Applications of the social media in the promotion of indigenous 92

Applications of the Social Media in the Promotion of Indigenous Languages among Staff and Students of Selected Nigerian Universities

Michael O. Ukonu

Edogor, O. Ignatius & Ezugwu, I. Mercy

Abstract This study focused on user applications of social media in the promotion of Nigeria’s indigenous languages. It was done against a backdrop of a UNESCO (2012) prediction that many indigenous languages in Nigeria may be extinct by 2050. It also recognised the huge potentials of the social media in promoting indigenous languages in view of the cost and feasibility of giving attention to every indigenous language on the mainstream media. The study adopted the weighted mean and the constant comparative technique in analysing quantitative and qualitative data generated from focus group discussions (FGDs) in five selected universities in Nigeria. Anchored on the social network theory, the study found that the extent to which users applied the social media in the promotion of indigenous languages was very low. Identified ethno-linguistic platforms used English primarily. Indigenous languages were used only in skeletal forms for entertainment and writing proverbs. Users faced the challenge of unavailability of letters of the alphabet of indigenous languages, widespread indigenous language illiteracy, and the predominance of English as a preferred language. The study recommends the establishment of ethno-linguistic sites devoted solely to the teaching of indigenous languages. Involvement of universities and ministries of culture and communications will help develop necessary frameworks to make this effective. Keywords: Ethnic, Indigenous, Culture, Language, Social media

INTRODUCTION Since 1997 when the social media debuted in form of six.degrees.com, a lot of research attention has turned to the role of social media in human communication development (Kral, 2012; Wyman, 2012; McCathy, 2014). Much of research attention to the social media has been directed towards the use of social media in politics, and the applications of social media as tools of public communication (McQuail, 2005; Gbenga, 2015; Bamidele, 2016). A lot of findings have been negative, and this has affected the image of the social media as a new tool of information exchange, and forced a growing number of countries to introduce restrictions and regulations (Ukonu, 2016; Bamidele, 2016; Dominick, 2009). Despite the abuses of the social media, there are many options for adapting it to positive uses. This study is one of the attempts to evaluate the expanding range of International Journal of Communication. Published by Communication Studies Forum, Department of Mass Communication, University of Nigeria, Nsukka

Applications of the social media in the promotion of indigenous 93 opportunities for adapting the social media to development of individual and group interests, for example promotion of language. It also assesses one of the options being put forward by experts as a way to leapfrog some challenges facing developing countries, namely, the threat of extinction of indigenous languages, the negative portrayal and de- emphasis of the cultures of developing countries in Western mass media (Obadina, 1999; Ukonu and Wogu, 2006; Uche, 1999; UNESCO, 2005). Jones, Cunliffe, and Honeycutt (2013) found that the social media have helped the youth in local communities in Wales to promote and share video about their language and culture as well as to connect with friends worldwide. The social media is seen as well suited to the promotion of individual and group interests such as indigenous languages due to the ease and cheaper cost of joining the platform, ease of content upload and information exchange (Castell, 2001). Many indigenous languages, which had little chance of getting attention in the mainstream media, are turning to the social media option in India, Indonesia, and South Africa (Kperogi, 2011; Lawson-Borders, 2011; Putra, 2015, McLachlan, 2016). Users particularly are examining options for promoting many indigenous languages, which some researchers have predicted might soon be extinct. (Uwechia, 2016). Castells (2001, p. 200) points out that, “the kind of communication that thrives on the internet is related to free expression in all its form…it is open source, free-posting, decentralized broadcasting, serendipitous interaction…” While this basic nature of the internet has made it open to abuses, it has also created opportunity for positive uses.

Statement of the Problem There are many studies on the applications and implications of the social media to public communication and social development. Unfortunately, a good number of the studies have been done with obvious trepidation, and with negative outcomes, because they have focused on the threats posed by the social media to journalism, the threats to Nigeria’s social cohesion and stability; fears about promotion of hate speech, ethnic hatred, and the open and borderless nature of the internet (McQuail, 2005; Gbenga, 2015; Bamidele, 2016; Hudson and Roberts, 2012; Cavico, Mujtaba, Muffler & Samuel, 2013; Chalaby, 2001; Paslawsaky, 2012, Gelms, 2012; Schuchart, 2016; Aja, 2011; Schuchart, 2016; Courtney, 2013; Randall, 2011). The fears were fuelled more by the Arab spring of 2011, which forced many countries such as Iran, Russia, Brazil, China and South Korea to introduce strict social media regulations (Duffy, 2015; Ang and Nadarajan 2006; Ai, 2013). Researches on the use of the social media in politics have also tended to show the potentials of the social media in negative and positive light, but more of negative (Okoro & Adibe, 2013; Adeyanju and Haruna, 2011; Adelabu, 2011). Even the advantages of the social media in easier and cheaper access (relative to the mainstream media), rich content, interactivity, openness, and freedom have been treated mainly from the negative angles about how these attributes can be easily abused and thus, why regulations should be introduced (McQuail, 2005; Chalabi, 2001; Bamidele, 2016).

