Notes

1 Election Administration and Electoral Studies: Theories, Frameworks and Anomalies

1. There was a later backlash against e- voting in Estonia. See Rikken (2011). 2. ‘Election administration’ is the term used in the US. This is often known as ‘electoral administration’ in many other English speaking countries such as the UK. The US term is used for the remainder of this book. 3. Often referred to as the ‘register of electors’ in some countries. 4. There is a rich literature on the determinants of whether an individual might cast their vote. It is not, by any means, suggested here that election administration is the only determinant. For an overview of the literature, see Geys (2006). 5. Also see Rawlings (1988). 6. See also Lewis and Putney (1912), Lynch (1831) and Ludington (1911). 7. For a discussion on some of the problems often identified in new institutionalism see James (2011c). 8. ‘On the importance of meta-theory and organising perspectives see: Marsh 2012’. 9. As far as the author is aware, this book is the first to chart the changes made in Ireland. There are some accounts of limited periods of change in the UK and the US. 10. This continuum is also produced in James (2010a). 11. For an application of this approach to electoral system reform see Lundell (2009).

2 Election Administration – a Tool for Political Statecraft?

1. Florida in 2000 and Ohio in 2004. 2. Key examples of the blogs include Elections Updates (http://electionupdates. caltech.edu/) by Michael Alvarez, Paul Gronke, Thad Hall and Robert Krimmer; Election Law Blog (http://electionlawblog.org/) by Rick Hasen; Election Law @ Moritz (http://moritzlaw.osu.edu/blogs/tokaji/) by Dan Tokaji. 3. Originally called democracy by Downs, but re- conceptualised as ‘citizen duty’ by Riker and Ordeshook (1968). 4. This review and continuum is documented in James (2010a). 5. Ironically, in some countries an increase in names on the voter register could cause ‘official turnout’ to decrease if this is calculated by dividing the number of valid votes by the number on the electoral register (as is the case in the UK). An increase in non- voting registrants will cause ‘official’ turnout to fall, without any decline in participation. 6. Cited from Highton (2004: 508–9).

234 Notes 235

7. Many studies calculate the estimated effect of a particular form of election administration on the probability of voting. Probabilities are presented as percentage points rather than decimals in this chapter. 8. Also see Nimmo and McCleskey (1969). 9. Also see Fenster (1994), Fitzgerald (2001), Ansolabehere and Konisky (2004). 10. Often also known as ‘no- excuse postal voting’ or ‘universal absentee voting’ in the US. 11. See Qvortrup (2005b) for further comparative historical background on its use. 12. Also see Hamilton (1988) and Berkinsky et al. (2001). 13. However, also see Henry (2003). 14. In other research, Stein and Garcia Monet (1997) use aggregate data from early and election day balloting in Texas counties for the 1992 Presidential election. Early voting was found to be high among new voter registrants, the wealthier and Hispanic voters. They suggest that a high number of voting sites at non- traditional locations has a positive effect on turnout. They also note how the Democratic Party were effective at registering and mobilising early voters for the Clinton camp. 15. For other studies see Jackman and Miller (1995), Katz (1997), Franklin (1999) and Hirczy (1994). 16. In the majority of states votes are cast via the manual marking of paper ballots (82.4%), in person or at a specified polling station (79%), voting cannot take place in advance of an election (56.8%), it is compulsory to be on the electoral register (60%), the register is continuously updated (39%), registration requires visiting a registration office in person (57%) and don’t conduct door to door enquiries (77%). Information from IDEA (2010). 17. Rosenstone and Wolfinger argued that since voting is a discrete and qualitative choice it is best predicted through probit/logit and related modelling rather than OLS regression (Rosenstone and Wolfinger, 1978: 44–5). Most of the research described above used this method. The second line of Tables 1 and 2 therefore defines 9 ordinal categories by the predicted change in the probability of voting for each procedure. Of course, with so many different data- sources being used, and many other research methods being deployed, all research findings cannot be readily converted into one precise measurement. Placing them onto the continuum therefore necessarily involves an interpretation by the author of the research findings on each procedure. This interpretation is provided in the discussion of the research on each procedure provided so far. 18. For a discussion of these criticisms see Shamos (2004), Alvarez and Hall (2008a). 19. For example, see Hasen (2000), Riordan (1994), Rose- Ackerman (1999), Lehoucq and Molina (2002) and Alvarez et al. (2008b: 7). 20. We should also note that there is a literature which suggests that ballot design can affect electoral choice, especially in low- information elections. This suggests that the appearance of the candidate and the logo can influ- ence the voter (Katz et al., 2009), but not necessarily in a partisan party politics way. Instead, the literature focuses on whether higher turnout will bring a different winner. 21. Meanwhile, Michael Avery suggested that ‘Nonvoters are overwhelmingly likely to vote Democratic. … If turnout were substantially increased, the 236 Notes

Democrats would likely win overwhelming victories in nearly all elections’ (Avery, 1989: 117). According to Gerald Pomper (1989), ‘Nonvoting is most common among groups more loyal to the Democrats than the Republicans.’ 22. The 2000 Presidential election, of course, proved otherwise. 23. Also see Berinsky et al. (2006), Brains (1999), Nagle (1996). 24. There is also a literature on the effects of expanding the franchise. For example, see Aidt et al. (2006).

3 The Statecraft Approach: Bringing Political Elites Back in

1. For a discussion on how the Statecraft approach transcends work on networks and the new institutionalism, see James (2011c). 2. For a comparative perspective on the debate see Poguntke and Webb (2005). 3. The obvious exceptions in this context are the more recently created Scottish Parliament and Welsh Assembly. 4. See Buller and James (forthcoming) on how these concepts can be operation- alised empirically. 5. This is defined as ‘control of the national economy, the general provision of social welfare security from external threats and internal law and order’. All else is ‘“embellishment and detail”, low politics’ (Bulpitt, [1983]2008: 42). 6. Also see Bradbury (Bradbury, forthcoming) for a more recent application and development of Bulpitt’s idea on the territorial politics. 7. These are heuristic terms which have become widely known in analyses of electoral reform. See, for example, Renwick (2010).

