Reconstructing the Igbo Cluster
Author: Chinyere Ohiri - Aniche (Retired Professor of Language Education, University of Lagos, Nigeria).
1.0 General Information on the family
1.1 Geography, Population, Neighbour The Igbo language is spoken homogenously in five south-eastern states of Nigeria, namely: Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu and Imo. Igbo speakers are also found in parts of Rivers and Delta States in the south-south zone of Nigeria. Neighbours of the Igbo include the Igala, Tiv and Idoma to the north; the Anaang, Ibibio, Efik, to the south-east; the Urhobo, Isoko, Edo to the south-west and the Ijaw and Ogoni to the south-south delta areas. Wikipedia (2012) gives 27 million as the number of Igbo speakers.
1.2 (Pre) historic migrations and language contacts Many Igbos believe that they are of Hebrew origin, being one of the lost tribes of Israel. Afigbo (2000:12) however says that the Igbo are a negro people, originating in Africa, somewhere south of the latitude of Arselam and Khartoum. They later spread along the Niger-Benue confluence area with other groups.
1.3 History of scholarship Following her discovery that speech varieties hitherto referred to as Igbo were more diverse than had formally been realized, Williamson (1973) embarked upon a first reconstruction of these speech varieties into what she termed Proto-Lower Niger. In 1984 Prof. Kay Williamson invited her Ph.D student, Chinyere Ohiri-Aniche to join in the reconstruction of what came to be known as Comparative Igboid. Unfortunately, the Comparative Igboid work could not quite be finished and published before the demise of Prof. Kay Williamson in 2005. One of the main reasons is the great diversity in the numerous speech varieties, whereby new data often necessitated a return to the drawing board.
1.4 External classification Williamson (1989:261-2) classified Igboid (Lower Niger) as one of the coordinate branches of (New) Benue-Congo while Williamson and Blench (2000:31) classified Igboid under West Benue-Congo. 1.5 Internal classification, lexicostatistics and glottochronology Williamson proposed the first internal classification of what she now termed ‘Lower-Niger’ languages based on lexicostatistics. The 1973 work saw a split of Igbo into the following languages. kp y , Ikwere, gba, Igbo, kw an , ka and Izii. Lower-Niger was criticized by some scholars such as nw ejeogwu (1977) as historically and phonologically superficial.Ẹ Manfrediẹ ẹ (1982:175-195)Ọ Ụ suggestedụ ị Ị the term ‘Igboid’ for ‘those speech forms proximate to an Igbo centre’.Ọ ụ Manfredi (1989) used phonological innovations to arrive at sub-grouping of Igboid. The term ‘Igboid’, in turn, has been criticised in many quarters, such as Emenanjo (2001:37) who sees it as continued attempt to bulkanize the Igbo language. Egbokhare et al. (2000:40) described the Igbo speech forms as belonging to an Igbo cluster. Ohiri-Aniche (2011:439) used the modified Swadesh (1955) 100 word list to compare n cha and Owere, two undisputedly Igbo dialects with kp y , Ikwere, kw an and Izii, which are speech forms in controversy. Cognation scores recorded were n cha/Ọ ị kp y 76.34 percent; n cha/Ikwere 81.63 percent; nẸcha/Owereẹ ẹ 97 Ụ percent;ụ ị n cha/Izii 94 percent and n cha/ kw an 91.91 percent. She then observed that theseỌ ị resultsẸ wereẹ ẹ clearly within Ọtheị 70% to 80% range of cognacyỌ ịsuggested both in HansfordỌ etị al. (1976:115-124) for Ọrecognitionị Ụ ofụ languageị and dialect clusters respectively. This informed the title of this work as ‘Reconstructing the Igbo Cluster’
