust and Anna Colleen this document; coordinating for Resources) Natural their work for Administration the New Jersey Marine Fisheries from Belardo Conclusions Siting Considerations Common Practices Common Why Aquaculture? Why Effects on Habitat Table of Contents Table habitats. It habitats. should serve and facilitate the topic to as an introduction planning and intersectiona discussion of the of aquaculture conservation.habitat This issue of the Habitat Management Series provides a broad a broad Management Series Habitat issue of the This provides (mariculture) marine aquaculture and common description of current effects on fish and some potential seaboard practices along the Atlantic

along the Atlantic Coast the Atlantic along Aquaculture: Effects on Fish Habitat on Fish Effects Aquaculture: Aquaculture Impacts - 1 - - 1 Top: seed are grown in nurseries before theynurseries before in grown Shellfish seed are Top: leases for further aquaculture to growout. moved are Department and credit: Photo of Services.Consumer Andrew credit: Photo cages. oyster Center: Floating Commission. Marine Resources Virginia Button, gear type a common bags are Floating Bottom: in Florida. column in the water oysters for growing Department Florida and credit: Photo of Agriculture Services.Consumer

WATER QUALITY WATER environmentally responsible (Fitridge et al. 2012). et al. (Fitridge responsible environmentally waste, temporarily deplete levels as fouling organisms organisms as fouling levels oxygen deplete temporarily waste, is a There used. were if antifoulants and release decay, practical and are that strategies antifouling innovative need for fouling, and exposed structures to accumulation of bird waste. waste. of bird accumulation structures to and exposed fouling, (Burridge et al. water can contaminate treatments Antifoulant bird from increase may removal 2010) and physical stronger currents reduces this risk (Gentry 2016). reduces et al. currents stronger is subject in open and intertidal to deployed Equipment loading in overcrowded, overfed, and poor circulation poor circulation and overfed, nutrient loading in overcrowded, and in deeper waters 2015); placement et al. (Price conditions water quality through filtration and (Rose et al. 2015, Cerco Cerco 2015, (Rose et al. grazing and filtration quality through water in bloom intensity and Noel 2007) and can control can cause and culture 2014). Fish (Gallardi waters shallow and suspended solids. On a global scale, marine and brackish On a global scale, water and suspended solids. cause a net reduction (Verdegem in nutrients 2013). aquaculture improve and bivalves , reduce and bivalves Seaweed The production with and shrimp of finfish is The associated often and bivalve macroalgae quality; water impairment to however, of nutrients the removal quality through water improve may culture Effects on Habitats fulfill that need. In this publication, aquaculture and mariculture are are and mariculture aquaculture publication, need. In this fulfill that used interchangeably. population growth means an ever-increasing need for that that food need for means an ever-increasing growth population can help shifting mariculture not be sustainable by wild stocks; may and 1.2 million jobs in 2015 (NOAA 2019b). This This creates 2019b). and 1.2 million jobs in 2015 (NOAA secondary supports and promotes industryjobs, communities, 2019a). 2017, NOAA (Slater trade as international as well however, significant opportunity industry significant for aquaculture growth however, industry and mariculture US aquaculture The 2019a). (NOAA exists 627 million pounds of meat $1.4 billion and produced at valued was growing sector in -based food production (NMFS 2017, FAO production (NMFS 2017, FAO sector in animal-based food growing on is lagging States production in the United current The 2018). production; U.S. only 20% to contributing stage, the world sustainable component of seafood production. Half of world production. Half of world of seafood sustainable component in 2016, and it is the fastest- aquaculture from sourced was seafood Why Aquaculture? Why vital and is a potentially or mariculture, Marine aquaculture, along the Atlantic Coast the Atlantic along Aquaculture: Effects on Fish Habitat on Fish Effects Aquaculture: - 2 - - 2 Aquaculture Impacts below for for below Bivalve Culture Bivalve Crew of the FV Stormy Bay tending of the FV Stormy Crew Bay, in Delaware cage subtidal oyster Atlantic Jay Rutkowski, credit: NJ. Photo Fisheries. Capes POPULATIONS AND COMMUNITIES AND POPULATIONS SEDIMENT and ), (shrimp), and fish (). As of 2016, and oysters were the largest the largest were oysters salmon and Atlantic As of 2016, (shrimp), and fish (salmon). and mussels), crustaceans along with their known environmental practices in this region, of this market (NMFS 2017). Common components Common PracticesCommon , , (oysters, bivalves and macroalgae), includes ( Seaboard along the Atlantic Mariculture , and research into the effect of shellfish aquaculture on horseshoe crabs and red knots is ongoing. Biocides, used red Biocides, crabs and on horseshoe is ongoing. knots of shellfish aquaculture the effect into and research crabs, varieties can and the can impact organisms non-target treatments, in antifoulant deter to 2012). et al. (Guardiola resistance antibiotic to risk of parasite and transmission if protocols are not established and enforced (see not established and enforced are if protocols transmission and pathogen risk of parasite their feeding fauna from resident or deter and bags can exclude racks, cages, like pens, Structures initiatives). current horseshoe by on eggs deposited rely bird, knots, a threatened red Bay, In Delaware the routes. or migration grounds There are other potentially negative biological effects from aquaculture. Disease transmission is a concern for fish, and concern a is Disease transmission aquaculture. effects from biological negative other potentially are There the may increase states between transfer Shellfish seed with wild . and interbreed escapees can outcompete ecologically and commercially important (Costa-Pierce and Bridger 2002, D’Amours et al. 2008, Forrest et 2008, Forrest et al. and Bridger 2002, D’Amours important and commercially species (Costa-Pierce ecologically and recreational for valued highly to gear are of the structure-associatedattracted 2009). Many are al. fish that . commercial These communities provide a nursery habitat and food source to higher trophic levels, including fish. This “ “reef This including fish. levels, higher trophic to a nursery source provide and food communities habitat These and during in and local the production phase. Oyster increase result in a localized may effect” including , and benthic macroinvertebrates of large populations enhance can temporarily mariculture microbes, algae, , hydroids, worms, molluscs, arthropods, and . Even the themselves can the animals themselves Even arthropods, and tunicates. molluscs, worms, hydroids, sponges, algae, microbes, other bivalves. and oysters cultured on and around spaces the interstitial into move when colonists habitat create aggregates around structures, including aquaculture gear. Bivalve aquaculture gear can provide gear can provide aquaculture Bivalve gear. aquaculture including structures, around aggregates Marine life and include diverse are organisms . non-vegetated than a shallow, habitat better substantially structure can impact populations and communities. However, they can also attract structure-oriented species and However, structure can impact and communities. populations on an otherwise biomass and biodiversity increase Gentry minimally structured bottom. (2019) reviewed et al. benefits. these to evaluate method a quantitative and provided benefits of mariculture In the marine environment, changes to the , , flow, and the introduction of physical barriers/ of physical and the introduction flow, benthos, column, the water to changes In the marine environment, deposition from biodeposits can alter benthic structure. However, accumulation is less likely with adequate flow and flow likely with adequate is less accumulation However, structure. benthic biodeposits can alter deposition from that suggested have on the benthos culture bivalve the effects of elevated into investigations Recent good husbandry. 2009). et al. (Forrest of aquaculture forms other with many comparison minor by and impacts localized are An accumulation of nutrients, wastes, or excess feed can deplete oxygen and impair sediment conditions. Sediment conditions. and impair sediment oxygen can deplete feed or excess wastes, of nutrients, accumulation An Aquaculture Impacts - 3 - - 3 (Dermo) in native stocks stocks (Dermo) in native Perkinsus spat, can be obtained by laying cultch (typically broken oyster shell) or setting spat shell) or setting spat oyster (typically cultch broken laying can be obtained by spat,

