Encyclopedia of Chinese Language and Linguistics

Volume 3 Men–Ser

Associate Editors Wolfgang Behr (University of Zurich) Yueguo Gu (Chinese Academy of Social Sciences) Zev Handel (University of Washington) C.-T. James Huang (Harvard University) James Myers (National Chung Cheng University)

General Editor Rint Sybesma

Associate Editors Wolfgang Behr Yueguo Gu Zev Handel C.-T. James Huang James Myers

LEIDEN • BOSTON 2017

ISBN 978-90-04-18643-9 (hardback, set) ISBN 978-90-04-26227-0 (hardback, vol. 1) ISBN 978-90-04-26223-2 (hardback, vol. 2) ISBN 978-90-04-26224-9 (hardback, vol. 3) ISBN 978-90-04-26225-6 (hardback, vol. 4) ISBN 978-90-04-26226-3 (hardback, vol. 5)

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For use by the Author only | © 2017 Koninklijke Brill NV 3 Metaphor and Metaphorical Language at for the complete corpus and for the single text titative research on Modern Chinese language and were fĳitted seperately to the function. Determi- script], Hamburg: Kovač, 1998. Cramer, Irene M., “Das Menzerathsche Gesetz nation coefffĳicients of 0.7379 (corpus) and 0.8789 (Menzerath’s Law)”, in: Reinhard Köhler, Gabriel (single text) were satis factory up to good. Bohn Altmann and Rajmund G. Piotrowski, eds., Quan- preliminarily accepts the law for partial sen- titative Linguistik. Ein Internationales Handbuch/ tences and numbers of words and suggests that Quantitative Linguistics. An International Hand- better segmentation and better text mark-up book, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2005, 659–899. Guo, Jin and Ho Chung Lui, “PH—A Chinese Corpus might lead to more satisfactory results. for Pinyin-Hanzi Transcription”, Chinesisch und Hypothesis 5: The longer sentences are, the Computer 9, 1994, 23–37. shorter the partial sentences they consist of tend Prün, Claudia, “Validity of Menzerath-Altmann’s Law: to be on average. This hypothesis was again Graphic Representation of Language, Information Processing Systems and Synergetic Linguistics”, tested on the data from the PH corpus and the Journal of Quantitative Linguistics 1/2, 1994, 148–155. hand-segmented text (Bohn 1998:44–50). For Xìnxī jiāohuàn yòng Hànzì biānmǎ zìfǔjí—Jīběnjí 信 each sentence, its length counted by the number 息交换用汉字编码字符集基本集 [Coding of Chi- of its partial sentences was determined, and then nese ideogram set for information interchange, basic set] (GB 2312-80), Guójiā Biāozhǔnjú 国家 the average length of partial sentences for all 标准局, 1980 edition, Běijīng 北京: Jìshù Biāozhǔn sentences of identical length, counted in words, 技术标准出版社, 1981. computed, again seperately for the corpus and the hand-segmented single text. The determina- Cornelia Schindelin tion coefffĳicient for the corpus showed the fĳit to be excellent (0.9750), whereas it was very poor for the single text (0.5628). Bohn explains this Metaphor and Metaphorical Language with the low number of sentences found in the single text (180) which did not yield sufffĳicient 1. Cognitive Linguistic View of data. He thus accepts Menzerath’s Law to be Metaphor: Conceptual Metaphor valid for the lengths of sentences and partial Theory sentences in modern Chinese only preliminarily for the time being. Metaphor and metaphorical language became It is worthy of notice that the reported fĳind- a prominent area of linguistic research with the ings are valid for ‘populations’ of the mentioned rise of Cognitive Linguistics in the early 1980s. units, which means, they do not necessarily hold The publication of George Lakofff and Mark for certain individual specimen. Thus, for the Johnson’s seminal book Metaphors We Live By examples given, counterexamples can also be in 1980 marks the beginning of fruitful research found, but Bohn has been able to show that on metaphor in various languages of the world Menzerath’s Law holds for the ‘populations’ of including Chinese. the units in question. Metaphor is a central topic in Cognitive Lin- Clearly, more study on the validity of Menzer- guistics. If Cognitive Linguistics is “the study of ath’s Law in modern Chinese is needed. At the ways in which features of language reflect other time of writing, a doctoral dissertation on this aspects of human cognition, then metaphors law is under way in China which uses a larger provide one of the clearest illustrations of this corpus and modern segmentation standards relationship” (Grady 2007:188). The Cognitive (e-mail from Féng Zhìwěi 馮志偉, August 2012). Linguistics theory of metaphor is known as Con- ceptual Metaphor Theory. According to this the- Bibliography ory, the “essence of metaphor is understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of Altmann, Gabriel, “Prolegomena to Menzerath’s Law”, another” (Lakofff and Johnson 1980:5). Metaphor, in: Rüdiger Grotjahn, ed., Glottometrika 2, Bochum: Brockmeyer, 1980, 1–10. therefore, is not a linguistic phenomenon, but Bohn, Hartmut, Quantitative Untersuchungen der refers to the pattern of conceptual association Modernen Chinesischen Sprache und Schrift [Quan- underlying linguistic expressions. Metaphorical

