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Building Beyoğlu Histories of place in a central district in Istanbul Maessen, J.M.A.H.

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Citation for published version (APA): Maessen, J. M. A. H. (2019). Building Beyoğlu: Histories of place in a central district in Istanbul.

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Download date:03 Oct 2021 Conclusions 335 CONCLUSIONS

his dissertation has analysed the historicity of place-making in Beyoğlu between 1950 and 1990. It has highlighted how different commu- nities ‘made their place’ in Beyoğlu, while at the same time ‘claiming space’ in local, national and international processes of education, cul- tural diplomacy and the cultivation of culture broadly conceived. In order to render visible the continuities and discontinuities in historical processes and representa- tions, the dissertation has provided a broad temporal overview before Tproceeding to the period of focus and engaging with primary material that had in various cases not been used before. It sheds new light to the question how communities in and of Beyoğlu have imagined themselves in relation to their surroundings. By means of six case studies the dis- sertation has shown how Beyoğlu as a contested place has maintained a pivotal position in a variety of institutionalized or semi-institutional- ized communities, at the local, national and international scales. It has provided insight into how diverse communities within the area coped with the changing reality of Istanbul’s development from an imperial capital, to a semi-provincial city, to an ever-expanding ‘global’ metropo- lis. It has attempted to also lay bare why the conflation of representa- tions of loss and decay with historical developments in the context of Beyoğlu is problematic and shown the degree to which the district’s identity and legacy has historically been contested. The dissertation also has shown how divergent representations of cosmopolitanisms, decay and dichotomies between low-culture and high-culture can be instrumentalized and reoriented by a diverse range of communities. It furthermore demonstrates the diffuse nature of continuities and dis- continuities in the urban landscape before and after the 1950s, which further counter essentialist representations of loss and decay. Such rep- 336 Building Beyoğlu Conclusions 337

resentations of decay, loss and perversion intersect with a decrease and change of functionality, demographic shifts and the dilapidation of ar- chitecture and infrastructure. The representations, however, also lead to anachronistic discourses on Beyoğlu’s development from the 1950s onwards, replicated in the mass media, by novelists, but also by civil so- ciety actors, academics, private enterprises and governments.

The dissertation started by positioning the research project into a bro- ader theoretical debate and discussing how it benefits from previous studies in history, architectural history, historical geography, anthro- pology and urban planning. It demonstrated how research on Beyoğlu in the second half of the twentieth century fits into a broader historio- graphical gap in urban history and historical geography, which is not (sufficiently) addressed by either historians or geographers. It showed the complexity of positioning a study in between disciplines, yet at the same time renders visible the added value of proceeding beyond disci- plinary boundaries. It argues indeed that historians and historiography can greatly benefit from a better understanding of categories that have been developed and discussed in geography for several decades. As De- nis Cosgrove has pointed out, one of the most meaningful categories in that sense is landscape, i.e. the imagining of people’s relation to their surroundings, how they construct these and subsequently imagine themselves in it.1 The analysis of post-1950s Beyoğlu, and more par- ticularly the six cases presented in this thesis, show the significance of understanding the constructedness of place-making and how different scales – local, national and international – can seamlessly intersect in a local context. Analysing Beyoğlu through Cosgrove’s definition of land- scape helps to understand how widely divergent social groups such as high-school