sign in sign up
<<
Home , Chuang Guandong, Empire of Japan, League of Nations, Treaty of Aigun

Historical League of Chair: Shubhayu Bhattacharyay JHUMUNC 2018

League of Nations

Topic A: Japanese of (1931)

Topic B: Second Italo-Ethiopian (1935)

Committee Overview century, such a proposal only began to gain consequential traction near the beginning of Committee Simulation I. In 1915, British political scientists In our historical simulation of the League G. L. Dickinson and Lord Bryce founded the of Nations, the two topics will be considered Union which published widely completely independent. In other words, the circulated pamphlets across the events and outcomes of the topic first discussed by and advocating for a “League of our committee will not affect the historical .”2 Similar organizations emerged around background of the other topic. Thus, Topic A starts the world, fueling into the nascent on , 1931 and Topic B will start on internationalist movement. In January 1918, December 31, 1935 as if all events happening up to U.S. president Woodrow called for a that point are true according to history. We will “general association of nations [...] for the follow standard JHUMUNC parliamentary purpose of affording mutual guarantees of procedure instead of League of Nations procedure. political and to In reality, the member states of the League of great and small states alike” in his famous Nations changed throughout this period, but we “” statement.3 will ensure everyone represents the same When declared its defeat in the throughout the conference. 1918 Armistice of Compiègne, the devastating effect of the war had cemented international Brief History of the League of Nations opinion for the formation of the League. At the As part of a decision made by the Paris Paris Peace Conference, each of the major allied Peace Conference to set the terms of resolution nations presented their proposals for terms of after , the League of Nations was such an organization and the resultant officially established on January 10, 1920. compromise materialized in the signing of the According to the Covenant, its founding charter, Covenant of the League of Nations. The the League was entrusted with the seemingly lofty founding document called for the creation of a task to “promote international co-operation and to General Assembly representing all member achieve international peace and security.”1 states, an Council only represented by However, in just a couple decades, the League of major allied powers, and a permanent Nations proved ineffective and feeble in preventing secretariat. Similar to the , the military conflict. Not surprisingly, no effective Assembly served to produce legislative effort was made by the organization to prevent or recommendations regarding matters of mitigate the impending crisis during the latter half promoting peace within the purview of the of the , ultimately leading to the League’s League while the Council was concerned with greatest failure and its inevitable fate: the breakout specific plans and implementation for conflict of the deadliest war in the history of mankind. Yet, resolution. Under Article XIV of the Covenant, the legacy and importance of the League of the Executive Council also presided over the Nations cannot be undermined. As the first Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ) organization of its kind, the League not only set the which had the authority to make binding precedent of permanent and judgments on international disputes to member cooperation efforts but also paved the way for the states.4 modern-day United Nations.

Although efforts to form an 2 intergovernmental peace organization were Goodrich, Leland M. "From League of Nations to United Nations." International Organization 1, no. 1 (1947): 3-21. legitimately proposed as early as the eighteenth http://www.jstor.org/stable/2703515. 3 Wilson, Woodrow. “Fourteen Points.” https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc= 1 "The Covenant of the League of Nations." Avalon Project. 62#. http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/leagcov.asp. 4 "The Covenant of the League of Nations." Ibid. 1

adopt.9 However, particularly later in its short- lived existence, the League proved inept in executing self-determination policy and protecting the rights of ethnic minorities in areas of conflict or suppression. When member states allied with opposing sides of a conflict, the League’s proposed arbitration and standards for peace became diluted under compromise. For example, during the Greek invasion of in 1920-1922, Britain supported while supported Turkey. With two of the most significant members of the League in opposition, the League failed to resolve the conflict which 10 Figure 1: Political cartoon implying failure subsided in independent negotiations. Furthermore, the League’s self-determination for the League of Nations without the policy and its inability to enforce peace efforts participation of the United States. (7) made it difficult to arbitrate peace with larger, imposing powers. For instance, in 1923, France By the end of the month, 44 states signed and invaded the in Western the Covenant, acknowledging their commitment to Germany in retaliation for Germany’s failure to the first permanent peacemaking organization.5 pay an installment of of Versailles However, despite President Wilson’s dedicated reparations. France did not inform the League of contributions to the League’s formation, the its intentions to invade, nor did it heed to League United States Senate, driven by a partisan motive recommendations to cease the invasion efforts.11 to check the president’s powers, voted to keep the When larger world powers developed more nation out of the new organization.6 Many hostile relations to one another in the 1930s, the historians note that the decision of the United League of Nations began to fall apart.12 We will States, by then a powerful world presence, to address two such incidents in our own remain out of the League of Nations hindered the committee sessions. potential effectiveness of the organization and was In several ways, the League was doomed a significant factor in its predetermined failure. for failure from the beginning. The United States Understanding the successes and the and the newly formed and Weimar failures of the League of Nations will be critical for Republic (Germany) either did not sign the us to retrace its steps and revise actions Covenant or were barred from membership at accordingly.7 Despite the League’s now-tarnished the beginning. Without the membership and reputation, it did have some notable achievements resources of three major world powers, the in ending or preventing conflicts in the 1920s. The League lacked the significant influence necessary League successfully mediated the Yugoslavian for effective mediation in many instances. Even invasion of Albania in 1920, a dispute over control when world superpowers were members of the of , in 1924, and the Greek military League, they would often disregard League occupation of Macedonia in 1925 among other decisions or even quit the League with minimal victories.8 Furthermore, the League of Nations repercussion if international decisions successfully initiated efforts to deliver threatened that nation. Yet, perhaps above all, humanitarian aid to and supported the unavoidable fact that the League was a international efforts to mitigate outbreaks of product of the and , setting yet another predetermined its failure. Over time, as the exemplary model the United Nations would later excessive penalties made by the Treaty and feelings of betrayal by allies who did not receive what they wished from the Treaty manifested, international opinion of the Treaty became 5 “League of Nations.” Encyclopædia Britannica. abysmal. Its significant role in the rise of Nazi https://www.britannica.com/topic/League-of-Nations. 6 “The League of Nations, 1920.” Office of the Historian, U.S. Germany and its ineptitude in peaceful Department of State. meditation made international powers wish to https://history.state.gov/milestones/1914-1920/league. 7 Raffo, P. “The League of Nations.” Punch, 10 December 1919, 482. 9 "The League's successes and failures." BBC. http://archive.org/stream/punchvol156a157lemouoft#page/n http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/history/mwh/i 1047/mode/2up. r1/successfailuresrev1.shtml. 8 Beneš, Eduard. “The League of Nations: Successes and 10 Beneš, Ibid. Failures.” Foreign Affairs, 11, no. 1, (1932): 66–80. 11 Beneš, Ibid. www.jstor.org/stable/20030484. 12 "The League's successes and failures." Ibid. 2