For use by the Author only | © 2017 Koninklijke Brill NV Metaphor and Metaphorical Language 4 expressions in language systematically mani- patterns in ordinary language. The most sig- fest underlying conceptual metaphors as pat- nifĳicant fĳindings are that Conceptual Metaphor terns of thought. Systematic studies of these Theory is largely applicable to Chinese as well as linguistic expressions can help delineate pat- to English, and that conceptual metaphors can terns in conceptual systems. Structurally, meta- be shared by diffferent languages and cultures. phors consist of conceptual mappings across For example, Conceptual Metaphor Theory domains—source and target—which result in argues that even most fundamental concepts in correspondences between closely related con- human experience, such as time, state, change, cepts in two diffferent domains. Thus, while Con- process, action, cause, purpose, and means, are ceptual Metaphor Theory is concerned with the understood, at least partially, through metaphor mapping of inferences from source to target, in terms of space, object, motion, and force conceptual metaphors are the conventional pat- (Lakofff 1993). Yu (1998) found that in Chinese, terns of conceptual associations resulting from for instance, time can be conceptualized meta- that mapping. phorically either as moving objects that move in According to Conceptual Metaphor Theory, a linear sequence toward and past a stationary metaphorical mappings are not arbitrary, but ego (e.g., (1a) and (1b)) or as a stationary path constrained by our embodied nature as human over which a moving ego travels (e.g., (1c) and beings. Embodiment is an idea central to the (1d)) (see also Yu 2012). theoretical position of Cognitive Linguistics. It emphasizes the role of the human body in 1. a. 新的 “太平洋世紀” 正在向我們走來。 grounding and framing human cognition within Xīnde “Tàipíngyáng shìjì” zhèngzài the physical context. In contrast with the Cartesian new Pacifĳic century is mind-body dualism, the embodiment hypothesis xiàng wǒmén zǒulái. claims that the body shapes the mind. The mind is toward 1pl walk.come therefore embodied in that it is crucially shaped ‘The new “Century of the Pacifĳic” is walk- by the particular nature of the human body, ing toward us.’ including our perceptual and motor systems and b. 酷暑提早到來而又遲遲不去。 our interactions with the physical and cultural Kùshǔ tízǎo dàolái éryòu world. That is, metaphor is motivated by and hot.summer earlier arrive but grounded in our bodily and cultural experience. chíchí bú qù. Crosslinguistic studies of metaphors in a sys- belated not go tematic fashion can help reveal universal and ‘The sweltering hot summer arrived ear- culture-specifĳic patterns characterizing various lier but is reluctant to leave.’ cultural cognitions (Sharifĳian 2011) in particular c. 他已步入中年。 and human cognition in general. Tā yǐ bùrù zhōngnián. 3sg already step.into middle.age 2. Cognitive Linguistic Studies of ‘He’s already stepped into middle age.’ Metaphor in Chinese d. 中國正健步邁向21世紀。 Zhōngguó zhèng jiànbù In China, as much as in the West, metaphor is China right.now with.vigorous.step traditionally taken as a fĳigure of speech, and mài xiàng 21 shìjì. its study is confĳined to rhetoric and poetics as stride toward 21 century a matter of literary language for the purpose of ‘With vigorous steps, China is striding stylistic ornamentation and decoration. It is not toward the 21st century.’ until the 1990s that Chinese linguists started to apply Cognitive Linguistics approach to studying The fact that time can be conceptualized via metaphor as a cognitive mechanism or “fĳigure of metaphor in terms of both location and object is thought” (Lakofff 1986), focusing on linguistic known as the dual nature of such metaphorical