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Researches attributing positive impacts to the social media have been relatively scarce in research. Yet, given the potentials of the social media, Nigeria can tap into it to promote her culture, especially indigenous languages, which have little chance of getting space on the mainstream media. This study investigates user applications of the social media in the promotion of indigenous languages in Nigeria. It examines whether and how social media users in Nigeria use the medium to promote indigenous languages, as well as the challenges they encounter. The study adds to other studies seeking to establish new ways for positive uses of the internet, different from overarching focus on the social media as a hate instrument. In so doing, the study attempts to contribute towards ensuring that the touted imminence of extinction of many indigenous languages in Nigeria does not happen.

Objectives of the Study The objectives of the study are to: 1. find out the extent at which users adopt indigenous languages in social media chats and discussions. 2. find out the kinds of issues and topics on which indigenous languages are adopted in information exchange. 3. examine the challenges encountered by users in using the social media to promote indigenous languages.

Literature Review Conceptual Clarification of Social media Social media has received various definitions from authors and researchers. The differences in definitions are not as much a result of the difficulty of the term as they are about the amorphous nature and almost infinite platform types (Hudson and Roberts, 2012). At some points, the e-mail and short messaging service (SMS) are included in the types of social media platforms (Ukonu, 2016). This is why definitions dwell more on the attributes than on types of social media platforms. The attributes of social media are interactivity, profile building, richness, openness, and user-generated content. Hudson and Roberts (2012, p.769) define social media as “a form of electronic communication that allows user-generated interaction between the media’s creator and the user.” Users create a profile of themselves, friends, opportunities for comments, posts, and for visiting various other platforms. Different kinds of social media offer given services more than others according to the intentions of the designers of the platform (Ukonu, 2016). Though the terms “social media” and “social networking” are used synonymously, there is a “slight difference,” that is, the former referring to the means by which communications are transmitted, whereas the latter referring to functional tools for information-sharing” (Hudson and Roberts, cited in Cavico, Mujtaba, Muffler, & Samuel, 2013, p.26). Gelms (2012, p. 266) also states that “as the number of social media users has increased, the type of users has also changed. Online application forms are diverse and include internet forums, weblogs, social blogs, micro bogging, wikis, social networks,

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Applications of the social media in the promotion of indigenous 95 podcast, video rating and social bookmarking (Chatora, 2012; Ukonu, 2016). Kaplan and Haenlein (2010) have created a classification scheme with six different types of social media. Collaborative projects (for example, Wikipedia), blogs and micro blogs (for example, twitter) content communities (for example YouTube and daily motion), social networking sites (for example Facebook), virtual game worlds (e.g. world of war craft) and virtual social worlds (e.g. second life). However, the boundaries between the different types are getting blurred. The e-mail, Facebook and WhatsApp can support the posting of comments, and sharing of images much as YouTube, while twitter can be applied as a social broadcasting technology. Each class of social media has its character. Every other class strives to offer some gradations of what the other offers (Ukonu, 2016). Education, politics, culture, social relations, governance, social mobilization, revolutions, religion, news, and general social information exchange are some of the varied ways the social media have been used. Researches continue to go on in these areas, and this study is one of those focusing on the uses of the social media in the promotion of indigenous languages (Dwyer, Hiltz & Passerini, 2007; Ogwo, 2016; Kolbitsch, & Maurer, 2006).

