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ISSN 2455-4782

FINANCIAL BENEFITS (PAY AND PENSION) OF MEN IN THE ARMED FORCES

Authored by: Sneha Meghani*

* 4th Year B.L.S. LL.B. student, Pravin Gandhi College of Law, University of ______

ABSTRACT

The Indian armed forced i.e. the , and Air-Force are governed by Army Act 1950, Navy Act 1957 and the Air-Force Act 1950 respectively. This paper examines, the special conditions of military life (as compared to normal civilian employment) which include disadvantages such as the liability to danger, being subject to higher levels of discipline, separation from home and family, turbulence and the shorter span of employment and the compensation men in service receive for it. The paper also compares the financial benefits received by servicemen in developed countries as compared to . The paper also briefly examines the evolution of the armed forces in India. The paper discusses the alternative- employment options available to relatively young retired ex-servicemen and the training and facilities provided by the government.

Keywords: Pension; Armed Forces; Army Act 1950; Navy Act 1957; Air-Force Act 1950.

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INTRODUCTION

While the world continues to battle with a global pandemic The has had its hands full with the India- skirmishes since May 5, 2020 at (LAC). The Chinese troops had been venturing deeper into the contested area despite several warnings from the Indian army1. In April 2020, China disputed the construction of a road by India in Galwan Valley and tried to claim the Galwan Valley in entirety. Indo- China border disputes span over several decades, in 1996 they signed an agreement that banned the use of firearms and within the area of LAC. Due to which on 15th June, 2020 the two largest nuclear powers in the world attacked each other with medieval weapon-clubs spiked with nails and wrapped in a barbed wire, this led to the death of 20 Indian soldiers and several casualties of Chinese soldiers.

The Galwan Valley and the adjoining region experience freezing temperatures all year around. The forbidding conditions are arid and inhospitable.The Galwan Valley contains some of the most treacherous terrain on Earth. Conditions are extreme. Steep slopes of almost 50 per cent are jagged and full of loose rocks. The landscape, altitude and lack of oxygen makes physical activity highly demanding2. Carrying out military operations at an altitude of 4000 metres comes with a great set of challenges, the soldiers may suffer from - acute mountain sickness, pulmonary oedema, and cerebral oedema. Furthermore, soldiers have to withstand harsh temperature difference ranging from 50 degree Celsius to -26 degree Celsius.

The soldiers that were wounded in the battle had to endure temperatures below zero degrees Celsius, as they waited for helicopters to pick them up in the dark of night in terrain which made search and rescue missions extremely difficult. Battling in such inhumane conditions, men in the armed forces risk their lives every day to protect the . The aim of this paper is to determine if the remuneration the defense personnel receive is proportional to the task they undertake.

1Snehesh Alex Philip, Chinese troops challenge India at multiple locations in eastern , standoff continues, The Print, 24 May, 2020, Available at : https://theprint.in/defence/chinese-troops-challenge-india-at-multiple- locations-in-eastern-ladakh-standoff-continues/428304/, Late visited: 9th July, 2020 2Marcelo Duhalde, Dennis Wong and Kaliz Lee, 'India-China border clash explained', South China Morning Post, July 2, 2020, Available at:https://multimedia.scmp.com/infographics/news/world/article/3091480/China-India- border-dispute/index.html, Late visited: 19th July, 2020

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Military Personnel occupy the most dignified position in the life of our nation as they preserve and protect its sovereignty, integrity and unity not only during war times but also during the days of peace. Their devotion and services to the country are fundamental in character. They are expected to command and possess virtues of the highest order known to human beings in the services of the state.

India shares land and maritime boundaries with ten countries which include- China, , , , , , Myanmar3 and maritime borders with Sri Lanka, and . It pursues a robust defense strategy which aims to address the wide spectrum of security challenges faced by the country. It is guided by the principle of building strength through strategic autonomy and self-reliance. India has one of the largest in the world. In the 21st CE, the Indian defense forces are undergoing rapid expansion and transformation.

EVOLUTION OF THE

During the initial years of colonization in India, the (EIC) had to fight various battles against Indian princes which led to gradual expansion of the British rule. To maintain and expand its the British started recruiting Indian soldiers or sepoys in its military.