No internal glottochronology analysis has been carried out on the Igbo speech varieties. Armstrong (1967:12), however, used glottochronological findings to suggest that the Igbo language has separated from its sister languages such as Yoruba and do for between 4000-6000 years. Ẹ 2.0 Proto-language phonology reconstruction Discussion of the phonology of the Igbo cluster will be based mainly on the following lects, each of which has distinct phonological properties: kp y , gbàk r (Ìkwéré) Òwèrè, n chà, kw àn . Other lects will be brought into the discussion as necessary. Ẹ ẹ́ ẹ̄ Ọ ı̣̀ ı̣̀ , Ọ ı̣̀ Ụ ụ́ ı̣̀, and Ìzhíí 2.1 Phonetic inventory Synchronically, up to seventy-five consonants and twenty-four vowels are heard across the Igbo cluster lects. The consonants include plosives, implosives, affricates, fricatives, nasals, laterals and approximants. In some lects such as Owere and hn hn , some of the consonants occur aspirated or breathy-voiced having developed from nasal syllables. A strong influence on Igbo consonants is double vowels; the environmentỌ ụ – IVụ often results in palatalization and spirantisation, while – UV results in labialisation. The distinction between lenis and non-lenis consonants reported in Elugbe (1989) for some Edoid languages is not attested in any lect of the Igbo cluster. After careful comparisons of reflexes of the array of sounds across Igbo cluster lects, twenty-two proto consonant phonemes and ten vowel phonemes are reconstructed for the cluster.
2.1.1 Proto consonants of the Igbo cluster Table 1 Six classes of consonants at five places of articulation have been reconstructed. The consonants and their reflexes are discussed below (correspondence sets (CS) 1-22); the lexical items exemplifying the reconstructions are indicated in parenthesis and fully laid out in the Appendix.
2.1.1.1 Plosives * p *b *t *d *c *Ɉ *k *g *kp *gb CS 1 * p>p, f (horn) CS 2 * b>b, v, (two, blood) CS 3 * t>tʃ, ts, tf, s, (head, five) CS 4 * d>d, dz, f dӡ, z, dv, v (tail, tooth, steal) CS 5 * c>c, t
2.1.1.2 Implosivesƃ, g * , *t< *ɗ CS 11 * w (lay egg, be angry, they) CS 12 * t< > t<, t, tʃ, ts, tƃ (three, ear, ashes) C.S 13 * ƃ > ƃ,, b,r, l,v, n w, (eat, ŋ h tongue, bite)
2.1.1.3 Sonorantsɗ ɗ m * *n * CS 14 * m > m (I/me, water) CS 15 * : * , ŋm, , l CS 16 * n > n > y > l (give, four, bird) CS 17 ŋm> l> > ŋm n > > m, y, (know, (bury, giveground/earth) birth) ɲ 2.1.1.4 * l Fricatives: *f,ɲ *s, * Ϫ CS 18 * f > f, ɸ, β, v, h, hy, hw, y, w, kw (twist, fly, belly) CS 19 * s > s, rh, r, l, ʃ, ӡ, z, ɸ, hw, h, kw (theft, face, year, roast) CS 20 * Ϫ > g, Ϫ, w, y, (yawn, grey hair, goat, drink, bathe, sun) 2.1.1.5 Approximant *y, *w CS 21 * y > y > ɲ (cold,ŋ, ŋ,he/she, w we/us) CS 22 * w > w > w (break/split, jump)
2.1.2 Proto vowelsŋ of the Igbo cluster Table 2 All lects of the Igbo cluster have the following eight /i , e, a, o, , ʊ u ATR. Each of these vowels can appear both in prefix position and in noun and verb roots vowel phonemes i.e. V-, and -CV. Some, ı̱̄ lectsɔ such, / as which Izii, fall kp into y , Nenwe two harmony and ha sets zara of have the a type ninth +̱ vowel /Ɛ/, which is used mainly in prefix position, corresponding to /a/ in other lects. However, in a few lects, /Ɛ/ also brings aboutẸ distinctionẹ ẹ in roots.Ọ Examplesọ in ha ε ‘he/she’ ‘blood’, mέέ ‘ pirit’. In some northern lects such as Ns ka and Udi, some unrounded central vowels [ ] and [ʉ] as well asỌ a ọsoundzara are yé ‘fry’ and y similar to the centraĺ vowel, méē or schwa [ә] in wine and máá ‘sEnglish are also heard. This schwa sound’ a tenth vowel,ụ is accepted as a phoneme in Udi and Ns ka ɤsince it distinguishes minimal pairs. Examples in Ns ka are nә ‘give’ and nʊ ‘hear! Nasality, which is a feature of the syllable is also distinctive in some Igbo lects. In suchụ lects, nasality usually spreads from the vowel to the consonantụ of thé syllable. Exampleś in Owere are sʊ ‘pound’ and sʊ ‘clear bush!
