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The Acoustic Correlates of Atr Harmony in Seven- and Nine THE ACOUSTIC CORRELATES OF ATR HARMONY IN SEVEN- AND NINE- VOWEL AFRICAN LANGUAGES: A PHONETIC INQUIRY INTO PHONOLOGICAL STRUCTURE by COLEEN GRACE ANDERSON STARWALT Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of The University of Texas at Arlington in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT ARLINGTON May 2008 Copyright © by Coleen G. A. Starwalt 2008 All Rights Reserved DEDICATION To Dad who told me I could become whatever I set my mind to (May 6, 1927 – April 17, 2008) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Where does one begin to acknowledge those who have walked alongside one on a long and often lonely journey to the completion of a dissertation? My journey begins more than ten years ago while at a “paper writing” workshop in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. I was consulting with Rod Casali on a paper about Ikposo [ATR] harmony when I casually mentioned my desire to do an advanced degree in missiology. Rod in his calm and gentle way asked, “Have you ever considered a Ph.D. in linguistics?” I was stunned, but quickly recoverd with a quip: “Linguistics!? That’s for smart people!” Rod reassured me that I had what it takes to be a linguist. And so I am grateful for those, like Rod, who have seen in me things that I could not see for myself and helped to draw them out. Then the One Who Directs My Steps led me back to the University of Texas at Arlington where I found in David Silva a reflection of the adage “deep calls to deep.” For David, more than anyone else during my time at UTA, has drawn out the deep things and helped me to give them shape and meaning. More than an advisor, mentor and instructor that I have found worthy to emulate, he has also been my friend. And so I am grateful to those, like David, who have befriended me along my journey. And so, I must thank my friends and colleagues who have been just as much a part of this journey as Rod and David – Zdravka Radkova, Julie May Koljini, Scott Berthiume, Pete Unseth, Ervin Starwalt, and Wenhua Jin, to name just a few of my iv UTA colleagues. Scott and Pete were at the end of their programs when I was starting mine and were wonderful role models that I have sought to emulate. Zdravka and Julie and I completed our course work together and helped each other navigate the rough spots of our individual journeys. Ervin had the audacity to marry me. And Wenhua has been a special friend in these last latter days, stepping in, along with Don and David, to take over teaching responsibilities as I begin another leg of my journey. But before that leg is written, I must give credit to many more than I can name here: Jerry Edmondson, Don Burquest, and Mike Cahill, the other members of my committee who have inspired and encouraged me along the way, as well as SIL and African colleagues in Togo, Benin, Ghana, Nigeria, Uganda, Cameroon and Congo Republic who went beyond expectation in helping me to arrange for the participation of the many language consultants who graciously and patiently assisted in the research leading to this dissertation. Without their voices I would have nothing to say. I am also thankful for the Fulbright Scholarship, SIL International, and SIL Togo-Benin which helped to fund my research. In addition, there are many more who supported and encouraged me through their gifts and prayers, who cheered every success and shed tears with me in my set- backs. These are my partners in ministry and my family. To the former I am grateful for staying the long haul and to the latter for loving me. Primary among the latter are my husband, Ervin Starwalt, and parents, Arvid and Margaret Anderson. Thanks Bubba. Thanks Mom. Thanks, Dad, for believing in me. April 14, 2008 v ABSTRACT THE ACOUSTIC CORRELATES OF ATR HARMONY IN SEVEN- AND NINE- VOWEL AFRICAN LANGUAGES: A PHONETIC INQUIRY INTO PHONOLOGICAL STRUCTURE Coleen Grace Anderson Starwalt, PhD. The University of Texas at Arlington, 2008 Supervising Professor: David J. Silva This study compares eleven Niger-Congo languages with [ATR] harmony and seeks to determine especially whether the acoustic properties of the “voice quality” differences associated with [ATR] in nine-vowel languages, such as Akan, are present or absent in all, some or none of the seven-vowel languages. Of particular interest is the nature of the height 2 and 3 vowels of the nine- and degree 2 vowels of seven-vowel systems. First, this study corroborates previous work on nine-vowel systems by demonstrating that height 2 vowels [-ATR] [ɪ ʊ] frequently overlap with height 3 vowels [+ATR] [e o]. Next, it considers the question that the two vi types of seven-vowel systems recognized in African languages – /i e ɛ a ɔ o u/ and /i ɪ ɛ a ɔ ʊ u/ – may be manifestations of a single system. Given that degree 2 vowels of either seven-vowel system (/e o/ or /ɪ ʊ/) overlap in nine-vowel languages, how can we know which system we have? Do the acoustic correlates of [ATR] in nine-vowel systems help us to answer this question or is it reasonable for linguists to use indeterminacy as an argument for new theories of vowel features? Results confirm that F1 is the primary acoustic correlate of [ATR] in both nine and seven vowel systems: [+ATR] vowels have lower F1 mean values than their [-ATR] counterparts. Other acoustic correlates of [ATR], such as bandwidth or “Normalized A1-A2,” have some value in understanding the acoustics of systems with [ATR] harmony. Center of gravity, another measure of spectral flatness, also shows promise: [-ATR] vowels have higher center of gravities than their [+ATR] counterparts. Evidence suggests the extreme ends of the center of gravity measures may be more perceptually salient than those in the middle. Speakers of languages with nine underlying or surface vowels tend to exploit center of gravity extremes for one of the [ATR] pairs, but speakers of 7-vowel languages tend to have more neutral center of gravity settings. The latter finding leaves open the door that some speakers of 7-vowel languages may not be manipulating tongue root position in differentiating [ATR] harmony pairs. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................................................. iv Abstract............................................................................................................................ vi Table of Contents...........................................................................................................viii List of figures.................................................................................................................xiii List of tables ................................................................................................................xxiii Chapter 1. Introduction................................................................................................................... 1 2. Background Study ...................................................................................................... 16 2. 1 Kwa Languages ................................................................................................... 18 2.1.1 Foodo ............................................................................................................. 21 2.1.2 Ikposo............................................................................................................. 23 2.1.3 Tuwuli............................................................................................................ 27 2.2 Benue-Congo Languages...................................................................................... 31 2.2.1 Bantu.............................................................................................................. 32 2.2.2 Edekiri (Defoid)............................................................................................. 57 3. Methodology............................................................................................................... 67 3.1 Word lists.............................................................................................................. 67 3.2 Data Collection Procedures .................................................................................. 73 3.2.1 Speakers / Participants................................................................................... 73 viii 3.2.2 Recordings ..................................................................................................... 74 3.2.3 Procedure ....................................................................................................... 75 3.3 Acoustic measures ................................................................................................ 76 3.3.1 Duration ......................................................................................................... 76 3.3.2 Fundamental Frequency and Measures of the Spectral Slope ....................... 78 3.3.3 Formant measurements.................................................................................. 81 3.3.4 F1 Bandwidth (B1) ........................................................................................ 85 3.3.5 Normalized A1-A2 (a spectral flatness measurement).................................. 90 3.3.6 Center of Gravity ........................................................................................... 94 4. Results....................................................................................................................... 103 4.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................
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