UNIVERSITY OF LONDON See over for Abstract of Thesis notes on completion Author (ful] names) Title of thesis ...ID.X.X ihT.X+lfe X H o K ) 0 L O Q 1 ...... XXXLC..QX....XNX ,XjXM0.]X...!XX...^...Lk.X7y^.... ....................................................................... Degree X .U l> .3X tX D U N & l This thesis investigates the forms, functions and behaviour of tone in the phonology, lexicon, morphosyntax and the phonology-grammar interfaces in Ikaan (Benue-Congo, Nigeria). The analysis is based on an annotated audio corpus of recordings from 29 speakers collected during ten months of fieldwork complemented with participant observation and informally collected data. The study demonstrates that tone operates at a wide range of levels of linguistic analysis in Ikaan. As phonemes, tones distinguish meaning in minimal pairs and are subject to phonological rules. As morphemes, tones and tonal melodies bear meaning in inflection, derivation and reduplication. In the syntax, tones mark phrase boundaries. At the phonology-semantics interface, construction-specific constraints on tonal representation distinguish between predicating and referential nominal modifiers. Combined with intonation and voicing, tones distinguish between statements and morphosyntactically identical yes/no questions. The research identifies a range of unusual tonal behaviours in Ikaan. The two tones H and L follow markedly different phonologies. In the association of lexical and grammatical tonal melodies, H must be realised whereas non-associated L are deleted. Formerly associated but de-linked L however are not deleted but remain floating. The OCP is found to apply to L but not to H. H is downstepped after floating L b.ut not after overt L. In addition, three different locations of downstep are attested which correlate with different syntactic and semantic properties of the respective constructions. In two of these downstep locations, a leftward copying process occurs in addition to a generally applicable rightward copying process so that two directions of copying occur. The thesis concludes by discussing the implications of the Ikaan findings for the wider theoretical discourse with respect to the status of the OCP, the directionality of spreading and the modelling of downstep. ProQuest Number: 10672933 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest ProQuest 10672933 Published by ProQuest LLC(2017). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 4 8 1 0 6 - 1346 Notes for Candidates 1 Type your abstract on the other side of this sheet. 2. Use single-space typing. Limit your abstract to one side of the sheet. 3. Please submit this copy of your abstract to the Research Degree Examinations Office, Room NBQ1, University of London, Senate House, Malet Street, London, WC1E 7ITU. at the same time as you submit copies of your thesis. 4. This abstract will be forwarded to the University Library, which will send this sheet to the British Library and to ASLIB (Association of Special Libraries and Information Bureaux) for publication in Index to Theses. For official use Subject Panel/Specialist Group BLLD...................................... Date of Acceptance Tone in the phonology, lexicon and grammar of Ikaan Sophie Salffner A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of the University of London. Department of Linguistics School of Oriental and African Studies September 2009 Abstract This thesis investigates the forms, functions and behaviour of tone in the phonol­ ogy, lexicon, morphos 3mtax and the phonology-grammar interfaces in Ikaan (Benue-Congo, Nigeria). The analysis is based on an annotated audio corpus of recordings from 29 speakers collected during ten months of fieldwork comple­ mented with participant observation and informally collected data. The study demonstrates that tone operates at a wide range of levels of linguis­ tic analysis in Ikaan. As phonemes, tones distinguish meaning in minimal pairs and are subject to phonological rules. As morphemes, tones and tonal melodies bear meaning in inflection, derivation and reduplication. In the syntax, tones mark phrase boundaries. At the phonology-semantics interface, construction- specific constraints on the tonal representation distinguish between predicating and referential nominal modifiers. Combined with intonation and voicing, tones distinguish between statements and morphosyntactically identical yes/no ques­ tions. The research identifies a range of unusual tonal behaviours in Ikaan. The two tones H and L follow markedly different phonologies. In the association of lexical and grammatical tonal melodies, H must be realised whereas non-associated L are deleted. Formerly associated but de-linked L however are not deleted but remain floating. The OCP is found to apply to L but not to H. H is downstepped after floating L but not after overt L. In addition, three different locations of downstep are attested which correlate with different syntactic and semantic properties of the respective constructions. In two of these downstep locations, a leftward copying process occurs in addition to a generally applicable rightward copying process so that two directions of copying occur. The thesis concludes by discussing the implications of the Ikaan findings for the wider theoretical discourse with respect to the status of the OCP, the directionality of spreading and the modelling of downstep. 