Social Media as a Tool for Promoting Indigenous Languages Olasina (2012) studied the uses of the social media among professionals in workplaces in Nigeria. He found that professionals use the social media more for entertainment. Edogor (2012) examined the uses of the social media among students in Nigeria tertiary institutions. His study indicated that students used the social media for chatting, relating with friends, downloading music and sending online comments on social issues. Students also posted a lot of pictures from dramatic and non-dramatic occurrences around them including pictures of birthdays, weddings and hostel parties. Putra (2015) assessed the use of Lampung (an indigenous language in Bandar, a province of Lampung, Indonesia) among four multi-ethnic youth in Bandar, Lampung. The four youth studied Lampung at school, and Putra’s work examined how they used Lampung in their use of Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and Path. The study indicated that the youth used Indonesian and English in the majority of their posts, but had also used Lampung, and code-switched in all the languages they knew. Social networks that did not speak Lampung restricted the extent to which the youth used Lampung in their social media Sawyer (2011) studied applications of the social media among foreign college students in the US. He found that foreign students in the United States used the social networking sites to acquaint themselves with alien cultures. He noted that foreign students used the social media “to become more familiar with the culture through talking with their friends about the cultural experience,” (p. 14). Buttressing his findings, Sawyer cites Kim (2001, cited in Putra, 2015) as saying that “the multicultural world is enhanced by the experiences of sojourners, immigrants, and others who successfully make the transition from one culture to another (p.7).” Kraidy (2013) supports Kim’s view. He says that global media and information technologies have substantially increased contacts

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Applications of the social media in the promotion of indigenous 96 between cultures, both in terms of intensity and of the speed with which these contacts occur. In Nigeria, however, cultural contacts through the social media are believed to have untoward effects on Nigeria’s culture and language. Researchers have consistently found out that the Internet, especially, is changing Nigeria’s core values (Asemah, Ekhareafo, & Olaniran, 2013; Ogwo 2016). This has spurred interest in adapting the social media to the promotion of Nigeria’s indigenous languages. Ogwo (2016, p.23) studied the social media and the redefinition of Igala (an ethnic group in Kogi state, Nigeria) core values among the Igala youth. She found out that “although the youth can identify the Igala core values, they adopted the Western values they were exposed to on the social media, because they described the Igala values as archaic.” Some researchers therefore believe that the social media is only another tool by the West to culturally dominate other developing countries (Kaplan and Haenlein, 2010; Agba, 2002; Nwosu, 1990). Okunna (1999, p.144) notes that “developed countries have been accused of subtly trying to impose their culture on developing countries, through international mass communication, to enthrone a homogenous global culture.” The homogenization attempt is said to have the adverse effects of distortion of the cultures of the developing countries and or their subsequent displacement by the cultures of developing countries (Okunna, 1999; McChesney, 1998). Kraidy (2013) has however pointed out that globalisation is the driving force altering cultures and not deliberate invasion of other countries’ cultures by the more powerful ones as enunciated in imperialism ideology. He argues that the concept of globalization has in some ways replaced cultural imperialism as the main conceptual umbrella under which much research and theorizing in international communication have been conducted. Language, nevertheless, remains a potent vehicle for transmitting cultural values, norms and beliefs, (Sharma, 2008). Language is quite germane to the social, political, religious, cultural, technological and educational existential aspirations of any nation (Okunna 1999). The UNESCO, for instance, predicted in 2012 that many African languages could be extinct by 2050 if nothing was done to reverse the trend (Uwechia, 2016). This was due to the influence of dominant international languages such as English in local, national and international communication. Even Igbo Language, belonging to one of the three major ethic groups in Nigeria, was listed as an endangered language (Azuonye, 2002). However, adoption of foreign languages such as English is seen by some as a way to foster meaningful interrelationship amount the multi ethno-linguistic groups in countries formerly under colonial rule (Bisong, 2001). Ndolo (2006) believes that the multi-lingual status of Nigeria has influence on the contents of the mass media and their audience in the nation. Goody (1965, cited in Ndolo, 2006, p.238) says that, “...a multiplicity of languages in a country might lead to an inefficient system of communication.” Ndolo believes that the multiple ethnic nature of Nigeria brings linguistic complexity which the mass media in the country have to grapple with in their bid to communicate to the people. International Journal of Communication. Published by Communication Studies Forum, Department of Mass Communication, University of Nigeria, Nsukka

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He further says that the broadcast media with their ability to reach the people with many languages would have been useful instrument for effective communication to all the people. However, Nigeria’s linguistic diversity seems to defy the media. “Altogether the FRCN state stations utilize about 45 Nigerian languages for their news broadcasts and major programming. These few languages by no means cover the number of languages within the states” (Ndolo (2006, p.237). Therefore, the social media has stepped in at this point to serve distinct groups the opportunity to communicate in their languages as a way to express their culture and assert themselves within a global community of cultures and languages. This though does not resolve the question of the extent at which the distinct linguistic groups of Nigeria make attempts to use their languages in communicating on the social media. This is the thrust of this study.

