Gender Analysis for a Sustainable Agriculture

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GENDER AND SUSTAINABLE GENDERAGRICULTURE ASSESSMENT IN GENDERBORNO STATE:ANALYSIS FOREXPLORING A SUSTAINABLE EVIDENCE AGRICULTUREFOR INCLUSIVE ANDPROGRAMMES LIVELIHOOD AND IMPROVEMENTPOLICIES FOR FOOD SECURITY PROJECT

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 1 © UN Women Nigeria 2018 In cooperation with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the World Food Programme

Authors: Patricia Donli, Paul Anegbeh Coordination and oversight: Patience Ekeoba Editing and design: Edward Miller Photos: James Bigila All photos © UN Women Nigeria

Disclaimer: The views and recommendations expressed herein are those of the contributors and do not necessarily reflect the position of UN Women or the implementing or funding organizations mentioned in the text.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 2 Gender Analysis GENDER AND SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE IN BORNO STATE: EXPLORING EVIDENCE FOR INCLUSIVE PROGRAMMES AND POLICIES FOR FOOD SECURITY

NIGERIA COUNTRY OFFICE UN WOMEN Abuja, October 2018

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 3 CONTENTS

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS 8 3. KEY FINDINGS 46 3.1 Activity profiles of the respondents 46 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 9 3.2 Access to and control of resources 51 3.3 Gender analysis of crops grown in the Local 66 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 11 Government Areas 3.4 Gender analysis of livestock husbandry 66 1. BACKGROUND 29 and other farming systems in the communities 1.1 Profile of Borno State 29 3.5 Participation in non-farm activities 68 1.2 Local Government Area and community 29 3.6 Decision making concerning agricultural 68 selection production on family farmland 1.3 Agriculture and the conflict in Borno State 32 3.7 Impact of the conflict on agricultural 68 1.4 The sustainable agriculture project 33 production 1.5 Sustainable agriculture and food and 34 3.8 Impact of the conflict on food security and 70 nutrition security nutrition 1.6 Gender issues within Nigeria’s agriculture 35 3.9 Social protection 74 sector 3.10 Gender-based violence in the 76 1.7 The gender dimension of the armed 38 communities conflict in Borno State 3.11 Experience of climate change in the 78 1.8 Impact of armed conflicts on food security 39 communities in Borno State 3.12 Vulnerabilities, barriers, and constraints 78 1.9 Objectives of the gender analysis 41 faced by women and men of different ages in relation to agriculture, livelihoods, and food 2. RESEARCH METHODS AND 42 security APPROACHES 3.13 Mitigating the risks of backlash and 80 2.1 Gender analytical tools used in the study 42 gender-based violence stemming from women’s empowerment and increased 2.2 Development of data collection tools 42 involvement 2.3 Management of the research process 42 3.14 Women’s and girls’ participation in 81 2.4 Community mobilization 43 decision making and policy formulation/ 2.5 Desk review 43 review of agricultural practices, food security and nutrition, livelihoods, and security in 2.6 Collection of data 43 Borno State 2.7 Data analysis 43 3.15 Suggestions on assistance required by 85 2.8 Limitations of the study 44 different farmers for improved agricultural productivity, food security, and nutrition 3.16 Programming opportunities 86

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 4 4. RECOMMENDATIONS 90 1. Differential needs of women and men in the 90 target communities in relation to gender, age, and how dominant social norms and power dynamics play out 2. Access to and control over land and 91 productive resources, food security, and other social protections in the face of conflict and scarce resources 3. Differential vulnerability, barriers, and 96 constraints faced by women and men of different ages in informal and formal institutions in relation to agriculture, livelihoods (including access to market business), and security 4. Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities 100 and threats in relation to women’s and girls’ participation in decision making and policy formulation/review of agricultural practices, food security and nutrition, livelihoods, and security in Borno State 5. Mitigation of risks of backlash and 101 violence faced by women and girls due to their empowerment and involvement in programme implementation and governance 6. Other findings with implications for 102 programming 7. Programming opportunities, strengths, 103 gaps, lessons learned, and recommended strategies for designing a gender-responsive livelihood programme that caters for the needs and interests of women, men, boys, and girls to enhance programme effectiveness that maximizes impact for food security

BIBLIOGRAPHY 107

GLOSSARY 109

ANNEXES 112

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 5 FIGURES

Figure 1: Borno State 27

Figure 2: Household activity profiles of members of communities before and during the conflict across the six LGAs 43

Figure 3: Farming activity profiles of community members across the six LGAs before the conflict 43

Figure 4: Farming activity profiles of community members across the six LGAs during the conflict 44

Figure 5: Twenty-four-hour time use for women across the six LGAs 45

Figure 6: Twenty-four-hour time use for men across the six LGAs 45

Figure 7: Twenty-four-hour time use for girls across the six LGAs 46

Figure 8: Twenty-four-hour time use for boys across the six LGAs 46

Figure 9: Views on whether women have control over land they do not own 51

Figure 10: Awareness among respondents about formal sources of credit across the target LGAs 51

Figure 11: Views on whether farmers have access to formal sources of credit 52

Figure 12: Responses on whether informal sources of credit exist in the communities 52

Figure 13: Informal sources of credit in the community 53

Figure 14: Respondents with bank accounts 55

Figure 15: Number of associations in each LGA 55

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 6 TABLES

Table 1: Gender analysis of crops grown in the six Local Government Areas 63

Table 2: Gender analysis of other farming systems in the six Local Government Areas 65

Table 3: Participation in non-farm income-generating activities 67

Table 4: Decision making concerning how income from cash crops is allocated within the family 69

Table 5: Social protection in the study communities 71

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 7 ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

CASP Climate Change Adaptation and Agribusiness Support Programme CSO civil society organization FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations FGD focus group discussion GBV gender-based violence IDP internally displaced person

IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development IMC International Medical Corps INGO international non-governmental organization KII key informant interview LGA Local Government Area MPAYE Ministry for Poverty Alleviation and Youth Empowerment MSF Médecins Sans Frontières (Doctors Without Borders) MWASD Ministry of Women Affairs and Social Development SCI Save the Children International UN United Nations UNFPA United Nations Population Fund UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund UN Women United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women WFP World Food Programme WHO World Health Organization

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

UN Women acknowledges funding support from the European Union Trust Fund for the conduct of this gender assessment and analysis and the collaborative support from our partners, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the World Food Programme, in our joint work on the project Restoring and Promoting Sustainable Agriculture-based Livelihoods for Food Security, Employment, and Nutrition Improvement in Borno State.

We acknowledge all the respondents (older women, older men, young women, and young men) who participated in the focus group discussions and the key informant interviews at state and community levels from Borno Central Senatorial District (Jere, Konduga, and Bama LGAs), Borno South Senatorial District (Gwoza and Biu LGAs), and Borno North Senatorial District (Kaga and Monguno LGAs) for their cooperation and input.

This work has greatly benefited from the interviews of some key informants: Yahaya Mohammed Dankoli (Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Women Affairs and Social Development); Mohammad Husseini, Institu- tional Development Officer, International Fund for Agricultural Development – Climate Change Adaptation and Agribusiness Support Programme); Salisu B. S. Ngulde (Monitoring and Evaluation Officer, IFAD-CASP); Makinta Masheli (Chief Agricultural Superintendent, Borno Agricultural Development Project, Kaga Local Government Area); Sule Bukar (Zonal Manager, Borno Agricultural Development Project); Baba Ali Yusuf (State Programme Officer, IFAD); Aisha Braimah (Acting Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Poverty Allevia- tion and Youth Empowerment, Maiduguri); Shugaba Wallah (Ministry of Poverty Alleviation and Youth Empowerment, Maiduguri); Bura Aisami Wajiro (Chief Forestry Superintendent and IFAD Climate Change Agent, Kaga Local Government Area); and John Gwamma (Chairman of the Internally Displaced Persons Camp, EYN/CAN Centre, Wulari, Maiduguri).

We also thank our sister UN agencies and non-governmental organization partners: Dr. Peter Mefor, Human Rights Officer, UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, Maiduguri; Dr. Tigist Alemu, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs and Nigeria Humanitarian Fund; Dr. Tendai Matemadombo, UN Development Programme, Maiduguri; Neil Pancipanci, Livelihood Coordinator, Oxfam, Maiduguri; Ishaku Mshelia, Save the Children International; Ben Munson, Street Child; Dr. Tina Olayemi, Sa- maritan Care, Maiduguri; Ann Darman Bukar, Gender Equality, Peace and Development Centre, Maiduguri; Dr. Umar Abdullahi Maina, Neem Foundation, Maiduguri; and Ogbonna Uchenna, GOAL Prime Foundation. We acknowledge Dr. Danjuma Garba Salleh (World Food Programme, Maiduguri) and Dr. Shehu Dandago (agronomist, FAO, Maiduguri).

UN Women is also grateful to Professor Patricia Donli and Dr. Paul Anegbeh and their team of research assistants, especially Ann Darma Bukar, Kaka Alhaji Mustapha, Ann Odaudu, Alhaji Kolo, Algoni Jidda, Mohammed Kolo Shehuri, Charity Love Luka, Benjamin Yohanna Lassa, Falmata Dulomi, Polycarp Ubangari, and Stephen Ngadda for their dedication and commitment in conducting the assessment in a professional manner.

We appreciate the leadership and technical team of the Restoring and Promoting Sustainable Agriculture- based Livelihoods for Food Security, Employment, and Nutrition Improvement in Borno State Project.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 9 Special thanks go to the UN Women Country Representative, Mrs. Comfort Lamptey, the Deputy Country Representative, Lansana Wonneh, and Aijaz Qureshi, Operations Manager. Also appreciated is the UN Women Maiduguri team, including Obiananma Agbim, Dr. Nourou Macki-Tall (Deputy FAO Representative/ Head of Northeast Operations, FAO, Maiduguri), Sak Micit Janfa (National Operations Associate, FAO, Maiduguri), Lillian Ohuma (WFP Protection and Gender Adviser), and Anne-Judith Ndombasi Kinsumba (FAO Gender and GBV Specialist). James Bigila, UN Women Communications Officer, provided the photos used in the report. We also appreciate the efforts of Edward Miller in his editorial and design work.

Patience Ekeoba National Programme Officer UN Women Nigeria

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 10 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The latest extremist and inter-communal conflict in north-east Nigeria, which has existed since 2009, has had a serious impact on agriculture, livelihoods, and food security. Access to fishing grounds has been reduced; irrigation and farming facilities have been destroyed; and extension services and key agriculture-based value chains have collapsed. The situation has also impacted negatively on market and trade facilities (including fish markets) and the transportation of farm produce. Production has gone down due to mass displacement and the limited access to markets.

The interplay between patriarchal and cultural fac- Objectives of the study tors and socio-political and economic weaknesses have exacerbated the plight of women and girls, 1. Examine the differential needs of women and whose struggle for survival has seen them being men in the target communities in relation to sexually exploited and abused; many have had to gender, age, and how dominant social norms resort to survival sex. Communication from reliable and power dynamics play out. quarters indicates that between January and April 2. Understand who has access to and/or control 2018, about 300 cases of rape were reported among over land and productive resources, as well as internally displaced persons (IDPs). 1 food security and other social protection issues among women, men, and households in the Some IDPs are beginning to return to their commu- face of the conflict and scarce resources. nities of origin, where they often encounter chaos 3. Understand differential vulnerability, barriers, and have few prospects if unassisted. Against this and constraints faced by women and men background, the Food and Agriculture Organization of different ages in informal and formal of the United Nations (FAO), UN Women, and the institutions (involving people living with World Food Programme (WFP) are embarking on a disability, elderly people, and youth), in relation three-year joint project: Restoring and Promoting to agriculture, livelihoods (including access to Sustainable Agriculture-based Livelihoods for Food market business), and security. Security, Employment, and Nutrition Improvement in Borno State, which will seek to build the resil- 4. Explore strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, ience of conflict-affected people and public-sector and threats to improve women’s and girls’ institutions in Borno State. participation in decision making and policy formulation/review regarding agricultural The gender analysis undertaken by the team for this practices, food security and nutrition, liveli- Sustainable Agriculture and Livelihood Improve- hoods, and security in the state. ment Project in Borno State will provide evidence 5. Explore how to mitigate the risk of backlashes on the gender issues in the area, with a view to and violence that women and girls may face ensuring that the needs of women, men, boys, because of their empowerment and involve- and girls are met and that an inclusive approach is ment in programme implementation and adopted for the planning and implementation of governance. the project. 6. Identify programming opportunities, strengths, gaps, lessons learned, and recommended 1 Personal communication between a security agent and the Gender Equality, Peace and Development Centre Executive Director and strategies for designing a gender-responsive State Coordinator, May 2018.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 11 livelihood programme that caters for the needs group discussions and key informant interviews. A and interests of women, men, boys, and girls total of 24 FGDs were held across the six LGAs, or to enhance programme effectiveness that four per LGA. Participants included younger women maximizes impact for food security. and men (18–30 years) as well as older women and men (over 30 years).

Key informant interviews (KIIs) were conducted at Research methods and approaches the community level and state level. There were 46 KIIs at the community level. At the state level, there Two gender analytical tools were used for the were 11 KIIs: the Ministry of Women Affairs and gender analysis: the Harvard Analytical Framework Social Development (MWASD), the Ministry for Pov- and the Moser Framework. The tools were used to erty Alleviation and Youth Empowerment (MPAYE), guide all the focus group discussions (FGDs) and key Borno State Agricultural Development Programme, informant interviews (KIIs) at the community level. International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), international non-governmental organiza- The consultant and UN Women developed tools tions (Save the Children International, Oxfam, that would capture the required information for the Street Child), and national non-governmental gender analysis around the issues stipulated in the organizations (Neem Foundation, Samaritan Care, objectives above: Tool 001, designed for the focus Gender Equality, Peace and Development Centre, group discussions; Tool 002, designed for the key and GOAL Prime Organization Nigeria). informant interviews at the community level; and Tool 003, designed for the key informant interviews In addition to the field data collection, a desk review at the state level. of literature was carried out, with a special focus on gender, gender relations, the situation of women, The research team was assisted by 14 research and barriers to women’s empowerment. assistants who were selected based on their knowledge of the culture of the people, the terrain, The field study was purposively designed. The and the local language (Kanuri). They were trained consultants used the Harvard Analytical Frame- in various aspects of data collection, facilitation work, the Moser Framework, and an assessment of skills, ethics, note taking, and transcription, as decisions related to benefits to organize, classify, well as mobilization techniques to enhance their consolidate, and summarize the data. In analysing capacity for effective fieldwork delivery. the data, the perspectives of all the different stakeholders were highlighted. All qualitative data Six Local Government Areas (LGAs) were selected collected through the study was disaggregated for the gender analysis – Kaga and Monguno (Borno by sex and age. The analysis drew on and made North Senatorial District); Jere and Konduga (Borno comparisons to existing data sources and secondary Central Senatorial District); Biu and Gwoza (Borno data to compare findings. South Senatorial District). The UN Women team, relevant partners, and officials of the six LGAs jointly selected the target communities, taking into account security and accessibility. Community Key findings mobilization was done three days prior to each visit and followed up one day to the main visit, with a 1. Differential needs of women and men phone call as a reminder. in the target communities in relation to gender, age, and how dominant social The data collection and data analysis were carried norms and power dynamics play out out between 4 June and 5 July 2018 using the developed tools. Two approaches were used – focus Women are overwhelmingly involved in household tasks, and at the same time are involved in

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 12 Prior to the conflict, tradition played a major role 9.4% in defining the tasks women and men within the of female study communities can and cannot do. For example, respondents in Konduga tradition forbids a man from cleaning, were widows cooking, or engaging in threshing. Women cannot head households, except when the women have lost their husbands. Only women took care of children. However, the conflict has changed things, and those norms seem not to hold water any more, as women are now going out to work and feed the family. Some are of the view that there are no norms that forbid productive activities. Women in the target com- either sex from carrying out any activity. munities work about 16 hours per day – cooking, bathing children, washing plates, doing general The implication of this situation is that women are cleaning of the house, doing farm work, preparing facing a double burden of domestic and produc- meals, cleaning the kitchen, washing clothes, and tive responsibilities. In addition to the inherent preparing children for bed – while the men work inequality, there are significant time constraints for fewer than six hours per day, with plenty of hours women. The study identified some needs based on to rest and meet with other men at the majalissa.2 the roles of women. These include practical gender As can be seen, the women unfortunately do not needs such as firewood, water, food, credit, security, have any time to rest. and agricultural inputs; the strategic gender needs identified for the woman farmer include land, deci- The results of the study showed that women’s sion making power, education, economic empower- burdens were exacerbated by the conflict in the ment, access to markets, participation, etc. Women area, as there are now additional responsibilities need to participate in the sustainable agricultural related to the survival of the family – women are project in Borno State, but the challenge is how to often breadwinners and heads of households. This free up women’s time for effective participation. is especially true of women who have lost their husbands (9.4 per cent of the female respondents in this study were widows), while there are Recommendations many women whose husbands are missing or 1. Provision of labour-saving technology for incapacitated. women, including threshing and grinding machines. 2. Sensitization about gender norms and women’s 2 Majalissa – a cultural and social space where men gather to discuss workload. local events and issues, exchange news, socialize, and be entertained.

PRACTICAL GENDER NEEDS STRATEGIC GENDER NEEDS

WATER FOOD FIREWOOD LAND EDUCATION PARTICIPATION

ECONOMIC ACCESS TO CREDIT SECURITY EMPOWERMENT MARKETS

AGRICULTURAL DECISION- INPUTS MAKING POWER

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 13 fear of attack by insurgents, there are restrictions on agricultural production on land close to the 82% community. In this situation, women are the last to have access to land. of Nigerian women do There are no religious norms that prevent women not own a from owning land in the study communities; house or land however, fewer women own land compared to men because ownership is through inheritance or purchase, and women often have fewer resources to purchase than men. Women’s land ownership means security and subsequently access to credit to buy key agricultural inputs and other investments to increase food production, thereby lifting wom- 3. Training and capacity building for men on en’s status and her bargaining power in families gender issues, including gender equality and and communities as well as boosting well-being at equity; the importance and recognition of the household level. However, some respondents women’s participation in agriculture; gender are of the view that a woman’s ownership of land discrimination in access to agricultural re- may not give her control over it. Borno State is sources; the multiple roles of women and need a highly patriarchal society, and this has serious for support; and gender-based violence and the implications for women’s empowerment and their role of community members in ending it. access to and control of resources, even those they rightfully own. The woman is under the control of 4. Improving women’s access to domestic energy, the husband, and all that she owns also belongs to including the provision of fuel-efficient stoves him. and Emergency SAFE kits (consisting of a lightweight stove and solar lantern for highly When renting land, women cannot cultivate mobile IDPs), the planting of fast-growing spe- any crop outside of what has been agreed; such cies of trees to increase household fuelwood restrictions include high-income cash crops such as supply, and the production of briquettes. watermelon. They also cannot plant trees on such 5. Designing participatory strategies that will give lands; trees are a key to sustainable agriculture, women some free time, such as community especially in a zone where serious deforestation has childcare, customized support, and women- led to land degradation, which is exacerbated by friendly spaces. impacts of climate change.

One of the challenges that must be tackled by the 2. Access to and control over land and proposed sustainable agricultural project is that of productive resources, food security, and women’s landlessness in the face of diminishing arable land. Women’s participation in the project other social protections in the face of depends largely on adequate access to land. conflict and scarce resources

A. Access to land Recommendations All of the participants of the FGDs and KIIs agreed 1. The Nigeria Land Use Act of 1978 nationalized that both men and women have access to land; all land and vested authority in the State women’s access is obtained through renting or Governor, who holds it in trust on behalf of through their husbands or male relatives. According all. In this regard, advocacy workshops must to all the respondents at the community level, target key stakeholders – government (state land for cultivation is becoming scarce; due to and local), traditional and religious leaders,

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 14 A gathering of women in an IDP camp in Borno State. GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 15 civil society organizations (CSOs), etc. – to put in place strategies that will provide land for female beneficiaries of the project. CREDIT 2. Working with traditional leaders and LGAs to provide land or facilitate ownership of land. The traditional/community leaders have the authority to give out land and can be ap- proached to give land to women beneficiaries; it may be group possession of land. 3. Provision of money to rent larger plots of land to increase production by women farmers and group possession of land by women should be encouraged.

B. Access to credit Recommendations Agricultural credit is seen as one of the strategic 1. Providing women with greater access to land, resources for crop production, which has led to finance, and production inputs is critical to an increase in the standard of living for the rural closing the productivity gap between men poor. There are two main sources of agricultural and women. Various sources of formal credit credit: formal and informal. Farmers in the target identified in this research should be looked at communities have not benefitted from the formal and strategies developed to facilitate access by sources (bank and government). It is the view of rural farmers to such facilities. the women that men are more likely to have access 2. Awareness is the first step towards access. The because women face barriers such as poor financial partners should work with MWASD, MPAYE, literacy and high illiteracy, and hence are unfamiliar and relevant CSOs to create awareness about with loan procedures, collateral requirements, and these sources of agricultural credit for farmers, negotiating male-dominated banking facilities. the criteria for accessing them, and the linkages with other institutions that may be needed to Informal sources of credits were identified – family, facilitate access to such facilities. friends, adashe (voluntary community savings and 3. There is a need to incorporate an unconditional credit groups), money lenders, politicians, organiza- cash transfer into the project, especially in tions, and vendors who give goods to farmers the first rainy season when farmers are still on credit. Everyone has access to these informal trying to rebuild their agricultural assets. sources of credits, but access to money lenders is The modalities and the delivery mechanisms dependent on the size of farms, which of course of such cash-based transfer interventions, marginalizes women farmers by virtue of their very however, have to be determined after baseline small parcels of land. This lack of access of women assessments. farmers to money lenders may be a blessing in 4. Women and girls should also be supported in disguise because of the high interest rate – often their non-farm livelihoods to build resilience double the amount. and hence reduce their vulnerability. This component would also involve mandatory Access to credit is critical to the recovery of the weekly savings contributions for 40 weeks, agricultural sector and for building the resilience of after which their contributions would be made farmers. The issue of collateral as a huge barrier to available to them. accessing credit for low-income farmers resonated at the state-level KIIs. 5. Working closely with MWASD, MPAYE, the Ministry of Agriculture, and the Borno State

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 16 Agricultural Development Programme to leverage whatever facilities or opportunities The National Gender are available in these institutions. Policy affirmative action minimum for women’s 6. Facilitation of the emergence of women’s participation in the cooperatives/associations for easy access to leadership of community loans/credit. groups such as farmers’ groups

C. Access to and control of farmers’ groups/ associations 35% Many farmers’ groups/associations were identified in all the study communities; these include mixed- sex groups and all-female groups organized around the crops that they grow or the farming systems they use. The mixed-sex groups are controlled by men, while women have absolute control of the is a key contributor to the inability of smallholder all-female groups. The latter face challenges such as farmers, including women farmers, to transit from lack of capital and knowledge, skills/capacity gaps, subsistence to commercialized agriculture. Exten- limited access to and ownership of land, limited sion officers play a great role in the dissemination leadership skills to run a group, limited financial of agricultural information (on improved seeds, management skills, and inadequate agricultural fertilizer, pesticides, tools, etc.). As a result of the inputs. conflict, Borno State’s 1,750 extension officers have fled from the conflict-affected zones along with Recommendations the farmers. The findings from the FGDs and KIIs 1. Facilitating women’s participation in farmers’ in the LGAs showed that extension services are associations, ensuring that the leadership of almost non-existent in the study communities, with mixed-sex farmers’ groups comprise at least extension workers coming once in a year or once in 35 per cent women (as per the affirmative a while. Women have less access than men to the action principle of the National Gender Policy), extension services than men because there is an and ensuring that women have equal rights inadequate number of female extension workers, to acquire services and assistance from the women are often not aware of the visits, and male association and share the common benefits. extension workers are not allowed to interact with female farmers for cultural reasons. 2. There is a need for capacity building and training for women farmers’ associations in the areas of resource mobilization, leadership, financial management, entrepreneurship, and E. Access to fertilizers conflict management. Both male and female farmers have physical access to fertilizers, but economic access is where the 3. UN Women and partners should work through challenge is, especially for women farmers. Accord- the women farmers’ groups as entry points to ing to respondents, fertilizers from government their work with women and girls in the target sources do not reach the farmers, as only those communities. whose names are submitted by politicians can access them. Thus, farmers have to purchase in the open market at exorbitant prices; the ban on the D. Access to extension services and inputs sale of nitrogen-based fertilizers (because of their Productive agriculture requires the dissemination of potential for making improvised explosive devices) information related to production and marketing to has caused scarcity and further price hikes. farmers. Lack of access to agricultural information

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 17 F. Access to pesticides improved varieties, pests and pesticide application, There are pest problems in all the study com- and post-harvest handling and proper storage of munities. These include fall armyworm, African farm produce against infestation. armyworm, quelea birds, aphids, stem borers, and fruitworms. In addition, there are fungal and viral These are the suggested areas of training: modern diseases and noxious weeds such as Striga. All the agricultural techniques, livelihoods, food fortifica- farmers spray unspecified pesticides bought from tion and nutrition, processing and utilization the open market, which may lead to pesticide of farm produce (especially for women), and abuse; access for both men and women depends conflict management. The following areas are on the resources they have. Some farmers use particularly for youth: modern farming technology, traditional methods of control for these pests such agribusiness, marketing and linkages, and the as the use of ashes and potash. establishment of cooperatives. Awareness must be raised on the importance of conflict-affected youth completing their education (while also pursuing G. Access to agricultural equipment livelihoods). Before the conflict, tractors used to be provided, subsidized by the government, but these are currently individually owned. Both men and I. Access to labour women have physical access to such agricultural The main sources of agricultural labour in the equipment, but not equal economic access, as men communities are family and hired labour and the are more likely to have more financial resources. practice of gaiya, in which groups of friends support Women have small landholdings and low capital, one another rotationally. There are certain tasks and hence have limited access to agricultural that society has prescribed for men and women. equipment. Groups of women do come together For women, these include seed selection, sowing, to contribute money to hire a tractor or animal watering, threshing, and processing; farming traction for land preparation. Some farmers also vegetables such as okra and spinach; cultivating access tractors through registered farmers’ coopera- groundnuts, sesame, and beans; picking ground- tives connected to agricultural banks; this may need nuts and beans; and collecting soup ingredients. to be explored. For men, traditionally prescribed tasks include ploughing, land preparation, regular monitoring of the farm, harvesting of grains, and weeding of H. Access to training larger grass varieties. Training is very important to the success of agricultural production. In all the study locations, According to respondents’ religion and culture, respondents reported one form of training or women were not supposed to be exposed to hard another by UN agencies (FAO and WFP) or interna- labour. They were only to be involved in those tasks tional non-governmental organizations (SCI, Plan that do not physically drain their energy. Women International, Oxfam). Trainings were on modern do the cooking, so the crops they grow are mostly farming methods, fertilizer application, storage, for household consumption. Men’s tasks include pest control, livelihoods, health, gender-based vio- operation of sophisticated equipment, hard labour, lence, vegetable gardening, etc. Information from and large-scale farming. However, the conflict has KIIs at the state level indicates that the Ministry changed all that, as everyone can now perform any of Agriculture provided information on crop and task in the field depending on their ability, and both rice farming, community-based seed enterprises, men and women now contribute to the upkeep of and agronomic practices for some major crops. The the family. government also conducted training on the use of

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 18 to ensure access to fertilizer for women farmers and advocate to have qualified dealers and TRAINING PROVIDES shops with agricultural inputs in the communi- CRUCIAL KNOWLEDGE ties for easy access by women farmers, whose mobility is restricted by culture and religion. ABOUT 5. Provision of assistance to farmers in the following areas: training, improved seeds and • modern farming techniques crop varieties, fertilizers, pesticides, access to • new seed varieties farmland, market support, extension services, • pest control agricultural equipment, agricultural credit/ • fertilizer application loans, funding, post-harvest technologies, safety, security, start-up capital, scholarships • proper storage of produce for young farmers to complete their education, • income generation organization of women, and women’s participation in the agricultural value chain. 6. Sensitization and training on the safe use of pesticides.