TIDAL WATER MARICULTURE WATER TIDAL and reduce risk of spreading shellfish diseases through transfers. The effort hatcheryincludes a certification protocol transfers. shellfish diseases through risk of spreading and reduce commerce. interstate biosecure and disease surveillance which facilitates (BMPs) outlining Best Management Practices Control Points (HAACCP) standard operating procedure, should be rigorous enough to reduce the risk of introduction reduce enough to should be rigorous procedure, operating standard (HAACCP) Points Control industry in a timely manner. the aquaculture species but also practical navigate enough for to or invasive of regulatory effort compliance is underway and Gulf Shellfish Seed to increase Collaborative Atlantic An parasites. To reduce this risk, shellfish growers should be familiar with regulations prior to importing prior regulations other should be familiar with seed from this risk,growers reduce shellfish To parasites. so the associated necessary, importation efforts increasingly expand, become aquaculture As may or regions. states and Critical Analysis such as the Hazard Importation managers. by and minimized risks protocols, must be understood to import seed stock from out-of-state. Many states have developed specific regulations governing the interstate the interstate governing regulations specific developed have states importto out-of-state. Many from seed stock of diseases and introduction or spread the prevent to transport including shellfish seed, of shellfish products, Importing seed from other states or other countries may be necessary if local sources are insufficient. Improperly insufficient. Improperly be necessaryImporting are may or other countries if local sources other states seed from species. non-native and potentially parasites, managed seed importation disease, pose a risk of introducing may requests in increases seeing significant are and those states in some areas, strained capacity is already (Ben-Horin et al. 2018). While only hard and soft shell clams and oysters are currently grown commercially, there is there commercially, grown currently are and soft only hard shell clams and oysters While 2018). (Ben-Horin et al. and surf urchins, clams. clams, razor scallops, and growing sourcing into ongoing research where it is done on a large scale. Seed and spat may be grown without any gear to house them (i.e. directly on shelled house them (i.e. gear to without any be grown Seed may and spat scale. it is done on a large where timely The and harvest. maintenance and facilitate organisms the growing protect or in bags or cages to bottom), of the pathogen rates reduce to has been shown harvest oysters of cultured than transplanting native set. native than transplanting states, producing in most oyster is an importantShell planting programs management stock part oyster of natural oysters and clams sourced from hatcheries and nurseries are called seed. In areas with a healthy spawning population, population, spawning In with a healthy areas called seed. and nurseries are hatcheries from and clams sourced oysters called newly settled oysters, commonplace more seed is now hatchery-produced clams and oysters, For occurs. spawning collectors just before Bivalve Culture Bivalve Juvenile market size. to grow-out facilitate that areas to stock immature moving typically involves aquaculture Bivalve Coastal waters are used for growing shellfish, finfish, and algae. A variety of equipment, locations, and techniques are techniques and A variety locations, equipment, of and algae. shellfish, finfish, growing used for are waters Coastal and high-quality growth product. maximize used to effects, are described below. The most common aquaculture practices in each of the ASMFC states are shown in Table in shown are practices in each of the ASMFC states common aquaculture The most described below. are effects, itself. and the site of the operation, size the method and species, depend on the culture 1. Effects Management Practices often exist to prevent genetic and disease impacts to local shellfish stocks in the receiving state. state. receiving in the shellfish stocks and disease impacts genetic local to prevent often exist to Management Practices Department Services. Florida and Consumer credits: Photo of Agriculture Hatcheries in numerous states produce shellfish seed. If seed is imported from one state to another, health and genetic testing and testing Best health and genetic If seed is imported shellfish seed. to another, one state produce states from in numerous Hatcheries - 4 - - 4 Aquaculture Impacts Oystermen in Beaufort County, South Carolina distribute live oysters in oysters live Oystermen distribute South in Beaufort Carolina County, at another site. growth reef oyster plant them and encourage to order replant the harvesters shellfish to commercial requires South Carolina reefs oyster the state’s which they harvest keep to from in order grounds Department South credit: Carolina Photo Resources. of Natural healthy. remove waste. Maintenance of bags requires removal of fouling to ensure ensure to fouling of removal of bags requires Maintenance waste. remove air drying, and washing, power scraping, by scrubbing, typically good flow, sub-tidal zones, where naturally circulating tidal waters provide food and food provide tidal waters circulating naturally where sub-tidal zones, sub-adults prior to grow-out. There are concerns that waste can accumulate can accumulate waste that concerns are There sub-adults grow-out. prior to are areas often flow low However, if flushing is not adequate. under the FLUPSY desired provide pumps to the use of electric-powered by or overcome avoided growers. by flow current Bags/rack-and-bag/predator nets shellfish culture, intensive considered intertidal are Options for aquaculture column or in the water in cages or bags set on the bottom; grown which are or to a stake, attached System), Lentz (often a float called a suspended from of these Rack-and-bag is the most common (“rack-and-bag”). laid on racks in the intertidal set on racks or shallow Bags or cages are oysters. for systems compartments that tidal water circulates through from bottom to top, top, to bottom from through circulates compartments tidal water that often tied to are FLUPSYs waste. and algae and removing oxygen