4 ‘Stopping the Vote’: Election Administration in the USA

1. Exceptions included Rhode Island where those born outside of the US were required to own property, and in New York where African- Americans needed to meet a property test in order to vote (Seper and Lambro, 2004: 8). 2. The best it could achieve was to include an exemption from paying the poll tax in the Solidering Act, passed in 1942 to allow members of the armed forces to vote via absentee ballot. 3. It was disclosed in the release of a Democratic Party campaign manual that the Democrats, during the 2004 Presidential election, were instructed to ‘play up cases of voter intimidation’. According to one news source: ‘If no signs of intimidation have emerged yet, launch a pre- emptive strike’, the manual said. The manual, dated November 2004, also said that Democrats should rely on party officials, minority organisations and civil rights leaders to denounce Republican tactics to discourage people from voting. It also said Democratic Party officials should assist in placing stories in the press by providing ‘talking points’ (Taylor, 2007). Notes 237

5 ‘Modernising’ Elections? Election Administration in the United Kingdom

1. An 1788 Act established electoral registration, but it was repealed within a year (Seymour, 1915 [1970]: 106–7). 2. Other legislation was passed with the same aim such as the Reform Act of 1832, the Corrupt Practices and Prevention Act 1854, the Parliamentary Elections Act of 1868, the Representation of the People Act, and the Corrupt and Illegal Practices Act 1883. 3. Authors calculation based on the number of postal ballots reported in the Times (1918) and the electorate size (21,392,322) reported in Rallings and Thrasher (2007: 88). 4. Compulsory voting was also considered in the discussions of the committee but no recommendation was considered in its final report (Blackburn, 1995: 79), p. 110. 5. Blackburn notes that ‘In 1988 the Home Office provided £569,000 for its entire domestic electoral registration publicity and advertising campaign for that year. In contrast, it might be noted that it supplied £750,000 for the one- off campaign to publicise the new voting rights of the relatively far smaller number of overseas voters’ (2003a), p. 87. 6. The bill also proposed extending the franchise to a number of previously excluded groups such as the homeless. 7. For a full review of the impact of the changes on participation, see James, 2011a. 8. Multi- channel pilots are elections in which citizens can vote through a variety of mechanisms. The effects of multi- channel elections on turnout are discussed separately below. 9. A report by the Electoral Commission (2003a: 15) was unable to trace any statistical information on the actual numbers of cases of fraud. However, their research suggested that there was broad perception of fraud. According to Unionists this was a ‘well organized nationalist activity such as activities as fraudulently securing postal votes’. According to members of the nationalist community it had occurred on both sides of the community in the past, but was ‘less prevalent today’.

6 ‘Our silly aul’ pencils’: Election Administration in the Republic of Ireland

1. A spoof diary of Bertie Ahern’s time in office opened with the following reflec- tion in the introduction:

‘Regrets? I’ve had a few. My biggest single regret, lookin back, was dat I didn’t manage to bring in e-votin and get rid of de stupid oul pencils. I hate pencils. We’re de laughlin stock of the world wit dem. Sometimes I lie awake at night listening to de world laughin at us and sayin: “Ha, Ha! Look at the Irish. Still using pencils!”’. (Ahern, 2008: 7) 238 Notes

2. Although there is, of course, a literature on whether the electoral system does create the party system as Durgerver suggests, or whether the causal process is the other way around. 3. A newspaper search certainly revealed far fewer cases of public criticism or accusations of fraud. 4. ‘In 2010 it was announced that the machines would be disposed of.’

7 Agendas, Systems and Processes: Elite Strategy and Election Administration in Comparative Perspective

1. See, for example National Commission on Federal Election Reform (2001). Bibliography

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ACE Project 230 Australian ballot 8, 90–1, 205 ACORN 117, 123–4, 206 Ayres, Richard E. 27 Adams, Gerry 166 Adler and Hass 63 Bagehot, Walter 6 advance voting Bailey, Delia 37 see: voting hours Balibar, Étienne 18 Ahern, Bertie 169, 187–8, 198, 199, Balinski, Michel 157 201, 209 The Ballot Access and Voter Integrity Aguilar, Edin Eloy 52 Initiative 118–22, 206–7 Albright, Spencer D. 8 The Ballot 128 Allen, Bernard 193, 196 ballot initiatives Allen, George 100–2, 215 definition and key work 4 Althusser, Louis 18 ballot paper design 38–9 Alvarez, R. Michael 1, 10, 11, 35, 36, in Ireland 177, 184 37, 48, 213 Multi- lingual and Help America America Coming Together 117 Vote Act negotiations 108–9 America Votes 117 Banducci, Susan 35, 39 American Civil Liberties Union 95, Barnes, Harry 136–7 99, 107 Barreto Matt A. 28, 37, 54, 116 American Federation of State, Basile, Thomas 116 County and Municipal behaviouralism 8–10, 64 Employers 117 Beetham, Jeremy 128 Anderson, David 37 Belusconi, Silvio 225 Andrews, Josephine T. 13 benchmarks for election annual registration administration effect on registration levels 32–3, Help America Vote Act 41–3 negotiations 105–6, 108–9 UK 138, 142, 156–7 National Commission on Election Ansolabehere, Stephen 37, 54 Reform 103–4 anthropology 11–13 Electoral Administration Act 2006 Archer, Margaret 77 142, 151–4, 208 armed forced registration bending the rules of the game see military forces registration and as a statecraft support voting mechanism 81–5, 220–2 Ashcroft, John 118–22, 206–7 Bennett, Andrew 151 Asquith, Herbert 7 Bennett, Stephen Earl 56 Association of Electoral Bennion, Elizabeth A. 33 Administrators 215 Benoit, Kenneth 13, 19 Atkeson, Lorna Rae 37 Berekley, Henry 128 Attlee, Clement 133 Bernd, Joseph L. 91 attorney sackings, US 116–22 Bernhagen, Patrick 53 audit trials Berry, Mary Frances 104–5 for DRE equipment 87, 113–15, 193 Bertrand, Romain 12, 16, 46

