Researching Scripture Use in Multilingual Communities in
Tanzania
Mark Woodward, December 2010
Introduction
The majority of the world's population are multilingual, that is to say they regularly speak more than one language. Many people live in communities where multilingualism is the norm, with two or more languages being used in everyday life, often with each spoken in different areas of life.
The complete Bible has only been translated into 457 of the world's estimated 6,860 languages, with at least 4,000 languages not having any Scripture translated at present (Wycliffe International, 2010). According to Lewis (2009) Tanzania has 128 living languages, the majority of which have little or none of the Bible translated.
The Research Problem
The leadership of local churches, communities and other organisations in Tanzania need to make decisions as to whether and how they will commit their limited resources to any potential Bible translation project, and what shape any project should take. These stakeholders will have different perspectives and priorities, but ultimately their common goal is that people engage with the Bible, and that God uses that engagement to bring about transformation in the lives of individuals and communities.
Arthur (2009) identifies some of the issues facing the stakeholders, for example whether they should focus their resources on translating the whole Bible into one language, or parts of the Bible into several languages, and which parts of the Bible should be prioritised as the first, or possibly only, parts of Scripture to be made available in a particular language at that time.
Often these issues are researched before a potential translation project is started in order to anticipate what benefit vernacular Scriptures might bring to the church and the community, but there is much less existing research evaluating the reality of how translated Scriptures are used, and their function in relation to other language Scriptures to which the community may have access.
Hiebert (2009, p160) bemoans the general lack of research in mission, believing that it often means organisations continue doing what they have always done, imitate the practice of others, or 'follow current fads based on anecdotes and untested hypotheses'.
Regular reflection, research and evaluation of programmes is vital in maintaining and growing projects that effectively serve those towards whom they are aimed.
This research aims to study how people interact with Scripture in the various languages in which they can access it, in order to inform various partners who are making decisions about Bible translation projects.
Focus of the Study
I will be focusing my research on Tanzania, a country with over 120 minority languages.
The national language of Tanzania is Swahili, which is spoken to some extent by the majority of Tanzania's 35 million citizens. In some areas communities are highly proficient in Swahili, while in other areas Swahili proficiency is lower, or is variable throughout different demographics of the community.
I intend to work with one or more language communities who have at least some Scripture available in their local language in addition to Swahili. Ideally these communities would be
1 somewhat representative in terms of their religious, sociolinguistic and cultural situation, so that the research may be generalised to other groups in similar contexts.
Swahili Scriptures
There are several versions of the Bible in Swahili, although the two which are most available in Tanzania are the Union Bible, published in 1952, and Habari Njema, published in 1996 (see Wycliffe International, n.d.). These Scriptures are typically available in large towns but are often difficult to obtain for those living in rural areas, and are expensive compared to the income of most people.
Local language Scriptures
Of Tanzania's 120 or so languages, only a handful have a completed Bible. Translation projects are currently under way in around 40 languages, many of them with input from the
Bible Society of Tanzania, SIL International and Pioneer Bible Translators.
Expanding on the issues
Translation in Church History
Since the dawn of Christianity translation has been at the heart of the church, with the message of the gospel not seen to be tied to one particular culture but equally at home in any language and people. Walls (2002, pp29-30) contrasts Christianity and Islam in this regard, arguing that Christianity has no sacred place, culture or language, but is equally at home in every nation, and furthermore that the vitality of Christianity depends on its ongoing translation.
In reality the interaction between language, society and politics has always been hugely
2 complex and is greatly influenced by language ideologies (see for example Muehlmann
(2007) and Meeuwis (1999)). Whereas some see vernacular language development as empowering and strengthening the local community, others have seen it as a dividing force, working against unity both nationally and in the church.
Walls is correct in saying that translation is at the heart of the Christian message, but in practise the role of vernacular translations in modern-day multilingual communities may not always be obvious, with language choices in the church in general and with regard to
Scripture in particular emanating from a complex interaction of religious, social, political and cultural factors (see Fast (2009)).