providing , making from slips, docks or boat them accessible existing or built into footprints (such as total some permitting concerns alleviating and potentially typically seed to used post-hatchery are raise to FLUPSYs etc.). of shading, Rack and bag oyster culture. Photo credit: Photo culture. and bag oyster Rack Fisheries. Capes Atlantic Jay Rutkowski, Floating upweller systems (FLUPSYs) are a popular way to grow clams and oysters from small seed until they are they are seed until small from oysters clams and grow to a popular way are (FLUPSYs) systems upweller Floating mesh-bottomed is housed in suspended, 2002). Stock (Rivara et al. grow-out in gear for be deployed enough to large (Forrest et al. 2009). et al. (Forrest FLUPSYs been shown to promote biodiversity by attracting by biodiversity promote to been shown and fish feeders, bottom settling invertebrates, harvesting require the grower to dredge, pick, or tong dredge, to the grower harvesting require is typically used to screening Predator the product. have oysters Planted of clams. stocks younger cover but not already occupied naturally by oysters or oysters by naturally occupied but not already of gear the amount reduces planting Bottom clams. and (relay) stock but moving required, maintenance without containment (extensive shellfish culture), shellfish culture), (extensive without containment in areas called non-structured or bottom-planting, growth, to and conducive boat by accessible are that Non-structured/Bottom Planting the bottom across Seed can be spread or spat to encourage the development of regional scale tools scale tools of regional the development encourage to and region, Mid-Atlantic North region, Atlantic (e.g., region). South Atlantic Habitat managers along with agencies charged with with charged managers along with agencies Habitat cooperatively should work development aquaculture - 5 - - 5 Aquaculture Impacts Commercial aquaculture bottom gear (cages) used for culturing oysters gear (cages) bottom aquaculture Commercial Department South credit: Carolina Photo in South Carolina. of Natural Resources. above, can have significant effects on water qualityeffects and sediment, and on significant fish farming can have above, Effects on Habitats significantly reduced by the use of and integrated pest management, and the minimal to non-existent use and the minimal pest management, and integrated vaccines by the use of reduced significantly Washington state when a heavily-fouled pen collapsed. collapsed. pen when a heavily-fouled state Washington been quality impairments have Water in Maine the 1970s. in open-net pens since been grown salmon have Atlantic 2015). Appropriate stock densities, feeding, and care reduce the risk of release of nutrients, , , and pesticides, antibiotics, of nutrients, the risk of release reduce and care feeding, densities, stock 2015). Appropriate to is essential of fouling, including removal used). Regular maintenance, (though not commonly enhancers growth in the San Juan of released salmon were of thousands of non-native In 2016, hundreds structural failure. avoid Informed siting, good husbandry, and regular maintenance are critical to mitigating effects. Siting in deep, well- Siting in deep, effects. mitigating critical to are maintenance and regular good husbandry, Informed siting, et al. (Price quality composition and sediment impair water that of wastes the accumulation reduces water mixed Escaped fish can breed with wild fish and possibly alter genetic fitness or compete with native fish for resources. resources. for fish native with compete genetic fitness or wild fish and possibly alter with Escaped fish can breed wild to which can then be transferred of disease, transmission for the chance High densities increase population versa. or vice populations As described in As 1995). et al. (Findlay properly not sited if they are local habits and can alter aquaculture net-pen Open-net pens or cages are used to grow fish in coastal waters. Currents flow through the system removing waste and waste removing system the through flow Currents waters. coastal fish in grow used to Open-net pens or cages are must be provided. Feed water. oxygenated providing hatchery-reared seed or through natural set, depending upon location. depending upon location. set, natural seed or through hatchery-reared Farming Fish Suspension culture and trays, column) mussels (vertical for the water lines within culture include systems culture Suspended bivalve surface the which hang below can be started nets, Mussel and shift or lantern line culture with the tide. with bags, Cages become habitat for a variety of species, including juvenile and adult fish (Costa-Pierce and Bridger 2002). The and Bridger 2002). (Costa-Pierce and adult fish including juvenile a variety of species, for habitat become Cages 2019c). using these cages (NOAA fish are reef is studying how Northeast Center Science Fisheries soft-bottom habitat by replacing it with structured it with replacing by habitat soft-bottom production and biodiversity. increase may that bottom Cages/bottom screens Cages/bottom directly on the bottom, be deployed Oyster cages may enhance practice may This typically in sub-tidal areas. are often secured with stakes and connected with lines often secured are harvest facilitate and husbandry. to harvested from bags by taking bag and bags by harvested the entire from sub-market while marketable oysters oysters removing Bags laid directly on the substrate bags. to returned are Commercial producers sometimes use predator use predator sometimes clam producers Commercial under the stakes by attached usually which are nets, easily and clams are oysters Market-sized substrate. salt dips. As the oysters grow, they are sorted are they and grow, the oysters As salt dips. mesh. and larger space with more gear into moved - 6 - - 6 Aquaculture Impacts LAND-BASED MARICULTURE LAND-BASED species, like shrimp, most finfish, and bivalves, can be grown entirely on land. on land. entirely grown can be most finfish, and bivalves, like shrimp, species, access for shore close to usually sited facilities are Land-based mariculture can be used with the addition wells from water (though fresh to While state waters are used for grow-out of most marine species, there is a there of most marine species, grow-out used for