English as the Major Threat to the Extinction of Indigenous Languages As already noted, the UNESCO in 2012 predicted the extinction of some indigenous languages (Uwechia, 2016; Putra, 2015). UNESCO’s prediction has attracted attention from the media, scholars, and various commentators. There are views that dominant languages, spoken across continents, such as English, are the major causes of the threat of extinction of some indigenous languages (Putra, 2015; McLachlan, 2016). Language, culture and society are interdependent (Okunna, 1999). Language is a subset of culture through which societies adapt to their world (Ukonu and Wogu, 2006). Language is used to express the values and norms of a society, and as the medium of expression in education, language is a means of economic expansion (Putra, 2015). In social institutions such as education, communication and politics, language goes beyond the means of learning skills, it also serves as a means of reflecting the ideological values of society (Putra, 2015; Shaw, 1981). It is in this light that Phillipson (1992, cited in Putra, 2015) sees the international spread of the English Language as repressive since it not only substitutes and displaces other languages, but also imposes new ‘mental structures’ on learners. These ‘mental structures,’ according to Phillipson, are possibly the ideologies that Westerners use to justify their own culture and impose these ideas on others (Putra, 2015). Phillipson sees English learning and culture as inseparable. He believes that modernisation and nation building are a logical process of English language teaching, which has no consideration for cross-cultural studies, and as such, guilty of promoting linguistic imperialism. Some researchers thus believe that learning English comes with mental subjugation, remnant of British/American colonialism, cultural hegemony, economic domination, openness to exploitation, and imposition of inferiority complex (Phillipson, 2002; McLachlan, 2016; Shaw, 1981; Abbot, 1992, cited in Putra, 2015; Hoogvelt, 1997, and Castells, 1999, in Hadley, 2002, p.5). According to Skuutnabb-Kangas (1992, p.2), “only 10 per cent of the approximately 6800 languages left in the world will exist in 100 years’ time, and …the media and the educational systems are the most important direct agents in language murder today; indirectly the culprits are the global economic and political systems.”

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However, despite the cultural influences of English as an international language, some researchers insist that the people and institutions that use English in instruction are also to blame (Abbot, 1989; Wurm, 2001, cited in Putra, 2015). Abbott (cited in Putra 2015) believes that English and mother tongues can co-exist as media of instruction, and that mother tongue literacy can be made important. Wurm (2001) notes that bi- and multilingualism has advantages over monoligualism in matters of applied intellect, and memory and learning capabilities. Wurm (2001) advises the speakers of threatened languages to enlist the assistance of linguists to distinguish between their use of the dominant language, such as English, ‘for making a living in an environment dominated economically by speakers of dominant languages’ and their use of their indigenous languages, which Wurm sees as ‘…a precious symbol of their ethnic identity, and gives them a feeling of belonging to a special community, of which they should be proud, as well as give them the advantages of a secret language not intelligible to speakers of dominant languages whom they may have reason to distrust’ (p.12). Skutnaab-Kangas (1992) has however argued that English has neither undervalued nor marginalised Nigerian culture, and that it has not succeeded in displacing or replacing Nigeria’s indigenous languages. Instead, it is performing a useful function in the multilingual society of Nigeria. Bisong (2001) believes English should not be considered, and is no longer an imperial tongue, but one of the languages available to creative writers, and the choice of a growing number of speakers and writers. Bisong argues that those accusing English of marginalising the Nigerian culture needs to explain more on why English persists as the official language of Nigeria, the effect of English on Nigeria’s culture, and the role of English in a multicultural context such as Nigeria.

Theoretical framework Social Network Theory The social network theory investigates social structures through the use of networks. It looks at the networked structures of society as nodes. The nodes include individual actors, people, or things within the network. Social network theory also looks at the ties, edges, or links (relationships or interactions) that connect the nodes. Kinship, friendship and acquaintance network, and the social media are among the social structures often studied using the social network analysis. The theory emanated from the works of Anheier, Gerhards and Romo and Burket Senekal (Loomies, 1957; De Noony, 2013). The extent to which actors form ties with similar versus dissimilar others is referred to as homophily or assortivity. Similarity can be defined by gender, race, age, occupation, educational achievement, status, values, or any other salient characteristic (Mcpherson, Smith-Lovin, & Cook 2001). The number of forms contained in a tie is called multiplexity (Podolny & Baron, 1997). Two people or friends working together are said to have multiplexity, which is related to relationship strength (Kilduff & Tsai, 2003). The extent to which two actors reciprocate each other’s friendship or other interaction is mutuality or reciprocity. When there is a measure of the completeness of relational trends, it is described as network closure, and when an individual assumes network closure (i.e. that their friends are also friends), there is International Journal of Communication. Published by Communication Studies Forum, Department of Mass Communication, University of Nigeria, Nsukka