Multilingual Communities
Often multilingual communities speak two or more languages that are in a state of stable diglossia, with each being used in different domains of everyday life. An example of this is the Vwanji language community, who tend to use the Vwanji language at home and among friends and Swahili for school, church and politics (Krueger, 2010, p8).
In cases where two or more languages play an integral part in daily life, with the Bible already available in one of these languages, community leaders will want to know what, if any, benefit there is in translating into the vernacular. As Fast (2009) points out, the various stakeholders in a translation project may come with very different perspectives, causing them to make different decisions and advocate different practices, largely based on their background, their ideology of language and the context in which they are working.
In Tanzania the language of the church for many decades has been almost exclusively
Swahili, mainly for reasons of church unity given the fact that there are often speakers of different local languages in the same congregation. As local language Scriptures start to
3 become available alongside the Swahili Bible, questions are raised as to the role of these
Scriptures inside and outside of the church setting.
Language Attitudes
Language is very much linked to our identity, our thoughts and our feelings, so attitudes towards languages can be very strong, but at the same time difficult to identify and define.
The Tanzanian government website (n.d.) talks of the roles of Swahili and local languages, with each having its place in certain domains of life, and as a consequence, each taking on the complex mix 'of emotions, prestige, etc. that are associated with the domains themselves. Thus, local languages like Kisukuma or Kigogo may be linked with the rural homestead or with traditional values; Swahili may be linked with town life or trade'. These attitudes strongly affect the language decisions we make, and can also influence the way we perceive materials produced in a language.
Adejunmobi (2004, pp171-202) looks at how the language choices in some Ghanaian churches are largely determined by the desire to identify with attitudes associated with the language. For example, she suggests that the choice of English or another majority language in church often stems from a desire for the church to be identified with upward mobility in society and an international focus, as opposed to local languages which bring an association with traditional values and local settings.
Dye (2009, p90) gives an example from Central African Republic, where Christians conducted their church lives in the language of wider communication, and traditional religion in the local language, not being aware of any conflict between the two as they apparently operated in different spheres. For them the sphere of influence of each religion was largely determined by the language in which it was communicated.
4 An important question for multilingual communities is whether limiting Scripture use to one language that they speak, however well understood and accepted that language is, restricts the message of the Bible to one part of life. Is the God of the Swahili Bible perceived more as a teacher, a priest or a politician? If so, would the use of local language
Scriptures alongside Swahili lead to a fuller understanding of the nature of the biblical message?
As I research Scripture use in various languages it is important to bear in mind the role of language attitudes in how people choose to engage with the Bible and how they ultimately perceive its message, and the fact that people may not be fully aware of these attitudes on a conscious level.
Hypothesis
This research will investigate the hypothesis that
• Communities interact with and view the Bible (or portions thereof) differently in their
local language than they do in Swahili, hence there may be potential benefits to
local language Scripture translation and use in addition to the Swahili Bible.
Research Proposal
The purpose of this research is to spend time with multilingual communities, helping them to assess their own Scripture use and ways in which they might best engage with the Bible in Swahili, in their local language, or more likely, a combination of the two.
Methodologies
There are various methodologies that could be employed to investigate this hypothesis,
5 which could utilise both quantitative and qualitative approaches. Applied theological, missional, historical and sociolinguistic methodologies all have the potential to shed light on how multilingual communities use, or are likely to use, Scripture and if they engage with the Bible differently in their local language compared to a language of wider communication (cf. Hiebert, 2009, pp160-161).
Applied Theological
A methodology of applied theology would focus primarily on churches and societies in
Tanzania, asking what practical role the Scriptures play in the lives of the church and the community. One may observe various church meetings or home settings where the
Scriptures are used, to see how people engage with the Bible in the different languages. If there are church planters or evangelists working in the community, one might wish to examine their use of Scripture in the work that they do, and the response of those they are talking with.
