PEACE and FOOD SECURITY Investing in Resilience to Sustain Rural Livelihoods Amid Conflict Includes TECHNICAL NOTE PEACE and FOOD SECURITY

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PEACE AND FOOD SECURITY Investing in resilience to sustain rural livelihoods amid conflict Includes TECHNICAL NOTE PEACE AND FOOD SECURITY

INTRODUCTION

South Sudan has been mired in Most conflicts mainly affect rural food riots in many countries. civil conflict since December 2013. areas and their populations. This is Dispossession of assets, such as Some 2.8 million people – almost particularly true for civil conflicts, land or cattle, or other threats to a quarter of the population - are which have tripled in recent years, food security, can fuel conflict. now facing acute food and nutrition and which today are the most Reduced access to food may insecurity. One of them, Nyalen common form of armed conflict, compound other forms of grievance Kuong, was on an intravenous and increasingly prolonged. Such and discontent, such as poverty, feeding drip. “I’m not sick, I’m conflicts damage agriculture, unemployment or marginalisation. hungry,” she told the camp hospital disrupt food production and food doctor. Nyalen lost her husband, systems, fuel the plundering of Combining efforts to restore two sons and all the family’s cattle crops and livestock, and cause loss and support resilient livelihoods during an attack on her village. of assets and incomes. As a result, with peacebuilding and conflict After the attack, she took shelter they are major drivers of food resolution efforts is critical for with her daughters and many other insecurity and malnutrition, both sustainable development and families on islands protected by acute and chronic. food security and nutrition. miles of swamps. She was suffering Equally, investing in food from diarrhoea caused by acute The proportion of undernourished security may strengthen efforts malnutrition. She ate little food, people is almost three times to prevent conflict and achieve and her body was no longer able to as high in countries in conflict sustained peace. absorb even the meagre nutrients and protracted crisis than in available. After treatment, Nyalen other developing countries. For decades, FAO has worked in, returned to her daughters and, with Approximately 167 million and across, both humanitarian the help of equipment distributed undernourished people live in by FAO, she is now able to catch countries in protracted crisis today fish in order to survive, and has the – roughly one-fifth of all people makings of a new livelihood. suffering from hunger. Malnutrition tends to affect children the most Nyalen’s case is but one example and, when it happens at a critical among millions of how conflict age may cause life-long mental and causes hunger, destroys individual physical handicaps. Conflict has INVESTING IN and household resilience, and lasting, multi-generational impacts undermines rural livelihoods. For on human development. RESILIENCE AND many people affected by conflict, agriculture is their only means of Food insecurity can trigger FOOD SECURITY survival. Addressing this requires conflict: the sharp increases in life-saving interventions, but also food prices in 2008, accompanied HELPS FIGHT requires support to livelihoods by cuts in food and fuel subsidies HUNGER AND and resilience, even in abject and reduced real incomes of, mainly insecure conditions. urban, populations and triggered BUILD PEACE

2 SYRIA

A family on the outskirts of Damascus. ©FAO/Faidutti

and development spheres The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable The UN system must work in an in order to protect, save and Development acknowledges these integrated and coherent manner restore livelihoods, reduce food challenges, and recognizes peace to provide timely humanitarian insecurity and malnutrition and as a vital threshold condition assistance, build resilience to improve resilience of livelihoods for development, as well as a reduce risk, mitigate and prevent and agricultural systems. FAO development outcome in its own conflict, and sustain peace. FAO supports investments in capacity right. The first two sustainable and its partners have a key role at the local, national, regional and development goals focus on to play on all of these fronts, global levels to reduce poverty the eradication of poverty and with successful experiences to and build sustainable food and hunger, and achieving food build on. Some examples are agricultural systems. security and making agriculture presented below, showing how sustainable. The 2030 Agenda peace dividends can be derived For example, supporting agriculture sees achievement of these goals from interventions supporting based livelihoods, ensuring as critical to achieving the agriculture and food security. effective coverage of social further goal of ensuring the protection systems, addressing establishment of peaceful and Reducing armed conflict and issues of land tenure and of access inclusive societies. extreme poverty - and addressing to natural resources, and fostering their consequences - are key to employment opportunities for Recognizing that preventing crises ending hunger. Along with the youth can effectively contribute to and sustaining peace are shared, eradication of hunger, peace peacebuilding and post-conflict Charter-based responsibilities is essential for achieving the recovery. They can also help across the entire UN system, the Sustainable Development Goals. people stay on their land when 2030 Agenda opens the way to new they feel safe to do so, and create and collaborative approaches that Food security and agriculture conducive conditions for the integrate humanitarian assistance have a meaningful and often return of refugees, migrants and and conflict-prevention through unnoticed contribution to make to displaced people. resilience building efforts. this global challenge.

3 PEACE AND FOOD SECURITY FACTS AND FIGURES

The proportion of Since 2000, 48% of civil 1 undernourished people 6 conflicts have been in living in countries in conflict Africa where access to rural and protracted crisis is almost land underpins the livelihoods three times higher than that in of many and in 27 out of 30 other developing countries. interstate conflicts in Africa, land issues played a significant role.

Post-conflict countries 2 with high food insecurity Rural Mayan women in are 40% more likely to relapse 7 Guatemala exposed to the into conflict within a 10-year country’s civil war (1985-1997) timespan. received 30% less schooling compared to older and younger generations. Agriculture accounts for 3 two-thirds of employment and one-third of GDP in Every day in 2014, conflicts countries in protracted crises. 8 and violence forced approximately 42,500 people to flee their homes and seek safety Civil strife caused a loss either internally or across borders. 4 of 438 Kcal in average Fewer refugees (only 1%) have per capita daily food-energy returned, less than at any point intake in Somalia, about over the past 30 years. 20% of minimum daily food requirements. CONFLICT, In 2014, children 9 constituted 51% of the VIOLENCE AND Livelihoods of 80% of refugee population, the highest HUNGER ARE 5 the population of South percentage in more than a Sudan depend on livestock, a decade. CLOSELY sector that has lost $2 billion in potential GDP during the CORRELATED current conflict.

4 IMPACT OF LATE 20TH CENTURY CIVIL WARS ON HUNGER in terms of average per capita lost food energy

Somalia Liberia

Ethiopia Uganda

56 kcal 438 kcal 362 kcal 120 kcal lost lost lost lost

Source: Conflicts, agriculture and food security. FAO, 2000.