are waters state While environment. controlled a more provide that land-based systems need for though some typically and nurseries, hatcheries include systems These and eutrophication. A review by Kim et al. (2017) found that seaweed seaweed that (2017) found Kim by et al. A review and eutrophication. of conditions services improve ecosystem that provides aquaculture need further these benefits and that public study and better waters, coastal of the opportunities awareness of this industry. (IMTA) Multitrophic Aquaculture Integrated to Similar worldwide. and is being studied is a new field of mariculture IMTA multiple is the practice of growing IMTA agriculture, in terrestrial ecosystem provide effects, environmental reduce to species together nutrient inputs is that The theory behind IMTA profit. services, and improve removal The growth. plant serveswaste to promote as the fish limited are Seaweed Culture largest and the world’s source, a highly nutritious food are These on longlines in open waters. grown readily are They . mariculture oxygen. and release and nutrients carbon dioxide remove , acidification, mitigate to has the potential culture Seaweed of nutrients by algae and particulates by bivalves provides cleaner water cleaner water provides algae and particulates bivalves by of nutrients by of Maine the University Scientists at the other species in the system. for which can be sold as bait, , the use of benthic researching are impacts of Maine salmon open-net pens (University 2019). from reduce to is the systems IMTA for potential the greatest the marine environment, For can limit user conflictsThis while species. more grow to reduction of space benefits. and economic still yielding environmental oysters and live rock. Photo credit: Florida credit: rock. Photo and live oysters Department and Consumer of Agriculture Services. Photo credit: Andrew Button, Virginia Marine Virginia Andrew Button, credit: Photo leases in Aquaculture Commission. Resources used for the production of clams, are Florida Top to bottom: Loading spat on shell onto Loading bottom: to Top ground. for planting on private a barge predator nets have diminished entanglement risk to near-zero for and marine mammals. sharks and marine mammals. for near-zero riskto diminished entanglement nets have predator and subject them to adverse actions (i.e. lethal control measures) by net pen operators. Regular gear maintenance Regular gear maintenance net pen operators. by measures) actions lethal control and subject adverse (i.e. them to production responsible and of The implementation and dock use. traffic boat in increased result tending and stock (taut) weighted the use of properly example, For of these concerns. many husbandry can mitigate practices as BMPs Other effects are more difficult to address. Feed is typically wild-caught coastal . can attract Farms can and forage fish. Feed is typically wild-caught coastal to address. difficult Other more are effects behavior predator alter pens thereby The and marine mammals. sharks, such as cormorants, predators entangle this industry (Price et al. 2015). In 2016, Maine-raised salmon were upgraded from “avoid” to “good alternative” by the by alternative” “good to “avoid” 2015). Inthis industry from 2016, Maine-raised et al. upgraded (Price salmon were whether it supports to a healthy according seafood which rates Program, Watch Seafood Bay Monterey 2019). Watch (Seafood ocean of antibiotics and growth enhancers (Maine Seafood Guide – Salmon 2019). Improvements in feed efficiency, escape efficiency, in feed Guide – Salmon (Maine 2019). Improvements Seafood enhancers and growth of antibiotics seen in been have and nutrient enrichment oxygen, , on dissolved 2014), and effects (Rust et al. prevention - 7 - - 7 Aquaculture Impacts Sometimes untreated water is discharged with leftover with leftover is discharged water Sometimes untreated bodies which can water nearby to nutrients and sediments nutrients can reduce BMPs the risk of eutrophication. increase release. accidental and in effluent When they reach adult size, they may be kept for , broodstock, be kept for they may adult size, reach they When to or sold fishing, for ecosystems in aquatic released consumers. Recirculation Systems Recirculation in types of systems flow-through similar to are systems These to released waters. is not effluent that surface except effects water both reducing thereby recirculated, and is filtered Water release. usage and the likelihood of effluent Ponds and macroalgae, finfish, shrimp, grow used to are Ponds in a controlled, placed are Broodstock among other species. or constructed such as a natural closed environment age by larvaeThe can be separated and juveniles . to growth. for optimal ponds in different and placed or size Transferring fish from an in-tank grader to a small grader. to a small grader. an in-tank grader fish from Transferring University of North Carolina Watanabe, Wade Dr. credit: Photo at Wilmington. appropriate BMPs are not implemented for health requirements and the containment of nonnative species, there is a there species, nonnative of and the containment health requirements for not implemented are BMPs appropriate the environment. into species and disease being released possibility of nonnative These systems pass seawater through a series of tanks to then be released into surface waters. Upwellers, common common Upwellers, surface into then be released a series waters. tanks to of through pass seawater systems These between be moved may Stock of tanks. rows horizontal are Raceways top. to bottom from water circulate bivalves, for If waters. receiving affect nutrients and solids that can contain Wastewater space. growing more for raceways early life stages of fish and shellfish. stages of fish early life and Raceways Upwellers Hatcheries andHatcheries Nurseries focused on specifically Nurseries are of various species. juveniles and produce stock brood house spawning Hatcheries for and nurseries as feed in hatcheries Microalgae is cultured tidal waters. in deployment prior to further of bivalves growth organic matter, and suspended solids (Boyd and McNevin 2014). Less common effluents include dissolved salts, toxic salts, include dissolved effluents common and McNevin 2014). Less and suspended solids (Boyd matter, organic disease-control and