3. Differential vulnerability, barriers, and Recommendations constraints faced by women and men 1. Women’s access to training and information of different ages in informal and formal should be improved, as knowledge of farming institutions in relation to agriculture, techniques is critical to productivity. This would mean putting in place robust agricultural livelihoods (including access to market extension and training services which should business), and security be adapted to rural women’s needs and Vulnerability results from poverty, exclusion, mar- constraints. ginalization, and inequities in material consump- 2. Recruitment and training of extension workers, tion, which are conditions determined by physical, especially female extension workers. The social, economic, and environmental factors or project can liaise with the Borno State Agri- processes and increase the susceptibility of an cultural Development Programme to retrain individual to a threat or risk. The general consensus its pre-conflict pool of extension workers. The from the gender analysis is that women are the project should also link up with the Agricultural most vulnerable group within the community, and Extension Unit within the Ministry of Agricul- the most vulnerable households are those headed ture with a view to improving services. by women. People living with disability were also 3. Creation of awareness about discrimination classified among the highly vulnerable persons. against women farmers regarding the unequal access to inputs. A Farmer Field School should be established in each project community, A. Underlying causes of the vulnerability of men with the goal of building farmers’ capacity and women farmers of different ages in Borno to analyse their production systems, identify State problems, and test solutions. The underlying causes identified by the key 4. UN Women and partners should link up with informants were: poverty, hunger, and depriva- relevant ministries, departments, and agencies tion (negative coping mechanisms); low level of

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 19 Girls collecting water in Borno State

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 20 WOMEN IN NORTH-EAST NIGERIA FACE NUMEROUS male insecure lack of no BARRIERS dominance tenure education capital WHEN FARMING, FEEDING THEIR FAMILIES, AND inadequate cultural religious poor knowledge barriers barriers services MAKING A LIVING

education; gender inequality; lack of access to land for farming; lack of farming facilities; lack of agriculture inputs, information, and knowledge; extension services; dominance of men in leadership lack of access to decision making; lack of farmland positions in society; cultural and religious barriers. and capital; inadequate storage facilities; inaccessibility to good markets; lack of government Though more than 90 per cent of the respondents support for producers; the land tenure system and indicated that women and men have equal access lack of complementary livelihood activities; lack to markets, there are constraints to access by of farmland; stolen harvests; insecurity; women’s women: production levels are quite low with double burden and triples roles; additional burdens women farmers, and access is determined by for widows who perform agricultural activities; how much produce farmers have for sale; religion patriarchy and religious misinterpretations. and tradition restrict the mobility of women. The overexploitation of women smallholder farmers underscores the need to link women to agricul- B. Barriers and constraints faced by men and tural value chains, from production all the way to women in formal and informal institutions in processing and marketing. relation to agriculture, livelihoods, and food security Recommendations Women and men face many barriers and con- 1. There is a dire need for enlightenment cam- straints in the area of agriculture, livelihoods, and paigns and advocacy with relevant institutions food security. According to the responses obtained, to remove the barriers women farmers face they cut across the following: lack of formal educa- accessing their services. tion, which prevents them from filling the necessary 2. Adequate rural extension services should be documents for some services; poor attitudes of employed to reach out to remote farmers in some institutions in allocating the equipment small villages who may not have access to and materials needed for agricultural production, agricultural information and technologies. etc.; lack of capital; inadequate knowledge; lack of Setting up an apprenticeship model will help institutionalized apprentice models; lack of support people with little or no education get useful or funding from institutions; insecure tenure of life skills and remove or reduce the barriers to entry.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 21 3. Improvement of security and market regulation provide vehicles at subsidized rates to convey and provision of capital, implements, energy- goods to the weekly markets. saving devices, and additional livelihood options. 11. Security agencies should provide security along 4. Provision of loans to both male and female access roads to the market and within the farmers, as well as provision of farming facili- markets. ties, including a take-off grant for the most 12. The project partners should facilitate an vulnerable beneficiaries. A soft loan of about inventory of markets destroyed by non-state 100,000 naira should be provided for each armed groups, with a view to undertaking female farmer to purchase agricultural inputs advocacy for rebuilding by government that will enhance production. (Ministry for Reconstruction, Rehabilitation and 5. Creation of a policy for the urgent allocation Resettlement and the Presidential Initiative for of funds for conflict-affected communities. the North-East). An insurance system should be established to 13. Installation of agro-input vendors in the cover farmers, crops, and other assets, such as immediate communities, improving the the Index-based Agriculture Insurance intro- availability of inputs, implements, and tools for duced by the National Insurance Commission in farming. collaboration with the Nigeria Incentive-based 14. Government should break the ‘middleman Risk Sharing System for Agricultural Lending. syndrome’ so that farmers themselves are the 6. Since agriculture is the dominant sector for ones benefitting from their sweat. food and nutrition security and livelihood im- 15. Linking women to agricultural value chains, provement in Borno State, building capacity for from production all the way to processing and staff of the Borno State Agricultural Develop- marketing, which will help make traditional ment Programme (women and men), especially farming more productive and commercially in the areas of gender, gender mainstreaming, viable. and women’s rights, is recommended. 7. Borno State Agricultural Development Pro- gramme should conduct appropriate interven- 4. Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, tions with targeted groups and facilitate discussions regularly. and threats in relation to women’s and girls’ 8. Reaching out to men and boys separately to participation in decision making and policy tackle gender inequality can be done through formulation/review of agricultural practices, gender training, advocacy, and sensitization. food security and nutrition, livelihoods, and Mixed-sex engagement can discuss gender security in Borno State norms, roles, and power relations for the establishment of more equitable and respectful There is a general consensus that the participation relationships. of women and girls in decision making is very low at all levels. There are very few women in politics 9. Formal and informal institutions should moni- in Borno State. For example, there is not a single tor and ensure equal access in the services they woman in the Borno State House of Assembly and provide for farmers. Institutions should involve neither is there a single female local government women and ensure that women are aware of chairman in the state. At the community level, the their agricultural aids and services. trend is the same; it is not unexpected, as religious 10. The project partners should link up with misinterpretation and culture has worked against government through the Ministry for Recon- women’s participation. struction, Rehabilitation and Resettlement in the area of providing accessible roads from Borno State does not have a state gender policy the farms to the markets. Government should in agriculture, and the general view is that such

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 22 a policy would be crucial to promote and ensure the adoption of gender-sensitive and gender- Women constitute responsive approaches towards agriculture plans approximately 49% and programmes so that men and women have of the country’s equal access to and control of productive resources population, yet and facilities. Such a policy, which would require they play a very technical assistance from partners such as UN limited political Women and FAO, is expected to drastically reduce and participatory the vulnerability of women. role. Only about 4% of local government councillors are women. Marginalized groups such as youth, IDPs, people Recommendations living with disability, and survivors of GBV also 1. There should be enlightenment campaigns have a limited voice in the public sphere. and training programmes for all stakeholders; workshop communiqués that capture the voice of the people should be submitted to key stakeholders such as policymakers and lawmakers and followed up by high-level advocacy 6. The Borno State government is already making and lobbying to ensure that these are included efforts to revamp agriculture and boost food in policy formulation or review. security; the project should link up with the 2. Establishment of steering communities in state government to ensure that all steps taken the target LGAs/communities to guide and involve community members. monitor the implementation of the project. 7. Training of relevant partners such as the This committee should comprise community agriculture secretary, extension officers, and leaders, ward heads, women leaders, and youth women development officers at the LGA and leaders. ward levels to identify the most important 3. Ensuring that the programme is designed to agricultural activities and interventions for carry along minority and marginalized groups improving food and nutrition security and such as persons with disabilities, IDPs, youth, household livelihoods (e.g. home gardening and survivors of sexual and gender-based and poultry raising), and for addressing violence. Women should be prioritized during constraints and women’s vulnerabilities. the beneficiary selection process. Training/ 8. Enhancing the capacity of policymakers on capacity building is recommended to ensure gender mainstreaming, capacity development, qualitative participation, including participa- raising awareness, gender analysis for more tion in agricultural value chains. reliable data and information, communicating 4. Recognizing existing organized groups com- and disseminating findings, and producing prised of marginalized persons and building policy briefs focused on gender and agriculture. their capacity to participate in the agricultural 9. Promotion of the implementation of the value chain; a project implementation commit- Sustainable Development Goals through tee should be established from among these workshops on bridging the knowledge gap, groups. even among government policymakers imple- 5. Ensuring that government authorities at all menting the goals. levels recognize women and provide space for them to raise their voices and continue to participate at all levels of the decision-making process.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 23 5. Mitigation of risks of backlash and The prevalence rate violence faced by women and girls due of gender-based to their empowerment and involvement violence in north- east Nigeria is in programme implementation and 30% governance

Borno State is a highly patriarchal society with rigid gender roles and specified domains. The conflict has seen a shift in gender roles: women are now breadwinners and also beneficiaries of livelihood schemes, cash transfers, and other social protection services provided by UN agencies – FAO, WFP, the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, – as well as the National Emergency Management Agency, the State Emergency Management Agencies, and various international and local non-governmental organizations (NGOs). This shift in gender roles may result in a backlash against communities. This could be done by NGOs, women and girls. international NGOs (INGOs), religious and community leaders, MWASD and MPAYE, and From the findings, the backlashes are already UN Women. manifesting. Men are already complaining that 2. Involving men ab initio in project implementa- their wives are becoming unruly and disrespect- tion and sensitizing them on what the project ful, resulting in domestic violence, verbal and is trying to achieve, as well as working with psychological abuse, divorce, exclusion, assault, them for better understanding of and support negligence, and denial of education. for women. 3. Proper sensitization of community leaders, Findings have shown that gender-based violence husbands (men), and women. Involvement (GBV) is a serious problem in all six LGAs. Pre- of community leaders in such activities to conflict GBV identified by the respondents included establish trust among the men and women of domestic violence; early marriage; verbal abuse; the communities. forced marriage; deprivation of education; rape; 4. Educating women on their rights; empowering wife battering; and incest. GBV during the conflict them both financially and in various skills that included: abduction/kidnapping; rape; forced will help them to be independent. marriage; early/child marriage; sexual exploitation 5. Putting in place strong policies that will deal and abuse; domestic violence; psychological/verbal decisively with the perpetrators of GBV, to abuse; increasing vulnerability of women and girls serve as a deterrent to others and assist the arising from various deprivations; stigmatization speedy prosecution of GBV cases, especially and rejection of victims of GBV and survival sex. rape; setting up a helpdesk that will strictly respond to victims in a confidential and dignified manner, and provide all required support Recommendations services. In this regard, UN Women should 1. Community sensitization and enlightenment support MWASD and CSOs as they lobby for the campaigns, mass media and social media domestication of the Violence against Persons platforms, and community-level extension Prohibition Act 2015 in the state. services and employment of trained extension 6. Awareness creation to sensitize community workers will help in creating awareness in members about the availability of GBV services and how to access them.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 24 7. Development of community mobilization and The conflict in north-east Nigeria has devastated campaign strategies using existing informal the agricultural sector and has greatly affected community groups and engaging women, men, both food security and women’s security boys, and girls to take action against gender- based violence. 8. Establishment of women-friendly spaces for survivors of sexual and gender-based violence and establishment of referral pathways at the local government level. The spaces would have multipurpose functions: skill acquisition centre; childcare centre; medical centre for women; meeting point for agriculture extension meetings; and place for information and experience sharing.

6. Other findings with Implications for programming food utilization due to the scarcity of firewood. Impact of Conflict on Agricultural Production Malnutrition is being reported across the target All the respondents in the FGDs and KIIs agreed LGAs, but is being ameliorated by food supplements that the conflict has seriously destroyed agriculture from WFP, government, INGOs, NGOs, and individu- through the killing or displacement of farmers, the als. The respondents want the women to be trained destruction of assets, and reduced arable land (due in the modern production of nutritious meals from to restricting farming to a few kilometres from local food materials. homesteads). In addition, the restrictions on movement of people in and out of camps hinder access Impact of climate change on agricultural to fields, and restrictions on certain goods such as production fertilizers by the military lower agricultural produc- The farmers have experienced climate change in tion. In Borno State, grains such as millet, sorghum, the form of rains arriving late and stopping early; and maize are staple crops; however, growing them drought; rising temperatures; failure of crops; and is prohibited in some communities, as members desertification. Farmers have used the following of non-state armed groups hide among the crops approaches to mitigate the impacts of climate and from there attack both military personnel and change: intercropping/mixed cropping, which leads civilians. to more farm products on the same farmland; livelihood diversification; use of grasses and mulching Impact of conflict on food security and nutrition to conserve soil moisture; and water harvesting for The conflict has greatly affected food security in the irrigation. state. There is scarcity of food due to low food production; there is destruction of agricultural assets Gender analysis of crops grown in the study and infrastructure, including physical infrastruc- communities ture, production equipment, animals, seed supplies, A variety of crops are grown within the target and food stocks. Combined with restrictions on the communities: maize, millet, sorghum, okro (okra), sale of nitrogen-based fertilizers (due to fears that roselle, sesame, cucumber, watermelon, tomato, they will be used to make explosive devices), food onion, rice, groundnut, Bambara nut, cotton, and production has reduced drastically. The influx of various beans and vegetables. The men grow IDPs has led to reduced access to food and limited crops for both home consumption and commercial

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 25 purposes, while women grow mainly vegetables and transformative social and political change for and beans for family consumption and a little for women and girls, and address power inequities sale. There are no restrictions on what crops can be between men and women. For this, recommenda- grown by either women or men, but growing crops tions would be made from three perspectives: such as cotton, rice, and grains, which require a lot programming opportunities and entry points; of inputs and energy, is seen as the men’s domain. strategies that can lead to results in the long, These crops are the main sources of agricultural medium, and short term; and gaps/weaknesses in income, and women are marginalized from them. terms of what other programmes are not currently addressing and what needs to be addressed in the Livestock husbandry target communities. Livestock are kept in all the target communities. These include cows, goats, sheep, poultry, and A. Recommendations for programming donkeys. All members of the community, from the opportunities and entry points youth to adults, are involved in livestock farming. 1. Advocacy to gatekeepers at state, LGA, and Women do own livestock. The general consensus community levels to create awareness about is that women have full control over their own the project and what it hopes to achieve. animals, while milk from animals is always for the 2. Identifying partners and their areas of exper- women, irrespective of whether the animal belongs tise to leverage these skills in the design and to her or her husband. implementation of the programmes. 3. Gender-targeted interventions that promote Farming systems in the target communities the rights and empowerment of women Respondents identified four main farming systems farmers through eliminating discrimination across the LGAs. These are fishery, irrigation and increasing their access to land ownership, farming, poultry farming, and home gardens (plus agricultural inputs, technology (including agroforestry). While fishery and irrigation farming LST, which frees women’s time for productive systems are dominated by men, poultry farming activities), credit, labour, and markets. and home gardens are dominated by women. Agroforestry practice is almost non-existent, as 4. Promotion of agroforestry, which will not what was described by respondents was actually only improve the health of the land, but also mixed farming. be a source of much-needed firewood and reduce the GBV associated with searching for firewood. 7. Programming opportunities, strengths, 5. Establishment of farmers’ groups/cooperatives gaps, lessons learned, and recommended and strengthening of existing ones. strategies for designing a gender-responsive 6. Women should be assisted in those farming livelihood programme that caters for systems they dominate by training them on more modern farming techniques for increased the needs and interests of women, men, production. Women should also be encouraged boys, and girls to enhance programme to go into irrigation farming for year-round effectiveness that maximizes impact for production of home garden produce as well as food security cash crops. 7. Training on modern husbandry systems should This gender analysis has been carried out to inform be provided to both male and female farmers gender-transformative programming within target to increase livestock production. communities that would challenge existing and longstanding gender norms, promote positive

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 26 LITERACY IMPROVES ACCESS TO AGRICULTURAL 5. Building capacity of programme staff and INPUTS, INSTITUTIONAL SUPPORT, CREDIT, partner staff to recognize gender inequalities LOANS, BUSINESS OPPORTUNITIES, AND and design programmes to reduce them. INFORMATION 6. Capacity building for programme implement- ers for consistent and effective gender mainstreaming. 7. Programmes around sexual and gender-based violence, sexual exploitation and abuse, psychosocial support, and trauma healing; also increasing access to basic services. 8. Establishment and operation of women-only Farmer Field Schools, preparing women for leadership roles in extension schemes. 38% of Nigerian 9. Strengthening rural institutions, increasing women have no their gender awareness, and having gender formal education champions within both rural institutions and the target communities. 10. Putting in place a robust monitoring, evaluation, accountability, and learning framework that is flexible enough to incorporate changes. B. Recommendations on strategies that can lead 11. The project partners should develop gender- to results in the long, medium, and short term sensitive indicators for monitoring, evaluation, 1. Establishment of steering committees in the accountability, and learning. target LGAs/communities to guide and monitor 12. Awareness creation on human rights, laws, and the implementation of the project. These policies for protection and redress. This could committees will comprise community leaders, be through community and media interven- ward heads, women leaders, and youth leaders. tions, using public awareness campaigns to 2. Strengthening women’s capacities around challenge gender norms, stereotypes, discrimi- leadership, decision making, and participation nation, and gender inequality; capacity should and ensuring that their voices are in the be built on the human rights–based approach conversations around agriculture, food security, to demand service delivery. livelihoods, sexual and gender-based violence, advocacy, etc. C. Recommendations on gaps/weaknesses 3. Increasing women’s literacy level through The past six years have witnessed an unprec- adult education. The partners should link up edented humanitarian crisis in Borno State, with SAME, who have structures on ground in manifested in the massive displacement of persons. most LGAs; this will increase their access to Humanitarian actors have responded with food and agricultural information, credit, and financial non-food aid. Some organizations are beginning management services. to combine humanitarian responses with early recovery initiatives, but there seems to be a gap in 4. Strengthening of linkages with ministries, these projects related to human rights, literacy, and departments, and agencies and other livelihoods. The project thus will be using a two- programmes that are working on gender issues pronged approach that meets both the practical and women’s empowerment with a view to gender needs of the farmers and the strategic addressing gender inequality.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 27 gender needs. To achieve this, the following recommendations are made.

1. Putting in place awareness programmes on human rights, laws, and policies for protection and redress of sexual and gender-based violence. Building the capacity of beneficiaries on a human rights–based approach to demand service delivery from duty holders. 2. Incorporating into the project an adult education component to bridge the gap in education between women and girls and men and boys. The expected increase in the level of education will increase women’s and girls’ capacity to benefit from this and other projects. 3. Livelihood support for women through capacity building in financial literacy, as well as mandatory weekly savings by beneficiaries that would provide capital for them to invest at the end of a specified period. 4. Put in place gender-transformative programming that seeks to challenge longstanding gender norms, promote positive and transformative social and political change for women and girls, and address power inequities between men and women.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 28 1. BACKGROUND

Agriculture remains key to achieving the poverty Borno Central, comprising eight LGAs – Maiduguri, target of the Sustainable Development Goals in Bama, Konduga, Jere, Kala/Balge, Mafa, Ngala, Africa. Nearly 80 per cent of the population in and Dikwa; and Borno South, comprising ten LGAs sub-Saharan Africa live in rural areas; 70 per cent – Askira/Uba, Bayo, Biu, Chibok, Damboa, Gwoza, of the rural population is dependent on farming Hawul, Kwaya Kusar, and Shani. The state shares and livestock production for their livelihood. This borders with the Republics of Niger to the north, small-scale farming provides most of the food Chad to the north-east, and Cameroon to the east. produced in Africa and employs 60 per cent of the Within Nigeria, Borno State shares boundaries with working population. Adamawa State to the south, Gombe State to the west, and Yobe State to the north-west. Borno State is located in the north-eastern corner of Nigeria. The people are mostly agrarian: 57 per Agriculture and livestock farming, which are cent of all households are involved in agriculture, the mainstay of the state’s economy, have vast with the number higher in rural areas (78 per cent) developmental potential. The state is rich in such and lower in urban areas (25 per cent). Over 70 crops and products as millet, rice, cassava, dates, per cent of the active labour force in rural areas is fruits, vegetables, sorghum, wheat, sweet potatoes, employed in agriculture, with the sector’s national cowpeas, sugar cane, groundnuts, cotton, and gum contribution to gross domestic product at 24 per arabic, among many others. cent.1 Many of the farmers and food producers are women, who produce about 60 to 80 per cent of the food in the country. The Food and Agriculture 1.2 Local Government Area and Organization of the UN (FAO) indicates that women produce as much as 80 percent of the basic community selection foodstuffs for household consumption and sale in sub-Saharan Africa .2 The call for proposals indicated 13 local govern- ments in which the sustainable agricultural project was going to be implemented. Bearing in mind the principle of equitable geographical representation, 1.1 Profile of Borno State and after a series of conversations among the consultants, UN Women, FAO, and WFP, six LGAs/ Borno State is located in north-eastern Nigeria; communities were selected that cut across the its capital is Maiduguri. It has an area of 57,799 three senatorial districts: Jere (Old Maiduguri) and square kilometres and a population of 4.17 million Konduga (Auno) in Borno Central; Kaga (Benisheik) (2006 census). Borno State occupies the greater and Monguno (Monguno) in Borno North; and part of the Chad Basin and is divided into three Gwoza (Gwoza) and Biu (Mirnga) in Borno South. senatorial districts: Borno North, comprising ten The UN Women team, together with the relevant LGAs – Abadam, Gubio, Guzamala, Kaga, Kukawa, partners and officials of the six LGAs, assisted in Magumeri, Marte, Mobbar, Monguno, and Nganzai; selecting the communities under each LGA, taking into account security and accessibility. 1 Central Bank of Nigeria, 2014. 2 FAO Country Programming Framework, Federal Republic of Nigeria 2013–2017.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 29 Source: nigeriazipcodes.com (adapted) nigeriazipcodes.com Source:

FIGURE 1: BORNO STATE

1.2.1 Jere There are many organizations/projects active in the LGA: International Organization for Migration, CAI, Jere is located in Borno Central Senatorial District, Education Crisis Response, Action Against Hunger, bordering Maiduguri. It comprises 13 villages in Christian Aid, Catholic Relief Services, Ekklesiyar an area of 868 square kilometres and a population Yan’uwa a Nigeria, Norwegian Refugee Council, of 211,204 (2006 census). It is one of the 16 LGAs SCI, WFP, Alliance for International Medical Action, that constitute the Borno Emirate Council. The International Medical Corps (IMC), International people are involved in small-scale agriculture Rescue Committee, MSF Belgium, UNICEF, Gender (growing various crops, including rice) as well as Equality, Peace and Development Centre, Plan animal husbandry and irrigation farming. There International, UNFPA, Women in New Nigeria, MSF are 16 official camps hosting 69,000 IDPs and 15 France, Oxfam, and Rural Water Supply and Sanita- unofficial camps. Jere LGA was not spared from the tion Agency, among others. conflict, and thousands have fled and returned.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 30 1.2.2 Konduga 1.2.4 Monguno

Konduga is located in the Borno Central Senatorial Monguno is located in Borno North Senatorial District and comprises 14 villages, including the District about 140 kilometres from Maiduguri, with Auno community. Konduga has an area of 6,000 an area of 1,913 square kilometres and a population square kilometres and a population of 157,322 of 109,851 (2006 census). It is one of the 16 LGAs (2006 census). It is about 25 kilometres to the that constitute the Borno Emirate Council. The south-east of Maiduguri, situated on the banks people depend mainly on agriculture (both rainfed of the Ngadda River. Most of the inhabitants of and irrigation farming) and fishery, which is a major Konduga are engaged in subsistence farming, but source of their income. The following organizations there is declining soil fertility. Fishing is common. are present and active in Monguno: International Alau village is well known for irrigation farming, Organization for Migration, Action Against Hunger, growing most of the tomatoes, peppers, and onions Alliance for International Medical Action, the consumed in Maiduguri, with many transported to Centre for Corrections and Human Development, other parts of the country. The main roads to Cam- International Rescue Committee, MSF France, eroon and southern Borno pass through Konduga. Norwegian Refugee Council, Partners Outside HRP, Numerous organizations/projects are active there: UNICEF, WHO, Borno State MWASD, UNFPA, and International Organization for Migration, CAI, Edu- Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Agency. There cation Crisis Response, Christian Aid, Catholic Relief are 31,500 returnees in Monguno and 11 official Services, Ekklesiyar Yan’uwa a Nigeria, Norwegian camps hosting more than 105,000 IDPs. Refugee Council, SCI, WFP, World Health Organiza- tion (WHO), IMC, International Rescue Committee, UNICEF, UNFPA, MWASD, Women in New Nigeria, 1.2.5 Gwoza Oxfam, Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Agency, and the State Universal Basic Education Board. Gwoza is located in Borno South Senatorial District, comprising 29 wards. It has a total area of 2,883 square kilometres and a population of 276,312 1.2.3 Kaga (2006 census). The capital for the local government is Gwoza. The people are involved in subsistence Kaga LGA comprises 48 villages and is located in farming, trade, and transhumant pastoralism. The Borno North Senatorial District, with its capital at terrain, which includes the Gwoza Hills and the Benisheikh. It is located in western Borno and has Mandara Mountains, is rocky and hilly. The follow- an area of 2,700 square kilometres and a popula- ing organizations are present and active in Gwoza: tion of 90,015 (2006 census). It is located on the Social Welfare Network Initiative, WFP, UNICEF, main road between Maiduguri and Damaturu. The WHO, Borno State Ministry of Health, State Primary people are involved in transhumant pastoralism, Health Care Development Agency, Danish Refugee subsistence farming, and small trade. It is a major Council, International Organization for Migration, centre for producing and trading in watermelons. and Oxfam. Gwoza has 16,000 returnees and three The following organizations/projects are active in official camps. the area: International Organization for Migration, CAI, Education Crisis Response, Danish Refugee Council, Catholic Relief Services, WFP, WHO, IMC, 1.2.6 Biu International Rescue Committee, UNICEF, UNFPA, WHO, and MSF Spain. Biu is located in Borno South Senatorial District, comprising 30 wards. It has an area of 3,423 square kilometres and a population of 175,760 (2006 census). Much of the LGA is in the northern Guinean savannah zone. The people are involved

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 31 in mixed agriculture based on livestock and crop making power. Inequality in access to and control farming. The agriculture consists mostly of small of assets severely limits women’s ability to provide farms using traditional methods. There is also a food, care, and health and sanitation services to small mining industry extracting iron ore, gravel, themselves, their husbands, and their children.6 magnesite, uranium, topaz, granite, aquamarine (beryl), nephelite (nepheline), and salt. The fol- It is against this background that, over the last few lowing organizations are active in the area: CAI, decades, many donors and implementing agencies, Education Crisis Response, Ekklesiyar Yan’uwa a including the World Bank, the International Fund Nigeria, IMC, UNICEF, WHO, Care for Life, SCI, Borno for Agricultural Development (IFAD), and FAO, have State MWASD, and UNFPA. There are about 8,360 expanded their programmes and activities in land returnees and one unofficial camp.3 policy and administration. Land policy and administration projects unfortunately can contribute inadvertently not only to gender inequality, but 1.3 Agriculture and the conflict in also to more general social inequality by supporting individuals who already have the advantage of Borno State wealth, power, or custom, to the disadvantage of those who are poor and vulnerable. Gender ineq- 4 Mijindadi has asserted that in Nigeria women are uity can be diminished when women’s rights are responsible for about 70 per cent of actual farm explicitly considered and when women participate work, and constitute up to 60 per cent of the farm- in designing and implementing land policy and ing population. Paradoxically, the poorest of the programmes. The extremism-related conflict in poor are often women and young girls. World Bank Borno State since 2009 has exacerbated existing reports classified 63 per cent of the country as poor, inequalities and has resulted in over 2 million with the poverty incidence highest for agricultural people displaced from their communities into IDP 5 households. National food security and nutrition camps and host communities. The International are closely tied to these smallholder farmers. Organization for Migration Displacement Tracking These enormous contributions that women make Matrix Round XXI (February 2018) indicates that 77 to food production and food security are hardly per cent of the total amount of 1.78 million IDPs in recognized and are poorly documented. Patriarchal Nigeria are located in Borno State, with Adamawa norms and practices ensure that there are many State accounting for 9 per cent and Yobe State for inequalities, reflected in the challenges, constraints, 6 per cent. About 80 per cent of the IDP population and discrimination that women farmers face on a are women and children, and they are at constant daily basis – challenges that need to be understood risk of grave human rights violations and sexual and and addressed in the fight against poverty and gender-based violence. food insecurity. These inequalities mostly involve the unequal distribution of resources, benefits, The conflict has prevented normal farming, fishing, opportunities, or decision-making powers. Women and herding operations from being carried out. typically have limited access to land, education, Farming activities in the conflict-affected communi- information, credit, technology, and decision- ties in Borno have ceased, as farmers have fled, 3 Borno State LGA’s Baseline information for planners. www. leaving most of their assets and livelihoods behind. earlyrecovery.global/sites/default/files/borno_state_lgaocos.pdf. In many cases, they end up as displaced persons in 4 Mijindadi, N. B., 1993, ‘Agricultural Extension for Women’, communities where they have few claims to land or presentation at the 13th World Bank Agricultural Symposium on Women in Agricultural Resources Management, January 6–7, in camps managed by the international humanitar- Washington DC. ian community. Fleeing populations also include 5 Oseni, G., M. Goldstein, and A. Utah, Gender Dimensions in extension agents of the Borno State Agricultural Nigerian Agriculture, LSMS-ISA Integrated Surveys on Agriculture, The World Bank Group, Africa Region Gender Practice, Policy 6 Donli, P. O., 2017, ‘Gender Dimensions of Agriculture, Armed Brief: Issue 5, http://siteresources.worldbank.org/ INTSURAGRI/ Conflicts and Food Security in Nigeria’, paper presented at the Resources/7420178-1294259038276/Policy_Brief_Gender_ National Institute for Policy and Strategic Studies, Kuru, 28 Dimensions_Ag_Nigeria.pdf. September 2017.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 32 Development Programme. The conflict, coupled with unfriendly climate conditions, has negatively impacted livelihoods and food security, especially Farm work done by for the estimated 80 to 90 per cent of the popula- 70% women in Nigeria tion in the area who are dependent on agriculture, fisheries, and livestock for their livelihoods. The impact of the conflict on agriculture is estimated to be USD 3.7 billion. Access to fishing grounds Borno State’s share has been reduced, irrigation and farming facilities of the total number have been destroyed, and extension services and 77% of IDPs in Nigeria key agriculture-based value chains have collapsed. The situation has also impacted the transportation of farm produce and market and trade facilities Women and (including fish markets). It has reduced production children due to mass displacement and limited access to 80% within the IDP markets. Fear of looting and attacks has prevented population farmers from working in their fields, leading to reduced harvests, a loss of productive assets, and extremely reduced purchasing power.

The conflict situation has negatively impacted men, 1.4 The sustainable agriculture women, boys, and girls in Borno State in different ways and changed household and community project dynamics. In the camps and host communities, About two years ago, some IDPs began to return to IDPs are dealing with a serious humanitarian crisis: their LGAs of origin, though some have remained inadequate shelter, food, and water, sanitation, within the LGA headquarters, as the hinterland and hygiene facilities; sexual and gender-based has remained unsafe. To resume their agricultural violence; and hunger. In 2017, it was estimated livelihoods, these IDPs require support. In response, that more than 6 million people are facing the FAO, UN Women, and WFP are embarking on a threat of severe hunger; this could get worse, as three-year joint project: Restoring and Promoting there are people in communities who cannot be Sustainable Agriculture-based Livelihoods for Food reached. According to a report by the Office for the Security, Employment and Nutrition Improvement Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs in April 2017, in Borno State. It will seek to build the resilience of the prevalence of food insecurity remained high, conflict-affected people and public sector institu- particularly among IDPs and refugee returnees tions in Borno State, with two broad objectives: whose livelihood opportunities are limited. Nearly 1. Enhancing social protection, through the 4.7 million people are in need of food (Famine Early creation of employment and the promotion of Warning Systems Network – Crisis, Emergency, and environment- and climate-friendly livelihood Famine phases), a number that was projected to opportunities (with a special focus on women, increase to 5.2 million between June and August youth, and vulnerable households) in 13 LGAs 2017 in the three most affected states. Over 65,000 in Borno State, with the aim of increasing people were already living in famine in pockets of access to basic needs, significantly reducing north-east Nigeria, and over 1 million people were malnutrition, and strengthening resilience in one step away from famine. communities affected by the conflict. 2. Supporting resilience in terms of food security and the wider economy; this includes basic services for local populations (particularly the

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 33 of residents Though major contributors to food production and of north- food security, women’s contributions are hardly 90% eastern recognized and are poorly documented. Women Nigeria also carry out informal activities (unpaid care depend on activities) that are not officially accounted for in the agriculture systems of national accounts, thereby undervaluing their contributions and overlooking the impact of their activities on the overall development of the economy.