CORRELATION BETWEEN VIOLENCE AND HUNGER Violence index Hunger percentage

63% 29.5% 26,1% 55,6% 2,75 Colombia 2,54 2,53 2,50 42,8%

2,25 2,1 Nicaragua 2,46 n 1,95

2,00 Per 1,82 14,6% 26,8% me Ye Afghanista 1,75 1,60 u

1,50 54,5% 31,6% 1,25

Angol 1,39 Sierra n Leone Rwanda 1,09 1,00 1,12

a 28,9% 0,75 8,8% 0,61 0,50 0,52 0,25 0,27 7,5% 0,22 Source: 14,2% 0,1 0,05 State of Food Insecurity in the World. 22,3% 16,6% FAO, 2015 and FAO’s suite of Food 22,3% Security Indicators

5 PEACE AND FOOD SECURITY ILLUSTRATIONS OF FAO’S WORK

It is critical to harness international assistance to boost resilience, overcoming INFORMATION the divide between humanitarian and FOR EARLY ACTION development investments. Targeted goals should be food security Informing stakeholders and and the protection of rural livelihoods. building technical consensus on the severity of food insecurity is Investment in agriculture can play vital, particularly during conflicts a peace-making role. when access may be compromised.

FAO together with 11 partners conflict average. Backyard including UN agencies, SUSTAINABLE production kits are enabling international NGOs, donor- conflict-affected families to related bodies and regional FOOD SECURITY produce nutritious food close intergovernmental bodies working to their homes with a quick on food security, promote a DURING CONFLICT turnaround, and earn much- common approach and standards needed income. for food security analysis through Despite ongoing conflict, the Integrated Food Security Phase agricultural production is Poultry packages have been still possible in many parts of particularly important for Syria. Even in the midst of the women – who often have violence, FAO is operating in little or no income, and are 13 of Syria’s 14 governorates, traditionally responsible for working to help families stay poultry keeping in Syria. on their land when it is safe to Moreover, micro-gardens are do so, and continue producing helping displaced families to FOOD SECURITY food to feed themselves, their cultivate vegetables, roots, communities and the country. tubers and herbs wherever AND they are and without the use of With improved seeds from land. Such activities have the AGRICULTURE FAO, farmers are able to make potential to improve household the most of cultivable areas. nutrition, but they also ease SHOULD BE In 2015, despite enormous increasing pressures on host challenges and constraints, communities, and thus help SUPPORTED Syrian farmers produced reduce tensions, especially ACROSS THE 2.4 million tonnes of wheat where food supplies and – around 60% of the pre- markets are severely strained. CONFLICT CYCLE

6 SOUTH SUDAN

Hunger is rampant among displaced persons. ©FAO/Burgeon

7 PEACE AND FOOD SECURITY ILLUSTRATIONS OF FAO’S WORK

Classification (IPC). IPC is a set of humanitarian assistance for food standardized tools currently used security, helping to mitigate the in over 20 countries to generate humanitarian impact of recent evidence and information on conflicts (see figure on page 5). the severity and causes of food and nutrition crises as well as persistent food insecurity. SUPPORTING FAO plays a fundamental role in REHABILITATION raising the flag and in mobilising global and national responses AND when conflicts impact food security. Only when the IPC team REINTEGRATION declared famine (the fifth and worst level on the IPC scale) in July When families are displaced by 2011 did the humanitarian and armed conflict, communities development community decide become resource-poor, and to intervene at scale in Somalia. livelihood opportunities and food These interventions may have sources become very limited. prevented massive starvation, and Disarmament, demobilization slowly created the conditions for and reintegration (DDR) recovery, but responses came late. programmes aim to support Some months prior to the famine the voluntary disarmament declaration, FAO and partners and discharge of combatants had flagged that the situation from armed groups. FAO was deteriorating, with many works closely with UN peace- communities already in IPC Phase building and peace-keeping 4 (humanitarian emergency). actors reintegrating former return to a life of peace could not Many of the 250 000 deaths that combatants in the Democratic do so, owing to a lack of access occurred due to famine in Somalia Republic of Congo, Mali, and to land and the capital required in late 2010 and 2011 could have the Philippines. Since 2005, FAO to restore their livelihoods. been avoided had the international has been actively engaged in the Facilitating a return to farming community been more responsive rehabilitation of agriculture- and or fishing was therefore key to to early warnings from the IPC. fisheries-based livelihoods in the successful reintegration of conflict-affected and disaster- former MILF combatants and IPC reports are a key tool, affected areas in Mindanao. displaced households. informing decisions by a wide range of government, UN, Most of the combatants from However, replacing lost NGO and humanitarian fora. the Moro Islamic Liberation productive assets was not In Central African Republic and Front (MILF) in the Philippines enough. There was also a need South Sudan the IPC has helped belong to farming and fishing to transition from subsistence to coordinate and prioritise households and those wanting to farming to more sustainable

8 NIGER

Women return to their homes with flour and beans supplied by FAO. ©FAO/Sanogo

livelihoods. For the transition period, FAO’s interventions CONTROLLING supported smallholder farmers and marginal fishers — DISEASE, including decommissioned MILF combatants and women, as they CONTRIBUTING constituted the largest segments of the workforce — by enhancing TO PEACE their capacity to jumpstart FOOD AND their livelihoods, providing an In 2011, the world was officially understanding of how markets declared free of the scourge of AGRICULTURE work, facilitating their access to Rinderpest, a deadly livestock HELP MANAGE improved production systems disease. Eradicating Rinderpest and making their farms more contributed to improvements CONFLICT RISKS climate-resilient. in food security for