For use by the Author only | © 2017 Koninklijke Brill NV 5 Metaphor and Metaphorical Language conceptualizations. A similar duality is also f. means are paths found in the Event Structure Metaphor sys- 他們尋求擺脫困境的路子。 tem, which consists of two special cases: the Tāmen xúnqiú bǎituō kùnjìng location-dual and the object-dual (Lakofff 1993). 3pl seek break.out predicament The location-dual, for instance, includes the fol- de lùzi. lowing conceptual metaphors, which are found sub path to underlie the Chinese linguistic expressions ‘They are seeking for a path to break out of below as linguistic instantiations of the concep- the predicament.’ tual metaphors (from Yu 1998). g. difficulties are impediments to motion 2. a. states are locations 美日貿易談判擱淺。經濟走不出危機圈。 Měi-Rì màoyì tánpàn Jīngjì zǒubùchū wēijīquān. US-Japan trade negotiation economy walk.not.out crisis.circle gēqiǎn. ‘The economy cannot get (lit. walk) out of run.aground the crisis (lit. circle of crisis).’ ‘US-Japan trade negotiations ran aground.’ b. changes are movements 大多數農民已走出貧困。 The contrast and interaction between the Dàduōshù nóngmín yǐ zǒu location-dual and the object-dual of the Event most peasants already walk Structure Metaphor system is illustrated by the chū pínkùn. following pair of examples: out.of poverty ‘Most peasants already got (lit. walked) 3. a. 這次韓國之行將有利於推動朝鮮半島 out of poverty.’ 形勢進一步走向和平與穩定。 c. causes are forces Zhècì Hánguó zhī xíng jiāng 改革推動了市場經濟的起步。 this South.Korea sub trip will Gǎigé tuīdòng-le shìchǎng yǒulìyú tuīdòng Cháoxiān reform push.move-asp market help push.move Korean jīngjì de qǐbù. bàndǎo xíngshì jìnyíbù zǒu economy sub make.initial.step Peninsula situation a.step.further walk ‘The reform pushed the market economy xiàng hépíng yǔ wěndìng. to make the initial step.’ toward peace and stability d. actions are self-propelled motions ‘This trip to South Korea will help push 我們要推進經濟國際化。 the Korean Peninsula situation (to walk Wǒmen yào tuījìn jīngjì further) toward peace and stability.’ 1pl must push.forward economy b. 這次韓國之行將把和平與穩定帶到朝 guójìhuà. 鮮半島。 internationalize Zhècì Hánguó zhī xíng jiāng ‘We should push forward the internation- this South.Korea sub trip will alization of economy.’ bǎ hépíng yǔ wěndìng dàidào e. purposes are destinations objm peace and stability bring.to 他們正快步走向小康。 Cháoxiān bàndǎo. Tāmen zhèng kuàibù zǒu Korean Peninsula 3pl right.now quick.step walking ‘This trip to South Korea will bring peace xiàng xiǎokāng. and stability to the Korean Peninsula.’ toward being.well-offf ‘They are taking quick steps toward (the In (3a), the “situation” of the Korean Peninsula goal of) becoming comfortably well-offf.’ is an “object”, which will be “pushed” by the