269 270 Index

Bevir, Mark 11, 62 also see: US presidential election Bhaskar, Roy 77 2000 Bijker, Wiebe 11 Bush v Gore 102–4 Birch, Sarah 38, 48, 53, 56, 58 also see: US presidential election Birkland, Thomas A. 209–10 2000 Birmingham Butler, David 7, 15, 131–2 electoral fraud 149 butterfly ballots 25, 38, 50, 102–3 Bishop, Cortlandt F. 8 also see US Presidential election black candidates 50 2000; ballot paper design block vote 92–3 enfranchisement 87, 88–93 Cain, Bruce E. 4, 40 voter harassment 89, 97, 102–3 Calandrino Joseph A. 48 Black Congressional Congress 104 Callaghan, James 134 Blackbox Voting 47 Callahan, David 213 Blackburn Calvert, Jerry W. 55 electoral fraud 149 Cameron, David 156–7, 208 Blackburn, Robert 7, 126, 130, Campbell, Tracey 89 134, 136 Card, Andy 122 Blais, André 3, 4, 9, 16, 17, 19, 40, Carey, John M. 218 47, 53 Carmen, Christopher 38 Bogden, Daniel 119 carry over Bogdanov, Vernon 83 of names on the electoral Bohrer, Robert E. 52 registration 164–6 Bonar Law, Andrew 130–1 Carson, Edward 130 Bond, Christopher S. 109, 115 Carter, John Corrie 7 Borisyuk, Galina 34, 40 ‘Carter-Ford’ National Commission bounded rationality 69–70 on Election Reform 103–4 Bowen, G. William 27 Carter, Jimmy 94–5, 103–4, 206 Bradbury, Jonathan 62, 229 case study research 21 Brady, Henry E. 38, 49, 50, 51, 103 Ceaser, James W. 25, 102, 110, 112 Brazil 2 chains of custody 10 Brians, Craig Leonard 52 Charlton, Paul 119 Briquet, Jean-Louis 12, 16, 46 Charter 88 228 Brown, Gordon 154–7 Chief Electoral Officer, Northern Brunel, Thomas L. 52 Ireland 125 Bryant, Lisa Ann 37 Chong Alberto 58 Buller, Jim 74, 75, 76 Churchill, Winston 132–3 Bulpitt, Jim 2, 20–1, 62 Civil Rights Act 1957 91 also see: statecraft theory; Territory Civil Rights Act 1960 91–2 and Power civil rights movement, US 14, Bueno de Mesquita, Ethan 12 91–3 Burchett, Justin I. 34 also see: Voting Rights Act 1965 Burnham, James 63 civil rights legislation 87 Burnham, Peter 75–6 Citrin, Jack 52, 55 Busch, Andrew E. 25, 102, 110, 112 Clarke, Harold 222 Bush, George 96, 98–9, 206 class struggle 14 Bush, George W. 87, 102–3, 107, Clerk, John 6 113–14, 206–7, 220 Clinton, Bill 23, 96, 98, 99, attorney sackings 116–22 116–17, 206 Index 271