students, teachers, freemasons, diplomats, German speak- ers, English speakers, cinema visitors, actors, producers and urban ac- tivists have envisioned and experienced their relationship with this dis- trict. The development of Beyoğlu can to a certain degree be consid- ered in the context of urban development in Europe after the Second World War. As Moritz Föllmer and Mark B. Smith have argued, unders- tanding European urban centres is crucial to understand the historical Image 51: İstiklal Caddesi in the evening, between Tünel and Galatasaray, 2018. development of European societies after 1945.2 In that context, Istan- 338 Building Beyoğlu Conclusions 339 bul can be considered as the most dramatic example of rapid and mas- tion in the United States versus Europe, where in the latter case subur- sive urbanisation in Southeastern Europe. The city, however, also pro- banization was soon followed by a renewed attention for the old urban vides additional room for reflection on an alleged dichotomous relation centres.3 Beyoğlu is a case in point, although – as has been noted in vari- regarding urban development on both sides of the Iron Curtain. Tur- ous cases in this study – with the departure of large portions of its (non- key in post-war Europe may arguably have been institutionally ancho- Muslim) residents, the district would also lose a significant portion of red in the West-European or North-Atlantic ‘bloc’, yet the high degree its cultural and social capital, cosmetic appeal and witness strong shifts of governmental centralization and fragility of its democracy further in the balance of its functionalities by day in contrast to those by night. undermines a dichotomous representation of Europe in bloc fashion. This means that the experience of the area could differ considerably be- As shown in chapter 1, Istanbul’s development provides nuance to this tween day and night when its core functionalities shifted from a cen- view by providing a case of hyper-urbanization as a direct consequence tre for business, social gathering and education changed to a centre for of policies made at the national level. In a local context this dissertation ‘cheap’ nightlife. This is in fact similar to the observation Edhem Eldem therefore also fits in a broader paradigm of critical studies that have ar- has made about representations of Pera and Galata’s history as an inter- gued against interpretations for instance of Beyoğlu and its urban lan- play between ‘luxurious shops, brasseries, theaters, and café-concerts’ dscape as an island of exceptionalisms in the late Ottoman Empire or as and ‘taverns, brothels and sleazy hotels’ respectively. It is what Eldem a case of general neglect of Istanbul after the foundation of the Turkish describes as a ‘silent majority’ that becomes obliterated in between.4 Republic. The enforced or voluntary departures of residents on the oth- From a temporal point of view, furthermore, discussing Istanbul er hand, also resonates in discourses of loss and challenges notions of from the perspective of a pre- or post-Second World War demarcati- continuity. From a functional point of view, for instance, it should be on also is much less natural since the changes in Istanbul and Beyoğlu stressed that the district retained much of its significance and even wit- were in many ways only partly shaped by the turmoil at the global stage nessed an increase in some of its existing core functions. As has been ar- between 1939 and 1945. Although various processes ran in parallel to gued in chapter 1 moreover, it was in Beyoğlu itself and its direct vicinity other burgeoning metropoles in Europe and elsewhere on the globe – that experiments with high modernist architecture by local and inter- rapid urbanisation, industrialisation, radical transformation of urban national artists were executed in the 1940s and 1950s.5 A high concen- infrastructure to facilitate car traffic – many of the processes leading tration of the country’s reputable schools were found in this district or towards urban transformation were initiated before 1945. As has been its direct surroundings, positioning it as an enduring centre for the edu- explained in chapter 1, Istanbul also witnessed an expansion of its bor- cation of the country’s elite. It also had and continues to have a pivotal ders through