expunge all products of the Treaty of Versailles.13 or occupied territories of other imperial Inevitably, the League of Nations fell in the nations. Some non-independent states, like India crosshairs. and South Africa, were given independent Even considering the fateful issues of the membership, while others, like and League, there is a consensus among historians that Palestine, were given mandatory status.20 Please its actions and aims of arbitration could have been understand the distinction and whether actions much more effective if member states acted taken by delegates of these nations represented differently in League sessions.14 Thus, knowledge native or imperial policies. For our purposes, of the League’s missteps and failed history should each member in the committee will receive one help you in determining what could have been vote. done differently. The year 1931 was one of the most pivotal moments of the that tested the Topic A: Japanese Invasion of true competency of the League of Nations. At this time, the world was facing the disastrous Manchuria (1931) effects of the and international on the League mounted. The League of Introduction Nations was tasked not only with economic relief and resuscitation efforts but also rising fascist For the first topic, our committee will and imperialist ideologies as nations began to simulate the General Assembly of the League of prey on others’ weaknesses. Nations in the year 1931. For the sake of easier The Japanese Invasion of Manchuria practice, we will follow standard JHUMUNC began on , 1931, when the parliamentary procedure as opposed to League , an elite of the Imperial procedure. Moreover, there will be some member Japanese Army, invaded Mukden, Manchuria. At nations which, for various reasons, were not the time, Manchuria was under control of the members for one of the two topics, but delegates Republic of , the semi-presidential will represent one nation throughout the federalist republic that commanded all of China conference. Otherwise, it is the committee’s utmost from 1912 to 1949. The unsolicited invasion, priority to maintain a high standard of historical justified only by a staged, non-fatal explosion of accuracy. Most important is the proper Japanese railroad tracks in Mukden, reeked of representation of each nation’s policy. I urge each the same imperialist, tendencies the delegate to thoroughly research the statements, League of Nations was assembled to prevent. In , and actions pursued by his or her December of the same year, the League of represented nation at the time. Policy on the topic Nations appointed the Lytton Commission to may not be explicitly clear by nations that were investigate the events leading up to the invasion less involved, but every nation has a vested interest and report its findings to the League. This is in some connection to the issue. Several online where our committee will pick up where history databases store complete records of statements has left off. made by all member states and I implore you to The Japanese Invasion released read about your nation’s contributions to debate in international shockwaves far beyond the one of the cited links.15,16,17,18 If you have difficulty Northeast Asian vicinity. Media reporting of the accessing any of the records, please contact me via invasion polarized international alliances from the email found on the committee website.19 nations antipathic to .21 More so, the initial Additionally, many members at this time were failure of the League to mediate Japanese expansion proved to be the beginning of its end. 13 Tomuschat, Christian. The United Nations at Age Fifty: A Superpowers, especially those closely allied with Legal Perspective. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1995. Japan, lost faith in the organization’s ability to 14 Tomuschat, Ibid. 15 “League of Nations, Browse by Title.” Northwestern peacefully enforce its self-determination policies. University. The ultimate goal of our committee’s simulation http://digital.library.northwestern.edu/league/search.html. should be to reverse trend and revive popular 16 “League of Nations Official Document Search.” United confidence in the League of Nations before it is Nations. https://search.un.org/index.php?lang=en&tpl=lon. too late. 17 “League of Nations.” Research Guides. United Nations . http://libraryresources.unog.ch/c.php?g=462663&p=3163196 . 20 Myers, Denys P. "The Mandate System of the League of 18 “League of Nations Documents.” National Library of Nations". Annals of the American Academy of Political and . https://www.nla.gov.au/research-guides/league-of- Social Science. 96, (1921): 74– nations/league-of-nations-documents. 77. http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00027162210 19 “Historical League of Nations.” Johns Hopkins University 9600116. Conference. 21 Trueman, C.N. "Manchuria 1931." The History Learning http://www.jhumunc.org/economic-social-council/historical- Site. http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/world-war- league-of-nations/. two/causes-of-ww2/manchuria-1931/. 3

Historical Background Relevant Japanese History For centuries leading up to the nineteenth century, Japan had maintained a strict closed-door policy. Minimal international contact removed the need for a unified Japan which remained a conglomerate of feudal states for millennia.22 In the nineteenth century, with growing Western imperialist encroachment, the Japanese was forced to concede to several trade deals that often granted Western powers one-sided economic advantage over the island nation. In to level the playing field, Japan’s 122nd emperor, the Great, strengthened the unity of Japan and passed a drastic wave of modernizing reforms. Among these were the introduction of a parliamentary democratic and the consolidation of national resources into a powerful national .23 As a newly risen power, the Empire of Figure 2: Map representing Japanese path of Japan set its eyes on expansion. Drawn by ’s conquest in the First Sino-Japanese War (27) coal and iron deposits as well as its great (1) agricultural output, Japan sought to expand its As Japan’s influence grew in the by capturing the nearby mainland, conflicting economic interests peninsula. At this point, Korea had been a emerged between the nascent empire and of China’s Qing Empire, which . 27Rich natural resources found in exerted control over Korean governmental affairs. Manchuria and Korea attracted both Russian However, the rapid modernization and and Japanese leaders to economically control the infrastructural development of Japan altered the regions. After Russia’s refusal to accept Japanese political climate of Korea, as more politicians and terms of economic coexistence in the regions, citizens alike preferred Japan’s policies over Japan attacked a Russian fleet off the coast of China’s.24 Thus, Japan invaded Korea in 1894, Port Arthur, China, initiating the Russo- instigating the First Sino-Japanese War with the Japanese War of 1904.28 Once again, Japan Qing government in China. Due to its newly emerged victorious. In the , industrialized military complex, Japan humiliated the conceded economic China, claiming its throne as the dominant power influence in Manchuria and Korea while also in the East Asian region.25 The Empire also gained forfeiting territories in the Island to control of Korea, , and the Liaodong Japan.29 The ability of the Japanese Empire to Peninsula in Northern China, expanding its defeat a major European power garnered imposing presence. Under the newfangled international respect. of Russia, France, and Germany, Japan was and confidence skyrocketed among the Japanese coerced to return conquered lands in Northern people and a new world superpower emerged in China to the Qing Empire in the Treaty of . .26 The intervention of Western powers validated the growing Japanese threat and encouraged the Empire to further develop its military power.

27 Bjørklid, Finn. “First Chinese Japanese war map of 22 Duus, Peter, editor. The Cambridge . Vol. battles.jpg.” 6, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1989. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:First_Chinese_ 23 Duus, Ibid. Japanese_war_map_of_battles.jpg. 24 Henshall, Kenneth. A History of Japan: From Stone Age to 28 Duus, Ibid. Superpower. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012. 29 Tyler, Sydney. The Japan-Russia War. Harrisburg: The 25 Henshall, Ibid. Minter Company, 1905. 26 “.” Taiwan Documents Project. http://www.portsmouthpeacetreaty.com/process/peace/Tr http://www.taiwandocuments.org/shimonoseki01.htm. eatyText.pdf. 4

to build up the armed forces in retaliation.34 Immediately following the war victory, Japan experienced unprecedented economic growth. However, in 1923, the Great Kanto Earthquake claimed 142,800 lives in and the nation fell into a steep economic decline.35 In reaction, leftist protests for a communist state broke out in significant numbers. Pressure from conservative members of government obliged the passage of the Public Security Preservation of 1925 which permitted Japanese law enforcement to suppress liberal political dissent.36 With these efforts of suppression, a new ideology, known as kokutai, emerged as the general national consensus. The Japanese word, Figure 3: Map representing Japanese which roughly translates to “national essence,” 30 acquisitions from the Treaty of Portsmouth ( ) describes the rising nationalistic spirit of this time as personal investment into the Empire 30 In World War I, the Japanese Empire increased and a belief in Japan’s excellence joined the Allied powers, expelling Germany from became preeminent.37 its South Pacific island territories. Thus, Japan When the effect of the Great Depression earned a seat at the Paris Peace Conference and of 1929 struck Japan and the prices of major gained new lands in the Pacific. During the national exports plummeted, social agitation drafting the Covenant of the League of Nations, only proliferated. The democratic, parliamentary the Japanese delegation proposed the addition of a government began to lose control of popular “Racial Equality” clause to the founding document confidence. Fueled by the rise of to ensure “equal and just treatment in every ultranationalism, the Japanese military respect making no distinction, either in law or in established almost complete control over the 31 fact, on account of [one’s] race or nationality.” weakening government. The military began The proposed amendment, facing fierce opposition operating independently of the Prime Minister's from the Australian and American delegations, did orders and the Public Security Preservation Law not receive enough votes by the conference was enforced with greater force. Political members. The rejection, justified by misalignment dissidents were routinely assassinated, and with constituent ideologies, began to plague censorship of education and the media was Japanese relations with Allied nations developed intensified. Amidst a wave of nationalist 32 in the war. Furthermore, in the Washington upheaval and military control, the Empire of Naval Treaty, signed by the victors of World War I Japan entered the 1930s with expansionist to limit arms production, Japan was coerced to intentions of dominance over the Eastern ths agree to only produce 3/5 of the aircraft carriers world.38 and of the United States or the United 33 Kingdom. To a sizable portion of the nation’s Relevant Manchurian History population, this limit on production seemed like a Manchuria, a large region that foreign attempt to curb Japanese advancement. In encompasses much of and part many regards, the United States’ passage of the of the , denotes the lands native Japanese Exclusion Act of 1924, barring Japanese to the . The area is rich in natural immigration to the U.S. on solely racist motives, resources such as coal, fertile soil, and rare was the last straw. Mass rallies broke out in Japan minerals and has been well-pursued since its in reflection of angered popular opinion and calls

