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NWFPS IN THE PACIFIC brainchild of a local indigenous Governments of Fiji and Indonesia and the % ISLANDS entrepreneur. In 2000, this entrepreneur Land Resources Division of the Secretariat saw the potential of bamboo to contribute to of the Pacific Community (SPC LRD) are A new bamboo initiative in the Fiji Islands the improvement of livelihoods in Fiji’s rural providing limited funding and technical Bamboo, mainly Bambusa vulgaris, grows communities. He invested his own money support. The support includes two short- naturally in the Fiji Islands, especially in the and labour to start a small enterprise in his term expert trainers from Indonesia, who wetter parts. It has been used mainly for community in Vusuya, Nausori, located on have trained the youths in basic weaving rafts for transporting agricultural products the southeastern side of Viti Levu, the and furniture-making skills and in down river and for plaited bamboo walls for largest of the Fiji Islands. Vusuya is a designing. A total of 14 youths have so far houses. However, with improvements in road multiethnic community with a total been trained and, with these skills, the systems and the use of timber and cement population of approximately 300, of which enterprise is beginning to make furniture for houses, bamboo is now restricted to youths make up 60 percent. and woven products that are being minor uses. In 2003 the entrepreneur, at his own introduced on the domestic market. Nevertheless, with the need for Fiji’s rural expense, travelled to China to participate in But while some interest has been shown communities to enhance their livelihoods a bamboo training course and also built a by potential local buyers, it is apparent that through participation in income-generating small workshop with some basic tools to a great deal of effort is still needed to projects utilizing natural resources, attention start the enterprise. But this initial improve the quality of products and to is now focused on the possible contribution investment was insufficient for his operation reduce costs. In this regard, two of the of non-wood forest products, including to progress since the skills required to start youths from the enterprise are now in bamboo, to this endeavour. Bamboo is a manufacturing marketable products to Indonesia for a 12-month working logical candidate because of its relative provide him with the income he so assignment, again with the support of the abundance, accessibility, low cost, and the desperately craved were absent. His training Governments of Fiji and Indonesia and the fact that it is a very well known raw material in China was a good starting-point but it SPC LRD. The objective is to enhance their for numerous products traded was not enough. He also needed working skills further so as to be able to contribute internationally. capital to purchase materials and to pay positively to the enterprise’s performance at Various attempts were made by the people to assist him in his operations. a higher level, in terms of improving Government of Fiji in the past to try to Although Bitukau’s progress up to now productivity and the quality of its products. enhance the use of local bamboo for income has been slow and difficult, it is regarded as Eventually, the two youths will also train generation by rural communities, with the a potential model and, if it becomes others in Vusuya, thereby establishing a support of the Chinese Government and the successful, will be replicated in other rural critical mass of skilled people in the United Nations Development Programme communities of the Fiji Islands as well as in community. (UNDP). Initiatives entailed the introduction other Pacific Island countries where there is of Chinese bamboo weaving and furniture- a sufficient supply of bamboo. Raw materials making experts to teach selected youths Bamboo currently used by the enterprise is from bamboo-owning communities the mostly the naturally growing Bambusa necessary skills to be able to obtain products vulgaris, which belongs to communities with that could earn them an income. The main traditional ties to the entrepreneur. These objective was to build the capacity of these are being sourced at present without any youths so that they would be able to return to payment to the resource owners. This, their communities and establish their own however, will change once Bitukau bamboo income-generating operations. Yet, Enterprises breaks through the market and while some success was achieved in the area begins to earn income. Paying landowners of technology transfer, the project was for bamboo from their land will mean further regarded as a failure because none of the spreading of the benefits derived from the youths trained were able to start up their enterprise. own business after the project ended. A External support Bambusa vulgaris is known for its high number of factors, including, but not limited The bamboo business being pursued by starch content, making it highly susceptible to, issues relating to inadequate project Bitukau Enterprises is new for Fiji. This, to insect infestation, a problem that was design and the susceptibility of local bamboo together with the failure of the previous cited as one of the causes of failure of the to insect infestations, were identified as the bamboo project, means that obtaining previous bamboo project. The bamboo used reasons for the failure. finance for development of the enterprise by the enterprise is currently diptreated with This article is a brief description of a new has been extremely difficult, if not almost chemicals, which is both expensive and initiative in Fiji, Bitukau Enterprises, to revive impossible. Consequently, the entrepreneur unsafe under rural applications. In order to the use of local bamboo to make furniture has had to pursue alternative sources of avoid using these chemicals, more suitable and woven products for the enhanced support outside the traditional commercial species of bamboo, coupled with appropriate livelihoods of rural communities. ones. post-harvest techniques, are being In response to his request for assistance investigated. In 2000, an initiative by SPC Bitukau Enterprises and in view of the enormous potential of LRD supported the introduction from Bitukau Enterprises, unlike the previous bamboo to contribute to the enhancement of Australia of selected species of bamboo government-initiated bamboo project, is the the livelihoods of rural communities, the considered to be more suitable for