pesticides, compounds.substances, Environmental effects vary widely with the species being cultivated, the location, and the size and type of facility. and and the size type of facility. vary the location, effects with the species being cultivated, widely Environmental Organisms lower on the , effluents in aquaculture found Pollutants waste. less produce and bivalves, like algae such as nutrients, plants, treatment wastewater municipal and agriculture from in effluents those found similar to are require additional permitting. Some states do not require permits for bivalves with the understanding that water water understanding that with the bivalves permits for do not require Some states permitting. additional require by shellfish). and filtration clearance due to (e.g., be improved even and may quality is not degraded of salts), and produce effluent that may be discharged, accidentally or intentionally, to nearby surface waters. Fish surface nearby to waters. intentionally, or accidentally be discharged, may that effluent of salts), and produce some states (NPDES), and System Elimination Discharge Pollutant National by the regulated hatcherymay be effluent - 8 - - 8 Aquaculture Impacts Floating oyster mariculture gear in South Carolina. Photo gear in South mariculture Carolina. oyster Floating Department Southcredit: Carolina Resources. of Natural PROTECTING HABITATS PROTECTING MINIMIZING USE CONFLICTS USE MINIMIZING aquaculture can improve conditions for SAV by reducing turbidity (Dumbauld et al. 2009), adding to the to turbidity 2009), adding nitrogen reducing (Dumbauld et al. by SAV for conditions can improve aquaculture of North the University 2019). Scientists at com. (Normant pers. currents from new growth and sheltering benthos, (Blackburngrowth 2015). affects SAV aquaculture studying how are Carolina Leases should not be sited on existing or historic SAV locations, since the equipment used can cause shading and the equipment since locations, SAV or historic on existing should not be sited Leases federally for habitat is essential that “underwater neighborhood” as an SAV identifies NOAA sedimentation. increased 2009), and in certain (Vaudrey et al. circumstances, not all gear damages SAV being said, that With managed species. , and submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV), for example, are valuable microhabitats that are sensitive to to sensitive are that microhabitats valuable are example, (SAV), for vegetation aquatic and submerged mangroves, and disturbance. nutrient fluxes An understanding of the existing resources and siting of potential aquaculture areas is critical to mitigating impacts mitigating is critical to areas aquaculture and siting of potential resources understanding of the existing An , avoided. and should be identified areas aquaculture in prospective microhabitats Sensitive fish habitats. to habitats, particularly those provided by bivalve culture. particularly bivalve by habitats, those provided In some areas, misconceptions exist about impacts exist of misconceptions In some areas, While conflict which can lead to with stakeholders. of farmed seafood, and the safety habitats on coastal aquaculture on benefits of aquaculture of the potential aware public is less the general effects, negative known potential are there knowledge of how potential aquaculture areas are and will be are areas aquaculture knowledge potential of how siting. used is critical to such as boaters, fishers, and landowners in the coastal zone. zone. coastal in the and landowners fishers, such as boaters, resolution among users conflict not compatible, If uses are conflict free, will be entirely very areas While few is required. Like any other form of agriculture, marine aquaculture requires requires marine aquaculture of agriculture, other form Like any with other user groups estate real for it must compete so space, and proposed uses, sensitive species and habitats, and carrying species and habitats, sensitive uses, and proposed must be considered. capacity of the environment for public involvement and consideration of social benefits. This of social benefits. and consideration public involvement for such as offshore locations, novel should include considering existing aquaculture, for areas develop states As wind farms. might affect it is a critical step in reducing conflicts. The conflicts. reducing in it is a critical affect step might allows early in the process of a siting strategy implementation industry. In most important fact, siting is usually the industry. proper environment the existing Understanding aspect of planning. particular species and how methods and culture aquaculture Thoughtful spatial planning before aquaculture facilities are facilities are aquaculture planning before spatial Thoughtful impacts, environmental of the potential many can mitigate sited of the and amplifying the benefits results unwanted reducing Siting Considerations - 9 - - 9 Aquaculture Impacts e e Ridg ay arin M ey. Photo credit: Ned Gaine, B Ned Gaine, credit: Photo ey. it: Andrew Button, Virginia it: Andrew Button, s cred w Jer Ne g on private ground. Photo ground. g on private in e Oyster Farm, Cape May, Cape e Oyster Farm, nt Ridg oo much aquaculture activity in a specific location will create activity. Too much aquaculture will create in a specific location hell onto a barge for pla a barge hell onto s n t o grow-out structures at Bay This depends on the type of aquaculture, species in culture, and site-specific conditions. Fish and site-specific conditions. species in culture, depends on the type. This of aquaculture, PACITY A C RRYING ffect of aquaculture on horseshoe crabs and red and on horseshoe crabs knots. ffect of aquaculture CA Another important consideration for siting is carrying capacity, or how much aquaculture a given area can sustain area a given much aquaculture or how siting is carrying importantAnother for consideration capacity, or social impacts environmental without adverse As the mariculture sector continues to grow in both volume and product diversity, it is likely to generate potential to grow in both volume and product diversity, it is likely to generate As the mariculture sector continues or net pens or critical habitats; for example, placement of long lines disturbances or threats to other important federal and