34 “Taisho and early Showa Period (1912 - 1945).” Japan Guide, 2002, www.japan-guide.com/e/e2129.html. 30 “The Russo-Japanese War and Peace 1904-1905”, Pinterest. 35 “Today in Earthquake History: September 1st.” U.S. https://goo.gl/qcpYcZ. Geological Survey. 31 van Boven, Theo C. from Exclusion to https://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/today/index.php?month Inclusion; Principles and Practice: An Anthology from the =9&day=1&submit=View+Date. Work of Theo Van Boven. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2000. 36 “, April 12, 1925.” Michigan State https://goo.gl/AHxvwX. University. 32 Ibid. https://msu.edu/~londo/FAU/4933_web/Peace_pres_law 33 Bevans, Charles Irving. and Other International .htm. Agreements of the United States of America, 1776-1949: 37 “Selections from the Kokutai No Hongi (Fundamentals of Multilateral, 1776-1917: 1776-1917. Vol. 1. Department of our National Polity), 1937.” Columbia University. State, 1968. https://www.loc.gov/law/help/us- http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/ps/japan/kokutai.pdf. treaties/bevans/m-ust000002-0351.pdf. 38 Duus, Ibid. 5

early history.39 Several Chinese civilizations and However, rising European paired dynasties laid claim to Manchuria since prehistoric with the weakening of the Qing Empire in the times and possession of the land had been nineteenth century resulted in Russian contested long before the nineteenth century. encroachment onto Manchurian lands. When the Qing Empire became preoccupied with crippling internal rebellion and destructive war with the British, Russians began settling in the River watershed of northern Manchuria under the protection of the Russian Navy. With loose governance of the region, the Qing Empire was forced to concede these resource-rich lands to Russia under the Treaty of of 1858.44 After additional concession in the Convention of 1860, the Russian Empire gained control of a large portion of Manchuria east of the River. As a result of these two losses, China lost its access to the Sea of Japan, stifling the nation’s economic activity.45 Growing Russian presence in the region expectedly invited conflict. In the late nineteenth century, Russia finished the construction of the Figure 4: Inner Manchuria (Dark Red) and Chinese Eastern Railway which connected Outer Manchuria (Light Red) (40) , a city in Chinese Manchuria, to , a city in Russian Manchuria (see In 1644, the Manchu people, unified by the Fig. 4). The railway increased Russia’s economic chieftain Nurhaci, invaded Beijing. After grip over inner Manchuria as many of the successfully ousting of the Ming Chinese occupied cities relied on Russian Dynasty, the Manchus established the Qing transportation for trade. As one of the eight Dynasty.40 They gained control of the entirety of foreign nations with significant spheres of China but granted their homeland of Manchuria influence over Qing territories, Russia fought special status and separate military rule.41 Among against violent, anti-foreign, anti-colonial, and the first policies of the was an anti- anti-Christian Chinese protestors in the Boxer immigration effort to prevent the , the Rebellion of 1899.46 In the two-year conflict, majority ethnic group of China, from settling in Russian soldiers killed over ten thousand Manchuria. Yet, the fertile ground drew Han Chinese people, including Manchus and Han Chinese farmers by legal and illegal means and Chinese, in the Manchurian region. The rebellion over time, Manchuria developed social and ended with the , another unequal agricultural practices representative of treaty that forced the Qing government to: pay a neighboring provinces in Northern China.42 modern equivalent of USD $9 billion in Initially opposed by the Qing Empire, this indemnities, to prohibit the importation of arms migration, known as , increased for two years, to execute members of the Chinese the population of Manchuria from one million to government complicit with Boxer rebellions, and fourteen million and made the Han Chinese the to concede the occupation of several majority ethnic group of the region.42 However, the economically productive cities and towns to Manchu people retained strict political control European powers.47 In the eyes of the Chinese over Manchuria throughout this period, resulting people, Russia was the foremost perpetrator of in destabilizing ethnic tension within the region. this colonial violence and thus became a national The northern boundary of Qing-occupied target. A group of armed Chinese bandits and Manchuria with Russian was originally robbers, known as the Honghuzi, waged guerrilla fixed by the of 1689 as along warfare against the Imperial Russian Army in an the drainage divide of the Stanovoy Mountains.43 effort to rid their influence in Manchuria.48 When the aforementioned Russo-Japanese War 39 Lowell, A. Lawrence. "Manchuria, the League, and the United States." Foreign Affairs 10.3 (1932): 351-368. 44 “.” Encyclopædia Britannica. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20030441. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Treaty-of-Aigun. 40 CIA World Factbook 45 Lowell, Ibid. 41 Shao, Dan. Remote Homeland, Recovered Borderland: 46 “.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Manchus, Manchoukuo, and Manchuria, 1907–1985, https://www.britannica.com/event/Boxer-Rebellion. University of Press, 2011. 47 Ibid. 42 Ibid. 48 Kowner, Rotem. Historical Dictionary of the Russo- 43 “Treaty of Nerchinsk.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Japanese War. Lanham, MD, Scarecrow Press, 2006. https://www.britannica.com/event/Treaty-of-Nerchinsk. https://goo.gl/VXwSDB. 6

broke out, the Honghuzi supported the Japanese Numerous coup d'état attempts were supported in the successful defeat of the Russian Empire. As by active and former members of the Kwantung a result, much of the Russian influence in Army and ultranationalist factions within the Southern Manchuria was replaced by Japanese nation were often led by junior Kwantung influence. Ownership of the southern section of the officials.51 Chinese Eastern Railway was transferred to the During China’s transition to a Republic, Japanese who now controlled the economic output former Honghuzi bandit, , became of the region.49 a prominent warlord in Manchuria. As a staunch The failure of the Qing Empire in dealing anti-Republican, he appealed to many Manchus with foreign powers and modernization led to a who wanted to preserve Manchu rule in the Qing series of violent revolts and uprisings throughout Dynasty and to the Japanese who wished to China. The Xinhai Revolution of 1911 ended with capitalize on China’s instability. Thus, when his the successful relinquishment of the six-year old, influence grew, and he became the ruler last Qing emperor: . Thus, on February 12, of Manchuria, the Kwantung Army often made 1912, China departed from over two thousand deals with him to preserve their economic years of imperial rule. The transition to the holdings in the region.52 However, as the new Republic of China often left Manchuria neglected. Republic began claiming the unequal treaties After all, part of the revolution was a nationalist between China and Japan invalid while expelling movement of the majority Han Chinese people to hundreds of Japanese inhabitants of China remove a Manchu emperor who represented a without compensation, Zhang Zuolin became small ethnic minority of the nation. Amidst this inclined to adopt anti-foreign policies. After period of uncertainty, Japan increased its proxy several attempts, the Kwantung Army control of Manchuria through negotiations with successfully assassinated the warlord in 1928. local warlords. In fact, the Japanese government, The decision to eliminate him was made entirely cognizant of Puyi’s popularity among the Manchu independently of the Japanese government. As a people, housed and protected the ousted emperor result, Zhang Xueliang, Zuolin’s son, joined the immediately after his removal from the throne. Republic of China out of anti-Japanese Furthermore, the of 1917 and sentiment.53 its immediate disorder created another In April 1931, China held a national opportunity for Japan to temporarily occupy Outer leadership conference in its then capital city, Manchuria. The raw materials and agricultural , where , Chiang Kai-shek, produce procured from Manchuria became and Zhang Xueliang publicly denounced Japan’s essential as the Japanese Empire set its mind on encroachment in Manchuria and pledged to rapid military development and international defend Chinese control of Manchuria.54 In expansion. retaliation, several officers in the Kwantung Army began to plot a secret invasion of The Manchuria. Kwantung Army Colonel Itagaki and When Japan received the Kwantung Leased Lt. Colonel Ishiwara devised a plan to provoke Territory (the area adjacent to the newly acquired Chinese troops stationed in Manchuria to justify railway lands in Southern Manchuria) from the invasion. When word of this plot reached Tokyo, Russians through the Treaty of Portsmouth, the Japanese Minister of War, Jiro Minami, established the Kwantung internally condemned such efforts and Garrison to defend the new lands (see Fig. 3). The dispatched a general to Manchuria to quell Garrison, initially composed of 100,000 soldiers to Kwantung insubordination and .55 guard the Zone, quickly Pressure from the federal government forced grew to become the largest and most prestigious Itagaki and Ishiwara to pursue plans of invasion infantry command of the Japanese Army.50 An immediately, regardless of a successful Chinese effort in 1919 to accommodate the massive provocation. increase in troops and arms renamed the garrison to the Kwantung Army and headquartered its command at Port Arthur on the mainland. Although the army was under the official 51 Harries, Ibid. authority of the government, it began acting 52 Young, Louise. Japan's Total Empire: Manchuria and independently starting in the 1920s. Many of the the Culture of Wartime . University of army’s members and leaders supported California Press, 1999. totalitarian fascist state structures and began to 53 Ibid. 54 Taylor, Jay. Government The generalissimo: Chiang Kai- exploit the rising wave of nationalism in Japan. shek and the struggle for modern China. Harvard University Press, 2009. 49 Duus, Ibid. 55 Ferrell, H. “The Mukden Incident: September 18- 50 Harries, Meirion. Soldiers of the Sun: The Rise and Fall of 19, 1931.” The Journal of Modern History, vol. 27, no. 1, the Imperial Japanese Army. Random House, 1994. 1955, pp. 66–72. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/1877701. 7