Clinton, Hilary 25, 109, 115, 122–3 Crocker, Royce 93 Cloward, Richard 4, 13–5, 27, 30, Cullen, Martin 193, 196, 221 53–4, 90 Cummins, Ed 119, 121 Coates, David 74 Curtice, John 16, 142 Cobb, Roger W. 210 Crawford, William vs. Marlon County Dahl, Robert 2, 223 Election Board (2008) 28, 116 Dana, Richard Henry 8 critical realism 76–9, 229 Darcy, Robert 39 Coakley, John 202, 209 databases, government Committee on Civil Rights, 1946 91 effect on registration levels 33 Commission on Electronic Davidson, Chandler 32, 56–7, 93 Voting 171, 194–8 Davidson, Donetta 117–18 Committee on Standards in Public Davies, Jonathan 64 Life 140 Davtyan, Seda 48 Committee on the Office of the Deceptive Practices and Voter Deputy Prime Minister 150–1 Intimidation Act 123 Common Cause of Virginia 95 Democracy for America 114 comparativism 16, 64 Denning, Lord 126 and statecraft theory 79–81, 229 Democracy Commission 212 compulsory voting 38, 51–2, 54–9 Dempsey, Noel 185, 191, 199, 212 and economic inequality 58 DeNardo, James 52 and effective number of parties 56 Denver, David 38 and far- right parties 55 Department of Justice, US 116–22 and policy agenda 57–8 DiClerico, Robert 88, 89, 90, 92, and socio-economic status 97, 207 gaps 53–5 Diebold 48, 114 and welfare spending 58 Disraeli, Benjamin 129 in Britain 69, 140 distance to polling station 39 in Ireland 176 driving licence applications computer hacking 4, 192–6 and voter registration: see National conduct versus context approach 18 Voter Registration Act Conservative Party 67 Dodd, Christoper J. 107 also see: Thatcher, Margaret; Dolowitz, David P. 215 Thatcherism Donovan, Todd 4 Constitution Review Group 169 Dowding, Keith 63, 74 continuous registration Downs, Anthony 28–9, 209 effect on registration levels 32–3, Dukakis, Michael 52 41–3 Dunlap, Tanya, 32 in Britain 138, 142 Dunleavy, Patrick 11 continuum of election administration procedures 22 early voting Conyers, John Jr. 98, 107–8, 116, 121 see voting hours Cosgrove, William Thomas 174 e-government 11, 201, 211 Coughlan, Kieran 194 e-Envoy 211 Council of Europe 155 Economy (Miscellaneous Provisions) Count Every Vote Act 115 Act 132, 135 ‘Court’, the Edwards, John 119 definition 66–7 Eisenhower, Dwight D. 91 also see: statecraft theory Elder, Charles D. 210 272 Index election administration studies by 33, 145, 150, 162–5 definition 3, 4 also see: Sam Younger genealogy of research 27–30 electoral finance 84 effects on electoral turnout – see definition and key work 4 electoral turnout electoral fraud 4 effects on electoral fraud – see cases in Britain under New electoral fraud Labour 148–50 effects on minorities and effects of election socio-economic groups 53–8 administration 47–9 Election Administration electronic voting equipment 113–5 Commission 104 Help America Vote Act election day 36, 44 negotiations 109–10 in Ireland 173, 174, 176, 198–9 measuring 48–9 in UK 133, 138–9, 155 National Voter Registration Act 99 election day registration nineteenth century Britain 126 proposals in the US 94, 97–8 Northern Ireland 158–61 Elections, Public Opinion and Parties US Voter registration drives in sub- group of Political Studies 2008 123 Association 66 Electoral Fraud (Northern Ireland) Act Electionline.org 230 2002 158, 185–6 Electoral Act 1923 170, 173–4 Electoral Law Act (Northern Ireland) Electoral Act 1960 170, 175 1962 158 Electoral Act 1963 170, 176 Electoral Management Boards 4, Electoral Act 1986 170 215–16, 230–1, 232 Electoral Act 1992 170, 184 also see: Electoral Commission and Electoral Act 1997 171, 185 Electoral Assistance Commission Electoral administration – see election Electoral Office for Northern administration Ireland 158 Electoral administration Act/Bill electoral outcomes 2006 142, 151–4, 208 and election administration 5, 50–60 Electoral Amendment Bill 1974 179 Electoral Register Act, 1949 135 Electoral Amendment Act 1986 184 Electoral Registration (Northern Electoral Amendment Bill 1997 171 Ireland) Act 2005 164 Electoral Amendment Bill 2004 195 electoral suffrage legislation, 84 Electoral Amendment Bill 2008 190 definition 4 Electoral (Amendment) (Prisoners’ eighteenth century American Franchise) Bill 2005 171, 199 colonies 8 Electoral Assistance Ireland 171, 199 Commission 108, 110, 215 nineteenth century Britain 126–7 electoral boundaries 84 electoral systems definition and key work 4 definition and key work 4 Electoral Commission, UK electoral system reform 13, 83, and the European, Parliamentary 219–20, 228 and Local Elections (Pilots) Bill/ effect on elite strategies towards Act 146–7 election administration 217–19, policy recommendations 150, 151 226 performance benchmarks 153, literature on electoral system 230 reform 19 setting up 141, 142, 216 in Ireland 170, 199–200 Index 273 electoral turnout Flynn, Odran 186–7 causes of 30–47, 224 Fifthteenth Amendment 88 decline 211–12 focussing event 209–10 effects on electoral outcomes 51–3 Ford, Gerald 103–4 electronic voting 4, 113–15 Fournier, Patrick 53 in Ireland 46, 169, 171, 191–8, Fourteenth Amendment 88 199–200 France 2, 12 and electoral fraud 47–8 Franklin, Daniel P. 27, 32 also see: pilot schemes, UK Franklin, Mark 36, 45 elite interests 14, 68–70 fraud act contingent 82, 220–1 see: electoral fraud outcome-contingent 82–3, 220–1 Fredman, Lionel E. 8 elite theory Frey, Frey, Frederick W. 67, 74 elites and masses 5–6 Foundation of Virginia 95 radical work on election Fund, John 48 administration 13–15 Furlong, Paul 77 review of approaches 62–4 also see: statecraft theory Gallagher, Michael 8, 202, 209 Elklit, Jorgen 60 Gallagher, Jackie 194 Ellison, Keith 116 General Assembly, of Virginia 92 Elston, Michael 121 Gibson, Rachel 35–6, 54 Erikson, Robert S. 52 Gibson, J. Paul 192–3 epistemic communities 63 Giddens, Anthony 18 ethnography 11–13 Gidengil, Elisabeth 53 Estonia 1–2, 35–6 Gilchrest, Jack 55 European, Parliamentary and Local Gill, Jeff 52 Elections (Pilots) Act 2004 Gilmore, Eamon 187 142, 145–7 Gimpel, James G. 40 Evans, Eldon Cobb, 8 Gingrich, Newt 98 Evans, Mark 62, 63, 74, 78, 81, 82, Gladstone, William Ewart 129 83, 215, 220 globalisation 229 Everett, Sarah P. 11 Goldwater, Barry 93 expansive election administration Gonzalez, Alberto G. 119–22 procedures 22, 40–7 Gooding, Monica 121 Gordon, Bart 106 Falconer, Charlie 146, 151, 153 Gore, Al 25, 35–6, 102–3 falsifiability 76–7, 229 Gore, George 128 far- right support 56 Gosnell, Harold 27 Farrell, David 4 governing code Federal Election Commission 97, 110 in statecraft theory 71–2 Feldman Ariel J. 48 governing competence Fieger, Geoffrey 119 in statecraft theory 71–2 Filer, John E. 30 governing objectives Finer, Herman 6 in statecraft theory 71–2 Fisher, Justin 53 Graves, Todd 119–20 Fitrakis, Bob 4 Grier, Eric E. 27, 32 Fitzgerald, Mary K. 9, 16, 36 ‘grandfather clauses’ 89 Flinders, Matthew 79, 83, 220 Gratschew, Maria 38 Florida 3, 50, 102–3, 211 Gregory system 199–200 274 Index