state, with local, Consultations seaboard. along the eastern critical right habitats in designated new or expanding that and extent permitting selection understanding the nature agencies during critical site to are will impacttechnologies important habitats. and support activities public perception of aquaculture and erode in certain and use limitations other access areas. early in the Determining optimal densities and spacing is an important and should be considered aspect of BMPs lease siting process including nutrient aquaculture effects than bivalve environmental significant with more is associated aquaculture sometimes the to 2014), and rarely 2004, Rust et al. depletion (Pillay oxygen turbidity, lipids, sedimentation, loading, and poor husbandry the risk of disease increase Overcrowding enhancers. and growth pesticides, use of antibiotics, and escape. transmission Left: Drone footage of rack and bag and Drone footage of rack Left: In the Delaware Bay there is concern about aquaculture activities interfering with foraging of red knots, a threatened knots, a threatened of red activities aquaculture about interfering is concern with foraging there Bay In the Delaware looking under way the at projects are A number of research horseshoe crabs. by on eggs deposited relies species that e Oyster Company. Right: Loading spa Right: Loading Oyster Company. Commission. Resources Aquaculture Impacts - 10 - - 10 Phot credit: NJ Marine Fisheries Administration NJ Marine Fisheries credit: Phot Water cannons are used to place clean clam shell (cultch) onto bay bottom. Plantings are done in unison with the wild oyster spawning done in unison with the wild oyster are Plantings bay bottom. onto shell (cultch) clean clam place used to are cannons Water Administration New Jersey Marine Fisheries credit: (spat). Photo setting oysters recruit to in order particularly in near-shore communities that may be most at risk of the economic effects of and effects of climate risk be most at of the economic particularly may that communities in near-shore declines in . can mitigate problems like accumulation of food and wastes, disease transmission, water quality and impairment, water disease transmission, and wastes, of food like accumulation problems can mitigate the carrying practices is still in early into stages and mariculture Research escape. capacity environments of various benefits, far-reaching of support. in need a critical area can have and remains Supporting in aquaculture research The most critical way for habitat managers to avoid direct impacts to marine habitat is through the leasing and site direct the leasing and site impacts marine is through habitat to avoid managers to habitat for most critical way The of BMPs Site-specificcoupled with the establishment selection species and habitats, process. of sensitive knowledge Oysters specifically provide ecosystem services by removing excess carbon, reducing acidification, and improving and improving reducing acidification, carbon, excess servicesremoving by ecosystem Oysters specifically provide moderate to their potential clarity demonstrated resiliency has even and coastal water (Gentry 2019). Research et al. populations. disease in wild oyster Filter-feeding bivalves have been shown to abate eutrophication and algal blooms, enhance the growth of SAV, and of SAV, the growth enhance and algal blooms, eutrophication abate to been shown have bivalves Filter-feeding important and economically of ecologically fish. populations communities and macroinvertebrate benefit benthic community dynamics and trophic structure. These impacts, however, are species specific, with bivalve shellfish with bivalve species specific, are impacts, however, These structure. community dynamics and trophic of ecosystem with a suite balanced 2003), et al. (Crawford effects detrimental minimal demonstrating aquaculture benefits. of marine species along the Atlantic Seaboard. Inappropriately sited structures can obstruct migration as well as structures as well can obstruct sited Inappropriately migration Seaboard. of marine species along the Atlantic quality local water alter and can impair Improperly managed effluents species. sensitive for habitat available reduce Conclusions the culture from impacts result may that and negative positive potential outlined a number of the document This Aquaculture Impacts - 11 - - 11 s sp.) , sugar ) Vannamei Vannamei Gracilaria , bay quahog, Softshell clam, oyster, blue mussel Offshore: ( Inshore: seaweeds shrimp ( white Pacific Oysters Oysters species of fish and invertebrates Numerous clams and oysters Hard clams and oysters Hard species of fish and invertebrates Numerous species of fish and invertebrate Numerous clams Hard clams Hard Oysters clams and razor soft shell clams, clams, Hard Oysters Blue mussel blue mussel clams, hard clams, razor sea scallops, Oysters, Sea vegetables salmon Atlantic yellowtail salmon, , Atlantic yellowtail salmon, eel, Atlantic yellowtail salmon, eel, Atlantic Soft shell clams and oysters Oysters and striped bass Oysters Hard clams and oysters clams Hard Oysters and oysters clams Hard Oysters Kelp Shellfish hatchery Oysters Oysters Oysters Clams clams and oysters Hard clams and oysters Hard Seaweed culture Seaweed systems Recirculation Recirculation systems Recirculation Ponds planting Non-structured/bottom FLUPSYs nets and bag/predator Bags/rack Ponds planting Non-structured/bottom nets and bag/predator Bags/rack screens Cages/bottom Suspension culture Ponds planting Non-structured/bottom nets and bag/predator Bags/rack and nurseries Hatcheries planting Non-structured/bottom FLUPSYs nets and bag/predator Bags/rack Suspension culture culture Seaweed Open net pens and cages and nurseries Hatcheries Non-structured/bottom planting Non-structured/bottom nets and bag/predator Bags/rack screens Cages/bottom planting Non-structured/bottom FLUPSYs nets and bag/predator Bags/rack screens Cages/bottom Suspension culture IMTA and nurseries Hatcheries and raceways Upwellers systems Recirculation Non-structured/bottom planting Non-structured/bottom nets and bag/predator Bags/rack screens Cages/bottom Suspension culture culture Seaweed systems Flow-through MAINE FLORIDA GEORGIA DELAWARE MARYLAND CONNECTICUT MASSACHUSETTS Current MaricultureCurrent Practices State by - 12 - Aquaculture Impacts