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construction, as well as for edible shoots. Canarium indicum and C. harveyi aimed at developing sustainable, improved These are now in a number of trial plots in (canarium nut) and integrated farming systems in Pacific the country and the challenge is to produce Canarium nut is one of Melanesia’s most nations. Studies are currently under way to the required planting materials from the useful multipurpose trees, providing food enhance domestication of some top-priority introduced species for planting by farmers. (nuts), timber and oil. The nuts constitute an species among these traditional trees, Some work needs to be initiated in order to important seasonal food and appear to have including cutnut (Barringtonia procera), determine the best post-harvest handling been important in the diet of New Guineans Tahitian chestnut (Inocarpus fagifer), practices to reduce the risks of insect for at least 6 000 years. Considerable canarium nut (Canarium indicum), and infestation on the bamboo products. selection by local peoples of individual trees sandalwood (Santalum spp.). with desired fruit characters has taken Domestication offers enormous Community participation place in the Solomon Islands and in opportunities to run “traditional trees” into Although Bitukau Enterprises is the result of Vanuatu. These selections have been made cash crops with traditional values. Typically, a private initiative, community support and on the basis of kernel size and taste, ease of a high degree of variation is found in traits participation have been vital to its progress opening, thin pericarp, oil content and, that can be captured in new cultivars to so far, both in the area of material supply (at rarely, taste of the flesh and productivity. enhance yield and a range of quality present sourced for free) and in the In the Solomon Islands, canarium nut is attributes. Once selected for superior production of bamboo items. Continuing considered by villagers to be the most market-oriented qualities, simple vegetative support from bamboo owners in this regard important fruit- or nut-producing species in propagation techniques can be used to will be extremely important for the survival five of six provinces surveyed, namely, mass-produce elite tree cultivars. of the enterprise at this critical stage. Makira, Malaita, Isabel, Choiseul and On the production side, the enterprise has Western. It is also considered to be one of sourced its workers from a number of the most important timber species, families in the community close to its providing cash income in Makira and Malaita TRADITIONAL TREES OF THE PACIFIC workshop. These workers are not being paid Provinces and, to a lesser extent, in but in return are being trained at no cost at Choiseul Province. Moreover, it is the major The geographically isolated islands of the the enterprise’s facilities. The idea is to train indigenous tree species that villagers plant, Pacific are homes to people who have the workers at the workshop and, at the tend or transplant in the Solomon Islands. used their trees for material survival, as completion of their training, they will go back Other traditional uses include the well as to provide the essential ecological to their families and from there they will production of wood for canoes and for functions of soil enrichment, erosion produce items to be ordered by the wooden articles such as bowls, collection of control, watershed stability, coastal enterprise. Under this arrangement, the a resin for light or for canoe caulk and in protection and wildlife habitat. enterprise undertakes training, marketing, traditional medicines, mainly involving These trees have become “traditional” quality control and overall coordination. It is preparations from the bark. Nowadays, by virtue of being intertwined with the hoped that benefits will be equitably shared within its natural range, canarium nut is culture and the day-to-day lives of among the various interest groups, including commonly cultivated for its edible nuts. The indigenous peoples, for whom they the suppliers of raw materials, producers of nuts are of considerable sustenance and provide edible fruits, nuts, leaves and oils bamboo items and the enterprise itself. commercial importance, including sale in and serve as sources of medicine, fibre, local markets, processing and export. fuel, gum, resin, aromatics, timber and Conclusion The kernels are an important seasonal wood for numerous valuable products of Bamboo has the potential to improve the food in Melanesia. They are nutritious and everyday importance. livelihoods of rural communities in the Fiji have a high protein content (8–14 percent). Islands. The partnership between a local They are consumed either fresh, roasted or entrepreneur, Bitukau Enterprises, the smoked and may be eaten as a snack or Governments of the Fiji Islands and incorporated into various cooked dishes. Domesticating traditional trees is best Indonesia, and the SPC LRD is working (Source: extracted from Traditional trees of implemented through partnerships between towards bringing this potential to reality. Pacific Islands, ed. Craig R. Elevitch, 2006.) scientists and local communities, a process However, a number of important lessons called participatory domestication. This are being learned in the process, which FOR MORE INFORMATION, PLEASE CONTACT process allows communities to adopt rapidly need to be considered seriously by anyone THE AUTHORS OF THIS CHAPTER: the new techniques, to be the beneficiaries wishing to venture into a similar line of Lex Thomson, Research Director, Pacific of their own efforts and, most important, to business. Australia Reforestation Company, 65 Reynard retain the rights to their traditional Bitukau Enterprises, despite its current Street, Coburg, Victoria 3058, Australia. knowledge. It also ensures that the interests shortcomings, is being looked at as a E-mail: [email protected]; of the people are foremost in the process. potential model for other rural communities and Barry Evans, SPRIG Marketing Specialist, This kind of initiative is easily implemented in the Fiji Islands as well as in other Pacific 30 Berry St, Sherwood, QLD 4075, Australia. using appropriate low-technology that is Island countries. (Contributed by: Sairusi E-mail: [email protected] readily learned. Bulai, Forests and Trees Programme, Land Early results from participatory Resources Division, Secretariat of the Domesticating traditional trees of the Pacific domestication programmes in Africa Pacific Community, Private Mail Bag, Suva, Information about traditionally important tree indicate that local participants have Fiji. E-mail: [email protected]) species of the Pacific is crucial for efforts improved livelihoods, higher incomes and

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more sustainable farming systems, as well as new opportunities for commercializing and adding value to the products from a THE ROUNDTABLE FOR NATURE new generation of cash crops. CONSERVATION Extrapolation from this success suggests that if new tree crops can be The Roundtable for Nature Conservation developed by communities throughout the is the largest cross-sectoral coalition of Pacific and integrated into their traditional donors, non-governmental organizations farming systems, there can be very (NGOs), regional organizations and significant benefits for Pacific islanders national governments working in nature and their islands. (Source: extracted from conservation in the Pacific. the foreword by Roger R.B. Leakey of Traditional trees of Pacific Islands, ed. the plants commonly used in Fiji by For more information, please visit: Craig R. Elevitch, 2006.) WAINIMATE (the Women’s Association for www.sprep.org/roundtable/ Natural Medicinal Therapy) to treat various Medicinal plant use in Fiji ailments, especially infections of different The following table provides information on natures.

Local name Scientific name General description of the plants Uses and method of application

1. Botebotekoro Ageratum Coarse herb up to 1 m tall. Flowers minute, whitish to pale Juice or sometimes leaves are directly applied conyzoides blue, borne in sunflower-like heads. Now growing widely to infected wounds. Also used for eye infections, in the South Pacific, originally brought as an ornamental diarrhoea, dysentery, hepatitis, intestinal worms, plant from the Americas filariasis, wounds and cuts, besides other ailments 2. Vulokaka Vitex Small tree up to 5 m tall. Flowers relatively small, Used for mouth infections, as antihelminthic and trifolia bilateral, purple. Fruit a small globose, 4-seeded capsule. in stomach pains Grows widely throughout the Pacific and tropical region as far as South Africa 3. Uci Euodia Shrub to small tree up to 6 m tall. Small, white fragrant Bark used for treating jaundice hortensis flowers. Fruit a 4-parted brown dehiscent follicle, with single seed in each segment. Native to New Guinea, now widely distributed in the South Pacific 4. Kaukamea Vernonia Up to 60 cm high, this herb is found throughout Southeast Juice from plant is used to treat cuts from rusty cinerea Asia. White to purple-tinged flowers, borne in small heads knives, fish poisoning, stingrays and stonefish 5. Tarawau Dracontomelon Large tree, up to 20 m tall. Flattish branches, pinnate leaves, Decoction of leaves is used for the treatment of vitiense small whitish flowers, tough edible yellow fruits venereal ulcers, boils in ear and earache. Liquid pressed from the bark is used to treat inflammation and filariasis 6. Wa bosucu Mikania Perennial scrambling or climbing vine. White, minute flower Used for insect bites and various skin irritations micrantha borne in densely packed heads resembling sunflower. Fruit a small achene with white bristles that aid in wind dispersal of seeds. Common weed of pastures, roadsides. Native to tropical America but widely distributed throughout South Pacific and tropical Asia 7. Mokosoi Cananga Tree up to 20 m tall. Flowers very fragrant with six large pale Has known antifungal, antibacterial, antipruritic, odorata green to yellowish petals. Cultivated or naturalized in forests, antiyeast and amoebicidal activity slopes, etc. Native to Indo-Malesia 8. Dawa Pometia Tree up to 20 m tall with buttressed trunk. Flowers minute, Known to have antiprotozoal and antimicrobial pinnata regular, 5-parted, whitish except for red stamens. Fruit red, activity. Used for diarrhoea, coughs, fever, mouth juicy, whitish pulp with single seed. Widely planted and infections naturalized throughout the South Pacific 9. Kalabucidamu Acalypha Shrub, 2–5 m tall with hairy branchlets. Found widely in the Used for a wide range of respiratory ailments. wilkesiana South Pacific The decoction of leaves is used to treat gastritis and lymphatoid swelling 10. Cevucevu Physalis Herb up to 1 m tall. Found commonly in the South Pacific Leaf juices are used as antipyretic and also angulata region. White flower; fruit a green to yellowish berry with applied on boils, ulcers and wounds. Juice also numerous small seeds used to facilitate childbirth

Source: Kishore, K., Rao, D., Lal, R., Aalbersberg, B. & Pryor, J. 2007, in press. Standardization of an antimicrobial assay for Pacific Island natural products. (The authors are from the Fiji School of Medicine and the University of the South Pacific.)