Griffin and Newman 58 Hooghe, Marc 54 Groarke, Margaaret 14, 16, 32, 50, Howarth, George 137–9 88–90, 93, 207 Howarth Committee 1998 137–9, Grofman, Bernard 2, 4 142, 212 Gronke, Paul 35 Hoyer, Steny 105–6 Gross, Charles 7 Human SERVE 96–7, 206, 215 Gutsman, W.L. 63 household registration development of legislation in Hai, Bui Duc 79 UK 150, 151, 151–3, 155–7, 167 Hain, Peter 147–8 effect on registration levels 33, 41–3 Halderman, J. Alex 48 Hudson, John 10 Hall, Peter 11, 16, 64 Hunter, Floyd 63 Hall, Stuart 64 Hursti, Harri 48 Hall, Thad E. 1, 10, 11, 35, 36, 49, Hyde, Susan D. 11, 49, 213 213, 37 Hamner, Christopher 35 Iglesias, David 119, 120 Handley, Lisa 4 immigrants hanging chads 25 and voter registration 89–90 also see: US Presidential election inaccuracies, in the register 2000 Ireland 182, 185–9 Hanretty, Chris 19 India 2 Harman, Harriet 152, 157 Indiana 124 Harney, Mary 194 Indiana Democratic Party v. Todd Harris Joseph P. 7, 27 Rokita 116 Harris, Katherine 102–3 individual electoral registration 2 Hartlyn, Thomas 4 development of legislation in Hay, Colin 5, 18, 78 Britain 150, 151, 151–3, 155–7, Hayduk, Ronald 8, 14, 16, 227 167, 208 Hayes-Fisher, William 130–1 effect on registration levels 33, Hazan, Reuven Y. 19 41–3 Healy- Rae, Jackie 189 Northern Ireland 151–2, 158, 161–4 Help America Vote Act (HAVA) 87, interpretive studies 11–13 104–10, 205–7 institutionalism Hennessy, Peter 67, 78 ‘new’ institutionalism 10, 64 Herron, Michael C. 38, 49, 50, 51, ‘old’ institutionalism 6–8 52, 103 internet voting 1–2, 35–6, 40 Hewitt, Patricia 148 and electoral fraud 47–8 Hicks Alexander M. 57–8 and young people 54 Highton, Benjamin 28, 36, 39 also see: pilot schemes, UK Hindess, Barry 29 Irish Citizens for Trustworthy Hine, David 19 e-voting 192–3, 200, 214, 215 Hirschl, Ran 219 Israel 13 hispanic voters 37 Irwin, Galen A. 54 Hoffman, Jonathan 32 issue triggers 20, 209–16 Holland, Lynwood M. 91 Holt, Rush 115 Jackman, Robert W. 13, 38 Home Office, UK Department of 125 Jackson, Jessie 98, 106, 218 homeless registration Jacques, Martin 64 In Britain 138 Japan 13 Index 275

James, Toby S. 32–3, 34, 35, 36, 37, Lijphart, Arend 2, 39, 51–2 76, 147, 155, 157, 220 literacy tests 30–1, 41, 89–93, 205 Jenson, Christain B. 57 Leftwich, Adrian 6 Jessop, Bob 18, 74 Lloyd George, David 130–1, 207 John, Peter 62 Local Elections Act 1974 170 Johns, Rob 38, 39 Local Elections and Register of Johnson, Bernice 110 Electors (Temporary Provisions) Johnson, Nevil 6 Act 1939 132 Johnston, Ron 157 Local Elections (Disclosure of Joseph Rowntree Reform Trust 155 Donations and Expenditure) Act Juenke, Eric Gonzalez 39 1999 171, 191 Local Elections (Postal Voting) Karp, Jeffrey A. 35, 39 Regulations, 1974 179 Katz, Jonathan N. 49 Local Government Finance Act Katz, Richard S. 19, 221 1988 135 Kelley Jr, Stanley 27 also see: ‘Poll tax’ Kennedy, John F. 92 Lockerbie, Brad 58 Kenny, Enda 194 Long, Walter 130 Kenny, Gale 32 Lopez-Pinter 4, 39 Kenny, Lawrence W. 30 Lowndes, Vivian 6 Kentros, Sotiris 48 Luechinger, Simon 34 Kerry County Council 186 Lundell, Krister 19 Kerry, John 115 Lukes, Stephen 29 Key Jr., Valdimer Orlando 27, 91 Lutz, Georg 39, 50 Keysar, Alexander 14, 89 Lyons, P. 8 Kiayias, Aggelos 48 Kiewiet, D. Roderick et al. 49 Mac Donald, Karin 40 King, Anthony 64 Macaskie, Stuart Cunningham 6 King, Martin Luther 92 Machiavelli, Niccolò 63 Kingdon, John W. 209 MacKenzie, Donald 11 Knack, Stephen 27, 32, 33, 46 Mackerras, Malcolm 56 Krimmer, Robert 35 macro politics 74 Kohler, Ulrich 58–9, 217, 219 Mackin, Martin 194 Kohno, Tadayoshi 48 Madgewick, Peter James 67 Konisky, David M. 54 Magleby, David B. 34 Kousser, J. Morgan 30, 89 Mair, Peter 218 majoritarianism 226 Lam, Carol 119 also see: electoral systems Lane, Deidre, 194–5 Malone, Christopher 89 Langevin, James 106 Mann, Michael 63 Laver, Michael 8 Manza, Jeff 4 Leca, Bernard 29 March, James G. 10 Lehoucq, Fabrice E. 49 Margetts, Helen 10 League of Women Voters 98, 99, Marsh, David 63, 64, 73, 77, 79, 215 106, 110 Marsh, Michael 8, 50, 53 Lewis, Earl M. 91 Martin, Paul S. 58 Lewis, John 106, 116 Martinez, Michael D. 52 Leyenaar, Monique 19 Martens, Tarvi 1 Library of Congress 21 Marxist theory 62, 66 276 Index

