Segregation-In-America.Pdf

Home , Bombingham, Colfax massacre, Doug McAdam, Elizabeth Eckford, Equal Justice Initiative, Frye Gaillard

CONTENTS

Introduction 4

FROM SLAVERY TO SEGREGATION 6 A Lynching and its Legacy 9 The Creation of Jim Crow 10 Defending a “Way of Life”: The 1940s 12 Separate and Unequal: The Court’s Role 16

“MASSIVE RESISTANCE” 20 Delay, Delay, Delay: The Long Road to School Integration 28 School Closures 35 Segregation by Force 36 3 SEGREGATION REPORT 57 67 70 92 96 43 48 40 112 116 110 104 108 106 100

Notes

CONFEDERATE ICONOGRAPHY IN THE 20TH CENTURY IN ICONOGRAPHY CONFEDERATE SURVIVED SEGREGATION HOW LEADERS OF WHITE SUPREMACY LEADERS OF "SEGREGATION FOREVER": FOREVER": "SEGREGATION BEYOND BROWN: OPPOSITION INTENSIFIES BROWN: BEYOND The Inequality That Remains Preserving Racial Inequality Up North Preserving Racial the North The Evolution of Segregation in The Rise of Confederate Monuments Confederate Iconography in the Civil Rights Era The Modern Landscape Obstruction and Incitement Southern Lawmakers: the South The Survival of Segregation in Segregationist Violence Unchecked and Endorsed Unchecked and Violence Segregationist for Racial Equality the Struggle Criminalizing SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 4 to adequately acknowledge. progress, butwe are burdened by apainful history that we have yet past. Thiscountry haswitnessedgreat triumph,innovation, and designed to perpetuate white supremacy are allpart of ourdifficult and peopleof color, andenforcement of policiesandpractices adoption of “racial integrity laws” that demonized ethnic immigrants genocide of Native people,250-year enslavement of blackpeople, America’s history of racial inequalitycontinues to hauntus.The INTRODUCTION 5 INTRODUCTION Slavery Slavery Lynching in America: Confronting Confronting in America: Lynching - cultur and social, political, our years, 50 last the Over elected and embraced accommodated al institutions officials,journalists, and white leaders who espoused segregationists White racist ideologies. virulently respected were they shamed; or banished not were national of levels highest the of some to elected and Rights Civil the of passage the after long authority 1965. The Act of Rights and the Voting 1964 Act of proclaimed proudly who of people accommodation these implicates supremacy white and ideology racist that racial the notion institutions and undermines achieved. been has equality future our progress, forward our EJI believes that cannot society just more and healthier a of promise racial of history our confront we until achieved be is in desperate need nation inequality. We believe our persuaded are we — and and reconciliation truth of that process is sequential. We must first tell the truth it. can overcome we our past before about America’s on series a in report third the is This issued we 2013, In injustice. racial of history trade slave the domestic on which focused , in America to us inspired work and research That legacy. its and to Enslavement Museum: From build the Legacy In Alabama. , in Montgomery, Mass Incarceration 2015, we published which inspired another of Racial Terror, the Legacy the National new cultural space in Montgomery, you’ll hope We . and Justice Peace for Memorial of history the about more learn to spaces these visit America. in racial inequality narra- the of piece critical a is America in Segregation dy- especially an details It history. American of tive namic time when the character of America and our difficult history of racial injustice was on painful dis- people for many great hope of a time also was It play. that overcome believed we could who in this country That hope has and create a truly just society. history might we that so era this re-examine to us inspired us all as the better understand the challenges facing in America continues. racial equality for struggle - - - Enormous racial disparities in our criminal justice sys racial disparities criminal Enormous in our The United States is still compromised by widespread widespread by compromised still is States United The false with infected still are We bigotry. and bias racial - cre and marginalize that difference racial of narratives many against ate hatred, prejudice, and discrimination burdened are people brown and Black color. of people is that dangerousness and guilt of presumption a with in myriad ways. evident But the Civil Rights Movement also triggered mass op- also triggered Civil Rights Movement the But mil- equal rights, demands position. In response to for determined, their clear Americans made white lions of racial equal opposition to and committed unwavering, This entrenched com ity, integration, and civil rights. supremacy inspired violent white an often to mitment is frequently overlooked. racial justice that of rejection racial equality Understanding is the to opposition the confronting is central to because it this report of focus today. the continuing challenges of racial inequality tem, education, health, and employment reflect con- with- fully understood be cannot that tinuing problems was It era. civil rights the closer examination of a out agencies aligned law enforcement that this era during equality and be- racial opponents of themselves with violent resistance integration and to face of came the was blocked racial justice for struggle The rights. voting violent hostile and often were police who uniformed by in their opposition to peaceful efforts for equality. It is tensions between the fully comprehend impossible to and the police today with- color many communities of out a deeper appreciation of this history. In the 1950s and 1960s, heroic civil rights activists activists staged rights civil heroic 1960s, 1950s and In the racial inequality against a valiant compelled revolt that our nation to change some of its most racially offen- sive practices policies. and Movement The Civil Rights American society of character changed the profoundly long had too that color of people for doors and opened There has been and ignorance. bigotry by been barred substantial issues progress on a range of as a result of po- people in the increased non-white participation by has demand that a become has Diversity litical process. economic and political, social, cultural, strengthened the and visible ways. landscape in significant SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 6 TO SEGREGATION FROM SLAVERY 7 FROM SLAVERY TO SEGREGATION

oday, the story of the American Civil Rights Movement is familiar: courageous activists waged an epic struggle, faced great risks, and suffered tragic losses to achieve victories that forever Tchanged the nation. Rosa Parks and the Montgomery Bus Boycott; the murder of Emmett Till; the Selma to Montgomery March; and the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. in 1968 are well-known milestones in the movement.

In contrast, the story of national opposition to civil rights is muddled and incomplete. If civil rights activists’ efforts constituted a soaring chorus of We Shall Overcome, hundreds of thousands of white opponents responded with a deafening shout: “No you will not!”

White Americans concentrated in the South and influential throughout the country conducted a widespread, organized, and determined campaign to defend their “way of life” against the “burden of integration.”1 Racist politicians enjoyed support from the majority of white voters; the Ku Klux Klan claimed many of the South’s most prominent and powerful citizens as members;2 and white perpetrators of vicious attacks on black people were regularly acquitted by all-white juries.3

Understanding this opposition to civil rights can help us address its legacy today. SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 8 ed., et al., Without Sanctuary: Lynchinged., et al., WithoutSanctuary: Photography inAmerica (Santa Fe, NM:Twin Palms Publishers, 2000),117-118.) Men andboys pose beneath thebody of Lige Daniels,a black man,shortlyafter hewas lynched onAugust 3,1920,inCenter, Texas. (James Allen, 9 FROM SLAVERY TO SEGREGATION - - - James Oliver Eastland, James Oliver Eastland, the 6 privileged son of a wealthy planta wealthy a son of privileged on the white family tion-owning Mississippi lawyer a became Delta, and the state’s serving Unit longest Eastland ed States senator. com Senate career his 36-year mitted maintaining supremacy. to white defended 1978, he 1942 to From Mississippi’s racial deeply rooted caste system virulent and led the deseg- school opposition to white and rights, black voting regation, racial equality. For a generation of white white of a generation For Americans bitterly who rights fought civil progress, like Eastland and leaders the racial era of linked him were they which in terror the inequalityborn era to of segregation. Crow and Jim Later that year, Woods Eastland Eastland Woods that year, Later his slain son for his newborn named brother. ------4 5 bers of the mob prepared funeral the mob bers of and the pyres Holbert while Luther tree, a tied to each black woman, hold to forced They were watched. were fingers their as hands their out chopped off, one at a time, and dis as tributed souvenirs. Then their ears were cut off and handed out until beaten was Holbert as prizes. eye hung and one his skullfractured then members Mob its socket. from into bore to corkscrew large used a pull their arms, legs, and torsos, ing out large pieces of flesh before to fire the on victims both throwing event was de- death. The to burn scribed as festive, with 600 specta deviled lemon- enjoying tors eggs, ade, and whiskey. Eyewitnesses mem that reported On February 7, 1904, a black man On February and tortured were and woman killed in Sunflower County, Mis sissippi, peo- white as hundreds of ple watched and cheered. The accused was Holbert, Luther man, James Eastland, fatally shooting of promi a from landowner white a nent and wealthy family. Eastland’s led Woods and Hiram, brothers, as Holbert captured posse that the he fled with a black woman whose name was not reported. A LYNCHING AND LYNCHING A ITS LEGACY SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 10 held inthe South. slaved blackpeoplewere and those 3.9millionen- population was enslaved, 90 percent of America’s black On theeve of theCivilWar, means necessary. maintain that system through any to and awillingness cial inequality; to perpetuate ra- designed systems and economic chy; legal,political, hierar- racial entrenched a deeply white supremacist stronghold with the South earnedareputationas Long before the mid-20thcentury, OFCROW JIM THE CREATION 7 premacy inthis state.” convention “to establish white su- lowed suitandheldaconstitutional white man.” inferior race with power over the ferior race, but we cannottrustthe white men to do right by their in conviction that “[w]e cantrust ists’ ple the vote, reflecting segregation- constitutions that denied black peo- adopted newstate and Louisiana South Carolina, Mississippi, 1890s, a newlegalarchitecture. In the white supremacy required legalized from to Transitioning enslavement munity for generations. violence traumatizedtheblackcom- this states, Northern and officials al Enabled by the indifference of feder- 1877 and 1950, mostly in the South. more than4000werekilledbetween rorized millions of black people, and terror lynchings bywhitemobs ter- After federal troops withdrew, racial wrote historian Leon F. Litwack. emancipation will never be known,” of years first the in murdered and mutilated, flogged, beaten, were en “How many black men and wom - were used to maintain white control. lynchings, and large scale massacres During Reconstruction, violence, white supremacy. rebuilding asocietythat recreated pated, andwhite Southerners began feated, black people were emanci Four years later,the rebels were de- the 1861. Civil Warbegan in April federacy inDecember 1860, and from the to Union form the Con- Southslavery, Carolinaseceded threatened federalinterferencewith sentiment When shiftingnational 11 In 1901, Alabama fol- 12 10

- - 8 9 booths. ticket and segregated tententrances cuses to maintain separate,racially required cir- and in1939,Louisiana regated black and white prisoners, chairs forwhite patrons, blackand and razors, separate brushes, linens, bama, required all barbers to use Ala theCityof In 1905, Ensley, mundane areasof life. racial separationinmajor and ers passedlegislation thatrequired cal government restored,lawmak- With whitecontrolof and lo- state billiards. cards, dice,dominoes,checkers,and games of lawed interracial pool, while the City of Birmingham out nomic exploitation. second-class citizenship and eco that relegated black Americans to to establishanapartheidsociety used thelawandviolent terrorism to themythofblackinferiority tion. White Americans committed it outlived slavery and Reconstruc- or theThirteenthAmendment,and by the Emancipation Proclamation to black people — was not abolished myth that white people are superior created to justifyslavery—the difference racial of narrative The regated throughouttheSouth. tation, and publicschools were seg- 15 14 Hospitals, public transpor - Arkansas and Florida seg- Arkansas 13 - - -

11 FROM SLAVERY TO SEGREGATION

Bottom Left: White women protest desegregation in front of a church in Fort Worth, Texas, on October 9, 1956. (AP) SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 12 THE 1940S “WAY OF LIFE”: DEFENDING A called to organize opposition to theintegration schools.(Bettman of two local elementary /Getty Images) Young children wave Confederate flagsat aWhite Citizens’ Orleans, Councilmeeting inNew Louisiana, onNovember 16,1960.Themeeting was registered voters. population but only 3.5percentof they madeup24percentof the a matter of policy, state politics throughout state politics the region. cans still lived in theSouth, lived still cans In 1940, 77percentof black Ameri- form, white supremacyacentral plat trolled Democratic Partymade 18 excluded black members as 17 19 The white-con- and dominated 16 where - ered, and marginalized in most com- cluded, disenfranchised, disempow - Black people weresystematically ex- movement opposedtocivil rights. a national six-term career leading would build a Eastland Mississippi. States senatorfrom as United land electionofO.East James the 1942 black votersensured Suppressing - 13 FROM SLAVERY TO SEGREGATION munities. In the American South, and Brownsville’s NAACP chapter kept America’s racial hierarchy in- racial humiliation was a daily expe- remained suppressed until 1961.22 tact. Public education was legally rience. A political, social, econom- segregated throughout the South, ic, and cultural landscape that could Racial violence was not restricted to and residential segregation in the only be enforced through violence the South. Millions of black Amer- North and West was widespread. and intimidation had been created icans fled to the North and West, Leisure and recreation spaces to oppress and disfavor black people. where they were seen as threats to across the country were segregat- white jobs and culture. ed by race, and many states banned In the 1940s, the frequency of interracial marriage.27 lynchings declined but racial terrorism did not stop. Jesse Thorn- In 1948, 24 people were arrested ton was lynched in Luverne, Al- in Baltimore for attempting to In 1942, white people in abama, in 1940 for addressing a play tennis in interracial groups.28 white policeman without the title Detroit attacked black In Ellisville, Mississippi, Davis “Mr.”; 15-year-old Willie Howard families and rioted against Knight was sentenced to five was lynched in 1944 in Suwannee a planned public housing years in prison for marrying a County, Florida, for sending a love project for black residents.23 white woman.29 Segregation and note to a white girl; and Reverend The next year, some 25,000 inequality remained deeply rooted Isaac Simmons, a black landown- white factory workers at in America, but international er, was lynched in 1944 in Amite criticism forced some changes after Detroit’s Packard Motor County, Mississippi, by white men World War II. seeking to steal his land.20 Company refused to work after three black workers During World War II, American Members of lynch mobs were rare- were promoted.24 leaders resented the way that Ger- ly prosecuted, and even in those rare man and Japanese propagandists cases, all-white juries refused to con- “made the most of the anti-Negro vict. In Pickens County, South Caro- And in August 1944, white tran- discrimination in this country.”30 lina, 26 of the 28 white men charged sit workers in Philadelphia staged a And after the war, “[t]he Cold War in the 1947 lynching of Willie Ear- violent strike after eight black men focus on the ideals of democracy le admitted their involvement, but were hired as trolley drivers — a job and freedom assured that racial ex- white jurors acquitted them.21 previously reserved for whites only.25 ceptions to the American practice of those principals would receive Civil rights activists were targets of In Fontana, California, a black man careful attention,” one historian racial terror in this era. In 1940, as named O’Day Short, his wife Helen, observed. “Acts of racial violence part of the National Association for and their two young children were in obscure rural parts of Dixie the Advancement of Colored Peo- killed in a December 1945 explosion changed almost overnight from ple (NAACP), Elbert Williams or- at their new home after they refused events of mostly local interest to ganized a voter registration drive in to move out of the formerly all-white headlines splashed across newspa- Brownsville, Tennessee, a group of neighborhood. Though an NAACP pers around the world.”31 Federal white men that included the sher- investigation uncovered evidence of officials and Northern elites who iff abducted him from his home. arson, police declared the fire an ac- had been indifferent to generations His beaten corpse was found in the cident and closed the case.26 of racial violence and discrimina- Hatchie River days later. No one tion became more responsive when was prosecuted. The remaining Unchecked racialized violence and the issue threatened national politi- black activists were run out of town disenfranchisement of black voters cal interests and not just black lives. SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 14 down the practice in Texas primaries led to a decision striking ing theDemocratic Party’sall-white In 1944, a NAACP lawsuit challeng 1942. (DavidE.Scherman/The Life Picture Collection/Getty Images) First African American troops sentto England,marching ever back to camp duringWorld War II, the national defenseindustry. prohibited racial discrimination in signed Executive Order 8802, which ton, President Franklin D. Roosevelt threat to stage a march on Washing In 1942,inresponse to blackleaders’ the armed forces. military and ended segregation in abolished racialdiscrimination inthe signed Executive Order 9981, which years later,PresidentHarryTruman in allSouthern states. timately ended segregated primaries 33