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most of her clients usually place their orders starch remains a staple food for many with her but, if they are not enough, she takes people and communities in PNG; it has MORE JOBS FROM PINE IN FIJI her wares to sell at the Suva flea market. found wide uses in many traditional foods Vakaola is a good example of how and products and strongly features in the The interim government has forecasted individuals without much of an education can country’s food security issues. It also that the pine industry will provide rely on skills such as making tapa as a means generates a great deal of money from the employment to rural communities. to financial independence. (Source: Fiji local domestic market. Interim Finance Minister Mahendra Times, 23 August 2007.) Regional trade remains an important Chaudhry said contract employment in aspect of NWFP economy in PNG. the industry was expected to increase by Overview of NWFP trade in Papua New Eaglewood is one of the most highly priced 70 percent. He said it would be possible Guinea and its contribution to livelihoods commodities in the Asia-Pacific Region and when the Fiji Pine Limited diversified into Effective NWFP policies, regulations and has been extensively traded. The current new ventures such as pine resin tapping management strategies are needed for the discovery of natural stands of eaglewood in operations. “This will create employment economic, nutritional and cultural well- PNG has led to the extension of that trade, opportunities for rural communities, in being of the people. The development of which has impacted the rural economy. particular rural women,” he said. workable regulatory frameworks to reduce Other NWFPs traded internationally are (Source: Fiji Times, 25 November 2007.) illegal and unregulated trade, while rattan, butterflies, sandalwood and maximizing the sustainable management orchids. potential of NWFPs, is urgently needed. The economic importance of NWFPs in Forest economics are not just about trees the livelihoods of forest-dwellers should Keeping tapa art alive and their products but also include both not be underestimated, with people Kesaia Vakaola is among the limited number flora and fauna and the entire collective historically depending entirely on them for of women in Fiji who are adept at making ecosystem itself, especially for the tourism food, shelter, clothes, medicine, etc. masi, the traditional Fijian cloth produced industry, but also for research. Industrial Eaglewood and sandalwood, however, have from the bark of the mulberry tree. She forestry has had terrible social and no recorded traditional use apart from their now teaches other women the skills at the environmental effects in many parts of present economic uses. Rural populations Veiqaravi ecumenical community training Papua New Guinea (PNG) and there is a currently use NWFPs as a means towards centre in New Town, Nasinu. real need for an alternative industry development and poverty alleviation. The consistent thudding of wood against focusing on NWFPs. In 1992 a total ban was imposed on wild wood is the only sound to emerge from this Rattan, sandalwood and eaglewood are orchids and the domestication of wild urban setting, as women concentrate on leading examples of internationally flowers is being encouraged by the their individual tapa pieces. Beating the marketed resources in PNG. There is an National Botanical Gardens in Port bark of the mulberry tree is probably the immediate need for management and Moresby and Lae Botanical Gardens. Wild most integral part of the whole tapa- policy guidelines to manage these NWFPs orchids and flowers are very important making process, which takes about three to sustainably so that the people can benefit income-generating opportunities for five days at best. The activities provided at economically. village communities; they are often sold in the centre are aimed at empowering NWFPs have an economic value for rural local markets and are grown to attract women through acquired skills while also people, which means that their other NWFPs, such as insects and giving them some spiritual guidance. development and improved trade will help butterflies, which in turn attract tourists. “I have been making good money from alleviate poverty in these areas. Socially, NWFPs play a crucial role in tapa, roughly about $130 a week from the Domestication of plant species that reducing social tensions within rural sales,” said Vakaola. She said that as a produce NWFPs should involve scientists households by providing cash incomes to small girl growing up in her village of and farmers so that improved silvicultural cover basic needs such as shelter, food, Korotolu, she picked up the skill from older methods developed by scientists will be clothes, school and medical fees and women. “I used to see my grandmother, used by local farmers. Both eaglewood and transportation. Nuts such as karuka from a mother and aunties beating (tapa) every sandalwood species are appropriate for Pandanus species and canarium and okari morning until the afternoon.” domestication and are currently being nuts can be of great social significance. Vakaola usually derives much of the tested at the Papua New Guinea Forest Most NWFPs are traded within the informal mulberry bark from the village of Viwa in Research Institute (PNGFRI), with positive sector where there is no proper Yasawa, where mulberries grow prominently. results, which will improve genetic documentation or recorded figures to The Veiqaravi training centre is encouraging selection, leading to incentives for market indicate the actual trading. trainees to plant their own mulberry trees in expansion. Eaglewood and sandalwood are two of their backyard or garden. This is considered a There are many NWFPs in PNG that are these emerging commercialized NWFPs in good investment because it is usually six traded at local, national, regional and/or PNG with poorly documented production months or more before the bark can been international levels. For instance, rattan and trade. However, such harvested, which is a relatively short time for and sago (among other forest products) commercialization and the regulations that a good cash crop, according to Vakaola. The have cultural significance, used as govern them have had major impacts (both trainees have also been taught how to boil the clothing, shelter and food sources. Sago is positive and negative) on the sustainability bark of the dogo or mangrove plant to make exploited for stem starch and is both a of production, as well as on the benefits the dye used to paint tapa. Vakaola said that subsistence and commercial product. Sago that accrue to stakeholders. One possible