One advantage of this method is that it gets to the heart of the motivation for the research, which is for Tanzanian churches and communities to engage with the Bible in the language or languages that provoke the most impact in their lives and the lives of those around them. Another strength is that church leaders and community members can be naturally involved in the research, contributing their wisdom and experience, and exploring for themselves some possibilities for Scripture use that they may not have previously considered. A disadvantage is that since this methodology starts from existing practices and ways that Scripture is already being used, it may have difficulty exploring the full scope of potential Scripture use in both languages, particularly when the communities are relatively small and their access to currently available Scripture is limited.
6 Sociolinguistic
A sociolinguistic methodology would involve researching how multilingual communities generally view written and audio materials differently according to the language in which they are presented, and the culture or domains of life associated with that language. An interesting study in this regard is Ji et al (2004) who showed that multilingual
Chinese/English speakers categorised the world in a more relational way when communicating in Chinese than they did when speaking English, apparently due to the different cultures they associated with the languages.
An advantage of this methodology is that it can look at general sociolinguistic principles and research from around the world over many decades, and so can predict certain aspects of sociolinguistic behaviour with a high degree of confidence. A disadvantage from my point of view is that it doesn't take into consideration the specific case of Scripture, or the needs and desires of churches and church leaders as they seek to promote mission and discipleship in their communities.
Historical
A third potential methodology is a historical one, whereby one explores situations throughout history where multilingual communities have or have not had access to the
Bible in their local language in addition to a language of wider communication (see for example Johnstone (2006)).
While this methodology gives the benefit of analysing trends and church growth over long time spans and comparing many different situations, it can be difficult to know how similar the details of the situations are to those of modern-day communities in Tanzania, and hence how applicable the findings would be to these communities. Another weakness
7 would be that it doesn't engage the Tanzanian communities with whom this research is primarily concerned. From their point of view this methodology would be one that makes recommendations from the outside, without reference to their emic perspectives (see
Headland et al (1990)). Not only may vital local opinions be ignored, but those who are ultimately making decisions in the community would not be involved in the research process and so may not fully take on board the findings and recommendations.
Missional or Biblical
A fourth approach would be to employ a missional or biblical methodology, gaining insight from the overarching missional narrative of the Bible (cf. Wright (2006)). This methodology could examine the interaction between majority and minority languages and cultures throughout the Bible and particularly in the multicultural and multilingual New Testament church, to inform communication of the biblical message today. Another possible method is to study, as Hipps (2009, pp162-167) briefly does, the various media that God uses to communicate missionally with his people throughout the Bible, drawing implications for modern-day Scripture engagement.
A strength of this methodology is that it takes seriously the missional orientation of the
Bible, and sees modern-day mission as a natural continuation of the biblical narrative. It can also address questions as to the role of the various biblical texts, which will enable church leaders to prioritise the translation of certain books for the missional situations in which they are serving. Again, this methodology has the weakness of comprising essentially desk research, meaning that the stakeholders who the study is supposed to inform and benefit have little involvement in the research process.
8 Conclusion
After weighing up the various options I have decided to use an applied theology methodology to research the hypothesis. The main reason for this is my desire to directly involve those who are ultimately making decisions about language use, particularly local churches and community leaders, to gain a more insider perspective and so that any conclusions of the research are made in consultation with these various partners. I feel this is important as it is these leaders who are ultimately responsible for the spiritual health and growth of their community.
I also believe that a study that researches particular real-life communities in Tanzania, as opposed to relying mainly on desk work and examples from other times and places, is likely to be more applicable to other language groups in East Africa, and will have greater credibility with those community leaders. Of course there is always the danger that research that is focused on one or two groups can be distorted by issues that are peculiar to those groups, meaning that the findings could potentially be less generalisable overall.
Research Questions
In order to investigate the hypothesis with an applied theology methodology I will pose the following research questions.
1. In which domains of life are Swahili and the local language used? What
associations do people have with each language?
2. To what extent, and in what situations, is the Swahili Bible used by the community?
Local language Scriptures?
3. How are key terms, such as those for God, the Holy Spirit, forgiveness, salvation
9 and redemption, understood in the local language compared to in Swahili?
4. Which parts of the Bible are most popular with readers and hearers in the local
language? In Swahili?
5. How are Bible passages perceived differently in the local language compared to
Swahili?