For use by the Author only | © 2017 Koninklijke Brill NV Metaphor and Metaphorical Language 6 trip (i.e., the visit of the premier of China in such, Conceptual Metaphor Theory is a theory 1990s), the external “force” (causes are forces; of linguistic study in particular and of cognitive changes are movements), toward “peace and science in general, distinguishing itself from the stability” as “locations” (states are locations) traditional approach to studying metaphor as a or, rather, as “destinations” (purposes are des- rhetorical device only. tinations). The situation of the peninsula will Furthermore, metaphor studies in Chinese be peaceful and stable by being in the “locations” have also made another important contribu- or “destinations” of peace and stability. In (3b), tion to the theorizing of Conceptual Metaphor “peace and stability” are “objects” (attributes Theory in terms of universality and diversity are objects/possessions) to be “brought” to the in conceptual metaphors across cultures and peninsula (changes are movements) by the languages (see, e.g, Kövecses 2005, 2010). The trip as the external “force” (causes are forces, earlier version of Conceptual Metaphor Theory, purposes are desired objects) that carries the based mainly on linguistic evidence from Eng- “desired objects” to the peninsula, which will lish, emphasized universal aspects of metaphors: then have these “desired objects” as its “posses- namely, metaphors are grounded in bodily expe- sions” (i.e., attributes). rience, which is common among all humans It is worth noting that the Cognitive Linguis- and, therefore, metaphors derived from com- tics approach to metaphor studies in Chinese mon bodily experience are potentially universal. has shown that systems of conceptual meta- This idea is of course in line with the embodi- phors like the Event Structure Metaphor are ment hypothesis, which is a central notion of capable of making generalizations over wide- Conceptual Linguistics. Metaphor studies in spread linguistic patterns in everyday Chinese Chinese and other languages have found, how- language use, which are claimed to systemati- ever, that metaphors can indeed be shared by cally manifest underlying conceptual structures diffferent languages and cultures, but they also in our conceptual systems. Because the Chi- vary across languages and cultures, determined nese language is not genetically related to Eng- by various cultural models. lish, and because earlier Conceptual Metaphor For example, Yu (1995; see also 1998) studied Theory studies are largely limited to English anger metaphors in Chinese in comparison with even though their theoretical claims for embodi- those in English based on Lakofff and Kövec- ment as the experiential basis for conceptual ses (1987). According to Lakofff and Kövecses metaphor mappings are of potentially univer- (1987), the central metaphor for anger in English sal signifĳicance, Conceptual Metaphor Theory is anger is heat, which has two subversions: studies in Chinese have made important con- anger is fĳire (e.g., He was breathing fĳire, Those tributions to Conceptual Metaphor Theory by are inflammatory remarks, Boy, am I burned up!) reinforcing its claims for the cognitive status of and anger is hot fluid in a container (e.g., She conceptual metaphor. That is, Conceptual Meta- was seething with rage, She got all steamed up, phor Theory can indeed account for widespread Billy’s just blowing offf steam). Yu (1995) found linguistic phenomena in everyday Chinese as that anger is heat and its fĳirst subversion anger systematic linguistic manifestations of underly- is fĳire are applicable in Chinese (e.g., nùhuǒ ing conceptual metaphors. Metaphor is a funda- 怒火 ‘fury’; fāhuǒ 發火 ‘get angry’; màohuǒ mental mode of thought, especially in the realm 冒火 ‘flare up’; guānghuǒ 光火 ‘fly into a rage’; of abstraction, and is essentially characteristic dònghuǒ 動火 ‘flare up’; wōhuǒ 窩火 ‘simmering of human cognition in general. While human with rage’), but its second subversion is anger cognition is embodied in nature, it depends, to is hot gas in a container (e.g., nùqì 怒氣 ‘rage’; a great extent, on metaphor for mapping physi- shēngqì 生氣 ‘get angry’; dòngqì 動氣 ‘lose one’s cal domains of human experience onto abstract temper’; guàqì 挂氣 ‘flare up’; wōqì 窩氣 ‘pent- cognitive domains, thus shaping the understand- up anger’; chūqì 出氣 ‘vent one’s spleen’; fāpíqi ing of the latter, the target domains, through the 發脾氣 ‘lose one’s temper’). Yu (1995) accounted structure of the former, the source domains. As for the selection of the gas metaphor over the