9 PEACE AND FOOD SECURITY

ILLUSTRATIONS OF FAO’S WORK

livestock-dependent communities feared to meet with their long- – but the campaign also MITIGATING standing enemies, the exchange contributed to peace and security. visits have been a big success. AND PREVENTING Through songs, presentations Conflict has profound and dances, the groups discussed implications for animal PASTORALIST several issues including livestock health, and for access to management, breeding, and milk, meat and blood, and CONFLICT conflict resolution. livestock ownership. These impacts directly affect food The cross-border pastoralist Such exchanges have not only security and nutrition, while communities of Kenya and mitigated negative attitudes food insecurity can lead to Uganda have been a hotspot for between communities, but the vicious, multi-decade long inter-tribal conflicts for many learning and experimentation on cycles of violent cattle raiding. years. The conflicts are mainly broader community issues has Eliminating Rinderpest would linked to cattle raiding among proved highly critical in building not have been possible without the Pokot tribe in Kenya and the the communities’ resilience to a conflict-sensitive approach Karamojong in Uganda. This has conflict and natural disaster to animal health, as the last been compounded by consecutive related shocks. vestiges of the disease were years of drought in the region. harboured in communities plagued by revenge cycles FAO has been strengthening of violent livestock raids. the capacity of pastoral In East Africa, community- communities most vulnerable based animal health workers to drought through setting up negotiated peace pacts Pastoralist Field Schools (PFS) between rival pastoral as a way not only to help reduce groups, both in order to gain and prevent inter-community access to vulnerable herds conflicts, but also to promote and as a pre-condition for a learning environment where Rinderpest vaccinations. community members exchange information, best practices, and This highlights the positive learn about grassroots ways of relationship between support coping with drought risks and for food and agriculture and the related challenges. management of conflict risks in INVESTING the interest of both food security To contribute to wider peace- and peace. Across the Sahel building efforts, FAO conducted IN RURAL and elsewhere, FAO vaccination successful PFS exchange visits campaigns offer an important between communities on each LIVELIHOODS channel in which to build social side of the border to help mitigate CONSOLIDATES trust, confidence and establish the frequent livestock raiding. intercommunity dialogue. Although most PFS members PEACE

10 FOOD INSECURITY AND DISPLACEMENT IN THE REGION - FEBRUARY 2016

Libya Egypt

Niger Sudan 2.543 Eritrea Chad 373.049 REGIONAL FOOD 3.2 million 4 million SECURITY AND 23.450 NUTRITION 227.463 10.2 million Somalia SITUATION South 265.923 Sudan 731.071 The current food and nutrition insecure Central African Republic 1.69 million 545.771 Ethiopia 912.000 population in the region 2.8 million increased by 11% from 8.414 18.2 million people at the 477.187 593.881 1.1 million end of 2015 to 20.4 million people by February 309.200 29.776 2016. The food security IDPs locations Congo 316.470 Kenya emergency in central/ 1.1 million Urban settlements eastern Ethiopia follows Democratic Republic of the Congo 53.977 Minimal / the worst drought in more no food insecurity than 50 years. ICPAC and 250.016 78.948 Stressed 689.000 global climate partners 1.5 million Crisis predict that the ongoing El United Republic of Tanzania Emergency Nino will remain strong 392.838 No information but weakening well into mid-2016 before scaling Number of refugees down to neutral. However, Angola Zambia Number of IDPs the humanitarian impact Number of food insecure is expected to last until Mozambique the end of 2016.

land tenure, customary land territorial analysis to help identify PROMOTING rights and the sustainable use of the underlying causes of issues natural resources. surrounding natural resource SUSTAINABLE access. The history, perceptions In the Democratic Republic of and interests of different parties LAND CONFLICT the Congo, for example, land are captured, and from this disputes represent 80% of all a socio-territorial agreement RESOLUTION conflicts in the eastern part of is negotiated. The agreement the country. A joint UN Habitat- foresees a series of specific Participatory Negotiated FAO-UNDP project using the duties, rights and responsibilities Territorial Development (PNTD) PNTD approach has helped to concerning the access, use and is a confidence-building, reduce land-based disagreements. management of land. Customary facilitated dialogue approach that The main contesting parties - for and formal institutions monitor brings together to the negotiation example, land administration and implementation. Land disputes table different and often opposing customary authorities, farmers, related to refugee return and stakeholders to discuss and private actors and armed groups Internally Displaced Persons seek solutions to issues around – are engaged in a participatory (IDPs) have decreased.

11 PEACE AND FOOD SECURITY

ILLUSTRATIONS OF FAO’S WORK

This represents the beginning Access to and availability of this violence. This reduces time of a process with clear peace natural resource is increasingly for necessary childcare and dividends, with its legitimacy limited and the effects of other tasks. rooted in inclusive dialogue among overexploitation already impact concerned stakeholders. Additional many parts of the region. The Fuel-efficient stoves reduce fuel technical interventions, such as risk of inter-group conflict consumption per meal, and cut community nurseries, help build over scarce forest and tree smoke emissions from traditional local capacities and strengthen resources is increased. Women fires. The materials used to make nascent social cohesion. have to venture far – up to 13 the stoves are available locally, kilometres, three times a week supporting replicability and - to collect enough firewood to cost-efficiency. Local production STRENGTHENING cook, exposing themselves to and sales of fuel-efficient stoves the risk of physical and sexual become an income-generating RESILIENCE AMIDST activity for women. CONFLICT The use of fuel-efficient stoves confirms that they have numerous The protracted conflict in Darfur, cross-sectoral benefits, including Sudan since 2003 has resulted supporting resilient livelihoods, in massive loss of human life improving nutrition and health, and assets, disrupted livelihoods contributing to forest conservation and led to severe food insecurity and environmental protection, in some areas. An estimated and fighting climate change by 60% out of a total population reducing carbon emissions. From of 7-8 million is displaced. a human security perspective, Internally Displaced Persons this kind of approach decreases and their host communities the risks of sexual and gender- have limited livelihood options based violence women face and often rely on unsustainable when collecting fuelwood, and coping strategies, such as the SIGNIFICANT helps reduce conflict over scarce unmanaged cutting of trees natural resources between host and shrubs for fuelwood and PEACE DIVIDENDS communities and displaced people. charcoal production. This places an additional burden on Darfur’s CAN BE EARNED Promoted by FAO since the 1990s, fragile ecosystem, making improved mud stoves are now natural resources a potential FROM widely used and training continues conflict trigger. to be delivered by partners AGRICULTURAL and local trainers, providing a Fuelwood is the main source RECOVERY AND sustainable, multi-faceted solution of energy for the vast majority in conflict-affected and protracted of people in the Darfur region. FOOD SECURITY crisis situations.