Applications of the social media in the promotion of indigenous 99 transitivity. The tendency for actors to have more ties with geographically close others is called propinquity (Kadushin, 2012). In this study, there shall be a focus on the kinds of network structures in which given nodes form language ties. The language ties shall be viewed in the light of whether there is homophily, multiplexity, mutuality or propinquity. The factors affecting these network forms and situations shall be noted, especially with the special Nigerian conditions that may be noted.

Methodology Five universities were used in the study (the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, University of Lagos, Ojo, Kogi State University, Anyigba, Delta State University, Abraka and the University of Abuja). The universities were purposely chosen to ensure a mix of students and lecturers from different ethnic groups. These universities were considered appropriate even though there were other universities that could be considered if more universities were needed. In addition, five departments were selected by stratified random and a pick-a-lottery simple random method from a list of courses common to the five universities as obtained from their websites. This was to ensure uniformity of courses across the universities. The courses are mass communication, pharmacy, English, related indigenous language courses, and engineering. The courses and universities were not central to the study. Being a social media user was the major consideration in the study. That was partly why it was not necessary to use probability statistics to determine a sample size from the populations of the universities because of the impracticality of obtaining a sampling frame. This is apart from the fact that scientific methods involving qualitative studies hardly use probability statistics to determine sample size. In each university, two groups, consisting of eight students and eight staff in each case made up the FGD participants. The researchers selected the first eight ethnic groups represented from those met in a class room or in offices. Altogether, 40 students and 40 staff were used as FGD members in 16 groups, making it 80 participants. A letter of authority was sent to each department to grant approval for the discussion. Upon approval, each Head of Department was implored to communicate staff by memo to make time (as agreed) for discussion at a designated venue. The HODs were also implored to supply the phone numbers of staff in their department from ethnic nationalities other than the location of the university. The lecturers were contacted on phone, then visited for briefing and booking of appointments. Class representatives were identified, and used to mobilise relevant students and to schedule time and place for discussions. Moderators were selected, briefed and trained about the goal of the research. They were shown social media videos on language and discussion guides. Discussions were recorded by audio, while the participants completed a five-item pre-discussion questionnaire. Discussions lasted at least two hours to encourage full participation. Prior to booking appointments, the researchers used agreed financial incentives, which were paid out beforehand to ensure that participants honoured the invitation. Due to the promise of confidentiality pledged in the letter of request for the FGD, only the International Journal of Communication. Published by Communication Studies Forum, Department of Mass Communication, University of Nigeria, Nsukka

Applications of the social media in the promotion of indigenous 100 first names of participants were used in the textual analysis. The first set of data obtained through a five-item questionnaire were analysed using the Likert scale. Variables were measured at the ordinal level. The weighed mean was used to measure the level of acceptance of any item. A mean of above 3.0 was seen as high, while a mean of less than 3.0 was seen as low. For the textual data from the FGD, the study adopted the constant comparative technique first articulated by Glasser and Strauss (1967), and refined by Lincoln and Guba (1985). The process consists of four steps as described in Wimmer and Dominick (2003, p. 112): 1. Comparative assignment of incidents to categories 2. Elaboration and refinement of categories 3. Searching for relationships and themes among categories 4. Simplifying and integrating data into a coherent and theoretical structure. Table 1: Quantitative Analysis

No Questions Very Often rarely Very Never Weighted Often Stu. Sta. Stu. Sta. rarely Stu. Sta. mean Stu. Stu. Sta. Stu. Sta. Sta. 1 Exposure to a social media 21 7 10 26 9 5 2 - - - 3.73 4.1 platform 2 Do you use your indigenous - 1 1 - 31 7 1 1 7 31 2.21 1.17 language on your personal social media platform 3 Do the members of your language - - - - 31 9 8 29 1 2 2.60 2.05 group use your indigenous language with one another on any social media platform 4. Do you link up with other ethnic - - - 1 28 21 2 7 19 11 1.36 1.83 groups to share ideas based on your different indigenous languages 5 My language group across the - 3 2 3 7 5 26 21 5 10 1.92 1.70 country is linked by a social media platform

Exposure to social media platforms generally was high for both staff and students. However, all the other variables indicated below average scores, some of them far from average. Use of indigenous languages on the social media, linkage with other languages, and availability of indigenous language-based social media platforms were all low.