35 In 1946, the In1946,the 34 that ul- 32 Six Six - - oppression abroad. soil just asthey hadfought oppression onAmerican “double victory” by fighting determined to achieve a returned to theSouth Many blacksoldiers against segregationwasontherise. At the same time, grassroots activism plied to interstate bus travel. gation lawsunconstitutionalasap- Supreme Court declaredstatesegre- 36

lynching. on President Roosevelt to condemn New York, at which called speakers a massmeetinginHarlem, tended South. a third of these were based in the and ahalfmillion, to 50,000 nearly membership grew from than less NAACP 1946, and Between 1940 of races.” gious, and educational separation swear to support“thesocial, reli- by requiringallprimaryvoters to Court’s banonall-whiteprimaries tempted tosidesteptheSupreme South Carolina politicians at- to enforcethem. funding eliminating contracts and rules inmilitary nondiscrimination utive order by refusing to support dercut Roosevelt’s exec- President Southern un- senators successfully ers oftrueAmericanvalues. and consideredthemselvesdefend be as dangerous as anAxisinvasion” itation andfederalencroachmentto Americans “deemedcivilrights ag- vision of Double Victory,” white “a white Ward calls supremacist In what historian JasonMorgan developments asagrowing threat. Segregationists recognized these 1945. charter conference in a statewide in the out 1940s and to Mississippi zation sprout branches through Medgar Evers helpedthe organi- Abbeville County, South Caroli- man, votedin the1948primaryin ter Reverend Archie Ware, a black sorted to violent intimidation. Af- struck down,whiteresidents re- 38 37 In 1942, 2000 people at- 2000people In 1942, A black veteran named 39 42 When that rule was 41 40 - - 15 FROM SLAVERY TO SEGREGATION na, a group of white men beat and segregated schools,46 and a by 1948, was a major coordinator stabbed him while two white po- majority supported racial of the Dixiecrat campaign but re- 43 lice officers watched. discrimination in hiring.47 turned to the Senate as a Democrat and became chair of the civil rights In Florida, Hillsborough County subcommittee.54 Supervisor of Registration John A month before President Truman Deckle openly defied the Court desegregated troops in July 1948, The Dixiecrat revolt began the and declared, “Negroes will not be polls showed that 63 percent of South’s gradual shift from the Dem- allowed to vote as Democrats.”44 Americans opposed integrating the ocratic Party to the Republican Par- military.48 ty and cemented a white suprema- In 1947, the Mississippi Democrat- cist identity, a states’ rights narrative, ic Party issued five rules “to bring Truman’s support for federal legis- and a model of uncompromising about complete white supremacy at lation to end lynching, poll taxes, segregationist leadership.55 the polls” by requiring that poten- and segregation in interstate travel49 tial party primary voters (1) oppose was the last straw for many South- After more than a decade in the the creation of a committee on fair ern politicians, who formed the Senate, former Mississippi Gov- employment practices; (2) oppose States’ Rights Party in 1948.50 ernor Theodore Bilbo in 1947 anti-poll tax legislation; (3) oppose wrote Take Your Choice: Separa- passage of a federal anti-lynch law; The so-called Dixiecrats planned to tion or Mongrelization as an “S.O.S. (4) support all party candidates in leverage the Southern states’ elec- call to every white man and white general elections; and (5) repudiate toral votes to defend racial segre- woman within the United States of affiliation with any other party.45 gation and maintain white suprem- America for immediate action.”56 A acy.51 They nominated first-term fierce proponent of white suprem- In 1948, Mississippi Governor South Carolina Governor Strom acy throughout his political career, Fielding L. Wright threatened to Thurmond for president and Mis- Bilbo ended his time in office with secede from the national Democrat- sissippi Governor Fielding Wright a message to the next generation. ic Party if it pursued “anti-South- as his running mate. At the conven- He urged white Americans to ern” policies “seeking to tear down tion, Thurmond declared, “There is ensure complete and permanent and disrupt the Southern way of life not enough troops in the army to racial separation by repatriating — which includes segregation of force the southern people to break black Americans to West Africa, Negroes.” down segregation and admit the warning that “[t]he campaign for nigger race into our theaters, into complete equality launched by the Segregationists were not margin- our swimming pools, into our Negro leaders has now reached alized figures clinging to a dying homes, and into our churches.”52 alarming proportions.”57 system; rather, their views were embraced by mainstream America. The Dixiecrats carried Mississip- pi, Alabama, Louisiana, and South Carolina in 1948, and won 2.4 percent of the popular vote — more than 1.1 million votes nationwide.53 Public opinion polls in the 1940s reported that Truman won in a landslide, and the approximately two of every States’ Rights Party faded, but the three white Americans defectors stayed in power. James supported racially Eastland, Mississippi’s senior senator SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 16 enslaved, could be a citizenof enslaved, the that no black person, freelished or sion inDred Scott v.Sandford estab- deci the Court’s Infamously, 1857 were enslavedornot. bound whether to respect,” they no rights whichthe white man was by holdingthat black people“had precedent its in difference racial of the narrative owners andenshrined fended the property rights of slave The Supreme Court vigorously de- Preserving Slavery caste system. South from to challenges itsracial the role shielding longstanding striking departurefrom the Court’s Brown v.Board of Education ment, andembraced Jim Crow. nized lynchmobs from punish undermined equal rights, immu Supreme Court protected slavery, regate public schools in1954,the groundbreaking to decision deseg- For more than acenturybefore its ROLE THE COURT’S UNEQUAL: AND SEPARATE ing them intoslavery sell free black peopleand napping to traders from prevent slave kid The Court struck down state laws ed Statesterritories. which in newUnit limited slavery vacating theMissouriCompromise, owners’ property rightsby ed slave 60 58 59

anddefend was a ------immunities” ofcitizenship. not entitled to the “privileges and the nameof citizens aState”and rican race were not included under it is“absolutelycertainthat the Af- or relations,” andtherefore, political with the white race, either in social der, and altogether unfit to associate regarded as beings of an inferior or more than acenturybefore been soned that black people “had for own citizens. states to deny basic rights to their that itcouldnotlimitthepower of byholding amendment the lified CasesSlaughterhouse , the Court nul in the 1872, people. In enslaved ly violating the rights of former designed to prevent states from The Fourteenth was Amendment ically gutted allthree. preme Court swiftly and systemat- condition ofservitude.”TheSu- account ofrace,color, orprevious nying amantherightto vote “on teenth Amendment prohibited de- protection of the laws; and the Fif- teed citizens due process and equal States to be citizens, and guaran- clared allpeople bornintheUnited ment overturned servitude; the Fourteenth Amend- abolished slavery and involuntary ments: the Thirteenth Amendment passed three constitutional amend- slaved black people — Congress defend therightsof formerlyen- to made was effort an when War od immediatelyfollowing theCivil During Reconstruction — the peri- Undermining Reconstruction States. United 63 61 TheCourt rea- Dred Scott, de- 62 - - - rican Americans from racial violence. rican Americans from racialviolence. government powerless to protect Af- Court repeatedly renderedthefederal abolition of slavery, the Supreme throughout theSouthfollowing the As racialterrorlynching raged Racial Terrorism Complicity in black man’svote. count a to refused had who ficials the convictions of two election of voting cans’ rights, and overturned to protect passed African Ameri- struck downthestatuteCongress a federalright Americans to vote, Amendment didnot grant African the Court held that the Fifteenth States v.Reese, inUnited In 1875, 65 64 -

17 FROM SLAVERY TO SEGREGATION one race.” And even though registrars ed from Southern juries.70 used the qualifications to deny registra- Meanwhile, all-white juries tion to all black voters, the Court found reliably acquitted white perpe- “it has not been shown that their actual trators of lynchings and other administration was evil; only that evil racial violence. was possible under them.” Authorizing Jim Crow Alabama voting laws were more explicitly discriminatory, but in Giles v. Har- In 1898, in Williams v. Missis- ris, the Court found no constitutional sippi, the Supreme Court up- problem with Alabama’s scheme, even held Mississippi’s poll tax and when shown that black men who met other voting qualifications, all qualifications were still refused The even though the Court ac- Court made it so difficult to prove ra- knowledged they were adopt- cial discrimination in jury selection that ed explicitly to disenfranchise between 1904 and 1935, not a single African Americans, because conviction of a black defendant was re- the provisions on their face versed because of racial discrimination were “not limited by their lan- in jury selection, even though African guage or effect to one race.”71 Americans were universally exclud- And even though registrars

Engraved into the Supreme Court facade are the words “Equal Justice Under Law.” (EJI)

After killing as many as 150 black a handcuffed black man to death.68 black defendant was reversed be- people peacefully protesting at the cause of racial discrimination in courthouse in Colfax, Louisiana, The Court not only shut down fed- jury selection, even though Afri- in 1873, white defendants were eral attempts to protect black citi- can Americans were universally convicted under a federal law zens, but also permitted state courts excluded from Southern juries.70 designed to combat the Ku Klux to deny justice to black victims. Meanwhile, all-white juries reli- Klan.66 The Court overturned While the Court struck down a law ably acquitted white perpetrators of their convictions in United States that excluded black men from jury lynchings and other racial violence. v. Cruikshank and struck down the service solely based on race in 1879, statute, holding that Congress was it permitted states to create proper- Authorizing Jim Crow empowered to regulate only state ty and educational requirements for action, not the acts of private citizens jury service and gave local officials In 1898, in Williams v. Mississippi, — even if they committed murder.67 nearly unfettered discretion to use the Supreme Court upheld Mis- those requirements to exclude Afri- sissippi’s poll tax and other voting The conceit of this private/state can Americans.69 qualifications, even though the actor distinction was laid bare in Court acknowledged they were Screws v. United States, when the The Court made it so difficult to adopted explicitly to disenfranchise Court overturned the conviction prove racial discrimination in jury African Americans, because the pro- of a sheriff who, along with two selection that between 1904 and visions on their face were “not lim- other law enforcement officers, beat 1935, not a single conviction of a ited by their language or effect to SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 18 der them.” un- evil; onlythat evil was possible that their actual administration was Court found “it has not been shown registration to all black voters, the deny to qualifications the used trars Harper’s Weekly, October 21,1876.(A.B.Frost/Harper’s Weekly) were still refused registration. black men who met all qualifications scheme, evenwhenshown that stitutional problem with Alabama’s v. Harris, the Court found no con- plicitly discriminatory, but in Alabama voting lawsweremore ex- one race.” it coulddo if Alabamawastrulyde- Court concluded there was nothing 71 72 And eventhough And regis- 73 Giles Giles The the Court in Hall v.DeCuir that requiredsegregation. In 1877, regation laws andupheldstate The Court struck down anti-seg literacy tests States in1915,itupheldthe use of father v. United clause inGuinn unconstitutional grand- undeniably the Court While struck downan all relief. from icans voting, and so it denied termined to prevent AfricanAmer- Americans foranother50years. rights to generations of African voting deny effectively to used tics 74 75 and polltaxes — tac- struck 76 - road cars. rail- on interstate racial separation segregation law sissippi to mandate years later the Court interstate commerce. regulated that it unconstitutionally ties were“separatebutequal.”Writ- constitutional violation where facili- railroad passengers and found no law requiring racial segregation of segregation, considered a Louisiana well-known decision upholding Plessy v. Ferguson, theCourt’s most veyances within the state, public con- ited segregationonall law thatprohib down aLouisiana 79 allowed 78 But a few 77 holding a Mis - - 19 FROM SLAVERY TO SEGREGATION ing in 1896, the Court found that Louisiana’s law could not “abolish distinctions based upon color, or [] enforce social, as distinguished from political, equality, or a commingling of the two races upon terms unsatis- factory to either.”80 The Court rejected Mr. Plessy’s argument that forced racial separation branded black people as inferior, and countered, “If this be so, it is not by reason of anything found in the act, but solely because the colored race chooses to put that construction upon it.”81

Even when enforcing its own “separate but equal” doctrine, the Court showed little commitment to the “equal” requirement. In Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education, 55 years before Brown, the Court upheld the school board’s decision to close the black high school but keep open the white high school because, it concluded, “it is impracticable to distribute taxes equally.”82 The Court absolved itself of responsibil- ity for ensuring equality in education, writing that “the education of the people in schools maintained by state taxation is a matter belonging to the respective states.”83

The Court’s embrace of Jim Crow ex- Harper’s Weekly, September 5, 1868. (Thomas Nast/Harper’s Weekly) tended even to voluntary associations between white and black people. In Berea College v. Kentucky, in 1908, In 1875, Congress passed the Civ- The Court rejected the argument the Court upheld a Kentucky law il Rights Act, which barred racial that the law was meant to eradicate that prohibited private colleges from discrimination in public accom- the effects of slavery, writing that teaching black and white students modations, facilities, conveyances, formerly enslaved people had altogether, reasoning that the college, and places of amusement. In the ready been given enough time and although private, was nonetheless de- Civil Rights Cases, the Court struck assistance and could not expect to pendent on a state charter, and so was down the law, holding that Con- forever be “the special favorite of subject to virtually any conditions gress had no authority to prohibit the laws.”85 that Kentucky chose to impose.84 discrimination by private parties. SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 20 HARRY BYRD,HARRY UNITEDSTATES SENATOR FROMVIRGINIA,FEBRUARY 1956 not going to beaccepted intheSouth. of thecountry willrealize that racial integration is resistance to thisorder, Ithinkthat intimetherest If we can organize theSouthernStates for massive RESISTANCE" "MASSIVE 86 Crowd protests the admission of black students to Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas, 1959. (John T Bledsoe/PhotoQuest/Getty Images) SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 22 Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. segregated publicschools were“inherentlyunequal”and violated theEqual unanimously invalidatedracialsegregation inpubliceducation, reasoningthat On May 17, 1954, in South feltbetrayed. authorized and segregation, racial discrimination many white people inthe would harmbothraces. judge Thomas Brady published a Pickens pamphletthat predicted Brown exercise of federal power. months, circuit Within Brookhaven, Mississippi, mandated segregated schools, white as atyrannical people decriedthe decision T activists. Throughoutactivists. the South, where state constitutions Brown cornerstone of the Southern racial caste system. 60-year-old precedentof “separatebutequal,” does not make asummer.” businessmen andfarmerscan befoundamong them,but“one swallow of considerable wealthandability.Doctors, lawyers, educators, ministers, him and will continue to do so. The South has produced some Negroes do so for himself. Gradually we have opened the door of opportunity to his friend. We have provided his material necessities when he could not In so far as the South is concerned, the Southern Negro knows we are sciences, as well in thebusiness and professional world.” . . ishness as “many Negroes have achieved outstanding success in the arts and and hisproblems,itsdecision would notembody withinitsuchfool- then theSupremeCourt would haveapassingunderstandingof theNegro with theaverageNegrofamily.Itshould do thisinAugust,mindyou, and gia, Alabama,Louisiana, Mississippior EastTexasandassociate intimately What the SupremeCourt needs to do isto spendabout thirty daysinGeor- outraged white segregationists asmuch as itenergizedcivilrights course in the mid-20th centuryandbegan striking downlawsthat white supremacy after the Civil War. When the Court changed and inthe campaign to rebuild and strengthen racial hierarchy and he Supreme Court was a reliable partner in maintainingslavery Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, the Supreme Court 91 92 88

Brown threatenedto dislodge a 87 By overturning the nearly By overturning the nearly 89 and statelaw 90

23 "MASSIVE RESISTANCE"23 White Americans implemented a strategy of “massive resistance” to desegregation by deploying a range of tactics and weapons against the growing movement for civil rights. Some of these tools, such as bombing and murdering civil rights activists, continued the tradition of maintaining white supremacy through lethal violence. Other methods, such as criminalizing, arresting, and imprisoning peaceful protestors, foreshadowed the modern mass incarceration era.

Opposition to civil rights and racial equality was a mass movement. Most white Americans, especially in the South, supported segregation.

Millions of white parents nationwide acted to deny black children equal education by voting to close and defund public schools, transferring their children to private, white-only schools, and harassing and violently attacking black students while their own children watched or participated.