12 TECHNICAL NOTE

PEACE, CONFLICT AND FOOD SECURITY What do we know about the linkages? PEACE AND FOOD SECURITY

KEY FINDINGS

ON WHETHER FOOD INSECURITY ON CONFLICT TRIGGERS CONFLICT AND FOOD Food insecurity can also be SECURITY > a source of conflict, but not necessarily so. Where it is, it is COLOMBIA Most conflicts mainly never the one single factor behind > affect rural areas and their the strife. Farmers of Balboa, a village populations. This is particularly some 140 km from Popayan, the capital of Cauca Province. true for civil conflicts, nowadays Causal effects of the food ©FAO/Mattioli the most common form of armed > security-conflict nexus conflict. include dispossession of assets (including land and livestock) and Conflict has strong and threats to food security (including > unambiguous adverse effects sudden food price increases), but on food security and nutrition. It is in conjunction with other forms of the major driver of food insecurity grievance and discontent. FAO data show that, on average, and malnutrition, both acute and the proportion of people who chronic. are undernourished is almost ON PEACE DIVIDENDS three times as high in countries Conflict has lasting impacts AND FOOD SECURITY in protracted crisis than in other > on human development as a developing countries (Figure result of increased malnutrition, Building resilience through 1). While protracted crises are which tends to affect children the > peacebuilding efforts is critical typically caused by multiple most and leave lifelong physical for food security and nutrition. factors, conflict is nearly always and/or mental handicaps. one of them. Not all countries Little is known about how, in protracted crisis present very Causal effects of the > and to what extent, improved high levels of undernourishment > conflict-food security nexus food security could prevent conflict, because, in some of these vary across conflict zones but and build and sustain peace. Yet, countries, crises are localized to common features are disruption of depending on context-specific certain areas or regions. In 2013, food production and food systems, conditions, food aid and social there were approximately 167 plundering of crops and livestock protection, as well as helping million undernourished people and loss of assets and incomes, communities complete harvests, in countries in protracted crisis – hence directly and indirectly food security tends to contribute roughly 21 percent of the world’s affecting food access. significantly to peacebuilding. undernourished people.

14 TECHNICAL NOTE

PROPORTION OF UNDERNOURISHED PEOPLE IS ABOUT THREE TIMES HIGHER IN COUNTRIES IN PROTRACTED CRISIS (PERCENTAGE OF UNDERNOURISHED IN 2012-14)

30 e d i s h 25 ernour d 20

P ercentage un 10

0 Countries in China and India Other developing

protracted crisis countries Source: FAO.

Several aspects of the relationship This relationship is nuanced and This note provides a succinct between food, hunger, peace and needs to be given more careful summary of the main conflict have been well explored consideration. Third, there are literature and some evidence and documented. First, conflict indications that food security on the hunger-conflict-peace tends to have a strong adverse and improved rural livelihoods relationship. What is clear from impact on hunger and food security, may contribute to the mitigation the literature is that a deeper and this finding is uncontested. and prevention of conflicts and exploration of the relationships Second, there is evidence that to securing sustainable peace. between conflict, food security high food prices and lack of However, the nature and strength and peace would provide a access to food have contributed to of this relationship has been stronger basis for designing political instability and civil strife. underexplored. effective interventions.

15 PEACE AND FOOD SECURITY THE IMPACT OF CONFLICT ON FOOD SECURITY

Conflict entails enormous and Countries with the highest Although the causal effects multifaceted costs, including levels of undernourishment tend may differ across conflict zones, direct human suffering and to be those engaged in violent commonly observed features catastrophic socioeconomic conflict, or that have recently are that conflicts disrupt food disruption, which can emerged from it. High risk of production through physical significantly impede economic conflicts is a key characteristic of destruction and plundering of and social progress. Most fragile states and the probability crops and livestock, harvests and conflicts mainly affect rural of a high burden of hunger food reserves; they prevent and areas and their populations, rises exponentially with the discourage farming; they disrupt with heavy impacts on degree of fragility (Figure 2). food transportation systems; agricultural production The Central African Republic they destroy farm assets and and rural livelihoods. This and Chad are among the worst- capital; they conscript or entice is particularly true for civil scoring countries and both have young men to fight, taking conflicts, which in recent years experienced violent conflict and them away from their work on have become the most common political instability in recent the farm; and they suppress form of armed conflict.1 years. In contrast, in Angola, income-earning opportunities Ethiopia and Rwanda, hunger and occupations. Conflict Conflict can reduce the levels have fallen substantially also makes it difficult for amount of food available, since their large scale civil wars governments and humanitarian disrupt people’s access to food, of the 1990s and 2000s ended. actors to reach those in need. limit families’ access to food Ethiopia was still considered preparation facilities and health in protracted crisis in 2010, but care, and increase uncertainty managed to reach the MDG 1c about satisfying future needs for target of halving the proportion food and nutrition (Simmons, of the undernourished in its 2013). Poverty rates are 20 population, thanks to sustained 1 Center for Systemic Peace. 2012. http://www.systemicpeace.org/. percentage points higher in political commitment and Civil conflicts are those between a state and an countries affected by repeated efforts to target interventions opposition group that aims to take power over the cycles of violence over the to improve food production central government, or in a region, or to change government policies. last three decades. Every and nutrition (FAO, IFAD, and 2 The Geneva Declaration on Armed Violence year of violence in a country WFP, 2015). This commitment and Development. 2011. Global Burden of Armed Violence 2011: lethal encounters. GDAVD: is associated with lagging probably became possible Geneva. (http://www.genevadeclaration.org/ poverty reduction of nearly as the conflict subsided, measurability/global-burden-of-armed-violence/ global-burden-of-armed-violence-2011.html). one percentage point (World and helped to sustain more 3 http://www.fao.org/somalia/news/de- Bank, 2011). peaceful conditions. tail-events/en/c/247642/.

16 TECHNICAL NOTE

THE BURDEN OF HUNGER RAPIDLY RISES WITH THE DEGREE OF FRAGILITY (ALL COUNTRIES, 2006-2014)

Note: The fragile states index is based on twelve indicators of state vulnerability: social (4), economic (2), and political (6). The higher the index the greater the risk of violence and conflict. The threshold between situations of “stability” and

Prevalence of people undernourished people of Prevalence “fragility” is 70, right at the point in the graph where the probability of high prevalence of undernourishment rises exponentially. Each point in the graph refers to country estimates for each year during 2006-2014.

Source: FAO (for PoU data) and Fund for Peace (for fragile states index).