Analysis of the Focus Group Discussion As enunciated in the constant comparative technique, data were perused thoroughly to select certain units, and to put them into categories. Rules were written to guide each category to ensure exclusivity and comprehensiveness of categories. The categories were then searched for relationships from which theoretical propositions were written in form of summary of findings. The following categories were identified:

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1. Language Groups that participated in the discussion. The language groups were not systematically selected. They were chosen after being satisfied that they were not from the language group where a selected university was situated. The following language groups were part of the focus group discussions: Hausa (North Central, North West, North East), Yoruba (South West, South South in Edo, North Central as Okun in Kogi), Igbo (South East, South South in Delta and Rivers states), Okun, Igbira, Nupe (North Central, Kogi), Ibibio, Oron (Akwa Ibom), Kuteb, Jukun (North Central and North East). 2. Social media platforms hosted by ethno-linguistic groups as identified by participants: Not all the participants were necessarily part of the subscribers to the social media platforms mentioned hereunder. They identified them as social media platforms they knew, which try to promote indigenous languages. However, some of the participants used the FGD to talk to people in their language groups to join their respective platforms. This was because only 11 people out of the 80 participants knew about, and actually mentioned all the ethno-linguistic social media platforms noted below: All the platforms, except one (YouTube) were on Facebook and WhatsApp. Apart from the class platforms for Hausa classes in some universities, there was no other mention of a platform on the social media for promoting Hausa language, yet Tukur from Kano said that Facebook recently (September 1, 2016) added Hausa and Fulani as part of the over 100 languages that can be used on Facebook. The platforms are: (a.) The lecturers interviewed said they formed a social media platform with every class for the various languages, which included Igbo, Hausa, and Yoruba. The platforms were mainly on Facebook. Class Facebook groups were used for lectures, assignment upload and class discussions. The platforms were hosted as closed groups. Anyone outside any class or group cannot post comments or other material onto the platforms, but can visit them. (b.) Igboist, a broad-based Igbo-interest platform with many sub groups, some open and some closed. Many Igbo university students are members. (c.) The National Association of Linguistics Students has a platform (NALS platform) for promoting the three languages, Igbo, Hausa, and Yoruba. (d.) Oluigbo is a Facebook platform formed by the Igbo in Lagos to promote Igbo interests (e.) The Okun Professional Network runs a social media platform on WhatsApp called Okun, which is also the language of the people identified as Okun. (f.) The Okun community, which is mainly for the political mobilisation of Okun people in Kogi state. (g.) Okun in Diaspora, (h.) Okun Forum (i.). Igala pedia for promoting Igala words, values and norms (j.) The OakTreeTV Yoruba, a YouTube channel hosted by Gbemisola Isimi, a Nigerian living in London, but followed around the world. (k.) Nco Ekaiko, an Ibibio Facebook platform that promotes Ibibio language. (l.) Jukun People’s Forum, a Facebook platform serving a large ethno- linguistic group from Adamawa, Benue, Taraba, Gombe, Nasarawa, Plateau (12) Kuteb People’s Forum, a Facebook platform from the Kuteb in Taraba State. 3. Why many ethnic groups were yet to have platforms for promoting indigenous languages: Participants said that many have not thought in this direction. Some platforms promote more of political interests than culture and language. Ezekiel International Journal of Communication. Published by Communication Studies Forum, Department of Mass Communication, University of Nigeria, Nsukka

Applications of the social media in the promotion of indigenous 102 from Jos said: “I don’t know of any social media platform in which an indigenous language from Plateau State is promoted. I know about UNESCO’s prediction about the imminent extinction of some Nigerian indigenous languages. But Hausa is dominant in Plateau.” Gabriel from Kogi said that many people do not imagine that promoting their ethnic languages would achieve much. This is against the view of linguists that any lost language is the loss of a people, a culture, a history, potential innovations and ideas for social development (Abbot 1999).