Japanese victories made any attempt of opposition futile. Eventually, the Imperial Japanese Army sent in three more infantry divisions to assist the Kwantung Army and the Japanese troops occupied the entire province by the end of the year.58

Figure 5: Site of Mukden Incident after “explosion.” Only minimal, insignificant damage is visible. (57) Thus, the two Kwantung officials decided to stage an explosion on Japanese-owned railway in Manchuria, blame the incident on the Chinese officials stationed nearby, and justify an invasion. They chose a small stretch of rail on flat land that had no given name and was not significant to either the Chinese or the Japanese due to its remoteness. The explosion would be relatively small and controlled, such that no people were Figure 6: Path of the Japanese Invasion of actually injured and reparations of the railway Manchuria along Manchurian Railway. (58) would not be expensive. In fact, when the explosion was carried out on September 18, 1931 by Lt. Kawamoto, no real damage occurred on the tracks and a train was able to successfully pass League of Nations over them only minutes later. However, the Citing Article XI of the Covenant, the incident was reported otherwise. The Japanese Republic of China called for a League of Nations press named the site to be a major bridge, costing session because “any war or threat of war, the Southern Manchuria Railway heaps of whether immediately affecting any of the Japanese taxpayer funds for reparation. Named members of the League or not … [is] a matter of after the nearest major city, this staged explosion concern to the whole League.”59 The League became known as the Mukden Incident.56 immediately denounced the Kwantung Army’s actions and ordered the Japanese government to Contemporary Conditions withdraw its troops. The Japanese delegation agreed to the demand and blamed the incident Invasion on insubordination that is not representative of The following morning from the Mukden the emperor’s policy. However, the Army refused Incident, the Kwantung Army invaded Manchuria. to heed to such orders. The civilian government While the true authority behind the invasion had lost control of the army and the League had remains a controversy in the 21st century, the only dealt with the national government. general consensus is that the commander-in-chief Thus, on October 16, 1931, the League of the Kwantung Army, General Shigeru Honjo, convened for a special meeting to address the ordered troops to expand all along the railway growing crisis. Sensing the impending severity of despite instructions from Tokyo to localize the the invasion, the League invited the United incident.57 Kwantung Army officials occupied the States to send a representative to sit on the major Manchurian cities of Mukden, , League Council for the first time.60 The Hoover and Kirin within days, forcing Chinese troops to administration accepted the invitation and sent withdraw from the region. While the democratic Prentiss Gilbert to the League. While economic government at Tokyo was initially appalled by the Kwantung Army’s insubordination, a string of 58 Ibid. 59 "The Covenant of the League of Nations," Ibid. 60 “The Mukden Incident of 1931 and the Stimson 56 Chen, C. Peter. Doctrine.” Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State. https://ww2db.com/image.php?image_id=2108. https://history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/mukden- 57 Lowell, Ibid. incident. 8

sanctions remained a possible reprimand against December 11, 1931, and the has the Japanese government, no nation wanted to been assembled for investigation but has yet to pursue them because of the Great Depression. update the League on the true events leading up Trade with the Eastern Asian power proved critical to invasion. Please note that this means that at in the difficult economic times and as the British this point there is no certainty as to which side delegate remarked, a nation that would impose was responsible for the Mukden Incident. sanctions on Japan would simply be replaced by Furthermore, you, as a delegate in the League another opportunistic nation.61 Thus, the Republic Assembly, have the opportunity to direct or of China became the only nation to enforce a modify the terms of the Commission. For boycott of Japanese goods, which only further example, it may be notable that all members of impaired China’s efforts to retain Manchuria.62 the Lytton Commission are Western, and having a more diverse representation may benefit your Lytton Commission nation. As a dais, we will announce updates and Thus, exhausting all immediate options, reports released by the Commission and it will be the League of Nations, on , 1931, your duty to respond accordingly. Furthermore, established an investigatory commission to “to actions taken by our committee, by form of study … and to report to the Council on any legislation, will affect Lytton Commission circumstances which, affecting international findings accordingly.65 relations, threaten to disturb the The overarching goal is to placate peace between China and Japan.”63 The belligerent tensions in the region and to ensure commission was to be headed by Lord Lytton of all member nations not only remain in the the and included one member League but also adhere to its premises. In this from the following nations: The United States, pursuit, I urge you to be creative. Not only use Germany, , and France. The Lytton the Lytton Commission to advance your national Commission’s investigatory mission sought to policy but also compromise and draft resolutions determine the true events and intentions leading that address the crisis at its root. As a dais, we up to the Japanese invasion and offer will be receptive to innovative solutions and will recommendations for further action to the update the situation appropriately. League.64 Past League of Nations and International Action The following section describes the real- world events and past actions taken by the League in response to the invasion. While our committee almost certainly will not take the same direction, it is important to understand the actual failed outcome in order to rectify previous mistakes. After gaining control of Manchuria, Japanese militarists made a quick effort to separate the province from China and create a . The invasion and conquest proved very popular with the , who viewed Manchuria as not only an economic lifeline to a nation struggling from the effects of Figure 7: Group portrait of the Lytton the Great Depression but also a sink for the Commission along with Japanese assessor rising Japanese population.66 Even amidst anti- to the Commission, Yoshida Isaburo. (67) war protests in Japan, the natural resources We will start our simulation of the League provided by Manchuria proved critical for of Nations at this moment. Precisely, the date is Japan’s prewar industrial boom and supported mass employment. In this manner, the majority of Japanese people resented efforts fueled by 61 Lowell, Ibid. foreign pressures to let Manchuria go. On 62 “Chronology 1931” League of Nations Photo . , 1932, the Japanese Empire Indiana University. established a subsidiary state called http://www.indiana.edu/~league/1931.htm. 63 Kuhn, Arthur K. “The Lytton Report on the Manchurian Crisis.” The American Journal of , vol. 27, 65 Schnee, Heinrich. Völker und Mächte im Fernen Osten, no. 1, 1933, pp. 96–100. JSTOR, Global Politics on Screen, Item #131, https://kjc- www.jstor.org/stable/2189786. sv013.kjc.uni-heidelberg.de/gpos/items/show/131. 64 Ibid. 66 Trueman, Ibid. 9