Fragile States Index

The lasting effect of Mortality caused by conflict 100 000 people or more (de Waal, through food insecurity and 2015). It is posited that this may be conflicts is manifest famine can far exceed deaths due to the interrelated effects of in its impact on caused directly by violence. factors such as the end of the Cold nutrition, especially Between 2004 and 2009 War, the adoption of international approximately 55 000 people a human rights norms and the rise undernutrition during year lost their lives as a direct of globalisation. This is not to infer early childhood with result of conflict or terrorism.2 that famines are over – but today’s many of those affected In contrast, as a result of famine are mostly caused by violent conflict, caused by drought and conflict, exacerbated by natural disasters and suffering from lifelong more than 250 000 died in are more often local (Keen, 2008). physical and/or mental Somalia alone between 2010 handicaps. and 2012.3 Nonetheless, acute and chronic hunger remains a global problem, An ‘unheralded achievement’ of and severe hunger can exist even the past 50 years has been the end without conflict. A number of of the age of ‘calamitous famines’ – South Asian and African countries those that kill more than one million face serious or alarming levels people – and a significant reduction of hunger despite their relatively in ‘great famines’ – those that kill stable and peaceful recent history.

17 PEACE AND FOOD SECURITY CAN FOOD INSECURITY LEAD TO CONFLICT?

As clearly indicated in the Greater attention has been given be a catalyst for civil and political literature, violent conflict is the to the links between food security unrest. In other words, they may major driver of food insecurity and political instability after the become the channel through which and malnutrition, both acute first significant global rise in food other, wider grievances such as and chronic. However, the prices in 2008, which coincided with poverty, unemployment (particularly causes of armed conflict have civil unrest in over 40 countries of youth), low incomes, unpaid been the subject of lengthy (Brinkman and Hendrix, 2011). salaries, political marginalisation and controversial debate. The The Arab Spring, which toppled and access to basic services are conclusion of a synthesis of this governments in Tunisia, Egypt and expressed (Brinkman and Hendrix, literature (World Bank, 2011) is Libya, had a consistent motivating 2011). The corollary is that food price that there is no simple causal factor - the price of food. The stabilization measures and safety explanation for conflict. Conflict protests in Tunisia, which signalled nets are critical instruments for comes in many forms, and its the start of the Arab Spring domino preventing violent conflict. causes are complex, nonlinear, effect, were initially demonstrations and mediated by a host of factors. against high bread prices. While public outrage over high food prices In fragile states, People resort to violence due to a was not the only cause, it is generally a vicious cycle broad spectrum of threats to their perceived as an important one. human security. This may include of instability can threats to their food security or A recent study which explored exist whereby food - of equal importance - because whether food prices cause social insecurity both results they have been dispossessed. unrest (Bellemare, 2015) concluded Other factors include loss of that the answer is a qualified ‘yes’. from and contributes assets and other threats to It argued that although rising food to repeated rounds of their livelihoods, together prices appear to cause food riots, food armed conflict. with economic and/or political price volatility is negatively associated marginalisation. The precise with or unrelated to social unrest. contribution of hunger and food When national governance fails, as insecurity to conflict is difficult While food insecurity may trigger, in the case of Somalia, conflict can to assess [Global Hunger Index fuel or sustain conflicts, the literature lead to large-scale food insecurity (GHI), 2015]. Some of the causes, stresses that this is not the only or even famine. But the relationship such as dispossession and lack of cause. Sudden and unexpected can also go the other way. Over access to resources, are directly food price rises, or the reduction 60% of Somalia’s population are associated with reduced access or removal of subsidies on basic pastoralists and semi-pastoralists to food. foodstuffs and cooking fuel can who earn a living from livestock

18 SYRIA TECHNICAL NOTE A pistachio vendor. ©FAO/Messori Finally, there is growing evidence of a causal relationship between extreme weather events and the incidence of civil conflicts. This has proved to be valid for droughts and local violent conflicts in Somalia, and one study estimated that one standard deviation increase in the length and intensity of drought increases the likelihood of conflict by 62% (Maystadt and Ecker, 2014). The same study also found that drought affects conflict by causing changes in livestock prices, and suggests that drought- caused livestock price shocks are a main driver of local conflict. This has important implications for policies and investments in drought mitigation and resilience building for both climate change adaptation and conflict prevention.

However, Brinkman and Hendrix (2011) highlight contradictory evidence regarding causality. In some cases, weather conditions that reduce agricultural productivity - drought, floods and warmer husbandry. More frequent and conflicts for pastoralists and semi- temperatures - seem to lead to food intense droughts often lead to pastoralists by fostering growth insecurity and contribute to civil collapses in livestock prices, and in the livestock sector, providing conflict. Young men find fighting NIGER thus contribute to the conditions alternative income-earning a more attractive option than farm Women return to their homes with that can cause food insecurity. A opportunities, and establishing work if the latterflour and produces beans supplied low by FAO. collapse in livestock prices reduces social safety nets (Maystadt and returns. Or poor householdsers©FAO/Sanogo the incentives for being involved Ecker, 2014). may voice their grievances against in “normal” animal husbandry inadequate government responses activities. Therefore, they also Another possible catalyst of wider to their poverty and hunger. In reduce the opportunity cost of inter-group conflict is competition other cases, good agricultural engaging in violent conflicts which to control natural resources such weather conditions and high levels are expected to bring higher income as land and water, required for of agricultural productivity provide – and this makes the risks worth food production. However, the both incentives and opportunities taking (IFPRI, 2014). In this way, causal relationship between natural to fuel, and engage in, conflict food insecurity can result in more resources, weak governance, conflict incited by other grievances people entering a conflict and the and poor development remains (Simmons, 2013). In such contexts, vicious cycle continues. In order unclear, and points to the need for improved agricultural conditions to reduce the risk of civil conflict a deeper analysis of the particular increase the availability of valuable in this context, it is necessary to elements and circumstances in assets worth plundering (grains, increase the costs of participating in which they are relevant. land, livestock, etc.).