suburbanization and notably the expansion of informal role in the social life of various of Istanbul’s local and foreign communi- housing, the so-called gecekondus. The case of Beyoğlu, however, nota- ties. From that perspective, this study has demonstrated that in all cases bly shows how representations of post-war historic urban centres, have under scrutiny a strong correlation between place, material landscapes overdetermined the dwindling of core functions. Pertaining specifically and community can be observed. As Cosgrove argues in the context of to Beyoğlu, this study has shown that ideas on Beyoğlu’s revival through landscape studies, these sequences of events and choices are not sim- its ‘rediscovery’ and gradual gentrification from the late 1980s onwards, ply natural, they are all constructed, and reflect a conscious process of downplay the significance of Beyoğlu on a local, national and interna- building relations between individuals, institutions, communities and tional scale. The three schools discussed in this dissertation may be their surroundings.6 Analyzing these processes of building relations be- considered as representative samples of foreign-language elite schools tween actors and surroundings in the context of Beyoğlu undermines in Beyoğlu, which retained their reputation and influence after the Sec- the overdetermined representations about the district’s demise or cor- ond World War. Föllmer and Smith contrast the effects of suburbaniza- ruption. 340 Building Beyoğlu Conclusions 341

From that perspective, the Teutonia chapter has demonstrated city. These permitted the brethren to blend into the district’s sociocul- that what provided the primary incentive for the club to keep itself alive tural mosaic. at the end of the 1970s, when it was essentially facing its demise, was the The significance of ownership of place is further exemplified desire to retain its building for an unspecified ‘German purpose’. We see by the case of the Cercle d’Orient. Demonstrating the duality and co- here in fact that the imagined community of Teutonia, which once held existence of narratives, one of an elite club and the other of a local and a pivotal role in the community of Bosporusdeutschen and other German national hub for cinema production and viewing, this case shows the speakers, had gradually fallen apart due to a variety of circumstances impact of rapid and chaotic urbanization on various levels, local as well ranging from a lack of engagement, a troubled history, to the settlement as national. Since the Cercle d’Orient never owned the Beyoğlu building of what in the past was its former member target group in different areas in which it resided, it was apparently easier for the club to abandon it, of the expanding city. Had the club fronted by Arthur Kapps not been particularly since it already had access to an alternative location sum- able to succesfully reinvigorate and reorganize itself with the goal of re- mer location on the Asian side of the city. More broadly, the case of the claiming its building, it may have been well possible that Teutonia had Cercle d’Orient parcel also demonstrates the complexity of place-mak- ceased to exist over four decades ago rather than succeeding in main- ing if ownership is legally established. The chapter has demonstrated taning itself as a point where the interests of German-speakers could how the parcel has become the spatial centerpoint of cinema produc- converge. Dynamics in Germany, moreover, from the rise of Nazism to tion in Turkey, yet this significance was entirely disregarded during the the exodus of German academics and the Cold War’s German East-West process of leasing the building by a state organisation to a private party. divide would also resonate along the Bosphorus. This demonstrates the limits of place-making in the district and, nota- The case of the Grand Lodge of Free and Accepted Masons simi- bly, the limits of informal place-making beyond that of institutional ac- larly shows that the idea of ownership of place has an important posi- tors. The Yeşilçam film industry, however, does show how a particular tion in the decision of the freemasons to remain in the area. After an locality can become a national symbol of cultural production. This in- enforced period of relative inactivity between 