This poor documentation and non-recognition may not be unconnected to social constructs and cultural inclinations that value everything male as superior to everything female. In Nigeria, patriarchy guides roles, responsibilities, laws, policies, norms, and practices. Patriarchy is defined as a system of most vulnerable and including refugees and male supremacy and female subordination that displaced people) related to food and nutrition is strengthened by value systems and cultural security, health, education, social protection, norms that propagate the notion of women’s and environmental sustainability. inferiority. In Nigeria, gender relations, which are the ways in which a culture or society defines rights, The project will target women and youth, with the responsibilities, and the identities of men and participation of men. To ensure that the differential women in relation to one another, are informed by needs of men, women, boys, and girls are met in the patriarchy. Often this relationship is tilted in favour programming cycle, this gender analysis was carried of men, giving more power to the men and creating out as part of the project’s inception activities. The inequalities in terms of power, decision making, gender analysis – which constitutes the merging of access to resources, and benefits. The inequalities local knowledge and external ‘expert’ knowledge arising from patriarchal norms are also reflected in assessing local needs, problems, opportunities, in the challenges, constraints, and discrimination and prioritization of issues through participatory women farmers face on a daily basis. These chal- surveys, discussions, and interaction – will shape lenges need to be understood and addressed in the beneficiary targeting, with adapted programming fight against poverty and food insecurity. (including training tools, sensitization, and advocacy) to take the outcomes of the gender analysis Agriculture is most accurately and usefully under- into account. stood as an umbrella term denoting a wide range of activities – crop, livestock, and fisheries value chains – that link farmers and rural people with liveli- 1.5 Sustainable agriculture and hoods and food and nutrition security. Agriculture continues to be the main source of income among food and nutrition security the rural poor, and farmers depend on agriculture for their wealth creation, improved livelihoods, and Sustainable rural livelihoods (ensuring quality of food and nutrition security. However, the impacts of life and sustainability of the production systems) conflict on food security and nutrition are signifi- in Nigeria depend on agriculture and natural cantly worse when the conflict is protracted and resources (forests, trees, soil, water, fisheries); compounded by weak institutional response capac- indeed, agriculture is the lifeline of the rural ity and other stress factors, such as vulnerability to economy. Women play important roles as farmers, climate change (FAO 2017). This is the situation in food producers, and natural resource managers. the north-east of Nigeria, where the conflict is part

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 34 of a long history of chronic underdevelopment and Agriculture is central to the livelihoods of the rural higher rates of poverty, illiteracy, unemployment, poor and to the attainment of the Sustainable and food insecurity. Long-standing environmental Development Goals. Agriculture can be an engine degradation has affected the livelihoods of farmers of growth and is necessary for reducing poverty and as well as fishermen in the Lake Chad region. The food insecurity, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa shrinking of Lake Chad is a major cause of conflict (IFAD 2001, World Bank 2007a). Understanding itself, as there is increased competition for the the dynamic processes of change is crucial to shrinking resources. In general, the situation in the better positioning the sector for faster growth and area has reduced benefits, vibrant livelihoods, and sustained development, which is vital for food and food and nutrition security. livelihood security for millions of men and women worldwide. Food security at the individual, household, national, regional, and global level is achieved when all people at all times have physical, social, and 1.6 Gender issues within Nigeria’s economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food prefer- agriculture sector ences for a healthy and active life (FAO 2001). Food security is essentially built on three pillars: food Gender equality is crucial for agricultural develop- availability, food access, and food utilization. An ment and the attainment of the Sustainable individual must have access to sufficient food of the Development Goals. The Global Monitoring Report right dietary mix (quality) at all times to be food se- 2007 on gender equality defines it as equal access cure. Those who never have sufficient quality food to the ‘opportunities that allow people to pursue are chronically food insecure. Those whose access a life of their own choosing and to avoid extreme to an adequate diet is conditioned by seasonality deprivations in outcomes’ and highlights gender are food insecure and are generally called seasonally equality in rights, resources, and voice (World Bank food insecure. Individuals who normally have 2007b). Most of the gender issues in agriculture enough to eat but become food insecure in the face have their roots in gender inequality. The most of disasters triggered by economic, climatic, and common involve the non-recognition of the civil shocks (war and conflict) aretransitorily food productive activities of women and the unequal insecure (Anegbeh 2010, 2016). The ‘at all times’ distribution of resources, benefits, opportuni- element of the food security definition makes risk ties, and decision-making powers. Women are and associated vulnerability an important element responsible for half of the world’s food production, of the food security concept. and in most developing countries produce between 60 and 80 per cent of the food, yet they continue Agricultural production in sub-Saharan Africa is to be regarded as home producers or assistants on predominantly from small-scale farming (Anegbeh the farm and not as actual farmers and economic 2015), with more than 50 per cent of the agricul- agents. Women also typically have limited access tural activities performed by women; they produce to land, education, information, credit, technology, about 60 to 70 per cent of the food in this region. A and decision-making power. gender division of labour characterizes this system of production, based on patriarchal norms that Land is a very crucial farm resource, without ascribe household roles to the woman and those which there would be no agricultural produc- related to cash income to the man. Crop production, tion. Unfortunately, patriarchal structures and livestock, and aquaculture provide income genera- authorities give more resources to men, resulting in tion, employment creation, and improved food women having less access to productive resources, and nutrition security across different production including land. In many developing countries, land systems and along different value chains (millet, is predominantly owned by men and transferred sorghum, maize, meat, dairy, live animals, hides, inter-generationally to males. Some religious laws eggs, fish, etc). forbid female ownership of land. Even when civil

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 35 Resident of an IDP camp in Borno State

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 36 CREDIT 82% of Nigerian women do not own a house or land

requires the dissemination of information related to production and marketing to farmers. The lack of law gives women the right to inherit land, local access to agricultural information is a key contribu- custom may rule otherwise. Women’s access to land tor to the inability of smallholder farmers, including is through their husbands or male relatives, thereby women farmers, to transit from subsistence to increasing their dependence on men. And even commercialized agriculture. Extension officers play where women hold parcels of land, they are small, a great role in the dissemination of agricultural less fertile, and less conducive to efficient farming information. In Nigeria, male extension workers, practices. who mostly relate to male farmers, dominate extension services. Women receive only 5 per cent Lack of access to loans and credit is also a major of agricultural extension services worldwide. This hurdle for women. Women farmers face more credit has serious implications for those areas where constraints than male farmers. This is especially religion and culture forbid the interaction of men true of women farmers in rural areas, where access and women. to formal financial facilities is limited. Women receive only a small fraction of assistance for Women often do not have the appropriate technol- agricultural investments; women in Africa receive ogy, tools, and inputs to farm productively. Because less than 10 per cent of small farm credit and access of the unequal control of resources, when men and only 1 percent of available credit in the agricultural women grew the same crop on individual plots, sector. This has been attributed to their lack of women were at a disadvantage; most inputs such collateral and consequently their inability to obtain as labour and fertilizer went to the men’s plots. Due credit, limiting their ability to purchase agricultural to lack of access to improved technologies, women tools, seeds, and fertilizer or to hire labour that still use crude traditional implements in food crop could increase their crop production. Another production. Sometimes technologies are developed cause is the high rate of illiteracy, which limits without considering the differences between men women’s access to information, available on-farm and women, resulting in the inability of women to resources, and improved technological innovations. use such technologies. Even where credit is available without collateral, women’s illiteracy and lack of familiarity with loan Appropriate technology packages have been procedures may limit their access; the predomi- developed to ease rural farm tasks such as weeding, nantly male credit officers are another barrier. fertilizer application, harvesting, and storage, but the cost of such technologies has kept them out Women also have unequal access to information of reach for women farmers. Often, such improved and improved technology. Productive agriculture technologies are not cost-effective on the small

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 37 plots that women farm. Lack of technical knowhow The prevalence rate and cultural norms have also limited the extent to of gender-based which female farmers have been able to adopt the violence in north- technologies. east Nigeria is 30% Women have inadequate access to markets, and this hampers their opportunity to earn income. Reasons for this include the following: religion and culture, which restrict women’s movement; women are tied to their homes as the primary caretakers of children; and women lack access to transportation (e.g. vehicles, bikes, horses, donkeys, oxen, or carts) because of scarcity or because males control such means of transport. Additionally, insecurity is a major deterrent to market access.

Many reports have indicated that women’s productivity can be at least equal to men’s if they are given 1.7.2 Indirect consequences of the conflict the same opportunity.7 FAO estimates that a 4 per cent increase in food output could be achieved if Some indirect consequences include the breakdown women had equal access to resources, and that this of public service provision infrastructure, which could reduce the number of hungry people by up to leads to the non-delivery of essential services; 150 million.8 limited access to food and water; poor sanitation and hygiene; weak or collapsed health services; increased displacement and family dislocation; and family stress and domestic violence. These ‘indirect’ 1.7 The gender dimension of the consequences have the biggest role in shaping armed conflict in Borno State people’s lives and livelihoods in the aftermath of conflicts, and women and girls often bear the brunt. Many armed conflicts are not gender neutral. Women and men are exposed to different forms of rights violations during armed conflicts; while 1.7.3 Sexual and gender-based violence both are exposed to violence, men are more likely to be targets of gun violence, and women are mostly GBV refers to any act of violence that results in, or affected by GBV. Highlighted below are some of the is likely to result in, physical, sexual, or psychologi- gender issues in the conflict in north-east Nigeria. cal harm or suffering to women, girls, boys, or men on the basis of gender, while sexual violence is ‘any sexual act, attempt to obtain a sexual act, 1.7.1 Internal displacement or other act directed against a person’s sexuality using coercion, by any person, regardless of their The majority of IDPs in camps and host communi- relationship to the victim, in any setting’. Women ties are women and children. There they have have undergone horrible violation of their rights reduced access to resources, meaning they are less as a result of the conflict. They have been raped, able to cope with household responsibilities. They tortured, and forced into sex slavery or marriage. also face increased physical and emotional violence.

7 Hlanze, L. (2014), ‘Agriculture and Women’, Agriculture and As a result, they have experienced pregnancies growth evidence paper series, DfID Evidence into Action Team, June and abortions and various grave violations of 2014. their rights, in addition to displacement and social 8 FAO (2011), ‘Closing the Gender Gap in Agriculture’, http:// www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/52011/icode/. discrimination. Sexual and gender-based violence

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 38 has become pervasive, with multiple perpetrators activities. The skills these women gain enable (security personnel, weapons bearers, camp elders, them to assume new roles within their households, people from the camp environment, etc.) and becoming the main breadwinners when men have multiple locations (in the camps, on farm roads and died or have become unemployed. This shift repre- paths, on the farms, in the communities, etc.). An sents a move away from stereotypically ‘masculine’ unofficial communication between a security agent and ‘feminine’ roles. However, men may react to and the Gender Equality, Peace and Development these changes with depression, alcoholism, and an Centre in May 2018 indicated that from January escalation of violence against women in public and 2018 to April 2018, over 300 cases of rape had been private. The relatively small gains women obtain reported. during displacement do not necessarily translate to more equitable gender relationships. Women may have new roles to fulfil, but might not have the 1.7.4 Abduction of women and girls institutional leverage to fulfil them effectively.

In April 2014 in Chibok, 276 girls were abducted, while in Dapchi in 2018, 110 girls were abducted. 1.7.7 Reduced access of girls to education Before the Chibok girls, there had been other abduc- tions from schools, but not on such a massive scale. Education facilities have been destroyed by the Not only schoolgirls have been abducted – women insurgents, exacerbating an already dire situation and girls who were on the streets hawking, working for girls. The statistics are gloomy: 952,029 school- on the farm, or travelling have also been taken. age children have been forced to flee the violence in the north-east, 600 teachers have been killed, 19,000 teachers have been displaced, 1,200 schools 1.7.5 Food scarcity and inequalities in food have been damaged, and overall 600,000 children distribution have lost access to learning. In IDP camps, about 75 per cent of the children do not attend school; The conflict has resulted in food scarcity, and for in host communities, where up to 81 per cent of survival IDPs have had to depend on food aid the displaced have found refuge, the educational from UN agencies, the government (National resources are stretched even further. Attacks on and State Emergency Management Agencies), schools, exemplified by the abduction of 276 girls non-governmental and civil society organizations, from a school in Chibok, has raised community and private individuals and foundations. Women concerns about the safety of school attendance. and girls are more susceptible to food insecurity Schools in Maiduguri were closed for more than and malnutrition and suffer more consequences, two years as they were converted into IDP camps. including survival sex and exposure to sexually transmitted infections such as HIV, herpes, and hepatitis. 1.8 Impact of armed conflicts on food security in Borno State 1.7.6 Shifts in gender roles and Armed conflicts have a very negative impact on all responsibilities the components of food security, from availability Both women and men have experienced a shift in through to access, utilization, and stability. Conflicts roles. Demographic change due to the conflict has often reduce food availability by preventing led to more women becoming heads of households, normal farming, fishing, and herding operations creating new opportunities for such women in as farmers flee conflict-affected areas. For the past training and development programmes in health five years or so, farming activities in the conflict- and education, as well as in income-generating affected communities in Borno State have ceased

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 39 fewer motorists agree to go to conflict-affected The conflict in north-east Nigeria has devastated areas. Also, due to the general lack of physical the agricultural sector and has greatly affected security in conflict zones, people may simply not both food security and women’s security feel safe traveling to markets.

Food utilization is a measure of how well food supplies are used to promote consumers’ health and productivity. Conflicts affect food utilization in many ways, making preparation and storage of food more complicated. In some areas of Borno State, the rate of acute malnutrition in children under five in 2016 was over 50 per cent; about 450,000 children were suffering from severe acute malnutrition. The Governor of Borno State on 8 August 2016 said that his state was ‘hanging between malnutrition and famine…people [were] dying like flies’. Children were dying in Bama, having no food, clean water, or medical care – a tragic manifestation of the as farmers have fled – leaving most of their assets humanitarian fallout of the conflict. In the camps, and livelihoods behind. In many cases, they end up despite more food being available, collection of as displaced persons in camps or in communities fuelwood and clean water for the preparation of where they have few claims to land. Fleeing popula- food became dangerous for women and children. tions also include the extension agents of the Borno State Agricultural Development Programme. The reduced access to health care seems to have Concern about the presence of landmines on had a major impact on food utilization. The killing farmland has also limited agricultural production in or flight of trained health workers and the lack of the state. In addition to all this, agricultural assets public financing for medication and vaccinations ex- and production equipment (animals, seed supplies, acerbate the loss of public health services. Many of and food stocks) are being destroyed and farmers the 3,000 health facilities in the three north-eastern are being killed. states have been completely destroyed, while some have been partially destroyed or closed down due Armed conflicts also reduce access to food; as to lack of staff and medication. It is estimated that populations are forcibly displaced by violent 37 per cent of such facilities, especially primary conflict, they suffer the greatest reductions in their health care centres in the rural communities, are access to food due to loss of livelihoods, and hence affected. In 2017, around 6.9 million people needed loss of income and attendant power. Conflict also humanitarian health services, including more than leads to an increase in food prices; with limited 1.7 million IDPs across camps in the three states. financial resources, most households become food insecure and quickly become dependent on About 64 per cent of the health facilities across international assistance. The number of people in Borno State are completely or partially destroyed. need far outweighs the amount of food assistance, Only 288 facilities out of 749 are functional, but and only a portion of those directly affected receive they are overburdened and suffer from power cuts food deliveries or income support to ensure food and water shortages. Making matters worse, there security. They then confront inflated market prices was an outbreak of deadly Lassa fever, there is an as traders anticipate the growth in demand and/or already elevated risk for meningitis, and cholera raise their prices to cover the costs associated with and malaria are major issues, especially during increased risk, especially when conflict is ongoing. the rainy season (there was a recent outbreak of The cost of transportation increases as fewer and

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 40 cholera in IDP camps in Borno State). Very high 6. Identify programming opportunities, strengths, mortality and morbidity rates are routinely reported gaps, lessons learned, and recommended among populations affected by the conflict. Along strategies for designing a gender-responsive with food, health services such as vaccinations are livelihood programme that caters for the needs often provided in camps that receive international and interests of women, men, boys, and girls humanitarian support, but overcrowding and to enhance programme effectiveness that poor shelter conditions give rise to epidemics of maximizes impact for food security. communicable diseases, which often prove fatal in populations with poor nutritional status.

1.9 Objectives of the gender analysis

The objectives of the gender analysis are as follows: 1. Examine the differential needs of women and men in the target communities in relation to gender, age, and how dominant social norms and power dynamics play out. 2. Understand who has access to and/or control over land and productive resources, as well as food security and other social protection issues among women, men, and households in the face of the conflict and scarce resources. 3. Understand differential vulnerability, barriers, and constraints faced by women and men of different ages in informal and formal institutions (involving people living with disability, elderly people, and youth), in relation to agriculture, livelihoods (including access to market business), and security. 4. Explore strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats to improve women’s and girls’ participation in decision making and policy formulation/review regarding agricultural practices, food security and nutrition, livelihoods, and security in the state. 5. Explore how to mitigate the risk of backlashes and violence that women and girls may face because of their empowerment and involvement in programme implementation and governance.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 41 2. RESEARCH METHODS AND APPROACHES

2.1 Gender analytical tools used in 2.2 Development of data collection the study tools

Two gender analytical tools were used for the gen- The consultant and UN Women developed tools der analysis: the Harvard Analytical Framework and that would capture the required information for the the Caroline Moser Framework. The tools were used gender analysis around the issues as stipulated in to guide all the FGDs and the KIIs at the community the objectives of the gender analysis in Section 1.8 level. The Harvard Analytical Framework maps the above. work and resources available to women and men and highlights the differences. It discovers who These tools were: Tool 001, designed for the focus does what in terms of productive and reproductive group discussions; Tool 002, designed for the key roles and who has access to and control of which informant interviews at the community level; and resources. Tool 003, designed for the key informant interviews at the state level. The framework also helps identify the factors that influence gender relations and gendered opportunities and constraints. In addition, the framework 2.3 Management of the research enables the development of a checklist for project cycle analysis, in which sex-disaggregated data process is used to capture how social change affects men and women differently. The framework looks at The research team comprised the two consultants, the activity profiles of men and women, assesses the UN Women Programme Officer, and 14 research access to resources and benefits, and examines the assistants. The research assistants were trained influencing factors that cause the gender division through a methodology workshop. The training of labour, access, and control and thus determine covered the objectives of the gender analysis, meth- different opportunities and constraints for men and ods and tools, translation of some of the unfamiliar women. words and terms into Kanuri and Hausa (which, together with English, were seen as the likely The second tool, the Caroline Moser Framework, languages for conducting the interviews), facilita- aims at emancipating women from their subordi- tion skills, ethics, notetaking, and transcription. nate state and having them achieve equality, equity, and empowerment. This framework analyses The research assistants were also taken through women’s triple roles and their practical and strate- a process of familiarization on the study locations gic gender needs. and mobilization techniques. Their individual roles were defined and guidance provided for community entry and collection of data in the field. The research assistants were selected based on their

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 42 knowledge of the culture of the people and the years); thus there were 24 FGDs across all six terrain; fluency in the local language (Kanuri); avail- communities. Each FGD involved 10 to 12 persons. ability; and experience in the selected communities. The total number of FGD respondents was 286 – 150 females and 136 males. Of these, 73.7 per cent were married and 14.1 per cent, 9.7 per cent, and 2.4 Community mobilization 2.4 per cent were single, widowed, and divorced respectively. Each study community was mobilized three days prior to the research visit to ensure that the targets were reached. During the mobilization process, 2.6.2 Key informant interviews community leaders were mobilized, and they in Key informant interviews were conducted at two turn informed the required persons (from various levels (community level and state level) using Tools categories). This was followed up a day to the main 002 and 003 respectively. visit with a phone call as a reminder. This was found to be very effective; sometimes the team had more At the community level, a minimum of six key participants than required and had to limit them informants were interviewed. There were 46 key by using a numbering system (those without a informants across the selected communities: com- number do not participate). munity and religious leaders, male opinion leaders, female opinion leaders, women or men living with disabilities, IDPs and returnees, youth leaders 2.5 Desk review (male/female), local security, and representatives of cooperatives. Using the research questions, which are well described in the gender analysis problem state- At the state level, the key informants comprised ment, secondary data was gathered online and representatives of the following: Ministry of from existing studies by relevant partners (FAO, Women Affairs and Social Development, Ministry WFP, IFAD-CASP, etc.). The process was cognizant for Poverty Alleviation and Youth Empowerment, of the data’s original purpose, the relevance to Borno State Agricultural Development Programme, UN Women’s mandate, the credibility of the data International Fund for Agricultural Development, (including when it was collected, the questions international non-governmental organizations asked, and shape of the data). (Save the Children International, Oxfam, Street Child), and civil society organizations (Neem Foundation, Samaritan Care, Gender Equality, 2.6 Collection of data Peace and Development Centre, and GOAL Prime Organization Nigeria). The data collection was carried out in June and July 2018 using the tools described in Section 2.2. The data collection was done through focus group 2.7 Data analysis discussions and key informant interviews. The field study was purposively designed. In analysing the data, the perspectives of all the different 2.6.1 Focus group discussions stakeholders were highlighted. All qualitative data collected through the study was disaggregated There were four focus group discussions in each by sex and age. The analysis drew on and made selected community, comprising younger women comparisons to existing data sources and secondary (18–30 years), younger men (18–30 years), older data to compare findings. The data was collected women (over 30 years), and older men (over 30 directly from interviewees using questionnaires.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 43 The qualitative data was entered into computers, sorted, organized, coded, and interpreted. The qualitative data collected and the findings were analysed using descriptive statistics.

The information obtained from the key informants and FGDs were transcribed (verbatim) from conversations and studied to identify thematic categories. The data was analysed inductively and larger volumes of narrative information coded and analysed. The time diary reports that were collected in the six LGAs were analysed, and the impact of the daily activities on women’s time was ascertained. The data was further grouped into tables, interpreted in percentages, and presented in graphs and pie charts for easy reading and interpretation.

2.8 Limitations of the study

In line with the study plan, the research team visited almost all the target LGAs to collect information. The research team could not go to Gwoza – they were unable to get slots for the chopper, as flights were overbooked. The team therefore relied on information from IDPs of Gwoza origin in Christian Association of Nigeria Centre Camp and Gwoza Bakassi Camp within Maiduguri town. These persons are currently involved in some farming activities, though on a very small scale.

The team was also unable to visit Monguno. Most of the people from the town have been displaced and now reside in Maiduguri – in Bakassi Camp and host communities. On the advice of local government staff, information was collected from the IDPs of Monguno origin in Bakassi Camp. As with the Gwoza IDPs, they are engaged in small-scale farming.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 44 Women holding a meeting in an IDP camp in Borno State

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 45 3. KEY FINDINGS

3.1 Activity profiles of the Grass, animal dung, and charcoal were also collected, as these are used as alternatives in most respondents of the study communities. Food preparation is the responsibility of women and girls, except in Jere where boys also began to get involved. The involve- 3.1.1 Household activities ment of women in taking care of children ranged Figure 2 indicates the activity profile of women from 65 per cent in Monguno to 100 per cent in and men, boys and girls before (B) and during (D) Jere, placing this responsibility on the shoulders the ongoing conflict under the various household of women. Such care tasks and other household tasks. The findings show that women are still more chores use up women’s time. This time constraint involved than men in household activities after should be considered in the project design and the conflict; what has changed is that women implementation, as the project strategizes about now head households and participate in decision how to free women’s time for paid productive jobs. making. Regarding whether there were traditional norms that prescribe what women, men, boys, and Heading households and decision making was pre- girls can do, the answers varied. There were those dominantly the domain of the men, but the crisis that said there are norms embedded in the tradi- has led to an increase in the proportion of women tion that forbid a man from cleaning, cooking, or heading households – because the husbands have engaging in threshing (Konduga) and forbid women been killed, are missing, or became incapacitated. from heading households. Others are of the view Some husbands are under security detention, while that there are no norms that forbid either sex from others are sick or too old to work. About 9.4 per cent carrying out any activity. of the respondents are widows, and the conflict has increased women’s decision-making responsibilities The details of the household activity profiles in the family. One area of concern indicated in of community members before the conflict, Figure 2 and Annex 2 is the non-involvement of disaggregated by LGA, are presented in Annex 2. girls and boys in decision making, both before and Cleaning was done by only women, girls, and boys during the conflict. It was only in Jere LGA that the prior to the conflict, and this has not changed with participation of girls and boys (during the conflict) the conflict; the practice remains the same, except was recorded, and this was very minimal. in Biu where 2.5 per cent of men were involved in cleaning. Before the conflict, women, men, girls, and boys fetched firewood, but after the conflict 3.1.2 Productive activities men were more involved in other categories. In The findings (Figures 3 and 4) indicate that most Monguno and Kaga, fewer women were involved productive activities – land clearing, ploughing, in the collection of firewood, probably as a result weeding, daily maintenance, harvesting, and of restrictions imposed on women’s mobility and storage – were done by men before the conflict, hard labour (cultural and social factors cited by while seed selection, threshing, and processing some respondents). During the insurgency, men was dominated by women. However, the conflict and women were less involved in the collection of brought about a sharing of responsibilities in all the firewood and girls and boys became more involved.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 46 3.0 Key Findings

3.1 Activity Profiles of the Respondents

3.1.1 Household activities

Figure 2 indicates the activity profile of women and men, boys and girls before (B) and during (D) the ongoing conflict under the various household tasks. The findings show that women are still more involved than men in household activities after the conflict; what has changed is that women now head households and participate in decision making. Regarding whether there were traditional norms that prescribe what women, men, boys, and girls can do, the answers varied. There were those that said there are norms embedded in the tradition that forbid a man from cleaning, cooking, or engaging in threshing (Konduga) and forbid women from heading households. Others are of the view that there are no norms that forbid either sex from carrying out any activity.

more involved. Grass, animal dung, and charcoal were also collected, as these are used as alternatives in most of the study communities.Figure 2: Household Food preparation activity is the profiles responsib ofility members of women of and girls, except in Jere where boyscommunities also began to get before involved and. The during involvement the conflict of women across in taking the care six of LGAs children ranged from 65 per cent in Monguno to 100 per cent in Jere, placing this responsibility on the shoulders of women. Such care120 tasks and other household chores use up women’s time. This time constraint should be considered in the project design and implementation, as the project strategizes about how to free women’s time for paid productive jobs. 100

Heading households and decision making was predominantly the domain of the men, but the crisis has led Cleaning to an increase in the proportion of women heading households – because the husbands have been killed, 80 are missing, or became incapacitated. Some husbands are under security detentionFetching, while firewood others are sick or too old to work. About 9.4 per cent of the respondents are widows, and the conflictFetching haswater increased women’s 60decision-making responsibilities in the family. One area of concern indicated in Figure 2 and Annex 2 is the non-involvement of girls and boys in decision making, both beforePreparing and during food the conflict.

It was onlycommunities in Jere LGA that the participation of girls and boys (during the conflict)Taking was care recordedof children, and this was very40 minimal. Washing clothes

Heading households 3.1.2 Productive20 activities Decision making

The findings (Figures 3 and 4) indicate that most productive activities – land clearing, ploughing, Percentage of thetask carried out by membersof the weeding, daily0 maintenance, harvesting, and storage – were done by men before the conflict, while seed selection, threshingWomen, andMen processing B Girls B wasBoys dominated B Women Menby women. D Girls However,D Boys D the conflict brought about a sharing of responsibilitiesB in all the productiveD activities except processing, which has remained the purview of women. In general, there are no farm activities that women are not involved in, but their level

Theof involvement details of the varieshousehold from activity one LGA profiles to another of community (Annex members3). before the conflict, disaggregated by LGA, are presented in Annex 2. Cleaning was done by only women, girls, and boys prior to the conflict , and this has not changed with the conflict; the practice remains the same, except in Biu where 2.5 per cent of men were involved in cleaning. Before the conflict, women, men, girls, and boys fetched firewood, but after the conflict men were more involved in other categories. In Monguno and Kaga, fewer women were involvedFigure in3: the Farming collection activity of firewood profiles, probably of as communitya result of restriction memberss imposed on women’s mobility and hard acrosslabour (cultural the six and LGAs social beforefactors cited the by conflict some respondents). During the insurgency, men and women were less involved in the collection of firewood and girls and boys became 80 70 60 50 35 40 30 Women 20 10 Men 0 Girls Boys by community members by community Percentage of tasks carriedout

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 47 Figure 4: Farming activity profiles of community members across the six LGAs during the conflict 70 60 50 40 30 Women 20 10 Men 0 Girls Boys by community members by community Percentage out carriedof tasks

3.1.3 Twenty-dour Hour Time Use for Members of the Target Local Government Areas

Figuresproductive 5, 6, activities 7, and 8 except present processing, data on 24 which-hour has time usebreadwinner in the communities and head ofand the indicate household that or women looking do moreremained work the and purview work longer of women. hours In th general,an men there. They workfor odd up tojobs 16 for hours the survival a day – of cooking, the family. bathing children, washingare no farm plates activities, cleaning that the women house, are farm not inginvolved, preparing lunch, cleaning the kitchen, washing clothes, preparingin, but their dinner level (andof involvement cleaning after varies dinner from )one, and preparingWomen children are facing for a doublebed. They burden also due carry to genderout multiple activities at the same time. The men are involved in fewer activities and work less than six hours per day; LGA to another (Annex 3). inequality in the distribution of domestic tasks and they even have time for leisure and relaxation with friends at the majalissa (men’s meeting and relaxation productive tasks, resulting in time constraints (time point). Unlike the men, the women have no time to rest. There was a general agreement that the volume poverty). Some needs were identified based on the of work and responsibilities has increased. For example, more women now have responsibilities that were roles of women. The practical gender needs include previously3.1.3 Twenty-dour the domain hour of the time men use: serving for as the breadwinner and head of the household or looking for oddmembers jobs for ofthe the survi targetval of Local the family Government. firewood, water, food, credit, security, and agricul- Areas tural inputs. The strategic gender needs identified for the woman farmer include land, decision making power, education, economic empowerment, Figures 5, 6, 7,Figure and 8 present 5: Twenty data -onfour 24-hour-hour time time use for women across the six LGAs use in the communities and indicate that women access to markets, and participation. do more work and work longer hours than men. They work up to 16 hours a day – cooking, bathingPrayers, Thecooking time use for girls and boys is shown in Figures Eating dinner, children, washing plates, cleaning the house, breakfast,7 and 8. They show the same patterns as those for cleaning, prayer, farming, preparing lunch, cleaning the kitchen, preparingwomen and men respectively. Girls spend more rest washing clothes, preparing dinner (and cleaning childrentime for doing household chores than5.00 boys, - who 9.00 find am school, washing after dinner), and preparing children for bed. They time to go to Islamiya school and9.00 to play. - After12.00 pm also carry out multiple activities at the same time.plates, cleaningschool, the girl child goes to assist her mother with Back from the house The men are involvedwork/farm, in fewer activities and work chores. 12.00 - 3.00 pm less than six hours per day; they even have time for preparing dinner, 3.00 - 6.00 pm The analysis of the way men, women, boys, and leisure and relaxationchores with friends at the majalissaFarming, working (men’s meeting and relaxation point). Unlike the girls spend their time, as presented above, shows Cooking lunch, 6.00 - 9.00 pm a huge differential in the burden of care among men, the women have no time prayer,to rest. There cleaning, was a general agreement that the volumewashing of work clothes, them. We see deep-rooted patriarchal practice that and responsibilities has increased.cleaning For example, the promotes inequality. The perception of who does more women now have responsibilitieskitchen that were more work varied among respondents – three views previously the domain of the men: serving as the were expressed:

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 48 Figure 4: Farming activity profiles of community members across the six LGAs during the conflict 70 60 50 40 30 Women 20 10 Men 0 Girls Boys by community members by community Percentage out carriedof tasks

3.1.3 Twenty-dour Hour Time Use for Members of the Target Local Government Areas

Figures 5, 6, 7, and 8 present data on 24-hour time use in the communities and indicate that women do more work and work longer hours than men. They work up to 16 hours a day – cooking, bathing children, washing plates, cleaning the house, farming, preparing lunch, cleaning the kitchen, washing clothes, preparing dinner (and cleaning after dinner), and preparing children for bed. They also carry out multiple activities at the same time. The men are involved in fewer activities and work less than six hours per day; they even have time for leisure and relaxation with friends at the majalissa (men’s meeting and relaxation point). Unlike the men, the women have no time to rest. There was a general agreement that the volume of work and responsibilities has increased. For example, more women now have responsibilities that were previously the domain of the men: serving as the breadwinner and head of the household or looking for odd jobs for the survival of the family.