19 PEACE AND FOOD SECURITY FOOD SECURITY AND PEACE DIVIDENDS

It has been argued that, when related motives that may lead implemented appropriately, individuals to become fighters or well-timed interventions aimed support armed groups. Second, at improving food security build greater food price stability and resilience to conflict because they the recovery of local agricultural help countries and peoples to cope and food markets could help with and recover from conflict; vulnerable individuals and they also contribute to preventing households to overcome the conflicts, while supporting adverse legacies of armed conflict economic development more by encouraging affected people broadly (IFPRI, 2014). Building to move beyond subsistence resilience through peacebuilding agriculture and rejoin exchange efforts has been seen to play a markets. They may also reduce the critical role in supporting food appeal of illegal activities. These security outcomes in areas with effects depend largely on how recurrent crises (Kurtz and the local institutional formation of peace. In the aftermath of McMahon, 2015). during wartime affected (either a social shock, particularly in negatively or positively) the lives fragile settings, it is important However, there is limited and livelihoods of populations to rapidly re-engage smallholder knowledge about the role of living in these areas. More work farmers - both men and women - food security in preventing is required to better understand in productive activities. or mitigating conflicts and, these pathways, and acquire more potentially, in supporting systematic evidence. Food assistance can offer valuable peacebuilding processes. Based peace dividends, as well as on a number of disperse findings Nonetheless, agriculture is the contributing to restoring trust in in the literature, some potential dominant form of livelihood for the governments and rebuilding social mechanisms whereby food majority of households in conflict- capital (Brinkman and Hendrix, security may affect conflict (or affected countries, and efforts to 2011). Findings from a review peace) outcomes are posited. revive the agricultural sector, foster of case studies and literature First, interventions to improve economic growth and increase (Frankenberger, 2012) indicate that food security may help weaken food security may have positive food-based livelihood assistance some - but not all - of the welfare- effects on the sustainability has the potential to directly

20 TECHNICAL NOTE

KENYA

address some of the underlying stakeholders can put in place agriculture brings new life to causes of conflict in affected to mitigate the risk of conflicts shattered homes and communities, communities. It can do so by recurring, and the related impacts and motivates people to come creating productive infrastructure, on food security. As noted above, together when conflict has providing social protection, and preventative interventions that destroyed social networks. Limited improving the technical capacity can break the link between research has demonstrated that of governments and other local food insecurity and conflict it is possible to evaluate psycho- counterparts. However, there are include mechanisms that shield social impacts using, for example, obviously substantial challenges to consumers and producers from a Sense of Coherence scale. One providing assistance strategically food price shocks, including food application of this approach to and effectively in conflict and post- price stabilization measures and an FAO programme in the North conflict settings. safety nets. Caucasus showed the multiple contributions of different types Broadly speaking, there are a A different perspective, drawing on of agriculture programmes number of food security related social anthropological approaches, to the recovery process, interventions and measures that is that in addition to restarting the including for social regeneration governments and international economic engine to drive recovery, (Akhilgova, J., et al. 2013).

21 PEACE AND FOOD SECURITY ROLE OF WOMEN IN AGRICULTURE AND PEACEBUILDING

The role and position of women post-conflict recovery (UN Women, have highlighted the role of is relevant to how conflicts 2012). Targeting women as the first women as key actors in economic affect food security and how beneficiaries of food aid and social recovery, social cohesion and food security can support protection, as well as helping them political legitimacy. Notably, the peacebuilding. In most rural and and their communities complete UNSCR 2122 (2013) recognizes agricultural settings, women harvests, can therefore contribute “…that the economic empowerment are mainly responsible for food significantly to improving of women greatly contributes to the security and nutrition within the household resilience and to stabilization of societies emerging household. In many developing peacebuilding. It is important from armed conflict”. countries, they also supply the to promote women’s economic bulk of agricultural labour, empowerment, their right to although they usually find it access and use resources as well harder than men to earn a living as their participation in decision- as farmers or agricultural workers making in natural resource because they often do not have management. Closing the gender the same rights as men to own or gap in agriculture would generate control land, buy inputs, obtain significant gains for the agriculture credit, or receive an education (for sector and help build peaceful and example, FAO, 2011; Lastarria- inclusive societies. Cornheil, 2005). During civil strife and conflict, these constraints The United Nations Security tend to be exacerbated because Council Resolution (UNSCR) 1325 more men, who normally assume (2000) is a landmark framework WOMEN ARE a number of responsibilities, that addresses not only the are absent as they engage in inordinate impact of conflict on MORE LIKELY TO conflict or flee in search of women, but also the pivotal role alternative livelihoods. women should, and do, play in SPEND THEIR conflict management, conflict Experience and evidence show that resolution and sustainable peace. INCOMES ON women are more likely to spend It aims to reinforce women’s their incomes on food, healthcare capacities to act as agents in FOOD, and education. Hence, they are relief and recovery processes, in HEALTHCARE AND critical for survival during conflict, both conflict and post-conflict as well as being the drivers in situations. Subsequent resolutions EDUCATION