Only a small minority of white Americans actively dissented from the widespread opposition to civil rights by engaging in civil rights activism and supporting black activists.

More than ever before, white people used their opposition to civil rights to prove their Southern loyalty and measure that of their neighbors. “Not unlike pro-slavery zealots of the 1850s,” historian Neil McMillen observed, “the pro-segregationists of a century later were inclined to brook no latter-day abolitionism among fellow southerners . . . In this repressive atmosphere the moderate was vilified and he who was found ‘soft’ on integration was adjudged Top: Fort Lauderdale, Florida, 1964. (Steve Schapiro) 93 treasonous.” With battle lines drawn, whiteness now Bottom: A young man protests school desegregation in Montgomery, required action. Alabama, in 1963. (© Flip Schulke) SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 24 newly-emancipated black people werecoerced Sharecropping dates back to the late 1860s, when vented them from saving to buy land of their own. pre- and profit their eliminated that debt of cycle and equipmentattheseason’s start,they livedina land. Dependent on high-interest loans to buy seed sharecroppers livedandfarmedon white-owned activism during the Civil Rights Movement. Most of African American sharecroppers who engaged in White landowners in the South evicted thousands EVICTIONS SHARECROPPER Black workers leave inJuly1940.(©CORBIS/Corbis Jersey Floridafor New viaGetty Images) 94

able to economic retaliation for supporting civil rights. owners knew their black tenants were especially vulner- cropper typically had nowhere to go, and white land- las County, 57-year-old Arthur Brown received no dren] had to move.” chil- five and husband [my we said . . . landlord the said in1966.“Andthentwo daysbefore Christmas abama] sinceJanuary2,1931,”Mrs.ArmandaGlover “I been living on this farm [in Lowndes County, Al - people remained trapped in poverty. ricultural labor in the Deep South, where many black ag- defined largely sharecropping later, Generations farm underterms that resembled enslavement. through violence, deception, and desperation to 97 That same year, in nearby Dal - 95 An evicted share- 96 -

25 "MASSIVE RESISTANCE"

tice that he and his nine children were being evicted ism, but went on to lead a movement demanding po- from the Minter plantation, where he had lived since litical representation for black people in the South.107 he was two years old.98 Many evicted families were forced to live in tent In 1960, 1400 African Americans registered to vote cities that sprang up throughout the South.108 In in Fayette County, Tennessee, and about 700 were communities that most closely resembled refugee evicted.99 Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, scores camps, entire families sheltered in fabric tents that of families were evicted from plantations through- froze in the winter,109 with no running water110 out Mississippi.100 White landowners in Greene and one outhouse for dozens of people.111 County, Alabama, evicted at least 75 black families in 1960,101 and more than 40 black families were Mary Williams, a black woman evicted from her evicted in Lowndes County, Alabama, in Decem- home in Tennessee, remembered that “the ground ber 1965 alone.102 was frozen real hard, and you could not get rest. We got cardboard boxes, split those boxes open, Evictions were part of a systematic plan to thwart spread them on the grass . . . But after we closed civil rights activism and prevent black people from up for the night . . . the ground began to thaw and voting. Black men and women who registered to that made water come through the cardboard.”112 vote were required to provide the names of their employers, who could then be notified.103 Newspapers White segregationist “night riders” terrorized the printed the names of black people who attempted to camps, firing guns into the tent cities in the mid- register,104 and White Citizens’ Councils distributed dle of the night. “Tent City was like a shooting voter lists to white merchants, who denied basic ne- gallery,” recalled SNCC field secretary C.J. Jones. cessities and employment to African Americans who “They used to come by there three or four times registered — or tried to register — to vote.105 a week and shoot into Tent City, and you have to remember there were women and children On August 31, 1962, Fannie Lou Hamer and oth- [there].”113 Law enforcement did nothing to pro- er black residents of the Mississippi Delta traveled tect black people from this terrorism.114 to Indianola to register to vote. Soon after, she and her husband were evicted from the Marlowe planta- During this era, many African Americans were made tion where they had been sharecroppers for 18 years. to choose between exercising their rights and pro- Homeless and denied work, the Hamers moved into tecting their families from homelessness and violence. temporary housing in nearby Ruleville, where white The threat of eviction and other forms of economic shooters targeted their home less than two weeks lat- retaliation forced countless black men and women to er. Undeterred, Mrs. Hamer returned to register to stay on the sidelines in the struggle for equality. “It’s a vote that December, and told the circuit clerk: “You very frightening thing to have to accept the cold re- can’t have me fired anymore ‘cause I’m already fired, ality,” observed SNCC field secretary George Green, [and] I won’t have to move now, because I’m not liv- “that in order to exercise their rights, to get what ing in a white man’s house.”106 In 1963, Mrs. Hamer they could get in this great Democracy in America, was brutally beaten by police for her continued activ- here in 1966, people were living in tents.”115 SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 26 taling 40,000 members by July 1956. In South Carolina, the councils had 55 chapters to- economic intimidation, and even violence. delay school desegregation through political action, 14 of theparents asked to withdraw their names. all hadlost theirjobs orbeenevictedfrom theirfarms; petition in the community of Elloree, South Carolina, weeks after17blackparentssigned apro-integration Society) Coordinating Committee, courtesy of Wisconsin Historical the SelmaTimesJournal onJune9,1963.(Student Nonviolent A White Citizens’ Council’s recruiting pamphlet publishedin determined members out theSouth. Withintwo years,more than250,000 White Citizens’Councilsspreadrapidlythrough- County NAACPwas disbanded. ly, allsigners removed their names and the Yazoo even had their bank accounts cancelled. Ultimate- and theyfacedwidespreadharassment,lost work, and the council publishedanewspaperadnaming them a desegregation petition launched by the NAACP, When 53 black residents of Yazoo County signed Mississippi had60,000membersbyOctober 1955. 116 were working together to were working together to 119 117 Within two Within two 118

of 1960s. their homesintheearly its members. for of war on desegregation anddeclared the crisis tests acrossthenationbutnoimmediatearrests. their home on Christmas Day in 1951led to pro an explosionat in County, Florida. Theirdeaths and founders of the NAACP chapter in Brevard including Harry and Harriette Moore, teachers bombings claimed the of lives NAACP activists, for Mr.Dahmer’s murder. He was not convicted. boasted Klansman Sam Bowers after he was indicted vict a white man for killing a nigger in Mississippi,” non Dahmer (1966). “A jury would not dare con- Medgar Evers (1963), Louis Allen (1964), and Ver- activists included Reverend George Lee (1955), In Mississippialone, thelistof murderedNAACP and angry community members NAACP a target of lawmakers, white politicians, the civil rights era. But its role in Brown from faced retaliation long before segregationists nization to advance justicefor African Americans, Colored People, formed in 1909asa bi-racial orga for of The NationalAssociation the Advancement TARGETINGNAACP THE NAACP lawyers who actively filed desegrega- after tion lawsuits filed actively who lawyers NAACP Looby Arthur Z. Alexander and Shores, black- promptly losttheirjobs,credit,andsuppliers. Clarendon County, South Carolina, those listed cil circulatedthe roster of NAACP members in civil rights participation. After the local coun- to punish industry ownership, and land capital, financial over dominance whites’ on capitalized Councils throughoutWhite Citizens’ the South 121

Brown , both survived bombings 120 who blamed it 122 But other made the 123 124 - - 27 "MASSIVE RESISTANCE"

Opponents also used legislation to undermine NAACP activities. Between 1956 and 1960, states passed some 230 laws targeting desegregation activists, and most specifically targeted the NAACP.125 Some laws explicitly barred NAACP members from public employment, especially as school teachers;126 the NAACP and its members were harassed with criminal prosecu- tions and bar association disciplinary proceedings; and some states outlawed the organization entirely.127

In 1956, Alabama Attorney General John Patterson filed suit to enjoin the NAACP’s activities in the state and demanded access to its membership lists and other records. “The NAACP is no credit to the Negro race and has set the Negro’s cause back 100 years in Alabama,” remarked Patterson, who was later elected governor.128 The state court granted an injunction restraining the NAACP from operating in Alabama that lasted for several years until it was overturned by the Supreme Court.129 Other states employed the same strategy.

Courts eventually invalidated most anti-NAACP statutes, but the lengthy litigation diverted already strained resources from civil rights efforts.130 Harass- ment and violence also contributed to drops in par- A threatening poster circulated by the KKK in Birmingham, ticipation: Southern membership fell from 128,000 Alabama (1933). (Alabama Department of Archives and History.) in 1955 to 80,000 in 1957 and nearly 250 branches dissolved; NAACP activities briefly shut down statewide in Louisiana and Texas; and Alabama’s NAACP ceased operations from 1956 to 1964.131

“At stake in the long run,” read an official NAACP press statement in 1958, “is the continued exis- tence of NAACP in Alabama and in other South- ern states which have taken similar action to ban NAACP in the belief that the civil rights movement and desegregation of public schools can be halted if NAACP is suppressed.”132 SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 28 gro children out of white schools.” Wright, called the policy “legalistic horseplay to keep Ne- then a young black civil rights lawyer named Marian A. the Court ordered immediate desegregation. thorizing their to legislatures end publiceducationif adopted constitutionalamendmentsau- and Mississippi Before ly-enforced desegregation. for immediate, federal- rejected calls equal rightsand the Court in BrownII majority had costthe ruling its teeth. Just a year later, Brown The languageof in the Court’s unanimous decision SCHOOL INTEGRATION THE LONG ROAD TO DELAY, DELAY, DELAY: pace, one approximating the crawl of an arthritic turtle.” Carolina Way” ended “school desegregation at a seemly gation. tained nearly all-white schools without explicit legal segre- list of subjective, “race-neutral”criteria,thelawmain- school districts to assign students to schools based on along pass apupilplacementlaw. to state first the became Carolina North 1955, March In plans thatinsteadstoppeddesegregationinitstracks. as desegregation disguised policies developed strategists wasgroundbreaking, but building anine-justice 136 Brown II was decided,South Carolina, Georgia, In the words of historian Earl Black, the “North In the words of historian Earl Black, the “North walked back its commitment to 134 Marian Wright Edelman, MarianWrightEdelman, 135 By authorizing local By authorizing local 133 Other 137

Americans, and violatedtheir harmed rights black students as thoughIndeed, Brown powers tokeepschools segregated. tional amendmentthatallowedthestateto useitspolice Louisiana voters overwhelmingly approvedaconstitu- to underminecourts’ desegregation orders. tion legal and political strategists and emboldened states for the South,” discretionary oversight. Hailed as a “very definite victory guidelines, and granted Southern district judges broad for beginning or completing integration, issued vague The decision approved gradualism, imposed no deadlines dered schools to integrate “with all deliberate speed.” In May1955,theCourt issuedBrown II,inwhichitor- court tosettlefortokenintegration.” the South in some time,” as it “shows of a willingness the was “the the most decision said encouraging thing for were Long and Senator “jubilant,” of Russell Louisiana theirown. had passed state every other by 1958, Southern and in 1957, challenge law survivedlegal placement North pupil Carolina’s Court upheld the law. nonetheless to block integration, but in 1958,a unanimous Supreme itly declaredthat the state’s placementplanwas intended tion, educa- public funding stopped officials County Edward if they were threatened with imminent desegregation. local communities to close publicschools bypopular vote 141 and North Carolina devised a plan that permitted Brown II 139 the ruling pleased many pro-segrega- prioritized the rights and prefer- ruledthat segregated schools 143 Alabama legislators explic Alabamalegislators 140 144 In Virginia, Prince InVirginia,Prince 145 Alabama officials Alabama

142 138 138 -

29 "MASSIVE RESISTANCE" Bottom: Grace McKinley walks her daughter and a friend through an angry crowd on the way to Fehr Elementary School in Nashville, Tennessee, on Elementary an angry Fehr in Nashville, Tennessee, School and a friend through to McKinleyBottom: her daughter on the way walks crowd Grace Special Collections) (Nashville Public Library, segregation.” “God is the author of reads, that holds a sign the crowd 9, 1957. One member of September Top: Segregationist protestors surround Elizabeth Eckford, one of nine black students to integrate Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas, 1957. 1957. Rock, Arkansas, High School in Little Central integrate to black students nine one of Eckford, Elizabeth surround protestors Segregationist Top: our painful, acknowledge honestly when we only occur can reconciliation observed, Ms. Eckford “True later, decades on the experience Reflecting Archives) Indiana University Collection: (Will Counts past.” but shared, SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 30 Integration, South to all“lawfulmeans” of resistance. by “outside agitators” andpledged the “clear abuseof judicialpower” orchestrated Corbis viaGetty Images) their highschoolin Montgomery, Alabama. (©FlipSchulke/CORBIS/ A group of teenage girlsscream obscenities at blackstudents entering round in the battle for compliance” with first “the won had South the that concede to gressman former Confederacy until 1957, leadingone black con- Virtually no desegregation occurred in any statesof the rights and declared it “null, void and of no effect.” denounced Virginia — also enacted “interposition” resolutions that ida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina, and tures of eight Southern states—Alabama,Arkansas,Flor- ate in1954andhelpeddraftthedocument. The legisla- Dixiecrat presidential candidate, was elected to the Sen- Strom Thurmond,former South Carolina Governor and senator Byrd’s Harry and 77representatives —signedVirginia representatives inCongress —19senators Brown. InMarch 1956,most of theSouth’s Pro-segregation lawmakers vocally opposed additional gradeeveryyear.” one to it expanded then and grade twelfth or first the and grade-a-year which plans, started desegregation in parents to move their children out of integrated schools; among schools; transferoptions,which permitted several dom-of-choice which plans, allowed parentsto choose to bills thwart desegregation tures passed through “free- State legisla delay. by enabling of white parents ences White Citizens’Councils. longed violence by enraged white mobs organized by to pro led high1956 tion of school in a small-town where the exception was Clinton,Tennessee, integra- Brown as an “illegal encroachment” on state’s whichcondemned Southern Manifesto on on Manifesto Southern 146 Brown Brown. asa 149 148 One 147 - -

31 "MASSIVE RESISTANCE" SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 32 bers to protest integration. dents toboycottclassesandcommunity mem- rived in Clinton, where he urged white stu- Seaboard White Citizens’ Council quickly ar- black students home “for their own safety.” the sent sheriff local the and people 1000 and regation protestors hadgrown to between500 students began classes,thecrowd of pro-seg - order is near athand.” where wecanget it—acollapse of lawand later. “Wewanttrouble andwewantit every- white supportersinBirmingham afew weeks rousers wecanget,” Kaspertold acrowd of IN CLINTON, TENNESSEE IN VIOLENT RESISTANCE people for several nights, giving speeches at- but Carterralliedamob of more than1000 ton opposition. Clintonhadjust4000residents, zens’ Counciltook over leadership of theClin- Asa Carter of the North Alabama White Citi- Kasper was jailed for contempt of court, and with 800whitestudents. the “Clinton Twelve” registered to attend class and a small group of black students dubbed grate bythestartof the1956-57school year, high school in Clinton, Tennessee, to inte- After local police station. on the street and breaking a window at the violent, assaulting a black woman as she passed the mob outside the school grew increasingly than 200whitestudentsboycottedclassand son County courthouse. The next day, more ti-integration rallyonthelawnofAnder- That evening, Kasper led 800 people in an an- Brown , afederaljudgeordered thelocal 153 “We need all the rabble “We need all the rabble 154 150 151 John Kasper of the John Kasperof the A few days after A few days after 152 heavily damaged inapre-dawn bombing. integrated Clinton High School, the school was first students black after years two 1958, 5, ber harassment throughout the year. School, where they experienced attacks and nal Clinton Twelve remained at Clinton High sions and, a week later, only seven of the origi- explo dynamite eight least at suffered Clinton black menheldinthelocal jail. a nearbytown, andattemptedto lynchtwo threw dynamiteintotheblackcommunityof pied bythefatherof one of theClinton Twelve, rived. Segregationists shot into a home occu- White violence escalated even after troops ar- Twelve. Clinton the of one of home the to next field a On September26,1956,dynamiteexploded in gradually increased,buttensions remained. Troops departed and white student attendance School resumedinClinton afterLaborDay. motorists andpedestrians, mixing.” His enraged audience assaulted black as agents of “mongrelization” through “race tacking the Supreme Court and the NAACP the men attackedhimwithaknife. the guardsman answered that he would, one of to enforce integration ifordered; whenoneof Dayton and asked if they would go to Clinton white national guardsmen nearthetown of away, a mob of five white men confronted two and national guard. the governor sentinthestatehighwaypatrol with local police until, at the mayor’s request, off faced and lawn, School High Clinton the home. was beatenbyenragedwhitesashereturned ter who escortedtheblackstudentsto classes 161 160 On February 14, the black section of On February 14, the black section of OnDecember 4,awhiteminis- 156 155 burned a cross on burnedacross on 157 Seventy miles Seventymiles 162 158 On Octo 163 159 - -

33 "MASSIVE RESISTANCE" In the fall of 1957, 11 black students entered schools in three North Carolina cities and 11 entered white schools in Nashville, where an elementary school was destroyed by a dynamite explosion one day after it held integrated classes.