1935 and 1948 the Grand dustry has significantly added to Beyoğlu’s reputation and reality as an Lodge was able to successfully reclaim its properties in Istanbul in the urban and national centre, notably in the 1960s and 1970s. 1950s, regained its potential, managed to acquire a number of new build- The cases of the English High School for Girls and the German ings on the Nur-i Ziya Sokak and even had a new building constructed School both have shed light on how place-making can also be a process in the 1970s. The fact that an influential community deliberately chose that is partially enforced or established by faits accomplis determined at to sustain its presence in Beyoğlu counters the idea of a district that was levels beyond the influence of the schools or their respective adminis- bleeding out and becoming ‘corrupted’ during the 1970s and 1980s. It trations. Both schools were severely obstructed by the Turkish state in also shows that Beyoğlu could be preferred over newer districts. Where- developing plans to move their buildings to sites that they considered as in the case of the English High School, the German High School and more suitable to facilitate accessibility and growth in the future. They the Cercle d’Orient there was a strong urge to move away from Beyoğlu, therefore remained in Beyoğlu not necessarily because they felt a strong the freemasons chose to stay. Apart from economic incentives, the in- and heartfelt connection with the area and building, but rather since dividual narratives of Ziya Umur and Remzi Sanver demonstrate that they had no other options to be reestablished elsewhere without jeop- sentimental or cultural reasons pushed the Grand Lodge to remain in ardizing the school’s future. It is in part also for that reason that corre- its place. The Grand Lodge belonged in Beyoğlu, since its temples had spondence found in the National Archives in London and the Politisches been there since the arrival of freemasonry, but also because Beyoğlu’s Archiv in Berlin respectively, repeatedly points to the problems the lo- idiosyncracies in terms of history, diversity of communities and func- cation of the building and the buildings themselves caused for a proper tions were more befitting to the Grand Lodge than other districts in the functioning of the institutions. This shows how the effects of a geopo- 342 Building Beyoğlu Conclusions 343 litical status quo – the stipulations of the Lausanne Treaty – had a direct cultivated by the various alumni associations connected to the Gala- impact on local contexts and, importantly, grew out to be increasingly tasaray High School. Similar to the case of the Grand Lodge of Free and significant focal points in cultural diplomacy. This thesis has therefore Accepted Masons the alumni here cultivate representations of their also shown how closely interconnected Beyoğlu was with local, national sense of belonging to Galatasaray and that of the school to Beyoğlu. The and international contexts. In both schools the original purpose of the places of these institutions feature prominently in the imagining of the schools, i.e. providing schooling for the local Anglo- and Germanophone community. The Grand Lodge has its temple, main offices, library facili- communities, had been diminished by the 1950s. The ongoing efforts of ties and restaurant in the premises at Nur-i Ziya Sokak, making it one the British and German governments to keep these expensive schools of the most important point of gatherings and reference for Turkey’s open – the English Schools are cited as the only British schools receiv- Freemasons. The Galatasaray High School, apart from having its main ing direct funding from the British Council and the German School is student campus in the middle of historical Beyoğlu, periodically is the presented as the most expensive school funded by the German govern- scene for gatherings of alumni, for instance with the annually organized ment – should be considered in the light of these countries’ efforts to traditional alumni day, known as the Pilav Günü (Pilaf Day). The loca- maintain good relations with Turkey. As such, international geopolitics tions in Beyoğlu thus hold a pivotal significance in the imaginging of and bilateral relations had and have a direct effect on the core functions the community, but