DESERTIFICATION:DESERTIFICATION: CLIMATECLIMATE ANDAND WATERWATER RESOURCESRESOURCES PERSPECTIVESPERSPECTIVES

DEPARTMENTLAMIN OF MAIBY WATER TOURAY RESOURCES

7, MARINA PARADE BANJUL , THE GAMBIA Cell: Tel:(220) (220)(220) 9983845/ 44727204472720 7049759 Email: [email protected] OUTLINEOUTLINE

„ INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION „ CAUSESCAUSES OFOF DESERTIFICATIONDESERTIFICATION „ IMPACTSIMPACTS OFOF DROUGHTDROUGHT ANDAND DESERTIFICATIONDESERTIFICATION „ MITIGATINGMITIGATING DROUGHTDROUGHT ANDAND DESERTIFICATIONDESERTIFICATION „ ADAPTINGADAPTING TOTO THETHE ADVERSEADVERSE EFFECTSEFFECTS OFOF DESERTIFICATIONDESERTIFICATION „ RECOMMENDATIONSRECOMMENDATIONS „ CONCLUSIONSCONCLUSIONS 1.01.0 INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION

„ AmongAmong thethe manymany environmentalenvironmental issuesissues facingfacing ourour planet,planet, desertificationdesertification andand droughtdrought maymay havehave causedcaused moremore humanshumans sufferingsuffering thanthan anyany otherother problemproblem.. „ InIn 1977,1977, thethe UnitedUnited NationsNations ConferenceConference onon DesertificationDesertification (UNCOD)(UNCOD) defineddefined desertificationdesertification asas thethe diminutiondiminution oror destructiondestruction ofof biologicalbiological potentialpotential ofof thethe land,land, whichwhich couldcould leadlead ultimatelyultimately toto thethe formationformation ofof desertdesert--likelike conditionsconditions (UNCOD,(UNCOD, 1977).1977). INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION CONTCONT’’DD

„ TheThe UnitedUnited NationsNations EnvironmentEnvironment ProgrammeProgramme (UNEP)(UNEP) revisedrevised thisthis definitiondefinition inin 19911991 asas landland degradationdegradation inin arid,arid, semisemi--arid,arid, andand drydry subsub-- humidhumid areasareas resultingresulting mainlymainly fromfrom adverseadverse humanhuman impact.impact. „ DregneDregne andand ChouChou (1992),(1992), viewedviewed desertificationdesertification asas aa humanhuman inducedinduced processprocess ofof landland degradationdegradation thatthat cancan rangedranged inin severityseverity fromfrom slightslight toto veryvery severe,severe, andand isis causecause fromfrom erosionerosion toto SalinisationSalinisation toto toxictoxic chemicalchemical accumulationaccumulation toto vegetationvegetation degradation,degradation, irrespectiveirrespective ofof climateclimate INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION CONTCONT’’DD

„ RobinsRobins (1997)(1997) describeddescribed desertificationdesertification asas aa menacemenace inin thethe semisemi--aridarid zoneszones andand itsits causescauses areare complex,complex, butbut itit isis generallygenerally thethe resultresult ofof thethe combinedcombined effectseffects ofof climaticclimatic variability,variability, demographic,demographic, humanhuman andand animalanimal factors.factors. „ InIn thethe InternationalInternational ConventionConvention toto CombatCombat Desertification,Desertification, thethe termterm "desertification""desertification" meansmeans landland degradationdegradation inin arid,arid, semisemi--aridarid andand drydry subsub-- humidhumid areasareas resultingresulting fromfrom variousvarious factors,factors, includingincluding climaticclimatic variationsvariations andand humanhuman activitiesactivities (CCD,(CCD, 1994).1994). INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION CONTCONT’’DD

„ TheThe principalprincipal desertificationdesertification processesprocesses areare degradationdegradation ofof thethe vegetativevegetative covercover (rangeland(rangeland desertification)desertification) „ AcceleratedAccelerated waterwater andand windwind erosionerosion (( rainrain fedfed croplandcropland desertification),desertification), andand „ SalinisationSalinisation andand waterwater logginglogging (irrigated(irrigated landland desertification).desertification). „ OtherOther importantimportant desertificationdesertification processesprocesses includeinclude soilsoil compactioncompaction andand accumulationaccumulation ofof toxictoxic substancessubstances suchsuch asas heavyheavy metalsmetals andand persistentpersistent pesticides.pesticides. 2.02.0 CAUSESCAUSES OFOF DESERTIFICATIONDESERTIFICATION