Figure 5: Twenty-four-hour time use for women across the six LGAs

Prayers, cooking Eating dinner, breakfast, cleaning, prayer, preparing rest children for 5.00 - 9.00 am school, washing 9.00 - 12.00 pm plates, cleaning Back from the house work/farm, 12.00 - 3.00 pm preparing dinner, 3.00 - 6.00 pm chores Farming, working Cooking lunch, 6.00 - 9.00 pm prayer, cleaning, washing clothes, Women are facing a double burdencleaning due to genderthe inequality in the distribution of domestic tasks and productive tasks, resulting in time constraintskitchen (time poverty). Some needs were identified based on the roles of women. The practical gender needs include firewood, water, food, credit, security, and

agricultural inputs. The strategic gender needs identified for the woman farmer include land, decision making power, education, economic empowerment, access to markets, and participation. 37

Figure 6: Twenty-four-hour time use for men across the six LGAs

Dinner, out of the house (Majalissa), Prayer, sleeping, listening to radio, eating breakfast, 5.00 - 9.00 am resting working, farming 9.00 - 12.00 pm

12.00 - 3.00 pm Out of the house 3.00 - 6.00 pm (Majalissa), prayer Farming, working 6.00 - 9.00 pm

Farm work, lunch, prayer, leisure time

The time use for girls and boys is shown in Figures 7 and 8. They show the same patterns as those for women and men respectively. Girls spend more time doing household chores than boys, who find time to go to Islamiya school and to play. After school, the girl child goes to assist her mother with chores.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 49

Figure 7: Twenty-four-hour time use for girls across all LGAs

Dinner,washing plates, cleaning Sleeping, prayers, Figure 7: Twenty-four-hour time use for girls across all LGAs kitchen, prayer, cleaning, fetching resting water, bathing, Time period Dinner,washing eating breakfast, 5.00 - 9.00 am plates, cleaning Sleeping,school, hawking prayers, Hawking,kitchen, assisting prayer, cleaning, fetching 9.00 - 12.00 pm Time period with dinner,resting water, bathing, 12.00 - 3.00 pm prayer, washing eating breakfast, 5.00 - 9.00 am clothes, household school, hawking 3.00 - 6.00 pm Hawking,chores assistingReturning fromSchool, hawking 6.009.00 -- 9.0012.00 pm pm with dinner, school, hawking, 12.00 - 3.00 pm prayer, washing household chores, 3.00 - 6.00 pm clothes, household assisting with chores Returninglunch, washing fromSchool, hawking 6.00 - 9.00 pm school,dishes, hawking, prayer household chores,

assisting with lunch, washing Figure 8: Twenty-fourdishes,-hour prayer time use for boys across the six LGAs

Sleeping, prayer, FigurePrayer, 8: Twenty playing,-four -hour time use for boys across the six LGAs eating breakfast, dinner, watching school, farm TV work Sleeping, prayer, 5.00 - 9.00 am Prayer, playing, eating breakfast, 9.00 - 12.00 pm dinner, watching school, farm 12.00 - 3.00 pm TV School, farm work 5.00 - 9.00 am Prayer, play, work 3.00 - 6.00 pm Islamiya school 6.009.00 -- 9.0012.00 pm pm 12.00 - 3.00 pm School, returningSchool, farm Prayer, play, from school, work 3.00 - 6.00 pm Islamiya school lunch, prayer, 6.00 - 9.00 pm playing School, returning from school, The analysis of the way men, women, lunch,boys, and prayer, girls spend their time, as presented above, shows a huge differential in the burden of care among theplayingm. We see deep-rooted patriarchal practice that promotes inequality. The perception of who does more work varied among respondents – three views were expressed: The analysis of the way men, women, boys, and girls spend their time, as presented above, shows a huge differential in the burden of care among them. We see deep-rooted patriarchal practice that promotes inequality. The perception of who does more work varied among respondents – three views were expressed: 39

39 GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 50 • Men do more work because tradition has having less access to land. Secure access to land given men the responsibility of heading the and related productive assets is necessary for household and taking care of the family. (This any lasting solutions to hunger and poverty. The view reflects society’s refusal to acknowledge literature indicates that when women do not have the unpaid work that women do; this unpaid access to land, they are effectively denied access to work is not regarded as work.) the information, technologies, and resources that • Women work more because they are on their would enable them to engage in more environmen- feet throughout the day, with no moment of tally sustainable practices. This research looked at rest. both access to land and land ownership, and 100 per cent of the FGDs and KIIs indicated that both • Both men and women are working hard and men and women have access to land. For women, contributing to the welfare of their families. access is obtained through renting or through their husbands or male relatives. ‘Men, because they are the head of the household and it is their responsibility to do ‘We both have equal access, but men own more work and cater for the family.’ most land. We hire the land. What we do in – Traditional leader, Biu the camp now is the women gather money and hire the land and share out parcels ‘Men do more work because they are the of land to those who have contributed heads of the households, except where the money. It is done on an annual basis. But in woman is the head of household.’ Gwoza, women have parcels of land from – Agricultural extension worker, Kaga their husbands or hire from people who own land. We also practice ngaji, where ‘To be honest, I think women do more we harvest and share the produce with the work – working in the house and working owner of the farm.’ on the farm’ – Older woman, Gwoza – Older woman, Gwoza ‘Women can rent for a period of time, often ‘Women do more work, and the reason is through the community head (bulama), according to our culture; women are the who gives them a portion of the land of ones taking care of the house, while men other people who may have contacted him only provide food for the family.’ to look for tenants to work on the land for a – Male opinion leader, Konduga period of time.’ – Younger man, Konduga ‘Everybody works, but the women who have lost their husbands do more work ‘Everybody has access to land, provided you because there is no one to help them; they can pay your annual rent for the land.’ do everything and make every decision on – Younger man, Jere their own.’ – Women opinion leader, Konduga The nine-year conflict has reduced access to land for both men and women farmers. The FGDs and KIIs at the community level reported that agricultural 3.2. Access to and control of production is now restricted to land that is close resources by, for fear of attack by insurgents. This restriction means that arable land is getting scarce, and in this 3.2.1 Access to and control of land sort of situation women are the last to have access to land. Women’s landlessness has to be tackled by Land is a crucial farm resource without which there the proposed sustainable agricultural project, as would be no agricultural production. Unfortunately, women’s participation depends largely on adequate patriarchal structures and authorities give more access to land. productive resources to men, resulting in women

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 51 Fewer women than men owned land, and women underscores the serious implication that patriarchy owners have obtained their land through purchase, has for the empowerment of women. inheritance from their parents or husbands, or as a gift. Around the world, land ownership has a ‘According to our tradition, the man inherits number of crucial benefits for women and their land from his father, and the woman families, both economic and social. Increased inherits what she can inherit from her security allows women to access credit to buy key mother. But even practically you know that the man keeps the woman, hence he needs agricultural inputs or make other investments to to control vital resources such as land that increase food production. Access to land can also strengthen his hold over his home.’ lift a woman’s status and enhance her bargaining – Younger man, Konduga power in families and communities, boosting well- being at the household level. Some research even The majority of respondents across the LGAs (70.8 shows that women who own land are less likely to per cent of FGD respondents and 87.8 per cent of KII suffer from domestic violence (World Bank, 2014). respondents) were of the view that women do not have control over land they do not own (Figure 9). ‘Some women own land through They observed that any control was limited to the inheritance, purchase, or gifts from family period of rental, and because there is an agreement and friends. My father bought a huge plot of land and divided it among me and my on what to grow within that period, women cannot siblings.’ cultivate any crop outside of what has been agreed. – Female opinion leader, Gwoza ‘The land is rented for a period, and there ‘Some women are now buying land, and is an agreement on what she can do on it. others keep their late husband’s land in Outside of that, the owner can take back order to be able to take care of his children. the land.’ But if they want to remarry, then they will – Older man, Gwoza have to leave the land.’ – Younger man, Konduga Given this lack of control, the investments women can make in such land are restricted. They cannot One finding that came out clearly from all respon- use it as collateral for credit; they will also be dents, whether in the FGDs or KIIs, is that there are reluctant to invest time and resources in long-term no religious laws or cultural norms that prevent farming practices, which would improve produc- women from owning land. tion. According to some respondents, women cannot plant trees on such land. ‘There are no religious restrictions. Women only lack land when they lack the resources ‘No, women do not have control over the to acquire land of their own to farm, and land they do not own because the land that is why they hire, although there are is hired and not bought; therefore, they women who own land, having received it cannot do things on the land other than through inheritance or purchase or as a gift.’ farming. Planting trees is one of the things – Younger woman, Biu they cannot do.’ – Older woman, Jere However, a woman’s ownership of land may not give her control over it. In the highly patriarchal This robs the region of trees, which are crucial for Borno State, the nature of the society has implica- sustainable agriculture, especially in a zone where tions for women’s empowerment and their access serious deforestation has led to land degradation to and control of resources, even those they (which is exacerbated by climate change). In addi- rightfully own. The husband controls the woman tion, high-income cash crops such as watermelon and hence all that she owns. The statement below cannot be grown on rented farms because they

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 52 A women sells farm produce in a town market in Borno State

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 53 are sold wholesale to buyers at the farm, a practice Farmers’ access to formal sources of credit that excludes landlords from harvest sharing. This The predominant view of respondents is that marginalizes women farmers from producing cash farmers in Borno State do not have access to formal crops that will increase their income-generating sources of credit, be they banks or the government capacity and reduce poverty. (Figure 11). Accordingly, 79.2 per cent of FGD respondents and 91.1 per cent of key informants said that farmers have no access to formal sources 3.2.2. Access to credit of credit. As stated earlier, access is dependent on awareness, which is very low among the farmers Agricultural credit is seen as a strategic resource for (Figure 10). Though some respondents said they crop production that has led to an increase in the are aware of some people who have accessed loans standard of living for the rural poor. Thus, it plays a from microfinance banks, none of the farmers inter- significant role in economic development. There are viewed in this research have borrowed money from two main types of agricultural credit: formal and banks or received government loans. Recently, the informal. federal government initiated the Anchor Borrowers’ Programme for rice farmers through the Central Bank of Nigeria. Though rice is grown as a cash crop Awareness of formal sources of credit in most of the LGAs, no mention was made of this The findings on respondents’ awareness of two facility in any of the target LGAs. formal sources of credit (banks and government) across the target LGAs are presented in Figure 10. During the FGDs and KIIs, many reasons were given Of the FGD respondents, 45.8 per cent were aware for farmers’ lack of access to formal credit: of banks as a source of credit to farmers; only 8.3 • It is not easy to access credit from the banks. per cent of the FGD respondents were aware of • The need for collateral, plus high interest rates. government as a source of credit. Among the key informants interviewed at the community level, • Lack of knowledge and capacity, especially only 2.4 per cent were aware of banks as a formal among the female farmers, regarding accessing source of credit to farmers, and only 4.9 per cent formal sources of credit. were aware of government as a source of credit. • Some have heard about such loans, but they do not know anyone in the city who can vouch for The Bank of Agriculture was the only bank men- them in the application process. tioned by respondents at the LGA level as a formal • Some farmers have applied to the government source of credit for farmers. In addition to the Bank several times for loans, but have not obtained of Agriculture, the KIIs at the state level identified even one. the following as sources of credit for farmers: the • Lack of formal education. government through the World Bank’s agricultural credit project, the Central Bank of Nigeria through Farmers would need to be helped or taught the Nigeria Incentive-based Risk Sharing System because it involves a lot of processes and for Agricultural Lending, the Bank of Industry, and procedures that can be very difficult for the cooperative banks. Unfortunately, the respondents layman. Our challenge is a lack of formal in this study who are farmers and who are intended education. to be served by these facilities are not aware of – Local security informant, Monguno their existence. Awareness is the first step to access. There is a need for the project to create aware- Access to credit is critical to the recovery of the ness about these sources of agricultural credit agricultural sector and building the resilience of for farmers, the criteria for accessing them, and farmers. Improving access to such facilities will go linkages with other institutions that may be needed a long way towards improving agricultural produc- to facilitate access to such facilities. tion, and the project should put in place strategies

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 54 practices, which would improve production. According to some respondents, women cannot plant trees on such land.

‘No, women do not have control over the land they do not own because the land is hired and not bought; therefore, they cannot do things on the land other than farming. Planting trees is one of the things they cannot do.’ – Older woman, Jere

This robs the region of trees, which are crucial for sustainable agriculture, especially in a zone where serious deforestation has led to land degradation (which is exacerbated by climate change). In addition, high-income cash crops such as watermelon cannot be grown on rented farms because they are sold wholesale to buyers at the farm, a practice that excludes landlords from harvest sharing. This marginalizes women farmers from producing cash crops that will increase their income-generating capacity and reduce poverty.

Figure 9: Views on whether women have control over land they do not own 100 90 80 70 60 50 FGDs 40 KIIs Percentages 30 20 10 credit project,0 the Central Bank of Nigeria through the Nigeria Incentive-based Risk Sharing System for Agricultural Lending, the BankYes of Industry, and cooperative banks.No Unfortunately, the respondents in this study who are farmers and who are intended to be served by these facilities are not aware of their existence. Awareness is the first step to access. There is a need for the project to create awareness about these sources of agricultural credit for farmers, the criteria for accessing them, and linkages with other institutions3.2.2. Access that tomay credit be needed to facilitate access to such facilities. Agricultural credit is seen as a strategic resource for crop production that has led to an increase in the standard of living for the rural poor. Thus, it plays a significant role in economic development. There are two main types of agricultural credit: formal and informal. Figure 10: Awareness among respondents about formal Awareness of Formalsources Sources of of credit credit across the target LGAs The findings on respondents’ awareness of two formal sources of credit (banks and government) across the target120 LGAs are presented in Figure 10. Of the FGD respondents, 45.8 per cent were aware of banks as a source of credit to farmers; only 8.3 per cent of the FGD respondents were aware of government as a 100 source of credit. Among the key informants interviewed at the community level, only 2.4 per cent were aware80 of banks as a formal source of credit to farmers, and only 4.9 per cent were aware of government as a source of credit. 60 FGDs The B40ank of Agriculture was the only bank mentioned by respondents at the LGA level as a formal source of credit for farmers. In addition to the Bank of Agriculture, the KIIs at the state levelKIIs identified the following20 as sources of credit for farmers: the government through the World Bank’s agricultural Percentage respondents 0 Yes No 42 Yes No

Bank Government

Farmers’ Access to Formal Sources of Credit The predominant view of respondents is that farmers in Borno State do not have access to formal sources of credit, be they banks or the government (Figure 11). Accordingly, 79.2 per cent of FGD respondents and 91.1 per cent of key informants said that farmers have no access to formal sources of credit. As stated earlier, access is dependent on awareness, which is very low among the farmers (Figure 10). Though some respondents said they are aware of some people who have accessed loans from microfinance banks, none of the farmers interviewed in this research have borrowed money from banks or received government loans. Recently, the federal government initiated the Anchor Borrowers’ Programme for rice farmers through the Central Bank of Nigeria. Though rice is grown as a cash crop in most of the LGAs, no mention was made of this facility in any of the target LGAs.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 55

Figure 11: Views on whether farmers have access to formal sources of credit 100

60 FGDs Women 40farmers face more constraints then male farmers when trying to access credit. This is especially KIIs true ofPercentage women farmers in rural areas, where access to formal financial facilities is limited. Women lack collateral20 to obtain credit that will enable them to purchase agricultural tools, seeds, and fertilizer or to hire labour that could increase crop production. In addition, high levels of illiteracy among women, which 0 translate into lack of familiarity with loan procedures, limit their access. It is therefore understandable that Yes No all the respondents suggested the provision of money/funds/grants to improve women’s agricultural production. During the FGDs and KIIs, many reasons were given for farmers’ lack of access to formal credit: Access• toIt Informal is not easy Sources to access of creditcredit from the banks. About• 65T perhe needcent offor the collateral respondents, plus athigh the interest community rates .level reported that there are informal sources of credit• in theLack stud of yknowledge communities and, whilecapacity 35 ,per especially cent gav amonge a negative the female response farmers (Figure, regarding 12). accessing formal sources of credit. • SomeFigure have 12: heard Responses about such loans on whether, but they do informal not know anyonesources in the of citycredit who can vouch for them in the application process. • Some farmers have appliedexist to the in governmentthe communities several times for loans, but have not obtained even one. • Lack of formal education.

Farmers would need to be helped or taught because it involves a lot of processes and procedures that can be very difficult for the layman.35 Our challenge is a lack of formal education. – Local security informant, Monguno Yes Access to credit is critical to the recovery of the agricultural sector and building the resilience Noof farmers. Improving access to such facilities will go a long way towards improving agricultural production, and the project should put in place strategies for facilitating access65 for the proposed target farmers. The issue of collateral as a huge barrier to low-income farmers accessing credit resonated among the state-level key informants.

Collateral of landed property is required in many instances, as are collateral certificates in some categories of loans offered by the Central Bank of Nigeria. It is often challenging for many low-income

women farmers to access such loans, because only a few would have landed property that can be used

as collateral. - Representative of Neem Foundation Across the LGAs and from both FGDs and KIIs, various sources of informal loans were identified

(Annex 4). These include family, friends, voluntary contributions, moneylenders, politicians, and As to whether there were differences in access for male, female, and youth farmers, the predominant organizations. The respondents were of the opinion that anyone can borrow from family and friends, but answer was neither yes nor no. According to them, farmers in these LGAs have not been able to access outside this circle men are more likely than women to get loans because of the size of their farms. credit, and until they do so the differences among these different categories of farmers cannot be

ascertained. However, a dissenting voice came from the FGD for older women in Jere LGA. According to Figure 13 gives an indication of the informal sources of credit identified by the key informants at the the participants in this FGD, male farmers have more access to loans than female farmers, for two community level. The findings indicate that all farmers borrow money from informal sources of credit in reasons: women do not have the capacity to access the facilities or someone to teach them how; and men the study communities. Adashe is the source most utilized by farmers (40 per cent), followed by family have more knowledge and capacity, so they are able to access credit. (30 per cent), then moneylenders and friends (22.5 per cent each). Other informal sources of credit identified were cooperatives and politicians/influential persons (7.5 per cent each). Some said that they collect supplies on credit then pay back the suppliers after the harvest (7.5 per cent). 44

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 56

Figure 13: Informal sources of credit in the community 7.5 7.5 30 7.5 Family Friends Adashe 22.5 Money lender Politicians 22.5 Cooperatives Credit from suppliers

The information provided by the key informants is supported by that obtained from the FGDs. Moneylenders are used by farmers when all efforts to obtain credit from other sources fail. This is because, according to the respondents, the moneylenders are as bad as the banks, adding interest that is forsometimes facilitating double access the for theloan proposed amount. target The respondents men also have reported more knowledge that both andmen capacity, and women so they have are access to moneylenders, but the loans are more often given to men because of their larger farms – the amount of farmers. The issue of collateral as a huge barrier able to access credit. produce is after all commensurate with farm size. to low-income farmers accessing credit resonated among the state-level key informants. Women farmers face more constraints then People with Bank accounts male farmers when trying to access credit. This is Collateral of landed property is required in Very few people had bank accounts among the respondentsespecially truein the of FGDswomen (Figure farmers 14 in). rural areas, many instances, as are collateral certificates where access to formal financial facilities is limited. in some categories of loans offered by Women lack collateral to obtain credit that will the Central Bank of Nigeria. It is often enable them to purchase agricultural tools, seeds, challenging for manyFigure low-income 14: women Respondents with bank accounts and fertilizer or to hire labour that could increase farmers120 to access such loans, because only crop production. In addition, high levels of illiteracy a few would have landed property that can be used100 as collateral. among women, which translate into lack of familiarity with loan procedures, limit their access. It is – Representative80 of Neem Foundation therefore understandable that all the respondents 60 With Bank Account As to whether there were differences in access for suggested the provision of money/funds/grants to improve women’s agriculturalWithout production. Bank Account male, female,Percentage 40 and youth farmers, the predominant answer was neither yes nor no. According to them, 20 farmers in these LGAs have not been able to access credit, and0 until they do so the differences among Access to informal sources of credit these different categoriesJere Konduga of farmers cannotKaga beMonguno AboutGwoza 65 per centBiu of the respondents at the ascertained. However, a dissenting voice came from community level reported that there are informal sources of credit in the study communities, while 35 theThe FGD reasons for older given women by the in Jererespondents LGA. According for the low number of people with bank accounts are summarized toas the follows participants: in this FGD, male farmers have per cent gave a negative response (Figure 12). more• Thereaccess isto not loans enough than female money farmers, to save. for S ometwo respondents asked, ‘Where is the money that people will reasons:save women when dothere not is have hunger the capacityin the community? to access TheAcross litt thele we LGAs have and we from use both to buy FGDs food and, KIIs,which is hardly the facilitiesenough or, and someone to pay to children’s teach them school how; andfees .’ various sources of informal loans were identified • There is lack of knowledge about bank account procedures.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 57 (Annex 4). These include family, friends, voluntary buy food, which is hardly enough, and to pay contributions, moneylenders, politicians, and children’s school fees.’ organizations. The respondents were of the opinion • There is lack of knowledge about bank account that anyone can borrow from family and friends, procedures. but outside this circle men are more likely than • There are no banks in the community (Kon- women to get loans because of the size of their duga, Monguno). farms.

Figure 13 gives an indication of the informal sources of credit identified by the key informants 3.2.3 Access to and control of farmers’ at the community level. The findings indicate that groups all farmers borrow money from informal sources Farmers’ groups are groups of farmers that are of credit in the study communities. Adashe is the organized around mutual needs, serving the source most utilized by farmers (40 per cent), interests of their members. Well-organized and followed by family (30 per cent), then moneylend- functional farmers’ associations are crucial actors in ers and friends (22.5 per cent each). Other informal the provision of services to their members. Accord- sources of credit identified were cooperatives and ing to information from the FGDs and KIIs across politicians/influential persons (7.5 per cent each). the six LGAs, there are farmers’ associations in all Some said that they collect supplies on credit then the target communities. Monguno has the highest pay back the suppliers after the harvest (7.5 per number of farmers’ associations, while Gwoza has cent). the lowest (Figure 15). Women farmers also have their own associations in all the communities The information provided by the key informants (Figure 15). The farmers’ associations and the is supported by that obtained from the FGDs. women farmers’ associations are organized around Moneylenders are used by farmers when all the crops they grow or the farming systems they efforts to obtain credit from other sources fail. use. This is because, according to the respondents, the moneylenders are as bad as the banks, adding According to the respondents, women are members interest that is sometimes double the loan amount. of all farmers’ associations and are part of the The respondents also reported that both men and leadership through election. However, men have women have access to moneylenders, but the loans held the positions of president, vice president, and are more often given to men because of their larger secretary; women are only elected as treasurer and farms – the amount of produce is after all com- financial secretary. While these positions are techni- mensurate with farm size. cally part of the executive leadership, these officers are not considered as important and are often marginalized; men dominate the membership, and People with bank accounts discussions can always be swayed in their favour. Very few people had bank accounts among the respondents in the FGDs (Figure 14). Most of the information about women farmers’ associations, their names, and the challenges they The reasons given by the respondents for the low face emanated from the KIIs. Most of the FGD number of people with bank accounts are sum- participants were not aware of women farmers’ marized as follows: associations, but they acknowledged that the • There is not enough money to save. Some establishment of such associations would be very respondents asked, ‘Where is the money that useful for women, helping them obtain loans/credit people will save when there is hunger in the and discuss their issues. community? The little we have we use to

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 58 Figure 13: Informal sources of credit in the community 7.5 7.5 30 7.5 Family Friends Adashe 22.5 Money lender Politicians 22.5 Cooperatives Credit from suppliers

People with Bank accounts

Very few people had bank accounts among the respondents in the FGDs (Figure 14).

Figure 14: Respondents with bank accounts 120 100

• There80 are no banks in the community (Konduga, Monguno). 60 With Bank Account Without Bank Account 3.2.Percentage 3 40Access to and control of farmers’ groups Farmers20’ groups are groups of farmers that are organized around mutual needs, serving the interests of their members. Well-organized and functional farmers’ associations are crucial actors in the provision of services0 to their members. According to information from the FGDs and KIIs across the six LGAs, there are farmers’ associationsJere Konduga in all theKaga target Mongunocommunities.Gwoza MongunoBiu has the highest number of farmers’

associations, while Gwoza has the lowest (Figure 15). Women farmers also have their own associations in Theall thereasons communities given by (Ftheigure respondents 15). The forfarmers the low’ associations number of andpeople the withwomen bank farmers accounts’ associations are summarized are asorganized follows: around the crops they grow or the farming systems they use. • There is not enough money to save. Some respondents asked, ‘Where is the money that people will save when there is hunger in the community? The little we have we use to buy food, which is hardly enough, and to pay children’s school fees.’ • There is lack of Figureknowledge 15: about Number bank account of associations procedures. in each LGA 14 12 46 10 8 FarmersFarmers’ Assosiations Associations 6 4 WomenWomen Farmers’Farmers Associations associations 2 OtherOther Associations

Number of farmers' 0

According to the respondents, women are members of all farmers’ associations and are part of the leadership through election. However, men have held the positions of president, vice president, and secretary; women are only elected as treasurer and financial secretary. While these positions are Intechnically the women part farmers’ of the associations executive (withleader allship, female these officersand Fadama are not3 Women’s considered Association as important (Konduga and LGA); are often members),marginalized; women men have dominate absolute the control. membership, Most and Womendiscussions Groundnut can always Farmers’ be Association,swayed in their Women favo ur. organizations prefer to work with groups of women Soya Bean Farmers’ Association, Women Groundnut farmersMost of rather the information than individual about farmers, women and farmers it may ’ associations,Processing Association,their names and, and Women the challenges Animal they face beemanated no different from in the proposedKIIs. Most sustainable of the FGD agricul participants- Fattening were Association not aware (Kagaof women LGA); farmersWomen ’FADAMA associations , turebut project.they acknowledged The names of thatwomen the farmers’establishment associa of- suchFarmers’ associations Association would A, B, beand very C, Women useful Cattlefor women , tionshelping in the them target obtain LGAs loans/c are thereforeredit and presented discuss their issues.Farmers’ Association, Mintar Farmers’ Association, here to enable this engagement: Women Poultry and Monguno Women Farmers’ Association A, B, Farmers’In the women Association farmers (Jere’ LGA);associations Auno Women (with Poulall female- and members) C (Monguno, women LGA); Zalidvahave absolute Farmers’ control Association. Most tryorganizations Association, Aunoprefer Widows to work Farmers’ with groups Association, of women and farmers Thawale rather Farmers’ than Association individual (Gwozafarmers LGA);, and it may be no different in the proposed sustainable agriculture project. The names of women farmers’ associations in the target LGAs are therefore presented here to enable this engagement: Women Poultry Farmers’ Association (Jere LGA); Auno Women Poultry Association, Auno Widows Farmers’ Association, and Fadama 3 Women’s Association (Konduga LGA); Women Groundnut Farmers’ Association, Women Soya Bean Farmers’ Association, Women Groundnut Processing Association, and Women Animal Fattening Association (Kaga LGA); Women FADAMA FarmersGENDER’ Association ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLEA, B, and AGRICULTUREC, Women Cattle59 Farmers’ Association, Mintar Farmers’ Association, and Monguno WomenAND LIVELIHOOD Farmers IMPROVEMENT’ Association PROJECT A, B,

47 and Myringa Women Farmers’ Association, Bwala inadequate number of female extension workers, Women Farmers’ Association, and WAZA Women as indicated by the extremely low ratio of female Farmers’ Association (Biu LGA). extension workers to female farmers (1:1,972; the World Bank standard is 1:80). Second, the extension Some challenges were identified with the women services are dominated by male extension workers, farmers’ associations: and women are often not aware of their visits. By • Lack of funds/capital the time they know, the extension officers have • Knowledge and skills/capacity gaps come and gone. Third, male extension workers are not allowed to interact with female farmers for • Lack of access to and ownership of land cultural reasons. The services the extension workers • Inadequate agricultural inputs provide include: • Lack of strong leadership skills to run a group • Advice and techniques for planting and • Lack of financial management skills application of fertilizers, agro-chemicals, and pesticides • Provision of improved seeds and farming tools 3.2.4 Access to extension services and inputs • Advice on pest control, seed selection, improved varieties, and farming skills Productive agriculture requires the dissemination of information related to production and marketing to The women have less access to the extension farmers. Lack of access to agricultural information services than men and, according to a female is a key contributor to the inability of smallholder opinion leader from Biu, ‘Women do not know farmers, including women farmers, to transit from about such services in time, and by the time they subsistence to commercialized agriculture. Exten- know it is after the extension workers have come sion officers play a great role in the dissemination and gone; our source of information most times is of agricultural information. In the pre-crisis period, the men.’ when the Borno State Agricultural Development Programme was implementing the World Bank In some places such as Gwoza, extension services Agricultural Development Programme, the state are sometimes provided by organizations such as had 1,750 trained extension workers providing FAO, WFP, and SCI. According to the youth leader services to farmers in most farming communities in and female opinion leader, ‘We were trained by the state. them on farming techniques, farm management, pest control, seed selection methods, and farming As a result of the conflict, extension officers fled skills; they provided farming tools and improved from the conflict-affected zones along with the seeds and sometimes money, up to 10,000 naira. farmers. The findings from the FGDs and KIIs They also provided rakes, other items for clearing showed that extension services are almost non- the farm, cutlasses, and watering jugs for home existent in the study communities, with extension gardening.’ workers coming once a year or once in a while. This information was corroborated at a recent meeting with extension workers and CSOs. They 3.2.4.1 Access to fertilizers noted that the number of extension workers in Improved varieties require fertilizers if (for substan- Borno State stands at 168, meaning the ratio of tive yields). Fertilizers from government sources do extension officers to farmers is 1:3,311; the World not reach the farmers on time, and farmers have to Bank standard is 1:300. This huge personnel gap source for money to purchase in the open market at partly explains why extension services are almost exorbitant prices. The findings from both FGDs and non-existent in the study communities. KIIs across the LGAs indicate that men and women can have equal access to fertilizers, but financial Women have less access to extension services realities limit most women. Nitrogen-based than men, for three main reasons. First, there is an