on the acquired lands. In an effort to legitimize the Japan’s departure undermined the League by new state, the Japanese army invited the last Qing demonstrating its futility to deal with a major Emperor, Puyi, to be the figurehead emperor of his power acting as an aggressor. Furthermore, native Manchu State.67 despite the report’s implication that Manchuria In , the Lytton Commission rightfully belonged to the Republic of China, began a six-month investigation in earnest to eight countries officially recognized the state of determine the root and justification of the Manchukuo before the breakout of World War invasion. With a certain degree of support from II.70 The League’s inability to enforce its actions both sides, the Commission was able to interview and hinder the impending wave of militarism both Chinese and Japanese officials, as well as points to its greatest failure. investigate the site of the Mukden Incident itself. Meanwhile, pro-Chinese, Manchurian militias Questions a Resolution Must were organized in resistance to Manchukuo and a Answer civil war of several years broke out in which Japan successfully quelled the uprising. Politically, the 1. What actions of compromise may be state established its own imperial . taken to ensure that both the Empire of However, in reality, all decisions were made by Japan and the Republic of China are Japanese vice-ministers and the existence of a compelled to remain in the League of civilian government was merely symbolic. Nations? On October 1, 1932, the Lytton Commission Japan’s exit from the League of Nations circulated its final report of findings to the League following the issue of condemnation is often of Nations. The report produces a deep analysis of highlighted as a central ineptitude of the the deep cultural, economic, and militaristic organization. Not only did it hinder later background behind the invasion. However, the attempts to peacefully negotiate with Japan, but most critical part of the Report was one chapter it also established a dangerous precedent for dedicated to the investigation of the Mukden other powerful nations that wished to ignore the Incident. The report states (p71): League’s reprimands. It is essential that all actions taken by the League are powerful yet also The military operations of the Japanese maintain all affected nations at the table. troops during this night, which have been described above, cannot be regarded as 2. Considering the outbreak of violence in measures of legitimate self-defense. In resistance to the establishment of saying this, the Commission does not Manchukuo, what actions can the League exclude the hypothesis that the officers on of Nations take to prevent the emergence the spot may have thought they were acting of a complete civil war while providing in self-defense.68 necessary aid to refugees? As with nearly all militarized internal Thus, the Report asserted an indictment conflicts, innocent civilians were adversely against Japan, claiming that its actions were of affected in the Japanese pacification of premeditated aggression and not self-defense. Manchukuo. It is a priority of the League to also Furthermore, with regards to the newly formed facilitate the provision of immediate relief to state of Manchukuo, the Commission reported that refugees and innocent victims of a conflict. there was no general Chinese support for the state Furthermore, as we are starting our session and that it was “not part of a genuine and before the declaration of the Manchu State, spontaneous independent movement.”69 However, consider methods that will prevent the outbreak for the sake of impartiality, the Report indicated of violence in the first place. grievances on both the Japanese and Chinese sides. The report concludes with a list of ten 3. Having understood the eventual general principles to which a feasible solution to outcome of the actual Lytton Report, what the conflict must adhere. The suggestions included is the ideal direction for the simulated an acknowledgement of the rights and interests of Lytton Commission to take from its Japan, China, and even the Soviet Union. onset? On February 24, 1933, the League voted to Understand the strengths and officially adopt the report and condemn Japan as weaknesses of the Lytton Commission and use an aggressor. This caused the Japanese delegation your privilege of retrospection to steer the to walk out and on March 27, the Commission in a way that best benefits your formally withdrew from the League of Nations. national policy as well as the League’s goals. For example, a common criticism is that the 67 Duus, Ibid. 68 Kuhn, Ibid. 69 Ibid. 70 Kuhn, Ibid. 10

Commission took too long, allowing Japan to Bloc Positions create the State of Manchukuo and thus making reconciliation efforts with China more difficult. Diplomatic Recognition of Manchukuo A great indication of general foreign 4. Which members of the League of Nations policy in this matter is observing how nations will have a genuine impact in compelling responded to the State of Manchukuo. Despite the nations directly involved to execute the formal recommendation of the Lytton Report League recommendations? to recognize Manchuria as rightfully Chinese Actions of foreign policy often take a deep lands, the following nations recognized network of nations to materialize. Understand Manchukuo as a sovereign, independent state which nations hold alliances or other powers of with the date of declaration: El Salvador (1934), leverage over involved nations and thus would be (1934), (1934), valuable in achieving your goals. These Italy (1937), (1937), (1938), international relationships may often be the most and Hungary (1939).71 The Soviet Union powerful enforcers of accountability. unofficially recognized Manchukuo in 1935 and following the outbreak of World War II, all of 5. How can the League effectively address Japan’s allies in the war formally acknowledged the rise of militaristic nationalism in both the puppet state.72 Considering that the nations China and Japan while respecting the listed above, with the exception of the U.S.S.R., national of each nation? recognized Manchukuo despite the League’s The League of Nations is soundly based on recommendation not to, diplomatic recognition the premise of national sovereignty and all of Manchukuo can be considered a strong recommendations need to respect the inherent indication of a nation’s partnership with the powers of each member state. This stifles possible Empire of Japan. Then again, each of the listed solutions many times, especially during military nations had more nuanced relationships with conflict. Remember to consider the sovereignty of Japan and it would be inaccurate to cast them all Japan and China in your solutions. under the same shadow.

6. Which punitive measures should be Western Bloc taken against nations found responsible in The rising , disdain the Lytton Report and how may these for the democratic government, and expansionist penalties be implemented effectively? ideologies worried several Western European The punitive measures recommended and North American nations. The United States, following the Lytton Report not only ceased the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands had necessary communications with Japan but also all issued public statements denouncing proved ineffective in conflict resolution. Consider antidemocratic actions in Japan while alternatives or viable reforms so that you will be and other Commonwealth nations levied higher prepared when the Lytton Report is released. tariffs on Japanese imported goods.73 However, as previously noted, these nations still relied on 7. How should access to the natural Japanese trade in efforts to resuscitate domestic resources of Manchuria be allocated and economies following the Great Depression. how would this be implemented? Therefore, and boycotts were Arguably, one of the largest driving forces not a policy initiative for these nations. behind the Kwantung invasion is economic. In In 1932, U.S. of State Henry L. order to placate military tensions, solutions must Stimson stated that the United States: consider the division of Manchuria’s rich natural “does not intend to recognize any treaty resources. or agreement entered into between , or agents thereof, which 8. How can the League of Nations address may impair the treaty rights of the United the Kwantung Army’s actions if they are States or its citizens in China, including indeed found to be independent of the those that relate to the sovereignty, the federal government’s orders? independence, or the territorial and Non-state actors have continued to be a administrative integrity of the Republic complex focus of intergovernmental bodies to this of China, or to the international policy day. If investigative reports do determine the Empire of Japan’s innocence in the invasion, 71 Nish, Ian Hill, Japanese foreign policy in the interwar period, Westport: Praeger, 2002. p. 95 devise solutions within the purview of the League 72 Nish, Ibid. that can castigate insubordinate non-state actors. 73 Akagi, Roy Hidemichi Japan's Foreign Relations 1542- 1936: A Short History. 1979. pp, 481-550 https://ia801603.us.archive.org/12/items/in.ernet.dli.2015 .226231/2015.226231.Japan-Foreign.pdf. 11

relative to China.”76 high stakes in these situations. Simply Stimson’s non-recognition policy became adopted supporting or rejecting one side will not facilitate by the United States’ closest allies and antagonized any constructive debate. Emphasize differences Japan. in policy. Research unique policies of your nation and discussions about historical measures that Republic of China and Allies your nation has taken in response to Japan’s Quite expectedly, the Republic of China invasion. Remember, every nation, regardless of adopted anti-Japanese policies in reaction to the how connected it is to Manchuria, was affected invasion. It was the only nation to issue a complete by the invasion. Discover the blocs and coalitions embargo on Japanese trade and it called a League pertinent to your nation’s policies and find of Nations session in the first place. Allies of China developmental solutions in line with your in this conference resonate this sentiment. East interests. At the end of the day, our goal is that Asian nations who may fear Japan’s threat to their this endeavor into history opens up a door to not sovereignty may side with China. only the past but also the future.