6. Which further parts of the Bible would people like to see available in the local
language?
There are various different methods that could be used to research these questions, which
I will now consider.
Qualitative and Quantitative Research
The methods available to social science researchers have often been classified as qualitative or quantitative. Quantitative methods tend to be based on large-scale studies with random sampling, trying to draw empirical conclusions that hold true for the general population. Qualitative methods on the other hand tend to be much more open-ended, focusing on fewer subjects or on a single case study, with the aim of understanding the complexity of the underlying issues and meanings in that particular situation.
Swinton and Mowat (2006) point out that these two approaches shouldn't be seen as being in opposition to each other, but rather that each has an important part to play in research. They suggest that the role of qualitative research is
not to seek to explain the world in ways that will make sense across cultures to all
reasonable people at any moment in history. Rather the task of qualitative research
is to describe reality in ways which enable us to understand the world differently and
10 in understanding differently begin to act differently. (ibid., pp44-46).
Whereas quantitative research aims to stay detached from the subjects, changing as few variables as possible while collecting objective data, qualitative research aims to spend significant time with a much smaller group of people with the aim of describing, interpreting and understanding issues from their perspective.
Different approaches will be appropriate in different situations, and Silverman (2009, pp117-136) points out that the choice of methods should be made in light of the research questions that are being asked.
Participatory Action Research
A third type of research that has become increasingly popular in recent years is that of participatory action research. Herr and Anderson (2005, p1) report that the key distinctive of participatory action research is that 'research participants themselves are either in control of the research or are participants in the design and methodology of the research'.
It is 'inquiry that is done by or with insiders to an organization or community, but never to or on them' (ibid., p3). As with qualitative methods, the aim is not necessarily to deduce abstract theories that can be applied universally to every context, but rather to help the participants to think through the key issues, coming up with conclusions that they believe will lead to positive change.
Dye (2009, p92) believes that at times communities may feel uncomfortable about using the Bible in their local language even when that is the language used for important domains of life, and that
an effort is needed to encourage people to value their language and recognize that
it is appropriate for literature and for speaking to and about God. Positive attitudes
11 toward local language for Christian expression may result from a socio-ideological
movement among the people themselves or from a mission agency promoting the
concept of relating to God in the vernacular language.
In this kind of situation rather than an outside group explicitly promoting vernacular
Scripture use, it may be more appropriate to engage the community in participatory action research, encouraging them to see their Scripture language choices from different perspectives and in light of the full range of factors, ultimately deciding for themselves the best course of action.
In this way I believe that participatory action research is particularly appropriate to the study of Scripture use practises. Encouraging people to think through how they use
Scripture, suggesting new ways that they may not have previously considered, and exploring with them the many complex issues of language use inside and outside the church setting, could be helpful in stimulating a review of the language choices people make when engaging with the Bible. I also hope that involving pastors and church leaders in participatory action research will help them to think through the issues of language choices in their ministries and to make informed decisions based on a fuller understanding of the role of language.
This participatory action approach will tend to involve mainly qualitative questions, allowing the many and complex issues involved to be observed and explored. There are certainly research questions that would also lend themselves to quantitative studies, for example in counting how many Bibles are sold. But there are also complicating issues here such as the general scarcity of Scriptures available in rural areas, and the fact that Swahili is the dominant language in the church. Hence even with these questions it is likely that quantitative data will need to be supplemented with qualitative research to understand and
12 interpret the underlying issues.
Methods
Interviewing Pastors
Interviews with pastors and church leaders will focus on how they and their communities engage with the Bible in Swahili and the local language. These interviews will largely be qualitative, with a focus on participatory action as they encourage pastors to think in-depth about the issues at hand. It is important that these interviews not be too structured, as I want the pastors to feel free to raise whatever issues they believe to be relevant to the situation. I also want to see their world from their perspective and talk about it using their categories, rather than imposing a structure from outside. I intend to use semi-structured interviews however, as I want to ensure that a variety of topics are covered, and to encourage pastors to consider possibilities that may be outside of their current practices.