4. Languages used on the social media platforms: English remained the dominant language used on the platforms. Indigenous languages were used more to write few words, proverbs, make arguments on usages and forms of expressions, entertain users on the awkwardness and complexity of indigenous languages. Ambrose in Lagos said that on the Oluigbo platform on Facebook, “Students make jest and fun of the Igbo language when they spell words in indigenous languages, and when they trade arguments on how to spell words or the correct usage and forms of expressions.” The situation is the same on many open group platforms of the Igboist Facebook platform. According to Dele from Kogi, “People hardly type in full Okun, English is still a lot used. Adages, proverbs are what people use Okun to do, but more extensive discussion still occurs in English, but the platform is planning a full indigenous language-based (Okun) platform.” Another participant, Agbano, from Kogi said: “online activities in Okun social media platforms are often in English, not in Okun indigenous language.” “I’m not sure why Okun is not used on the platform,” she also said.

5. Views about the social media as a tool for promoting indigenous languages: As expected, participants accepted that the social media was a great tool to promote the indigenous languages. Ambrose from Lagos noted that the name of their platform, Oluigbo actually means Igbo voice, launched to promote Igbo interests. According to him, “The first Igbo interest should be to promote the Igbo Language, but that remains an impossibility because the hosts of the platform cannot speak, read or write the language, as many of them were born in Lagos.” He also said that even in the south east, many still cannot read and write in the Igbo Language. Ambrose recalled that in a gathering in Lagos in December 2016, the master of ceremony asked the children to reply a greeting in Aku language (an Igbo Language version in Nsukka Zone of Enugu state), and 95% of them could not reply. He reiterated that Igbo has actually been listed as an endangered language, and may get extinct as predicted. Mohammed from Kogi said: “The social media can help because of the large population logging into it.” He added that virtually all the languages in Kogi were under threat of extinction. Aguda from Okun/Kabba area of Kogi said that the social media can definitely help, but it depends on how well people understand the talks about how endangered Nigerian languages are. Aguda also said that it is even Nigerians outside Nigeria that have recognised how threatened Nigeria’s languages are, and are making greater effort than people inside Nigeria.

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6. How (ways/forms) ethnic-based platforms promote their indigenous language. Only one platform, the CultureTreeTV Yoruba, is exclusively devoted to teaching an indigenous language. On many of the platforms, users write in English and spell a few words in their indigenous language. They cracked jokes and said proverbs in their languages. Indigenous languages were also used many times in comments posted in reaction to other views. This was largely the case in language platforms such as Igboist and Okun Forum.

7. Challenges encountered by users in using indigenous languages on the social media? Generally, participants mentioned the dominance of the English language, the complexity of many indigenous languages, limitations imposed by using an indigenous language that may not be understood by every visitor, indigenous language illiteracy, lack of interest in the indigenous languages, and the status symbol associated with English. According to Okonkwo from Enugu, “English is seen by the educated class as an elitist thing in which you have not arrived unless you start doing things like the Europeans.” Uyai from Akwa Ibom said: Our major challenge is that some of our audience cannot understand Ibibio, and this hampers the messages we send out. Another challenge with promoting indigenous languages in the Niger Delta is that it is highly multi lingual, and English appears to be the way out. But this is going to kill many languages in the area, such as Oron, which sounds something like Chinese. Gbemi from Osun said: “online platform users think about a general audience, not a narrow group that uses a certain language.” Ebekue, a lecturer from UNN said: The difficulty is lack of indigenous letters of the alphabet and difficulty in reading and writing with Igbo fonts. There is no provision for Igbo alphabet. The Igbo Google created by two lecturers in UNN Department of Linguistics can show Igbo writing in Igbo letters, but there is no provision yet for the fonts (for typing) for those who wish to contribute in indigenous languages.

8. Languages identified by participants as facing imminent threat of extinction: Mohammed from Kogi noted that virtually all the languages in Kogi were under the threat, such as Igbira, Okun, and Okori. Austin from Benue said that in Benue, Idoma and Tiv indigenous languages should be dominant languages within Benue, but were “continually losing steam.” He noted other languages in Benue, which one hardly gets to hear anymore such as Ogori, Basange, and Basankomo. Yenget from Jos said that in Plateau state, with over 20 indigenous languages, the dominant language is Hausa. She said that Hausa has become like the English language, threatening the continued existence of other indigenous languages in Plateau like Jarawa, Birom, Ngas, and Mangu. Yenget also said that in Nasarawa there is Mada and Egon, all losing out to Hausa. Just like Yenget, Ezekiel from Jos mentioned Ngas, Birom, Mangu, and Miango as also threatened by Hausa. He said that these indigenous languages are hardly spoken even within local communities and their markets. “The last stronghold of those languages are now family units, where even Hausa is also penetrating,” Ezekiel said, adding that

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“Hausa has thereby become like the English language in which there is a dominating group within a marginalised group.” According to Agbano, the linguistic groups facing the threat of extinction in Kogi are Nupe, Igbira and Basange, with some of these indigenous languages very complex and spoken by neighbouring towns. So everyone learns English and moves along.