The existence of contrasting oral and́ nasalised roots̃́ with the nasality located on the vowel in some lects leads to the postulation that the proto-language had oral and nasalised vowels. Altogether, therefore, ten oral and ten nasalised vowels have been reconstructed for the Igbo cluster. References
Afigbo, A.E. 2000. Igbo genesis. Uturu, Nigeria. Abia State University Press. (pp. 12-15).
Armstrong, R.G. 1967. The study of West African languages. Ibadan: Ibadan University Press (p. 12).
Egbokhare, F. et al. 2001. Language clusters of Nigeria. Cape Town: The Centre for Advanced Studies of African Society (CASAS).
Elugbe, B.O. 1989. Comparative Edoid: phonology and lexicon. Delta Services, 6. Port Harcourt. University of Port Harcourt Press.
Emenanjo, E.N. 2001. Igbo or Igboid: As s N’Agb r Nd Igbo. Language in Igbo civilization. Owerri: Ahiaj k Lecture p. 37. ụ ụ ụ ụ ị Hansford, K., Bendor-Samuel J.ọ Andụ Standford, R. 1976. A provisional language map of Nigeria Savanna 5, no. 2 pp. 115-124.
Manfredi, V. 1982. Centre and periphery in Ika Literacy. Journal of the Linguistic Association of Nigeria, Volume 1. pp. 175-195.
Manfredi, V. 1989. Igboid in Bendor-Samuel, J. (ed.). The Niger-Congo languages. Lanham, Md: The University Press of America.
Ohiri-Aniche, C. 2011. A lexicostatistical study of Igbo. In: Nwauwa, A. and Korieh, C. (eds.). Against all odds: The Igbo experience in postcolonial Nigeria. New Jersey: Goldline and Jacobs Publishing. pp. 435-448.
Onwuejeogwu, M.A. 1977. Some fundamental problems in the application of lexicostatistics in the study of African languages. d ma 3, no. 2. pp. 29-36.
Ọ ụ Swadesh, M. 1955. Towards greater accuracy in lexicostatistics dating. International Journal of American Linguistics. 21. pp. 121-137.
Wikipedia, 2012. Igbo people: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igbo_people#Demographics. Williamson, K. 1973. The Lower Niger languages. d ma 1, no. 1.
Williamson, K. 1989. Niger-Congo overview. In Bendor-Samuel,Ọ ụ J. (ed.). The Niger-Congo languages. p. 18.
Williamson, K. And Blench, R. 2000. Niger-Congo. In Heine, B. And Nurse, D. (eds.). African languages: an introduction. Cambridge University Press. pp. 11-42.