„ InIn recentrecent years,years, desertsdeserts seemedseemed toto havehave spreadspread duedue toto twotwo mainmain causescauses ::-- „ HumanHuman inducedinduced factorsfactors „ climateclimate andand waterwater resourcesresources factorsfactors

ThisThis paperpaper isis concernedconcerned withwith thethe secondsecond causecause MajorMajor FactorsFactors thatthat causecause DesertificationDesertification 2.12.1 CLIMATICCLIMATIC FACTORSFACTORS

„ DROUGHTDROUGHT „ DroughtDrought isis aa complexcomplex phenomenon,phenomenon, whichwhich isis governedgoverned byby aa complexcomplex systemsystem.. „ ItIt isis aa majormajor disruptivedisruptive forceforce capablecapable ofof exacerbatingexacerbating existingexisting social,social, economic,economic, politicalpolitical andand culturalcultural factorsfactors ofof development.development. „ TheThe definitiondefinition ofof droughtdrought isis dependentdependent onon thethe sectorsector beingbeing consideredconsidered DefinitionDefinition ofof DroughtDrought

„ AgrometeorologistAgrometeorologist viewview droughtdrought inin thethe contextcontext ofof insufficientinsufficient soilsoil moisturemoisture toto supportsupport cropcrop growthgrowth andand development;development; „ MeteorologistsMeteorologists areare concernedconcerned withwith droughtdrought asas aa periodperiod ofof belowbelow normalnormal precipitation;precipitation; „ HydrologistHydrologist viewview droughtdrought asas aa periodperiod withwith belowbelow normalnormal streamstream--flowflow andand depleteddepleted reservoirreservoir storage;storage; „ EconomistsEconomists areare concernedconcerned withwith droughtdrought asas itit affectsaffects societysociety’’ss productivityproductivity andand consumptiveconsumptive activitiesactivities ((DracupDracup etet alal 1980).1980). „ PoliticiansPoliticians areare alsoalso concernedconcerned withwith thethe impactsimpacts ofof droughtdrought asas itit isis thethe periodperiod thatthat thethe electorateselectorates loselose confidenceconfidence inin them,them, asas theythey areare incapableincapable ofof meetinmeetingg thethe demandsdemands fromfrom thethe societsocietyy.. ImpactImpact ofof DroughtDrought „ ImpactsImpacts ofof droughtdrought cancan bebe categorisedcategorised underunder thethe economic,economic, environmentalenvironmental andand socialsocial categories.categories. „ EconomicEconomic impactsimpacts includeinclude losseslosses fromfrom cropcrop production,production, fisheryfishery production,production, andand timbertimber productionproduction ((OladipoOladipo,, 1995).1995). „ MajorMajor environmentalenvironmental impactsimpacts includeinclude damagedamage toto animalanimal andand plantplant species,species, windwind andand waterwater erosion,erosion, andand deteriorationdeterioration inin airair andand waterwater quality.quality. „ SocialSocial consequencesconsequences ofof droughtdrought includeinclude increasedincreased poverty,poverty, reducedreduced qualityquality ofof life,life, populationpopulation migrationmigration andand socialsocial unrestunrest andand conflicts.conflicts. 2.1.12.1.1 PHENOMENAPHENOMENA ASSOCIATEDASSOCIATED WITHWITH THETHE AFRICANAFRICAN DROUGHTDROUGHT