also in the ritualized enactments of the embodied of Beyoğlu. In the case of the EHSG, it would not be the severe finan- communities. Both institutions,moreover, make their presence known cial and practical difficulties that would signify its closure, but rather to the outsiders, passers-by, through place names, symbolism and ar- a new political wind in Great Britain with Thatcherite austerity, which chitecture, yet at the same time display seclusion, through institutional had long-lasting effects on a wide range of governmental institutions. traditions, armed doors and tall fences, demonstrating that Beyoğlu Nevertheless, even then efforts were made to at least partially sustain belongs in part to them, but that they are distinct from their surround- the school’s legacy when it had already formally become a Turkish state ings as well. school. Both the EHSG and the German School have been two places Finally, in conclusion, I argue that the period between 1950 and considered to be vital to building a positive impression of Great Britain 1990 in Beyoğlu has been largely overlooked in historiography and his- and the Federal Republic of Germany respectively, among a local intel- torical geography, which fits a broader trend in the analysis of European ligentisa in Turkey. Through these institutions, local children were ex- urban settings. As Föllmer and Smith point out, in historical research, posed to foreign languages and curriculae, essentially creating hyphen- most studies of urban transformation have focussed on the period ated community identities. preceding World War II.7 This analysis has therefore aimed to further Contrary to this, the chapter on the Galatasaray High School underscore the importance of studying recent urban history, to under- shows how Turkish French-speaking alumni of the school felt a strong stand the development towards present-day situations and conflicts in connection with this district. Although it should be mentioned once urban settings and how they correlate with national and international again that a different source corpus was used in this case, the alumni’s events or trends. It furthermore counters conceptions of the dilapi- demonstration of strong feelings of attachment to the location of the dation and loss of function of historic urban centres after the Second school is remarkable. This is further amplified by the connections that World War. What the case of Beyoğlu demonstrates is that the area was are built in the high school’s narration of its own history, which harks next to decline – primarily caused by the forced departure of significant back not only to its predecessor that was founded in the late nineteenth portions of its residents – subject to a significant deal of continuity in its century, but also to the Palace School from the late fifteenth century, an functions and on the other hand saw gradual shifts in its usage profile interesting case of an invented tradition. The strong feelings of attach- and users’ profiles. As has been noted previously, this had a catalyzing ment and sense of belonging to the school’s site in Beyoğlu are actively effect on existing representations of Beyoğlu as a place of squalor, moral 344 Building Beyoğlu Conclusions 345 decay, vulgarity and essentially a Janus-faced district; a space for busi- ness, education and culture during daytime and of shady nightlife at night. Identifying, analyzing and critically commenting on these repre- sentations, their origins and correlation with historical developments, retains its relevance in the Beyoğlu of today as well. What Atkinson and Cosgrove signal in the case of Rome thus holds true for Istanbul and Beyoğlu as well: these are all highly complex and palimpsestic historical landscapes and as such any major intervention to their landscape ‘must negotiate these historical complexities, layers, and associations’.8 As Eldem has argued in the case of Beyoğlu, however, this fundamentally layered nature of the urban landscape is oftentimes underrepresented and skewed into a pastiche of something that it may have partially been. Regardless of whether it is referred to nostalgically as a lost culture of perfect cosmopolitanism or equally uncritically dismissed as a space of moral decay and squalor, the complexity of the urban landscape is neglected. This pertains equally to the layers of the fi rst decades of the Turkish Republic and before, as it does to the periods between the 1950s and the 1990s. Acknowledging and investigating these layers never los- es its relevance. As the 2016 New York Times article quoted at the outset of this thesis shows, the trope of decay continues to be replayed in even the most recent popular representations of the city. This dissertation is, in that sense, a critical call to those who try to dismiss the right to place making and history writing and those who represent the area through the lens of overdetermined nostalgia. 346 Building Beyoğlu