For use by the Author only | © 2017 Koninklijke Brill NV 7 Metaphor and Metaphorical Language fluid metaphor in Chinese with the yīn-yáng years. In contrast to the Western dualistic view, 陰陽 theory of ancient Chinese philosophy and the Chinese take on a more holistic view that traditional Chinese medicine, which, he argued, sees the heart, an internal organ inside the body, shapes the way Chinese culture categorizes and as the center of both emotions and thought. conceptualizes the world and, as such, consti- In the traditional Chinese conceptualization, tutes Chinese cultural models as shared under- therefore, although a person also consists of standings of Chinese culture. two parts, the body and the heart, these two are For another example, Yu (2003) presented a not separate, the latter being an integral and case in which a culturally constructed meta- central part of the former as its “Ruler/Emperor” phorical understanding of an internal organ, ( jūnzhǔ zhī guān 君主之官). According to this the gallbladder, forms the base of the cultural cultural conceptualization, the heart is regarded model for the concept of “courage”. According as the central faculty of cognition. For this rea- to traditional Chinese medicine, the gallbladder, son, the Chinese concept of “heart” is lexicalized metaphorically conceptualized as the “Offfĳice of in a great number of compounds and idioms Justice” (zhōngzhèng zhī guān 中正之官), has related to all cognitive and afffective aspects of the function of making judgments and decisions a human person, such as mental, intellectual, in mental processes and activities, and it also rational, moral, emotional, dispositional, and so determines one’s degree of courage. This cul- on (e.g., chéngxīn 誠心 ‘sincerity’; liángxīn 良心 ture-specifĳic understanding of the gallbladder ‘conscience’; zhīxīn 知心 ‘intimate’; xīnxiǎng leads to a pair of conceptual metaphors that in 心想 ‘think to oneself ’; xīnfú 心服 ‘genuinely part constitutes the Chinese cultural model for convinced’; xīngān 心甘 ‘willing’; hǎoxīn 好心 courage: gallbladder is container of courage and ‘good intention’; chéngxīn 成心 ‘on purpose’; courage is gaseous vital energy (qì) in gallblad- yòngxīn 用心 ‘with concentrated attention’; der (e.g., dǎnqì 膽氣 ‘courage’; dǎnlì 膽力 ‘bold- juéxīn 決心 ‘determination’; wéixīn 違心 ‘against ness’; dǎnzhuàng 膽壯 ‘fearless’; dǎnxū 膽虛 one’s will’; héngxīn 恆心 ‘perseverance’; xiǎoxīn ‘timid’; dǎnliàng 膽量 ‘guts’; dǎndà 膽大 ‘bold’; 小心 ‘careful’; cūxīn 粗心 ‘careless’; jiāoxīn 焦心 dǎnxiǎo 膽小 ‘cowardly’; luòdǎn 落膽 ‘extremely ‘terribly worried’; kāixīn 開心 ‘happy’; xīnzuì scared’; sàngdǎn 喪膽 ‘terror-stricken’). In this 心醉 ‘enchanted’). The contrast outlined char- case, that is, an abstract concept, “courage”, is acterizes two cultural traditions that have devel- understood in part via a pair of conceptual meta- oped diffferent conceptualizations of person, self, phors grounded in the body, but shaped by a cul- and agent of cognition. ture-specifĳic metaphorical understanding of an The implication of these studies to Concep- internal organ, the gallbladder, inside the body. tual Metaphor Theory is that, while our mind is A further example along this line is presented embodied, it is not shaped universally because in Yu (2009a), a study of the Chinese cultural the body itself may take diffferent “shapes” in conceptualization of the heart (xīn 心). The diffferent cultural models in the fĳirst place. Cul- study exemplifĳies a fundamental diffference tures may construe the body and bodily expe- in the shaping of the body by cultural models riences diffferently, attributing diffferent values between Western and Chinese (along with some and signifĳicances to various body parts and other Asian) cultures in the conceptualization of organs and their functions. Various cultural con- “person”. This diffference can be expressed by two ceptualizations of the body and bodily experi- formulas: (a) Western PERSON = BODY + MIND ences may motivate culture-specifĳic metaphors, and; (b) Chinese PERSON = BODY + HEART. which give rise to varied perspectives in the That is, the Western conceptualization of “per- understanding of the world (see also Yu 2009b, son” is dualistic in that a person is “split” into 2015). This view is what cognitive linguists call two distinct and separate parts: the body and the “socioculturally situated embodiment” as they mind. This mind-body dichotomy defĳines Car- seek a better understanding and articulation tesian dualism, which has been the dominant of the relationship between body, culture, and philosophical view in the West for hundreds of cognition.