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 60 An older woman attending a women’s meeting in an IDP camp in Borno State.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 61 fertilizers such as urea have been banned by the government always relies on local leaders, security agencies because they are used in impro- and this will affect the listing of final vised explosive devices, and this has pushed their beneficiaries.’ prices up. – Representative of Oxfam

‘Women have equal access; the condition is money – if you have money to buy, you can 3.2.4.2 Access to pesticides get as much as you want.’ All the respondents from the FGDs and KIIs across – Local security informant, Biu all six LGAs said that they had pest problems in the communities, leading to very low yields or total ‘Yes, but it depends on one’s political crop failure. Some of the pests identified were influence; in most cases, lucky farmers do fall armyworm, African armyworm, quelea birds, share it 50 per cent with the politicians that aphids, stem borers, and fruitworms. In addition, added their name. Both men and women suffer the same problem.’ there are fungal and viral diseases and noxious – Younger man, Jere weeds such as Striga. All the farmers spray unspecified pesticides that they buy in the open market. ‘We know of a few women in the Thus, access for both men and women depends on community who got access to fertilizer, but the resources they have (as with fertilizers). In addi- the majority of the beneficiaries are men.’ tion to the chemicals, some farmers use traditional – Older woman, Jere methods to control these pests. The team probed further to find out the kind of chemicals they spray, According to key informants at the state level, all but this did not elicit any response. The situation farmers have physical access, but not economic ac- has serious implications for human health and the cess, confirming the findings from the community environment. level. ‘For those who have money, they buy ‘Most farmers are priced out of the fertilizer pesticides and other disease-controlling market for economic reasons. We know for chemicals to tackle the problem, and for sure that women have lower income and those who cannot afford them, they use the little or no assets; without these, women’s local way, which includes burning some of access is limited.’ the pests and then spread the ashes on the – Representative of SCI farm for the rest of the pests to smell and run away; and pounding and spreading ‘There is equal opportunity based on the neem leaves on the farm and putting ash on availability of funds at the disposal of the vegetables like spinach and sorrel.’ farmer, irrespective of their gender. Male – Younger woman, Monguno farmers have a better chance of getting fertilizer than women farmers, and most ‘They often lack the resources to acquire the often the source of fertilizer is the open chemicals, and for this reason they won’t market – rarely through government, which be able to control the pests or the diseases; comes with a little subsidy compared to the they let it be and at the end harvest the market price.’ produce they can get.’ – Representative of MPAYE – Older woman, Jere

‘One of the reasons for inadequate fertilizer ‘Females are at a disadvantage when it for farmers is the military restrictions on comes to access to agricultural inputs fertilizer distributions, especially urea, as because most of the decisions are made by it was found that Boko Haram was using men, sometimes without even consulting it in making improvised explosive devices. the women.’ Other reasons include the lack of proper – Representative of SCI procedures for targeting beneficiaries; the

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 62 3.2.4.3 Effect of the conflict on access to groups of women do come together to contribute agricultural services money to hire a tractor or animal traction for land This question on agricultural services was directed preparation. only to respondents at the state level in order to examine the holistic impact of the conflict on all ‘The tractors are being hired for 40,000 to aspects of agricultural services. The findings are 50,000 naira. To gain access to this service, quite illuminating, and some are captured below: about 10 to 15 women come together to contribute money and hire a tractor.’ – Older woman, Gwoza ‘The conflict did not directly affect access to these services, but due to security concerns it has limited the scope of usage Some farmers access tractors through registered and coverage of agricultural machines. For farmers’ cooperatives connected to agricultural example, the LST are designed to reduce banks. Tractors used to be provided and subsidized tedium, which consequently encourages an by the government before the conflict, but currently increase in farm size, but this has not been they are individually owned. Access to tractors the case due to the conflict.’ has therefore become difficult for both men and – Representative of SCI women.

‘Yes, it has; men have lost so much that ‘No, even the men find it difficult to get farming is no longer interesting to them, tractors to farm, and sometimes you need and women do not have the farmlands or connections; the women find it difficult the energy to farm. The security problem is because there are lots of protocols and still on.’ delays, which most women do not have the – Representative of Samaritan Care patience to wait for.’ – Youth leader, Gwoza ‘No tangible support throughout the whole production period, and limited access to ‘Women do not have equal access to farmland. Farmers are coping with small- agricultural equipment because most of scale planting of crops; they miss the rainy the equipment is energy intensive. Also, it is season or harvest crops early due to security owned and mainly operated by men. Also, and safety concerns and low market price.’ access in this case means money to hire, and – Representative of Oxfam this limits women’s access.’ – Community leader, Konduga ‘There is low production of farm produce and low motivation of farmers to carry out According to the representative of GOAL Prime Or- farming activities in some areas.’ – Representative of GOAL Prime Foundation ganization, ‘Farmers are able to access agricultural equipment through registered farmers’ cooperatives and associations from the Bank of Agriculture and other agencies that support agriculture.’ 3.2.5 Access to agricultural equipment

Information from both the FGDs and the KIIs Unfortunately, there are no farmers’ cooperatives in indicates a general consensus that both men the target LGAs, and the few cooperatives that exist and women have physical access to agricultural are general multipurpose cooperative societies. In equipment, but not equal economic access, as view of the important role that farmers’ coopera- they have to hire equipment such as tractors. Men, tives can play in increasing access to agricultural with more financial resources, have more access to inputs and services, the sustainable agriculture agricultural equipment; women have small land- project could begin to put in place strategies on holding and a low capital base, and hence have low how to facilitate the establishment of farmers’ access to agricultural equipment. To gain access, cooperatives and what training should be packaged

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 63 to strengthen their capacities for efficient manage- camps they were trained by some INGOs on ment and impact. agricultural techniques, livelihoods (soapmak- ing, tailoring, bagmaking, etc.), health, and GBV. Everyone had access to the training. 3.2.6 Access to training • In Biu LGA, Mercy Corps provided training on agricultural techniques and livelihoods. All Training is key to the success of agricultural had access to the training. The International production. In all the study locations, respondents Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Feed the reported some form of training. The trainings and Future, Borno State Agricultural Development the responsible organizations are highlighted Programme, and Nigeria Red Cross also below: provided training on agricultural techniques, • In Jere, training was provided by IMC on health livelihoods, and health. About 75 per cent of (hygiene) for both younger women and men. the trainees were selected from the youth, • In Konduga, SCI provided training on agricul- while 25 per cent where drawn from other ture, poultry rearing, and how to control pests, categories; young men benefited more than and distributed layers to the women free of any other group. charge. They did training on testing soils and the crops that should be grown on certain soils, Information from the key informants at the state as well as planting times and fertilizer applica- level (MPAYE and Borno State Agricultural Develop- tion. They trained 1,150 farmers on cultural ment Programme) showed that government had practices and the use of Purdue Improved Crop provided some training on crop and rice farming, Storage (PICS) bags to reduce post-harvest community-based seed enterprises, and agronomy losses. practices for some major crops. The government • In Kaga, Danish Refugee Council and agricul- also provided training on improved varieties, pests/ tural extension workers provided trainings for pesticides, and proper storage of farm produce older men and women on pest control, modern against infestation. farming skills, farm management, agricultural techniques, and livelihoods. Respondents suggested training in modern agricul- • In Monguno, agricultural extension workers tural techniques, livelihood opportunities, conflict provided training on farming techniques, but management, food nutrition, and modern methods this was known by only 25 per cent of the FGD of food preparation, especially for women. The respondents. The key informants were more youth would require training on modern farming aware of the trainings.– The Fadama III project technology, agricultural marketing and linkages, by the government included training on pest and the establishment of cooperatives. In addition, control and modern farming skills. An INGO there was a general recommendation that youths conducted training on agricultural techniques, need to go back and complete their education, livelihoods, health, and GBV. Everyone benefit- which was scuttled by the conflict. ted from all the trainings except for the GBV and livelihood trainings, which were solely focused on the women so as to build their 3.2.7 Access to labour capacity. The trainings also included agricultural techniques and health and hygiene (safe The sources of agricultural labour identified in the water for drinking). communities include the following: • Family labour • In Gwoza, farmers were trained on irrigation farming, vegetable farming, and micro- • Hired labour gardening by FAO and the Federal Ministry of • Friends (gaiya, a group of acquaintances Agriculture. Also, when they were at the IDP providing their labour to one another in turns)

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 64 Some of the tasks that society has traditionally of the farmers; they become rich at the expense of prescribed for women are as follows: seed selection, the farmers. sowing, watering, threshing, post-harvest processing, farming vegetables, picking groundnuts and Findings from the field indicate that all the commu- beans, collecting ingredients for soup, cultivating nities have some form of functional markets (both groundnuts, okra, and spinach, and threshing. within the community and outside of it). Though Traditionally prescribed tasks for men include more than 90 per cent of the respondents indicated ploughing, land clearing/preparation, harvesting, that women and men have equal access to markets, regularly monitoring the farm, weeding and cutting there are in reality constraints for women: large grasses, and all other cultivation that requires • The level of production of farm produce more strength. determines market patronage and access, and the level of production is quite low with Religion and culture are some of the factors that women farmers. determine what men and women can do. According • Religion and tradition can restrict the mobility to some respondents, women are not supposed to of women. For example, prior to the conflict be exposed to hard labour. Women are only to be in Biu LGA, only old women and widows went involved in those tasks that will not physically drain to the market; married women did not go out their energy. Women mostly grow crops for cooking without the permission of their husbands. purposes, and it is the women who do the cooking. • Most of the produce is bought up by middle- Men’s tasks are determined by physical energy and men at ridiculously low prices or marketed by strength and include the operation of sophisticated the women themselves in the community at equipment, hard labour, and large-scale farming. giveaway prices, as all the farmers are selling similar produce in the market (the supply is The findings indicate that, for now, the conflict higher than the demand, and demand deter- has done away with traditions that have hitherto mines prices). Secondly, a lot of the produce restricted women to certain field tasks (so-called sold by women is perishable (e.g. vegetables). easier and less energy-intensive tasks) and men to The implication is that women’s only involve- other tasks (so-called hard tasks). Now anyone can ment in the agriculture value chain is produc- perform any task in the field depending on their tion and sale; the value of the produce is hardly strength and resources. Both men and women are commensurate to the investments made. now contributing to the upkeep of the family.

The overexploitation of women smallholder farmers underscores the need to link women to 3.2.8 Access to markets agricultural value chains – from production all the Market access for farmers means the ability to way to processing and marketing – as this would acquire farm inputs and farm services, and the help to make traditional farming more productive capability of delivering agricultural produce to buy- and commercially viable. ers. Markets provide the opportunity to generate income, contributing to a reduction in poverty and Various suggestions were made by the respondents hunger in developing countries. Markets also drive on how to improve women’s access to markets in production to meet consumer demand in terms of the communities: quantity and quality. Sustainable access to markets • Providing accessible roads from the farms is required to guarantee smallholders an increase to the market, and having security agencies in income and to lift them out of poverty. When provide security for life and property. farmers do not have access to markets, they remain • Having functional markets nearby and support- at the mercy of middlemen, who become the ing more production by women. greatest beneficiaries of the sweat and investment • Increasing security within and around the

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 65 communities and the market. Market areas agricultural income, and women should be assisted should be repaired and reopened for business, to venture into the production of these crops. especially in Gwoza, where the market was destroyed. According to Goal Prime Organiza- Respondents made suggestions on how to improve tion Nigeria, ‘Government is working to provide women’s agricultural production: security to ensure farmers can transport their • Financial assistance to rent large pieces of land farm produce to markets and to rehabilitee the or buy the land for farming local market to enable rural farmers to sell their • Training in modern farming techniques and farm produce.’ implements • Since the level of production of farm produce • Funding and low-interest loans determines market patronage and access, • Provision of improved seeds, fertilizers, herbi- the provision of agricultural inputs to women cides, pesticides, and extension services farmers or soft loans to purchase agricultural inputs will enhance production. Having vendors • Money to hire labourers for those who want to of agricultural inputs, including implements go into commercial farming and tools, in the immediate community will improve production. Table 1 indicates that there are no restrictions • Provision of money to buy farmland, fertilizers, on what crops can be grown by women, but they and improved seeds and to pay for labour. mostly gravitate towards the production of the so-called ‘easy-to-cultivate’ crops. What restricts • Government should break the hold of the women from cash crops is that they are capital and middlemen on the marketing process, as well energy intensive, involving a lot of expenses/inputs as provide adequate financial support. as well as energy and labour; although there are no • Provision of vehicles to convey goods to the cultural or religious restrictions, there are economic market. restrictions. • Community childcare and customized support to ease women’s double workload as farmers and caregivers. 3.4 Gender analysis of livestock husbandry and other farming 3.3 Gender analysis of crops grown systems in the communities in the Local Government Areas 3.4.1 Gender analysis of livestock husbandry

The information from the FGDs and KIIs showed Livestock are kept in all the target communities. that different crops are grown in the target com- These include cows, goats, sheep, poultry, and, in munities. These are indicated in Table 1 (as well some places such as Konduga, donkeys. All mem- as which ones are grown by men and which ones bers of the communities, from the youth (boys and by women). The men grow crops for both home girls) to women and men, are involved in livestock consumption and commercial purposes, while farming. While men and boys are involved in herd- women grow mainly vegetables and beans for ing and watering, women and girls are involved in family consumption, and a little for sale. There watering and cleaning. Both males and females are are no restrictions on what crops can be grown involved in milking and taking care of sick animals. by either women or men; however, growing crops Women do own livestock. The general consensus such as cotton, rice, and grains, which require a is that women have full control over their own lot of investment and physical strength, is seen as animals, while the milk from the animals is always men’s domain. These crops are the main source of for the women, irrespective of whether the animals belong to them or their husbands.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 66 TABLE 1: GENDER ANALYSIS OF CROPS GROWN IN THE SIX LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREAS

Local Crops grown Grown by men Grown by women Restrictions Government Areas Jere Beans, maize, All the listed crops are All the listed crops No restrictions. Anyone millet, sorghum, being grown by men are being grown by can grow any of the crops okro (okra), roselle, for food and cash. women for food and depending on their economic sesame, cucumber, cash. capacity watermelon, tomatoes, and onions Konduga Rice, maize, beans, Millet, beans, Garden vegetables No restrictions. Women only groundnuts, millet, sorghum, watermelon (spinach and pepper), farm crops that require little watermelon, beans energy. In fact, all the crops sesame, beans, okro, can be grown by both males vegetables, and and females now; it depends sorghum on the resources at one’s disposal. Kaga Maize, beans, Maize, beans, Mostly groundnuts No restrictions; women only groundnuts, millet, groundnuts, millet, and cowpeas farm crops that require little sesame, beans, okro, sesame, beans, and small garden energy. vegetables, sorghum, sorghum, and vegetables (spinach Bambara nuts Bambara nuts for food and pepper) and sale Monguno Beans, groundnuts, Beans and maize are Groundnuts, okra, and Yes, there are cultural and sorghum, okra, maize, mostly grown by men; sesame are mostly economic restrictions. Their millet, and sesame women are restricted grown by women, but way of life has always had because these crops men can also grow strict gender roles, but as a require more physical these. matter of urgency and family strength. Women who can upkeep, it now depends afford hired labour on individual capacity, engage in cultivating manpower, and resources. crops usually grown Men can cultivate any crop by men. and women can also cultivate any crop. Gwoza Maize, beans, Maize, guinea corn Small garden No restrictions, except for groundnuts, guinea (sorghum), beans, and vegetables (spinach, those related to physical corn (sorghum), millet, groundnuts mainly pepper, okro), beans, strength and resources. sesame, beans, okro for consumption, and groundnuts, while beans and because they require groundnuts are little energy to also for commercial cultivate. purposes. Biu Beans, maize, Before the conflict, All the crops are grown There are no restrictions on groundnuts, eggplant, cotton was grown by now by women. what men should grow and soya beans, Bambara men, but now all the what women should grow, nuts, rice, vegetables, crops can be grown except for those related and cotton by both males and to physical strength and females; it depends on resources. the resources at one’s disposal.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 67 3.4.2 Gender analysis of other farming activities need to be supported in order to continue systems with the resilience-building that the project seeks to promote. The respondents identified other farming systems within the communities (Table 2). The findings indicate that while fishery and irrigation farming 3.6 Decision making concerning systems are within the domain and control of the men, poultry and home gardening are controlled agricultural production on family by women. In the home gardens, women grow farmland vegetables, beans, tomatoes, and peppers for home consumption and provision to neighbours. The This section is concerned with the production of home gardens are thus the source of protein and cash crops by families in the communities. Table vitamins for the family. As women are presently 4 presents the findings on the types of crops, unable to access land beyond what is considered who produces them, what the earnings are, and a safe perimeter, the proposed project should who controls the profit. Both men and women support them with training, improved seed are involved in cash cropping. However, the activ- varieties, agricultural inputs, and modern farming ity is dominated by men because, according to techniques to improve their production – for better the respondents, it requires financing and the food security and nutrition for their families and for cultivation is difficult. Men also dominate when commercial purposes. it comes to making decisions about how to spend the money generated from the sale of cash crops. This is because, according to the respondents, men 3.5 Participation in non-farm are the heads of families. In Monguno, men and women jointly decide how the monies are to be activities allocated based on needs. Men are responsible for most household expenses; women provide only if The findings of this component are presented in the husband is dead or divorced. Women are usually Table 3 and indicate that both men and women the owners of the small gardens, so they provide for participate in various non-farm activities. They those expenses. earn incomes ranging from 20,000 to 60,000 naira depending on what they do and the customers they attract. The individuals have control over the incomes they generate; in Monguno, however, the 3.7 Impact of the conflict on men control the earnings; the women must seek agricultural production their husbands’ permission before spending any money they earned. In Gwoza, the men have control All the respondents in the FGDs and KIIs agreed that over such incomes, but this has brought many the conflict has seriously destroyed agriculture in problems; some husbands collect the money and the state. The many who have been displaced now spend it. In most other LGAs, some men allow the lack access to productive resources. The chairman of women to use their money while some decide what a cooperative from Konduga related his experience: to do with the money together. ‘Some of us ran to nearby villages, while some ran to Maiduguri, and others ended up in the bush for As discussed earlier, lack of access to productive weeks and months. It was a bad experience, but assets such as land and the restriction of farming people who took pity on us helped us.’ Others were activities to areas close to communities (for security not displaced from their communities of origin, but reasons) have led to dwindling agricultural produc- had to spend days in the bush as the insurgents tion. This is likely to continue unless the security went on a rampage in their communities, killing situation in the state improves. These non-farm and maiming people. This was the case in Miringa

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 68 TABLE 2: GENDER ANALYSIS OF OTHER FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE SIX LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREAS

Local Identified farming Farming systems Farming Who controls the earnings Government systems controlled by systems from these farming systems Areas men controlled by women Jere Irrigation farming, Irrigation farming, Poultry and home Both men and women control the fishery, poultry, and fishery gardens farming systems. home gardens Konduga Irrigation farming, Irrigation farming Poultry and home Everybody has control over their poultry, and home gardens farming system and their earnings. gardens Kaga Irrigation farming, Irrigation farming Poultry and home Everyone controls the earnings poultry, and home gardens from their farming system. gardens Monguno Irrigation farming, Irrigation farming, Poultry and home Whoever is engaged in the farming poultry, fishery, fishery, and gardens system has control over whatever home gardens, and agroforestry he/she produces. agroforestry Gwoza Irrigation farming, Irrigation farming Poultry and home Men decide who will spend the aquaculture/fishery, and fishery gardens money and how. For example, poultry, home gardens if women get 1,000 naira, if the husband instructs we have to follow his instructions, but we also have the power to negotiate if we are not happy with the instructions. After the harvest, we ask our husbands what to do with the money, then the husband gives us a list of what to do; we can negotiate about the list. If the husband is around, he must provide for the family; but if the husband is not around or not capable, the woman hustles to sustain the family. Biu Irrigation, fishery, Irrigation farming, Poultry and home Everyone spends their money as poultry, and home fishery gardens they want. gardens

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 69 (Biu LGA). The impacts of the conflict are high- the three pillars of food security. Below are some lighted below: statements made across locations on the impact of • Restricted access to fertile lands because of the conflict on food security. displacement has reduced agricultural production and increased food scarcity, hunger, and ‘There is scarcity of food now due to poverty. overpopulation (from the IDPs) and food items in the market are costly. Poverty and • It is not safe to embark on farming activities lack of livelihoods have meant families do because of the presence of non-state armed not have enough to eat.’ groups. There are restrictions on farming – Community leader, Konduga far from the communities; farmers cannot cultivate fertile land in the bush because it is ‘Food has become very scarce. We are too dangerous. Farmers have even been killed suffering to get food. It is really a threat, by insurgents on their farms or as they went and what we eat now is just to survive, not in search of fuelwood; in June 2018, members because it has value.’ of a non-state armed group killed eight people – Religious leader, Konduga in Gwoza. Women and girls have also been ‘Food is expensive now because most abducted near farms. farmers are not farming due to the • Grains such as millet, sorghum, and maize insecurity. Therefore, there is food shortage cannot be grown because members of the compared to before. Before, we farmed non-state armed groups hide inside and from in the villages and food was very much there attack both military and civilians. available and less expensive, but we fled • Livelihoods of farmers have been destroyed, from our villages and stopped farming. This has brought about food scarcity. Children at and displaced farmers have become beggars times don’t get enough food to eat in a day. who have to depend on government, INGOs, We eat from hand to mouth. The insecurity and philanthropists. is a big threat to food security.’ • There is abject poverty, as stated earlier; people – Female opinion leader, Konduga have to skip meals or reduce rations in order to cope. Some farm small plots inside the ‘Children suffer more than the parents community. Others are involved in business because we usually eat two times a day. and physical labour: construction, driving This is affecting their nutritional level. Lactating mothers and pregnant women three-wheel taxis, and petty trading. too have become more vulnerable.’ – Women leader, Monguno

3.8 Impact of the conflict on food ‘Lack of access to farmland to cultivate basic food crops for consumption, insecurity, and security and nutrition the high cost of available food in the market has made food inaccessible.’ Food security exists when all people at all times – Representative of MPAYE have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food to meet their ‘There is a significant negative impact of the dietary needs and food preferences for an active insurgency on food security and nutrition. and healthy life. Food scarcity and inequalities in Farmland now has restricted access due to fear of insecurity or threats from the food distribution are exacerbated during periods insurgents. Many farmers who were of armed conflict, rendering women and girls more agriculturally productive in the state are susceptible to food insecurity and malnutrition. The now displaced and no longer have access to conflict has greatly affected food security in Borno their farms and their communities – hence State – from availability to access to utilization, the significant drop in production. This

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 70 TABLE 3: PARTICIPATION IN NON-FARM INCOME-GENERATING ACTIVITIES

Local Women Men Earnings Control Government (naira) Areas Jere Knitting, vegetable Tailoring, carpentry, and 20,000–40,000 Individuals have control over oil making, electrical and other small-scale their earnings. grinding and frying businesses that include bean cakes and the buying and selling of dumplings (kosai, cosmetics, provisions, and awarra, danwake), vegetables; brick-laying; shoe tailoring, sewing, mending; operating grinding cap making, liquid machines; delivering water soap making Konduga Cap knitting, selling Trading, masonry, truck 20,000–40,000 Women control their earnings. firewood, selling (cart) pushing, meat selling, charcoal, sale of bricklaying and other forms of akara (bean cakes) hard labour, sale of firewood, and foodstuff such hawking as vegetables, petty trading, tailoring Kaga Cap knitting, food Trading, masonry, truck (cart) <41,000–60,000 Women control the earnings vending pushing, meat and fish selling from the non-farm income- generating activities. Monguno Making fried snacks, Buying and selling of food Income depends The men control the earnings; knitting, tailoring, items and charcoal, taxi on what they do. the women must seek their buying and selling driving, blacksmithing, Keke husbands’ permission before wrappers, cap NAPEP (three-wheel taxi) spending any money they making, catering, driving, selling of wrappers earned. trading, awarra (tofu) making Gwoza Tailoring, cap Carpentry, physical labour, >100,000 The men control earnings, but making, catering, shoe mending, provision sales, (sometimes a this has brought problems; trading, awarra Keke NAPEP (three-wheel million from some husbands collect the (tofu) making taxi), taxi driving, selling of irrigation money and spend it. Some wrappers farming) allow the women to use their money; some decide what to do with the money together. Biu Sales of groundnut Bricklaying, driving 20,000–40,000 Women have control over their oil, cap making, three-wheel taxis, driving income, but they consult their selling of foodstuff, commercial cars, trading, husbands. tailoring, knitting, buying and selling of plaiting, making food items, petty trading, fries, petty trading tailoring, and water vending (push-push)

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 71 significantly affects nutrition – hence the There was mention of malnutrition among children rampant cases of severe malnutrition to varying degrees in each of the communities, but among children under the age of five years.’ the impact is being ameliorated by supplements, – Representative of Neem Foundation hygiene awareness, and food and non-food items provided by organizations such as UNICEF, WFP, ‘The conflict has limited food availability; the National and State Emergency Management it has limited food access; it has resulted in Agencies, and other INGOs. complete failure of livelihoods for a huge chunk of the population.’ – Representative of SCI Utilization of available food is a challenge among the IDPs, as fuelwood has become very scarce; ‘Reduction in agricultural production as people are afraid to go in search of fuelwood. farmers fled from conflict-affected areas; Information provided by respondents in this study the presence of landmines on agricultural indicates that IDPs and returnees have resorted land or rural roads during the conflict; to the use of alternatives such as charcoal, animal the destruction of agricultural assets dung, crop stalks, and kerosene. Even these are and infrastructure, including physical scarce in the camps and communities where infrastructure, production equipment, agricultural activities are almost non-existent. animals, seed supplies, and food stocks; Charcoal, when available, is quite expensive. In and the restriction on the sale of fertilizers the Christian Association of Nigeria IDP camp in to farmers (as these are being used in the manufacture of improvised explosive Wulari, one of participants in the Older Women FGD devices) all combine to drastically reduce observed that the issue was no longer about lack of food production.’ food but lack of money to buy charcoal to cook the – Representative of the Gender Equality, food. Peace and Development Centre Protection is also an issue for women and girls who The KII at the state level revealed views on the go searching for firewood. In addition to addressing social protection the government has made fuel scarcity, producing low-cost alternative energy available to farmers who have had their livelihood for cooking would mitigate the risks and dangers disrupted due to the conflict. women and girls face. One of the partners in the consortium, FAO, has been involved in the produc- ‘Government has carried out clearance tion of fuel-efficient stoves in other countries operations, especially of landmines, and plagued by protracted conflicts. The project can provided improved varieties of seedlings and leverage on this experience. Briquette production fertilizers.’ and marketing also has promise, and could provide – Representative of MPAYE alternative livelihoods for community members, ‘Government, through the State Emergency especially women. Management Agency and the National Emergency Management Agency, has been Water is not a major problem in any of the loca- providing the IDPs with food items and tions, so water is available for cooking and sanita- other fortified products for a balanced diet. tion and hygiene activities. There are boreholes in They are also complemented significantly by the communities, some of them put in place by the UN agencies, INGOs, NGOs, individuals, the government or INGOs. Respondents said that and other organizations to ensure that they getting the water is difficult because of overcrowd- do not suffer from malnutrition.’ ing due to the influx of IDPs and the breakdown of – Representative of Neem Foundation borehole infrastructure.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 72 TABLE 4: DECISION MAKING CONCERNING HOW INCOME FROM CASH CROPS IS ALLOCATED WITHIN THE FAMILY