Nine black students attempting to enroll at all-white Little Rock Central High School that September were confronted by angry white crowds of students and adults and blocked by Arkansas National Guard troops commanded by Governor Orval Faubus. When Pres- ident Dwight Eisenhower sent federal troops to escort the Little Rock Nine into school, hundreds of white people attacked black residents and reporters, causing nationally publicized “chaos, bedlam, and turmoil” that led a federal court to halt desegregation. The Supreme Court overturned that decision and ordered immediate integration, but in a move voters later approved in a referendum, Faubus closed all public high schools in Little Rock for the 1958-1959 school year. 164

No Southern state made any further progress toward desegregation until 1959, when Virginia admitted 21 black students to seven previously white schools in two cities, and two formerly all-white schools in Miami, Florida, gained black students.165

By 1960, only 98 of Arkansas’s 104,000 black students attended desegregated schools; as did 34 of 302,000 in North Carolina; 169 of 146,000 in Tennessee; and 103 of 203,000 in Virginia. In the five Deep South states, every single one of 1.4 million black schoolchildren attended segregated schools until the fall of 1960.166 Top: Donna Jean Barksdale, age 11, sits alone on her first day of school By the start of the 1964-65 school year, less than 3 per- in Hoxie, Arkansas. She was one of 21 children to integrate the school in 1955. (Mississippi Valley Collection, University of Memphis) cent of the South’s African American children attended school with white students, and in Alabama, Arkansas, Bottom: In response to the admission of the Little Rock Nine, Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus reads a statement during a segregation rally on Georgia, Mississippi, and South Carolina that number the steps of the State Capital in Little Rock, Arkansas. (John T Bledsoe/ remained substantially below 1 percent.167 PhotoQuest/Getty Images) SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 34 35 "MASSIVE RESISTANCE" SCHOOL CLOSURES

After Brown II, many states authorized the closing of public schools to avoid integration. In 1956, the Vir- ginia General Assembly passed a law that required the closure of any public school where white and black children were enrolled together and cut off state funds to integrated schools.168 The governor promptly closed nine schools in Warren County, Charlottesville, and Norfolk to prevent integration.169

States also redirected public funds to maintain segregated education. After Virginia’s highest court invalidated the 1956 laws closing and defunding integrated public schools, lawmakers enacted a new “freedom of choice” program that created tuition grants for white students to attend new private schools.170

Officials in Prince Edward County, Virginia, closed their entire public school system in May 1959 after a federal court ordered integration and instead created private schools for white students using state grants and county tax credits to cover tuition expenses.171 More than 90 percent of the county’s white students enrolled in the new all-white private school, while the more than 1700 black students in the county had no state-funded educational option for five years,172 until the Supreme Court overturned Virginia’s tuition grants and forced Prince Edward County schools to reopen.173

Federal courts struck down state efforts to selectively close public schools to avoid integration,174 but those rulings failed to stop white residents from fleeing public schools. In 1963, after a federal court ordered immediate integration in Macon County, Alabama, Governor George Wallace temporarily closed Tuskegee High School to prevent 13 black students from enrolling. When the school reopened, all 275 white students withdrew, and most used state-funded scholarships to enroll at Macon Academy — a newly formed, all-white private school.175

Teenage boys wave Confederate flags during a protest against school integration in Montgomery, Alabama, 1963. (© Flip Schulke/CORBIS/ Getty Images) SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 36 aware, in 1954; generated violentopposition somewhere: Milford, Del- as, 1956; Virtually every year after them are guns, bow and arrows, slingshots and knives.” the Negro race, proper methods should be used. Among course of human events it becomes necessary to abolish denounced desegregation anddeclared,“Wheninthe lated atalarge councilrallyinMontgomery, Alabama, but their rhetoric suggested otherwise. A handbill circu- White Citizens’ Councils claimed to repudiate violence, slingshots andknives. Among themare guns,bow andarrows, race, proper methods shouldbeused. becomes necessary to abolishtheNegro When inthecourse of humanevents it if necessary, to prevent school desegregation.” erners admittedtopollstersthatthey“favored violence, In thewakeofBrown, uptoaquarterof whiteSouth- SEGREGATION BY FORCE osa, Alabama, to school with [white] kids.” after taunting him for “think[ing] nigger kids should go Birmingham, Alabama, Klansmen castrated a black man where the group had been considered extinct. In 1957, six South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Florida — states Ku KluxKlanralliesdrewhundreds,eventhousands,in 183 and Clay andSturgis and communities inKentucky 184 Little Rock 1957; and Nashvillein 181 179 Clinton, Tennessee, Hoxie, in 1955; Arkansas, Brown 177 , school desegregation 182 Mansfield, Tex- Mansfield, 180 185 176 Tuscalo Clinton In 1956, In 1956, 178 - for Ruby’s young age, a the entireschoolyear. Despite in her school andRuby remained theonlystudent class were withdrawnfrom the whitechildren all nearly she andthe teacher were the only two people present; Birmingham in1963. mentary schoolswhere four enrolled. black students schools leans failed, mobs organized outside two ele to block a federal court’s order to desegregate New Or- In November attempt 1960, after the statelegislature’s violence.” High School wouldbereasonably calculatedtoincite Mansfield attend to attempts or attendance whose ored, Texas Rangers to remove anystudents“whiteor col- tion instigated and agitated by the [NAACP],” and sent Shivers commended the “orderly protests against a situa- die” and “Stay Away, Niggers.” Texas Governor Allan to enterawhiteschool. Thiswouldbeaterriblewayto attached toeachpantlegthatread,“ThisNegro tried signs with man a black of effigy an hanged also mobs ons to block black children from entering school. The orga- council nized white residents armed with guns and other weap- citizens’ local the Texas, Mansfield, In ate.” degener- and filthy and “bestial as described Steinbeck vectives at children, usingprofanity that writer John A group of white mothers to gatheredscream in daily first-graders walkingtoschoolintheirSundaybest.” them niggers’—at as ‘kill obscenities—such and yelling testors, their faces contorted by hate, spitting, snarling, of ry School was greetedby“hundreds vicious pro and started first grade at all-white William Frantz Elementa Ruby Escorted byfederalmarshals,six-year-old Bridges New Orleans school desegregationtoahaltacrosstheregion. out brought attentionand the South drew national Mob violence waged by white segregationists through until 1965. desegregating officially from schools public Mansfield’s (again) in 1958; (again) Georgia, in 1961; 195 When Ruby arrived her classroom, in assigned 191 192 Local residents and state officials prevented prevented officials state and residents Local

186 188 Newin1960; Orleans Oxford, Mississippi, in 1962; Oxford, Mississippi, 190 187 Athens, 189 and 194 193 - - - - -

37 "MASSIVE RESISTANCE" woman threatened to poison her on the second day of school, and another woman confronted her with a black doll in a wooden coffin.196

Ruby’s family members also faced threats and retaliation: the local grocery story banned the family from entering, Ruby’s father was fired from his job,197 and her grandparents were evicted from the Mississippi farm where they worked as sharecroppers.198

Ole Miss

In 1962, after a federal court ordered the Universi- ty of Mississippi to enroll 29-year-old black veteran and Mississippi native James Meredith, Governor and White Citizens’ Council member Ross Barnett personally blocked Mr. Meredith from entering the Ole Miss campus.199 On September 30, 1962, pro-segregation mobs gathered on campus and waged violent riots that left two people dead and many injured. When a federal marshal escorted Mr. Meredith on campus to enroll, Mississippi Attorney General Joe Patterson told students they could refuse “to socialize or fraternize with an undesirable student.” Mr. Meredith suffered ongo- ing isolation, harassment, and violence.200 As he ate in the cafeteria one night in October, a rock was thrown through a window near his table, and on another occa- sion, a dead raccoon was left on his car.201

James Meredith persisted and graduated on August 18, 1963, but that did not end his activism or the violence against him. In 1966, while staging a one-man protest march across Mississippi, Mr. Meredith was shot and wounded.202

University of Alabama

In 1956, after a federal court ordered the segregated Left: On August 30, 1956, a white mob hung an African American effigy at University of Alabama to admit a black woman named the top of Mansfield High School’s flag pole in Texas. The effigy was hung Autherine Lucy, a white mob gathered on campus, and burned in response to 12 black students desegregating the school. (Bettman/Corbis) burned a cross, and marched through town singing Dixie. Chanting “Hey, hey, ho, ho, Autherine has got Top Right: White mothers and children scream at black children on their way to school in Sturgis, Kentucky, September 1956. (Photo by Myron to go,” the mobs terrorized any African Americans it Davis/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images) encountered, broke car windows, and smashed roofs.203 SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 38 enrollment of Autherine Lucy. of Congress/AP) (Library Students at theUniversity of Alabama burndesegregation literature inTuscaloosa, 6,1956,inresponse Alabama, to the onFebruary 39 "MASSIVE RESISTANCE" - 216

214 215 . In 1966, when 450 black students . In 1966, when 450 black students - , a report by the U.S. Commis In 1967, 13 years after Brown Negroes against “violence that observed Rights Civil on sion continues to be a deterrent to school desegregation.” Violent resistance to school desegregation school desegregation to Violent resistance after than a decade more for persisted Brown The black students who arrived for the through chased them that mob faced a white school the first day of chains, with pipes, clubs so and streets and beat them vio- mob hospitalized. The be to had some severely that law intervention from days without lence continuedfor enforcement. Hundreds of white students protest at the University of Mississippi Mississippi of the University at protest students white of Hundreds James to 20, 1962, in response Mississippi, on September in Oxford, (AP) black student. first as the school’s enrollment Meredith’s enrolled in Grenada, Mississippi, public Mississippi, in Grenada, enrolled to order a court schools following threatened leaders white local desegregate, who allowed black parents or evict fire to and 200 black participate, to their children withdrew. students laying integration orders only in response violence to expressed violence, and he concern that threat of the or law violating the that taught being children were white worried they wanted. “I’m not what get way to was the kids,” added. “They’ve been strug he Negro the about gling with democracy for years.” - - - 206 He fa- He George 208 207 and Southern In response, In response, the 213 205 209 The national remained guard went from slow to stopped. Ar- slow to went from 212 She was pelted with rotten eggs, rotten with was pelted She 204 Only after President John F. Kennedy Only PresidentF. federal- John after and declared, “I stand here today, as Governor stand here “I and declared, 211 210 In the name of the greatest people that have ever ever have that people greatest the of name the In the dust and toss this earth I draw the line in trod I and tyranny . . . the feet of the gauntlet before tomorrow segregation . . . now segregation . . . say forever. segregation . . . compliance with Brown against these postponements in 1958, NAACP guing de- were courts that Marshall noted Thurgood attorney ized the national guard did Wallace step aside and allow national guard ized the the students register. to Wallace had just taken office as governor after prom ising resist to “I shall integration: abide by refuse to of point the even to order illegalfederal court any such necessary.” if door, schoolhouse standing in the The federal court enjoined Governor Wallace from in Wallace from enjoined Governor The federal court when students’ black enrollment, but in the terfering in stood 11, 1963, he June on register they arrived to en- their block to Auditorium Foster of doorway the trance Seven years later, in 1963, the University of Alabama University in 1963, the Seven years later, of students. black three admit to was ordered The mob of students and older community members members community and older students of mob The her on Lucy Ms. and confronted people 1200 to grew and nigger!” class, “Lynch the shouting day of third white!” “Keep Bama ment.” of this sovereign State, and this sovereign willingly refuse to of submit Central Govern by the power illegal to usurpation of In response to the extensively reported violent chaos in extensively violent chaos the reported In response to communities fighting desegregation, some states passed laws cutting off state funds to districts that desegregat- referendum, a conducting ed without for several days to prevent violence. mously reaffirmed this promise in his inaugural address, Davis stood”: declaring from “where once Jefferson university suspended Ms. Lucy citing safety concerns, challenge the and then expelled when she tried to her segregationist victory This major suspension in court. support for the citizens’ councils. spurred a surge of gravel, and gravel, and mud balls containing hide rocks and to had escape. police car to a back of in the SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 40 INTENSIFIES OPPOSITION BEYOND BROWN: BEYOND BROWN: OPPOSITION INTENSIFIES

Sixteenth Street Baptist Church bombing in Birmingham, Alabama, in which four children were murdered, 1963. (Anthony Falletta/ © The Birmingham News) SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 42 A 43 BEYOND BROWN: OPPOSITION INTENSIFIES - - 225 222 When he was arrest- “Although [demon- “Although 221 224 and countless more were in were and countless more 223 strators] won several victories,” one scholar observed, several victories,” one strators] won zone.” a war became “the U.S., particularly the South, ed and charged with assassinating Mississippi NAACPed and charged with assassinating a June evening in 1963, Evers on Field Secretary Medgar Commis- Sovereignty State Mississippi state-funded the Ross defense. Governor La Beckwith’s sion assisted De Mrs. of the testimony Barnett interrupted his trial during dif- hand, and two Myrlie Evers to shake the defendant’s on Remarking ferent all-white juries declined to convict. trials,1964 two Beckwith’s La De of one of outcome the whatsurprised be can’t “You Barnett quipped, Governor will marry.” woman a who a jury does or Dozens of people died in anti-civil rights violence be- died in anti-civil rights people of Dozens 1968, 1954 and tween a staunch segregationist who once declared, “I believe in who once a staunch segregationist in God.” like I believe segregation jured and traumatized while fighting for equal rights. incidents civil rights-related in the violent study of A Jan 100 attacks between than more documented South 1958. 1, 1955, and May 1, uary

- - Dr. King inspects a bullet hole in the glass door of his rented cottage in St. Augustine, Florida, on June 5, 1964. (AP) Augustine, in St. cottage his rented the glass door of hole in a bullet King inspects Dr. 217 A fertilizer salesman, veteran, andveteran, salesman, fertilizer A 220 219

Even when [law officers]enforcement did not actually march with the lynch Klan or Klux ride withKu the A killers. racist mob themselves,they would not arrest count with killing a black man could white man charged to indict him, the local district refusing jury on his grand refusing the jury or him, to prosecute attorney refusing endorsed . . . him. The machinery of justice to convict mob violence. [T]he machinery of government gave mobs immunity. . . . gave [T]he machinery of government

“For the next 15 years,” a white man named Byron DeByron named man white a years,” 15 next the “For La Beckwith wrote in a letter to the National Rifle As- in January 1963, “we in Mississippi are goingsociation our people protect to shooting of a lot do to have to niggers.” bad from servations in the 1880s during the fight against lynch they aptly ing, but describe the situation confronting black civil rights activists generations later. — Black journalist T. Thomas Fortune made these ob made Fortune journalist T. Thomas Black —