In the remote villages of northern and north- western India, jobs in army were often looked upon as the only possible “honorable” source of employment for thousands of illiterate young men with a chance to engage in the external world. The Indian (sepoys) saw this as an opportunity to receive professional military training and regular pay for the first time. The sepoys found rule by the EIC - desirable. This enabled the British to exercise their authority with comparative ease. The idea of nationhood had not really taken shape yet, and the British were merely one among the many players vying for power.4

3Available at https://www.mha.gov.in/sites/default/files/BMIntro-1011.pdf 4D.P. Ramachandran, ‘The Indians who fought the Empire’s wars’, , January 20, 2019, Available at: https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/open-page/the-indians-who-fought-the--wars/article26038786.ece. Last visited on: 11th October, 2019.

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The British were happy with the contribution made by the Indian troops who in turn wanted to be treated as equal to their British counterparts. The British troops subscribed to the racist imperialist ideology; the senior most Indian officer would often be junior to a British officer at the lowest position. Although the Indian army was recruited by the British to fulfill its own selfish agenda- to expand and maintain the large Indian empire, it ignited the first spark for freedom with the “ Mutiny” of 1857, ending the EIC’s reign and putting India under the British Crown. The mutiny shook the very foundation of the British Empire in India and was very harshly put down by the Crown5.

Over the next 90 years, the Indian army was used by the British government to fight both – and World War II. Many memorials are built across Europe commemorating the sacrifice of 1.5 million Indian soldiers recruited in the war, this was more than the number of soldiers recruited from Canada, New Zealand and Australia combined. These men fought in unfamiliar harsh weather conditions, often armed with outdated weapons and underwent great physical hardships- while fighting for the British Empire. The Indian army fought fiercely in the Battle of Haifa which led to the end of and formation of present day , Jordan, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon and .

This transformed Indian army into a disciplined fighting force. Before the independence, the British Indian army was also known as the Indian Army6. It took care of British India and the Princely States.

After independence, the Indian military undertook operations in a domestic capacity in order to counter specific threats to national integration: for instance, in 1948, the Indian military annexed the princely states of and Junagadh; it undertook counter-insurgency operations in the 1950s against rebelling Naga tribes in the Indian north-east; and, in 1961, it liberated Goa, from Portuguese rule.

Ministry of Defense was created under a Cabinet Minster and the Chief of Army staff, Chief of Naval staff, and Chief of Air staff appointed for army, navy and air-force respectively. The

5 Ibid 6 Archana Subramanian, ‘Indian get army ranks’, The Hindu, August 26, 2017, Available at: https://www.thehindu.com/children/indians-get-army-ranks/article19565524.ece, Last visited on: 10th July, 2020

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Ministry of Defense consists of four main departments- The Department of Defense, Department of Defense Production, the Department of Defense Research and Development, and Department of Ex-Servicemen Welfare. The Defense Secretary serves as the head of Department of Defense and co-ordinates the activities of the four departments7

India's initial post-independence strategy of maintaining conventional military superiority over Pakistan had been somewhat dented after Pakistan started receiving substantial aid from the since the mid-1950s, which helped to transform its military into a large, modern and mechanized force. Growing strategic ties between China and Pakistan also meant that India had to be militarily prepared to fight a joint China-Pak on both the eastern and western fronts simultaneously. Indira Gandhi's strategic outlook was thus clear: India had to be militarily prepared to meet the China-Pak threat and develop a robust defensive capability. She, therefore, allocated more resources for Defense procurement and for Defense-research and development, and encouraged the Indian military to become bigger, better and modern.8

The transformation of the Indian military into a modern fighting machine over the last two decades has occurred due to various reasons:

 The end of the Cold War and the break-up of the Soviet Union robbed India of a crucial ally that had stood by the country during its times of need.  Political turmoil in and the former Soviet space resulted in unreliable Defense supplies, which adversely affected India's military whose weapons were predominantly Soviet-made.

Indian leaders, therefore, understood the need for India to build and consolidate its strategic autonomy in the face of deteriorating international strategic and political milieu. India's economic liberalization, unleashed the country's economic potential and made it possible to allocate more resources to the military.

7 Annual Report 2015-16 by Ministry of Defence- : Available at: https://ddpmod.gov.in/sites/default/files/Annual%20Report%20MOD_2016.pdf 8Rajat Ganguly, 2015, ‘India's Military: Evolution, Modernisation and Transformation’, India Quarterly, Vol. 71, No. 3, September, pp. 187-205.

