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J Ethn - (2016) 1e3

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Journal of Ethnic Foods

journal homepage: http://journalofethnicfoods.net

Editorial Indian dietary culture

1. Introduction elsewhere. Siddu, a fermented of Himachal Pradesh in , is served hot with ghee (butter) or chutney (pickle) in rural India has one of the oldest civilizations in the world with a rich areas as a special dish during customary occasions [2]. Chilra,an cultural heritage. In the sacred book of the Hindu called Bhagavad ethnic fermented or , is traditionally prepared Geeta, foods are classified into three categories based on property, during marriage ceremonies and festivals in Himachal Pradesh. sanctity, and qualitydsattvika, raajasika, and taamasika [1]. Sattvika Marchu, a traditional fermented wheat flour product in the form food, which denotes food for prosperity, longevity, intelligence, of flat , is eaten during local festivals (phagli, halda) as well strength, health, and happiness, includes , , le- as religious and marriage ceremonies in Lahaul in Himachal Pra- gumes, , and sweets. Raajasika food, which signifies activity, desh [9]. passion, and restlessness, includes hot, sour, spicy, and salty foods. In the Indian Himalayas, fermented vegetables such as gundruk, Taamasika food is intoxicating and unhealthy. Hindus are tradition- sinki, and goyang have cultural significance. There is an oral history ally vegetarians, but many non-Brahmins are nonvegetarians. on the invention of gundruk and sinki, which was documented in Brahmin Hindus do not eat garlic, , and intoxicants. Ethnic In- detail by Tamang and Samuel [2]. The word gundruk might have dian foods have social importance for celebrations particularly dur- originated from the Newar (one of the major ethnic groups of the ing festivals and social occasions. The Indian food is spicy, and is Nepali) word “gunnu,” meaning dried taro stalk [2]. Kinema, a fer- added directly while cooking; seasonings such as and mented sticky soybean of Kirat Nepali, might have originated in are never used. The dietary culture of India east boarding hills and Sikkim in India around is a fusion of the HindueAryan culture and the TibetaneMongolian 600 B.C.to100A.D. during the Kirat dynasty [10]. Celebration of fes- culture influenced by the ancient Chinese cuisines with modifica- tivals with selroti, an ethnic fermented food, is a cultural aspect tions based on ethnic preference and sensory likings over a period of the Nepali in India [11]. of time [2]. Among Hindus, cows are regarded as sacred animals, and Use of fingers to grasp food items for feeding remains a tradi- their and milk products are used in every religious and cul- tional feature of Hindu, Buddhist, and Muslim dietary cultures in tural function. Development of system in ancient India has India. The practice of washing hands and mouth prior to and after been mentioned in some of the historical records. Mention of meals, which was common during the Vedic period (1,500e800 B.C. cows and the importance of milk products can be found in Rig [3]), was part and parcel of the dietary rules and etiquette of the Veda, the oldest sacred book of the Hindus [5]. Veda and Upanisad Hindus. There is no mention of use of table cutlery or chopstick mentioned the origin of dahi and dur- in the ancient dietary culture of the Hindus and Muslims. ing 6,000e4,000 B.C., one of the oldest fermented milk products of the Hindus [4]. The preparation and consumption of dahi has 2. History of Indian fermented foods been recorded since 2,000 B.C.inIndia[12].Itiswellknownin ancient Indian history that dahi,,andghee (butter) were widely consumed milk products during Lord Krishna's Indian foods have been well documented even before 3,000 B.C. time (about 3,000 B.C.) [5]. Dahi plays an important part in the so- based on historical documents and archeological evidence [1,2,4]. cioreligious habits in India and is considered a sacred item in Jalebi, a fermented cereals-based pretzel-like product, has been many festivals and religious ceremonies celebrated by Hindus known in northern Indian areas since 1,450 A.D. and is probably of and Buddhists. Many Indian ethnic fermented milk products Arabic or Persian origin [6]. The Tamil poet Chavundaraya has his- have cultural aspects in the dietary system, and have been torically described the preparation of idli, a