White Citizens’ Council member, De La Beckwith wasBeckwith La De member, Council Citizens’ White SEGREGATIONIST VIOLENCE UNCHECKED AND ENDORSED VIOLENCE UNCHECKED SEGREGATIONIST In the summer of 1964, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference organized weeks of demonstrators, black and demonstrations anti-segregation the of marches Many in hospital. the St. to Augustine, 15 sending and 50 injuring protestors, beat and chased residents white 200 than more which during Florida, arrested. King, were including Dr. SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 44 a black 14-year-old visiting from Chicago, despite the quitted of Emmett abducting Till, and brutallykilling In August 1955, Roy Bryant andJ.W.Milamwere ac- perpetrators ofracistviolence frompunishment. immunizing effectively people, black against violence white acquitted those juries charged consistently with White Citizens’ Councils or White Citizens’ the Ku Klux Klan. of members were officials enforcement law Many acts. and sometimesencouraged racial violenceandterrorist tolerated officials elected white and enforcement Law ment andtwo young blackboys intheviolent aftermath. Church killedfouryoung blackgirls inthechurchbase- Fred Shuttlesworthandanexplosion at16thStreetBaptist Multiple attacks targeted movement leader Reverend (earning itthemoniker “Bombingham”). 21 bombingsinBirmingham,Alabama activists were thetargets of nofewer than Between 1955and1963,blackcivilrights (Charles Moore/Getty Images) A civilrights advocate isstruck by water from fire hoses wieldedby police officers duringaprotest inBirmingham,Alabama, 1963. 227 All- 226 E.D. Nixon were bombed. end RalphAbernathy,Reverend Robert Graetz, and of boycott Dr. Martin Luther leaders King Jr.,Rever- and 1957,four In 1956 black churchesandthehomes following the arrest of a black rider named Rosa Parks. to protest mistreatment on the city’s segregated buses Montgomery, ayear-long Alabama, boycott launched December 18 monthsafter In 1955, grand juryrefusedtoindict. for the killing were released without charges when the leave the scene covered in blood, and three men arrested sheriff allowed one of the men involved in the murder to inAugust 1955. The house in Brookhaven, Mississippi, on the tivist killed lawn of the Lincoln County Court Smith, a 63-year-oldblackfarmer and voting rights ac- Dozens of the people witnessedshooting of Lamar in Look Magazine Months later, both to men confessed Emmett’s murder targeted Emmett Bryant’s wife. for insulting allegedly testimony of proving that multiple witnesses the men them ofallcharges asspectatorscheered. an all-whitejury but May1957, acquitted the blasts, in with the Ku Klux Klan were after indicted confessing to . 229 232 230 Two white men affiliated men white Two Brown 233 , activists in , activists 231 231 228 -

45 BEYOND BROWN:INTENSIFIES45 OPPOSITION

sion, the Montgomery NAACP launched an SEXUAL VIOLENCE investigation and campaign for justice spear- AGAINST BLACK headed by future bus boycott leader Rosa Parks. None of Mrs. Taylor’s attackers was WOMEN held accountable.237

In Abbeville, Alabama, on a September night The same communities that lynched and le- in 1944, a gang of white men kidnapped and gally executed black men for mere allegations took turns raping Recy Taylor, a young, of sexual misconduct against white women black, married mother, at gunpoint. After tolerated and excused white men’s sexual at- the attack, the men blindfolded Mrs. Taylor, tacks against black women and girls. In May drove her back to the road, and left her to 1956, after four white men kidnapped and walk home.234 raped 16-year-old Annette Butler in Tyler- town, Mississippi, only one faced any pun- For generations of black women, racial ter- ishment. At sentencing, Judge Thomas Pick- ror included the constant threat of sexual as- ens Brady — a vocal segregationist — scolded sault and a complete lack of legal protection. the defendant not for committing rape, but “[T]hroughout the Jim Crow era,” wrote his- for bringing upon himself the shame of in- torian Danielle L. McGuire, “white men lured terracial sexual relations: “No action could be black women and girls away from home with more in contrast with the beliefs of the seg- promises of steady work and better wages; regationist.”238 attacked them on the job; abducted them at gunpoint while traveling to or from home, After South Carolina senator Strom Thur- work, or church; raped them as a form of mond died in 2003 at age 101, the public retribution or to enforce rules of racial and learned that, at 22, he had fathered the child economic hierarchy; sexually humiliated and of an underage black girl.239 To some, it was assaulted them on streetcars and buses, in taxi- a shocking revelation that seemed to conflict cabs and trains, and in other public spaces.”235 with Thurmond’s 70-year political career spent fervently defending racial separation, Black women’s resistance to this racialized inequality, and the superiority of the white sexual exploitation helped birth the activism race. For others, it was tragically predictable. and organized community action that grew into the Civil Rights Movement — even as “[I]n a climate characterized by fear and they bore some of the era’s deepest scars. Be- abject racial intimidation, the question of tween 1940 and 1975, civil rights campaigns whether Carrie Butler, an impoverished in major cities throughout the South were maid in the Thurmond family household, sparked by sexual attacks against black wom- freely consented is virtually meaningless,” en.236 When a local grand jury refused to in- legal scholar Kimberle Williams Crenshaw dict Recy Taylor’s attackers, despite a confes- wrote in 2004. “The more telling question is SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 46 A young girlnamedEdith Lee Payne participating intheAugust 28,1963,March onWashington. (Photo by MPI/Getty Images) fought againstracialequality. same menwhosegregation defended and those who condoned that abuse were the ual victimization went unpunished, because of of generations black women whosesex- from il rightscannotbe separated the plight The story of opposition to the cause of civ- written toprotectgirlslikeButler.” were not statutory rapelaws empty; after all, say no. . . . The protection law promised was whether there was any wayshecould freely 240 fair gameforawhiteman.” every Negro girl who has reachedpuberty is an unprintable word. His meaning was that used Clark that explained but quote, the off born cut is a12yearold—.” Thenewspaper down herethat every nigger baby sayin’ girl Alabama. Clark told the reporter, “We got a Clark, the notorious sheriff of Dallas County, In 1965,the profiled Jim Honoluluprofiled Advertiser 241 47 BEYOND BROWN:INTENSIFIES 47 OPPOSITION The movement to challenge segregated lunch counters started when black students staged a sit-in at a Wool- worth’s in Greensboro, North Carolina, in February 1960. The sit-ins spread and attracted violent responses.242 In 1960, protestors from Tougaloo College staging a sit-in at a Woolworth’s in Jackson, Mississippi, were attacked by white men who kicked one student in the face until he lost consciousness and clubbed a teacher to the floor.243 That same year, white Ameri- cans armed with sticks, clubs, pipes, and whips attacked African Americans staging a “wade-in” to protest racial segregation of a public beach in Biloxi, Mississippi. 244

When students at Alabama State College, a traditionally black college in Montgomery, Alabama, staged a sit-in at a segregated lunch counter in the county courthouse in 1960, Governor John Patterson threatened to terminate the college’s funding unless it expelled the student organizers and warned that “someone [was] likely to be killed” if the protests continued.245 The college expelled nine students.246

In August 1960, Florida activists organized several days of sit-in protests at the segregated Woolworth’s in Jackson- ville. On August 27, several thousand white men armed with ax handles and baseball bats and waving Confederate flags attacked African Americans as they walked through a park to join the demonstration. Charlie Davis, a 27-year- old black man, was killed in the violence that erupted that day; more than 70 people were severely injured and 150 were arrested.247 Mayor W. Haydon Burns told the press: “We regret there were irresponsible elements of the citi- zenry who would take the law into their own hands, and this includes members of both races.”248 When activists re- newed the sit-ins in October, the Klan kidnapped a black 16-year-old, drove him outside town, stripped him naked, and beat him with a belt and a pistol.249

In 1961, SNCC field secretary Bob Moses was taking two black residents to the Amite County, Mississippi, Top: Myrlie Evers, the widow of Medgar Evers, comforts their son Darrell at his father’s funeral. Medgar Evers was murdered on June 12, 1963, in courthouse to register to vote when he was attacked Jackson, Mississippi. (John Loengard/Life Magazine/The LIFE Picture and severely beaten by a white man. Mr. Moses pressed Collection/Getty Images) charges and after he testified at trial against his attack- Bottom: Jo Ann Robinson, a black woman and English professor at er — Bill Caston, a cousin of the local sheriff — he was Alabama State College, was the “key organizer” and “backbone” of the advised to leave the county to avoid further violence. Montgomery bus boycott. She also faced threats and violent reprisals, 251 250 including vandalism to her home and car. She was arrested for Caston was acquitted by an all-white jury. organizing the boycott in 1955. (Alabama State University) SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 48 Martin Luther KingJr. isbooked Jailin1958for at civilrights theMontgomery activism. (CharlesMoore/Getty Images) since the end of the Civil War. racial control Criminal lawhasbeenusedto maintain CRIMINALIZING THE STRUGGLE FOR RACIAL EQUALITY rest, and imprison activists. imprison rest, and breakers” and usedthe to legal system harass, beat, ar- peaceful civilrights protestors and “law as “criminals” denounced officials elected Emancipation, after century time insurveillanceofblackindividualsandgroups.” their Civil RightsDivisionspent Department’s Justice historian Mary Frances Berry, “while the FBI and the throughout ple that went unpunished wrote the 1970s,” police brutalityandother violence againstblack peo- under the Civil Rights established Act of 1964, reported Relations Service(CRS)ofDepartment, nity the Justice those who opposed the racial statusquo. “The Commu persecuted and equality, supremacy ratherthanracial 253 Thelawprotectedwhite 252 In the 1960s, nearlya 254 - He was36yearsold. where he died from undiagnosed colon cancer in1963. in prison, to years seven he wassentenced en feedand of convicted Mr. $25 worth Kennard stealing of chick- tions of theft An all-whitejury and alcohol possession. allega minor with him charged officials him, discredit and investigationsfailedto in 1955.Whensurveillance Southern College in Hattiesburg all-white Mississippi to Sovereignty Commissionafter he applied Mississippi Clyde Kennard,a black veteran, was targeted by the overnight for poking awhite classmate with apencil. Alabama, she was arrested, charged with assault, and jailed black students integrated the high school in Wetumpka, A weekafter17-year-oldDeborah Bracy andseveralother 256 255 - 49 BEYOND BROWN: OPPOSITION INTENSIFIES - - - 257 He was not alone. not was He 259 260 261 The grand jury wrote: “In “In wrote: The grand jury 258 this state we are committed to segregation by custom segregation by custom to this state we are committed and law. We intend to maintain it.” Rosa Parks, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., Reverend Ralph King Jr., Reverend Ralph Luther Martin Rosa Parks, Dr. Ann Robinson Jo organizer Abernathy, andboycott orga 89 leaders with arrested and charged among were nizing an illegal boycott. King was routinely targeted Dr. leader, As a movement the of start the Between enforcement. law Southern by and his 1968 assassination, boycott Dr. bus Montgomery King was arrested, jailed, and fined more than 25 times, Alabama, in 1956 and 1958; Atlanta in in Montgomery, in 1961and 1962; Birmingham, 1960; Albany, Georgia, in Augustine, Florida, in 1963 and 1967; St. Alabama, Alabama, in 1965. 1964; and Selma, After two Florida A&M students were arrested for sit Florida A&M students arrested for were two After in Tallahassee, a bus the “white section” of in the ting the after modeled boycott launched a black community participants and organizers Boycott effort. Montgomery faced similar harassment. 1956, In 21 carpool October al leaders arrested for were drivers and nine boycott three-day a After tags. car proper having legedly not pay sentenced were to convicted; some trial, they were fines and some were sent to jail. In response to the Montgomery bus boycott, police arrested arrested police bus boycott, Montgomery the to In response on phony drivers and carpool black activists of scores who the black lawyer disbar to and tried charges traffic challenging bus segregation. filed the lawsuit Amelia Boynton is beaten unconscious by state troopers in Selma, in Selma, troopers state by unconscious is beaten Amelia Boynton 7, 1965. (© Spider Martin) on March Alabama, SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 50 by men’s bruised and scarred bodies.” ever skeptical cannot refute the evidence of as offered wreak upon hapless,helplessindividuals, whichhow- physical brutalityandsworn protectors of thelaw ruary 11,1939,“stories ofhorrible examplesofwhat “Almost daily,” the maintain raciallybiasedsocialconditions. SUPREMACY MAINTAINING WHITE IN VIOLENCE POLICE THE CENTRALITY OF chy. who were exalted of as defenders racial hierar- officers, white to restricted largely were ments the CivilRightsMovement,sparked policedepart- racial castesystemthat In the strictly maintained black belt.” all our guns to the niggers and let them run the premacy byhisactions,thenwemayaswellgive man who is upholding the banner of white su- tioned the all-white jury, “If we convict thisbrave cau- lawyer his drunk, and off-duty was he while 70-year-old black woman named Niecey Brown for 1945 clubbing to Selma, Alabama,in death a in trial stood Booker George officer police When have beenshot through the head or back.” persons such find citizens private and undertakers when causes’ ‘natural from died have to citizens find out provocation. [We]do not expectthiscoroner to police to use their clubs and pistols frequently with- were “alarmed and displeased at the readiness of local later, the same paperreported thatAfrican Americans er wasacquitted. 265 Police officers used violence and brutality to 262 After minutes of deliberation, Book 263 Louisiana Weekly wrote on Feb- 266 Eleven years Eleven years 267 264 -

were neverheldaccountable. wounded two bystanders. on a was killed bus in apoliceshooting that also Brooks,of accused causing adisturbance, Hilliard driver’s order to board through the back door, and for shot bypolice ignoring abus was beatenand city buses:20-year-oldThomas EdwardBrooks American men were murdered on Montgomery African two alone, 1950 of summer the In ficers. by policeof mistreatment, violence,andkillings il Rights Movement also respondedto years of Montgomery Bus Boycott and the modern Civ- Though by thearrestof sparked Rosa Parks,the but found reprieve. little the North and Westduring the early 20thcentury lions of African Americans fled to urban centers in As racialterror lynching raged in the South, mil- the police man’s bullet. lynching was therope. Now itis Once theclassicmethod of police force.Ithastobethatway.” jail. Itwillbe that wayaslong as there’sadecent there’s beena groes as long have beenwhipped one Birmingham “Ne- city councilmember explained, As firehoses. and dogs, batons, police with ma-to-Montgomery March in 1965— were met in Birmingham, Alabama, and the attempted Sel- Crusade Children’s the 1963 — like sit-ins es and civilrights protests. Peacefulmarch and inspired motivated activists ity, policebrutalityincreasingly effective tactics for opposing segregation and racialinequal taught Movement Rights Civil the As 271 268 TheCivilRightsCon In both cases, officers cases, both In 269 270 - - - - 51 BEYOND BROWN: OPPOSITION INTENSIFIES - As 277 Their brother, Seaman Third Class James Third Seaman brother, Their The brothers complied, but Romeika kick- Romeika but complied, brothers The 276 278 they walked from the café to the bus stop, they they stop, bus the to café the walked from they pulled and ordered gun his who ran into Romeika, stand to against them the wall with their hands up. On February 5, 1946, in Long Island, York, 1946, in Long 5, New On February broth and his Ferguson Class Charles First Private Joseph by patrolman murdered were Alfonso er protesting segregation at a local Romeika for café. Ferguson, was wounded. The three brothers had brothers The three wounded. was Ferguson, was who Charles, farewell to wish to gathered about to deploy to Europe to fight the Nazis. The 275 wrote thewrote 274 Titled “We 272 273 CRC. “Once the classic method of lynching was lynching of CRC. “Once the classic method man’s bullet.” it is the police Now the rope. Charge Genocide,” the petition demanded inter- petition the Genocide,” Charge in black people of plight the to national attention the United States. Mississippi Highway Patrolmen watch marchers as they marchers arrive watch Patrolmen Mississippi Highway of Department in Montgomery 25, 1965. (Alabama on March / Photo Group Media Alabama by Donated and History. Archives Birmingham News) Spider Martin, by “There was a time when racist violence had its centerits had violence racist when time a was “There to the spread but as the Negro people in the South, southernthe escape to seeking west and east, north, them,” hell, the violence . . . followed gress (CRC), an interracial civil rights organization organization civilinterracial rights an gress (CRC), founded in Detroit in 1946, filed a petition with United killings 1951 detailing 152 Nations in the - Amer African by suffered violence of acts 344 and icans six years. within the previous United Nations did not formally acknowledge the acknowledge did not formally United Nations continued. and the violence petition, SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 52 The patrolman ordered Mr. Jones to move, then an entranceto Central Park in New York City. Jones asMr. Jones wassingingwith friends near African Americanveterannamed Chris a disabled gust 6, 1947, a white rookie patrolman approached status quo, and police often targeted them. On Au- dangerous to racial deemed particularly America’s Black menreturningfrom military servicewere reason,” Alfonso. killing good no for again fired “just then Romeika head. ed Charles inthe groin and thenshot him in the street by plainclothes police officers in2013.(APPhoto/John Minchillo) YorkNew Citypolice arrest ademonstrator duringamarch heldfor 16-year-old KimaniGray, whowas shot to death onaBrooklyn was inself-defense. claim thattheshooting his accepted instead and Nassau County jury refused to indict Romeika, vealed that none of the brothers was armed. A 280 279 An investigation re - in Rochester, New York. bartender in a restaurant near the Canadian border eran namedRolandT.Pricearguedwithawhite That November, a 20-year-old black military vet- the NYPDrefusedtodisciplineofficer. survived andwaschargedconduct; with disorderly cer shot him three timesinthe stomach. Mr. Jones offi- the himself, shield to tried Jones Mr. When beat him with a nightstick for moving too slowly. was deemed “justified” even though Mr. Price was was Price Mr. though even “justified” deemed was on Mr. Price and shot him 25 times. The shooting fire opened They waiting. were officers police five drawn andordered Mr.Pricetostepoutside, where William Hamill entered the restaurant with his gun grabbed apistol and calledthepolice, Patrolman 282 When the bartender 281 53 BEYOND BROWN: OPPOSITION INTENSIFIES