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The Indian military has undergone a rapid and transformation, driven largely by continuation of old and emergence of new threats, a fluid and uncertain regional and international strategic milieu and perceptions and decisions of Indian leaders. Its volunteer army of one million-plus has ambitious plans for further expansion and transformation into a well-armed, specialized and high-tech force capable of fighting sub-conventional, conventional and nuclear wars.

PAY OF MEN IN THE ARMED FORCES

Defense forces personnel include men in the Army, Navy and Air Force. The service wise and category wise (officers and Junior Commissioned Officers (JCOs) and Other Ranks (OR) break- up of the Defense forces personnel in position as on 01.01.2014 is indicated below:

Rank Military Airforce Navy Total

Officer 44,727 12,241 9722 66,690

JCOs/Ors 11,19,226 1,40,611 59,664 13,19,481

Total 11,63,953 1,52,852 69366 13,86,171

Defense personnel at 13.86 lakh, formed the single largest group of Central Government employees. Provision of financial resources for the Defense services is made under the Non Plan Budget of the Government of India. Defense currently ranks at third place in terms of expenditure of the Union Government. In addition to provisions for the Army, Air Force and Navy, funds are also provided for meeting the capital needs of the Services and for research and development. In India expenditure on personnel as a percentage of total Defense expenditure witnessed a sharp increase from 27.55 percent in 2007 to 41.12 percent in 2012. The Defense Services have adopted a per capita income approach to arrive at a Minimum Wage of ₹28,000.9

9 Ministry of Defense, Available at: https://mod.gov.in 40 | P a g e JOURNAL ON CONTEMPORARY ISSUES OF LAW [JCIL] VOLUME 6 ISSUE 7

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The Commission notes that there are exclusive elements that distinguish the Defense forces personnel from all other government employees. The intangible aspects linked to the special conditions of service experienced by them set them apart from civilian employees. Defense forces personnel are expected to conduct full spectrum operations in difficult environments which are characterized by extreme complexity and may include force projection outside India’s territorial boundaries. Defense personnel are trained for war like situations with highly sophisticated war machinery. They have to keep themselves posted in modern warfare. The military institutions are a key symbol of national pride. Further, the superannuation of Defense personnel, particularly Other Ranks (ORs) at a younger age, is also a factor that has been considered. In justifying their demands for MSP the Services have pointed to the intensity of commitments of the Defense Services in combating proxy war, operations along the , disaster relief, aid to civil authorities, protection of our assets in the high seas, security of our air space, (UN) obligations and out of area contingencies. The Commission has therefore taken a conscious decision that the Military Service Pay 10 , which is a compensation for the various aspects described above and for the edge historically enjoyed by the Defense Forces over the civilian scales, will be admissible to the Defense Forces personnel only.11

The Services have stated that they have always enjoyed an edge in pay in form of higher starting salary from officer. Not only has the starting pay of a Defense officers been placed substantially higher at 29% more than his/her civilian counterpart, this gap continues to remain wide at over20% for the first nine years of service. The analysis of pay parity of Defense service and civil service officers has been undertaken with reference to Pay and Military Service Pay/Rank Pay. It does not take into account allowances, which are intended to compensate for specific hardships/risks that officers face in the discharge of their duties. The analysis of pay also does not account for other benefits in cash and kind admissible to Defense service officers. These include (a) free rations or ration money allowance in lieu of free rations, (b) tax concession available in Canteen Store Depots, (c) military concession vouchers for travel in Railways and by air, (d) free electricity up to 100 units each month, (e) concessions on water charges.

10The Army Act, 1950 Available at: https://mod.gov.in/dod/sites/default/files/TheArmyAct1950.pdf 11Report of the Seventh Central , Available at: https://doe.gov.in/sites/default/files/7cpc_report_eng.pdf . Last visited on: 13thJuly, 2020 41 | P a g e JOURNAL ON CONTEMPORARY ISSUES OF LAW [JCIL] VOLUME 6 ISSUE 7

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The cadre structure of the Defense Forces is highly command and rank oriented. The bulk of the officers are at the lower end of the pyramid, with significantly smaller numbers at the vertex. In the Army, the officer cadre is an amalgam of the two functional branches viz.,

(a) Arms - The Arms branch comprises the combat element viz., Infantry, Armored Corps, Artillery, etc. and (b) Services - The Services comprise combat support providing the logistic and maintenance support viz., the Army Service Corps, Army Ordnance Corps, Corps of Electronics and Mechanical Engineers, etc.