fermented cerealele- consumed for more than 3,000 years [1]. ,buttermilk,isa gume food, in 1,025 A.D. [7]. Dosa, a traditional fermented pancake by-product obtained in the preparation of butter (ghee) from food made from rice and black gram, was first noted in the Tamil dahi using traditional methods, and is the most common nonal- Sangam literature in India in 6 A.D. [8]. Dhokla, a fermented mixture coholic refreshing beverage during the hot summer months in of wheat and gram of western India, was first mentioned in India. Misti dahi (sweetened dahi, , lal dahi,orpayodhi) 1,066 A.D. [5]. Idli and dosa are the cultural foods of Tamil, Telugu, is a sweetened fermented milk product of Bengali in India. Shrik- Malayalam, and Kannada people of Dravidian origins in India. Be- hand is an ethnic concentrated sweetened fermented milk prod- sides its uses as breakfast, south Indians eat these cultural foods uct of Gujarat and Rajasthan. Rabadi, an ethnic fermented milk- in every religious and social occasion. Dhokla and khaman are so- based, thick slurry-like product, is prepared by fermenting cially attached to the food culture of every Gujarati in India http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jef.2016.11.005 2352-6181/© 2016 Food Research Institute. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Please cite this article in press as: Tamang JP, Indian dietary culture, Journal of Ethnic Foods (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jef.2016.11.005 2 J Ethn Foods 2016; -:1e3 cereals and pulses including wheat, barley, , and pearl mil- for elopement. Once the girl's parents grant their consent, freshly let in the north and western parts of India. For both Hindus and prepared raksi is served to signify the union of two families, and Buddhists, gheu or butter is a sacred item in all religious cere- the marriage is thus solemnized [13]. Such practice of bridging be- monies, and it is used in birth, marriage, and death rites and tween two families by a bottle of alcoholic drink is common only is an important component in prayers and sacred offerings. among the Himalayan people, mostly the non-Brahmin Nepali. Somar, an ethnic fermented milk product from cows or yaks, is Ethnic alcoholic beverages have a strong ritual importance and generally consumed by Sherpa highlanders in the Himalayas to are offered to family Gods and ancestors, and are also used in spirit increase the appetite and to cure digestive problems [13].The possession rituals. AryaneHindu pastoral system has influenced the preparation and consumption of milk and dairy products in the early settle- 3. Diversity of ethnic fermented foods in India ment in the Indian Himalayas. Indian fish products are slightly different and mostly domi- Very few people have realized that India is the center of diverse nated by dried and smoking processes. Fermentation of fish is food cultures comprising more than 1,000 major and minor ethnic restricted to ngari and hentak in Manipur and tungtap in Megha- fermented and nonfermented foods and alcoholic beverages. laya in India, and sidal in ; the rest of the fish products, Diverse microorganisms ranging from filamentous fungi to which are dried or smoked, include sidra, sukuti,andgnuchi enzyme and alcohol producing , lactic acid bacteria, bacilli, of Darjeeling hills and Sikkim in India, and karati, lashim,and and microccoci are associated with fermentation and production bordia of in India [14e16]. Fermented fish foods, which of ethnic foods and alcoholic drinks [24],andsomeofthem are deeply associated with the food culture of the Meitei in Man- have health benefits [25]. Ethnic foods are fermented naturally, ipur, are prepared and eaten in every festival and during religious except the alcoholic beverages, which are produced by using a occasions. consortia of microorganisms in the form of dry, -based A sizable number of people in India are eaters; however, starter [26]. The daily per capita consumption of ethnic fermented regular consumption of meat is too expensive for a majority of the foods and alcoholic beverages in Sikkim was 163.8 g, representing poor people. People slaughter domestic animals (goats, pigs, cow, 12.6% of the total daily diet [27]. However, no such information is yaks, and sheep) usually on special occasions, such as festivals available for other states of India. Ethnic fermented foods and bev- and weddings. During festivals, goats are