22 TECHNICAL NOTE BIBLIOGRAPHY

Akhilgova, J., Almedom, A., Tiberi, L., K. von Grebmer, J. Bernstein, A. Keen, D. 2008. Complex Emergencies. Toirov, F., Parker, J. 2013. “Hope is the de Waal, N. Prasai, S. Yin, and London: Polity. Engine of Life”; “Hope Dies with the Y. Yohannes. 2015. 2015 Global Person”: Analysis of Meaning Making Hunger Index: Armed Conflict and Kurtz, J., and McMahon, K. 2015. in FAO-Supported North Caucasus the Challenge of Hunger. Bonn, Pathways from Peace to Resilience: Communities Using the “Sense and Washington, DC, and Dublin: Evidence from the Greater Horn of Sensibilities of Coherence” (SSOC) Welthungerhilfe, IFPRI, and Concern Africa on the Links between Conflict Methodology. Journal of Loss and Worldwide. Management and Resilience to Food Trauma. Volume 18, Issue 2. Security Shocks. Washington, DC: The Geneva Declaration on Armed Mercy Corps. Blattman, C., and Miguel, E. 2010. Civil Violence War. Journal of Economic Literature, and Development. 2011. Global Lastarria-Cornheil, S. 2005. Gender 48 (1): 3-57. Burden of Armed Violence 2011: Lethal and Property Rights within Post-conflict Encounters. Situations. United States Agency for Brinkman, H.-J., and Hendrix, C.S. International Development (USAID), 2011. Food Insecurity and Violent FAO. 2000. The State of Food and Bureau for Policy and Program Conflict: Causes, Consequences, Agriculture: Lessons from the Past 50 Coordination. USAID: Washington, DC. and Addressing the Challenges. Years. FAO: Rome. Occasional Paper 24. Rome: World Maystadt, J-F., Ecker, O. 2014. Extreme Food Programme. FAO. 2011. The State of Food and Weather and Civil War: Does Drought Agriculture 2010-11: Women in Fuel Conflict in Somalia through Collier, P. 1999. On the Economic AgricultureaThe State of Food Insecurity Livestock Price Shocks? American Consequences of Civil War. Oxford in the World: Addressing Food Insecurity Journal of Agricultural Economics 96 Economic Papers 51 (1): 168–83. in Protracted Crises. FAO: Rome. (4): 1157-82. Collier, P. and Hoeffler, A. 1998. On FAO, IFAD and WFP. 2015. The State of the Economic Causes of Civil War. Food Insecurity in the World: Meeting Simmons, Emmy. 2013. Harvesting Oxford Economic Papers 50 (4): 563- the 2015 international hunger targets: Peace: Food Security, Conflict, and 95. taking stock of uneven progress. Cooperation. Environmental Change FAO: Rome. & Security Program Report Vol. 14, De Soysa, I. 2002. Paradise is Issue 3. Woodrow Wilson International a Bazaar? Greed, Creed and Hong, P. 2015. Peace and stability Center for Scholars: Washington DC. Governance in Civil War, 1989-99. and enablers for and outcome of Journal of Peace Research 39 (4): 395- development. Background paper for Swaminathan, M.S. 1994. Uncommon 416. World Economic and Social Survey Opportunities: An Agenda for Peace (WESS) 2014/2015: MDG Lessons for and Equitable Development. Report of De Waal, A. 2015. Armed Conflict and Post-2015. the International Commission on Peace the Challenge of Hunger: Is an End in and Food: London. Sight? in 2015 Global Hunger Index: IFPRI Food Policy Report. 2014. How to Armed Conflict and the Challenge of Build Resilience to Conflict: The Role of UN Women. 2012. Sourcebook on Hunger. Bonn, Washington, DC, and Food Security. IFPRI: Washington DC. Women, Peace and Security, Chapter Dublin: Welthungerhilfe, International 5 Women Working for Recovery: The Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Justino, P. 2012. War and Poverty, in Impact of Female Employment on Family and Concern Worldwide. Garfinkel, M., and Skaperdas S. (Eds.). and Community Welfare after Conflict. Handbook of the Economics of Peace Frankenberger, T. R. 2012. Can Food and Conflict. Oxford University Press, World Bank. 2011. World Development Assistance Promoting Food Security Chapter 27. Report 2011: Conflict, Security, and and Livelihood Programs Contribute Development. World Bank, Washington, to Peace and Stability in Specific Justino, P. 2015. Food Security, DC. Countries? Paper for High-level Expert Peacebuilding and Gender Forum on Food Insecurity in Protracted Equality: Conceptual Framework World Food Programme. 2013. WFP’s Crises, FAO, Rome, 13-14 September and Future Directions. Unpublished Role in Peacebuilding in Transition 2012. report commissioned by Institute of Settings. WFP/EB.2/2013/4-ARev.1. Development Studies for FAO. WFP: Rome.

23 PEACE AND FOOD SECURITY RESOURCES

ONE HUMANITY, HOW TO DEAL WITH THE STATE SHARED RESPONSIBILITY PEOPLE IN POST OF FOOD INSECURITY Report of the UN DISPLACEMENT – IN THE WORLD Secretary-General for the REINTEGRATION FAO, 2010 World Humanitarian Summit, FAO Working Paper, 2014 http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1683e/i1683e.pdf 2016 http://www.fao.org/3/a-mj732e.pdf http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/ In conflict resources/Secretary-General's%20Report%20 situations, for%20WHS%202016%20(Advance%20 Unedited%20Draft).pdf peace settlements The and growing cease-fire number agreements of people may often in crisis, end violent the conflicts, dramatic but relapse can occur because increase sometimes there is no peace to This flagship FAO report, on in keep. The right approach on addressing food insecurity in funding requirements, and the land issues can support protracted crises, emphasizes fact that humanitarian aid sustainable peace. While how each case requires organizations created to offer humanitarian agencies special attention due to the urgent life-saving assistance frequently face pervasive way local reponse capacities are increasingly tied-down questions on land issues, erode. Protracted crises are providing services year after national governments often not a series of one-off shocks year, to people who may never consider land as too sensitive and can derail longer-term go home, in countries where and outside their mandates. The development. They are the road to peace may be Welcoming Capacity Approach, lasting threats to both lives arduous and long, urgently call originated from FAO’s and livelihoods. Building for change: changes that reach intervention in Angola in 1999, longer-term assistance those left furthest behind, that where millions of Internally activities on the back of promote self-reliance, that Displaced Persons needed to existing or revitalized local allow people to act as primary secure access to land that institutions offers the best hope agents of their own destiny, required negotiation with local of long-term sustainability and and changes in the way rights holders, and enriched by improved food security. Social governments, local lessons learned in Bosnia protection - school meals, cash communities, the private sector Herzegovina, Ethiopia, or food-for-work activities - can and aid organizations work Mozambique, Somalia and make a vital difference in the together for people in crisis. Sudan, offers a way forward. long term.

24 Printed on ecological paper. TECHNICAL NOTE

TOO IMPORTANT TO FAIL CLIMATE CHANGE FRAMEWORK FOR ACTION Addressing the humanitarian AND FOOD SECURITY: FOR FOOD SECURITY financing gap Risks and responses AND NUTRITION IN High-Level Panel on FAO, 2016 PROTRACTED CRISES Humanitarian Financing Report http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5188e.pdf Committee on World Food to the Secretary-General, 2015 This paper Security (CFS), 2015 http://www.un.org/news/WEB-1521765-E- provides an http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/cfs/ OCHA-Report-on-Humanitarian-Financing.pdf overview of the Docs1415/FFA/CFS_FFA_Final_Draft_Ver2_EN.pdf effects of The world climate change today on food security spends and nutrition around and explores US$ 25 ways to reduce negative impacts billion to through adaptation and resilience. provide It underscores how climate change life-saving is already impacting the food assistance security and nutrition of the most to 125 vulnerable people and suggests million people devastated by wars potential responses will go beyond and natural disasters. That’s 12 technical agronomics and include times more than 15 years ago, but social protection and strengthened the generosity is far from international cooperation. sufficient. This expert report recognizes that addressing the Eliminating hunger and root causes of humanitarian needs FAO AND THE 17 SDGs undernutrition in protract- is the best way to shrink them and ed crisis situations requires argues that as development is the FAO, 2015 special attention as responses best resilience-builder of all, funds http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4997e.pdf differ from those in short-term for that should go where they This booklet crises or non-crisis develop- matter most – situations of offers an ment contexts, affirms this fragility – and that funds overview of how document, approved by the dedicated for peacebuilding and FAO is well inclusive intergovernmental conflict resolution at the positioned to CFS. Each protracted crisis is international level should be support different, but shared critical harnessed to systematic countries in manifestations include disrup- investment in resilience-building. achieving the tion of livelihoods and food It also suggests ways to expand Sustainable Development Goals systems along with displaced the resource base for and shows how most of these are people, severe food insecurity humanitarian assistance. related to FAO’s work. and malnourishment.