Local Cash crops Who produces the cash Earnings (naira) Control Government crops Areas Jere Beans, groundnuts, Men and very few women, 61,000–100,000 Men have control over carrots, onions, cabbage, because these crops need family farm cash crop rice, okro, sesame money and are very difficult earnings. to cultivate. Konduga Rice, beans, onions, Both men and women, but 40,000–60,000 Men have control over sesame, cowpeas, men dominate cash crop family cash crop profits groundnuts, farming because cultivation because men are the watermelon, maize, is expensive. Although heads of families. The millet many women are involved, largest share goes to they do not produce the father, followed by watermelon, because it is the mother; only a little very difficult to manage and is given to the children. expensive. Cash crops are sold in order to pay school fees, conduct ceremonies, and buy foodstuff. Men pay electricity and rent; health care is paid by both men and women. Kaga Groundnuts, beans, The main producers of cash >20,000–40,000 Men have control over watermelon, Bambara crops in the community are profits from cash crops nuts, sesame, sorghum, men. Only a few women are grown by the family, while maize involved because of the fear women have control over of loss. earnings from their own crops. Monguno Watermelon, sesame, All are involved, but it is 61,000–100,000 Men and women; they maize, beans, onions, mostly the men. allocate profits based on groundnuts demand. Gwoza Cotton, onions, All are involved. >100,000 Men control earning, but pepper, beans, sesame, in most cases they consult sugarcane their wives. Biu Watermelon, maize, All are involved. 61,000 – 100,000 Men and women decide beans, onions, jointly; they distribute the groundnuts, pepper, money and allocate the tomatoes, sorghum money based on demand.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 73 3.9 Social protection is the will of God and have not allowed the power to go to their heads. Others have Social protection is concerned with protecting and become very disrespectful to their husbands, and this is causing a lot of problems in such helping those who are poor and vulnerable, such as homes.’ children, women, older people, people living with – FGD respondent, Gwoza disabilities, the displaced, the unemployed, and the sick. ‘Men see it as forbidden for a woman to take their role in the house. Women feel When asked whether members of the community they have a burden on them taking the role have received any cash transfers or food items of men. Yes, men now see that women have or other support from other organizations, the started to disrespect them, because women response was a resounding ‘yes’. However, the are now carrying out men’s role.’ providing organizations differed from one LGA to – Religious leader, Konduga another (Table 5). The targets of such assistance ‘The men have no choice but to accept have mostly been women and children. There reality. They see it as helping one another are mixed reactions trailing this development, as as family. The women feel okay with it and, highlighted below. as they have said, it’s not bad for boys to do what girls are supposed to do or vice versa. ‘The men see it as nothing because they There have been no issues arising from this.’ know it is a result of the suffering they are – Older woman, Jere all facing. The women feel they are helping the men. Where there is this understanding, ‘The men are not comfortable with the there are no issues arising from the situation; women are feeling superior. Yes, changing roles.’ there have been issues arising from this, as – Older woman, Konduga some men have driven their wives away because of rudeness.’ ‘People felt most of the assistance was – Older man, Jere given to women. Yes, because some women don’t let their husbands know they have ‘The men are uncomfortable because they benefited from the intervention, it brings a are seeing their role taken over by their lot of conflict.’ wives, who are becoming proud and big- – Local security representative, Kaga headed. This has led to a lot of issues, even divorce, because the women have started ‘People felt most of the assistance was feeling bigger than their husbands.’ given to women. It has not brought conflict. – Person with disability, Konduga Men are even happy that their wives are benefitting.’ ‘Most women feel comfortable and superior. – FGD respondent, Kaga The consequence of these feelings, whether real or perceived, has been separation ‘The feeling varies; some men can’t take it among couples. It is not easy, but we have in some families; in other families, they are to take it the way it has happened. Things grateful. And in others, there are no men. have been difficult on their own side too Women do not find the situation funny; it because they are gradually becoming the is difficult and hard on them. Conflict has heads of the family. Often our men feel arisen between husband and wife due to disrespected by the women, but we thank the fact that husbands can’t provide.’ God for his help.’ – Community leader, Gwoza – Chairman of cooperative society, Konduga

‘Men feel very bad; they are very sad. Some The displacement arising from the conflict has led women have understood that the situation to shifts in gendered roles and responsibilities for

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 74 TABLE 5: SOCIAL PROTECTION IN THE STUDY COMMUNITIES

Local Organizations that Type of support and reception Type of Perceptions of men on women’s Who controls Government provided support beneficiaries access to assistance how the cash Areas and reasoning transfer is utilized in the family Jere Oxfam, WFP, UNICEF, Unconditional cash transfers, food Women and People were of the view that the Mixed responses: Norwegian Refugee items, non-food items, and skill children. distributions were fair. According to the FGD for Council, International acquisition/livelihood training. It their responses, men and women, younger men Committee of the has really helped us. boys and girls are okay with such suggested it Red Cross, Action a programme. After the conflict, is women; the Against Hunger, the men realized that women are FGDs for older SCI, Alliance for very helpful, especially now that women and older International men need their full support. They men suggested it Medical Action, said women’s empowerment is both men and MSF, Solidarités programmes will not cause women. International backlashes. Some people felt that women were unduly favoured in the assistance provided and would like to see a situation where both men and women have equal access. Konduga SCI, Christian Aid, Unconditional cash transfers, Children People felt most of the assistance Both (jointly) if WFP food items, non-food items, and and women was given to women. Yes, it has the wife informs seeds. are their led to conflicts, because some the husband Psychosocial support, skill main targets women don’t let their husbands about the cash acquisition/livelihood training, because they know they have benefited from transfer. employment. They brought good are the most the intervention, so it brings a lot varieties of seeds; dug boreholes; vulnerable. of conflict. provided health-care services; and provided free education. Kaga SCI, Christian Aid, Unconditional cash transfers, Women and People felt most of the assistance Joint decision, WFP food items, non-food items, children are was given to women. It has if there is an seeds, psychosocial support, skill their targets. not brought conflict. Men are understanding acquisition/livelihood training, even happy that their wives are between them. employment. The NGOs have benefiting. helped us so much more than the government. Monguno Christian Aid, WFP, Unconditional cash transfers, Women, People felt most of the assistance Both men and Danish Refugee food items, non-food items, because if you was given to women. Yes, it has women decide. Council, National seeds, psychosocial support, skill assist women generated conflicts, but I am in and State Emergency acquisition/livelihood training, it as if you help support of what they do by giving Management employment. It has really helped the family to women (religious leader). Agencies us, because NGOs have benefited because it will everyone in our community. touch virtually everybody in the household. Gwoza Christian Aid, Unconditional cash transfers, food All benefited. People were of the view that the Joint decision. WFP, SCI, Danish items, tools, psychosocial support. distributions were fair. Refugee Council, The interventions brought National Emergency comfort and peace of mind. Management Agency, IMC, National Directorate of Employment, and International Organization for Migration Biu Norwegian Refugee Unconditional cash transfers, Women; People were of the view that the Some said men; Council, International food items, non-food items, seeds, they are the distributions were fair. others said joint Committee of the tools, psychosocial support, skill mothers and decision. Red Cross, UNICEF, acquisition/livelihood training, have suffered IFAD, SCI, Christian and employment. It helped the a lot. Aid, WFP community a lot, supported the community to return to livelihood activities, and reduced anxiety.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 75 both women and men; more women have become The following were identified as the causes of GBV heads of households, creating new opportunities in the communities: for such women in training and development • Loss of family business and accompanying programmes in health and education, as well as in frustration income-generating activities for which they have • Closure of schools received support from various INGOs. Thus, women • Population increase are becoming breadwinners, as husbands are killed or are unable to find employment. Against this • Poverty background, respondents were asked whether they • Drug abuse/misuse envisage a backlash against women as they return • Unemployment to their communities of origin. According to some • Increasing vulnerability of women and girls respondents, the backlash has already started – arising from various deprivations women’s pride and feelings of superiority have led • Stigmatization and rejection of victims of GBV to some men sending away or divorcing their wives. These views were re-echoed at the state-level KII: • Food scarcity ‘There is high risk of divorce, lack of control in the • Anger and frustration household, and belittling of the household head’ (Representative of MPAYE). The general consensus is that there are no services for survivors of GBV. There were a few reported cases in Biu over the last 12 months, and the local 3.10 Gender-based violence in the government took the survivors to the hospital communities for treatment. The perpetrator in one case was arrested, but there was no information from the respondents on any psychosocial support being Various forms of gender-based violence before provided to the victims. There is also no informal and during the conflict were identified by the support network within any of the communities. respondents. The pre-conflict forms included the following: Traditional and religious leaders, health personnel, • Domestic violence and INGOs such as SCI, Plan International, IMC, • Early marriage the Federation of Moslem Women Association of • Verbal abuse Nigeria, and the International Organization for • Forced marriage Migration have sensitized some communities on • Deprivation of education due to poverty GBV and its negative impact. • Rape • Wife battering State-level key informants affirmed the findings from the LGA level regarding the risks that women • Incest face as they try to embark on agricultural activities during the crisis. These include inter alia the GBV that has occurred during the conflict includes following: abduction/kidnapping, rape and killings the following: in farms/on the way to farms, physical abuse, etc., • Abduction/kidnapping especially in remote farming locations, and in- • Rape creased domestic violence arising from the backlash • Forced marriage in their homes and/or communities because of the • Early/child marriage new shift in power dynamics. • Sexual exploitation and abuse • Domestic violence • Psychological/verbal abuse

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 76 Women gathering informally in Borno State

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 77 3.10.1 Measures to protect women, men, 3.11 Experience of climate change girls and boys in the communities Respondents identified the following measures the government and its partners should put in place for All respondents, whether in the FGDs or KIIs, are the protection of women, girls, men, and boys: aware of the manifestations of climate change in • Establishing strong policies that will decisively their communities: deal with perpetrators of GBV and serve as a • Rainfall coming late and stopping early deterrent to others; setting up a help desk that • Drought will respond to victims in a strictly confidential • Rising temperatures and dignified manner, with all health, mental • Less rainfall health, and psychosocial support provided. • Failure of crops • Awareness creation to sensitize community • Desertification members about GBV services and how to access them. Community members said that they have used • Putting in place laws that criminalize GBV; various approaches to improve agricultural produc- enforcing these laws; mass public education on tion in the communities. One is intercropping/ GBV. mixed cropping, which leads to more farm produce • More support to the National Drug Law En- from the same farm land; the challenge is that it forcement Agency to check drug abuse among requires more inputs, which excludes some farmers. young people and their spouses; creation of They are also diversifying livelihoods by engaging family planning units in health institutions. in non-farming activities. In addition, farmers use • Educating women about their rights; empow- grasses and mulching to conserve soil moisture, and ering them both financially and in various skills some practice water harvesting for irrigation. that will help them to be independent and provide for themselves. One farming system that is not being practiced currently in any of the target LGAs is agroforestry. • Domestication of the Violence Against Persons In this system, trees are inter-planted with crops Prohibition Act 2015 in the state; speedy or used as live fences around farmlands. In an prosecution of GBV cases, especially rape. area in which deforestation has led to serious According to MPAYE, for advocacy and lobbying land degradation (which is further exacerbated by for the domestication of the act, UN Women climate change), agroforestry will not only improve should partner with MWASD and other INGOs soil health and reduce erosion, but it will also be a working on GBV issues. source of much-needed firewood and so reduce the • Ensure the promotion of education, especially GBV associated with searching for firewood. girl child education. • Legislation on gender equality. • Creation of safer farming areas. 3.12 Vulnerabilities, barriers, and • Livelihood capacity building and empowerment constraints faced by women and of women and girls to mitigate the risk of GBV. men of different ages in relation to • Training of women and girls in agripreneurship. agriculture, livelihoods, and food security

Vulnerability results from poverty, exclusion, marginalization, and inequities in material

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 78 consumption; these conditions are determined 3.12.2 Barriers and constraints faced by by physical, social, economic, and environmental men and women in relation to agriculture, factors or processes, which increase the susceptibil- livelihoods, and food security ity of an individual to a threat or risk. The general consensus from the gender analysis is that women Women and men face many barriers and con- are the most vulnerable group within the commu- straints in the areas of agriculture, livelihoods, and nity, and the most vulnerable households are those food security. According to the responses obtained, headed by women. People living with disability they cut across the following: were also classified among the highly vulnerable • Lack of formal education, which prevents them persons. from being able to fill out the documents necessary for some services • Poor attitudes of some institutions in allocating 3.12.1 Underlying causes of the vulnerability the equipment and materials needed for of men, women, and youth in Borno State agricultural production, etc. • Lack of capital for entry into activities, as well The key informants identified the underlying causes as inadequate knowledge and/or education of the vulnerability of men, women, and youth in Borno State: • Lack of institutionalized apprenticeship models • Inadequate storage facilities, lack of modern • Lack of support or funding from institutions agricultural techniques, illiteracy, inaccessibility • Ignorance, insecure tenure of land for farming, to good markets and lack of farming facilities • Land tenure system, lack of government sup- • Lack of extension services port for producers, and lack of complementary • Dominance of men in leadership positions livelihood activities • Cultural and religious barriers (rigid, socially • Lack of farmland, capital, and zeal (harvests are sanctioned gender roles in rural societies that being stolen by insurgents) severely constrain women’s choices regarding • Insecurity, lack of manpower, low agricultural how they allocate their time among different productivity, and low income paid and unpaid productive and household • Unemployment among the youth, unequal activities, giving rise to time poverty; unpaid access to economic activities, and no welfare domestic activities (such as water collection, for the elderly childcare, cooking, and washing clothes), which • Women’s double burden and triple roles are seen as the domain of females; systems, structures, and institutions, including tradi- • Additional burdens for widows engaged in tions, customs, and social norms, that typically agriculture due to care work in the household and overwhelmingly act as a constraint on • No safe access to farmland and limited support women’s activities and restrict their ability to for agricultural inputs compete on an even footing with men) • Patriarchy, religion, lack of economic empower- • Limited ownership of land and lack of capital ment, illiteracy • Denial of women’s access to some agriculture • Lack of access to some of their own land be- services, such as training on the use of sprayers, cause of the security situation; lack of agricul- which is seen as men’s work tural equipment such as machinery and lack of fertilizers, improved seeds, manpower capacity development schemes, and timely information about available agricultural services

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 79 3.12.3 Recommended solutions to the In parallel, there should be proper sensitization constraints faced by women, men, and of women to encourage them to get involved in youth in relation to agriculture, livelihoods, farming. and food security 3.13 Mitigating the risks of The constraints faced by farmers are enormous; against this background, respondents were asked to backlash and gender-based recommend solutions: violence stemming from women’s • There is a need for drastic enlightenment campaigns and advocacy to formal and empowerment and increased informal institutions to reduce or remove these involvement constraints. • Adequate rural extension services should be 3.13.1 Backlashes and gender-based employed to reach out to remote farmers in violence women and girls are likely to face the small villages who may not have access to due to their empowerment and involvement agricultural information and technology. in programme implementation and • Improve extension services, set up an ap- governance prenticeship model to help people with little or no education to obtain useful life skills, and Borno State is a highly patriarchal society with remove or reduce the barriers to entry. rigid gender roles; any venture into male spaces by women is considered an affront or a challenge • Improve security, regulate markets, and provide to long-held views. The conflict has seen a shift capital, implements, energy-saving devices, and in gender roles: women are now breadwinners, additional forms of livelihoods. exposed to trainings, and targeted for livelihood • Provide loans to both male and female farmers; schemes, cash transfers, and other social protection provide farming facilities, including a take-off services. Key informants were asked whether the grant for the vulnerable. conflict-driven shift in gender roles is likely to result • Create a policy for the allocation of funds in backlashes against women and girls. The follow- that would respond to the issues bedevilling ing responses were obtained: conflict-affected communities, to be imple- • Given the widespread belief that commercial mented with a sense of urgency. In this regard, farming activities in this part of the country an insurance system should be established for are assumed to be men’s business, women small-scale farmers that covers farmers, crops, and girls engaging in such are considered to and other assets, with appropriate consider- be competing with men, and some backlashes ation of women farmers’ needs. have occurred and are envisaged. Backyard • Tackle gender inequality through gender farms and kitchen gardens for household use training and advocacy to change mindsets, and are widely believed to be the domain of women challenge patriarchy through sensitization and and girls, and they are expected to remain the establishment of allies (men and boys). within that niche. • Provide capital using zero interest loans and • Men are complaining that their wives are now improve access to agricultural resources, includ- becoming unruly and disrespectful, and this ing fertilizers and technologies that reduce the is generating conflicts that are resulting in drudgery of women’s productive work. domestic violence, verbal and psychological abuse, and divorce. • Formal and informal institutions should monitor and ensure equal access in the services they • Exclusion, assault, domestic violence, denial provide to farmers. Institutions should also of education, and negligence by husbands is involve women and ensure that women are occurring because they feel that women now aware of the agricultural aids that are available. have money.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 80 • Patriarchy is a cross-cutting factor in all the 3.14 Women’s and girls’ backlashes women will experience. Men traditionally are in charge and lord it over women; participation in decision making now roles are changing and there is not much and policy formulation/review of they can do about it. Two types of feelings agricultural practices, food security are envisaged: anger and the accompanying helplessness, along with frustration. If not well and nutrition, livelihoods, and handled, this can explode into violence. These security in Borno State feelings can be exacerbated if women do not maturely manage their new power. Domestic 3.14.1 Existing opportunities for improving violence can occur, including marital rape (used women’s and men’s participation in decision to remind women of who is still in charge), making and policy formulation psychological/emotional violence, and divorce. People’s participation generally means involvement in decision-making processes and governance, 3.13.2 Measures to reduce backlash/ and it is a key ingredient for poverty reduction and violence that women and girls might face tackling inequalities. By participating, people can articulate their priorities based on felt needs, and The following measures were suggested by respon- can ensure the proper and equal distribution of dents for reducing the backlashes and violence services and inputs among targeted populations. women and girls are likely to face: Thus, the participation of women and men is crucial • Community sensitization and enlightenment in the formulation of policies. campaigns, use of mass media and social media platforms, community-level extension Though there is recognition of the importance of services, and employment of trained extension men and women’s participation in policy formula- workers will help in creating awareness among tion and review, the question posed was whether community members. there are existing opportunities for improving such • Community sensitization by organizations and participation. These answers were provided by the religious and local leaders. key informants: • Women and men in appropriate ratios should • Involving males from the community in participate in meetings, seminars, workshops, programme implementation and sensitizing etc. that have to do with the review or formula- them on what the scheme is trying to achieve. tion of policies using affirmative action policies. • Enlightening women about the need to include • Education and women’s empowerment will their family in decision making. give them a say in decision making, because • Advocacy and sensitization directed at the they would have the capacity to make men, while working with them for better contributions. understanding of and support for women. • Inadequate opportunities for participation • Proper sensitization of community leaders, exist due to cultural and religious barriers, men/husbands, and women. Involvement and hence there is a need for advocacy and of community leaders in such programme sensitization. implementation to establish trust between the • The establishment of groups plus capacity men and women of the communities. development and town hall meetings would • Continued education, workshop, skill acquisi- increase participation. tion, and political awareness activities. • Having more women in politics would increase • Stiff punishments for perpetrators. the number of women in decision-making positions where they can influence policies.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 81 A market scene in Borno State

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 82 • An active CSO network that brainstorms on • Government authorities at all levels should agricultural development needs will inform recognize women and provide space for their decisions and policies. voice and for participation at all levels of the decision-making process. • Creation of more awareness about the impor- 3.14.2 Existing policies on agriculture, tance of farmers’ participation through the livelihoods, and food security in the state various farmers’ groups/associations and CSOs working on agriculture and gender equality. About 82 per cent of the key informants were • Promotion of the implementation of the not aware of any existing policies on agriculture, Sustainable Development Goals through livelihoods, and food security, either at the local workshops on bridging the knowledge gap, government level or the state government level. The even among government policymakers imple- following were mentioned as existing policies: menting the goals.

‘Eight skill acquisition centres are spread • Grass-roots information gathering from local across the state to promote access farmers facilitated by the concerned govern- to training in trades and skills. The ment agency. state government also established an entrepreneurship centre and development centre to increase awareness about good 3.14.4 Constraints to men’s and women’s governance.’ – Representative (1) of MPAYE participation in policy formulation and review on agriculture, livelihoods, and food ‘The Anchor Borrowers’ Programme and security purchasing of locally produced food crops for a home-based school-feeding There are many constraints to women’s and men’s programme.’ participation in policy formulation. The following – Representative (2) of MPAYE were identified by the key informants at the state level: • Illiteracy; poor selection process for partici- 3.14.3 Strategies for enhancing men’s and pants in decision making women’s participation in policy formulation • The process has not been inclusive and and review on agriculture, livelihoods, and participatory food security • Gender inequality • Cultural practices The importance of people’s participation in policy • No established laws to back such policies formulation was highlighted earlier; this section is devoted to how to ensure such participation. The • Not enough women in politics strategies suggested by the key informants are as • Ignorance follows: • Poverty • Enlightenment campaigns and training • Complex cultural differences; marital status; programmes for all stakeholders. ignorance • Organizing workshops; drafting communiqués • Lack of technical knowhow that capture the voice of the people; submit- • Patriarchy ting the communiqués to key stakeholders such as policymakers and lawmakers; and following The response below beautifully summarizes the up with high-level advocacy and lobbying. constraints: • Training/capacity building to ensure qualitative participation.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 83 ‘The process of policymaking does not gender gap. It aims to improve the contributions provide opportunity for local farmers of smallholder farmers, who are predominantly (men and women) to participate in policy women; though large in number, their access to formulation. Poverty levels of local farmers agricultural assets is low. make them not bother about what is going on at the policy formulation level. Nigeria is a federation, and the implementation of Nigerians have this notion that every policies at the national level is not binding for the official activity is solely the responsible of those in government and thus tend not to states. A case in point is the National Gender Policy, participate.’ which is facing implementation challenges even at – Representative of Neem Foundation the national level. Laws such as the Child Rights Act of 2003 and the Violence Against Persons Prohibi- tion Act of 2015 are facing the same challenge, 3.14.5 Whether Borno State has an as they need to be domesticated in the states to make them applicable. The benefits of a gender agriculture gender policy and whether it policy in agriculture have been highlighted above, would be beneficial to have one and the study sought to find out whether Borno Nigeria developed its Gender Policy in Agriculture in State has one. All of the key informants responded 2016. Its preamble noted that gender inequalities in the negative concerning the existence of a limit agricultural productivity and efficiency and, in gender policy in agriculture, but all of them believe so doing, undermine the development agenda. It that such a policy would greatly benefit farmers, further stated that failure to recognize the different especially female farmers, towards bringing about roles of women and men is costly, as it results in solutions to many of the gender issues discussed in misguided projects and programmes, predictably this report. low agricultural outputs and incomes, and food and nutrition insecurity. It stressed that it was ‘It will give equal opportunities to both men and women, especially in the area of equal time to consider the critical contribution and role access to any inputs and services.’ of women in agricultural production in order to – Representative of MWASD move women, as the main farmers and producers in many parts of the world, including Nigeria, ‘Such policies will ensure the adoption of beyond subsistence production into higher-value, gender-sensitive and gender-responsive market-oriented production. This quest can only approaches such that men and women be achieved through a gender policy in agriculture have access to and control of productive that emphasizes the different roles of women and resources and facilities. This will drastically men in the sector. It also must emphasize gender reduce the vulnerability of women to biases equality in access to resources as well as equal in agriculture, address the unequal gender opportunity in maximizing livelihoods, a necessary power relation, and bridge the gender gap.’ – Representative of the Gender Equality, condition for progressively realizing the Sustainable Peace and Development Centre Development Goals. ‘It will break the barriers women face in The policy promotes and ensures the adoption of accessing information and agricultural gender-sensitive and gender-responsive approaches services. It will reduce the level of abuse in agriculture plans and programmes in such a way women face when participating in that men and women have access to and control agricultural activities. It will empower and of productive resources and facilities. Stakeholders boost the confidence of women to fully expect it to drastically reduce the vulnerability of and actively get involved in agricultural women to biases in agriculture, address the un- activities. This will go a long way to aid equal gender power balance, and help to bridge the the humanitarian actors in transitioning from the emergency phase to the recovery

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 84 phase of their response and in establishing KIIs – training, improved seeds and crop varieties, long-term development plans in agriculture, fertilizers, pesticides, reform of the land tenure livelihoods, and food security.’ system, access to farmland, market support, exten- – Representative of GOAL Prime sion services, agricultural equipment, agricultural Organization Nigeria credit/loans, funding, preservation methods, safety, security, agricultural and livestock inputs, All the informants (including ministries, depart- fully funded proper policy in accordance with the ment, and agencies) agreed that the state would people’s participation, start-up capital, scholarships want to put in place such a policy, but it would for the youth farmers to complete their education, require technical assistance to do this: organization of women, and support for women’s participation in the agricultural value chain. ‘The state would want to put such a policy in place to enable the state government and All these responses could be summarized by the partners to have a solid and sustainable foundation in moving towards the response of the representative of Oxfam: ‘Training recovery phase of their response to build of women and men in different agriculture sectors the agricultural sector of the state, and to and empowering them with the required raw achieve a reasonable level of food security materials, equipment, and financial assistance to in the state.’ enable them to start up. Active monitoring of the – Representative of GOAL Prime agricultural beneficiaries and mentoring to ensure Organization Nigeria the growth of each beneficiary in their respective sector.’ ‘Such assistance (provided by UN agencies and INGOs) could be in the area of crafting According to the respondents, such assistance could the policy.’ be provided by UN agencies such as FAO and WFP, – Representative of MWASD along with INGOs, NGOs, private organizations, ‘Technical assistance in following up on and government agencies – National and State implementation and monitoring and Emergency Management Agencies, the Victim evaluation.’ Support Fund, and the Presidential Committee on – Representative of SCI the North-east Initiative

‘Prior to this, there should be sensitization on the importance of such a policy.’ 3.15.2 Suggestions on how to put the – Representatives of GOAL Prime Organization Nigeria and Street Child agricultural sector on the path to recovery Various suggestions were made on how to put the agricultural sector, destroyed during the conflict, on 3.15 Suggestions on assistance a path to recovery: required by different farmers for • Consult the community members on any plan or proposed support in order to hear what will improved agricultural productivity, work best for them, in addition to the neces- food security, and nutrition sary equipment and implements. • Ensure the security of life and property, especially in the rural communities. 3.15.1 Assistance required by farmers • Empower farmers and families interested in farming and other livelihoods. The need for assistance for men and women for agricultural production is obvious from the • Develop the agricultural value chain and answers given by the respondents in the FGDs and involve rural farmers at all levels.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 85 • Give livelihood support such as the provision of 3.16.1 Strategies that will enable local-level farm inputs and capital. stakeholders to participate in the proposed • Listen more to the people and make decisions sustainable agriculture project based on their feedback. The key informants made suggestions on strategies • Provide land, credit, and facilities. that would enable local-level stakeholders to • Localize agricultural interventions by participate in such a project: implementing such programmes with com- • Advocacy directed at gatekeepers, which munity members; train, empower, mentor, and should include not only men, but also female monitor them to ensure growth. opinion leaders. • Start a livestock programme that will empower • Establishment of steering committees in every household with livestock. the target LGAs/communities to guide and • Initiate a community-based, gender-responsive monitor the implementation of the project. life skills and livelihood programme for the These committees will comprise the com- youth in agriculture. munity leader, ward heads, women leaders, and youth leaders, and will be chaired by the implementing organization. The community 3.16 Programming opportunities leader is to mobilize and help to sensitize men on the importance of women’s involvement in agricultural activities. The ward heads are The respondents identified some programming to serve as agricultural extension service opportunities for designing a gender-responsive providers/volunteers; the women leaders livelihood programme that caters for the needs and will be used to mobilize and sensitize women interests of women, men, boys, and girls and will on how important their involvement in the maximize impact for food security. The respondents project activities is and to educate them about advocated for a sustainable approach that: a culturally appropriate way of going about • Is managed by non-politically motivated it. The youth leaders will monitor the level of project managers, for fairness and equal access participation of all the beneficiaries, especially by vulnerable men and women the youth and women. • Allows easy access to loans for processing • Gender-targeted interventions that promote products, crops, vegetables, and trees the rights and empowerment of women • Supports agripreneurs and encourages youths farmers through eliminating discrimination in agricultural employment and increasing their access to land ownership, • Has a component of long-term livelihood and agricultural inputs, technology (including vocational training LST, which frees women’s time for productive • Includes sustainable agricultural practices such activities), credit, labour, and markets. as agroforestry; puts in place an agriculture • Ensuring that the programme is designed to gender policy in the state and ensures its carry along minority and marginalized groups. implementation This can include ensuring that women and oth- • Comprises a multi-dimensional agricultural ers are members of committees or beneficiary programme that empowers both the youth and representatives who will ensure programme adult men and women with specific required guideline implementation. raw materials and support, e.g. poultry, fishery, • Establishing farmers’ associations where there livestock (rams, goats, cows), improved seeds, are none, and strengthening those that already and farming equipment, and also allocates exist. farmland for communities, while ensuring • Construction of rural roads, which would allow active mentoring and monitoring to ascertain the participation of various stakeholders in sustainability.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 86 policy initiation and formulation. The project Employment, and Nutrition Improvement in Borno will engage with government through advo- State: cacy to achieve this. • There is a need to give special consideration to • Ensuring that, wherever possible and where people living with disability; affirmative action markets are functional, women operate is required to ensure they are carried along, through the markets, especially local markets. while also ensuring that the programme is designed with their needs in mind. • Involvement of community leaders on advisory bodies in all the communities. • Women should be prioritized during the beneficiary selection process; special and • Developing programme staff and partner staff separate attention should also be channelled to capacity to recognize gender inequalities and adolescent boys and girls. designing programmes to reduce them. • Ensuring well-coordinated planning, empower- • Strengthening rural institutions, increasing ment, and skills acquisition. their gender awareness, and having gender champions within rural institutions and target • A realistic gender-responsive approach is communities. needed with a sense of urgency to meet the needs of men and women farmers in • Strengthening women’s groups economically, their agriculture-related activities, including raising their capacity, and engaging gender- adaptable ways of working (the bottom-up sensitive facilitators for workshops, Farmer approach). Field Schools, etc. • Restoring the system of accountability; devel- • Establishment of women-only Farmer Field oping systems and technologies that everyone, Schools. including people with disabilities, can use. • Recruiting and training female extension • Encouraging involvement, participation, and workers. ownership of programmes. • Increasing women’s literacy levels through • Focusing on policy and implementation. adult education. The partners should link up with the State Agency for Mass Literacy and • There is a need to carry everyone along. There Non-formal Education, who have structures on is also a need to recognize existing groups ground in most LGAs; this will increase their (women/men/youth/persons with disabilities) access to agricultural information, credit, and and build their capacity to participate in the financial management. agricultural value chain; a project implementation committee should be established from • Engaging men and boys. these groups. • Utilizing this gender analysis, which has been • There should be equal allocation of aid to carried out to inform gender-transformative women and men in the programme, as well as programming within target communities. robust training and mentoring components. • Gender-sensitive indicators should be developed for monitoring, evaluation, accountability, 3.16.2 Recommendations to ensure the and learning. needs of all farmers in the proposed • Extension staff should be fully utilized. sustainable agriculture project

The following recommendations were proffered to ensure that the needs of women, men, girls, boys, 3.16.3 Strategies for inclusive policies for and people living with disabilities are met in the resilient agricultural development proposed project Restoring and Promoting Sustain- The following strategies were suggested for inclu- able Agriculture-based Livelihoods for Food Security, sive policies for resilient agricultural development:

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 87 • Balanced invitations for both genders should • Improving livelihoods, creating job opportuni- be sent out to ensure equal participation. ties, using poverty reduction approaches, • Materials and discussions should also be increasing income-generating activities, and translated into local languages so that those enhancing rural financing. who do not have a formal education can • Training/capacity building for economic contribute. empowerment, leadership development, and • There should be more focus on institutional conflict management skills, especially negotia- policies for a gender-responsive approach at all tion skills. levels of government. • Proper sensitization of men on the need to • Appointments into groups, associations, support women and girls to be fully involved and cooperative societies should be gender and to participate in the economic activities of sensitive. the community, especially agriculture. • A bottom-up approach should be used. • Organization of training workshops to sensitize women and girls on the importance of their • Establishment of affirmative action principles involvement. that specify the minimum proportions of women and men to ensure equitable • Training women and girls on livelihoods participation. and economic empowerment and providing mentoring and coordinated monitoring. • Creation of a local agricultural policy formulation committee that will include local farmers (men and women).