Current Mariculture Practices by State

Non-structured/bottom planting Oysters FLUPSYs Oysters Bags/rack and bag/predator nets Oysters NEW HAMPSHIRE Cages/bottom screens Oysters, quahog Suspension culture Offshore: blue mussel, seaweeds (Gracilaria, sugar kelp) Seaweed culture Offshore: blue mussel, seaweeds (Gracilaria, sugar kelp)

Non-structured/bottom planting Hard clams and oysters FLUPSYs Hard clams and oysters NEW JERSEY Bags/rack and bag/predator nets Clams and oysters Cages/bottom screens Oysters Upwellers and raceways Hard clams and oysters

Non-structured/bottom planting Hard clams and oysters FLUPSYs Hard clams and oysters NEW YORK Cages/bottom screens Oysters Upwellers and raceways Hard clams and oysters

Non-structured/bottom planting Clams and oysters Bags/rack and bag/predator nets Clams and oysters Cages/bottom screens Oysters NORTH CAROLINA Upwellers and raceways Clams and oysters Recirculation systems Numerous species of fish and invertebrates Ponds Numerous species of fish and invertebrates

Non-structured/bottom planting Hard clams, soft shell clams, and oysters FLUPSYs Oysters Bags/rack and bag/predator nets Oysters RHODE Cages/bottom screens Oysters and scallops Suspension culture Kelp, mussels Upwellers and raceways Oysters

Non-structured/bottom planting Clams and oysters Bags/rack and bag/predator nets Clams SOUTH CAROLINA Cages/bottom screens Oysters Upwellers and raceways Clams and oysters

Non-structured/bottom planting Clams and oysters FLUPSYs Oysters Bags/rack and bag/predator nets Oysters VIRGINIA Cages/bottom screens Clams and oysters Hatcheries and nurseries Clams and oysters Upwellers and raceways Clams and oysters Recirculation systems Clams and oysters

*The methods listed are the same as the categories found on pages 7-12 of the document. For multiple methods in a category (e.g. upwellers and raceways), the state may be carrying out one, some, or all of the method methods listed. - 13 - Aquaculture Impacts

Resources for Best Management Practices

Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission. 2002. Guidance Relative to Development of Responsible Aquaculture Activities in Atlantic Coast States. http://www.asmfc.org/uploads/file/ sr76GuidanceRelativeToDevelopmentResponsibleAquaActNov02.pdf.

East Coast Shellfish Growers Association. 2018. Best Management Practices for the East Coast Shellfish Aquaculture Industry. https://ecsga.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/BMPmanual.pdf

Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services Aquaculture Best Management Practices Manual, Division of Aquaculture. 2016. Aquaculture Best Management Practices Manual, Incorporated into Rule 5L-3.004, F.A.C., FDACS-02034 Rev.11/2016. https://www.fdacs.gov/content/download/64045/file/BMP_Rule_and_Manual_FINAL.pdf

Hilborn, R., J. Banobi, S.J. Hall, T. Pucylowski and T.E. Walsworth. 2018. The environmental cost of animal source . Frontiers in and the Environment 16: 329-335.

Johnson, M.R., C. Boelke, L.A. Chiarella, P.D. Colosi, K. Greene, K. Lellis-Dibble, H. Ludemann, M. Ludwig, S. McDermott, J. Ortiz, D. Rusanowsky, M. Scott, and J. Smith. 2008. Impacts to Marine Fisheries Habitat from Nonfishing Activities in the Northeastern , Chapter 10, Introduced/Nuisances Species and Aquaculture in NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-NE-209. https://www.nefsc.noaa.gov/publications/tm/tm209/.

Massachusetts Shellfish Growers in Collaboration with the Southeastern Massachusetts Aquaculture Center. 2016. Best Management Practices for the Shellfish Culture Industry in Southeastern Massachusetts, Version 09-04a. Compiled and edited by: Dale F. Leavitt, SEMAC & Roger Williams University, Bristol, RI, 02809. https://www.mass. gov/files/documents/2016/08/xm/shellfish-bmp.pdf.

Northeast Regional Aquaculture Center. 2000. Aquaculture Effluents: A Guide for Water Quality Regulators and Aquaculturists. Connecticut Sea Grant. NRAC Publication No. 00-003. https://agrilifecdn.tamu.edu/fisheries/ files/2013/09/NRAC-Publication-No.-00-003-Aquaculture-Effluents-A-Guide-for-Water-Quality-Regulators-and- Aquaculturists.pdf.

Tucker, C.T. and J.A. Hargreaves. 2008. Environmental Best Management Practices for Aquaculture. Wiley-Blackwell. 592pp.

Rutgers Cooperative Extension. 2004. Recommended Management Practices for Aquatic Farms Agricultural Management Practices (AMPS) Health Management Plan. Rutgers Cooperative Extension, New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey. https://www.jerseyseafood.nj.gov/ aquacultureamp.pdf.

Tucker, C., S. Belle, C. Boyd, G. Fornshell, J. Hargreaves, S. LaPatra, S. Summerfelt, and P. Zajicek. 2003. Best management practices for flow-through, net-pen, recirculating and pond aquaculture systems. A report prepared under agreement between EPA, CSREES and Mississippi State University. 99pp.

Van der Schatte Olivier, A., L. Jones, L. Le Vay, M. Christie, J. Wilson and S.K. Malham. 2018. A global review of the ecosystem services provided by bivalve aquaculture. Reviews in Aquaculture: 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12301 - 14 - Aquaculture Impacts

Policy Guidance

Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission. 2007. The Importance of Habitat Created by Molluscan Shellfish to Managed Species along the Atlantic Coast of the United States. http://www.asmfc.org/uploads/file/hms8ShellfishDocument.pdf

FAO. 2015. Aquaculture zoning, site selection and area management under the ecosystem approach to aquaculture. Policy Brief, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5004e.pdf

Hershner, C. and H. Woods. 1999. Clam aquaculture and submerged aquatic vegetation. Center for Coastal Resources Management, Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William and Mary, Virginia Coastal Resources Management Program, Virginia Department of Environmental Quality. http://ccrm.vims.edu/publications/pubs/clamaqua_sav.pdf

Hodge, B., R. Kihslinger, D. Murphy, and M. Tlusty. 2018. Creating a Spatially-Defined Tool for Marine Aquaculture Siting and Permitting Case Studies for Pilot Municipalities. http://marinegis.org/ArcGISOnline/MAShellfAST/ShellfASTPilot.pdf

Massachusetts Shellfish Planting Guidelines. https://www.mass.gov/media/5161/download

NOAA Aquaculture Strategic Plan, FY 2016-2020. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/webdam/download/65605834

NOAA Aquaculture Policy - Summary of Statements of Policy and Policy Priorities. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/content/noaa- aquaculture-policy-summary-statements-policy-and-policy-priorities