ENDNOTES

1 Denis Cosgrove: Denis Cosgrove, ‘Landscape and Landschaft’, GHI Bulletin, No. 35 (2004) 57-71. BIBLIOGRAPHY 2 Moritz Föllmer and Mark B. Smith, ‘Urban Societies in Europe since 1945: Toward a Historical Interpretation’, Contemporary European History, Vol. 24:4 (2015) 475–491. 3 Föllmer and Smith, ‘Urban Societies in Europe since 1945’, 475–491. 4Edhem Eldem, ‘Ottoman Galata and Pera between myth and reality’, in: Ulrike Tischler (ed.), From ‘milieu de mémoire’ to ‘lieu de mémoire’: the cultural memory of Istanbul in the 20th century (München: M. Meidenbauer, 2006) 25. 5 Sibel Bozdoğan and Esra Akcan, Turkey: Modern Architectures in History (London: Reaktion Books, 2012) 108-162. 6 Denis Cosgrove, Social Formation and Symbolic Landscape (Madison, Wisconsin: The Wisconsin University Press, 1998, first published: 1984), xxx and 1-68. 7 Föllmer and Smith, ‘Urban Societies in Europe since 1945’, 475–91. 8 Daniel Atkinson and Denis Cosgrove, ‘Urban Rhetoric and Embodied Identities: City, Nation, and Empire at the Vittorio Emanuele II Monument in Rome, 1870- 1945’, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Vol. 88:1 (1998) 30. 348 Building Beyoğlu Bibliography 349

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Image 13 – ‘Hilton Oteli 1951-1955, Harbiye, İstanbul’, Salt Araştırma, Image 31 – ‘K.U.M.S.C. Umumi Malik Türkiye Ailesi’, Salt Araştırma, identifier: TSHEPA03802 identifier: TMSSDOC0083. Image 14 – ‘Tophane-i Amire önünde bulunan Arabacılar Kışlası’nın Image 32 – ‘Kadıköy Halkevi’, Salt Araştırma, identifier: TMGCH0061. yıkılışı’, Salt Araştırma, identifier: TASUH3281. Image 33 - Photo by Enno Maessen, 2018. Image 15 – ‘6-7 Eylül 1955 bir daha yaşanır mı?’, Şalom, www.salom. Image 34 - Photo by Enno Maessen, 2018. com.tr/haber-107901-67_eylul_1955__bir_daha_yasanir_mi.html. Image 35 – ‘Emek sineması ve Emektarları’, Ilgın Erarslan, http://www. Image 16 – ‘Ataköy fotoğrafları’, Salt Araştırma, identifier: TSOH258. ilgine.com/blog/emek-sinemasi/. Image 17 – ‘Hayati Tabanlıoğlu ve AKM’, Salt Araştırma, identifier: Image 36 – ‘Emek sineması ve Emektarları’, Ilgın Erarslan, http://www. THTH010. ilgine.com/blog/emek-sinemasi/. Image 18 – ‘Şanzelize Gece Kulübü’, Salt Araştırma, identifier: TM- Image 37 – ‘Orhan Gencebay in Bir Araya Gelemeyiz’, Uludağ Sözlük, KTH0104. https://galeri.uludagsozluk.com/r/orhan-gencebay-1566775/. Image 19 – ‘Taksim Meydanı, 1 Mayıs 1978’, Salt Araştırma, identifier: Image 38 – ‘Cine-Critiques (Sinema Eleştirileri) dergisinin Yılmaz OKTH027. Güney’, Salt Araştırma, identifier: CTYGM001. Image 20 – ‘İstiklal Caddesi yayalaştırma sonrası görünümü’, Salt Image 39 – ‘Ahmet Mekin’, i.pinimg.com/originals/9a/4c/c6/9a4cc63f Araştırma, identifier: CALIST0061. cdd2a5a9a5d5fc1b92c81fa5.jpg. Image 21 – ‘Teutonia Binası’, Salt Araştırma, identifier: TMKTH0007. Image 40 – ‘Emek Sineması Yerinde’, Sinematik Yeşilçam, http://sine- Image 22 – ‘Alman Başkonsolosluğu, İstanbul’, Salt Araştırma, identifi- matikyesilcam.com/2015/04/emek-sinemasi-yerinde-surdurulmekte- er: AHISTTAXI007. Image 23 – ‘Central Powers monarchs postcard’, olan-hukuk-disi-insaat-calismasi-durdurulsun/. Wikicommons, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Central_Powers_ Image 41 - Photo by Enno Maessen, 2018. monarchs_postcard.jpg. Image 42 – ‘A Window to the West’, Cemal Emden for Istanbul Re- Image 24 – ‘Konrad Adenauer in Teutonia’, Mitteilungsblatt 2:14 (1957), search Institute, https://blog.iae.org.tr/en/exhibitions/a-window-to- 3. the-west-the-150-years-of-the-galatasaray-high-school-1868-2018. Image 25 – ‘The ship in 1961, sailing as VölkerfreundschaftBundesar- Image 43 – ‘Tevfik Fikret Bey’, Salt Araştırma, identifier: APO00027. chiv’, Bundesarchiv via Wikicommons, Bild 183-71706-0047, MS “Völk- Image 44 – ‘Charles de Gaulle at Galatasaray High School’, Galatasaray erfreundschaft”, erste Fahrt.jpg, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MV_ Lisesi, 100 Galatasaray (İstanbul: 1968) 105. Astoria#/media/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-71706-0047,_MS_%22V Image 45 – ‘Galatasaray Üniversitesi ve Kabataş Erkek Lisesi’nin deniz- %C3%B6lkerfreundschaft%22,_erste_Fahrt.jpg. den görünümü’, Salt Araştırma, identifier: CALIST0169. Image 26 - Photo by Enno Maessen, 2018. Image 46 - Photo by Enno Maessen, 2018. Image 27 – ‘An old apartment building near Bosporus Cihangir section Image 47 – ‘İnönü Stadı ve Dolmabahçe’, Salt Araştırma, identifier: Istanbul’, Charles W. Cushman Photograph Collection – Indiana Uni- AHISTDOLM044. versity Archives, identifier: P14677. Image 48 – ‘Boğaziçi Köprüsü’, Salt Araştırma, identifier: TMKTH0192. Image 28 – ‘Narrow steep street in Cihangir Istanbul’, Charles W. Image 49 – ‘Backyard of Galata Mevlevihanesi with the build- Cushman Photograph Collection – Indiana University Archives, iden- ing of Deutsche Schule [etc.]’, Wikicommons, en.wikipedia. tifier: P14671. org/wiki/Deutsche_Schule_Istanbul#/media/File:Galata_ Image 29 – Photo by Enno Maessen, 2018. Mevlevihanesi_M%C3%BCzesi_10.JPG. Image 30 – ‘Dahiliye Nazırı Talat Bey [etc.]’, Salt Araştırma, identifier: Image 50 – ‘Alman Lisesi iyi Markadır’, Salt Araştırma, identifier: AJR- FFT685009. MIL04063. Image 51 - Photo by Enno Maessen, 2018. Summary 375 BUILDING BEYOĞLU SUMMARY / Histories of Place in a Central District in Istanbul

This dissertation analyses the development of one of Istanbul’s histori- cal districts, Beyoğlu, between 1950 and 1990. It explores the historic- SAMENVATTING ity of place-making in Beyoğlu through the lens of six case studies. The dissertation’s historical focus – 1950 to 1990 – follows Istanbul’s devel- opment from a middle-sized city into a metropole, ending with the ac- celeration of gentrification processes in Beyoğlu. Geographically, it has as its focus the area known as Beyoğlu, although that name is conceived primarily as a geographic container from a discursive point of view. As the research presented here highlights, what is associated with Beyoğlu as an area is a dynamic process subject to change over time. The disser- tation also contributes to broader debates in urban history, examining the period after the Second World War. Modern urban history has been criticized for its tendency to focus predominantly on the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Studies that do focus on contemporary issues, moreover, have struggled in integrating their research into the broader range of topics featuring in the disciplines of social and cultural history, dealing mostly with issues of planning instead. This dissertati- on attempts to overcome those absences, while also engaging with con- ceptual frameworks from historical and cultural geography. Through the six case studies, revolving around three associations and three schools, it highlights how different communities ‘made their place’ in Beyoğlu, while at the same time ‘claiming space’ in local, na- tional and international processes of education, cultural diplomacy and the cultivation of culture broadly conceived. It sheds new light on the question of how communities in and of Beyoğlu have imagined them- selves in relation to their surroundings. The dissertation also shows how divergent representations of cosmopolitanism, decay and divisions be- tween low- and high-culture can be instrumentalized and reoriented by a diverse range of communities. It furthermore demonstrates the dif- fuse nature of continuities and discontinuities in the urban landscape before and after the 1950s, thus countering essentialist representations of loss and decay about the district. Such representations of decay, loss and perversion intersect with the district’s gradual decline and change of functionality, demographic shifts and the dilapidation of architecture 376 Building Beyoğlu Samenvatting 377 and infrastructure. The representations, however, also lead to anach- ronistic discourses on Beyoğlu’s development from the 1950s onwards, BEYOĞLU BOUWEN replicated in the mass media, by novelists, but