Soviet Bloc Despite the Russo-Japanese War, the Topic B: Second Italo- Soviet Republic and nations closely tied with the Ethiopian War (1935) U.S.S.R. maintained strict neutrality with the Japanese Empire after the invasion. At this time, the Soviet Union was not yet a member of the Introduction League of Nations and Moscow was remindful of The Second Italo-Ethiopian War began in Japan’s strict impartiality during the Sino-Soviet with Italy’s invasion of . crisis of 1929-1930.74 Yet Russia’s relations with Since then, the Italians have occupied Adigrat, Japan were far from cordial. After the Adwa and Makale, but after the Ethiopian establishment of Manchukuo, the Soviet Union Christmas Offensive led by Emperor Haile fortified a strong military presence on the Soviet- Selassie, the war could lean towards either side.77 Manchukuo border.75 Furthermore, Russia still The League has already condemned Italy’s controlled the Northern Manchuria Railway and invasion through the implementation of justified its growing military presence as a economic sanctions, but more action will be defensive measure for its rail tracks. Negotiations needed in order for Italy to permanently halt the and trade routinely occurred between the two infringement of Ethiopia’s sovereignty. neighboring nations, but each nation remained It is of utmost importance that the skeptical of the other.76 League of Nations be able to peacefully resolve this issue, as not only are both Italy and Ethiopia Conclusion member states of the League, but as Italy has begun the use of chemical weapons, which is a The Japanese invasion of Manchuria direct violation of both 1899 and 1907 Hague remains one of the most pivotal moments in world Conventions.81 history. The League’s failure to effectively mediate Failure to resolve this issue would result the crisis not only undermined the in a further loss of confidence in the League of intergovernmental organization but also initiated Nation, the marginalization of treaties that the slippery slope towards World War II. attempt to protect human rights, and greater Recommendations to correct the past are instability in both European and African regions, ubiquitous but not unanimous. There are multiple and the world in general. approaches the League may have taken to prevent or at least mitigate the impending crisis. Understanding the history and background of the Historical Background situation are critical, but ultimately your creativity League of Nations in 1935 will determine the quality of your solutions. The League of Nation’s overarching goal Our focus for this debate is to promote is to maintain global peace and to maintain thought-provoking debate about an earnest human rights. As described before, it does so historical issue. The only way this will be possible mainly through , , is if delegates come prepared with a and resolving international disputes between comprehensive knowledge of their national policy. nations. The League does not have its own armed It is important to remember that foreign policy in such a military crisis is nuanced and nations have 77 “Italo-Ethiopian War.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 74 Akagi, Ibid. www.britannica.com/event/Italo-Ethiopian-War-1935- 75 Ibid. 1936. 76 Ibid. 12

forces, and instead depends on the armies of the The discontent with the result of the war great powers, such as the UK, France, and Italy, to also led to the rise of in Italy, with the enforce its regulations or sanctions.80 Its National Fascist Party (PNF) succeeding, which dependencies on such nations to mobilize troops was led by Mussolini. promotes has proved to be one of the reasons to the failures the linking together and collaboration between of the League to resolve certain disputes. both the employee and employer in the form of At this point in time the League of Nations associations to work along with the state to set has seemed to reach its peak in members. There national economic policies. This differs greatly has been little increase in members over the past between both liberal and Marxist socialism few years, and some have begun to leave the views.83 After gaining power, Mussolini banned League. Currently the League numbers 57 strong. political parties and eradicated personal However, with important parties such as the liberties, resulting in the formation of a United States not in the League and nations such . as Germany and Japan actively withdrawing from The Great War led to an expansion of the League, the League’s ability to continue to Italy’s industry, especially those that were broker is in question. Additionally, involved in the production of goods that were with the League failing to resolve important issues beneficial to the war. However, extensive such as the Manchurian Incident in 1931 (between borrowing during the war meant the Italian Japan and China) and the Chaco War in 1932 government was not able to support those (fought between and that industries, and so an industrial and banking resulted in around 100,000 deaths), little faith collapse occurred in 1921.79 This again led to the remains in the ability of the League to resolve rise of Mussolini, who attempted to increase issues.80 This makes it more important that the employment by driving the creation of jobs in the committee able to resolve this issue of the Second primary sector, mainly with wheat farms, which Italo-Ethiopian War that is currently underway. were mildly successful. However, his main objective was government control of businesses, Italy after The Great War and just earlier this year, it was announced that Although a member of the Triple , the Italian state had control of over three with Germany and -Hungary, Italy did not quarters of Italian businesses.84 join Germany and Austria-Hungary’s offensive due to the fact that it believed the Alliance to be a Italy’s Expansion After the Great War defensive one rather than offensive one. Another reason was that Italy did not believe that Austria- Hungary would be willing to hand over certain territories that Italy wanted. Hence, Italy began negotiations with the Allied powers, hoping that moving from a neutral position to an interventionist position against the would net them more territory, if the Allied Powers were victorious. Initially, the Italians made little headway with the attacks against Austria-Hungary, but in October 1918, Italy was successful in driving deep into Austrian territory, leading to the collapse of Austria-Hungary and the end of the Great War78. After the war, Italy was recognized as a permanent member and granted seat in the League’s executive council, along with Britain, France, and Japan. However, during post-war negotiations, Italy received little of the land than Figure 8: Map of East Africa after WW1. what was expected, and the territorial gains were Territories in red are under British rule, and perceived to be small in comparison to the costs those in Orange are under Italian rule. (83) that Italy incurred during the war.82 The uncertainty and doubt of whether Italy truly “won” 79 Degli Esposti, Fabio: Post-war Economies (Italy), in: the war led to social discord, and ultimately 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First resulted in the rise of . World War, ed. by Ute Daniel, Peter Gatrell, Oliver Janz, Heather Jones, Jennifer Keene, Alan Kramer, and Bill Nasson, issued by Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin 2015-06- 78 C N Trueman "Italy And World War One". 22. DOI: 10.15463/ie1418.10667. Translated by: Mazhar, historylearningsite.co.uk. The History Learning Site, 25 May Noor Giovanni https://encyclopedia.1914-1918- 2015. 6 Aug 2017. online.net/article/post-war_economies_italy 13

Imperial expansion is a favored topic Wal Wal Incident and the Abyssinia during Mussolini’s speeches, and one of his central Crisis aims is to be able to gain enough power to be able to challenge both the militaries of Britain and France. In order to do so, Mussolini believes that Italy would require complete control over the trade routes that link the Atlantic, Mediterranean, and the Indian Oceans. He believes that Italy is only a “semi-independent nation”, and allegedly a “prisoner in the Mediterranean”.83 In 1932, Italy demanded that the League mandate of German Cameroon and a free hand in Ethiopia, which would further solidify Italian presence in Africa, in exchange for support against Germany. However, these terms were not agreed by the French government. Italy currently controls Italian Somaliland and Italian Eritrea. Figure 9: Map of East Africa after fort at Walwal was built in 1930. (86)1 Italo-Ethiopian Treaty of 1928

The Italo-Ethiopian Treaty of 1928 was a After the Italo-Ethiopian Treaty of 1928 treaty signed between the and the was signed, Italy built a fort at the Walwal oasis on 2 August 1928. Initially in and garrisoned it with Somali Ascari, who were 1926, the British and Italians attempted to frontier troops commanded by Italian officers.81 pressure the state of Ethiopia to allow Britain to This fort was well within the Ethiopian build a water works to irrigate Anglo-Egyptian boundary, and so Ethiopian territorial troops Sudan, and Italy to build a railway80. However, Ras encamped in close proximity. Tafari, who later became Emperor of Tensions about Italy’s invasion of Ethiopia, protested with the League’s decision, Ethiopia’s sovereignty led to a clash that resulting in the British backing out on the plan due occurred in , that led to the death to unpopular public opinion. However, Mussolini of 110 Ethiopians, 30 Italians, and 50 Somalis.82 enlisted the help of the Duke of Abruzzi, and in Both sides blamed the other over the initiation of 1928 sailed to Ethiopia to present Ras Tafari with the attack, and when Ethiopia appealed to the many riches, including a limousine. League of Nations for arbitration of the dispute This allowed Italy and Ethiopia to sign the arising from the Walwal incident, both parties aforementioned treaty, which agreed on conditions were exonerated. After the appeal, Minister of such as but not limited to Foreign Affairs of France and  20 year friendship between the two nations, Foreign Secretary Samuel Hoare of the United  Agreement to settle future disputes through Kingdom met with Italian dictator Benito the League of Nations, Mussolini in Rome. Shortly after, the Franco-  Provision of a concession to Ethiopia at the Italian Agreement was formed, which gave Italy Red Sea port of Asseb, in Italian Eritrea, parts of French , aiding Italy with  Cooperation to build a road between Asseb and dealing with Ethiopia, in exchange for Italian Dessie, support against Germany.89  Establishing the border between Italian However, after five Italian soldiers were Somaliland and Ethiopia to be 21 leagues killed in January of 1935 near Walwal, Mussolini parallel to the Benadir Coast. began sending large numbers of troops to Eritrea and Somaliland that bordered Ethiopia, which was met with little international protest.89 After the buildup of troops, Ethiopia repeatedly