My hope is that the insights and perspectives of these pastors will guide and inform the rest of the research.
Interviewing Individuals
I intend to interview individuals concerning their engagement with the Bible in Swahili and their local language. Depending on the circumstances these could be people who regularly use these Scriptures, or they could be people to whom I am showing them for the first time. They could be regular church attenders or non-attenders, and the Scripture formats could be written or audio.
The aim of these interviews is to ask and observe how people perceive and engage with
Scripture in the two languages, while also helping them to think critically about their
13 Scripture language choices. Again these interviews will be semi-structured, with some standard questions but also plenty of room for open-ended conversation and observation.
If after a while it is obvious what the main issues are, it may be appropriate to standardise these interviews and make them more structured, or to plan further research that will look specifically at these questions.
Using the model of participatory action research, I hope to plan the interviews in such a way as to help the participants to think through issues, particularly concerning their perceptions of Scriptures in the two languages, that they may not have considered before.
I don't know know how well this will work, and whether participants will be able to identify language attitudes that affect perceptions of Scripture, or even if these attitudes exist, but my hope is that merely discussing the issues will help to raise awareness of the importance of Scripture language choice.
Surveying Scriptures owned
A quick and rough quantitative method for determining Scripture use is to survey how many people own Bible portions in either Swahili or the local language. This would be relatively easy to ascertain, but there are many complicating factors such as availability and price that also need to be taken into consideration.
Word Associations
Another method I intend to employ is giving participants single words in their local language and in Swahili, along with various concepts, asking them to match the words with the concepts they associate with them. My hope is that particularly in the case of key biblical terms, such as the word for God, this will be revealing as to the meanings and connotations that people associate with the words in each language. I would then discuss
14 the results with the participants, asking them why they made the associations they did and to consider any implications for engaging with the Bible.
Another similar possibility would be a matched-guise approach, first devised by Lambert et al (1960), whereby the participants hear two short sections of speech, one in each language, and are asked to evaluate the personality of the speaker. Unknown to the participant, the speaker is the same person in both cases, the only difference being the language they are speaking. However, I have decided against this approach partly as it would be moving into the realm of a sociolinguistic methodology, but mainly because it has the potential to isolate the participants, treating them as subjects who are “tricked”, rather than as equals with whom I wish to discuss language choices as part of a participatory action study.
Observation
One of the most important parts of the study will be data gathered through observation and interaction with pastors, church communities and individuals. To facilitate this I intend to carry a notebook and regularly journal concerning my observations and interactions, encouraging others on the research team to do the same.
It is difficult at this stage to be too precise about research methods, or specific questions that will be asked in interviews, because to a large extent the methods should ensue from meetings with church leaders and be continually re-evaluated during the research as more issues and perspectives come to light.
Personnel
My hope is that the research will be carried out by a team, hopefully including local church
15 leaders and others involved in the existing translation and Scripture engagement initiatives.
Data Processing
Each evening I intend to process the data collected with the other team members, particularly focusing on what we have learnt from any qualitative research and observations. Silverman (2009, pp221-223) suggests that data analysis should start immediately data collection has begun. He lists critical questions that a qualitative researcher should be asking of the data from the start, for example 'Which categories are actually used by the people you are studying?' and 'How do my difficulties in the field... provide me with further research topics?' (ibid., p222). These reflections should be instrumental in allowing insider perspectives to guide the study in directions that weren't anticipated originally.
Conclusion
There are many varied factors that influence why people do or don't engage with the Bible, and how they do so. It is my hope that by coming alongside Tanzanian communities and helping them to think through their perceptions of the Bible, and their Scripture language choices, they will be able to make more informed decisions about the role of local language Scriptures alongside the Swahili Bible.
At the same time I hope that the study will help church leaders to evaluate the function of language in their ministries. As they make decisions about potential Bible translation projects, they will then have a fuller understanding of the role that local language
Scriptures may play in the life of the community.
16 4,500 words.
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18 Silverman, D. (2009) Doing Qualitative Research: A Practical Handbook, 3rd ed., London: Sage Publications.
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