Massicotte, Louis 3, 4, 9, 16, 19, Mortimore, Roger 157 40, 47 Morton, Rebecca B. 30 Mattinson, Miles Walker 6 Mosca, Gaetano 63 Mawrey, Richard QC 149 motor-voting 27 McAllister Ian 52, 53, 56 also see: National Voter McAnulla, Stuart 17, 77 Registration Act McCain, John 122–4 MoveOn.org 114, 117 McCarthy, Joe 171 Moynihan, Donald P. 10, 214 McCauley, Ward 6 Mozaffer, Shaheen 4 McConnell, Mitch 107, 115–16 Mughan, Anthony 53 McCoy, Jennifer 4 Mukasey, Michael 122 McCreevy, Charlie 194 Mullin, Megan 28, 36, 39 McGill, Arrington and Taylor 91 Municipal Elections Act 1872 128–9, McGaley, Margaret 171, 192–3 135 McKay, John 119, 120 Murakami, Michael H. 40 McKenna, Dave 76 Murphy, Joe 192–3, 200, 201, 214 McKinley, Albert E. 8 Murphy, John A. 171–2 McLean, Iain 136, 157 Mustillo, Thomas M. 4 McNulty, Paul 120–1 Mycoff, Jason D. 37 Mebrane, Walter R. Jr. 5, 38, 49, 50, 51, 103 Naccache, Philippe 29 Mendez, Fernando 17 Nagel, Jack H. 53 Mercuri, Rebecca 192 National Association of methodology 21 Counties 103–4 methods 21 National Association of Election Michel, Laurent 48 Officials 103–4 Michels, Robert 63 National Association of Secretary of Michigan 27, 96–7 States 103–4 Mikardo, Ian 133 National Association for the Miliband, Ed 157 Advancement of Coloured military forces registration and People 98, 99, 110 voting 40, 95–6 National Commission on Election in Britain 129–3, 134–5 Reform 103–4, 212 in Ireland 173, 183 National League of the Blind 175 Miller, George 106 National postcard registration system, Miller, Peter A.M. 35 93–4 Mills, C. Wright 63 National Urban League 98 Minnite, Lorraine C. 14, 16, 32, 49, National Uniform Registration Act 94 50, 88–90, 93, 207, 213 National Voter Registration Act 14, MIT/Caltech Voting Technology 23, 27, 87, 96–102, 205–7, 213 Project 28 effect on registration levels 32, Mitchell, Glen E. 31, 32 41–3 Mitchell, Paul 8 natural rate of governability 70–1, mobile voting booth 39, 44, 138–9 76 also see: pilot schemes, UK ‘Neill Committee’ 140 Monnoyer- Smith, Laurence 12 Neeley, Grant W. 36 Monroe, Kristen Renwick 79 Netherlands 2 Montjoy, Robert S. 10, 214 new interpretivism – see interpretive moralism 75 studies Index 277 new institutionalism – see overloaded state 64 institutionalism Owens, Bill 117 Ney, Bob 105–8 Owen, Nora 192 Nickerson, David W. 33 Nicolaou, Nicolas 48 Pacek, Alexander C. 52 Nevitte, Neil 53 Palazzolo, Daniel J. 110, 112, 113 Nixon, Richard 93 Paralyzed Veterans of America 106 Northern Ireland 125, 151–2, 158–67 Pareto, Vilfredo 63 electoral fraud 158–61 Parish officers 127 postal vote applications 158 Parliament (Elections and Meetings) public confidence in Act 1943 132 procedures 161–2, 165–6 Parliamentary Electors (War- Time registration levels 162–7 Registration) Act 1944 132 Northern Ireland Affairs Select Parliamentary Voting Systems and Committee 159–60 Constituencies Act 2011 157 Northern Ireland Forum for Political Parkinson, Cecil 140 Dialogue 159 Parkinson, John 4 Northern Ireland (Miscellaneous party management Provisions) Act 2006 164–5 in statecraft theory 71–2 normal accident theory 10 Pattie, Charles 157 Norris, Pippa 5, 11, 56 Peiffer, Elizabeth 112, 113 Nuno, Stephen A. 28, 37, 116 Pelleriaux, Koen 54 Pels, Peter 12, 16, 46 O’Brien James K. 112–13 People for the American Way 114 O’Connell, Daniel 128 Perrow, Charles 214 O’Dowd, Fergus 199 photographs on ballot papers 39 O’Hare, Dann 195 pilot schemes O’Gorman, Frank 126, 128, 129 Ireland 191–2 O’Leary, Cornelius 7, 15, 128, 129 UK 2000–7 34, 35, 36, 37, 138–9, O’Reilly, Emily 193–4 142–50, 154–5 O’Reilly v Minister for the Piven, Frances Fox 4, 13–5, 16, 27, Environment 184 30, 32, 50, 53–4, 88–90, 93, 207 O’Shea, Alan 74 Plant, Lord 7, 137 Obama, Barrick 115, 116, 122–4 Plato 63 Office of Population Censuses and pluralism 65, 74, 227 Surveys 134, 136 policy agendas 209–16 Olsen, Johan P. 4 policy networks 63, 74 Orford, Scott 40 policy transfer 214–15, 229 ‘old’ institutionalism – see political argument hegemony institutionalism in statecraft theory 71–2 Oliver, J. Eric 34 Political Parties and Elections Oliver, George Harold 133 Act 155 Olivera, Mauricio 58 Political Parties, Elections and Operation Eagle Eye 93 Referendums Act 2000 142 Oregon 34 political participation 5 open polity 71 also see: electoral turnout OSCE, Office for Democratic Political Science Association, UK 66 Institutions and Human poll taxes Rights 151 and black voters 89–93, 205 278 Index poll taxes – continued purging of electoral registration effect on registration and see: registration list purges, National turnout 30–1, 41–3 Voter Registration Act UK ‘poll tax’ 136–7, 208 Putnam, Robert 5 Pomper, Gerald M. 25, 102 Popper, Karl 77 quantitative analysis 29–30 positivism 76–9, 229 also see: methods post- communist states 52–3 queues at polling stations 8 postal registration Quinn v City of Waterford 184, 215 Virginia 95 Qvortrup, Matt 4, 235 Universal Voter Registration Bill 97–8 Rabbite, Pat 195, 198 postcard registration system 93–4 Radcliff, Benjamin 52 postal voting on demand Rae, Douglas W. 2, 4 effect on registration levels 33–4, Rahat, Gideon 13, 19 44–5 Rallings, Colin 34, 39, 40, 145 also see: postal voting rational choice theory 13, 28–30, 64 postal voting rationality 69–70 effect on registration levels 33–5, Reagan, Ronald 53–4, 95–6 44–5 Reconstruction Act 88 development of legislation in Ireland Reform Acts (1832, 1835, 1853) 7, 173, 175–6, 177–81, 183–4, 185 126–7, 135 development of legislation in the Rehnquist, William H. 93 UK 132–3, 134–5, 142 Reid, John 153 in UK 2005 general election 34 registration deadlines in Swiss Cantons 33–4 effect on registration levels 31, Oregon 34, 35 41–3 also see: pilot schemes, UK Virginia 95 Power, Seán 193 Also see: election- day registration power registration by mail: see postal and the study of election registration administration 16–17 registration drives 101–2, 123–4 Pownall, Assheeton 132 registration list purges Prescott, John 146–7, 148, 151, effect on registration levels 31, 153, 208 41–3 Provisional Government, Irish 171–4 also see: National Voter Registration property requirements Act for voting in US 88 registration offices, opening hours provisional voting 104, 108–9 effect on registration levels 31, psychiatric patients, and 41–3 registration 138 Reno, Janet 117 public administration 64 Renwick, Alan 4, 19, 83, 221–2, 228 ‘public administration turn’ 10 rejected ballot papers public agencies, registration at: Scottish Parliament elections see: National Voter Registration Act 2007 38 Pugh, Martin 7 Representation of the People Act Pump, Barry 28 1832 127 punch- card voting machines 50, Representation of the People Act 1918 105–6, 108–9 130–2, 135, 171–2 Index 279