The Officers’ cadre comprises officers from the Executive, Engineering, Electrical and Education branches. The officer cadre in the consists of Flying Branch and Ground Duties Branches (Technical and Non-Technical)12.

Every soldier is allotted a trade which becomes intrinsically linked to his subsequent career progression. There are numerous trades in the Army, Navy and Air Force. These have been grouped in two pay groups X and Y.

The trades grouped under X require higher entry level qualification. Entrants in group X also receive more intensive training. As against this entry level qualification for group Y. Generally the entry level qualification of X group personnel is class 12th+diploma in engineering in the relevant field and that of group ‘Y’ is 10th class.13

The Services have sought four financial upgradations under MACP scheme at 6, 12, 18 and 24 years of service or on completion of six years of continuous service in same Grade Pay. It has been stated that 60 percent of the soldiers (i.e., Sepoys and Naiks) are deprived of the third financial upgradation on account of an early retirement.

12The Defense of India Act, 1962 Available at: https://indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/1406/1/196251.pdf 13In-service upgradation of JCOs/ORs has also been proposed from Group Y to group X on successful completion of a Diploma of minimum one year duration, which is recognized by Central/State Education Boards/University or minimum one year of organized training at the level of Unit or Formation which may be cumulative and not necessarily continuous and may include courses attended in a training establishment 42 | P a g e JOURNAL ON CONTEMPORARY ISSUES OF LAW [JCIL] VOLUME 6 ISSUE 7

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PENSION FOR MEN IN THE ARMED FORCES

The origin of military pensions can be traced back to ancient Rome, which offered pensions to its military personnel. Initially offered on an ad-hoc basis. Pension in modern Indian history can be traced to Lord Clive Military Fund, which provided benefits for European officers, other ranks of East India Company personnel and Indian Army (their widows but not their children). The underlying philosophy governing the rate of pension was not to induce continuance in service to gain more pension once they ceased to be useful.

Defense forces personnel retire at a relatively young age. The retirement of JCOs/ ORs who constitute the bulk of Defense forces personnel in the three Services is as under:

Army Navy Air Force

Sr Rank Term of Retiring Term of Retiring Term of Retiring no. Engagement age Engagement age Engagement age

1 Sepoy/* 19-22 42-48 15 52 17-22 52

2 Havldar/* 26 49 19-22 52 19-24 49-52

3 / 30 52 34-35 57 30-35 52-57 *

4 Subedar 34 54 37 57 33-37 54-57 Major/*

Defense forces personnel have been exempted from the National Pension System introduced across the entire spectrum of Central Government employees, with effect from 01.01.2004.

In the last couple of decades, there has been increasing concern about the sustainability of unfunded pension systems in our country. In the context of Defense forces personnel, the annual addition of large numbers to the pool of retirees, the increase in longevity, as also the proposed introduction of the One Rank-One Pension scheme (OROP) w.e.f. July 1,2014, will

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ISSN 2455-4782 together lead to a huge increase in the government’s liability towards Defense Pensions. OROP implies that uniform pension be paid to the Defense Forces Personnel retiring in the same rank with the same length of service, regardless of their date of retirement, to bridge the gap between the rates of pension of current and past pensioners at periodic intervals. There are number of regulations that deal with administration of pension to retired personnel of the armed forces such as-(i) Pension Regulations for the Army (PRA), 1961, revised as PRA, 2008 (ii) Pension Regulations for the Air Force, 1961, and (iii) Navy (Pension) Regulation, 1964 and Entitlement Rules for Casualty Pensionary Awards, 200814.

The variation in age of retirement of Defense personnel is reflected in the age profile of Defense pensioners. Unlike civil pensioners, amongst Defense forces pensioners there is a large percentage of pensioners below the age of 60.The Services have sought that the Special Family Pension (in case of death of an individual Attributable to or Aggravated by Military Service).be enhanced and be paid at the rate of 80 percent of last drawn reckonable emoluments from the existing rate of 60 percent.

There are more than 26 lakhs Armed Forces pensioners/family pensioners and approximately 55,000 pensioners are added every year15.Salaries and Pensions together form about 76% of the Army's budget16. It is estimated that in Financial year 2021, the army will spend more on pensions than salaries. Although it is essential to compensate the Defense personnel for the sacrifices they make for our country it is becomes important to acknowledge that spending massive percentage of the army’s budget on pensions and salary leaves little room to no room for modernization of the of its weaponries.

INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS FOR EX-SERVICEMEN (ESM):

As per the existing allocation of work, all matters relating to armed forces veterans are the responsibility of the Department of Ex-Servicemen Welfare. These include pre and posts

14Department of Ex-Servicemen Welfare , Available at: http://desw.gov.in/pensions 15idib 16The Hindu Data Team, 'Data | Is the Indian Army spending enough on modernising its equipment?', February 25, 2020, Available at:https://www.thehindu.com/data/data-is-the-indian-army-spending-enough-on-modernising-its- equipment/article30914534.ece, Last veiwed on: 19th July,2020 44 | P a g e JOURNAL ON CONTEMPORARY ISSUES OF LAW [JCIL] VOLUME 6 ISSUE 7

ISSN 2455-4782 retirement training, reemployment, self-employment, health and medical care of ESM pensioners and their dependents and administration of armed forces pension regulations. The Department has two Divisions viz., the Resettlement Division and the Pension Division17

The Commission notes that as on 01.01.2014, there were over 18.6 lakh Defense forces pensioners. The Department of Ex-Servicemen Welfare and entities within it are currently focused on (a) undertaking training programs (b) providing medical grant, disabled grant, house repair grant, marriage grant, penury grant, orphan grant etc. Training for JCO/ORs is organized in Regimental Centers cover a larger number of personnel but are for a shorter duration of four weeks18. Trainings in outside Institutes across the country range from 4 weeks to 52 weeks but cover smaller number of personnel. In any case they do not cater for the total number of retirees from the three Defense services.

In the US to qualify for benefit of pension Defense forces personnel need to serve for 20 years. Consequently, only about 19% of service members retire from military with pension. For those exiting the Armed Forces in the US there exists a regime of affirmative action in the form of eligibility criteria for government contracts. Training is also mandated to be provided to veterans to equip them for their gainful employment in civil life after completion of their enlistment term.

The Report points to the fact that Defense Civilians are substantial in number. Nearly 60,000 armed forces personnel retire or are released from active service every year. Most of them are in comparatively younger age bracket of 35 to 45 years and need a second career to support their families19. Government tries to train these personnel by- (i) upgrading their skills and assisting them in finding re-employment, (ii) Providing jobs through schemes of self-employment and assistance in entrepreneurial ventures (iii) actions to facilitate re-employment in the Corporate/private sector of the country.

17 Department of Ex- Servicemen Welfare, Available at: http://desw.gov.in/ 18 PM’s Scholarship Scheme (PMSS)- support higher technical/ professional education of dependent wards/ widows of ex-servicemen and Ex- Indian Coast Guards 19 Annual Report 2015-16 by Ministry of Defence- Government of India Available at: https://ddpmod.gov.in/sites/default/files/Annual%20Report%20MOD_2016.pdf 45 | P a g e JOURNAL ON CONTEMPORARY ISSUES OF LAW [JCIL] VOLUME 6 ISSUE 7

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Civilians span a number of entities like Ordnance Factories, DRDO, Naval Dockyards, Military Engineering Service, Border Road Organization, Base Repair Depots etc. Personnel in these organizations work side by side with the Services or for the Services and therefore are familiar with the nature of each other’s work. All Ex-Servicemen, irrespective of the number of years of service and rank, therefore, in the view of the Commission are suitable for lateral movement to these organizations. Currently there is a substantial percentage of service personnel assigned to non-core functions. Indeed, there exist possibilities for lateral entry of retiring Defense forces personnel within the Services in entities like the Administrative, Logistic and Accounts branches etc. of the Air Force and Logistics and Engineering Branches etc. of the Navy.

Directorate General (Resettlement) (DGR) is responsible for preparing the retiring servicemen for a second career. It provides Officers Training which include Weeks Management Courses at IIMs and other reputed B-Schools, Modular management courses like Project Finance, Supply Chain, Retail, Human Resource, etc. The 60% of the course fee is paid by DGR and windows of officers are also eligible to undergo these courses. The Central government has also provided reservation in government jobs for retired Defense personnel.