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reason for this is that there have been no places the consumption of pandanus has In the Ha’apai Group, 80 percent of effective mechanisms to ensure decreased in recent decades as a result of women are involved in handicraft sustainable production, equitable trade and the availability of imported foods. For production, mainly using pandanus and to show clearly the possibility of a win-win example, it was formerly a major staple some paper mulberry (Broussonetia situation for traders, local producing food in Nauru. In Micronesia adults may papyrifera). Most traditional handicrafts communities and resource conservation. commonly consume 20 fresh keys made from pandanus are produced for This has rendered fair trade dialogue (phalanges) or about 1 kg of fruit per day. home use, as gifts, or are informally difficult. A win-win situation is one in which The fruit pulp is preserved in several exchanged for other products, including the sustainable supply of raw materials as different ways. A paste, which is compared other handicrafts. Because the well as better prices commensurate with with dates in taste, texture and appearance, commodities are locally produced, non- the efforts and end value of the products is made by boiling and baking the keys, perishable and can be processed a number are assured. followed by extracting, processing, and of ways, there is a wide range of A recent paper commissioned by FAO’s drying the pulp. Cultivars with large opportunities for producers and processors NWFP Programme under the Norway amounts of pulp are preferred and the taste to enter into the handicraft marketing Partnership Programme (NPP) “Forests for differs among cultivars. Fresh pandanus is chain at any stage. Sustainable Livelihoods” an important source of vitamin C. Pandanus is an important income- (FNOP/INT/004/NOR) analyses how trade- Preserved pandanus pulp mixed with generating plant in the Ha’apai Group, and related instruments have influenced the coconut cream makes a tasty, sweet food the islands are well known as producers of commercialization and livelihood item. Pandanus can also be made into flour all types of mats known as fakaha’apai and contributions of eaglewood and that is consumed in different ways, usually salusalu. sandalwood in PNG, and also suggests how prepared as a drink In Tonga, producers and sellers report positive impacts can be enhanced or In the atoll islands of the Central Pacific, that prices of pandanus products are negative impacts minimized.Sandalwood the fruits are often sold fresh in local relatively stable, indicating that supply is and eaglewood are important NWFPs in markets, and preserved food items are matching demand. (Source: extracted PNG, producing substantial amounts of occasionally sold. from: Traditional trees of Pacific Islands, money and having economic potential. ed. Craig R. Elevitch, 2006.) Consequently, if properly managed they could help to improve people’s living FOR MORE INFORMATION, PLEASE CONTACT standards. (Source: extracted from Pandanus leaves are used to weave THE LEAD AUTHOR OF THIS CHAPTER: National analysis of trade-related traditional floor mats in many Pacific Lex Thomson, Research Director, Pacific instruments influencing trade in countries, as well as in the construction Australia Reforestation Company, 65 Reynard sandalwood (Santalum macgregorii F. of traditional houses (thatch for walls Street, Coburg, Victoria 3058, Australia. Muell) and eaglewood (Acquilaria and and roofing). A roof made from E-mail: [email protected] Gyrinops ledermannii spp.): applications pandanus leaves is said to last about 15 and impacts on poverty alleviation and years, while one of coconut leaves may Papua New Guinea Forestry Regulation sustainable forest management in Papua last for only three years. and NWFPs New Guinea. Unpublished FAO case study, In Papua New Guinea (PNG), the forestry available only in pdf format at sector contributes significantly to the www.fao.org/forestry/site/ 40716/en) economy: in 2001, it contributed US$334 million to PNG’s gross domestic product Pandanus tectorius (pandanus) (GDP), which was about 76 percent of its total. Pandanus is one of the Pacific’s must Although the contribution is useful plants and is featured prominently in predominantly from the logging industry, Micronesian and Polynesian creation NWFPs do play some role in the local mythology, cosmogony, proverbs, riddles, economy, with 13 tonnes of sandalwood on songs, chants and sayings. average being exported each year. This is Pandanus (P. tectorius) is a large shrub evident in the Forestry Regulation 1998 or small tree of immense cultural, health (consolidated in subsequent amendments and economic importance in the Pacific, of 2001 and 2003), where mentions of second only to coconut on atolls. Different NWFPs include the following. parts of the pandanus plant are used to The main commercial products from Forest industry activities, i.e. any provide a myriad of end products pandanus are woven products, often of high commercial activities within Papua New throughout the Pacific Islands, especially value. Individual mats may be worth more Guinea directly connected with: on atolls. than US$500 in Tonga, Fiji and Hawai’i. In • harvesting or processing of timber or Pandanus fruits are a staple food in Tonga, mats made from thin strips of rattan; parts of Micronesia including the Marshall leaves with intricate designs (fala) are • buying unprocessed timber or rattan Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia important gifts and indicators of wealth. for processing or export; and Kiribati providing up to 50 percent of Simpler designs using wider strips (lotaha • selling or, on behalf of another person energy intake. They are also widely and papa) are used as everyday floor mats. or other persons, arranging or consumed in Tokelau and Tuvalu. In some Ta’ovala mats are worn around the waist. procuring the sale or purchase of

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timber or rattan (whether unprocessed durable leaf thatch. Several secondary or processed but not including uses have also been recorded, but these manufactured items made from timber are not comparable in economic LEAF THATCH or rattan materials), by a person where importance with the primary uses. M. sagu the timber or rattan harvest, is a staple food crop in the Sepik and Gulf Leaves are highly valued for thatch for processed, purchased, sold or provinces of lowland Papua New Guinea, roofs and house walls in many islands of arranged or procured to be purchased where most of the sago grows in wild the Pacific. In Pohnpei, roofs are called or sold, by that person in a calendar uncultivated stands. oahs, the Pohnpeian word for year exceeds i) 500 m3 in volume; or ii) Among the Asmat of Papua New Guinea, M. amicarum, as the leaves are used for in the case of sandalwood or rattan felling of the palm and harvesting of the thatch. The thatch is applied in layers, 20 000 kina in market value. sago starch are accompanied by ritual. In with each sheet tied to the rafters by Declaration of reserved trees. The house construction, sago leaves are used coconut sennit or vines. Walls may also Ministry in-charge of forestry may, by for roof thatch and wall siding, and the be constructed from the same thatch notice in the National Gazette, declare any wood is used for floorboards and rafters. In sheets. trees or members of any species or class the Solomon Islands, the thatch is known to In northern Vanuatu, where both of trees to be reserved trees. NWFPs such last five years or longer. M. warburgii and M. salomonense are as agarwood and sandalwood fall under The decaying trunks of the sago palm present, thatch from each species is used the reserved species. (Contributed by: are a source of sago palm beetle grubs for different constructions. M. warburgii Regina Hansda, Flat 101, Teak Block, (Rhynchophorus ferrugineus/ bilineatus), sheets are used for roofing, whereas Sushant Estate, Sector 52, Gurgaon- an excellent source of protein. M. salomonense sheets are used for wall 122002, Haryana-India. E-mail: siding. In Samoa, older informants [email protected]) indicated that the leaves of M. paulcoxii were not useful for thatch but that M. Sago palm (Metroxylon spp.) warburgii is considered to be a superior The various species of Metroxylon EDIBLE STARCH thatch. Younger Samoan informants did (Metroxylon amicarum, M. paulcoxii, M. not seem to be aware of the difference sagu, M. salomonense, M. vitiense and M. Metroxylon starch may be eaten as raw between species and appeared to warburgii) have important cultural values chunks of pith or as baked pieces of harvest the leaves indiscriminately. throughout many parts of the Pacific and pith. Whole logs have been baked and The leaflets (basic thatch materials) Southeast Asia. The two primary uses are taken as sea provisions on long canoe of M. amicarum and M. warburgii voyages. contain highly modified and enlarged Each of the species is currently or subhypodermal bundles of fibres. These was previously used as a source of explain the enduring quality of thatch edible starch, with the possible made from these species. As humans exception of M. vitiense. The most have selected these species, they have intensive use as a food source has been probably also selected for increased fibre in the western Solomon Islands and production and have selectively planted Bougainville. Throughout the rest of cultivated trees with better leaf the range of distribution, the starch qualities. was eaten as a famine food, although this is questionable in Fiji and in at least one culture in the eastern Solomon Islands. In other parts of the Pacific, M. warburgii Production and use of sago starch and M. amicarum are viewed as emergency Metroxylon sagu (sago) vary somewhat from location to food and are rarely or no longer eaten by location. The production of sago from people, although they are used for thatch M. paulcoxii and M. warburgii is and animal feed. Various parts of the plant probably a recently introduced concept are used for traditional medicines, toys and SAGO GRUBS in Samoa. No starch has been observed other miscellaneous items. (Source: from M. paulcoxii. Although starch extracted from Traditional trees of Pacific Papua New Guinea is known for its production from M. amicarum is Islands, ed. Craig R. Elevitch, 2006.) nutty flavoured sago grubs known, it is very rare since the trees (Rhynchophorus ferrugineus papuanus are much more highly valued for FOR MORE INFORMATION, PLEASE CONTACT or R. bilineatus), beetle larvae that thatch. At present, many cultures have THE LEAD AUTHOR OF THIS CHAPTER: inhabit dead sago palm trees and are virtually abandoned the production of Will McClatchey, University of Hawai’i at Manoa, honoured at annual festivals. sago starch, in favour of other starch Botany Department, St John 405, (http://nationalzoo.si.edu/publications/z crops such as sweet potato, taro, 3190 Maile Way, Honolulu, Hawai’i 96822, oogoer/2005/4/edibleinsects.cfm) cassava (manihot) or imported rice. United States of America. Tel.: 808-956-6704; fax: 808-956-3923; for the production of edible starch and www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/mcclatchey/