Representation of the People Act 1945 Sampson, Anthony 63 135 Sampson, Kyle 120 Representation of the People Act 1948 Sanchez, Gabriel R. 28, 37, 116 132, 135 Sanders, David 9, 222 Representation of the People Act 1969 Saunders, Kyle 37 134, 135 Savage, Michael 62 Representation of the People Act 1982 Savignty, Heather 64, 78, 79 134 Sayer, Andrew 78 Representation of the People Act 1983 Schaffer, Charles 29 134 Schattschneider, Elmer Eric 51 Representation of the People Act 1985 Schuknecht, James E. 40 134, 135–6 Schedler, Andreas 4 Representation of the People Act 1989 Schickler, Eric 52, 55 136 Schlozman, Daniel 4 Representation of the People Act 2000 Scholzman, Kay Lehman 51 142–4 Scott, John 63 Representation of the People secret ballot 11, 126, 128–9 (Northern Ireland) (Amendment) and electoral fraud 48 Regulations 1998 158 Secret Ballot Act 1872 125, 128–9, research methodologies and methods 207 also see: methodologies and also see: Municipal Elections Act methods 1872 Resnick, David 56 See, Andrew 48 restrictive election administration Sekhon, Jasjeet S. 38, 49, 50, 51, 103 procedures 22, 40–7 Service Employees International Reynolds, Andrews 38, 60 Union 117 Rhodes, Rod 6, 10, 11, 63, 77 Seymour, Charles 7, 127, 128 Rich, Joseph 120 Sharples, Richard 134 Richardson, Lilliard E. 36 Shashidhar, Narasimha 48 Roberts, Pat 109 Shephard, Mark 39 Roche, Dick 187, 188, 189 Shepherd, Juliemarie 39 rolling registration: see continuous Shotts, Kenneth W. 38, 49, 50, 51, registration 103 Rose, Richard 58–9, 217, 219 Shugart, Matthew Soberg 17, 82, Rosenfeld, Steve 4 218, 220 Rosenstone, Steven J. 4, 27, 29, 31, Shvartsman, Alexander A. 48 54, 55 Sides, John 52, 55 Rosinger, Myra 34 Simon, Herbert A. 69 Rove, Karl 121 Sinn Fein 161, 166, 172, 185, 202, 209 Rover, Barbara 115 Sinnott, Richard 8 Ruane, Chris 152 Skocpol, Theda 10, 63 Rubenson, Daniel 53 Smith, Jeremy 136 Rusk, Jerrold G. 30 Smith, Mr. Justice Matthew P. 194 Russell, Alexander 48 Sobel, Richard 28 Ryan, Kevin 119 Solop, Frederic I. 54 southern strategy 92–3 Sabatier, Paul A. 11 Southwell, Priscilla L. 34 Sakamoto, Takayuki 13 Speaker’s Conference on Electoral Saltman, Roy G. 8, 114–15 Reform 1960 133 280 Index