also by civil society activ- Geschiedenissen van Plaats in een Centraal District in Istanbul ists, academics, private enterprises and government actors . The disser- tation argues, indeed, that perceptions of the district’s transformations Dit proefschrift analyseert de ontwikkeling van een historisch district in terms of its socio-cultural composition and built environment have in Istanbul, Beyoğlu, tussen 1950 en 1990. Daarbinnen wordt de his- resulted in a discursive over-determination of the area’s various iden- toriciteit van ‘place-making’ in Beyoğlu door de lens van zes casussen tities (including cosmopolitanism, urban deterioration, socio-cultural onderzocht. De historische reikwijdte van de dissertatie – 1950 tot 1990 marginalism a place where people fail to claim their rights to the city). – volgt de ontwikkeling van een middelgrote stad naar een metropool The dissertation highlights, rather, the historical complexity of pro- en eindigt met de versnelling van gentrificatieprocessen in Beyoğlu. cesses of place-making in the district, thereby problematizing popular Vanuit geografisch oogpunt concentreert de dissertatie zich op het ge- narratives of continuity and discontinuity in Beyoğlu. bied dat bekend staat als Beyoğlu, hoewel die naam ten eerste vanuit discursief oogpunt als geografisch containerbegrip moet worden be- schouwd. Het gepresenteerde onderzoek zal laten zien dat hetgeen dat met Beyoğlu als gebied wordt geassocieerd door de jaren heen aan verandering onderhevig is. Dit proefschrift past ook in bredere discus- sies over stadsgeschiedenissen die zich concentreren op de periode na de Tweede Wereldoorlog. De stadshistoriografie wordt bekritiseerd vanwege de oververtegenwoordiging van studies die zich op de negen- tiende en vroege twintigste eeuw concentreren. Het onderzoek dat zich op meer contemporaine thema’s richt, worstelt met de integratie ervan in de brede sociale en culturele historiografie en houdt zich in plaats daarvan vooral bezig met thema’s op het gebied van de planologie. Deze dissertatie tracht deze lacunes te overbruggen en tevens conceptuele raamwerken uit de historische en culturele geografie in de analyse te integreren. Door middel van de zes casussen – drie scholen en drie verenig- ingen – wordt in beeld gebracht hoe verschillende gemeenschappen ‘een plaats hebben gecreëerd’ in Beyoğlu en daarbij hun ‘ruimte hebben opgeëist’ in lokale, nationale en internationale processen van onder- wijs, culturele diplomatie en de cultivering van cultuur in brede zin. Het onderzoek biedt een nieuw licht op de vraag hoe gemeenschappen in en van Beyoğlu zichzelf hebben verbeeld in relatie tot hun omge- ving. De dissertatie laat daarnaast zien hoe divergente representaties van kosmopolitisme, verval en tegenstellingen tussen hoog- en laagcul- tuur geïnstrumentaliseerd en geherorïenteerd kunnen worden door een breed scala aan gemeenschappen. Er wordt bovendien aangetoond dat het diffuse karakter van continuïteit en discontinuïteit in het stedelij- ke landschap voor en na de jaren 50 de geldigheid van essentialistische representaties van verlies en verval ondermijnt. Zulke representaties 378 Building Beyoğlu van verval, verlies en pervertering komen samen met de geleidelijke achteruitgang van het district en de verandering van zijn functieprofiel, demografische schommelingen en het verval van architectuur en in- frastructuur. De representaties leiden echter tot anachronistische ver- beeldingen over de ontwikkeling van Beyoğlu na de jaren 50, die worden herhaald en hergebruikt door massamedia en schrijvers, maar ook door activisten uit maatschappelijke organisaties, academici, bedrijven en overheden. In dit proefschrift wordt bepleit dat de verbeeldingen over de verandering van het district in termen van de sociaal-culturele sa- menstelling van zijn gemeenschappen en de bebouwing hebben geleid tot discursieve ‘overdetermining’ van de identiteiten van het gebied en de associaties daarmee (bijvoorbeeld kosmopolitisme, stedelijk verval, sociaal-cultureel marginalisme en een plaats waar burgers er niet in sla- gen hun recht op de stad op te eisen). Het proefschrift benadrukt de his- torische complexiteit van processen van ‘place-making’ in het district en problematiseert daarmee populaire narratieven van continuïteit en discontinuïteit in Beyoğlu.