3.16.4 How to empower women and entrench gender equality in communities in Borno State

The following strategies were suggested for empowering women and girls and entrenching gender equality: • Sensitization of women on their right to participate in all activities, translating messages for them to have a better understanding of the issues, recruiting female facilitators and extension workers who can break through the social barriers and deliver the messages more appropriately. • Inclusion of gender equality in the school curriculum; using the community and religious leaders’ structure to reorient the population; mainstreaming gender equality into things such as food security and livelihoods, nutrition, and water, sanitation, and hygiene, etc. • Removal of all forms of cultural and religious biases and creating platforms for awareness, economic opportunities, girl child education, and the political participation of women.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 88 Female traders in Borno State

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 89 4. RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the findings from the gender analysis of study communities can and cannot do. For example, the six LGAs, the following recommendations are in Konduga tradition forbids a man from cleaning, made under each specific objective. cooking, or engaging in threshing. Women cannot head households, except when the women have lost their husbands. Only women took care of 1. Differential needs of women and children. However, the conflict has changed things, and those norms seem not to hold water any more, men in the target communities in as women are now going out to work and feed relation to gender, age, and how the family. Some are of the view that there are no dominant social norms and power norms that forbid either sex from carrying out any activity. dynamics play out The implication of this situation is that women are Women are overwhelmingly involved in household facing a double burden of domestic and produc- tasks, and at the same time are involved in productive responsibilities. In addition to the inherent tive activities. Women in the target communities inequality, there are significant time constraints for work about 16 hours per day – cooking, bathing women. The study identified some needs based on children, washing plates, doing general cleaning the roles of women. These include practical gender of the house, doing farm work, preparing meals, needs such as firewood, water, food, credit, security, cleaning the kitchen, washing clothes, and prepar- and agricultural inputs; the strategic gender needs ing children for bed – while the men work fewer identified for the woman farmer include land, deci- than six hours per day, with plenty of hours to rest sion making power, education, economic empower- 1 and meet with other men at the majalissa. As can ment, access to markets, participation, etc. Women be seen, the women unfortunately do not have any need to participate in the sustainable agricultural time to rest. project in Borno State, but the challenge is how to free up women’s time for effective participation. The results of the study showed that women’s burdens were exacerbated by the conflict in the area, as there are now additional responsibilities Recommendations related to the survival of the family – women are often breadwinners and heads of households. This 1. Provision of labour-saving technology for is especially true of women who have lost their women, including threshing machines and husbands (9.4 per cent of the female respondents grinding machines. in this study were widows), while there are 2. Sensitization about gender norms and women’s many women whose husbands are missing or workload. incapacitated. 3. Training and capacity building for men on gender issues; these include inter alia gender Prior to the conflict, tradition played a major role equality and equity, the importance and recog- in defining the tasks women and men within the nition of women’s participation in agriculture, 1 A cultural and social space where men gather to discuss local events gender discrimination in access to agricultural and issues, exchange news, socialize, and be entertained. resources, the multiple roles of women and the

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 90 PRACTICAL GENDER NEEDS STRATEGIC GENDER NEEDS

WATER FOOD FIREWOOD LAND EDUCATION PARTICIPATION

ECONOMIC ACCESS TO CREDIT SECURITY EMPOWERMENT MARKETS

AGRICULTURAL DECISION- INPUTS MAKING POWER

need for support, and gender-based violence 5. There is a need to design (in a participatory and the role of community members in ending manner) strategies that will give women it. some free time. Community childcare and 4. Improving women’s access to domestic energy customized support can ease their double work and fuel-efficient stoves and planting of fast- load as farmers and caregivers. In this regard, growing species of trees to increase household the project should think about establishing fuelwood supply. One of the partners in women-friendly spaces that can act as child- the consortium, FAO, has been involved in care centres as well as places where women the production of fuel-efficient stoves in can discuss their issues and unwind. It can also other countries that have been plagued with be a place to meet extension workers and a protracted conflicts. In north-east Nigeria, FAO skill acquisition centre for the women to learn is involved in issues related to energy access by new livelihoods. If such spaces already exist, vulnerable populations. FAO has established the project could liaise with such structures. three production centres for fuel-efficient stoves; 100 people were trained in produc- 2. Access to and control over tion techniques, resulting in the production and distribution of 5,000 locally produced land and productive resources, fuel-efficient stoves in Maiduguri, Jere, and food security, and other social Konduga LGAs. FAO is also involved in the protections in the face of conflict distribution of an emergency SAFE kit (consisting of a lightweight stove and a solar lantern) and scarce resources for highly mobile IDPs and is in the process of supporting existing structures of sustainable A. Access to land forest management. FAO is also coordinating All of the participants of the FGDs and KIIs agreed a Working Group on Safe Access to Fuel and that both men and women have access to land; Energy (SAFE) in Maiduguri, under the Food women’s access is obtained through renting or Security Sector, in order to share information, through their husbands or male relatives. According coordinate activities, and advocate for energy to all the respondents at the community level, access. The sustainable agriculture project can land for cultivation is becoming scarce; due to leverage on this experience. Another area the fear of attack by insurgents, there are restrictions project can explore is briquette production. on agricultural production on land close to the community. In this situation, women are the last to have access to land.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 91 There are no religious norms that prevent women 2. Working with traditional leaders and LGAs to from owning land in the study communities; provide land or facilitate ownership of land. however, fewer women own lands compared to The traditional/community leaders have the men because ownership is through inheritance or authority to give out land and can be ap- purchase, and women often have fewer resources proached to give land to women beneficiaries; to purchase than men. Women’s land ownership it may be group possession of land. means security and subsequently access to credit to 3. Provision of money to rent larger plots of land buy key agricultural inputs and other investments to increase production by women farmers and to increase food production, thereby lifting wom- group possession of land by women should be en’s status and her bargaining power in families encouraged. and communities as well as boosting well-being at the household level. However, some respondents are of the view that a woman’s ownership of land B. Access to credit may not give her control over it. Borno State is a highly patriarchal society, and this has serious Agricultural credit is seen as one of the strategic implications for women’s empowerment and their resources for crop production, and has led to an access to and control of resources, even those they increase in the standard of living for our rural poor. rightfully own. The woman is under the control of There are two main sources of agricultural credit: the husband, and all that she owns also belongs to formal and informal. Farmers in the target commu- him. nities have not benefitted from the formal sources (banks and government). As to whether there were When renting land, women cannot cultivate differences in access to credit for men, women, and any crop outside of what has been agreed; such youth farmers, the predominant answer was in the restrictions include high-income cash crops such as negative. According to respondents, it is only when watermelon. They also cannot plant trees on such all farmers are able to access formal sources of lands; trees are a key to sustainable agriculture, credit that the issues of differences in access among especially in a zone where serious deforestation has the different categories of farmers can be ascer- led to land degradation, which is exacerbated by tained. However, it is the view of the women that if impacts of climate change. such opportunities should present themselves, men are likely to have more access because women face One of the challenges that must be tackled by the certain barriers: lack of financial literacy, illiteracy proposed sustainable agricultural project is that of (and hence lack of familiarity with loan procedures), women’s landlessness in the face of diminishing inability to provide collateral, and male-dominated arable land. Women’s participation in the project banking facilities. depends largely on adequate access to land. Informal sources of credits were identified – family, Recommendations friends, adashe (voluntary community savings and 1. The Nigeria Land Use Act of 1978 nationalized credit groups), money lenders, politicians, organiza- all land and vested authority in the State tions, and vendors who give goods to farmers Governor, who holds it in trust on behalf of on credit. Everyone has access to these informal all. In this regard, advocacy workshops must sources of credits, but access to money lenders is target key stakeholders – government (state dependent on the size of farms, which of course and local), traditional and religious leaders, marginalizes women farmers by virtue of their very civil society organizations (CSOs), etc. – to put small parcels of land. This lack of access of women in place strategies that will provide land for farmers to money lenders may be a blessing in female beneficiaries of the project. disguise because of the high interest rate – often double the amount.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 92 Access to credit is critical to the recovery of the agricultural sector and for building the resilience of The National Gender farmers. The issue of collateral as a huge barrier to Policy affirmative action accessing credit for low-income farmers resonated minimum for women’s at the state-level KIIs. participation in the leadership of community Recommendations groups such as farmers’ 1. Providing women with greater access to land, groups finance, and production inputs is critical to closing the productivity gap between men and women. Various sources of formal credit 35% identified in this research should be looked at and strategies developed to facilitate access by rural farmers to such facilities. 2. Awareness is the first step towards access. The partners should work with MWASD, MPAYE, and relevant CSOs to create awareness about C. Access to and control of farmers’ groups/ these sources of agricultural credit for farmers, associations the criteria for accessing them, and the linkages with other institutions that may be needed to Many farmers’ groups/associations were identified facilitate access to such facilities. in all the study communities; these include mixed- sex groups and all-female groups organized around 3. There is a need to incorporate an unconditional the crops that they grow or the farming systems cash transfer into the project, especially in they use. The mixed-sex groups are controlled by the first rainy season when farmers are still men, while women have absolute control of the trying to rebuild their agricultural assets. all-female groups. The latter face challenges such as The modalities and the delivery mechanisms lack of capital and knowledge, skills/capacity gaps, of such cash-based transfer interventions, limited access to and ownership of land, limited however, have to be determined after baseline leadership skills to run a group, limited financial assessments. management skills, and inadequate agricultural 4. Women and girls should also be supported in inputs. their non-farm livelihoods to build resilience and hence reduce their vulnerability. This Recommendations component would also involve mandatory 1. Facilitating women’s participation in farmers’ weekly savings contributions for 40 weeks, associations, ensuring that the leadership of after which their contributions would be made mixed-sex farmers’ groups comprise at least available to them. 35 per cent women (as per the affirmative 5. Working closely with MWASD, MPAYE, the action principle of the National Gender Policy), Ministry of Agriculture, and the Borno State and ensuring that women have equal rights Agricultural Development Programme to to acquire services and assistance from the leverage whatever facilities or opportunities association and share the common benefits. are available in these institutions. 2. There is a need for capacity building and 6. Facilitation of the emergence of women’s training for women farmers’ associations in cooperatives/associations for easy access to the areas of resource mobilization, leadership, loans/credit. financial management, entrepreneurship, and conflict management.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 93 3. UN Women and partners should work through the time they know, the extension officers have the women farmers’ groups as entry points to come and gone. Third, male extension workers are their work with women and girls in the target not allowed to interact with female farmers for communities. cultural reasons. The services the extension workers provide include: • Advice and techniques for planting and D. Access to extension services and inputs application of fertilizers, agro-chemicals, and pesticides Productive agriculture requires the dissemination of • Provision of improved seeds and farming tools information related to production and marketing to • Advice on pest control, seed selection, im- farmers. Lack of access to agricultural information proved varieties, and farming skills is a key contributor to the inability of smallholder farmers, including women farmers, to transit from subsistence to commercialized agriculture. Exten- Extension services are sometimes provided by sion officers play a great role in the dissemination organizations such as FAO, WFP, and SCI, among of agricultural information. In the pre-crisis period, others. when the Borno State Agricultural Development Programme was implementing the World Bank Agricultural Development Programme, the state E. Access to fertilizers had 1,750 trained extension workers providing Both male and female farmers have physical access services to farmers in most farming communities in to fertilizers, but economic access is where the the state. challenge is, especially for women farmers. Accord- ing to respondents, fertilizers from government As a result of the conflict, extension officers fled sources do not reach the farmers, as only those from the conflict-affected zones along with the whose names are submitted by politicians can farmers. The findings from the FGDs and KIIs access them. Thus, farmers have to purchase in the showed that extension services are almost non- open market at exorbitant prices; the ban on the existent in the study communities, with extension sale of nitrogen-based fertilizers (because of their workers coming once a year or once in a while. potential for making improvised explosive devices) This information was corroborated at a recent has caused scarcity and further price hikes. meeting with extension workers and CSOs. They noted that the number of extension workers in Borno State stands at 168, meaning the ratio of F. Access to pesticides extension officers to farmers is 1:3,311; the World Bank standard is 1:300. This huge personnel gap There are pest problems in all the study com- partly explains why extension services are almost munities. These include fall armyworm, African non-existent in the study communities. armyworm, quelea birds, aphids, stem borers, and fruitworms. In addition, there are fungal and viral Women have less access to extension services diseases and noxious weeds such as Striga. All the than men, for three main reasons. First, there is an farmers spray unspecified pesticides bought from inadequate number of female extension workers, the open market, which may lead to pesticide as indicated by the extremely low ratio of female abuse; access for both men and women depends extension workers to female farmers (1:1,972; the on the resources they have. Some farmers use World Bank standard is 1:80). Second, the extension traditional methods of control for these pests such services are dominated by male extension workers, as the use of ashes and potash. and women are often not aware of their visits. By

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 94 G. Access to agricultural equipment Before the conflict, tractors used to be provided, TRAINING PROVIDES subsidized by the government, but these are currently individually owned. Both men and CRUCIAL KNOWLEDGE women have physical access to such agricultural ABOUT equipment, but not equal economic access, as men are more likely to have more financial resources. • modern farming techniques Women have small landholdings and low capital, • new seed varieties and hence have limited access to agricultural equipment. Groups of women do come together • pest control to contribute money to hire a tractor or animal • fertilizer application traction for land preparation. Some farmers also • proper storage of produce access tractors through registered farmers’ coopera- • income generation tives connected to agricultural banks; this may need to be explored.

H. Access to training

Training is very important to the success of agricultural production. In all the study locations, respondents reported one form of training or another by UN agencies (FAO and WFP) or international non-governmental organizations (SCI, Plan I. Access to labour International, Oxfam). Trainings were on modern The main sources of agricultural labour in the farming methods, fertilizer application, storage, communities are family and hired labour and the pest control, livelihoods, health, gender-based vio- practice of gaiya, in which groups of friends support lence, vegetable gardening, etc. Information from one another rotationally. There are certain tasks KIIs at the state level indicates that the Ministry that society has prescribed for men and women. of Agriculture provided information on crop and For women, these include seed selection, sowing, rice farming, community-based seed enterprises, watering, threshing, and processing; farming and agronomic practices for some major crops. The vegetables such as okra and spinach; cultivating government also conducted training on the use of groundnuts, sesame, and beans; picking ground- improved varieties, pests and pesticide application, nuts and beans; and collecting soup ingredients. and post-harvest handling and proper storage of For men, traditionally prescribed tasks include farm produce against infestation. ploughing, land preparation, regular monitoring of the farm, harvesting of grains, and weeding of These are the suggested areas of training: modern larger grass varieties. agricultural techniques, livelihoods, food fortifica- tion and nutrition, processing and utilization According to respondents’ religion and culture, of farm produce (especially for women), and women were not supposed to be exposed to hard conflict management. The following areas are labour. They were only to be involved in those tasks particularly for youth: modern farming technology, that do not physically drain their energy. Women agribusiness, marketing and linkages, and the do the cooking, so the crops they grow are mostly establishment of cooperatives. Awareness must be for household consumption. Men’s tasks include raised on the importance of conflict-affected youth operation of sophisticated equipment, hard labour, completing their education (while also pursuing livelihoods).

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 95 and large-scale farming. However, the conflict has through comparing conventional technologies changed all that, as everyone can now perform any with their own tradition and culture. task in the field depending on their ability, and both 4. UN Women and partners should link up with men and women now contribute to the upkeep of relevant ministries, departments, and agencies the family. to ensure access to fertilizer for women farmers and advocate to have qualified dealers and Recommendations shops with agricultural inputs in the communi- 1. Women’s access to training and information ties for easy access by women farmers, whose should be improved, as knowledge of farming mobility is restricted by culture and religion. techniques is critical to productivity. This would 5. Provision of assistance to farmers in the mean putting in place robust agricultural following areas: training, improved seeds and extension and training services which should crop varieties, fertilizers, pesticides, access to be adapted to rural women’s needs and farmland, market support, extension services, constraints. agricultural equipment, agricultural credit/ 2. Recruitment and training of extension workers, loans, funding, post-harvest technologies, especially female extension workers. The safety, security, start-up capital, scholarships project can liaise with the Borno State Agri- for young farmers to complete their education, cultural Development Programme to retrain organization of women, and women’s partici- its pre-conflict pool of extension workers. The pation in the agricultural value chain. project should also link up with the Agricultural 6. Sensitization and training on the safe use of Extension Unit within the Ministry of Agricul- pesticides. ture with a view to improving services. 3. Creation of awareness about the discrimination against women farmers regarding their 3. Differential vulnerability, unequal access to inputs. There is a need barriers, and constraints faced by to change the mindset that women are not women and men of different ages serious farmers. This underscores the dire need for advocacy and training in the area of in informal and formal institutions gender mainstreaming, participation, women’s in relation to agriculture, rights, gender roles/time constraints, and economic empowerment. Farmer Field Schools livelihoods (including access to should be established in all the communities market business), and security of the sustainable agriculture project, and they will incorporate these topics into their Vulnerability results from poverty, exclusion, mar- curriculum. The Farmer Field School approach ginalization, and inequities in material consump- is an innovative, participatory, and interactive tion, which are conditions determined by physical, learning approach that emphasizes problem social, economic, and environmental factors or solving and discovery-based learning. The goal processes and increase the susceptibility of an of the schools is to build farmers’ capacity to individual to a threat or risk. The general consensus analyse their production systems, identify from the gender analysis is that women are the problems, test possible solutions, and eventu- most vulnerable group within the community, and ally adopt the practices most suitable to their the most vulnerable households are those headed farming systems (FAO, 2003c). Such schools can by women. People living with disability were also equally provide an opportunity for farmers to classified among the highly vulnerable persons. practice and test/evaluate sustainable land use technologies, and introduce new technologies

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 96 Men at a town market in Borno State

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 97 WOMEN IN NORTH-EAST NIGERIA FACE NUMEROUS male insecure lack of no BARRIERS dominance tenure education capital WHEN FARMING, FEEDING THEIR inadequate cultural religious poor FAMILIES, AND knowledge barriers barriers services MAKING A LIVING

A. Underlying causes of the vulnerability of food security. According to the responses obtained, men and women farmers of different ages in they cut across the following: lack of formal educa- Borno State tion, which prevents them from filling the necessary documents for some services; poor attitudes of The underlying causes identified by the key some institutions in allocating the equipment informants were: poverty, hunger, and deprivation and materials needed for agricultural production, (negative coping mechanisms); low level of educa- etc.; lack of capital; inadequate knowledge; lack of tion; gender inequality; lack of access to agriculture institutionalized apprentice models; lack of support inputs, information, and knowledge; lack of access or funding from institutions; insecure tenure of to decision making; lack of farmland and capital; land for farming; lack of farming facilities; lack of inadequate storage facilities; inaccessibility to good extension services; dominance of men in leadership markets; lack of government support for producers; positions in society; cultural and religious barriers. the land tenure system and lack of complemen- The rigid, socially sanctioned gender roles in rural tary livelihood activities; lack of farmland; stolen societies severely constrain women’s choices harvests; insecurity; women’s double burden and regarding how they allocate their time between triples roles; additional burdens for widows who paid and unpaid productive and household activi- perform agricultural activities; patriarchy and ties, giving rise to time poverty. Culture, religious religious misinterpretations. beliefs, and social norms, which are sustained by religious and traditional institutions, dictate that unpaid domestic activities (water collection, B. Barriers and constraints faced by men and childcare, cooking, washing clothes) are the domain women in formal and informal institutions of females. Limited capital and limited ownership in relation to agriculture, livelihoods, and of land are big constraints. In addition, women are denied access to some agricultural services such food security as training on the use of sprayers, which is seen as Women and men face many barriers and con- men’s work. straints in the area of agriculture, livelihoods, and

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 98 Market access for farmers means the ability to conflict-affected communities should be acquire farm inputs and farm services, and the created and implemented with a sense of capability to deliver agricultural produce to buyers. urgency. In this regard, an insurance system When farmers do not have access to markets, they should be established that covers small-scale remain at the mercy of middlemen, who get rich farmers, crops, and other assets, with ap- at their expense. Findings from the field indicate propriate support to women farmer’s needs that all the communities have functional markets. from government. One such programme is the But there are constraints to access by women, Index-based Agriculture Insurance introduced including low production rates, limited mobility, by the National Insurance Commission in perishable goods, and competitive local markets. collaboration with the Nigeria Incentive-based Women’s only involvement in the agriculture value Risk Sharing System for Agricultural Lending. chain is production and sale; often, the value of the The scheme pays out benefits on the basis of a produce is hardly commensurate to the investments predetermined index for loss of assets, invest- made. The overexploitation of women smallholder ments, and primary working capital resulting farmers underscores the need to link women to from weather and catastrophic events, without agricultural value chains – from production all the requiring traditional insurance services. way to processing and marketing – as this would 6. Since agriculture is the dominant sector for help to make traditional farming more attractive food and nutrition security and livelihood im- and commercially viable. provement in Borno State, building capacity for staff of the Borno State Agricultural Develop- Recommendations ment Programme (women and men), especially 1. There is a dire need for enlightenment in the areas of gender, gender mainstreaming, campaigns and advocacy with institutions and women’s rights, is recommended. (the relevant banks, ministries, departments, 7. Borno State Agricultural Development Pro- and agencies) to remove the barriers women gramme should conduct appropriate interven- farmers face accessing their services. tions with targeted groups and facilitate 2. Adequate rural extension services should be discussions regularly. employed to reach out to remote farmers in 8. Reaching out to men and boys separately to small villages who may not have access to tackle gender inequality can be done through agricultural information and technologies. gender training, advocacy, and sensitization. Setting up an apprenticeship model will help Mixed-sex engagement can discuss gender people with little or no education get useful norms, roles, and power relations for the life skills and remove or reduce the barriers to establishment of more equitable and respectful entry. relationships. 3. Improvement of security and market regulation 9. Formal and informal institutions should moni- and provision of capital, implements, energy- tor and ensure equal access in the services they saving devices, and additional livelihood provide for farmers. Institutions should involve options. women and ensure that women are aware of 4. Provision of loans to both male and female their agricultural aids and services. farmers, as well as provision of farming facili- 10. The project partners should link up with ties, including a take-off grant for the most government through the Ministry for Recon- vulnerable beneficiaries. A soft loan of about struction, Rehabilitation and Resettlement in 100,000 naira should be provided for each the area of providing accessible roads from female farmer to purchase agricultural inputs the farms to the markets. Government should that will enhance production. provide vehicles at subsidized rates to convey 5. A policy for the allocation of funds that goods to the weekly markets. would respond to the issues bedevilling

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 99 11. Security agencies should provide security along access roads to the market and within the Women constitute markets. approximately 49% 12. The project partners should facilitate an of the country’s inventory of markets destroyed by non-state population, yet armed groups, with a view to undertaking they play a very advocacy for rebuilding by government limited political (Ministry for Reconstruction, Rehabilitation and and participatory Resettlement and the Presidential Initiative for role. Only about the North-East). 4% of local government councillors are women. Marginalized groups such as youth, IDPs, people 13. Installation of agro-input vendors in the living with disability, and survivors of GBV also immediate communities, improving the have a limited voice in the public sphere. availability of inputs, implements, and tools for farming. 14. Government should break the ‘middleman syndrome’ so that farmers themselves are the Borno State does not have a state gender policy ones benefitting from their sweat. in agriculture, and the general view is that such 15. Linking women to agricultural value chains, a policy would be crucial to promote and ensure from production all the way to processing and the adoption of gender-sensitive and gender- marketing, which will help make traditional responsive approaches towards agriculture plans farming more productive and commercially and programmes so that men and women have viable. equal access to and control of productive resources and facilities. Such a policy, which would require technical assistance from partners such as UN 4. Strengths, weaknesses, Women and FAO, is expected to drastically reduce the vulnerability of women. opportunities and threats in relation to women’s and girls’ Recommendations participation in decision making 1. There should be enlightenment campaigns and policy formulation/review of and training programmes for all stakeholders; agricultural practices, food security workshop communiqués that capture the voice of the people should be submitted to key and nutrition, livelihoods, and stakeholders such as policymakers and law- security in Borno State makers and followed up by high-level advocacy and lobbying to ensure that these are included There is a general consensus that the participation in policy formulation or review. of women and girls in policy formulation and deci- 2. Establishment of steering communities in sion making is very low at all levels. There are very the target LGAs/communities to guide and few women in politics in Borno State. For example, monitor the implementation of the project. there is not a single woman in the Borno State This committee should comprise community House of Assembly and neither is there a single leaders, ward heads, women leaders, and youth female local government chairman in the state. At leaders. the community level, the trend is the same; it is 3. Ensuring that the programme is designed to not unexpected, as religious misinterpretation and carry along minority and marginalized groups culture has worked against women’s participation. such as persons with disabilities, IDPs, youth,

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 100 and survivors of sexual and gender-based 5. Mitigation of risks of backlash violence. Women should be prioritized during the beneficiary selection process; affirmative and violence faced by women and action principles must be adhered to, with girls due to their empowerment special focus on persons with disabilities. and involvement in programme Training/capacity building is recommended to ensure qualitative participation, including implementation and governance participation in agricultural value chains. Borno State is a highly patriarchal society with rigid 4. Recognizing existing organized groups com- gender roles and specified domains. The conflict prised of marginalized persons and building has seen a shift in gender roles: women are now their capacity to participate in the agricultural breadwinners and also beneficiaries of livelihood value chain; a project implementation commit- schemes, cash transfers, and other social protection tee should be established from among these services provided by UN agencies – FAO, WFP, the groups. Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, 5. Ensuring that government authorities at all – as well as the National Emergency Management levels recognize women and provide space Agency, the State Emergency Management for them to raise their voices and continue to Agencies, and various international and local participate at all levels of the decision-making non-governmental organizations (NGOs). This shift process. in gender roles may result in a backlash against 6. The Borno State government is already making women and girls. efforts to revamp agriculture and boost food security; the project should link up with the From the findings, the backlashes are already state government to ensure that all steps taken manifesting. Men are already complaining that involve community members. their wives are becoming unruly and disrespect- 7. Training of relevant partners such as the ful, resulting in domestic violence, verbal and agriculture secretary, extension officers, and psychological abuse, divorce, exclusion, assault, women development officers at the LGA and negligence, and denial of education. Patriarchy is ward levels to identify the most important a cross-cutting factor in all the backlashes women agricultural activities and interventions for will experience. improving food and nutrition security and household livelihoods (e.g. home gardening Findings have shown that gender-based violence and poultry raising), and for addressing (GBV) is a serious problem in all six LGAs. Pre- constraints and women’s vulnerabilities. conflict GBV identified by the respondents included domestic violence; early marriage; verbal abuse; 8. Enhancing the capacity of policymakers on forced marriage; deprivation of education; rape; gender mainstreaming, capacity development, wife battering; and incest. GBV during the conflict raising awareness, gender analysis for more included: abduction/kidnapping; rape; forced reliable data and information, communicating marriage; early/child marriage; sexual exploitation and disseminating findings, and producing and abuse; domestic violence; psychological/verbal policy briefs focused on gender and agriculture. abuse; increasing vulnerability of women and girls 9. Promotion of the implementation of the arising from various deprivations; stigmatization Sustainable Development Goals through and rejection of victims of GBV and survival sex. workshops on bridging the knowledge gap, even among government policymakers implementing the goals. Recommendations

1. Community sensitization and enlightenment campaigns, mass media and social media

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 101 platforms, and community-level extension extension meetings; and place for information services and employment of trained extension and experience sharing. workers will help in creating awareness in communities. This could be done by NGOs, international NGOs (INGOs), religious and community leaders, MWASD and MPAYE, and 6. Other findings with implications UN Women. for programming 2. Involving men ab initio in project implementation and sensitizing them on what the project Impact of Conflict on Agricultural Production is trying to achieve, as well as working with All the respondents in the FGDs and KIIs agreed them for better understanding of and support that the conflict has seriously destroyed agriculture for women. through the killing or displacement of farmers, the destruction of assets, and reduced arable land (due 3. Proper sensitization of community leaders, to restricting farming to a few kilometres from husbands (men), and women. Involvement homesteads). In addition, the restrictions on move- of community leaders in such activities to ment of people in and out of camps hinder access establish trust among the men and women of to fields, and restrictions on certain goods such as the communities. fertilizers by the military lower agricultural produc- 4. Educating women on their rights; empowering tion. In Borno State, grains such as millet, sorghum, them both financially and in various skills that and maize are staple crops; however, growing them will help them to be independent. is prohibited in some communities, as members 5. Putting in place strong policies that will deal of non-state armed groups hide among the crops decisively with the perpetrators of GBV, to serve and from there attack both military personnel and as a deterrent to others and assist the speedy civilians. prosecution of GBV cases, especially rape; setting up a helpdesk that will strictly respond to victims in a confidential and dignified man- A. Impact of conflict on food security and ner, and provide all required support services. nutrition In this regard, UN Women should support MWASD, CSOs, and INGOs as they lobby for the The conflict has greatly affected food security in the domestication of the Violence against Persons state. There is scarcity of food due to low food pro- Prohibition Act 2015 in the state. duction; there is destruction of agricultural assets 6. Awareness creation to sensitize community and infrastructure, including physical infrastruc- members about the availability of GBV services ture, production equipment, animals, seed supplies, and how to access them. and food stocks. Combined with restrictions on the sale of nitrogen-based fertilizers (due to fears that 7. Development of community mobilization and they will be used to make explosive devices), food campaign strategies using existing informal production has reduced drastically. The influx of community groups and engaging women, men, IDPs has led to reduced access to food and limited boys, and girls to take action against gender- food utilization due to the scarcity of firewood. based violence. Malnutrition is being reported across the target 8. Establishment of women-friendly spaces for LGAs, but is being ameliorated by food supplements survivors of sexual and gender-based violence from WFP, government, INGOs, NGOs, and individu- and establishment of referral pathways at als. The respondents want the women to be trained the local government level. The spaces would in the modern production of nutritious meals from have multipurpose functions: skill acquisition local food materials. centre; childcare centre; medical centre for women; meeting point for agriculture