Sanchez-Jerez, P., I. Karakassis, F. Massa, D. Fezzard, J. Aguilar-Manjarrez, D. Soto, R. Chapela, P. Avila, J.C. Macias, P. Tomassetti, G. Marino, J.A. Borg, V. Franičević, G. Yucel-Gier, X. Fleming, H. Biao, H. Nhhala, H.A. Hamza, A. Forcada, and T. Dempster. 2016. Aquaculture’s struggle for space: The need for coastal spatial planning and the potential benefits of Allocated Zones for Aquaculture (AZAs) to avoid conflict and promote sustainability. Aquaculture Environment Interactions 8: 41-54. - 15 - Aquaculture Impacts

State-Specific Permitting and Leasing Information

Connecticut https://www.ct.gov/doag/cwp/view.asp?a=3768&q=451508&doagNav=%7C

Delaware https://dnrec.alpha.delaware.gov/fish-wildlife/fishing/shellfish-aquaculture/

Florida https://www.freshfromflorida.com/Divisions-Offices/Aquaculture

Georgia https://gacoast.uga.edu/outreach/programs/aquaculture/

Maine https://www.maine.gov/dmr/aquaculture/

Maryland http://dnr.maryland.gov/fisheries/Pages/aquaculture/index.aspx

Massachusetts https://www.mass.gov/service-details/aquaculture

New Hampshire https://seagrant.unh.edu/aquaculture

New Jersey https://www.nj.gov/dep/fgw/pdf/marine/shellfish_leasing_policy_atlantic.pdf

New York https://www.dec.ny.gov/outdoor/110882.html

North Carolina https://ncseagrant.ncsu.edu/aquaculture/

Pennsylvania https://extension.psu.edu/introduction-to-aquaculture

Rhode Island http://www.crmc.ri.gov/aquaculture.html

South Carolina http://www.dnr.sc.gov/marine/shellfish/mariculture.html

Virginia http://www.mrc.state.va.us/shellfish_aquaculture.shtm

Performing husbandry on a rack and bag oyster culture farm at low tide. Photo credit: Jay Rutkowski, Atlantic Capes Fisheries. - 16 - Aquaculture Impacts

References Cited

Ben-Horin, T., C.A. Burge, D. Bushek, M.L. Groner, D.A. Proestou, L.I. Huey, G. Bidegain, and R.B. Carnegie. 2018. Intensive oyster aquaculture can reduce disease impacts on sympatric wild oysters. Aquaculture Environment Interactions. 10: 557-567.

Blackburn, B. 2015. How SAV-vy are farmed oysters? North Carolina Seagrant Coastwatch Currents. Accessed October 21, 2019. https://ncseagrant.ncsu.edu/currents/2015/11/how-sav-vy-are-farmed-oysters/

Boyd, C.E. and A.A. McNevin. 2014. Aquaculture, Resource Use, and the Environment. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 466 pp.

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FAO. 2018.The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 2018 (SOFIA). Rome, Italy.

Findlay, R.H., L. Watling, and L.M. Mayer. 1995. Environmental impact of salmon net-pen culture on marine benthic communities in Maine: A case study. Estuaries. 18:145.

Fitridge, I., T. Dempster, J. Guenther, and R. de Nys. 2012. The impact and control of biofouling in marine aquaculture: A review. Biofouling 28: 649-669.

Forrest, B.M., N.B. Keeley, G.A. Hopkins, S.C. Webb, and D.M. Clement. 2009. Bivalve aquaculture in estuaries: Review and synthesis of oyster cultivation effects. Aquaculture 298: 1-15.

Gallardi, D. 2014. Effects of bivalve aquaculture on the environment and their possible mitigation: A review. Fisheries and Aquaculture Journal 5: 105.

Gentry, R.R., H.K. Alleway, M.J. Bishop, C.L. Gillies, T. Waters, and R. Jones, R. 2019. Exploring the potential for marine aquaculture to contribute to ecosystem services. Reviews in Aquaculture: 1-14.

Gentry, R.R., S.E. Lester, C.V. Kappel, C. White, T.W. Bell, J. Stevens, and S.D. Gaines. 2016. : Spatial planning principles for sustainable development. Ecology and Evolution 7: 1-11.

Guardiola, F.A., A. Cuesta, J. Meseguer, and M.A. Esteban. 2012. Risks of using antifouling biocides in aquaculture. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 13: 1541-1560. - 17 - Aquaculture Impacts

References Cited

Kim, J.K., C. Yarish, E.K. Hwang, M. Park, and Y. Kim. 2017. Seaweed aquaculture: cultivation technologies, challenges and its ecosystem services. Algae 32:1-13.

Maine Seafood Guide – Salmon. 2019. University of Maine Sea Grant. https://seagrant.umaine.edu/maine-seafood-guide/salmon/. Accessed June 11, 2019.

NMFS. 2017. Fisheries of the United States, 2016. U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA Current Fishery Statistics No. 2016. NOAA. 2019a. Window to an Underwater World. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/feature-story/window-underwater-world. Accessed March 3, 2019. NOAA. 2019b. Fast Facts Aquaculture, Office for Coastal Management, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. https://coast.noaa.gov/states/fast-facts/aquaculture.html. Accessed March 3, 2019.

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Pillay, T.V.R. 2004. Aquaculture and the Environment, Second Edition. Blackwell Publishing.

Price, C., K.K. Black, B.T. Hargrave, and J.A. Morris. 2015. Marine cage culture and the environment: Effects on water quality and . Aquaculture Environment Interactions. 6:151-174.

Rivara, G., K. Tetrault, and R.M. Patricio. 2002. A low cost floating upweller shellfish nursery system construction and operations guide. Cornell Cooperative Extension of Suffolk County, NY. https://s3.amazonaws.com/assets.cce.cornell.edu/ attachments/3422/upwellerfactsheet1.pdf?1413576515. Accessed October 19, 2019.

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