290 293 Despite 292 291 In the summer of 1965, a police stop of of stop police a 1965, of summer the In

289 288 the findings, little was done to address the condi- con- federal court tions. In1991, 26 years later, a cluded that Los Angeles sheriff’s deputies contin- use racially ued to “terrorist-type tactics” motivated to violate the civil rights of African Americans. In the 1960s, black communities fed up with with up fed communities black 1960s, the In harassment, police to responded brutality police major cit- abuse, and killings with riots in several (1964), ies, including Harlem (1964), Philadelphia Newark and (1967), Detroit (1966), Chicago (1967). Pockets of rioting soon erupted throughout the the throughout erupted soon rioting of Pockets six days, and lasted for Watts area of 20-block 4000 arrest- leaving 34 dead, 1032 injured, nearly ed, and $40 million in damage. riot investigate the A commission convened to Watts’ black 1965 that in December reported un- residents’ dissatisfactionpolicing, high with housing, and inadequate employment rates, poor schools had directly led the uprising. to Police wounded 28 people and killed three: and killed three: 28 people wounded Police Hammond, 18-year-old Samuel 18-year-old Middle- Delano and 17-year-old Henry Smith, ton. Nine officers were charged in the shooting that evidence no despite defense, self claimed and the of were armed. None the protestors any of Mc- Robert Governor and convicted, was officers advo- “black power on Nair blamed the violence of leader black young a Sellers, Cleveland cates.” police the during shoulder the in shot was SNCC, he punished; person the only attack and ended up months and served seven rioting was convicted of in jail. two young black men in the Watts neighborhood neighborhood Watts the in men black young two community unrest into Angeles erupted Los of after an when the men were beaten and arrested mother. their and police between altercation - - 283 287 This violent 284 John Lewis of SNCC of Lewis John 285 As a result of the police attack, As a result of the police 286 dozens of civil rights activists were hospitalized withhospitalized were activists rights civil of dozens were arrested. than 750 more injuries and severe On March 7, 1965, state and local police brutally police and local state 1965, March 7, On Selma,in protestors rights civil of hundreds attacked hitting the ground, marchers to Alabama, knocking horseback on them chasing and sticks, with them and rubber tubing clubs, whips, while swinging wire. barbed in wrapped response to protestors would become increasing become would protestors response to caste system racial ly familiar as challenges the to over the next two decades. gained momentum and Reverend Hosea Williams of the SCLC led theled SCLC the of Williams Hosea Reverend and pro Alabama, to Montgomery, attempted march to test the widespread violation of African American of test the widespread violation murder of 26-year- rights and the recent voting was shot and who activist Jimmie Lee Jackson, old FowlerJames named trooper state white a by killed February 18. on On February 8, 1968, white state state 8, 1968, white On February black of a crowd into fired troopers historically of on the campus students in College State black South Carolina during a protest Orangeburg of the town alley. bowling a segregated of unarmed and there was no evidence he resisted. evidence was no there and unarmed police York, New 1945 in Harlem, In October “emptied their guns” into an unidentified African was driving on West 144th American man who Avenue. Eyewitnesses man and 8th said the Street “his hands had but police car a by pursued been had When a raised was shot. when he in surrender” gathered in police reinforcements protest, crowd protestors. the arrived and clubbed SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 54 55 BEYOND BROWN:INTENSIFIES OPPOSITION “For more than a decade — from the mid-1950s until the late 1960s,” wrote Michelle Alexander, officials who opposed civil rights systematically and strategically framed their rhetoric as “calls for law and order, arguing that Martin Luther King Jr.’s philosophy of civil disobedience was a leading cause of crime.”294 Some segregationists even claimed that integration caused crime, and found their rhetoric bolstered by suspect but highly publicized FBI reports of dramatic increases in the national crime rate.295

By criminalizing civil rights activists, opponents of civil rights shifted the public debate from segregation to crime.296

Officials who opposed civil rights systematically and strategically framed their rhetoric as “calls for law and order, arguing that Martin Luther King Jr.’s philosophy of civil disobedience was a leading cause of crime.”

In the 1968 presidential election, both Richard Nixon and former Alabama Governor George Wallace made “law and order” a central theme of their campaigns; combined, they won 57 percent of the vote.297 Nixon ran one ad that “explicitly called on voters to reject the lawlessness of civil rights activists and embrace ‘order’ in the United States.” 298

It was a popular message. By 1968, 81 percent of Ameri- cans agreed that “law and order has broken down in this country” and the majority blamed “Negroes who start riots” and “Communists.”299

Firemen use high-pressured water jets to hose civil rights protestors in Birmingham, Alabama, in 1963. (Charles Moore/Getty Images, color by Marina Amara) SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 56 BIRMINGHAM BRUTALIZED IN CHILDREN tus quo people,” Chris McNair explained in tus quo people,” ChrisMcNairexplainedin cannot exist without thenodsof thesta- “You must understand that a Bull Connor tinued to beattackedand arrested. out to march day after day, even as they con- Shuttlesworth, hundredsofchildren came Martin LutherKing Jr.andReverend Fred police dogs. Led by organizers including Dr. by attacked and police, by clubbed firehoses, town district were blasted with high-pressure dren marchingforcivilrightsinthedown - more than1000AfricanAmericanschoolchil - ham police chief Eugene “Bull” Connor, On May 2, 1963, on the orders of Birming- Alabama for protesting against racial discrimination. (APPhoto/Bill Hudson) On May4,1963,police arrest andjailblackschoolchildren inBirmingham, 300 ally does the talking; but believe me the Bull ally does the talking; but believe me the Bull black girls. “Hemaybetheperson who actu- his daughter, Denise, and three other young Street Baptist Church bombing that killed 16th the depicting film 1997 a 4 LittleGirls, the march. or expelled children who participated in white-controlled school board suspended the and city, the across bombs off set ment as segregationists angered bytheagree- Violent repression continued, however, and desegregation ofdowntown shops. change forthereleaseof arrestedprotestors the city to stop the demonstrations in ex when activistsreachedanagreement with onstrators hadbeenarrestedbyMay 10, More than 2000 children and adult dem- the finalbalanceis no overstatement.” ties. To say that the security of the nation is in 303 of someoneelse.” Connors haveblessings the nation’s single most import- Ralph McGill. “Itisthatthe clusion,” wrote journalist lights an inescapable con- mingham’s barbarismhigh- “Bir- enforced. fiercely so it were uncomfortable seeing tolerated segregation but from many Americans who voked shock andoutrage being brutally assaulted pro footage showing children Photographs and television how we deal with minori - place and time in history is ant internalproblem atthis 301 302 - - 57 BEYOND57 BROWN:INTENSIFIES OPPOSITION SOUTHERN LAWMAKERS: OBSTRUCTION AND INCITEMENT

In 1927, white lynch mobs in Burke County, North Car- Miller was shot dead and delivered to the county jail, olina, searched for a black man named Broadus Miller. In where his corpse was “placed on the steps so the milling an era when allegations against black people were rare- thousands could pass by and look at the object of their ly questioned and black men accused of serious crimes hatred.”304 against white women were more likely to be lynched than tried in court, few expected that Mr. Miller, who Weeks after Brown was announced in 1954, Samuel J. Er- was accused of killing a white girl, would live to see the vin — by then a justice on the North Carolina Supreme inside of a courtroom. A young attorney named Samuel Court — was appointed to a vacant seat in the Senate.305 J. Ervin told the county sheriff to invoke a state law that In response to Brown, he told a local reporter, “I don’t authorized any citizen to kill a suspect, and then Ervin see why our Constitution meant one thing for 86 years delivered firearms to the lynch mob. Within days, Mr. and why it now means another” and called the ruling a

Segregationists taunt peaceful civil rights protestors as they march from Selma to Montgomery in March 1965. (Spider Martin) SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 58 a baseball bat swingsat ablackshopper, whileanother attacks ablackwoman withaclosed fist. (CharlesMoore/Getty Images) After blackstudents at asegregated soughtservice cafeteria white Montgomery residents attacked in1960,angry blackshoppers. Awhite manwith 59 BEYOND BROWN:INTENSIFIES OPPOSITION “tragedy.”306 He was sworn in days later. Senator Ervin signed the Southern Manifesto and spent most of his 20 years in Congress opposing desegregation, obstructing civil rights legislation, and backing racial violence and injustice just as he did in Burke County decades earlier.

The war against racial equality was waged in America’s streets, courts, and schools, and elected officials were the generals who directed the campaign on every front. From mayors to governors, state legislators to members of Congress, Southern officials fought tirelessly to defend racial hierarchy and white supremacy, wipe out civil rights activism, and kill federal civil rights legislation. When Texans sent Lyndon Johnson to the Senate in 1937, Senator Russell took the future president under his wing and helped him become the youngest-ever majority leader.309 Alongside his mentor, Johnson obstructed every civil rights and anti-lynching bill that came be- I am willing to go as far and make as great fore the Senate. Johnson collaborated with Russell to a sacrifice to preserve and insure white give civil rights activists a symbolic legislative victory supremacy in the social, economic, and while maintaining the segregationist status quo by pass- political life of our state as any man who ing toothless civil rights legislation, including the Civil Rights Acts of 1957 and 1960.310 lives within her borders. Southern lawmakers’ strict control over voter registration secured their seats and allowed them to gain se- Former Georgia governor Richard Russell joined the niority that translated to great power in Congress. In six Senate in 1933 and spent more than three decades in terms as senator from Georgia, Russell chaired several office spearheading opposition efforts and filibustering committees, including the all-powerful appropriations every anti-lynching and civil rights bill that reached the committee, and served two terms as president pro tem- Senate.307 “As one who was born and reared in the at- pore.311 Robert Byrd of West Virginia joined the Senate mosphere of the Old South with six generations of my in 1959, spent his first decades in office as a staunch seg- forebears now resting beneath Southern soil,” he wrote regationist, and amassed unparalleled influence during in 1935, “I am willing to go as far and make as great a his 51-year career.312 sacrifice to preserve and insure white supremacy in the social, economic, and political life of our state as any The South’s outsized political power in Congress de- man who lives within her borders.”308 pended on preventing black people from voting.313 Be- cause Southern districts included large numbers of black residents, the disenfranchisement of Southern black people translated into the super-enfranchisement of Southern white people: in a 50 percent black Southern district where no black people voted, each white vote carried twice the influence of a Northern vote cast in a fully enfranchised district. In this way, the disenfranchisement of Southern black people empowered South- ern white voters at the expense of almost everyone else. SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 60 in Montgomery, Alabama. (Bettmann/Getty Images) and JamesZwerg (right),were brutally beaten by segregationists OnMay20,1961,two FreedomRight: Riders, (left) JohnLewis into aFreedom RiderbusonMay14,1961.(APPhoto) InAnniston,Left: Alabama, segregationists hurledafire bomb ATTACKEDIN ALABAMA FREEDOM RIDERS regation ininterstatebustravel. Supreme Court decision that outlawed racial seg- D.C., toNewOrleans,Louisiana, testarecent ists setout onaFreedomRidefrom Washington, In 1961, an interracial group of civil rights activ- seriously injured. baseball bats, hammers, and pipes, leaving several several hundred people to attack the riders with Eugene “Bull” Connor allowed a white mob of dom Rides for national media. reporters and photographers covering theFree- 20 people were injured in the attack, including at thedowntown Greyhound busstation. About police andattackedbyawhitemob of 200people to Montgomery, where theywereabandoned by The next day, a new group of riders continued on and dentedthesidesof thebus. and bats,who smashedwindows, slashedtires, a mob of white men armed with pipes, chains, ton, Alabama,on May14,1961,itwasmetby When the Freedom Riders’ bus arrived in Annis- 318 mingham, police chief Two days later in Bir - it. limits andthenabandoned crippled bus to the city arrests. Theyescorted the tack began and made no 20 minutes after the at- the riders who escaped. inside, then viciously beat firebomb a threw and bus trapped the riders in the another armedwhitemob vice station shortly after, the drivertostop ataser- 316 When flat tires forced 319 314 315

Police arrived 317 61 BEYOND BROWN: OPPOSITION INTENSIFIES -

321 322 - con to refused Patterson John Governor Alabama blamed the and instead demn the white rioters, Freedom Riders for the violence they suffered in had Patterson campaign, 1958 his During Alabama. dis- “violence, cause would integration that warned repudiate had refused to and and bloodshed” order, Klan. Klux the Ku from endorsement an “If the Federal Government really really help in wants to “If the Federal Government reporters told situation,” Patterson this unfortunate these out “they will encourage in Montgomery, We have the means and home. side go agitators to without peace in Alabama the keep ability to the any outside help.” 320 That evening, civil rights leaders including Dr. Dr. including leaders rights civil evening, That Fred Shut- Jr. and Reverend Martin Luther King - service at Mont an evening organized tlesworth the of support in Church Baptist First gomery’s and people sang than 1000 riders. While more men white church, the inside sermons to listened surrounded the building, vandalized parked cars, and threatened to set the church on fire. When were they intervene, to tried marshals federal rioters, white by bottles and bricks with pelted who then overturned cars, fired bullets and fire- black attacked and black residents, at local bombs people in the street. SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 62 Voice of the White South,” Senator James Eastland from Mississippi, known as “The progress andincitewhitepeople’s outrage. everyopportunity to seized denounce racial politicians To cultivate the support of white constituents, Southern COMMITTEE, FEBRUARY 28,1957. —GUS COURTS, TESTIMONY BEFORE SENATE South, allbecause we wanted to vote. American refugees from theterror inthe We hadto fleeinthenight. Weare the (Jimmy Ellis/NashvillePublicLibrary) 27,1960,young whiteOn February men attack asit-in demonstrator at Woolworth’s lunchcounter inNashville,Tennessee. 323 unashamedly fanned the unashamedly fanned the basic to our wholecivilization.” “is declared, Eastland identity,” racial our protect to fight as soldiers defending theirwhitenessundersiege. “The our country.” He encouraged his constituents to identify of history the in conflicts greatest the of one in engaged izens’ Council meeting in Belzoni: “My friends, we are vote.” from theterror inthe South, allbecausewewantedto refugees as “American night” the in “flee to family his after, activist Gus Courts was ambushed and shot, forcing construction, wasshot to deathon May7,1955.Soon Re- since county the in register to voter black first the Reverend George Lee, local NAACP co-founder and where Mississippi, inBelzoni, violence racial of flames 324 Aftertheseshootings, Eastlandtold aWhiteCit- 325 63 BEYOND BROWN: OPPOSITION INTENSIFIES - - They They 334 330 329 327 and that it would it would and that 331 — passed despite Southern — passed despite 328