81 Potter, Pitman B. “The Wal Wal Arbitration.” The American Journal of International Law, vol. 30, no. 1, 1 Jan. 1936, pp. 27–44. JSTOR, JSTOR.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/2190555?seq=1#page_scan_t ab_contents 82 Yared, Ephrem. “The Second Italo-Abyssinian War (1935–1936).” BlackPast, 80 “Italo–Ethiopian Treaty of 1928.” World News, 7 Aug. 2016, http://www.blackpast.org/gah/second-italo-abyssinian- https://wn.com/italo%E2%80%93ethiopian_treaty_of_1928. war-1935-1936 14

appealed to the League and requested arbitration. Selassie’s army saw thousands upon thousands Italy reluctantly agreed, but continued mobilizing of men armed with spears and bows, unprepared its troops into the region. for conflict with a modern military force. Few In , the League held a special men had guns and those who did were mostly session to discuss the issue in Ethiopia, and using equipment left over from the first Italo- multiple attempts at arbitration were held. The Ethiopian war of 40 years prior. United Kingdom tried to broker an unsuccessful Italy, on the other hand, had learned peace agreement, and imposed an arms embargo from the failures of the past and prepared a on both the Italians and Ethiopia, and also formidable force. Shortly before the beginning of subsequently removing its warships from the the war, Italy had amassed twelve infantry Mediterranean, which aided Italy in mobilizing divisions totaling 680,000 (480,000 Italians troops and sending supplies to its forces in Africa. and 200,000 Somalis and Eritreans) soldiers in In June, discussions of arbitration continued, but the areas surrounding Ethiopia (they also had they quickly fell apart by July, and during August, 6,000 machine guns, 2,000 pieces of modern the League limited the arbitration talks to matters artillery, 595 tanks, and 150 aircraft).85 The stage other than the sovereignty of Walwal.83 for conflict was set on both sides. Though Ethiopia has continued to ask for the arms embargo to be lifted, the United Kingdom Breakout of the Second Italo-Ethiopian remained steadfast in its decision to commit to the War embargo. Additionally, both France and the United Arbitration officially collapsed on Kingdom offered large concessions to Italy in an October 3rd, 1935 as Italian General Emilio De attempt to prevent war between Italy and Ethiopia, Bono led his troops over the Mareb River from but Italy rejected the offer.90 Eritrea and onto Ethiopian soil. At this point in Finally, in September, the League officially time Italy had not even officially declared war, exonerated both parties over the Walwal incident, but its intentions were set: bring down the stating that both nations had believed Walwal to Ethiopian government. In response to Italy’s be within its own territorial borders.90 Following actions, Emperor Selassie declared war on them. this, with continued mobilization of Italian forces, The Second-Italo Ethiopian War had begun, and both France and the United Kingdom agreed that the league’s failures soon became evident for the limitations to sanctions against Italy should be entire world to see. imposed, which was finally implement by the Within a few days, the Italians had made United Kingdom. stunning progress. General De Bono traveled The continued inability to both resolve the quickly and by October 6th, 1935 his forces had Walwal incident and the inability to convince Italy captured Adigrat and Adowa. Adowa had been to take up other deals to prevent the war both the site where the Italians had suffered a proved to be catalysts that led to the Second Italo- devastating defeat in the First Italo-Ethiopian Ethiopian War, and also led to deeper distrust War some 40 years prior. Not stopped there this among member nations regarding the League’s time, Italian forces had taken the holy city of ability to continue maintaining world peace. Axum by the middle of October and rooted its Obelisk during their conquest of the city. Mussolini, however, was displeased with the At this point, Emperor Selassie saw an cautious tactics of General De Bono and believed Italian offensive as almost an inevitability. He the invasion should proceed faster. As a result, called upon his people to mobilize a massive army he replaced De Bono with Field Marshal Pietro in and on the eve of the war, was Badoglio in early December. reported to have gathered roughly 760,000 men During all this time, the Ethiopians had (in addition he is said to have had 200 antiquated been simply unable to repel the Italian attacks. pieces of artillery, 50 anti-aircraft guns, some Their technological superiority was becoming armored trucks, and a small number of WWI-era overwhelmingly obvious and city after city was tanks).84 By 1935, technological advancements had lost as the Italians routed back any defending transformed war into something even more deadly forces. The situation looked ever-more than World War I, at least for Italy. Emperor desperate, with Emperor Selassie continuously pleading the for help.

In what he hoped would be a crushing 83 C N Trueman "Abyssinia". historylearningsite.co.uk. The History Learning Site, 25 May 2015. 6 Aug 2017. move, Emperor Selassie organized a large http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/modern-world-history- fighting force that he would use to hopefully 1918-to-1980/italy-1900-to-1939/abyssinia/ drive the Italians, who were situated in the 84 "Second Italo-Ethiopian War - New World Northern part of the country and divided into Encyclopedia." Info:Main Page - New World Encyclopedia, www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Second_Italo- Ethiopian_War. 85 "Second Italo-Ethiopian War,” Ibid. 15

several large armies, back. This has become known actually an attempt by the British and French to as the Christmas offensive and at this point in time curry favor with Mussolini, whom they direly it is still an ongoing operation, with victors and hoped would remain on their side if war were to losers yet to be determined and little information break out with Germany. Secondly, since it was to no information regarding the results of any not certain that the Italians would even turn to battles that have been waged or are being waged. the Americans for oil, the League’s omission of an oil embargo from the sanctions it placed on International Response the Italians clearly favored the Italians, who had In the midst of all this was the League of an uninterrupted supply line of oil to its war Nations. Having utterly failed to prevent this war effort from the very countries condemning it. even though it had attempted arbitration for These factors combined to make the months beforehand, the league’s credibility was League look weak and incapable of methodically suffering greatly. The League was an solving problems. The League seemingly refused unprecedented experiment in inter-state to uphold their goal of maintaining world peace collaboration and, as has already been outlined, when they allowed Italy to continue receiving oil had ambitious goals in terms of maintaining world and further powering their war machine. This peace and upholding human rights. The outbreak contradiction is even more shocking due to the of this war reflected on the league extremely poorly fact that a coalition of fifty-seven nations went and left many nations and people around the world against its own mission to simply attempt to questioning the benefit and power of the League. strengthen political ties with one nation Following the outbreak of the war, the regarding a war that hadn’t even happened. League concluded that the Italians were the Thus, our committee begins as such: the aggressors and began discussing sanctions. Italians and Ethiopians are taking place in a Rumors circled that the League might ask for help large-scale battle whose outcome is still unclear. from non-member states, which prompted the US Both sides are adamant in their objectives, with to respond. The United States had already taken the Ethiopians seeking to survive the onslaught actions of its own against the Italians and made of the Italians and the Italians seeking to other nations explicitly aware of the fact that the conquer Ethiopia. Meanwhile, the League of they had been proactive. The American Secretary Nations stands utterly humiliated by previously of State also made it abundantly clear that the described events. Humiliated but not incapable, United States wished to follow its own course of the League still has power and how that power actions within its own and limitations. Since manifests depends on how different delegates the United States was not a member of the League, cooperate to find a solution to this crisis. Other it further reflected on the supposed incompetence important geopolitical factors to consider at the of the League that a non-member state had not outset of this committee are: the rise of fascism only preempted the league in taking action, but in , the presence and potential impact of had also made it clear they would be unwilling to non-member states, the conflicts raging in Asia, cooperate with the League. the previous conflict between Italy and Ethiopia, In response to the war, American President and the internal strife occurring in the League of Franklin Delano Roosevelt invoked the Neutrality Nations. With all of this in mind, the events of Act and imposed a series of embargoes on both this committee will begin on January 1st, 1936. Ethiopia and Italy that forbade American export of weapons, ammunition, and other tools of war. The League, on the other hand, would Contemporary Conditions resort to economic and material sanctions of Italy. In reality, the Ethiopians were initially However, other geopolitical situations had a great successful with the Christmas offensive and even impact on the contents of these sanctions and won the Battle of Dembeguina Pass, during restrictions. Oil was the key ingredient to the which they defeated 1,000 Eritrean troops under Italian’s military might. As long as they could keep Italian command.86 However, as this was powering their planes, tanks, armored vehicles, happening the Italians were invading from the and cars their technological might would suppress South and had occupied several cities in that the poorly armed and prepared Ethiopians. As a region. Between January 12th and January 16th, result, the League debated on whether to freeze the southernmost Ethiopian army was defeated British and French oil exports (which made up by the Italians. On January 20th, 1936, the most of Italy’s oil supply). However, the British and French vehemently condemned this idea, claiming that if they stopped exporting oil to the 86 "The Second Italo-Abyssinian War (1935–1936) | The Italians, the Italians would turn to America for oil. Black Past: Remembered and Reclaimed." | The Black Past: This refusal to stop selling oil to the Italians Remembered and Reclaimed, was more complicated than it seems. First, it was www.blackpast.org/gah/second-italo-abyssinian-war-1935- 1936. 16