Spelman, Caroline 146 technological change 11, 211 spoilt ballots 200 Teixeira, Ruy A. 27, 55 also see: US Presidential Temporary Commission on Civil election 2000 Rights 91–2 Spoon, Jae-Jae 57 Territory and Power 62, 76, 81 State (Comerford) v. Govr Mountjoy Thatcher, Margaret 67, 134–6, 208, Prison 209, 228 statecraft theory 2, 20–1, 227–9 Thatcherism 64–5, 73–4 bending the rules of the game Thrasher, Michael 34, 39, 40, 145 81–5, 220–2 time off work for voting 39–40 core assumptions of 66–72 Tingsten, Herbert 38 criticisms of 72–6, 228–9 Tolbert, Caroline J. 4 evidence of statecraft in Tokaji, Daniel P. 123 Ireland 199–202 treating 126 evidence of statecraft in UK 207–9 Trechsel, Alexander H. 1, 17, 36 evidence of statecraft in USA Trinity College Dublin 21 205–7 Troy, Anthony F. meso- level concepts 209–20 Truman, Harry 91 origins of 64–6 trust in democratic institutions 3 also see: ‘Court’ Tubbs Jones, Stephanie 115 statewide voter registration turnout Help American Vote Act 106 see: electoral turnout National Commission on Election Twenty- fourth amendment 92 Reform 103–4 Virginia 95 Uggen, Christopher 4 Stoker, Gerry 5 UK General election 1868 129 Steenbergen, Marco 38 UK General election, 1918 130–1 Stein, Robert 39 UK General election, 1997 137, 211 Stevens, Christopher 76 UK General election, 2005 211 Stewart, John 149 postal voting in 34, 151 Stewart, Marianne C. 222 UNDP 230 strategic- relational approach 18 Uniform and Overseas Citizens also see: structure and agency Absentee Voting Act 1986 Straw, Jack 137–8, 139, 143–4 Universal Voter Registration Bill Street, John 11 97–8, 206 Stucker, John 30 US Commission on Civil Stutzer, Alois 34 Rights 104–5, 230 structure and agency 17, 70–1, 76–9 US Constitution 217 Sunday Tribune 185–9 US Presidential election 1980 53–4 support mechanisms US Presidential election 2000 3, 5, in statecraft theory 71–2, 81–5 25–6, 27, 50, 87, 102–3, 211, 217, Swank, Duane H. 57–8 220 Sweeny, Brian 195 US Presidential election 2004 4 Swift, Al 98 US Presidential Election 2008 123 Switzerland 2 US Supreme Court 28 de Valera, Eamon 175 Taskforce for Active Citizenship 212 Taylor, Alan 40 van Biezen, Ingrid 4 Taylor, Rosemary 16 van der Eijk, Cees 53 Index 281 van Egmond, Marcel 53 War Cabinet, British 130, 132–3 van Holsteyn, Joop J. M. 54 Warren, Samuel 7 universal postal voting Warren, LaShawn 107 see: postal voting on demand Wajcman, Judy 11 Verba, Sidney 51 Wasserman, Harvey 4 Vercellotti, Timothy 37 Watt, Bob 7, 48, 134 Vivian, Sylvanus 132 Wattenberg, Martin P. 52, 82 Virginia 88, 95 We Do Not Trust Voting Computers 2008 Presidential Election 123 Foundation 198 electronic voting equipment 114 weekend Voting Help American Vote Act 110–13 See: election day National voter registration Act Weeks, Liam 170, 200, 218 99–102, 213 welfare spending 58 Voting Rights Act 1965 92 Westminsterial system, UK 68–9, 82 Virginia Action 95 Wheeler, John 137 also see: General Assembly of Whiteley, Paul F. 222 Virginia Wielhouwer Peter W. 58 Vonnahme, Greg 39 Wilkins, S. Vance Jr. 112 Voter identification laws 2, 28, 87, Williams, Karel 62 217 Wilson, David C. 37 attorney sackings 120 Wilson, Harold 208 debate after HAVA 115–16 Wilson, Woodrow 6 effect on voter turnout 37, 44–5 winning electoral strategy Northern Ireland 158 in statecraft theory 71–2 and minority groups 54 Wise, Benjamin 32 Voting Accessibility for the Elderly Wigmore, John Henry 8 and Handicapped Act 1984 95 Wilks- Heeg, Stuart 35, 48, 155 voting centres 39, 44, 138–9 Wills, Michael 155 voting hours Wlezien, Christopher 31, 32 changes under New Labour 138–9 Wolfinger, Raymond E. 4, 27, 28, 29, effect on voter turnout 36–7, 44–5 31, 32, 36, 39, 54, 55 nineteenth century Britain 126 Wolfe, Joel 64, 74 Ireland 173–4, 176, 184–5 World War I Representation of the People Act and British electoral 1969 134 administration 129–32 also see: pilot schemes, UK World War II Voting Rights Act 1965 30–31, 91–3 and British electoral Voter Education Project 92 administration 132–3 Voter Protection Act 115–16 vote by mail Yohai, Ian 4 See postal voting Yoshinaka, Antoine 3, 4, 9, 16, 19, voter caging 56–7 40, 47 voter turnout Young, Peyton 157 see: electoral turnout Younger, Sam 146, 216 voting centres 39 Youth Work Ireland 199 Yu, Harlan 48 Wagner, David 37, 48, Wand, Jonathan N. 38, 49, 50, 51, Zeller, William P. 48 103 Zey, Mary 29