332 333 “confer the power of dictatorship . . . upon dictatorship of the power “confer the president.” told their constituents it was a “complete a “complete it was their constituents told “a state,” totalitarian the blueprint for the whole crime against threatened liberty,” of philosophy lawmakers’ rabid opposition, public condemnation, and condemnation, public opposition, rabid lawmakers’ Record. Congressional the off and on both rhetoric racist legislation containing was described as the House, In the the Constitution.” “vicious assaults upon In 1965, President Johnson oversaw passage of the Vot the passage of In 1965, President Johnson oversaw posed. The sweeping Civil Rights Act of 1964 — which — 1964 of Act Rights Civil sweeping The posed. and education, employment, in discrimination outlawed public accommodations the condemned Southerners In the Senate, unwise, “unnecessary, bill as Civil Rights reason.” of the realm and beyond that proclaimed Louisiana of Ellender Allen Senator un- acceptance gain never would Americans African and cultural intellectual, til they obtained “the moral, to look need only the white race . . . one standards of charge the to put an end to Haiti Liberia, or Ethiopia, improv- from Negro the kept has man white the that himself.” ing policies that the of most outlawed Act, which Rights ing disenfranchised established in the South, black voters clear standards and chal- enforcement provisions for and directly threat- rights, voting lenging violations of ened the seats of many Southern politicians. cal program” that was “unconstitutional, “unconstitutional, was that un-American,” cal program” blackmail.” bribes and with and “lined 1963, 22, November on assassinated was Kennedy After pressurefaced again president, now Johnson, Lyndon legislation. This pass civil rights to civil rights leaders from pro had Kennedy that bill the pass to worked he time, 326 Strom Thurmond denounced Kennedy’s Thurmond Strom proposed civil legislationand impracti- rights as “a vicious, dangerous, By 1963, John F. Kennedy had been elected president, F. Kennedy had By 1963, John - his vice president, and white segre was Johnson Lyndon civilwith cozy too was House White the feared gationists leaders. In 1961, President Kennedy and Attorneyrights of out passage safe negotiated Kennedy Robert General Riders, and in 1963 the presidentAlabama for Freedom George Alabama Governor force to power used federal at the stand down as black students enrolled Wallace to state’s flagship university. By May 1963, polls reported Kennedythe that felt Southerners white of percent 62 that fast.” too integration racial administration was “pushing SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 64 gro leaderinthecountry.” labeled him “the most dangerous and effective Ne- effigy; repeatedly threatened with violence andhanged in leading nonviolentcivilrights demonstrations; Dr. King wasarrested more than adozentimesfor powerful opposition. leader, attracted and a spokesman as his skill and figure, national a as prominence minister’s oquent Rights Movement. But during his lifetime, the el- of most recognized andreveredleaderstheCivil Today, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. is among the MARTIN LUTHER KING JR. THE LEGACY OF DR. CORBIS/Corbis viaGetty Images) Reverend Dr. MartinLuther KingJr. delivers asermonat Ebenezer Baptist Church, inAtlanta, Georgia. (Photo by ©FlipSchulke/ 336 and covertly targeted by FBI officials who 337 335

Kennedy urged the nation to unite in his memory. like PresidentLyndon Johnson andSenator Robert reported widespread shock and sorrow, and leaders hotel balcony on April4,1968,national newspapers rights. When he was shot and killed on a Memphis ing the majority’s deep-seated opposition to civil the children’sperception of their parents’ views. Dr. King’s murder, and these responses correlated to by pleased or to indifferent were they said — boys schoolchildren —including73percentof white sassination found that 59percentof Southern white streets. ebrated Dr. King’smurderinschool andon the mained hostile to him. Whiteyouth openly cel- But many of those who disfavored Dr. King re- cans heldanegativeviewof Dr. King In 1966, a poll revealed that 63 percent of Ameri- 340 A study conducted 12days after the as- 338 — reflect- — 341 339 65 BEYOND BROWN:INTENSIFIES OPPOSITION

Opposition to civil rights and racial equality cannot be dismissed as the extremism of a few mar- Adults were less public — but not silent — about ginalized vigilantes. Like the lynchings prevalent their hostility. On April 10, the Jackson, Missis- in generations past, school closures, economic sippi, Clarion-Ledger ran a column that called Dr. reprisals, arrests and harassment, mob violence, King “a victim of his own doctrine” and equat- bombings, and murder were bold, public acts that ed the nonviolent civil rights protests he led with implicated the entire community. the fatal gunshot that killed him. “This is the bitter fruit of anarchy,” wrote Tom Ethridge, “because Hundreds, if not thousands, of white jurors refused once people are persuaded that they have a moral to hold white people accountable for crimes com- right to violate the law, there is no telling where it mitted against black activists. Thousands of law 342 will end or who will be victims.” enforcement officials and officers failed to protect black citizens from harassment, attacks, shootings, The same day, the Journal Star (in Lincoln, Ne- and bombings, and many police violently abused braska) printed an anonymous letter: and even killed black activists. Public officials who spouted racist rhetoric from their campaign podi- “Dr. King and his followers have said we have a ums, shut down public schools and parks to pre- sick nation, but I feel that we have a sick Pres- vent integration, and encouraged violence against ident, who would proclaim a national day of civil rights activists represented white citizens who mourning and the flags flown at half-mast on all applauded their speeches, endorsed their actions, government installations, in honor of a man who, and repeatedly re-elected them to local, state, and wherever he went, caused in this nation violence national office.347 and destruction.” People like James Eastland, Strom Thurmond, and “I don’t believe that any person, black or white, George Wallace portrayed white Southerners as whose mere presence in that city caused riots and patriots rather than racists; as brave protectors of chaos, should be nationally honored. . . . All of us their culture rather than perpetrators of violent in our own way fight for what we believe in, but attacks against men, women, and children; and 343 we don’t get honored if it is a destructive fight.” as defenders of state sovereignty against an over- reaching federal government intent on destroying Lester Maddox, Georgia’s segregationist governor, their way of life rather than violators of constitu- 344 refused to allow Dr. King to lie in state. More tional rights. “We are about to embark on a great than 15 years later, an effort to honor Dr. King crusade,” Eastland told a gathering of pro-segrega- with a federal holiday became mired in contro- tion activists in 1955. “A crusade to restore Amer- versy. Senator Jesse Helms of North Carolina de- icanism and return the control of our government nounced Dr. King as a “Marxist” who remained “a to the people.”348 source of tension” and did not represent the kind 345 of “shared values” warranting a national holiday. Opponents of racial equality embraced this iden- Strom Thurmond, John Stennis, Russell Long, and tity, which empowered them to cast their immor- other aging segregationists voted against the bill, al behavior as moral and to feel pride rather than 346 but it passed and became law in 1983. shame as they used economic intimidation, crim- inalization, bombings, beatings, and even murder to defend white supremacy. This identity became the civil rights era’s most enduring legacy. SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 66 successful effort to halt desegregation inMilford, Delaware. (Bettmann/Getty Images) forThe National theAdvancement Association of White People holds arally onOctober 5,1954, featuring Bowles, who leda its Bryant president, 67 BEYOND BROWN:INTENSIFIES OPPOSITION White opposition to civil rights was largely a Southern movement, but it spread quickly. Between 1941 and the late 1970s, some five million African Americans fled to the North and West, marking the first time in Ameri- can history that a large proportion of African Americans lived outside the South.350 Southern segregationists saw PRESERVING RACIAL potential allies in the North and West. INEQUALITY UP NORTH Television cameras recorded Dallas County Sheriff Jim Clark’s brutal beating of Reverend C.T. Vivian in Sel- ma, Alabama, during a February 1965 voting rights demonstration. When it was broadcast on television, Clark received fan mail from across the country. “Sorry there are not enough men with your The average man in the Northern states agrees entirely guts and convictions in this country,” with the position that we take... read one wire from Porterville, Cali- fornia. “Seventy percent of the messag- — SENATOR JAMES EASTLAND, WHITE CITIZENS’ COUNCIL MEETING IN es are favorable,” Clark told a reporter, MISSISSIPPI, 1957.349 “and more of it’s favorable from the North than the South.”351 Later that year, Clark was the invited speaker at a meeting of the Los Angeles White Cit- izens’ Council, where he condemned the Watts uprising as the fault of “Mar- tin Luther King and company and the Communist conspiracy.”352 Meanwhile, Reverend Vivian, an aide to Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., was charged with contempt of court.353

As civil rights gains spread, white residents of major cities outside the South blocked efforts to end racial discrimination in housing, education, and public services. Elected officials used legislation and violence to fight racial equality, deny black people access to public services, and exacerbate the poverty that plagued black neighborhoods. White residents of Chicago's northwest side shout and shake their fists at civil rights marchers protesting racial discrimination in housing, August 7, 1966. (AP Photo/stf) Some of the earliest clashes took place in border states like Maryland and Delaware. By 1950, Baltimore had six whites-only swimming pools; the one pool for African Americans was so crowded that children had to swim in shifts.354 Threats of violence SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 68 Young white menwithaConfederate flagandracist signjeerat civilrights marchers inthesouthwest sideof Chicago, August 5, 1966.(APPhoto) Appeals Robert Bell recounted: lunch counter, ChiefJudge of theMarylandCourtof school and college students boycotted a segregated to serveAfricanAmericans. In 1960,90percentof Baltimore restaurantsrefused children swimming in atraditionally white pool. people threw stones and bottles at African American tegrate the pools, and in 1962, a mob of 1000 white delayed implementation of a 1956 court order to in- from gettinghitandtheydidn’tarrestanyone. to watching, butintervene protect us they didn’t there about, might be. Thepolicewerestanding was not violence asIthought as much physical people on the picket linewere hit, although there would be in thecontext of that situation. Some were onesyou would imaginethey us; theepithets and screamingat andyelling People were spitting 356 Whenagroup of high 355 357 event. want our children to go to school with Negroes!” ble givesauthority for segregation!” and “Wejust don’t had to escort them through mobs shouting, “The Bi- several days,andwhen they returned to school, police ing anintegrateddance, and after residents, 800peoplesigneda petition oppos- triggered by some 1500 white a massmeetingattended preme Court. while awaiting guidance from the United StatesSu- preme Court ruled that Milford could delay integration tion demonstrations.Thenext year, the Delaware Su- sparking more and pro-segrega cross burnings,rallies, ford expelled the black students andthe NAACP sued, would “blow the town apart.” fall 1954,the local school board predicted it president school inthesouthern Delaware town of Milford in integrated the white high When 11blackstudents years, untilthelastsegregatedschoolclosedin1970. 360 The blackstudentswere told to stay home for 362 Segregation persisted in Milford for in Segregation 15 persisted 359 school officials canceled the canceled officials school 358 Plans for Plans a school dance 361 Mil- 363 - 69 BEYOND BROWN:INTENSIFIES OPPOSITION Employment discrimination was a major barrier to economic advancement for black people in the North and West. Hiring restrictions that barred black people in Detroit and Chicago from many positions and promotions during the 1940s war boom persisted long after the war ended.364 Many trade unions barred black workers, and non-union employers often offered black applicants lower pay and lesser positions, if they were hired at all.365

From 1960 onward, the unemployment rate for black Americans stayed at double the rate for white Ameri- cans.366 Even after the Civil Rights Act outlawed racial discrimination in employment, job advertisements in the New York Times, Washington Post, and Chicago Tri- 367 bune sought “white applicants only.”

Housing segregation shaped urban landscapes in the North, where housing shortages penned black migrants in overcrowded and overpriced neighborhoods. Hous- ing segregation enabled school segregation, which in Police beat a black man in Harlem, New York, in 1964. (AP Photo) many cities remained a vestige of segregated neighborhoods long after segregation laws were struck down.

The Chicago Housing Authority invested in segregation by concentrating more than 10,000 public housing units in isolated African American neighborhoods — a policy the Supreme Court found in 1976 violated racial In Philadelphia, more than 200 African desegregation laws.”371 Americans attempting to rent or buy homes at the edges of the city’s segregated Slavery and codified racial segregation have come to residential districts were attacked during be thought of as uniquely Southern phenomena, but it the first six months of 1955 alone. Black is clear that the legacy of white supremacy and racial residents found themselves trapped in the bigotry was a powerful force in the North and West. North Philadelphia ghetto for years.368 Inspired by Southern segregationists, there is a clear and undeniable record of pervasive discrimination based on race that spread across America. The legacy of this his- In Los Angeles, more than 100 African tory haunts us still. Americans were targeted with violence when they tried to move out of segregated black neighborhoods between 1950 and 1965.369 These attacks, including dynamite bombings, cross burnings, and rocks thrown through windows, led to only one arrest and prosecution.370 SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 70 SUPREMACY WHITE OFLEADERS FOREVER”: “SEGREGATION 71 “SEGREGATION FOREVER”: LEADERS OF WHITE SUPREMACY When we remember the names, actions, the names, remember When we we leaders, segregationist of and words faces, campaign nationwide their understand better white equality and maintain racial reject to and the power and recognize supremacy, wielded — then and now. they influence The influential and widespread rejection of racial equalityby individuals, communities, officials, and institutions followed in the tradition of earlier civil thwart determined to stood supremacists white who generations of cause inspired white That common collective action among progress. rights citizens the country that vaulted new leadersnational in to many parts of political prominence and positions into powerful outlasted the many where movement itself. “SEGREGATION “SEGREGATION FOREVER”: LEADERS OF WHITE SUPREMACY SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 72 (LSU Archives) Shreveport laws. schools, and criminalized all efforts to violate segregation lic school, withheldbooks andlunchesfrom integrated pub- integrated any from certificates graduation nullify the legislaturedirectedstateboard of educationto Joint Legislative Committee to Maintain Segregation, its implementation. While Rainach was chair of the to 1960,stridentlyopposed Brown andfought to delay liam “Willie”Rainach,whose tenurelastedfrom 1940 of civil rights in the Louisiana State Legislature, Wil- Widely regarded as one of the most virulent opponents Colored People to integrate our schools.” National Association for the Advancement of the [sic] an open invitation to thecarpetbaggers, scalawags, and some 1400 voters to therolls. ish —untillitigation bytheJusticeDepartment restored in Washington Parish and 75 percent in Ouachita Par- These tacticsreducedtheblack electorate by85percent targeting the credentials of blackregistrantsforscrutiny. thousands of blackvoters byrequiring literacytestsand cil mountedacampaign tosystematically disenfranchise Rainach andother leaders of theWhite Citizens’ Coun- “I do not believe the two societies should mix.” 373 In Rainach’s words, “A vote against these bills is WILLIAM RAINACH STATE LEGISLATOR, LOUISIANA (1913–1978) 375 374 In 1958, In 1958, 372 they prefertheirown.” the opportunity, they will demonstrate once again that people of Arkansas have solid convictions and, if offered never renouncedsegregation.shewrote: In 2005, “The ed George Wallace’s presidential campaign. presidential ed George Wallace’s politics andstrongly mained activesupport- in Arkansas tionist views, and despite losing tionist views,and despite losing the election, segrega- her affirmed publicly that platform a on 1968 gation throughout her career. She ran for governor in (AP) manner.” constitutional quire Legislature to the Arkansas defyBrown to ballot initiative amend the state constitutionto re- from 1951 to 1953, Johnsonpromoted her husband’s Senate State Arkansas the of staff the of member a As wife of Supreme Arkansas Court Justice Jim Johnson. and the politician Virginia JohnsonwasanArkansas til it was repealed in1990. the amendment remained inthe state constitutionun- “I’m asegregationist. Aren’twe all?” VIRGINIA JOHNSON POLITICIAN, ARKANSAS (1928–2007) 381 377 The campaign succeeded and Thecampaignsucceeded 378 Johnson supported segre- 380 376 “in every 379 Johnson she re- 73 “SEGREGATION OF FOREVER”: LEADERS WHITE SUPREMACY