„ GENERALGENERAL CIRCULATIONCIRCULATION PATTERNSPATTERNS „ OCEANOCEAN –– ATMOSPHEREATMOSPHERE INTERACTIONINTERACTION „ CLIMATECLIMATE VARIABILTYVARIABILTY ANDAND CHANGECHANGE GENERALGENERAL CIRCULATIONCIRCULATION PATTERNSPATTERNS A) THE INTER-TROPICAL CONVERGENCE ZONE AND ASSOCIATED WEATHER ZONE „ During the rainy season, the atmosphere is dominated by the warm, moist and convectively unstable South Westerly winds, which penetrate, to 20-22oN Latitude in August under normal rainy season. „ Dry and dusty North Easterly winds are dominant during the dry season and extend south as far as 6oN in January/ February. „ The imaginary line or boundary that separates the moist South-westerly and dry north-easterly winds at any location and time of the year is known, globally, as the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), but locally, in West Africa, as the Inter-Tropical Discontinuity (ITD). „ The rate of movement and position of the ITD determines the rainfall pattern over the region. „ If the northward excursion of the ITD is delayed or the southward retreat is earlier than normal, drought over the Sahel and The Gambia is likely. THETHE WINDWIND FLOWFLOW THATTHAT DETERMINESDETERMINES THETHE SEASONSSEASONS OVEROVER THETHE GAMBIAGAMBIA ANDAND WESTWEST AFRICAAFRICA B)B) TheThe TropicalTropical EasterlyEasterly Jet,Jet, thethe AfricanAfrican EasterlyEasterly JetJet andand SquallSquall LinesLines „ Superimposed on this general pattern are the African Easterly jet (AEJ) at about 3km, and the Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ) and the Sub-Tropical westerly Jet (STJ) at about 12km above mean sea level. „ These jets have their right exists over North Africa, north of about 10oN. „ The left exists of AEJ and TEJ are over central and coastal West Africa. „ Right exists of jets are associated with subsidence of air and drying of the surface of the area of sinking motion. „ Left exists are associated with rising motion, convective activity and wet conditions. „ Weak TEJ and AEJ will results in less convective activity and drought. TheThe JetJet StreamsStreams overover NorthNorth andand WestWest Africa:Africa: TheThe DryingDrying ofof AfricaAfrica C)C) SUBSUB--TROPICALTROPICAL ANTICYCLONES,ANTICYCLONES, HADLEYHADLEY ANDAND WALKERWALKER CIRCULATIONCIRCULATION PATTERNSPATTERNS „ Subtropical Anticyclones are areas of sinking air mass at about latitude 30o - 45o north and South. „ Hadley circulation is the north-south overturning of air mass with rising motion over the equatorial region and sinking at 25o -30oN (Northern cell) and 25o -30oS (Southern cell). „ The Walker circulation, on the other hand, is the east- west overturning of air mass with rising motion over equatorial central Africa and sinking motion over Northwest coast of Africa and the Cape Verde Island. „ Three sub-tropical Anticyclones control the movement of wind systems of Western Africa:- The St. Helena; The Azores and Libyan anticyclones. IllustrationsIllustrations ofof HadleyHadley ((redred)) andand WalkerWalker ((blueblue)) CirculationCirculation overover WestWest AfricaAfrica OCEANOCEAN -- ATMOSPHEREATMOSPHERE INTERACTIONINTERACTION

„ CertainCertain aspectsaspects ofof thethe AfricanAfrican drought,drought, particularlyparticularly thethe interinter--annualannual rainfallrainfall variability,variability, areare relatedrelated toto andand stronglystrongly influencedinfluenced byby largelarge -- scalescale atmosphereatmosphere -- oceanocean fluctuationsfluctuations occurringoccurring aroundaround thethe worldworld „ ELEL--NINONINO PHENOMENONPHENOMENON „ ELEL--NINONINO SOUTHERNSOUTHERN OSCILLATIONOSCILLATION ANDAND SEASEA SURFACESURFACE TEMPERATURESTEMPERATURES (SSTs)(SSTs) CLIMATECLIMATE VARIABILITYVARIABILITY ANDAND CHANGECHANGE „ INCREASEINCREASE ININ CARBONCARBON DIOXIDEDIOXIDE (CO2)(CO2) CONCENTRATIONCONCENTRATION „ An increase in the carbon dioxide level leads to less of the temperature - dependent infrared radiation emitted by the earth escaping through the atmosphere to space but the amount of solar radiation absorbed by the earth remains almost unchanged „ An increase in temperature results in higher evaporation and losses of soil moisture „ A longer time is needed for saturation of the air and cloud formation. „ Thus, the frequency of storms will be reduced. „ Clouds will develop in a deeper atmosphere and hence, storms will be more severe, resulting in violent flash floods. 2.22.2 WATERWATER RESOURCESRESOURCES FACTORSFACTORS

„ MostMost ofof thethe waterwater resourcesresources factorsfactors relatedrelated toto desertificationdesertification areare feedbackfeedback mechanismsmechanisms thatthat contributecontribute toto sustainingsustaining thethe desertificationdesertification processprocess 2.2.12.2.1 SOILSOIL MOISTUREMOISTURE ANDAND SURFACESURFACE ALBEDOALBEDO