Table 1:
Phonemic Consonant Chart of the Igbo Cluster
Bilabial Alveolar Palatal Velar Labial-Velar
STOP
PLOSIVE p b t d c Ɉ k g kp gb
IMPLOSIVE ᵷ t< ɗ
NASAL m n ŋm FRICATIVE f s Ϫ
LATERAL ɭ ̃
APPROXIMANT y w
Table 2:
Phonemic Vowel Chart of the Igbo Cluster
Front Back
Expanded
High i î ı̱̄ ı̱̄̂ ʊ ʊ̃ u ũ
Mid e ẽ ε ε̃ ә ə̃ ɔ ɔ̃ o õ
Low a ã APPENDIX Horn Two Blood Head Proto Igbo * * á * * ítí kp y ùpè ʊbàlà/(étéké) íʃî gbak r ũ̀ pə̃̀ ƃεı̱̄ı̱̄́bb̀ ʊ̀ ɔ̀bã̀ɗã̀ risîɗ OwereẸ ẹ ẹ àbƂı̱̄ʊb́ !ɔ́ ̀ bh íʃí Ọn chaị ị m̀fù ̀ ʊɔ̀á ( ɔ̀bã)/̀rã̀ bàlà ísí kw an m̀pì εbʊ́ ɔ́ (éɔ̀déãké̀rãè̀ ) íʃí IzhiiỌ ị m̀pì I ̱̀bεb ̀ m̀meē(mééɔ̀) íʃí OtherỤ ụ Igboị Lects m̀pì / Ndele ὲv ̀ɔ́ Ndele Ogidi itsi m̀pù/mfè ̀ ɔ́ gbé!í ba ítʃí/ísí Outside Cognates Ndele m̀fù– pémbé m̀fũ̀ ìbà̀ ɔ́ Urh. -ɔ̀balafã̀rã̀ B - BOgba mpè – poka PE * i-v EgeneỌha ia ḿ a-b rá PEỌ -* U-chi mhi, B PLC * ɔ -bara A-* túì ‘head’ –gìə - bà ììb/ʊ bàrà P.Ij ə PB bàdi Ife Togo àm PWS – gi-, -gui- PWS , Anaang ìʄ ọ̀ -li- . lutı̱̄ƃı̱̄- tí
, , Ikakumo ìtʃṹ Five Tail Tooth Steal Proto Igbo * * d *ídúé * kp y ísé\ ísê ( wòl \ìw l ) í!zé zú gbak r ƃìsíìtı̃ẽ́ ́ ɔ́dʊʊ̃̀ i!zé vdũı̃́ OwereẸ ẹ ẹ ƃ ƃ ẹ̀ dhʊọ̀(dhʊụ̀)ụ̀ é!zé z Ọn chaị ị ìséẽ̂ ɔ́dʊ̃̀ é!zé zúṹ kw an ìséìsẽ́ dɔ́ʊdʊ/̃̀ ʊ̃̀ dʊ ézéè zúũ IzhiiỌ ị ìsé ɔ́dzʊ̀ ézé Ụ ụ ị ɔ́ ́ ̀ ńd ́ ̀ ɔ́ ̀ zı̱̄tá́ Other Igbo tsé ha zara Ogidi é!dzé Ogidi – dzú (+ órhí) Lects tʃé dӡʊ/ dzʊ Obolo Afo ízé Ndele – (+ ) Ogidi ì AkỌ ọ dvʊ Outside PEOkwele ì * ii-‘chiN nhi PEɔ́ * Ù ɔ́-thi mhi,̀ A- é- /a- jísṹ vṹsṹ Cognates ìtíòn Ayereụ ɔ́ un ̀– du PE * do PP twon ə PP dum ə PLC * (LCdƐ t ArigidiPYIG * – de PJPLC ton* (i-) Plj ò-tùma édEfai