Summary of Findings: 1. Despite the fact that participants, generally, were active on the social media, the extent to which users applied the social media in the promotion of language was very low (Table 1). This being the case, there were no questions of inter-linkages among ethno- linguistic groups in the promotion of various Nigerian indigenous languages. Only one social media platform on YouTube was solely devoted to teaching an indigenous language (CultureTreeTV Yoruba). In terms of the network theory, there were only nodes (individual actors and people interested in the promotion of indigenous languages). In terms of homophily, (ties, friendships, links) only friendships and acquaintance were yet achieved. Homophily (formation of ties) was therefore low, while multiplexity (number of forms contained in a tie), mutuality (the extent to which two actors reciprocate each other’s friendship) and transitivity (inter-linkages among ethno-linguistic groups) were virtually absent. There were ethno-based social media platforms for the promotion of ethnic interests such as culture, politics, and language. They were class-based Facebook platforms for teaching, learning and uploading academic material; Igboist; Oluigbo (Igbo); Okun Forum; Okun Community; Okun Professional Network; Okun in Diaspora (Okun); Igala pedia (Igala); OakTreeTV (Yoruba); Nco Ekaiko (Ibibio); Jukun People’s Forum (Jukun); Kuteb People’s Forum (Kuteb). 2. The sites above used English dominantly. Only Okun (WhatsApp) and CultureTreeTV (YouTube) were non-Facebook platforms. Indigenous languages were used only in skeletal forms to spell special usages of words, to write idioms, proverbs and riddles, to entertain other users about the complexity, awkwardness and special uses of an indigenous language. As earlier noted, promotion of language was not in the form of teaching the indigenous languages using video, rhymes, discussions, and lectures. 3. The first major challenge of using indigenous languages on the social media is that many users do not yet consider it imperative to adapt the social media in the promotion of indigenous languages. This is despite the fact that users acknowledged the importance of using the social media to promote indigenous languages. Users think more about a general audience than one language group; there is wide spread indigenous language illiteracy; English is seen as elitist and status symbol; and there is unavailability of letters of the alphabet of indigenous languages. Hausa and Fulani were only added to Facebook in September 2016. Yet, no participant mentioned a social media site for promoting either Hausa or Fulani. The participants named the following indigenous languages as some of the ones they believed needed urgent promotion to avert extinction: Igbira, Okun, Okori, Nupe, Igbira, Basange (Kogi); Idoma, Tiv Ogori, Basange, and

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Basankomo (Benue); Jarawa, Birom, Ngas, Mangu, Miango (Plateau); Mada, and Egon (Nasarawa); Oron, Kalabari, Ukwuani, Okrika (Akwa Ibom, Rivers, Delta).

Conclusion Promotion of Nigeria’s indigenous languages on the social media, in absolute terms, is virtually non-existent. This fact was attested to by Gbemisola Isimi, who founded the CultureTreeTV to teach children the Yoruba language (Awodipe, 2016). Nigerians seem to be waiting for the fulfilment of UNESCO’s prediction about the imminent extinction of many of Nigeria’s indigenous languages. Surprisingly, many participants knew about the prediction, and accepted that it might happen. Inclusion of Hausa and Fulani as part of Facebook languages is a good development for indigenous languages in Nigeria. Yet, Hausa is almost, if not, an international language spoken in more than five African countries. This means that it is not threatened. Other social media platforms should include Nigeria’s languages in their platforms, while universities in Nigeria should develop more topics on indigenous languages for search engines like Google to improve visibility of the languages. Hopefully, there would be continued interest in Nigeria’s indigenous languages to halt their extinction, which, if not checked, would lead to the loss of histories, cultures, ideas, innovations, and indeed the loss of peoples.

Recommendations 1. As already recognised by users, various ethno-linguistic groups should establish social media sites devoted solely to the teaching of their indigenous languages. 2. Such teaching should include identifying specific problems and development challenges of a linguistic group as well as solutions. Linkages with other linguistic groups on the social media should be encouraged. 3. Nigeria’s educational system, especially tertiary institutions, should link up with the state and federal ministries of culture and information in establishing and administering indigenous language-based social media sites and in developing a structure for teaching and learning on the sites such as content production and delivery.

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