„ TheThe occurrenceoccurrence andand persistencepersistence ofof thethe SahelSahel droughtdrought appearsappears toto bebe duedue toto strongstrong positivepositive feedbackfeedback mechanismsmechanisms operatingoperating whichwhich areare drivendriven byby changeschanges inin soilsoil moisturemoisture andand surfacesurface AlbedoAlbedo.. „ BothBoth affectaffect thethe radiationradiation balancebalance atat thethe surface,surface, „ TheThe firstfirst directly,directly, thethe secondsecond indirectlyindirectly throughthrough itsits influenceinfluence onon thethe latentlatent heatheat flux.flux. SILTATIONSILTATION OFOF SWAMPSSWAMPS ANDAND WATERWATER BODIESBODIES

„ Erosion transports a lot of sand into swamps, "bolongs" and the main river. „ The sand deposited in the swamps is infertile and overlays the fertile soil. This reduces the productivity of cultivated swamps. „ Most of the sand that finds its way to the "bolongs" is deposited at the mouth of the "bolongs" and this causes the Siltation of the channel. „ This results in the reduction of the flow from the main river into the "bolongs". „ Swamps upstream of the "bolongs" are dry and productivity is reduced SALINIZATIONSALINIZATION

„ AlmostAlmost asas destructive,destructive, butbut spatiallyspatially lessless extensive,extensive, isis thethe processprocess ofof SalinizationSalinization,, wherebywhereby mineralmineral saltssalts becomebecome concentratedconcentrated inin thethe surfacesurface soilsoil byby thethe evaporationevaporation ofof salinesaline soilsoil solution.solution. „ ThisThis process,process, thoughthough onon aa smallsmall scale,scale, cancan bebe observedobserved inin thethe Jeshwang/BakauJeshwang/Bakau swampsswamps aroundaround "Sitting"Sitting Corner",Corner", inin thethe DarsilamiDarsilami swampsswamps ofof JokaduJokadu andand thethe Bambatenda/YellitendaBambatenda/Yellitenda swampsswamps ofof Jarra/BadibouJarra/Badibou districtsdistricts ofof TheThe Gambia.Gambia. „ ItIt hashas resultedresulted toto thethe scalingscaling downdown and,and, inin somesome casescases toto thethe totaltotal halthalt inin thethe cultivationcultivation ofof thethe "Banta"Banta Faros"Faros" inin somesome partsparts ofof TheThe Gambia.Gambia. 3.03.0 IMPACTSIMPACTS OFOF DROUGHTDROUGHT ANDAND DESERTIFICATIONDESERTIFICATION

„ PHYSICALPHYSICAL IMPACTSIMPACTS „ SOCIALSOCIAL IMPACTSIMPACTS „ ECONOMICECONOMIC IMPACTSIMPACTS „ FEEDBACKFEEDBACK MECHANISMSMECHANISMS 3.13.1 PHYSICALPHYSICAL IMPACTSIMPACTS

„ LackLack ofof waterwater inin thethe soilsoil resultsresults inin thethe situationsituation thatthat lessless waterwater isis absorbedabsorbed byby thethe rootsroots ofof thethe plantsplants whilewhile moremore areare transpiredtranspired byby thethe leaves.leaves. „ ThereforeTherefore droughtdrought impactimpact isis firstlyfirstly inducedinduced byby lowlow waterwater contentcontent ofof thethe soil,soil, plantplant rootsroots areare hinderedhindered fromfrom absorbingabsorbing moisture,moisture, andand thethe moisturemoisture balancebalance inin thethe soilsoil -- plantplant --atmosphereatmosphere systemsystem isis broken.broken. „ ThisThis leadsleads toto disasterdisaster onon agriculture,agriculture, specificallyspecifically onon crops,crops, trees,trees, vegetationvegetation andand rangelands.rangelands. „ InIn additionaddition toto havinghaving impactsimpacts onon agriculturalagricultural output,output, droughtdrought andand desertificationdesertification influenceinfluence waterwater quantityquantity andand quality.quality. 3.23.2 SOCIALSOCIAL IMPACTSIMPACTS

„ ShortageShortage ofof foodfood andand herbageherbage duedue toto reductionreduction inin soilsoil moisturemoisture availabilityavailability oftenoften resultsresults inin famine,famine, pestilencepestilence andand socialsocial sufferingsuffering andand unrest.unrest. „ CumulativeCumulative impactsimpacts onon agricultureagriculture andand socialsocial amenitiesamenities ofof communitiescommunities havehave ledled toto ruralrural -- urbanurban migrationmigration „ TheThe demandsdemands ofof aa rapidlyrapidly expandingexpanding populationpopulation inin thethe urbanurban areasareas andand thethe growthgrowth centrescentres ofof thethe countrycountry areare placingplacing increasingincreasing burdenburden onon thosethose regionsregions andand theirtheir resources.resources. „ ThisThis meansmeans thatthat thethe potentialpotential forfor adverseadverse effectseffects ofof disastersdisasters inin humanhuman lifelife isis alsoalso growing,growing, sincesince populationpopulation pressurespressures willwill leadlead moremore peoplepeople toto livelive andand workwork wherewhere risksrisks areare highest.highest. 3.33.3 ECONOMICECONOMIC IMPACTSIMPACTS