3 Acknowledgements The writing of the first draft of this thesis began and ended at a friend’s kitchen table in London amidst generous helpings of pasta. Before, during and after this first draft, generous helpings of friendship from many directions, good food and good times, some hard times in between, bursts of creativity and periods of plain hard work helped the thesis along and made it what it is now. I am truly grateful for all of it. I am most grateful to the people of Ikakumo, who welcomed me to their village with open arms, taught me their language, patiently put up with my many questions (and occasional blunders) and took care of me when I was sick. I thank Fred Atinahu Adekanye, a very well-versed native speaker of Ikaan who has been a tremendous help and encouragement to me. Thanks to my endless questions, Fred spent many a sleepless night over what this or that word could possibly mean, not always an easy task when the words are short, the vowels have been deleted and all that is left is -j-\ But Fred rose to the challenge, not only finding the meaning of -j- (it was je ‘eat’ in this particular case, much to both our surprise) but also teaching me how to make the local anti-malarial tea, which turned out to be the most bitter drink I had in my entire life, guiding me through the do’s and don’t’s of Yoruba and Akaan society and discussing life and world politics with me when I had done enough linguistics for the day. There are many other Akaan I want to thank. Oyedele Festus Obaude was like a grandfather to me, gave me a wonderful room to live and work in, made me laugh many times and always made sure I had fruit to eat. Patrick Olusi, Clara Olusi and Yetunde Olusi watched over me, chatted with me on their balcony in the evenings and made sure I ate well. Bamitale Baale, Jola Baale and Grace Baale took me with them to fetch water from the pond, go to another pond to wash clothes, or just sit, peel yam and chat. Rasald, Aino and Toyin together with many other children were so helpful around the house and often just as lost in Ikaan as I was. Many Akaan told stories or riddles, sang songs or patiently translated phrases or sentences for me to record. These are Abike Comfort Obaganye, Adesoji 4 Acknowledgements 5 Anthony Olusi, Afusat Precious Oloyede, Akintoya Lawrence Babatunde, Bola Janet Sunday, Charles Ade Olusi, Emmanuel Gbagode Olusi, Eunice Oluwasola Adekanye, Festus Adeola Adedeji, Grace Foritilebo Adeola, Juliana Dada Imoru, Martins Olorundare Babatunde, Olufunke Margaret Olusi, Patric Oyewale, Richard Bamidele Adedeji, Samuel Yekini Oloyo, Seyi Matthew Adekanye, Sun­ day Joshua Obadele, Taye John Samuel, the late Victoria Dada Babatunde, Vin­ cent Ojo Omogboye. Many others spoke the language with me to practice, to correct me or to teach me a new word. I am grateful to all of them —man a kaka oo. I would like to thank Monik Charette and Lutz Marten for their faith in me and their unfaltering support in academic matters and life outside academia. I couldn’t have asked for a better supervising team and they truly were a Dok- tormutter and Doktorvater and doctor friends as well. Akin Oyetade was the first SO AS person I met, has taught me Yoruba and been a link to Nigeria, the Yoruba people, language and culture since. Peter Austin and Friederike Liipke helped me find out what I want to do in this PhD. Roger Blench let me have my first glimpse of Ikaan data and put me in touch with researchers in Nigeria. Mary Pearce spent many hours staring at tones with me and gave helpful advice. Eric Carlson taught me LaTeX (and re-wrote many parts of it) and made it possible for me to ‘type’ autosegmental phonology. Many people have read write-ups, seen presentations or came to reading groups and gave useful comments. I thank Anja Choon, Bruce Connell, Cathy Bartram, Dafydd Gibbon, Demola Lewis, Eno- Abasi Urua, Francis Egbokhare, Francis Oyebade, John Harris, Justin Watkins, Lameen Souag, Moira Yip, Nadine Borchardt, Oladele Awobuluyi, Peter Sells and * Shanti Ulfsbjorninn.