ritually sacrificed after erages prepared and consumed in India are categorized as follows: the ceremony, and then fresh meat is cooked and eaten as a (1) fermented cereal foods, (2) fermented cerealelegume mixture family feast; the remaining meat is smoked above the earthen foods, (3) fermented /soybean foods, (4) fermented milk oven to make suka ko masu for future consumption. In Indian foods, (5) fermented foods, (6) fermented and tradition- Himalayas, people slaughter yaks occasionally and consume the ally preserved fish products, (7) fermented meat products, (8) fresh meat; the remaining meat is smoked or preserved in the amylolytic starters, and (9) alcoholic beverages and drinks. open air (called satchu). The ethnic people of the Western Hima- Some of the ethnic Indian fermented foods and alcoholic bever- layas in Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, and Ladakh in India pre- ages have been studied by several researchers at various Indian pare chartayshya, a fermented meat product especially made universities and research institutes. Some of them have been during festivals, and make an offering to their ancestors prior to locally and globally marketed such as nan, dosa, misti dahi, dahi, eating [17]. rasgolla, papad,andidli. Alcoholic drinks have continued to be widely consumed in India since pre-Vedic times, and specific reference to their consumption 4. Conclusion among tribal people was mentioned in the Ramayana (300e75 B.C.) [12]. During the Vedic period of Indian history (2,500e200 B.C.), The diversity of ethnic fermented foods and alcoholic beverages based originally around the Indus River system, wine was wor- in India is related to the diversity of ethnicity with unparalleled shipped as the liquid god Soma because of its medicinal attributes food culture of each community. Indian ethnic fermented foods [18].InVedas, Soma was credited with great medicinal power and beverages have biological functions that enhance several [19]. Soma is originally thought to have been the fermented juice health-promoting benefits owing to the functional microorganisms of an East Indian leafless vine (Sarcostemma acidum) and other associated with them. Most of these ethnic fermented foods are wild indigenous grapevines [19]. There are brief descriptions of prepared in households by women, who unknowingly exploit the ethnic alcoholic drinks in historical documents during the British capabilities of microorganisms, thereby increasing in the shelf life rule in Indian hills of Darjeeling, and the then Sikkim kingdom of these foods. However, rapid urbanization and modernization [20e22]. have affected the time-tested traditional technologies for prepara- In India, the production technique of ethnic starter cultures to tion of fermented foods. make alcoholic beverages is usually kept secret, and the indigenous knowledge of processing is not easily passed on. However, the pro- Conflict of interest tected hereditary right of making ethnic mixed starters is passed by mothers to daughters, who in turn pass the indigenous knowledge There is no conflicts of interet. to in-laws after marriage. Traditionally, women exclusively perform the preparation of ethnic mixed starters; for example, marcha is References prepared by the Limboo and Rai castes of the Nepali. Marital status is a strong determinant in the preparation of marcha by the Rai [1] Tamang JP and Samuel D. Dietary culture and antiquity of fermented foods castes of the Nepali, who allow only widows or spinsters to make and beverages. In: Tamang JP and Kailasapathy K, editors. Fermented foods & marcha [23]. Jaanr and raksi are essential to solemnize the marriage and beverages of the world. Boca Raton, FL (USA): CRC Press, Taylor Francis Group; 2010. p. 1e40. ceremonies of non-Brahmin Hindu Nepali and the Buddhist tribes. [2] Tamang JP. Himalayan fermented foods: microbiology, nutrition, and ethnic Eloping is a common practice in the Himalayas. Traditionally, rela- values. Boca Raton, FL (USA): CRC Press, Taylor and Francis; 2010. tives of the boydusually after 3 daysdvisit the girl's parents [3] Prakash O. Economy and food in ancient India: Part IIdFood. Delhi (India): Bharatiya Vidya Prakashan; 1987. bringing bottles of locally prepared ethnic distilled liquor raksi to [4] Yegna Narayan Aiyar AK. Dairying in ancient India. Indian Dairy 1953;5: hear and respect the verdict of her parents, and pay the penalty 77e83.