„ SevereSevere waterwater shortageshortage andand expansionexpansion ofof decertifieddecertified landland becomebecome shacklesshackles onon economiceconomic developmentdevelopment inin thethe world.world. InIn TheThe Gambia,Gambia, thisthis hashas meantmeant thatthat GovernmentGovernment andand donordonor partnerspartners havehave toto concentrateconcentrate mostmost developmentdevelopment effortsefforts andand resourcesresources inin reliefrelief functionsfunctions especiallyespecially inin yearsyears followingfollowing droughtdrought episodes.episodes. 3.43.4 FEEDBACKFEEDBACK MECHANISMSMECHANISMS

„ ImpactsImpacts ofof desertificationdesertification onon climateclimate andand waterwater resourcesresources inin TheThe GambiaGambia areare betterbetter referredreferred toto asas feedbackfeedback mechanisms.mechanisms. „ TheyThey startstart withwith aa changechange inin oneone oror moremore ofof thethe parametersparameters ofof thethe energyenergy andand waterwater balancebalance parametersparameters ofof thethe climateclimate system,system, whichwhich leadsleads toto changeschanges inin otherother parametersparameters andand resultsresults inin aa lastinglasting changechange ofof thethe energyenergy oror waterwater balancebalance atat thethe surface.surface. „ AA goodgood exampleexample isis deforestation,deforestation, whichwhich isis aa nonnon-- climateclimate factorfactor butbut leadsleads toto disruptiondisruption inin thethe waterwater andand energyenergy balancebalance inin thethe climateclimate systemsystem andand waterwater resourcesresources DEFORESTATIONDEFORESTATION ANDAND FEEDBACKFEEDBACK PROCESSESPROCESSES ANDAND VEGETATIONVEGETATION ANDAND CLIMATECLIMATE 4.04.0 MITIGATINGMITIGATING DROUGHTDROUGHT ANDAND DESERTIFICATIONDESERTIFICATION

„ MONITORINGMONITORING OFOF DROUGHTDROUGHT ANDAND DESERTIFICATIONDESERTIFICATION „ ASSESSMENTASSESSMENT OFOF DROUGHTDROUGHT ANDAND DESERTIFICATIONDESERTIFICATION „ DROUGHT INDICES e.g percent of normal „ SATELLITE TECHNIQUES e.g NDVI „ DROUGHTDROUGHT PREDICTIONPREDICTION ((ENSO - Rainfall)) „ DROUGHTDROUGHT MANAGEMENTMANAGEMENT ((National policy of drought management and planning)) 5.05.0 ADAPTINGADAPTING TOTO THETHE ADVERSEADVERSE EFFECTSEFFECTS OFOF DESERTIFICATIONDESERTIFICATION

„ AdaptationAdaptation toto desertificationdesertification goesgoes beyondbeyond mitigationmitigation andand thethe measuresmeasures areare adoptedadopted afterafter thethe desertificationdesertification processprocess hashas actuallyactually setset inin andand itit hashas becomebecome tootoo latelate toto useuse reliefrelief functions.functions. „ SomeSome ofof thethe measuresmeasures toto bebe included,included, asas andand whenwhen desertificationdesertification isis establishedestablished inin TheThe GambiaGambia include:include: „ Setting up of the institutional framework including, „ Establishment of a cabinet committee on desertification; „ Establishment of Divisional, District and Village committees. „ Create awareness; and „ Develop contingency plans at National, Divisional, District and Village levels. 6.06.0 RECOMMENDATIONSRECOMMENDATIONS

„ DevelopDevelop aa wellwell--equippedequipped andand representativerepresentative hydrologicalhydrological andand meteorologicalmeteorological stationstation networknetwork forfor monitoringmonitoring ofof droughtdrought andand desertification.desertification. „ ThisThis willwill enhanceenhance thethe nationalnational capacitycapacity inin thethe acquisition,acquisition, processingprocessing andand disseminationdissemination ofof datadata andand informationinformation requiredrequired meetingmeeting thethe needsneeds forfor 1. Climate, drought and desertification monitoring. 2. Application of the knowledge of climate in the detection, monitoring and control of drought and desertification for national economic development RECOMMENDATIONRECOMMENDATION 22