For use by the Author only | © 2017 Koninklijke Brill NV Metaphor Processing 8 3. More Recent Development of Kövecses, Zoltán, Metaphor: A Practical Introduction, Conceptual Metaphor Theory Oxford: Oxford University Press, 22010. Lakofff, George, “A Figure of Thought”,Metaphor and Symbolic Activity 1, 1986, 215–225. A newer version of Conceptual Metaphor The- Lakofff, George, “The Contemporary Theory of Met- ory distinguishes between two kinds of con- aphor”, in: Andrew Ortony, ed., Metaphor and ceptual metaphors: primary metaphors and Thought, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, complex metaphors (e.g., Grady 1997; Lakofff 21993, 202–251. Lakofff, George, “The Neural Theory of Metaphor”, in: and Johnson 1999). Primary metaphors, such as Raymond W. Gibbs, ed., The Cambridge Handbook those listed under the Event Structure Metaphor of Metaphor and Thought, Cambridge: Cambridge above, are motivated by conceptual domains University Press, 2008, 17–38. closely related in experience, or experiential cor- Lakofff, George and Mark Johnson,Metaphors We Live By, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980. relations which pair subjective experience and Lakofff, George and Mark Johnson,Philosophy in the judgment (target) with sensorimotor experience Flesh: The Embodied Mind and Its Challenge to (source), whereas complex metaphors are com- Western Thought, New York: Basic Books, 1999. posed of primary metaphors and cultural beliefs. Lakofff, George and Zoltán Kövecses, “The Cognitive Model of Anger Inherent in American English”, For example, a purposeful life is a journey, in: Dorothy Holland and Naomi Quinn, eds., Cul- a complex metaphor, consists of two cultural tural Models in Language and Thought, Cambridge: beliefs, people should have purposes in life Cambridge University Press, 1987, 195–221. and people should act so as to achieve Sharifĳian, Farzad, Cultural Conceptualizations and Language: Theoretical Framework and Applications, their purposes, and two primary metaphors, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2011. purposes are destinations and actions are Yu, Ning, “Metaphorical Expressions of Anger and self-propelled motions (Lakofff and Johnson Happiness in English and Chinese”, Metaphor and 1999). Because they are derived directly from Symbolic Activity 10, 1995, 59–92. Yu, Ning, The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor: common bodily experience, primary metaphors A Perspective from Chinese, Amsterdam: John Ben- are more likely to be widespread or even uni- jamins, 1998. versal than complex metaphors, which make Yu, Ning, “Metaphor, Body and Culture: The Chinese use of culturally-based knowledge. The neural Understanding of gallbladder and courage”, Meta- version of Conceptual Metaphor Theory (Lakofff phor and Symbol 18, 2003, 13–31. Yu, Ning, The Chinese HEART in a Cognitive Perspec- 2008) has discovered evidence that correlations tive: Culture, Body, and Language, Berlin: Mouton in experience grounding primary metaphors are de Gruyter, 2009a. realized in the brain as the coactivation of dis- Yu, Ning, From Body to Meaning in Culture: Papers on tinct neural areas, and that concepts paired by Cognitive Semantic Studies of Chinese, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2009b. primary metaphors are linked as neural circuits Yu, Ning, “The Metaphorical Orientation of Time in linking representations of source and target Chinese”, Journal of Pragmatics 44, 2012, 1335–1354. domains in diffferent regions of the brain. This Yu, Ning, “Embodiment, Culture, and Language”, in: theory has provided a neural account of the Farzad Sharifĳian, ed., The Routledge Handbook of Language and Culture, London: Routledge, 2015, nature and properties of conceptual metaphors. 227–239.

Bibliography Ning Yu

Grady, Joseph E., “Foundations of Meaning: Primary Metaphors and Primary Scenes”, dissertation, Uni- versity of California at Berkeley, 1997. Metaphor Processing Grady, Joseph E., “Metaphor”, in: Dirk Geeraerts and Hubert Cuyckens, eds., The Oxford Handbook of 1. Overview Cognitive Linguistics, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007, 188–213. Kövecses, Zoltán, Metaphor in Culture: Universality Conceptual metaphors establish a relationship and Variation, Cambridge: Cambridge University between two concepts, X and Y, which activates Press, 2005. a fĳigurative meaning of Y that is diffferent from