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The crippling of the lucrative kava export Agreement for promotion of small-scale Lessons learned. The story of kava industry in the Pacific Island countries enterprises among these nations) and illustrates the value of understanding History. Kava kava (Piper methysticum) is a PRO€INVEST (an EU-ACP partnership traditional uses of NWFPs; the significance member of the pepper family. Its roots have programme developed and undertaken by of considering safety issues in herbal been used for centuries in the Pacific Island the European Commission on behalf of the preparations; the need for introducing and countries (PICs), Vanuatu, Fiji, Samoa and ACP countries). enforcing quality standards and regulations Papua New Guinea, for the preparation of a The International Kava Executive Council to ensure that quality raw materials are ceremonial and social drink. In western (IKEC) consisting of members from both the used in the pharmaceutical, food and countries kava has been mostly sold as a PICs and the EU was constituted in cosmetic industry; and the role of third party dietary supplement and in pharmaceutical November 2003 in response to this trade mediation. preparations for patients suffering from disaster. The findings of the report were IKEC’s Web site (www.ikec.org) provides a anxiety, stress, nervousness and insomnia. deliberated in the International Kava comprehensive overview of this issue. Kava production. Kava is one of those Conference 2004 organized by IKEC in Fiji, (Contributed by: Regina Hansda, Flat 101, NWFPs cultivated on a large scale, but wild wherein participation from stakeholder Teak Block, Sushant Estate, Sector 52, sources continue to meet the market representatives, scientists, health Gurgaon-122002, Haryana, India. E-mail: demand. Most of the PICs grow it; however, authorities and academics from 16 [email protected]) the archipelago of Vanuatu, the islands of countries, including the Pacific ACP and EU Pentecost, Santo, Tanna, Epi, Ambae, Tongoa states, took place. The outcomes of this and Maewo are the primary kava-growing conference led to the drafting and adoption areas. In Vanuatu, kava production is less of a resolution in 2004, which included the VANUATU DEFENDS ITS FAMOUS than that of copra (coconut) and cocoa, but following. KAVA DRINK the cash value to small subsistence Vanuatu • The efficacy and safety of kava in the kava farmers is significant. treatment of conditions of nervous Vanuatu is battling to defend the Trade and export. During the late 1990s, anxiety, stress and restlessness were reputation of its national drink, a bitter kava was one of the top ten best-selling proved through more than 20 clinical peppery concoction called kava, which is herbs globally. A boom in 1998 witnessed a trials involving more than 10 000 famous for its medicinal, stress-relieving surge in sales to an estimated US$50 patients. Of 82 reported cases of liver properties. Since 2000, kava has been million. Only some 100 000 kg were shipped toxicity attributed to kava, only about banned by many European countries, to Europe during the whole of 1996, four could be substantiated, highlighting following claims that the herbal remedy compared with 50 000 kg of dried roots that the incidence rate is one case in 50 can cause severe liver damage. Now shipped every week from Fiji alone in 1998. million kava extract users. Australia has imposed tight new import In 1997, kava extract was sold for $100/kg by • Toxicity studies on kava suggest a restrictions because of concerns that it is processing companies to manufacturers, hypothesis that the causal factors to the being abused in some Aboriginal compared with $250–300/kg in 1998, a 300 reported cases may be related to the communities. percent rise in price. variety of kava utilized (many But in Vanuatu, kava drinking Trade ban in western countries. The indiscriminate kava varieties were remains an essential evening ritual, as growing kava export industry in the PICs exported and used in the tablet industry, the roots of the Piper methysticum received a devastating setback in 2002 when including even wild or false kava, since plant are washed, chopped, mashed countries in the European Union, led by people were quick to exploit the high (ideally with a stick of dry coral) and Germany, imposed bans on kava products, prices in the absence of any kind of strained into coconut cups. Many withdrawing licences for all products quality control both between Pacific people on these remote islands believe containing kava and/or kava’s active countries and export to Europe and the that kava has been unjustly ingredient (kavalactone). This was mainly United States), and also possibly the demonized. They claim that the herb – because of the alleged links between kava extraction method used. once widely available globally in pill extract and liver damage. Other countries • The World Health Organization (WHO) form as a natural treatment for stress such as the United Kingdom, the United was asked to work on kava safety and anxiety, and known as kava kava – States of America, Canada, Australia, New evaluations. was encroaching on the turf of Zealand and Singapore also imposed a ban Current status. WHO, in association with the international pharmaceutical on the import and use of kava extract. Natural Standard Research Collaboration companies. Now Vanuatu’s case has Post-ban impacts and initiatives. As a result carried out an assessment of the risk of been strengthened by a new report of the ban, livelihoods of thousands of hepatotoxicity with kava products. This from WHO that appears to rule out a households across the PICs were impacted. provides safety and regulatory information, link between kava and liver damage. Phytopharm, the Germany-based consulting analytical results and clinical Despite the new restrictions imposed firm on botanical research carried out an in- recommendations, as well as conclusions by Australia, kava traders in the Pacific depth investigation into European Union and recommendations by the Committee are now hoping to revive their export member states’ market restrictions on kava appointed to handle the inquiry. Recent industry, which has been badly damaged products at the behest of the Centre for the news briefings suggest a possible review of by these bans. (Source: BBC News Development of Enterprise (an ACP [Africa, the kava import ban by the countries [United Kingdom], 18 July 2007.) Caribbean and Pacific]/EU joint institution concerned as a result of the outcomes of the created in the framework of the Cotonou WHO report.