Please cite this article in press as: Tamang JP, Indian dietary culture, Journal of Ethnic Foods (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jef.2016.11.005 Editorial 3

[5] Prajapati JB and Nair BM. The history of fermented foods. In: Farnworth R, ed- [21] Risley HH. The gazetteer of Sikkim. New Delhi (India): D. K. Publishing Distrib- itor. Handbook of fermented functional foods. New York (USA): CRC Press; utors (P) Ltd.; 1928. 2003. p. 1e25. [22] Gorer G. The Lepchas of Sikkim. Delhi (India): Gian Publishing House; 1938. [6] Gode PK. Some notes on the history of Indian dietetics with special reference [23] Tamang JP, Thapa S, Tamang N and Rai B. Indigenous fermented food bever- to the history of jalebi. New Indian Antiq 1943;6:169e81. ages of Darjeeling hills and Sikkim: process and product characterization. J [7] Iyengar SH. Lokopakara of Chavundarava. Madras (India): Oriental Manu- Hill Res 1996;9:401e11. scripts Library; 1950. [24] Tamang JP, Thapa N, Tamang B, Rai A and Chettri R. Microorganisms in fer- [8] Srinivasa PTI. Pre-Aryan Tamil culture. Madras (India): University of Madras; mented foods and beverages. In: Tamang JP, editor. Health benefits of fer- 1930. mented foods and beverages. New York (USA): CRC Press, Taylor & Francis [9] Thakur N and Savitri Bhalla TC. Characterization of traditional fermented Group; 2015. p. 1e110. foods and beverages of Himachal Pradesh. Indian J Traditional Know [25] Tamang JP. Health benefits of fermented foods and beverages. New York 2004;3:325e35. (USA): CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group; 2015. [10] Tamang JP. Diversity of fermented foods. In: Tamang JP and Kailasapathy K, [26] Tamang JP. Diversity of fermented beverages. In: Tamang JP and editors. Fermented foods and beverages of the world. Boca Raton, FL (USA): Kailasapathy K, editors. Fermented foods and beverages of the world. Boca CRC Press, Taylor and Francis; 2010. p. 41e84. Raton, FL (USA): CRC Press, Taylor and Francis; 2010. p. 85e125. [11] Yonzan H and Tamang JP. Traditional processing of Selroti:acerealbased [27] Tamang JP, Thapa N, Rai B, Thapa S, Yonzan H, Dewan S, Tamang B, ethnic fermented food of Nepalis. Indian J Traditional Know 2009;8: Sharma RM, Rai AK, Chettri R, Mukhopadhyay B and Pal B. Food consumption 110e4. in Sikkim with special reference to traditional fermented foods and bever- [12] Prakash O. Food and drinks in ancient India. Delhi (India): Munshi Ram Mono- ages: a micro-level survey. J Hill Res 2007;20:1e37. harlal Publication; 1961. [13] Tamang JP. Food culture of Sikkim. Sikkim Study Series vol. 4. Gangtok: Infor- * mation and Public Relations Department, Government of Sikkim; 2005. Jyoti Prakash Tamang [14] Thapa N, Pal J and Tamang JP. Microbial diversity in ngari, hentak and tungtap, Department of Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, fermented fish products of Northeast India. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2004;20:599e607. Sikkim University, Tadong 737102, Sikkim, India [15] Thapa N, Pal J and Tamang JP. Phenotypic identification and technological fi * properties of lactic acid bacteria isolated from traditionally processed sh Corresponding author. Department of Microbiology, products of the Eastern Himalayas. Int J Food Microbiol 2006;107:33e8. [16] Thapa N and Pal J. Proximate composition of traditionally processed fish prod- School of Life Sciences, Sikkim University, ucts of the Eastern Himalayas. J Hill Res 2007;20:75e7. Tadong 737102, Sikkim, India. [17] Rai AK, Palni U and Tamang JP. Traditional knowledge of the Himalayan peo- E-mail address: [email protected]. ple on the production of indigenous meat products. Indian J Traditional Know 2009;8:104e9. [18] Bose DK. Wine in ancient India. (India): Connor; 1922. Received 17 October 2016 [19] Sarma PJ. The art of healing. Rigveda Annals Med His (1939), 3rd Series: 1, Received in revised form 24 October 2016 538. [20] Hooker JD. Himalayan journals: notes of a naturalist in Bengal, the Sikkim and Accepted 14 November 2016 Nepal Himalayas, the Khasia mountains. London (UK): John Murray; 1854. Available online xxx

Please cite this article in press as: Tamang JP, Indian dietary culture, Journal of Ethnic Foods (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jef.2016.11.005