Italians continued their northern offensive after the Christmas offensive had fizzled out 3. How can the League balance other inconclusively and led to no recapturing of geopolitical considerations while territory by the Ethiopians. By the middle of effectively responding to this conflict? March, the southern had begun a As fascism takes hold in Germany and massive offensive towards the city of Harar and on Italy and war rages across Asia, no issue is March 29th, they leveled the city and captured it. In completely isolated from world affairs, and the the north, the Italians defeated a major Second Italo-Ethiopian War is no different. What counteroffensive on March 31st by the main considerations must countries take when Ethiopian Army, the last major battle of the war. deciding their best course of action and how do As the northern and southern Italian armies those considerations play into effective advanced, defeat became an inevitability, and on deliberation and implementation of resolutions May 2nd, 1936, Emperor Haile Selassie went into within this committee? exile. The Italians took the capital city of Addis Ababa on May 5th, 1936, and eventually merged 4. What is the ultimate, overarching goal Eritrea, Somaliland, and Ethiopia into a single of this committee and what do individual called “.” Thus, the nations hope to gain from that goal? Ethiopians were ultimately unsuccessful, the From the League of Nations as a body to Italians had proved that militaristic fascism was individual nations and non-member nations, a effective (which would allow Mussolini to mobilize lot of actors are at play here. Using what you his forces for WWII), and the League of Nations know about the current state of affairs and the had utterly failed to play any major role in slowing League’s previous failures and successes, ask or stopping this conflict. yourself what goal every action in this committee The real outcomes of this conflict are should strive towards. important parts of history and delegates should always have them at the back of their minds when 5. How does it reflect on the League of deliberating. However, the point of this committee Nations that both Ethiopia and Italy are is to facilitate intellectual debate regarding an both members and what implications event in world history that could have progressed does that have for the stability and reach remarkably differently. Thus, delegates should not of the League? base their actions on history itself but should Already in a fragile position, the League always understand the potential outcomes of their is now facing a conflict between two member actions through the lens of history. states. What implications does that have for the League and world affairs? Questions a Resolution Must Answer 6. Do League members put their own national interests before the collective 1. What actions can the League of Nations interest of the League regarding their take to prevent further bloodshed in this interests in the region around Ethiopia conflict? and Northeastern Africa? The League has thus far been incapable of Many member nations have colonies in producing results regarding any sort of arbitration Africa and this conflict is sure to destabilize the in this war. However, as the situation remains region. Member nations must decide how to unclear, can the League create a plan that would approach this reality as they balance out their appease both the Italians and the Ethiopians as political and economic interests in the region they seek to end this conflict? with their commitment to the League’s ideas.

2. Can the League proactively work with 7. Does the League actually have the non-member nations, more specifically the political clout to accomplish its goals or is United States, in a concerted effort to stop it simply a futile attempt by idealistic this conflict? governments to display progress and The United States has made it clear that it peace? is not willing to cooperate with the league Is the League of Nations “the real deal” in regarding this issue. However, it and potentially terms of an effective, united, global, peace- other non-member states can play important roles keeping body worth investing time and resources in this issue. Can the League convince the US and into or is it a venture into idealism that doesn’t other non-member nations to work together for actually do anything of significance and fails to the greater good of the world or will governmental prevent conflicts such as the Second Italo- differences continue to dictate responses to this Ethiopian War? crisis? 17

8. What can the League learn from what that at this point the League may not be as hasn’t worked to be better prepared to effective a body as it claims or wants to be, so address future events like it? many leaders of member states may be The theme of the League’s involvement so questioning their commitments to the ideals of far in this conflict is failure. Arbitration has failed, the league and may secretly have other agendas other nations are imposing their will onto the to push. Thus, as has been proven by Italy, League, and the US is actively undermining the member states share the League’s ideals only in League in a show of strength. What has the League title. Countries will need to decide what most learned from this and how will these lessons benefits them and how they can translate their translate into future policy-making? national interests into policy that undermines the league, supports it, or disregards it. The Bloc Positions direction and fate of this bloc solely depends on whether the individual members wish to work Invaders together or not. Italy, and by extension its colonies, are the clear aggressors in this conflict. Eritrea, Somalia, Japan and Germany and Italy are actively seeking to conquer Ethiopian Japan and Germany are in a unique land and have demonstrated that International position. As Hitler is beginning to dominate pressure will not hinder their actions. It has central Europe and war rages in the far east, become clear that their radical leader, Benito perpetrated by Japan, these nations have high Mussolini, is hellbent on conquering the lands of mobility and independence. Having both quit the the people of Ethiopia to prove Italy’s dominance league in 1933, these states are heavily as a military power and claim the resources of the militarized, expansionist, and have a stake in any land. This bloc will most likely seek ways to expand global affair due to their empirical goals. How on its current campaign and make sure that the these nations decide to act is a matter of how Christmas Offensive is quashed and the invasion their leaders believe they can benefit from can continue. Although a member state of the supporting one side or another. Furthermore, League of Nations, it is highly unlikely that Italy these countries have expressed their and its colonies will be willing to work out peace condemnation towards the League and left it, so with the League unless extremely attractive this bloc is likely to actively work to dismantle propositions are made. and undermine League policies in a show of dominance and strength. They are likely to work Ethiopia together due to their mutual goals of spreading The Kingdom of Ethiopia is under attack. their ideology and their perceived superiority Their armies have so far been completely over other nations and peoples. ineffective against the Italians and the outcome of the Christmas offensive is unclear. Thus, the Non-Member Nations Ethiopians have a choice to make: how will they Many other nations that are not members proceed from here. The kingdom must decide of the League of Nations also have extreme whether to continue fighting back, ask for mobility with the direction they wish to move in. international military aid, press for more Nations such as the United States, , and sanctions, or do something completely unexpected Egypt are just examples of states that can have a that would see them survive this war. Ethiopia is massive impact on the outcome of this conflict if likely to partner with both the League itself and they act accordingly. It is important for non- non-member states willing to provide them with member nations to recognize that they have the aid. The goal here is survival, so the Ethiopians ability to ally themselves with virtually any of the must be sure to play all of their cards right lest the other blocs or nations due to their perceived Italians destroy their kingdom and claim their neutrality. This allows for extremely nuanced lands. alliances and disputes.

The League Conclusion Most League countries should fall within generally the same bloc. The goal here is to uphold Italy has invaded Ethiopia in direct the League’s ideals and translate them into defiance of the League of nations, again exposing efficient action and response. However, that isn’t the League’s weak-willed policy and lackluster to say that this bloc isn’t divided. Indeed, the implementation of its ideals. Having seen opposite is true. More powerful nations such as massive success in the early stages of their Britain and France often push their agendas onto military campaign into Ethiopia, the Italians now the league while other nations simply sit on the face a counterattack from the Ethiopian army sidelines. In addition to this, it has become clear that was mobilized by Emperor Selassie. The

18

outcome of this counterattack is unclear at this point, but what is clear is that the international community will act in a variety of ways. How this conflict can be mitigated or stopped is a question left up entirely to the delegates to solve based on their knowledge of the subject and their nations’ unique interests and goals within this context. Deriving logic and ideas from modern knowledge, it is up to delegates to navigate this extremely complex and nuanced issue. Debate is expected to be specific, creative, and thought-provoking. Delegates should both focus on the big picture and be able to navigate situations that arise as the simulation progresses with equal skill and effort. The canvas has been laid for truly intriguing debate and the actions of this committee will be the paint that determines the final picture.

19