Ɛ djèéd – dõ – táánò,- /ì- Obolo ) – I,gia, táán . ӡ ‘stetlen’Epie -PB cáán ,-cáánu Ikakumo òr̃̀um PLCPWS * ìpg̱ g̱iu Akunnuụ̀ i - – ‘steal’ P.Ij. s ọ r ʄ Whiteʃoũ Look for/Desire Walk/Go B * jíb Sand Proto Igbo ɔŋɔ̃* ɔ̃ *c * * kp y ʊsâ (wudd gá) zé ízè ʊ!zá gbak r ɗı̱̄ʃcã́ ́ tʃ ɔ́ Ɉẽ́ ɗ!ı̱̄Ɉã́ ́ OwereẸ ẹ ẹ ʊt̀ ʃ tʃ ị dӡ á!d́ ӡ Ọn chaị ị rı̱̄tt̀ ʃáã́ tʃɔ́ dzẽӡé́ árı̱̄!d́ zãӡá́ kw an t̀ ʃáã́ tʃɔ́ dӡéẽ́ εdӡáàã́ NenweỌ ị cáɔ̀/ t
Lay Egg Be Angry They Three Proto Igbo *ƃí *ƃé *ƃә * < kp y í (+εgbà) ε!ε gbak r bí wé+í!wé bε ̃́ ƃεı̱̄ı̱̄́tt̀ ı̱̄ɔ́́ OwereẸ ẹ ẹ yí (+ƃàkwh ) Ƃéni wé+íwé́ wƃ /(́ ́ ) àtƂı̱̄
Give Birth Give Four Bird Proto Igbo * * * *εn kp y mʊ (ʊ! w ) /ɲè ʊnʊ ŋmə̃́ nı̃́ə̃́ ƃ ı̱̄́ ı̱̄̀ l ɔ̃́ ́ ə̃̀ Ẹ ẹ ẹ ́ ́ ŋ ɔ́ ně Ƃı̱̄ń ɔ́ ́ ̀ gbak r mʊ ɲ εn nʊnʊ Owere mʊ ɲé àn / ʊnʊ Ọn chaị ị mʊ́ ɲéě ̀ ộ ɔ̀ ʊ̀nʊ̀ kw an mʊ́ yé εɔ́nǹnɔ́ ńnʊǹ ʊ̀ NenweỌ ị mʊ́ ɲé ı̱̄εǹ lɔ́ ńnʊǹ ʊ̀ IzhiiỤ ụ ị wʊ́ yétá εká/(hε) εǹ ɔ́ ńnεnʊ̀ ̀ Other Igbo Lects k cha – ẃ ʊ gbah – Egbema ̀ ɔ́ Egbemańn ̀ ʊ̀ nʊ Amaigboŋ – ́ mʊ Ns ka -̣́ nә ́ ̀ ɔ́ ha zarà ̀ʊnʊnʊ Outside Cognates Ọ ọ ŋ– ́ PLCỌ * n /nı̱̄ ̂ ì PE * niә ı̱̄l̀ ɔ́ ńn ̀ ̀ – màl ŋ ́ PEụ * na ́ PYIG * ε- /ε / Ọ ọ i- έ n ̀ ̀ C.PLC Kambari* màn do – nɔ̀ε ɲ PJ ndin (i-,a-) B * -n Tiv (tsã) = bear – - ̀ rĩ ̀’lı̱̄̃ ‘bird’PLC * Gtnùŋ ́ child, fruit Ẹ - gbà (LCʊnı̱̄ PEmà * m ‘bear fruit ErusuSyb nı̃ - ́ ã Plj ì–nóŋíne,- /n- Arìgìdi – nínk - ɲɔ̃́ -PLC * ìnìàŋ Uda ) ɔ ɲ PWSPB – na,mè Gt-nan-ni únùŋù Bury PB Ground/Earth nì Gt Twist Fly Proto Igbo * *ε * *fé kp y εlε ( ) wé ̀ ́ gbak r lı̃ ̀ ὲlı̱̄ ə̃̃ ̀ hyfı̱̄̃ hwé OwereẸ ẹ ẹ lìlǐ àlà̀ ̂ pı̱̄hymá̀ fé Ọn chaị ị nìlǐ àǹlı̱̄̀ f ı̱̄̂ fé kw