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% HISTORY OF NWFPS forest-related knowledge between generations. Thus, the demand for traditional The forgotten heritage products has decreased and former well- There is growing awareness on the part of known techniques and uses are only partly international forest science and policy as recognized and have largely fallen into regards the significance and relevance of oblivion. local and indigenous knowledge about The gap between orally transferred forest- forests and traditional possibilities of related knowledge and forest science can be utilization, as well as the need to take bridged to a certain extent by forestry-related account of this knowledge in the literature dating back to the development of political strategies that aim eighteenth/nineteenth century. Although at sustainable forest management. The most of the authors (forest scientists and protection, documentation and utilization of foresters) focused primarily on the forest-related, tradition-based knowledge production of highly valuable timber, they are the focus of numerous political were aware that their scientific knowledge discussions held within national, regional was based on traditional knowledge. This is and international organizations and fora. the reason why they collected and published Buchhandlung München). However, a Countries in the European region and oral information about the various uses of considerable number of contemporary – elsewhere have in recent years increased trees and their different parts, such as bark, mainly German - forest scientists have their attention towards the cultural heritage sap, leaves, blossoms and seeds. These acknowledged the traditional multiple uses values in forests (e.g. Vienna Declaration and books are of great importance for today’s of woodlands. Vienna Resolution 2003 adopted at the society because they provide information Reber addresses the multiple products Fourth Ministerial Conference on the about different products and the recipes and deriving from specific tree species and Protection of Forests in Europe). skills necessary to produce and use them. describes in detail not only the technical uses Over thousands of years a diversity of Thus attention can be drawn to the fact that, of wood but also the multiple uses of leaves, forest management practices has shaped in addition to wood, a wide variety of products bark, sap, fruits and seeds. Thus different European landscapes, affecting density, can be derived from forest trees, with many parts of the trees can be used for different structure and species composition of forests traditional processing techniques known in purposes such as bark for tanning, dyeing, and woodlands, according to technical practice only in rare cases and that have medicine, bast for weaving and ropes, or sap knowledge, environmental conditions and fallen into oblivion to a great extent. for the production of turpentine, resin, pitch, the role played by forests in time and space. The example of juniper may illustrate the tar, soot, oil sugar, wine, brandy, vinegar and Traditional knowledge has greatly importance of specific tree species for daily medicine. The leaves of various trees can contributed, providing multiple goods and life and how they are used by local people. serve as food for human beings as well as for services, food, raw material, energy sources, The wood of this species can be used for the fodder (green or dried) for cattle, goats and livelihood security and quality of life and manufacture of cups, plates, fuelwood and sheep and as fertilizer, but can also be used developing management practices that have medicine. The roots, particularly from male for tanning and dyeing. Multiple uses of fruits increased the biodiversity and quality of shrubs, and the wood and berries produce a are also mentioned, such as food for human woodlands. Over the last decades the retreat pleasant smoke. Roots can also serve as a beings (green, dried, cooked), for fodder for of agriculture, socio-economic development, medicine against fever and other diseases. husbandry and game, for tanning and dyeing, market changes, the replacement of Resin can be collected from the bark and for beverages (syrup, coffee, brandy) and for renewable raw materials and modern used also as incense; needles might be used medicine and oil. Just in the making of oil, forestry have deeply changed the relationship for smoking. The fruits can be the basis for more than 13 different raw materials are between society and forest resources, the production of local brandy, medicine mentioned as the basis for production (such interrupting the transmission of traditional against various diseases and for oil. In these as seeds from beech, hazel, lime tree, horse publications traditional knowledge is chestnut, alder, spruce, fir, pine, larch; preserved, which has been handed down leaves from alder; buds from poplar and orally from generation to generation, that horse chestnut; and blossoms from roses otherwise would have been lost. For a long and birch). Reber also pays attention to the time, some of these products have been importance and uses of diverse plants, referred to – in a mostly discrediting manner herbs, grasses, mosses and lichens growing – as “by-products”, e.g. tree saps, which are in the woodland. Other particular products of interest in pharmacy and food technology are perfumes deriving from juniper or in the chemical industry even today. (produced from wood, roots, berries and One of the most interesting authors of that needles), larch (blossoms, needles), rose time is Peter Reber, who described in a very (leaves, blossoms), willow (blossoms) and comprehensive way the common uses of spruce (bark). Different parts of trees are forest trees, shrubs and herbs at the also highly valued because of their healing beginning of the nineteenth century (Reber, effect against diseases (mainly against fever) P. 1831. Handbuch des Waldbaues und der such as berries, fruits, leaves, branches, Waldbenutzung. Jos. Lindauer’sche bark, seeds and wood (i.e. juniper and birch).

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Active substances for pharmaceutical ancient indigenous societies. In fact, and cosmetic products are still being ancient societies turned to noni and other TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE obtained from forest trees but, apart from plants for many of their needs, ranging well-established usages, new fields of use from the mundane to the life-sustaining Traditional knowledge is a combination and products can also be created. Wood and spiritual. of ancient indigenous practices and composites hold a huge, in many respects Proof of noni’s status as a critically techniques, locally adapted and still unused, potential; for example, they important plant can be found in the stories distinctive in a territory or community. It can provide the basis for packaging of ancient Polynesians, who considered it to is passed on through generations, materials, foils, paints and many more. At be important enough to take it intentionally packaged in folk songs, stories, dances, present, forest management systems to new lands in the Pacific and plant it near poetry, carvings and paintings. This based on traditional forest-related their settlements. knowledge has greatly contributed, and knowledge and often small-scale Many of the following ancient and still does, to the world’s natural and enterprises are not sufficiently recognized traditional uses of noni are still in use cultural heritage by sustaining the by researchers, managers and policy- among indigenous peoples throughout the production of multiple goods and makers. However, the experience of the tropics. services that enhance livelihood security past half century reveals a variety of Fire. Fire is one the most basic and and quality of life. Traditional relationships between science and universal human needs. Tropical societies knowledge, cultural values and historical traditional knowledge, in which the general used noni wood as fuelwood for cooking perspective have gained an increasingly trend has been from disapproval towards fires. important role in shaping policies appreciation. (Contributed by: Prof. Tools. The ability to make tools from towards achieving the Millennium Elisabeth Johann, Oberdorfl 9, St materials in the environment enabled many Development Goals (MDGs) of alleviating Margareten 9173, Austria. E-mail: ancient societies to flourish. Every society poverty and ensuring economic, social [email protected]) can use convenient and renewable sources and environmental sustainability. of high-quality woods to make tools and to Traditional knowledge has been used construct buildings. Noni wood was used to for managing the utilization of many make canoe paddles, digging implements natural resources, such as water, soil and and other hand tools. It was also used in forests, and for organizing rural and fashioning weapons such as axe handles. urban communities. Traditional Forest- First aid. Preventing sickness and loss of Related Knowledge (TFRK) has long been life helps to keep a society strong. Noni known to have important implications leaves and fruits were used as immediate for forest management and conservation first aid treatments for cuts, bruises, burns of forest biodiversity, as well as for and broken bones. Noni served a dual role identification of valuable genetic of helping to promote healing and to relieve resources. pain. The political commitments on Curative or advanced medicine. Societies increasing awareness of the role of TFRK Morinda citrifolia all over the world have a long-established and practices in the protection of healing tradition of using noni as one of landscapes and conservation of Ancient and traditional uses of noni their most important medicinal plants. The biological diversity were reaffirmed by (Morinda citrifolia) specific medical uses of the plant, what many of the member states of the Noni has probably been used by humans plant parts are used, and how they are used United Nations Forum on Forests. During for at least 5 000 years and perhaps much vary among tropical societies. The its Sixth Session in 2006, countries longer. It belongs to a large plant group importance of the plant also varies among agreed to four Global Objectives on (genus) called Morinda. societies. Nevertheless, the plant is so Forests aimed at enhancing sustainable Morinda species comprise a useful and widely used for medicine that this may be forest management (SFM) and the widely distributed group of tropical trees, considered its most important function. As contributions of forests to the shrubs and vines. There are about 80 a medicine, healers often mixed noni with achievements of the MDGs. The species, most originating from Borneo, other herbs. Healers commonly combined increasing emphasis on SFM, which New Guinea, northern Australia and New herbs in specific amounts and mixtures to includes ecological, social, cultural, Caledonia. At least 20 species have effect more complete cures of complex spiritual and economic sustainability, has significant economic and traditional value problems. Herbal treatments together with prompted increasing emphasis on as a source of medicine, food, dyes or spiritual healing or god supplication considering all relevant knowledge wood. Several species, including noni, have activities were probably more common about forest ecosystems and the impact buoyant seeds that can float in saltwater than using herbs such as noni alone. of forest management options in the for months and still remain viable upon Clothing/fabrics. Fabrics are essential to development of forest policies and landing on a remote coast. societies for clothing and other purposes. operational practices. (Source: APAFRI These Morinda species became Virtually all societies dye their fabrics in Brief, 19 June 2007.) essential components of many tropical some way. Very important red and yellow coastal and forest ecosystems, as well as dyes for tapa cloth were made from noni by serving important functions in a number of many indigenous societies.