„ DevelopDevelop capacitycapacity inin assessmentassessment andand predictionprediction ofof droughtdrought andand desertification.desertification. ThisThis willwill entailentail thethe acquisitionacquisition ofof knowledgeknowledge inin thethe useuse ofof droughtdrought indices,indices, climateclimate andand biophysicalbiophysical models,models, andand appropriateappropriate technologies.technologies. GroundGround techniquestechniques thatthat areare beingbeing developeddeveloped toto monitormonitor droughtdrought shouldshould bebe integratedintegrated withwith spacespace technologytechnology forfor betterbetter results.results. TechnologicalTechnological advancesadvances inin spacespace studiesstudies allowallow improvedimproved droughtdrought monitoringmonitoring usingusing satellitessatellites withwith highhigh resolutionresolution inin aa costcost--effectiveeffective manner.manner. RECOMMENDATIONRECOMMENDATION 33

„ DevelopDevelop aa droughtdrought managementmanagement plan.plan. IfIf betterbetter monitoringmonitoring mustmust bebe undertaken,undertaken, thethe developmentdevelopment ofof aa managementmanagement planplan isis essential.essential. ThisThis willwill requirerequire considerableconsiderable politicalpolitical couragecourage andand foresight.foresight. TheThe coco--ordinationordination ofof droughtdrought monitoringmonitoring datadata andand informationinformation amongamong governmentgovernment andand internationalinternational organisationorganisation isis essentialessential forfor betterbetter droughtdrought managementmanagement inin TheThe Gambia.Gambia. ThisThis stronglystrongly suggestssuggests thethe needneed forfor aa suitablesuitable mechanismmechanism oror independentindependent agencyagency thatthat coco--ordinatesordinates andand facilitatesfacilitates thethe availabilityavailability ofof informationinformation toto allall kindskinds ofof users.users. ItIt maymay alsoalso helphelp reducereduce duplicationduplication ofof effortsefforts amongamong thethe variousvarious groupsgroups involvedinvolved inin droughtdrought managementmanagement RECOMMENDATIONSRECOMMENDATIONS 44

„ AssessAssess andand regulateregulate abstractionabstraction raterate fromfrom surfacesurface andand groundground waterwater sourcessources andand monitormonitor salinitysalinity statusstatus ofof thethe RiverRiver GambiaGambia catchments.catchments. ThisThis willwill involve:involve: „ thethe determinationdetermination ofof thethe presentpresent raterate ofof abstractionabstraction ofof freshfresh waterwater fromfrom thethe RiverRiver GambiaGambia andand itsits tributaries,tributaries, andand fromfrom thethe groundground waterwater resources;resources; andand „ developdevelop aa practicalpractical modelmodel forfor thethe predictionprediction ofof salinitysalinity movementmovement inin thethe RiverRiver GambiaGambia andand itsits tributaries;tributaries; andand RECOMMENDATIONSRECOMMENDATIONS 55

„ IntroducedIntroduced waterwater harvestingharvesting onon experimentalexperimental basesbases andand adopt,adopt, ifif foundfound feasible.feasible. ItIt isis expectedexpected toto introduceintroduce andand assessassess thethe potentialpotential ofof waterwater harvestingharvesting techniquestechniques asas meansmeans ofof waterwater supplysupply toto remoteremote ruralrural communities.communities. CONCLUSIONSCONCLUSIONS

„ DroughtDrought isis aa normalnormal partpart ofof climateclimate „ PlanningPlanning forfor droughtdrought representsrepresents prudentprudent actionaction byby GovernmentGovernment „ AA nationalnational droughtdrought policypolicy isis stronglystrongly neededneeded toto coordinatecoordinate nationalnational responseresponse toto thethe possibilitypossibility ofof increasedincreased frequencyfrequency ofof futurefuture droughtsdroughts „ EvenEven ifif thethe governmentsgovernments cancan notnot stopstop droughtdrought fromfrom occurring,occurring, therethere areare waysways eithereither toto protectprotect moremore vulnerablevulnerable peoplepeople oror toto prepareprepare themthem toto betterbetter ableable toto copecope whenwhen suchsuch situationssituations occur.occur. „ TheseThese peoplepeople needneed droughtdrought preparednesspreparedness training,training, droughtdrought technologytechnology andand copingcoping mechanisms.mechanisms. THANK YOU !!!