an ɲì àn ı̱̄́ fé NenweỌ ị ɲì ı̣̱̄̀ vyı̱̄́ vé IzhiiỤ ụ ị lì ı̣̱̄̀ swfı̱̄́ ϕé Other Igbo Lects Egbemaàlı̱̄ –̀ ha zaraɔ́ ϕ ka βé –àlı̱̄àɲ̀ ı̱̄́ Agban àlı̱̄ ̀ Ọ ọ yı̱̄́ ϛỌwé/ϕé/fé Outside Cognates ù- = grave PYIGNrobo * V -lεı̱̄̀ ε g n ị- = bury – là Auchi ‘ki , anPLC object* lì ‘erde, unten’̃ Ẹdo xı̃̀ ̃́ jump’Ẹ ẹ ẹ fı̱̄ànī ArigidiPYIG * d’ì – /lü PWS - alè rope by twisting PSPYIS pi * ‘fliegen’fò ‘ ly – ndìp B pı̱̄at make ̀ – lyū Ahan PljPJ - i i PS nḷi ɗ ɓ
Belly Theft Face Year Proto Igbo * *ƃú * ɗís * kp y ʊw (ʊgbʊ) (ùpî) álà gbak r rɗʊı̱̄hf́ ʊ́ɔ́w sı̃́ rúhw /rúhúṹı̃́ áásũhwà̀ ã́ OwereẸ ẹ ẹ á́ f ɔ́ ó!ʃ /̀ ó! ̀ /í áf Ọn chaị ị áf /́ ávɔ́ óósı̃!rí́ íṹrú ár kw an εfɔ́ ı̃ó́ ʃííhyı̃́ íhwṹísú hṹ ásʊọ̀à NenweỌ ị ɔ́εv ɔ́ ó!ӡí íh áhọ̀ IzhiiỤ ụ ị εϕ́ ɔ́ íϕú áϕà́ Other Igbo Lects Ns ka εh́ ɔ́ Ogidi ó!rhí k kwúṹ k ɔ̃k̀ wà k cha έkɔ́w Ndele vú! Ogidi írhú kaụ áβ ́ ɔ́ Ọ ọcha ífú Ọ ọcha àá Outside Cognates Ọ ọ -́ ɔ́ , A- - sṹ= thief í- ɲεm Ọ ìɔ́- BNrobo í * -c ó PE * dhı̱̄ phaNı̱̄ B * cÙmá PLC * só é ̀ PYIG * fũ ı̣́ Intestine, ‘guts’ -c ú PCJ pu (ri-/a-) *B – p ‘stomach’ ı̣́ PS p ‘Bauch’ ụ̀Roast Yawn Grey Hair Goat Proto Igbo ụu̱n*ịs * Ϫé *ɗʊϪ *éϪ kp y n /( ʊʃ ) ʊwâ ʊ!w (ágεlεӡ ) gbak r hwʊ/(ʊ̃ŕ ʊ) Ϫ + Ϫàrà rʊẃ ɔ́ ówûə́ OwereẸ ẹ ẹ hɔ́wʊɗ/hʊ́ ı̱̄́ wǎ Ϫé/yé́ á́w ɔ́ éwú/̀ ́ Ϫı̱̄ú́ Ọn chaị ị r̃́ ʊ ́ Ϫǎ é úɔ́Ϫélé áẃ ɔ́ éwú kw an sʊm̃́ ε ̃́ Ϫé úϪélé εw ɔ́ éwúẹ́ UdiỌ ị hә/ϕʊ́ Ϫé εwɔ́ éϪú/éϪә IzhiiỤ ụ ị hʊ́ bé́ Ϫé έ wɔ́ɔ̀ éϪú Other Igbo Lects Ns ka hә̃ ́ h ùgéré h gb ́ εgɔ́ h wú ́ Ogidi rhʊ́ ha gba εϪ́ ɔ́ Nroboụ fʊ ́ úẸyéụ!gbo géré Ẹ ụ ọ ́ ɔ́ Ẹ ụgbo é Outside Cognates PYIG * s ́ PYIGỌ ọ zara yé* ɲa/ Ọ –́ ɔ́búì PE *E-bh - - ́yı̱̄́ do ɲaɲa = white hair PLC*é-bód/i- B * t mb-roastʊ̃ Epie ye (bele)yã́ P.IjBantu PYIG*e-‘bóʊı̱̄, ı̱̄ PJ tón à ‘burn’, (t ) Ẹg n wʊra (awo) ‘she goat’ röstenụ . iƃũlu PBC – bwon (i-/i-) PWS tùà ọ PJẸ ẹyamẹ ́ – PIbibio ŋwàŋáde.Ij (Ogoni péé PPB -Ij búḍı̣̀ . awũã Kana ) . óḅórí Drink Bathe Sun Cold Proto Igbo *Ϫ̃ * Ϫ *áϪ *óyí kp y ʊ/ ʊ hwʊyá εlá! ʊ ʊka! ́ gbak r ɔ̃́ hyáə́ (ε !̃ʊ̃ḿı̱̄̃ ) íyí ́ OwereẸ ẹ ẹ ŋw ʊ́ ŋ ́ ( )/́ Ϫʊ́ á̀ ! ŋwʊ ́ ó́ !yíyı̱̄ Ọn chaị ị (lá)/ŋwʊ/ɔ́ wʊ wʊ áɲ̀hãá!́ ʊ ó!yí kw an (ŋlá)́ sãẃ ʊ ʊʊŋw/( ́ ʊʊ) óyíì UdiỌ ị ŋϪə́́ ŋ ́ Ϫə́ εh́ ә εyá!ŋwwʊ ́ ó!yí IzhiiỤ ụ ị ʊ wʊ́ áŋw ́ ̀ ʊáŋ ́ ̀ óyí Other Igbo Lects Ns ka / ʊtá Eb r ba – h́ ʊ/w̃́ ʊ gba –́ á!ɲı̱̄ ́ ́ ŋ ́ h gbo – ẃ ʊ Agwa –áŋwá! ʊ́ Outside Cognates PEụ * y ŋı̱̄Ń ŋw ́ PEị * ịkh ε ́ ́ PSỌ – Ϫ i ‘sonne’ Iyede (Isoko) PYIG * PYIGẸ ụ * gwε/ǵ ε Gestirn ŋ ́ o- e Uro (Akokoid)ɔ ɔ Syb – wʊε Ibilo -ụ- – ò- PJ ŋmʊ̃ – ̀ ʊ ̀ Akunnu – εwû Ɉ Ɉe PLC * ŋgɔ PWS – gua,̀ gual- ɔ̂–h ɔ̃̀ Urh ɈíɈìrò Ikakumoŋgwam - w ‘waschen’PB kóo ‘wash’ ̄ ŋwɔ́ŋ Arigidi ūhɔ̀ ́ He/Sheʊ̃ We/Us Break/Split Jump Proto Igbo *yέ *ε *wá *w kp y yá/á yεε wál (má/pé)/wʊ ́ gbak r àỳyı̱̄̃ tʊwá (gbʊ) εhwʊ̀ ʊrʊ OwereẸ ẹ ẹ yá àɲ́ ́ wáı̱̄́ wʊ/mʊ ̀ Ọn chaị ị yá àɲı̱̄̂ wá́ ́ wʊ̀ ̀ ̀ kw an εyá àɲı̱̄́ wá wʊ/ wʊʃ̀ /(kp̀ ntʊ) IzhiiỌ ị yá àɲı̱̄́ wá (pfʊ̀) Ụ ụ ị ́ ı̱̄́ ̀ ŋ ̀ ı̱̄́ ɔ́ ̀ ı̱̄́ ́ Other Igbo Lects ha zara yε Nrobo àá! gba – wʊ Ns ka – wʊ Outside Cognates Ọ ọ ɲε ́ ìnnı̱̄́ – - Ọ – wì ̀ yé split Ibiloụ – ‘b ́ḷı̱̄́ =Ibibio à ́ IIbibio ǹkiri εɲ-nε /εlε Bantu bàa AuchiIgala – u- he/him/she/herBantu * DegemaPLC * àɈit eni – úɔ-w Urhṣẹ (a )̃ ̃ ̃ (LCʋɔ̂wùlû Aviele ɔ̂ ʋ aṇi Obolo )