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Fodder. Most societies utilize animals for forest ecosystem management) began with food, transportation or work. Noni fruits the opening of colonies. Wood was used for and leaves are a good supplement for the various purposes such as ship building, diet of ruminating animals. packaging commercial products (e.g. tea Human food. Island or seafaring societies chests), mining, infrastructure in the tropics are faced with destructive development, the establishment of wood- hurricanes and tidal waves. These based industries and urbanization. calamitous events can destroy most of the The trend started in the 1700s still plant life near or on the coastline. Famine continues. Increase in population, income often follows such events and until the levels and standards of living have resulted vegetation can recover, people need in an ever-increasing demand for wood. something to eat. Noni fruit and leaves Extensive areas of forest lands have been filled this role as a “famine food” plant. cleared for agriculture, horticulture and They were not particularly delicious or other uses since population growth has led nutritious but could sustain life. (Source: to an explosion in need for food, water, Atropa belladonna extracted from Nelson, S.C. & Elevitch, C.R. clothing, education, waste disposal, health 2006. Noni: the complete guide for traditional Chinese medicines use some care and employment. The two world wars consumers and growers. Holualoa, 5 000 species. also impacted on forests. Inadequate Hawa’ii, Permanent Agriculture Resources. NWFPs were probably the earliest protection and management, frequent www.nonithecompleteguide.com). traded goods. In 1992, a team of amateur forest fires, heavy overgrazing, shifting archaeologists discovered the Atlantis of cultivation, wasteful harvesting, excessive Old glory the sands, the lost city of Ubar – the fuelwood collection, misuse of rights and For millennia, people have thrived on fabulous city in the sunken Arabian desert, privileges and illegal activities exacerbated products harvested from forests and for which was linked to the trade of the situation. Spiralling deforestation has most of recorded history people have frankincense, obtained from the sap of the become a worldwide phenomenon, valued the forest not so much for wood but trees (Boswellia and Commiphora species) especially affecting the developing for other products. Ancient writings from growing in the Dhufar mountains of Oman, countries. China, Egypt and India record a wide which was traded on far-reaching routes The assault on forests in the past was variety of products derived from forest from Rome to China. made easier because of the flora and fauna. NWFPs have been traded over long undervaluation of forest benefits. Most The early humans in their nomadic distances for many centuries, while wood valuations are based on the monetary phase of existence lived as hunters and products have only become major values of marketed or marketable forest gatherers, living in caves and makeshift international commodities comparatively products and services and this omits the shelters. Domestication of plants and recently. The ancient Egyptians, for real value of unpriced goods and services. animals started with the beginning of example, imported gum arabic from the NWFPs mostly fall in this category. Yet settled agriculture. Systems of agriculture Sudan and used it for the preparation of these goods and services make up the and medicine developed in different parts colours for painting and for mummifying. It greater part of the socio-economic values of the world, independent of each other. was such an important article of commerce of forests. Their omission automatically Some 3 000 years BC, the Chinese in the fourteenth century that it had a tax leads to gross undervaluation. emperor Shen Nung wrote down what is imposed on it. Other traded products A recent study indicated that, in India, believed to be the earliest recorded use of included natural cosmetics, dyes, spices against the estimated contribution of forest plants as medicine. He noted that and food additives. Belladonna (Atropa benefits valued at US$43.8 billion, the chalmugra oil, an extract from the fruit of belladonna) was used by Italian women to officially accounted contribution of forestry Hydnocarpus spp. was an efficient brighten their eyes. A drop of the plant to national income in 1993 was only an treatment against leprosy. The ancient extract widens the pupil and the Italians equivalent of $2.9 billion, representing 1.2 classical Ayurvedic texts Charaka Samhita, named it belladonna (beautiful woman). percent of the GNP of India. Most of those Susruth Samhita and Ashtanga Hrdaya Today it is used in medicine. For example, missing in the official figures were related Samhita mention a large number of one of its active substances, atropine, is to forest grazing, green fodder, medicinal medicinal plants for curing different used in tablet and injection forms to plants, forest foods, non-wood ailments. Hippocrates, the father of stimulate the nervous system. construction materials (e.g. thatch grass modern medicine, wrote the book Materia The geopolitics of today have been and bamboo) and some other NWFPs, medica, which discusses some 400 influenced by the past trade in NWFPs – of amounting to a value of about $28 billion. medicinal formulae using herbs such as spices, cosmetics, food preservatives and All along, the timber orientation of the mint, sage, rosemary and verbena as well silks. The influence of trade in NWFPs forestry profession and the bias of as opium. continued up to the industrial revolution in planners in favour of large-scale It is estimated that 35 000 to 70 000 the west, when the economy of scale slowly enterprises have left NWFPs at a plant species have at one time or other eased out the small-scale production of disadvantage. Production, at best, was been used in various cultures for NWFPs. considered incidental or subsidiary. This medicinal purposes. Indian traditional The pre-eminence of wood (together has resulted in NWFPs being left out of medicines are known to use 7 000 species; with woodland management as against management prescriptions and preference