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 102 B. Impact of climate change on agricultural across the LGAs. These are fishery, irrigation production farming, poultry farming, and home gardens (plus agroforestry). While fishery and irrigation farming The farmers have experienced climate change in systems are dominated by men, poultry farming the form of rains arriving late and stopping early; and home gardens are dominated by women. drought; rising temperatures; failure of crops; and Agroforestry practice is almost non-existent, as desertification. Farmers have used the following what was described by respondents was actually approaches to mitigate the impacts of climate mixed farming. change: intercropping/mixed cropping, which leads to more farm products on the same farmland; livelihood diversification; use of grasses and mulching 7. Programming opportunities, to conserve soil moisture; and water harvesting for irrigation. strengths, gaps, lessons learned, and recommended strategies for designing a gender-responsive C. Gender analysis of crops grown in the study communities livelihood programme that caters for the needs and interests of A variety of crops are grown within the target communities: maize, millet, sorghum, okro (okra), women, men, boys, and girls to roselle, sesame, cucumber, watermelon, tomato, enhance programme effectiveness onion, rice, groundnut, Bambara nut, cotton, and various beans and vegetables. The men grow that maximizes impact for food crops for both home consumption and commercial security purposes, while women grow mainly vegetables and beans for family consumption and a little for sale. There are no restrictions on what crops can be This gender analysis has been carried out to inform grown by either women or men, but growing crops gender-transformative programming within target such as cotton, rice, and grains, which require a lot communities that would challenge existing and of inputs and energy, is seen as the men’s domain. longstanding gender norms, promote positive These crops are the main sources of agricultural and transformative social and political change for income, and women are marginalized from them. women and girls, and address power inequities between men and women. For this, recommendations would be made from three perspectives: D. Livestock husbandry programming opportunities and entry points; strategies that can lead to results in the long, Livestock are kept in all the target communities. medium, and short term; and gaps/weaknesses in These include cows, goats, sheep, poultry, and terms of what other programmes are not currently donkeys. All members of the community, from the addressing and what needs to be addressed in the youth to adults, are involved in livestock farming. target communities. Women do own livestock. The general consensus is that women have full control over their own animals, while milk from animals is always for the A. Recommendations on programming women, irrespective of whether the animal belongs opportunities and entry points to her or her husband. 1. Advocacy to gatekeepers at state, LGA, and Farming Systems in the target communities community levels to create awareness about Respondents identified four main farming systems the project and what it hopes to achieve.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 103 2. Identifying partners and their areas of exper- leadership, decision making, and participation tise to leverage these skills in the design and and ensuring that their voices are in the implementation of the programmes. conversations around agriculture, food security, 3. Gender-targeted interventions that promote livelihoods, sexual and gender-based violence, the rights and empowerment of women advocacy, etc. Such capacity building would farmers through eliminating discrimination allow women to participate in mixed-sex and increasing their access to land ownership, groups and structures. Training schedules agricultural inputs, technology (including should accommodate the different schedules LST, which frees women’s time for productive and needs of women, men, girls, and boys. activities), credit, labour, and markets. 3. Increasing women’s literacy level through 4. Promotion of agroforestry, which will not adult education. The partners should link up only improve the health of the land, but also with SAME, who have structures on ground in be a source of much-needed firewood and most LGAs; this will increase their access to reduce the GBV associated with searching for agricultural information, credit, and financial firewood. management services. 5. Establishment of farmers’ groups/cooperatives 4. Strengthening of linkages with ministries, and strengthening of existing ones. departments, and agencies and other programmes that are working on gender issues 6. Women should be assisted in those farming and women’s empowerment with a view to systems they dominate by training them on addressing gender inequality. more modern farming techniques for increased production. Women should also be encouraged 5. Building capacity of programme staff and to go into irrigation farming for year-round partner staff to recognize gender inequalities production of home garden produce as well as and design programmes to reduce them. cash crops. 6. Capacity building for programme implement- 7. Training on modern husbandry systems should ers for consistent and effective gender be provided to both male and female farmers mainstreaming. to increase livestock production. The govern- 7. Programmes around sexual and gender-based ment, FAO, and other NGOs should increase violence, sexual exploitation and abuse, their provision of information to community- psychosocial support, and trauma healing; also based farmers’ groups on livestock manage- increasing access to basic services. ment, agromarketing, and the establishment of 8. Establishment and operation of women-only cooperatives. Farmer Field Schools. The rationale behind this recommendation is that some women in northern Nigeria, especially in Borno, are still B. Recommendations on strategies that can not bold because of the age-old socialization lead to results in the long, medium, and process that has excluded women and girls. short term Thus, the Farmer Field Schools will be spaces that will prepare women to take on leadership 1. Establishment of steering committees in the roles in extension schemes. target LGAs/communities to guide and monitor 9. Strengthening rural institutions, increasing the implementation of the project. These their gender awareness, and having gender committees will comprise community leaders, champions within both rural institutions and ward heads, women leaders, and youth leaders. the target communities. They will be chaired by the implementing 10. Putting in place a robust monitoring, evalua- organization. tion, accountability, and learning framework 2. Strengthening women’s capacities around that is flexible enough to incorporate changes.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 104 LITERACY IMPROVES ACCESS TO AGRICULTURAL gender needs of the farmers and the strategic INPUTS, INSTITUTIONAL SUPPORT, CREDIT, gender needs. To achieve this, the following recom- LOANS, BUSINESS OPPORTUNITIES, AND mendations are made. INFORMATION 1. Putting in place awareness programmes on human rights, laws, and policies for protection and redress of sexual and gender-based violence. Building the capacity of beneficiaries on a human rights–based approach to demand service delivery from duty holders. 2. Incorporating into the project an adult education component to bridge the gap in education between women and girls and men and boys. The expected increase in the level of education 38% of Nigerian will increase women’s and girls’ capacity to women have no benefit from this and other projects. formal education 3. Livelihood support for women through capacity building in financial literacy, as well as mandatory weekly savings by beneficiaries that would provide capital for them to invest at the end of a specified period. 11. The project partners should develop gender- 4. Put in place gender-transformative program- sensitive indicators for monitoring, evaluation, ming that seeks to challenge longstanding accountability, and learning. gender norms, promote positive and 12. Awareness creation on human rights, laws, and transformative social and political change for policies for protection and redress. This could women and girls, and address power inequities be through community and media interven- between men and women. tions, using public awareness campaigns to challenge gender norms, stereotypes, discrimination, and gender inequality; capacity should be built on the human rights–based approach to demand service delivery.

C. Recommendations on gaps and weaknesses

The past six years have witnessed an unprec- edented humanitarian crisis in Borno State, manifested in the massive displacement of persons. Humanitarian actors have responded with food and non-food aid. Some organizations are beginning to combine humanitarian responses with early recovery initiatives, but there seems to be a gap in these projects related to human rights, literacy, and livelihoods. The project thus will be using a two- pronged approach that meets both the practical

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 105 A market scene in Borno State

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 106 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 107 21. International Fund for Agricultural Development (2001). Rural Poverty Report 2001: The Challenge of Ending Rural Poverty, New York: Oxford University Press. 22. Jeanty, Pierre Wilner and Fred Hitzhusen (2006). ‘Analyzing the Effects of Conflicts on Food Security in Developing Countries: An Instrumental Variable Panel Data Approach’. 23. Kabeer, Naila (1999). ‘Resources, Agency, Achievements: Reflections on the Measurement of Women’s Empowerment’, Development and Change, 30 (May), pp. 435–464. 24. Kilby, P. (2006). ‘Accountability for Empowerment: Dilemmas Facing Non-governmental Organizations’, World Development, 34(6), pp. 951–963. 25. Muehlhoff, E. and M. Herens (1997). ‘Household Food Security and Nutrition in Agricultural Relief and Rehabilitation Programmes’, Food, Nutrition and Agriculture No. 19, p. 5. 26. Sen, A. (1990). ‘Development as Capability Expansion’, in K. Griffin and J. Knight (eds.),Human Development and the International Development Strategy for the 1990s, pp. 41–58, London, UK: MacMillan. 27. Simmons, E. (2013). Harvesting Peace: Food Security, Conflict and Cooperation, Environmental Change and Security Programme. 28. Strachan, A. L. and H. Haider (2015). Gender and Conflict: Top Guide, University of Birmingham. 29. United Nations Industrial Development Organization (2015). Guide on Gender Mainstreaming Agribusiness Development Projects, www.unido.org/gender. 30. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (2018).The Global Humanitarian Overview in 2018: A Consolidated Appeal to Support People Affected by Disaster and Conflict. 31. UN Women (2018). Young Women in Peace and Security: At the Intersection of the YPS and WPS Agendas, Progress Study on Youth, Peace and Security, New York. 32. UN Women, FAO, IFAD, and WFP (2012). ‘Empowerment of Women in Rural Areas is a Pre-requisite for Global Food Security’, retrieved May 2018, http://www.fao.org/gender/news/details/en. 33. WISE Development (2018). Women’s Income Generation in North East Nigeria: Economic Empowerment and Justice in Rural Markets, Research Study. 34. World Bank (2007a). World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development, Washington, DC. 35. World Bank (2014). ‘World Bank, FAO Aim to Boost Women’s Land Ownership in Central Europe’, www. worldbank.org. 36. World Bank and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (2007b). Global Monitoring Report: Millennium Development Goals – Confronting the Challenges of Gender Equality and Fragile States, Washington DC.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 108 GLOSSARY

Access to resources Access gives a person the use of a resource, e.g. land to grow crops.

Control Control allows a person to make decisions about who uses the resource or to dispose of the resource, e.g. sell land.

Food insecurity A situation that exists when people lack secure access to sufficient amounts of safe and nutritious food for normal growth and development and an active and healthy life.

Food security This exists when all people at all times have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.

Gender Social attributes learned or acquired during socialization by members of a given community. They can and do change over time and they vary across cultures.

Gender analysis A systematic methodology for examining the differences in roles and norms for women and men, girls and boys; the different levels of power they hold; their differing needs, constraints, and opportunities; and the impact of these differences on their lives.

Gender awareness An awareness of the differences in roles and relations between women and men. It recognizes that the life experiences, expectations, and needs of women and men are different.

Gender-based violence Any violent act or threat of violence that targets an individual due to their sex. It affects both men and women

Gender discrimination Any distinction, exclusion, or restriction made on the basis of sex that has the effect or purpose of impair- ing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment, or exercise by women, irrespective of their marital status, on the basis of equality of men and women, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil, or any other field.

Gender division of labour This relates to the different types of work that men and women do as a consequence of their socialization and accepted patterns of work within a given context.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 109 Gender equality When women and men enjoy the same rights and opportunities across all sectors of society, including economic participation and decision making, and when the different behaviours, aspirations, and needs of women and men are equally valued and favoured.

Gender equity Fairness of treatment for women and men, according to their respective needs. This may include equal treatment or treatment that is different, but which is considered equivalent in terms of rights, benefits, obligations, and opportunities.

Gender issues Any issues or concerns determined by gender-based and/or sex-based differences between women and men. They refer to differences in roles and relationships between men and women that result in unequal or differential treatment of an individual or group. The most common involve unequal distribution of resources, benefits, opportunities, or decision-making powers.

Gender mainstreaming The integration of gender perspectives into every stage of policy processes – design, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation – with a view to promoting equality between women and men. It means assessing how policies impact on the life and position of both women and men, and taking responsibility to readdress them if necessary.

Gender sensitivity The ability to acknowledge and highlight existing gender differences, issues, and inequalities and incorporate these into strategies and actions.

Gender stereotypes Sets of beliefs about the personal attributes, behaviours, and roles of a specific social group. Gender stereotypes are biased and often exaggerated images of women and men that are used repeatedly in everyday life. They are deep-rooted beliefs in something that has not been logically/empirically proven and follows a mode of generalization.

Participation The informed, autonomous, and meaningful involvement of a community in influencing decision making and action.

Practical gender needs These are needs often associated with material conditions related to daily needs. Meeting these needs will only improve the lives of women without changing existing gender division of labour or challenging women’s subordinate position in society.

Security Freedom from actual or potential danger in both private and public spheres.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 110 Sex-disaggregated data Collection and use of qualitative and quantitative data by sex (i.e. categorized according to sex, not gender) is critical as a basis for gender-sensitive research, analysis, strategic planning, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of programmes and projects. The use of this data reveals and clarifies gender-related issues in areas such as access to and control over resources, division of labour, violence, mobility, and decision making.

Strategic gender needs These needs represent changes in gender roles, division of labour, power, and control, or new opportunities related to disadvantaged positions in society. If these are met, the existing relations of unequal power between men and women would be transformed.

Violence against women and girls Any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual, or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion, or arbitrary deprivations of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life.

Women’s empowerment A process through which women and girls acquire knowledge, skills, and a willingness to critically analyse their situation and take appropriate action to change the status quo. Women’s empowerment means developing their ability to collectively and individually take control of their own lives, identify their needs, set their own agendas, and demand support from their communities and the state to see that their interests are responded to. Empowerment is often described as the ability to make choices. However, empowerment also involves being able to determine what the choices themselves will be.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 111 ANNEX 1

Work plan for the gender analysis

Key actions Timeline Expected outcome Indicators Responsibility (2018) Develop Implementation plan for 18 May Briefs and clear One Skype Consultants the gender analysis understanding of meeting expectations from held; minutes consultants of meeting produced Review questions and tools in line 18 May Questions and tools One Skype Consultants with the study objectives revised and aligned with meeting held the study objectives Produce and submit an inception 24 May UN Women received Inception Consultants report (with clear target profile, inception report report logistics, and interview schedule/ produced arrangement) Use feedback from UN Women to 25 May UN Women received Inception Consultants review the inception report and inception report report re-submit produced Establish linkages with relevant 30 May to Relevant documents Contacts Consultants, UN agencies (FAO, WFP, UN 1 June from the UN agencies established UN Women Women, etc.) and address obtained with relevant issues of security, logistics, and UN agencies stakeholder mapping Conduct training for research 2 June Training of research Training Consultants, assistants and test the tools assistants and others report UN Women completed produced Finalization of the logistics plan 3 June Interview plans Logistics and Consultants, for communities and interviews and schedules travel plans UN Women of government and non- communicated arranged governmental agencies (drafting to communities, and distribution of introductory state officials, and letters and schedules) development agencies Calls and visits to communities 3 June Selected communities One Consultants, in the six Local Government and stakeholders awareness/ UN Women Areas of Borno State to mobilize mobilized for the study trip report communities/target audiences produced with support from the project team (UN Women and Borno) Visits to communities in the six 4 to 9 Administer Field data Consultants, LGAs to conduct the interviews/ June questionnaires and collected UN Women collect data collect data from the from the six selected communities LGAs

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 112 Interviews of government and 10 to 15 UN agencies (FAO, Interviews Consultants, non-governmental agencies June WFP, etc.) and relevant conducted UN Women government and for targeted non-governmental respondents organizations working in Borno interviewed Finalization of the field work 18 to 22 Consultants entered Consultants Consultants, (development of case studies/ June data into computer and organized/ UN Women stories) and data clean-up analyzed the data managed data Submit summary of key and 25 June Summary of key and One report Consultants, preliminary findings preliminary findings submitted UN Women submitted Develop analysis framework and 26 June Analysis framework One analysis Consultants, share for inputs developed and framework UN Women submitted submitted Analyse data qualitatively and 27 June Data analysis completed Data Consultants write up case studies to 5 July organized Submit a draft report to UN 6 July Draft report submitted One draft Consultants Women for peer review and report comments incorporated prepared and accordingly submitted Coordinate and get feedback from 9 to 13 Feedback received from A reviewed Consultants, peer reviewers July peer reviewers report UN Women received from UN Women Comments on the report from UN 17 July Consultants received Feedback Consultants, Women and other partners used comments on report received UN Women to revise report from key stakeholders Participate and support the 19 July Consultants supported Feedback Consultants, validating exercise/process validation exercise/ received UN Women workshop to test ideas and from all interpretations of results stakeholders at stakeholder level Final review, proofreading, 18 to 24 Consultants prepared A revised Consultants layout/design of report July final report in line with report comments on report prepared Submission of final report to UN 25 July Standard technical A final report Consultants Women report finalized and produced and submitted submitted

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 113 ANNEX 2

Household activity profile of community members in the six LGAs before and during the conflict

Household LGAs Before the conflict: % of the task done During the conflict: % of the task done tasks by each category by each category Women Men Girls Boys Women Men Girls Boys Cleaning Jere 57.5 0 30.0 12.5 52.5 0 35.0 12.5 Konduga 57.5 0 37.5 5.0 52.5 0 42.5 5.0 Kaga 35.0 0 57.5 7.5 35.0 0 57.5 7.5 Monguno 60.0 0 40.0 0 52.5 0 47.5 0 Gwoza 52.5 0 40.0 7.5 55.0 0 37.5 7.5 Biu 57.5 0 37.5 5.0 50.0 2.5 37.5 10 Fetching Jere 10.0 25.0 45.0 20.0 35.0 0 45.0 20.0 firewood Konduga 32.5 57.5 7.5 2.5 25.0 55.0 15.0 5.0 Kaga 15.0 40.0 5.0 15.0 12.5 27.5 15.0 20.0 Monguno 10.0 47.5 17.5 25.0 12.5 17.5 15.0 30.0 Gwoza 25.0 40.0 12.5 22.5 17.5 30.0 17.5 35.0 Biu 40.0 50.0 12.5 7.5 22.5 47.5 20.0 10.0 Fetching Jere 22.5 0 77.5 0 42.5 0 47.5 10.0 water Konduga 32.5 35.0 20.0 12.5 15.0 35.0 30.0 20.0 Kaga 5.0 0 50.0 17.5 22.5 17.5 32.5 27.6 Monguno 7.5 15.0 47.5 30.0 15.0 15.0 50.0 20.0 Gwoza 25.0 5.0 50.0 20.0 42.5 5.0 35.0 17.5 Biu 50.0 17.5 25.0 17.5 22.5 17.5 35.0 25.0 Preparing Jere 82.5 0 17.5 0 77.5 0 17.5 0 food Konduga 75.0 0 25.0 0 77.5 0 22.5 0 Kaga 57.5 0 42.5 0 55.0 0 45.0 0 Monguno 82.5 0 17.5 0 67.5 0 32.5 0 Gwoza 77.5 0 22.5 0 70.0 0 30.0 0 Biu 75.0 0 25.0 0 75.0 0 25.0 0 Taking care Jere 100.0 0 0 0 92.5 0 7.5 0 of children Konduga 82.5 0 17.5 0 72.5 2.5 22.5 2.5 Kaga 82.5 5.0 7.5 5.0 85.0 5.0 10.0 0 Monguno 65.0 17.5 12.5 5.0 67.5 12.5 15.0 5.0 Gwoza 85.0 0 15.0 0 80.0 0 20.0 0 Biu 82.5 0 17.5 0 70.0 2.5 25.0 2.5

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 114 Washing Jere 70.0 0 17.5 12.5 55.0 5.0 30.0 10.0 clothes Konduga 50.0 2.5 30.0 17.5 35.0 2.5 40.0 22.5 Kaga 55.0 5.0 17.5 22.5 52.5 5.0 20.0 22.5 Monguno 82.5 0 12.5 5.0 65.0 0 22.5 12.5 Gwoza 57.5 0 25.0 17.5 57.5 0 27.5 15.0 Biu 55.0 2.5 25.0 17.5 40.0 2.5 35.0 27.5 Heading Jere 15.0 85.0 0 0 47.5 52.5 0 0 household Konduga 12.5 87.5 0 0 50.0 50.0 0 0 Kaga 7.5 92.5 0 0 40.0 60.0 0 0 Monguno 7.5 92.5 0 0 42.5 55.0 0 0 Gwoza 25.0 75.0 0 0 42.5 57.5 0 0 Biu 12.5 87.5 0 0 45.0 55.0 0 0 Decision Jere 25.0 75.0 0 0 42.5 50.0 0 0 making Konduga 5.0 95.0 0 0 35.0 65.0 0 0 Kaga 25.0 75.0 0 0 37.5 55.0 0 0 Monguno 22.5 77.5 0 0 42.5 55.0 0 0 Gwoza 32.5 67.5 0 0 40.0 55.0 0 0 Biu 15.0 85.0 0 0 35.0 65.0 0 0

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 115 ANNEX 3

Productive activity profile of community members in the six LGAs before and during the conflict

Farming LGAs Before the conflict: % of the task done During the conflict: % of the task done tasks by each category by each category Women Men Girls Boys Women Men Girls Boys Land Jere 5.0 72.5 5.0 17.5 32.5 32.5 5.0 30.0 clearing Konduga 12.5 57.5 10.0 20.0 15.0 52.5 10.0 22.5 Kaga 0 77.5 0 22.5 25.0 40.0 7.5 27.5 Monguno 0 67.5 7.5 25.0 15.0 27.5 0 52.5 Gwoza 10.0 70.0 10.0 10.0 37.5 17.5 10.0 35.0 Biu 7.5 60.0 10.0 22.5 17.5 52.8 7.5 22.5 Ploughing Jere 10.0 82.5 0 7.5 50.0 25.0 0 25.0 Konduga 5.0 70.0 5.0 20.0 2.5 65.0 0 32.5 Kaga 0 82.5 0 17.5 15.0 52.5 7.5 30.0 Monguno 0 70.0 0 30.0 0 57.8 0 42.5 Gwoza 12.5 67.5 0 20.0 37.5 30.0 0 32.5 Biu 0 90.0 0 10.0 2.5 77.5 0 20.0 Seed Jere 75.0 5.0 0 0 70.0 7.5 5.0 17.5 selection Konduga 50.0 25.0 12.5 12.5 55.0 20.0 15.0 10.0 Kaga 57.5 32.5 5.0 5.0 45.0 17.5 12.5 25.0 Monguno 67.5 12.5 10.0 10.0 27.5 0 17.5 5.0 Gwoza 45.0 32.5 12.5 10.0 45.0 30.0 7.5 17.5 Biu 52.5 25.0 17.5 5.0 60.0 15.0 20.0 5.0 Sowing Jere 40.0 50.0 5.0 5.0 60.0 7.5 0.0 37.5 and Konduga 35.0 35.0 15.0 15.0 40.0 17.5 22.5 20.0 planting Kaga 32.5 35.9 15.0 17.5 37.5 17.5 15.0 30.0 Monguno 30.0 27.5 20.0 22.5 10.0 20.0 10.0 10.0 Gwoza 47.5 15.0 22.5 15.0 47.5 15.0 22.6 15.0 Biu 27.5 30.0 20.0 22.5 37.5 20.0 20.0 22.5 Weeding Jere 10.0 67.5 10.0 12.5 42.5 15.0 10.0 32.5 Konduga 15.0 45.0 12.5 27.5 15.0 25.0 12.5 27.5 Kaga 5.0 77.5 2.5 15.0 20.0 50.0 5.0 15.0 Monguno 5.0 62.5 10.0 22.5 10.0 17.5 7.5 15.0 Gwoza 22.5 55.0 10.0 12.5 35.0 27.5 10.0 27.5 Biu 10.0 55.0 10.0 25.0 25.0 35.0 15.0 25.0

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 116 Daily Jere 5.0 72.5 5.0 17.5 47.8 15.0 5.0 32.5 mainte- Konduga 5.0 72.5 5.0 17.5 45.0 42.5 10.0 17.5 nance Kaga 0 75.0 0 25.0 12.5 55.0 5.0 27.5 Monguno 0 80.0 0 20.0 22.5 17.5 7.5 27.5 Gwoza 37.5 42.5 0 20.0 37.5 30.0 0 32.5 Biu 5.0 75.0 5.0 15.0 20.0 55.0 10.0 15.0 Harvesting Jere 10.0 67.5 10.0 12.5 40.0 15.0 17.5 27.5 Konduga 25.0 37.5 5.0 22.5 32.5 25.0 12.5 30.0 Kaga 5.0 72.5 5.0 17.5 10.0 55.0 10.0 25.0 Monguno 15.0 52.5 15.0 17.5 15.0 10.0 12.5 12.5 Gwoza 20.0 50.0 15.0 15.0 30.0 25.0 22.5 22.5 Biu 25.0 50.0 15.0 20.0 32.5 27.5 12.5 27.5 Threshing Jere 30.0 45.0 12.5 12.5 47.5 5.0 17.5 30.0 Konduga 52.5 10.0 25.0 12.5 60.0 10.0 17.5 12.5 Kaga 42.5 25.0 32.5 0 52.5 15.0 32.5 5.0 Monguno 62.5 0 32.5 5.0 35.0 7.5 20.0 17.5 Gwoza 57.5 27.5 10.0 5.0 62.5 7.5 17.5 12.5 Biu 75.0 0 25.0 0 82.5 0 12.5 5.0 Storage Jere 17.5 7.5 0 7.5 35.0 42.5 5.0 17.5 Konduga 25.0 57.5 5.0 12.5 52.5 25.0 7.5 15.0 Kaga 10.0 85.0 0 5.0 15.0 75.0 0 10.0 Monguno 10.0 80.0 0 10.0 10.0 27.5 0 12.5 Gwoza 45.0 45.0 5.0 6.0 42.5 35.0 5.0 17.5 Biu 10.0 82.5 0 7.5 27.6 65.0 0 7.5 Processing Jere 72.5 7.5 20.0 0 62.5 0 37.5 0 Konduga 82.5 0 17.5 0 77.5 0 20.0 0 Kaga 65.0 0 35.0 0 55.0 0 47.5 2.5 Monguno 87.5 0 12.5 0 65.0 0 10.0 0 Gwoza 67.5 0 12.5 10.0 65.0 5.0 25.0 5.0 Biu 77.5 0 22.5 0 72.5 0 22.5 15.0

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 117 ANNEX 4

Informal sources of credit/loans identified by respondents

Local Government Informal sources of credit Who has access Areas Jere Politicians, organizations, Men have the most access. Women have less access to the neighbours, family, friends, informal sources of credit because they only cultivate small moneylenders, influential people pieces of land (less than one acre), and women do not have in the community (who give any guarantees because they do not have savings. loans to relatives for the farming season), collection on credit Konduga Voluntary contributions (adashe), Anyone can borrow from family and friends, if they are able. family and friends, moneylenders, other farmers Kaga Family, friends, businessmen, Anybody can borrow from his/her family and friends and from politicians, organizations, businessmen if the lender is sure the borrower will return the cooperative unions money on the agreed date. Monguno Family, friends, voluntary All categories, whether men, women, girls, or boys, who are contributions (before the conflict) engaged in business can do voluntary contributions and have access, and anyone can borrow from family and friends. Gwoza Politicians, organizations, adashe, The first level of borrowing is family and friends, and when family, friends, moneylenders that is not possible, they borrow from moneylenders, as they consider them as bad as the banks. Biu Family, friends, voluntary Everyone has access, as long as the person has the means to contributions, moneylenders, refund the money at the agreed time. There is no difference in collection on credit access between men and women, but the women often do not take loans because they are not sure if they can pay them back at the right time.

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 118 ANNEX 5

Identified farmers’ groups within the Local Government Areas

Local Identified farmers’ groups Membership Identified Challenges Other identified groups Government and control women Areas farmers’ groups Jere • Dry and Rainy Season Women are Women Their • Women and Vulnerable Farmers’ Association part of the Poultry challenges People Association • Fadama Farmers’ Association groups. Elected Farmers’ are lack of • Jere Youth Coalition • Rice Farmers’ Association members of the Association funds and • Old Maiduguri • Cassava Farmers’ Association groups, be they inadequate Development Association • Jere Farmers’ Association male or female, training and • Widows’ Association Jere • Livestock Association have control. skills. • Youth Progressive Forum • Poultry Farmers’ Association • Blind People Association • Women Poultry Farmers’ of Nigeria Association • Cattle Fattening Association • Tractor Hiring Association Konduga • Bulamari Farmers’ Union Women are Auno The • Auno Youth Progressive • Auno Fadama Farmers part of the Women challenges Union • Auno Women Poultry groups. Elected Poultry they face • Association of People with Association members of the Association, are those Disabilities • Auno Widows Farmers’ groups, be they Auno of capital, • Auno Petty Traders’ Association male or female, Widows capacity, Association • Fadama 3 Women’s have control. Farmers’ land, and • Auno Bukarti Association Association, agricultural Multipurpose • Cattle Fattening Association Fadama 3 inputs. • Auno Bulamari • Livestock Association Women’s Multipurpose Association • Youth Microfinance Group Kaga • Fadama Farmers’ Association Women are Women The • National Council For • Women Groundnut Farmers’ part of the Groundnut challenges Women Society Association group. Those Farmers’ they face • Youth Development • Women Soya Bean Farmers’ who control Association, are mainly Forum Association the groups are Women financial. • Association of People with • Cattle Breeders’ Association the elected Soya Bean Financial Disabilities • Groundnut Farmers’ members, be Farmers’ assistance Association they male or Association, and support • Cattle Fattening Association female. Men Women with • Women Groundnut are mainly Groundnut pesticides, Processing Association the chairmen Processing fertilizers, • Women Animal Fattening and women Association, tools, and Association are often the Women improved treasurers. Animal seeds are Fattening needed. Association

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 119 Monguno • Monguno FADAMA Farmers’ Women are Women Their • Monguno Youth Association A, B, and C part of the FADAMA challenges Progressive Forum • Murima Farmers’ Association group. Elected Farmers’ include lack • Association of People with • Kunburi Farmers’ Association members of Association of funds. Disabilities • Kuya Farmers’ Association the group have A, B, and They need • Monguno Youth • Women Cattle Farmers’ control, be they C, Women leadership Development Association Association male or female. Cattle training on • Kuya Association • Cattle Farmers’ Association Both men and Farmers’ finance and • Women Christian • Monguno Young Farmers’ women control Association, resource Fellowship Association the leadership. Mintar management. • Monguno Farmers’ Farmers’ Association Association, • Rice Farmers’ Association Monguno • FADAMA3 Women FADAMA Association Farmers’ • Assada FADAMA Association Association • Mintar Farmers’ Association A, B, and C • Women FADAMA Farmers’ Association A, B, and C Gwoza • Cattle Breeders’ Association Women are Zalidva The • NCWS, Gwoza • Thawale Farmers’ part of the Farmers’ challenges • Gwoza Youth Association group. Elected Association, include lack Development Forum • Zalidva Farmers’ Association members of the Thawale of funding, • Association of People with • Groundnut Farmers’ group, be they Farmers’ a poor road Disabilities Association male or female, Association network, and • Cattle Fattening Association are in control. inadequate government policies. Biu • Young Farmers’ Association Men control the Myringa The • Miringa Youth Association • Ganga Farmers’ Association associations, Women challenges • Mitinga Youth • Birmadawi Farmers’ but in Yakase, Farmers’ they face are Development Association Association the secretary Association, lack of capital, • Yamtakarambu Farmers’ is a female; Bwala training, Association in the other Women land, and • Duthu Farmers’ Association associations, Farmers’ agricultural • Arburu Farmers’ Association women are the Association, inputs. • Yakase Farmers’ Association cashiers and Waza Waza • Myringa Women Farmers’ treasurers. Women Association Farmers’ • Bwala Women Farmers’ Association Association • Waza Waza Women Farmers’ Association

GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 120 GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 121 GENDER ANALYSIS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT 122