25 PEACE AND FOOD SECURITY

All FAO publications can be accessed at www.fao.org/publications

STRENGTHENING THE LINKS PARTICIPATORY NEGOTIATED BETWEEN NUTRITION TERRITORIAL DEVELOPMENT AND RESILIENCE IN FOOD FAO Working Paper, 2009 AND AGRICULTURE http://www.fao.org/3/a-ak545e.pdf FAO, 2014 FAO’s PNTD, the http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3777e.pdf product of years of This discussion experience and paper shows how successfully tested growing in five continents, is attention to a facilitative process resilience striving for rural represents an development opportunity to through negotiating, engage in more participation and effective dialogue in the nutrition wake of conflict, one programming which considers and vice versa, socio-political an important aspects to be just as need in important as technical and economic elements in humanitarian the effort to eradicate poverty and hunger. Geared crises triggered to land management and land tenure, this by conflict as well as natural disasters. It notes the bottom-up approach entails FAO acting as a importance of designing emergency programmes disinterested referee in negotiations designed to to make sure the needs of the most include vulnerable and marginal populations, physiologically vulnerable people, particularly build credibility between public and private actors pregnant and lactating women and children less and strengthen social cohesion, even on issues than five years old, are met. tangential to the process itself.

THE IMPACT some $1.5 trillion in economic damages, and their OF DISASTERS frequency and severity is rising. In this study, ON AGRICULTURE FAO shows that almost a quarter of the damage and losses caused by such disasters in developing AND FOOD SECURITY countries fell on the agriculture sector, which is FAO, 2015 the main source of livelihoods and food security http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5128e.pdf in those countries, as well as a key driver of Natural disasters economic growth. Governments must design worldwide in the decade measures specific to the crop, livestock, fisheries from 2003 to 2013 cost and forestry subsectors.

26 CONCLUDING THOUGHTS

An analysis of the complex With improved data and data The designations employed and the presentation of relationship between ‘peace and analyses on agricultural and non- material in this information stability’ and the achievement of agricultural incomes, conflict product do not imply the development goals (Hong, 2015) models might better predict how expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the shows that peace and stability are both food insecurity related to crop Food and Agriculture the enablers for - and outcome of - failure or persistent low productivity Organization of the United development. could affect the incentives of rural Nations (FAO) concerning the legal or development status of households to be involved in any country, territory, city or Reducing armed conflict and conflicts. Micro-level analyses and area or of its authorities, or extreme poverty - and addressing case studies will be crucial to better concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The their consequences - are key to understand these relationships. mention of specific companies ending hunger. Fostering economic or products of manufacturers, development and greater equity It is also clear from the literature whether or not these have been patented, does not imply within and between countries while that a more in-depth study of the that these have been strengthening good governance can conflict, food security and peace endorsed or recommended by help address the root causes of conflict nexus would provide a stronger basis FAO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not (GHI, 2015). Policies and strategies for designing effective interventions. mentioned. that reduce development stresses A more explicit integration of food and mitigate the risks of conflict security variables into theories of © FAO, 2016

simultaneously can be effective in conflict could help inform external FAO encourages the use, restoring peace and stability and interventions aimed at mitigating reproduction and create a virtuous cycle between peace food insecurity and preventing dissemination of material in this information product. and sustainable development. conflict. Except where otherwise indicated, material may be copied, downloaded and printed for private study, research and teaching purposes, or for use in non- commercial products or services, provided that appropriate acknowledgement of FAO as the source and copyright holder is given and that FAO’s endorsement of users’ views, products or services is not implied in any way. All requests for translation and adaptation rights, and for resale and other commercial use rights should be addressed to [email protected].

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Printed on ecological paper. flag and in mobilising global and national responses responses andnational global in mobilising and flag the raising in role both FAO afundamental plays developing world. the of rest the in than higher times three is undernourishment of prevalence the where crises, protracted of driver a key are other. on the Conflicts one feeds which in cycles vicious in locked often are hunger and violence however, Similarly, Timor-Leste. independence post- and post-genocide Rwanda Nicaragua, and Angola post-conflict in as such prevails, when recede stability hunger We seen often have reinforcing. mutually are Peace security food and peace. andbuilds helps fight hunger security food in shows how investing that ground the and FAO’s on experience security and food conflict the relationship booklet explains peace, between This healing. and recovery post-crisis promote and impacts its mitigate prevent acrisis, help can to promote security food actions that know also but we conflict and of instability drivers of the one be can on how hunger and security on food war of FAO impact the about long concerned been has Investing inresilience to sustain rural livelihoods SECURITY PEACE amid conflict FOOD AND www.fao.org to peacebuilding. peacebuilding. to effectively contribute -can for youth opportunities employment creating and resources, to natural access and tenure of land issues addressing resilience, their building-up and protection social through vulnerable most -helping the agriculture supporting aresult, As crises. protracted in countries GDP of in one-third employment of and two-thirds for accounts produced. Agriculture is where food areas, rural in living those affect mainly conflicts most Ironically, Philippines. the and Congo, Mali of Republic Democratic the in combatants former to reintegrate efforts peace-building UN with closely FAO works also women children. and of whom are most land, on their remain that of those resilience and security food the to strengthen partners with where FAO working Syria is in and 2011 Somalia, in in example for security, food impact when conflicts achieve peaceful societies that leave no that one behind. societies peaceful achieve to malnutrition and hunger, poverty eradicating on development for condition byfocusing avital is peace that Development recognizes that Sustainable Agenda for new 2030 the FAO within working is