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given to comparatively easier timber alto precio estaban reservadas para la alta The vegetable fibre industry in the Canary management. sociedad. Islands Except for management operations of En Europa casi desapareció la Knowledge about the vegetable fibre some commercially important NWFPs, costumbre de comer insectos en épocas industry in the Canary Islands comes from such as bamboo, rattan, pine resin, beedi posteriores al imperio romano. Aunque un three main sources of information: leaves, kutch and katha and sandalwood 80 por ciento de la población mundial come archaeology, ethnography and oil, others were lumped together as minor insectos habitualmente (y no sólo por ethnohistory. Thanks to archaeology, an products and collection rights were necesidad, sino también por placer), en important part of our prehistoric past can auctioned off for lump-sum consideration. Europa, Estados Unidos, Canadá y otros be reconstructed. Because of the particular Apart from this, there were some isolated países occidentales, la mayor parte de la climatic conditions of the Canary and disjointed activities on non-wood población sigue siendo reacia a practicar la archipelago, many objects made of species introduction and domestication entomofagia. vegetable fibres have survived up to today. (e.g. Pyrethrum). There have also been México es actualmente el mayor centro The world of nature that surrounded the systematic studies on several NWFP de entomofagia mundial. En ningún país aborigines supplied them with the prime species, without commercial objectives. del mundo se consume una variedad tan materials for their industry. Developments (Source: extracted from a key note address asombrosa de insectos, muchos de ellos in the use of rush, palm and bulrush were a delivered by C. Chandrasekharan at the con una gran tradición histórica. En México result of the abundance of prime materials, National Seminar on Sustainable se comen los saltamontes (conocidos allí the needs of the aborigines and the Management of Non-Timber Forest como chapulines), los gusanos rojo y technical knowledge they possessed. Products of Western and Eastern Ghats blanco (larvas de lepidópteros) que viven en Rush (Holoschoenus vulgaris Link) is a held in Thiruvananthapuram on 25 May el ágave o maguey, las larvas de hormigas Cyperacea plant that grows abundantly in 2000.) o escamoles, hormigas odre, larvas de marshy areas, on the banks of ponds and abejas y avispas y muchísimos otros streams. It can be used to bind mats, ropes, Entomofagia humana insectos. El total de especies consumidas chairs, and so on. The natives used this La entomofagia es el consumo de insectos en México excede las 250, pero lo más fibre in the elaboration of their clothing, to como alimento. Los orígenes de la extraordinario no es el número de especies distinguish those of different social status entomofagia humana son muy antiguos. Es sino el gran porcentaje de la población que and those of authority. Archaeological finds prácticamente seguro que todos los habitualmente consume insectos y la are proof of its use in the aborigines’ world antecesores en la evolución de nuestra diversidad y riqueza del recetario, ya que la with the existence of mats employed in especie consumían, en mayor o menor gastronomía mexicana se ha enriquecido shrouds for the dead, clothing and different medida, insectos. notablemente con el mestizaje entre las cords. Desde tiempos prehistóricos tenemos cocinas española e indígena. (Fuente: The bulrush is a similar plant to the rush. referencias del consumo de insectos en la Entomofagia. Alimentación con insectos Archaeological finds offer evidence that it alimentación humana. En la Cueva de La por Juan Lizama. Ediciones El Nibelungo.) was used to a lesser degree than the rush. Araña en Bicorp (Valencia), que es una de The date palm (Phoenix canariensis) is a las más antiguas, se representa la PARA MÁS INFORMACIÓN, DIRIGIRSE A: species exclusive to the Canary Islands. recolección de la miel (y probablemente Juan Carlos Lizama Velasco, Dirección General Palm trees frequently grew on the lower también de larvas de abeja, ya que se de Agricultura, Oficina Española de Variedades slopes and coastal plains of the larger extraían los panales completos). Estas Vegetales, Ministerio de Agricultura, islands of the archipelago. At one time pinturas rupestres tienen unos 8 000 años Pesca y Alimentación, Alfonso XII 62, extensive palm groves covered the beds de antigüedad, sin embargo actualmente 2º planta, 28104 Madrid, España. and sides of the barrancos (ravines). algunas tribus africanas extraen la miel (y Correo electrónico: [email protected] The island of Grand Canary had an consumen las larvas) de forma parecida. important vegetable fibre industry. The De la cultura asiria, una de las más basic materials were rush, bulrush and importantes del mundo antiguo, tenemos palm. These three elements are those used el testimonio del aprovechamiento de un by Don Juan Ramírez Pérez, who is abundante recurso natural – los considered the only artisan making cloth saltamontes y, eventualmente, las plagas and objects of vegetable fibre following the de langosta – como alimento. En un relieve techniques used by the native Canary del muro de un palacio de Ninive (actual islanders. (Source: El Pajar, II Época, No. Iraq) del año 700 a. C. se representa a dos 22, August 2006.) esclavos que llevan a un banquete numerosos saltamontes ensartados. FOR MORE INFORMATION PLEASE CONTACT: Los antiguos griegos y romanos comían Rafael C. Gómez León, Asociación “Pinolere. insectos habitualmente y existen Proyecto Cultural”, Revista “El PAJAR. numerosos testimonios históricos de esta Cuaderno de Etnografía Canaria”. costumbre. En la antigua Grecia los Urbanización Viña Los Frailes. Calle Aceviño, 28, saltamontes o langostas eran 38300 La Orotava. Tenerife. Islas Canarias. considerados un manjar para las clases E-mail: [email protected] or populares, las cigarras, en cambio, por su [email protected]; www.pinolere.org

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the second in a series of research forests established by the Canadian Government NWFP EXPLOITATION: LATEX FROM and “serves as a living laboratory for the THE CONGO UNDER KING LEOPOLD Atlantic Forestry Centre”. OF BELGIUM’S RULE IN THE ARF has been a leader in the research NINETEENTH CENTURY and development of NTFPs, for example in its early work in Christmas tree culture and Native communities in the Domaine management and the recent cultivation privé (almost two-thirds of the Congo experiments of ground hemlock Taxus that was the exclusive private property Canadensis Marsh. (Source: Harvest of the state, in turn the exclusive beneath the trees: botanical non-timber private property of King Leopold) were forest products by Deannie Sullivan- not merely forbidden by law to sell Fraser.) items to anyone but the state: they were required to provide state officials FOR MORE INFORMATION PLEASE CONTACT: with set quotas of rubber and ivory at Deannie S. Fraser, 61 B Hazelhurst St, a fixed, government-mandated price. Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada B2Y 3N1. The rubber came from wild vines in E-mail: [email protected] p the jungle, unlike the rubber from Brazil that was tapped from trees. To extract the rubber, instead of tapping the vines, the natives would slash them and lather their bodies with the rubber The federal governmental forest agency latex. When the latex hardened, it – The Canadian Forest Service (CFS) – was would be scraped off the skin in a founded in 1899. The CFS has long been painful manner, as it took off the engaged in studying and demonstrating natives’ hair with it. sustainable forest management practices. This killing of the vines made it even In 1933, the CFS established the Acadia harder to locate sources of rubber as Research Forest (ARF), near Fredericton, time went on, but the government was New Brunswick. This 9 000 ha forest was relentless in raising the quotas. (Source: Answers.com; Congo Free State history of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Early history, migration and states (to 1867); SHARING KNOWLEDGE www.answers.com/topic/congo-free- state-1) First Nation people often shared their knowledge of useful plants with the pioneers. The explorer Jacques Cartier had both his ships ice bound in the History of NWFP use in Canada winter of 1635–36 at Stadacona, near In North America, the relationship between the present Quebec City. During that people and plants began thousands of winter he lost about 75 men from years ago as the First Nation peoples scurvy. In the spring, Cartier happened developed their skills and knowledge and to see a group of First Nations; among made their way south of the treeline. In them was Don Agauya who Cartier had eastern Canada, for example, not only were noticed the previous autumn displaying the forests a source of materials for fuel the same symptoms as those that took and shelter but also of food and medicine. the lives of his men. Cartier questioned Over 170 plant species have been him as to how he had recovered. documented as food sources. Almost all of Agauya sent some women in his group the parts of plants were used: fruits, nuts, to collect the bark and boughs of a seeds, roots, bulbs, rhizomes, buds, certain tree. He instructed Cartier how flowers, shoots, leaves, inner bark and sap. to make a tea from these and, as a Over 50 species were used as beverages. result, all those who were ill recovered. The early colonists brought their Unfortunately, the tree was never knowledge of European herbals with them described and has been the cause of to the New World. Seeds of old world plants interesting debates. were brought and planted in their gardens and used as edibles and medicinals.

NON-WOOD NEWS No. 16 January 2008