The initiative of the Government towards bolstering manufacturing, including in the Defense sector together with Public Private Partnership (PPP) and opportunities that are presented by Defense offset obligations will require a complement of skilled and experience personnel both in the public sector and the private sector. The Services, at all levels, and in particular in the Air Force and Navy have a large complement of technical and skilled personnel. With the Government’s thrust towards strengthening the Defense manufacturing base in India, both in the public and private sector the services of such experienced and skilled personnel would be of great benefit.

CONCLUSION

The position of the members of the armed forces in a democracy is of significant constitutional importance. All persons working in the armed forces are subjected to military law, this position of the armed forces personnel is one of dual liability. A person subject to military law whether an

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ISSN 2455-4782 officer or a soldier has a two-fold relation, one his relation with his fellow citizen outside the army and the other his relation towards the member of the army and especially towards his military superiors. In his military character a soldier occupies a position totally different from a civilian, he does not possess the same freedom, in addition to his duties as a citizen. He is under the exclusive jurisdiction of the military law regarding the question relating to his military duty and discipline. Further, in military discipline and efficiency, military law inflicts more severe punishment for the offences like discretion or disobedience to orders which are mere breach of contract under the ordinary law. It is sad to note that these great servants of the nation are not allowed to enjoy the fundamental rights. 20 Unfortunately, India still follows the system of ‘military justice’ which it inherited from the British, where it has already been abolished.

No soldier wishes to face a trial by the court martial. Court Martials are military courts. The court martial awards punishment in form of imprisonment of less than one year or fine or both to its personnel subject to military law. There are four kinds of courts-martial in India. These are the General Court Martial (GCM), District Court Martial (DCM), Summary General Court Martial (SGCM) and Summary Court Martial (SCM). According to the Army Act, army courts can try personnel for all kinds of offenses, except for murder and rape of a civilian, which are primarily tried by a civilian court of law21.

The (AFT) was established under the Armed Forces Tribunal Act, 2007 and applies to all persons (working or retired) subjected to the Army Act, 1950, the Navy Act,1957 and the Air Force Act, 1950 22 .Appeals, complaints and disputes arising from the decision of Court Martial are adjudicated in AFT. It provides speedy justice. The principal bench sits at Delhi and Regional benches have been set-up at , Mumbai, Jaipur, Lucknow, Guwahit, Kochi and Kolkata.

20A.K. Keshot, 2009, ‘Fundamental Rights Of Indian Military Personnel’,Journal of the Indian Law Institute,Vol. 51, No. 1, pp. 67-78 .

21 ‘What are Court Martial’, NDTV, January 29, 2010, Available at: https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/what-is-court- martial-409964 Last visited on: 20th July, 2020 22 Armed Forces Tribunal Act,2007 available at:https://mod.gov.in/sites/default/files/AFT-ACT.pdf 47 | P a g e JOURNAL ON CONTEMPORARY ISSUES OF LAW [JCIL] VOLUME 6 ISSUE 7

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

 The Defense of India Act, 1962 Available at: https://indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/1406/1/196251.pdf

 The Army Act, 1950 Available at: https://mod.gov.in/dod/sites/default/files/TheArmyAct1950.pdf

 The Navy Act, 1957 Available at: https://mod.gov.in/sites/default/files/NavyAct1957.pdf

 The Air-Force Act, 1950 Available at: https://mod.gov.in/sites/default/files/AFAct.pdf

 Army starts process to induct women as jawans in military police, Economic Times, Available at: //economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/69036443.cms?from=mdr&utm_source=cont entofinterest&utm_medium=text&utm_campaign=cppst . Last updated on: 25th April, 2019 Report of the Seventh Central Pay Commission, Available at: https://doe.gov.in/sites/default/files/7cpc_report_eng.pdf

 Department of Ex- Servicemen Welfare, Available at: http://desw.gov.in/

 Ministry of Defense, Available at: https://mod.gov.in

 Rajat Ganguly, 2015, ‘India's Military: Evolution, Modernisation and Transformation’, India Quarterly, Vol. 71, No. 3, September, pp. 187-205

 A.K. Keshot, 2009, ‘Fundamental Rights Of Indian Military Personnel’, Journal of the Indian Law Institute, Vol. 51, No. 1, pp. 67-78.

 D.P. Ramachandran, ‘The Indians who fought the Empire’s wars’, The Hindu, January 20, 2019, Available at: https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/open-page/the-indians-who- fought-the-empires-wars/article26038786.ece. Last visited on: 11th October, 2019.

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