OLIN D. JOHNSTON HORATIO SEYMOUR (1896–1965) (1810–1886) GOVERNOR, U.S. SENATOR, SOUTH CAROLINA GOVERNOR, NEW YORK

“I don’t run from niggers, but I run them from me.”382 “This is a white man’s country: Let white men rule.”387

Olin DeWitt Talmadge Johnston was governor of South Horatio Seymour, governor of New York from 1853 Carolina from 1935 to 1939 and 1943 to 1945, and was to 1854 and 1863 to 1864, was outspoken in his support elected to the U.S. Senate in 1944, 1950, 1956, and 1962. for Southern slavery. At a campaign rally, he opposed Johnston supported President Franklin Roosevelt’s New the Emancipation Proclamation, warning that “[t]he Deal, which put him at odds with other segregationists, scheme for an immediate emancipation and general including his 1938 opponent for governor, “Cotton Ed” arming of the slaves throughout the South is a propos- Smith.383 Despite this economic liberalism, Johnston’s al for the butchery of women and children, for scenes championing of the common man did not extend to the of lust and rapine, of arson and murder, unparalleled civil rights of African Americans. He was unapologetically in the history of the world.”388 In 1868, Seymour ran racist in his rhetoric, opposed all federal efforts to weaken for president on the Democratic ticket, billing him- segregation, and attempted to maintain all-white primary self as the “white man’s candidate”389 and accusing his elections even after the Supreme Court declared them un- opponent, Ulysses Grant, of standing for “Negro su- constitutional.384 In 1944, Johnston refused to use his pow- premacy.”390 A prominent reminder that pro-slavery ers as governor to stop the execution of George Stinney, views were not confined to the South, Seymour lost a 14-year-old black boy convicted of killing two white the election but remained active in New York politics girls in a sham trial with no investigation or evidence, even and contributed to the foundational racial rhetoric that though Johnston had granted clemency to a white man politicians called upon well into the next century. just six years before. In 1985, on the 50th anniversary of his first inauguration as governor, a marker honoring John- ston was erected in his native Abbeville County and the local highway was named for him.385 Strom Thurmond was among the honored guests at the dedication.386

(Olin D. Johnston Papers, South Carolina Political Collections, The University of South Carolina Libraries) (Library of Congress) SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 74 deportation of theentire Negro race. that iseitherby segregation within theUnited States, orby maintain ourcivilization there isonlyonesolution,and civilization that white supremacy bemaintained andto It isessentialto the perpetuation of ourAnglo-Saxon (Library of(Library Congress) 391 Nazi racial philosophy premacist and segregationist politicians, Bilbo praised su- white among figure towering A 1947. to 1935 from 1916 to 1920 and 1928 to 1932, and as a U.S. senator Theodore Bilbo servedasgovernor of Mississippifrom in 1938,butitfailed.) Africa. (Hehadproposed arelocationbillinthe Senate vocated for the relocation of African Americans to West in which he outlined his fears of “race-mixing” and ad- segregationists in the South long after his death. segregationists in the South long afterhisdeath. leading among figure influential an remained and views en. the in South” byencouraging blackmento rapewhitewom - hell of floodgates the “open would bill the that floor Senate the on said Bilbo legislation, anti-lynching against 1938 filibuster a In rhetoric. inflammatory and means to keep hundreds of Negroes from the polls in the ed Anglo-Saxon man in Mississippi to resort to any bo deliveredaradio addressurging every“red-blood - veteran forattempting to register tovote,Senator Bil- 393 In 1946, after four white men beat a black Army In1946,afterfourwhitemenbeatablackArmy violence against black voters. inciting for office from him remove to effort NAACP-led an against bo senators successfullydefendedBil- Choice: Separation or Mongrelization, of his life writing a book, age 69, Bilbo spent the last weeks Before succumbingtocancerat persuasive measures.” means,you are just not up on your “And ifyou don’tknow whatthat July 2ndprimary.”Hecontinued, 396 392 Bilbo never repudiated his racist Bilbo never repudiatedhisracist and was famous for his extreme and was famous for his extreme 394 Southern Southern Take Your 395 75 “SEGREGATION OF FOREVER”: LEADERS WHITE SUPREMACY

Robert “Bob” Jones was an evangelist and radio broad- caster who founded segregated Bob Jones University in Greenville, South Carolina. With financial backing from the Klu Klux Klan, Jones began his career as an itiner- ant evangelist, preaching to millions of people across the United States.398 By the 1920s he was among the most famous evangelists in the country. His university opened in 1927 as a private, Christian, all-white college that banned African American students throughout Jones’s lifetime.399 Now a popular destination for conservative presidential candidates on the campaign trail, Bob Jones University did not admit black students until 1971 and banned in- (Bettmann/Getty Images) terracial dating until a visit from George W. Bush drew press coverage that forced the school to withdraw the policy in 2000.400 Jones’s commitment to segregation was rooted in his Christianity and was a foundation of his belief system. In a radio If we would just listen to the Word of God and not try to address on Easter Sunday in 1960, overthrow God’s established order, we would not have any he explained his conviction that trouble. God never meant for America to be a melting pot God was the author of segregation to rub out the line between the nations. That was not God’s and that opposition to segregation 401 purpose for this nation.397 amounted to opposition to God. The sermon, titled Is Segregation Scriptural?, was printed and widely distributed to students at Bob Jones University well into the 1980s.402 SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 76 ist cause for gain. ist cause political and hisown constituents, he embraced the segregation- Southern governors, but under pressure from hardliners Faubus was not as staunchasegregationistsome blocked theschool entrance. but an angry mob of white men, women, and youth A federalcourt ordered that the guardsmen be removed, Rock Nine, from enrolling at all-white CentralHigh. the Little Guard black students, to National block nine On September in the 2, 1957,Faubus Arkansas called der to desegregate Little Rock Central High School. is most widely remembered for defying a federal or Orval Faubus, governor of from Arkansas 1955 to 1967, more termsasgovernor. as asegregationistleaderandearnedhim four identity it cementedhis stop schooldesegregationinArkansas, the Army to escort the black students into the school. National Guard and dispatched federalized theArkansas force Dwight the court’s ruling,President Eisenhower (Francis Miller/The LIFEPicture Collection/Getty Images) “I will never open the public schools as “I will neveropen thepublicschools as ORVAL FAUBUS GOVERNOR, ARKANSAS integrated institutions.” (1910–1994) 408 407 405 Though did not his stand Torestore order and en- 403 406 404 -

of iniquity,” contempt of court for the federalcourt calling a“den to the school board. restored control with integration,and of desegregation interfering cease to officials state ordered constitutional, a panel of three federal judges declared the state lawun- the NAACP fromthe for NAACP Louisiana operating in a period. (State of Louisiana) Library sentenced tothreeyearsinprison. when he was convicted of federal perjury charges and in 1972 attorney generalended tenure as Gremillion’s to determine schools’racialcomposition. new law giving the exclusive authority state legislature public schools desegregated, leans Gremillion drafted a desegregation. After a federaljudge ordered New Or- resist to efforts state in prominently played Gremillion attorney generalfrom As Louisiana’s 1956 to 1971, Jack JACK GREMILLION “I have fought integration with all “I have fought integration with all ATTORNEY GENERAL, LOUISIANA the talent and vigor I possess.” 412 and he successfully used litigationto bar andhe successfully 411 (1914–2001) Gremillion famously was held in 414 410 409 In response,

413

77 “SEGREGATION FOREVER”: LEADERS OF WHITE SUPREMACY

422 423 420 Talmadge defended ra- defended Talmadge 421 (1888–1946) (1888–1946) GOVERNOR, GEORGIA GOVERNOR, but his place is at the back door.” back is at the but his place EUGENE TALMADGE “The South loves the Negro in his place —place his in the Negro loves South “The cial hierarchy and demanded the same from others. In the others. from cial hierarchy and demanded the same the dean and facultyearly 1940s, when he suspected that racial to committed were not the University of Georgia at of the Board expelled members of Talmadge segregation, Regents, fired professors, and censored books that- promot Talmadge’s supported Klan Klux Ku The equality. social ed get to scheme a orchestrated even and actions unprecedented blackhis of one kidnapping by dean the against “evidence” 1942 the Talmadge scandal cost The resulting employees. election, but voters overwhelmingly returned him to office that it steeped in racist rhetoric in 1946 after a campaign so investigatedlater FBI state. The the across violence sparked thesanctioning and violence mob inciting for Talmadge in County in Walton black couples of two 1946 lynching an effort to sway ruralwhite voters during his campaign. racist, Eugene Talmadge was elected governor in 1932 after1932 in governor elected was Talmadge Eugene racist, platform, segregationist and supremacist white a on ran he times. three re-election won and itclaimed grand jury a federal after The case was dropped mob. the lynch of identify any members not could Photographic Photographers Commercial LBP45-017a, Lane Brothers Special Collections Collection, 1920-1976. Photographic Collection, Library. University State Georgia and Archives, A dominant figure in Georgia politics and a virulent

- - - - -

415 Andrews was an 416 In a confrontation with the Associa the with confrontation In a 419 417 , which her orga her which , World Women’s Georgia the Negro get back in line.” back get the Negro

“All we need to do is to insist that insist is to do need to we “All 418 MRS. MRS. ANDREWS J.E. THE PRESERVATION OF THE WHITE RACE, GEORGIA OF THE WHITE RACE, THE PRESERVATION PRESIDENT, WOMEN’S NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR FOR ASSOCIATION NATIONAL WOMEN’S PRESIDENT, (From The Georgia Woman’s World, Sep. 1, 1936) World, Sep. Woman’s The Georgia (From Mrs. J.E. Andrews served as president of the Women’s the Andrews served as president of J.E. Mrs. White the Preservation of the National Association for suprema- white promoted that Race, an organization cist propaganda in the early 1930s. tion of Southern Women for the Prevention of Lynch Prevention of the for Women Southern of tion Andrews distinguished ing, a white organization, her [that] has mothers white of as “an organization group men against Negro girls, both defend our arisen to and you.” especially vocal critic of anti-lynching especially activism and critic of vocal pro dedicated to being of NAACP she accused the white race.” She pub- the “pure ruin of the moting militia to a need for the lished pamphlet advocating a whites. protect nization published in the 1930s, featured sensational 1930s,nization published featured in the ized messages, such as “White People! We again beg race and your heritage your up before wake to you are obliterated.” SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 78 Look at ‘em run.Bringthedogsanyway, captain. All you gotta doistell them you’re going to bringthedogs. Eugene "Bull"Connor(APPhoto) police violence. his defenseof racialsegregation or denounced hisuseof Klan. notorious segregationist withclose tiesto theKuKlux Eugene “Bull”Connor wasanAlabamapoliticianand arrived.” it that15or20minuteswould elapsebeforethepolice ing promised local Klanmembersthathewould“seeto ham, Connor intentionallyfailedtoprotect them,hav- transportation. When the students arrived in Birming the South to challenge illegal segregation in interstate and white college students who rode buses through armed with pipes to attack the Freedom Riders, black peaceful protestors. In 1961, he allowed a white mob — and in some cases ordered — acts of violence against during the Civil Rights Movement, Connor facilitated and segregationist violence. Bull Connor’s role as a national icon of racist ideology cemented firehoses by walls into slammed and officers, images of demonstrators being bitten by dogs, beaten by attack themwithbatons andpolice dogs. 424 PUBLIC SAFETY DIRECTOR, BIRMINGHAM,ALABAMA EUGENE “BULL” CONNOR 425 As Birmingham’s Commissioner of Public Safety 426 The Freedom Riders were brutally beaten, The Freedom Riders were brutally beaten, 429 firehoses and commanded police to to police commanded and firehoses them children—withhigh-pressure nonviolent protestors — most of blast to department fire the ordered against racial segregation. Connor ham to leadachildren’sprotest Luther KingJr.cametoBirming Connor’s brutalitywhen Martin In 1963,theentireworldwitnessed injuries. serious suffered several and (1897–1973) 428 Connor never repudiated Connor never repudiated 427 Televised Televised - - 79 “SEGREGATION OF FOREVER”: LEADERS WHITE SUPREMACY

GEORGE WALLACE (1919–1998) GOVERNOR, ALABAMA

The political legacy of four-time Alabama governor and four-time presidential candidate George Wallace is enduring and increasingly relevant. Wallace’s 1962 gubernatorial campaign used the slogan “Stand up for Alabama,” and he vowed to fight integration at the Uni- versity of Alabama.431 Wallace gave a furious inauguration speech, written by Ku Klux Klan organizer Asa E. Carter, in which he condemned integration and federal intervention in state affairs.432 Six months later, Wallace launched himself into the national spotlight by physi- cally blocking two black students, Vivian Malone and James Hood, from enrolling at the University of Ala- 433 ( Library of Congress) bama. The dramatic “stand in the schoolhouse door” was broadcast on national television, and within a week, Wallace received over 100,000 tele- grams commending his actions.

Wallace developed a political iden- In the name of the greatest people that have ever trod this tity that combined racial dema- earth I draw the line in the dust and toss the gauntlet before goguery and fiery rhetoric to de- the feet of tyranny . . . and I say . . . segregation now . . . fend segregation under the veneer segregation tomorrow . . . segregation forever.430 of “states’ rights.” By appealing to racial sentiments, Wallace gained the support of voters who felt threatened by increasing black political power.434 His overt appeals to segregationists later burdened Wallace’s presidential campaigns and he never reached national office. Today, a portion of Interstate 10 in Alabama and community colleges in the cities of Dothan and Eufaula bear George Wallace’s name. He remains one of the most infamous and influential segregationist leaders of this era. SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 80 two years later atage87. ment, won. “states’ rights” platform and, with the KKK’s endorse- notoriety by running for governor on a segregationist restaurant, Maddox sold it.In1966,hecapitalizedonhis When afederalcourtordered himto integrate the Pickrick. to serve three black patrons at his Atlanta restaurant, the in spotlight 1964 whenheviolated theCivilRights Actbyrefusing national the entered first Maddox Lester believe both of themtobeunconstitutional.” I think forced racial integration is illegal and wrong. I served. Ithinkforcedsegregation isillegal andwrong. said, “andIhope most everybodyelsewantstheirs pre- remained recalcitrant.“Iwantmyracepreserved,”he threaten blackpeople against entering his restaurant. wooden pick handles, dubbed “Pickrick drumsticks,” to was assassinated in 1968. to permit Martin Luther King Jr. to lie in state after he opposed integrating Georgia public schools, and refused dox promoted aracist,segregationist agenda,vigorously (Flip Schulke/CORBIS/Corbis viaGetty Images) “If necessary,weshouldcloseourschoolsforamonth or ayeartwoyears.Itwouldbebettertodothat and havefreechildrenthanslavechildren.” 436 Maddox provided his white customers with Maddox provided his white customers with LESTER MADDOX 438 During his four years as governor, Mad- GOVERNOR, GEORGIA (1915–2003) 439 441 In a 2001 interview, Maddox In a 2001 interview, Maddox 440 He died Hedied 435 437

against all civil rights legislation, voted categorically bill, anti-lynching an kill to filibuster the 1954Brown decision desegregating public schools. ists in signing the 1956 Southern Manifesto that criticized tax, and joined Strom Thurmond and other segregation- back to barbaric lunacy.” as awhole,ifpermittedtogo to itself,willinvariablygo premacy,’ whysuityourself. ButIsaythat theNegro race progress unlesshehaswhiteleadership. If you callthat‘su- bill, Ellenderinsistedthat“theNegro himselfcannot make sition to PresidentHarryTruman’sproposed civilrights (Library of Congress) (Library Political Museumand Hall of Fame in 1994. named afterhim,andhewas inductedinto theLouisiana library at Nicholls State University in Thibodaux are Today, several Louisianapublicschools andadorm and supported segregationistpolicies. deeply committed to racial separation and consistently who supported liberal New Deal policies, Ellender was Though widely regarded as a moderate and a pragmatist was aU.S.senator from 1937untilhisdeathin1972. Ellender Allen history, Louisiana in figure towering A “It is a sad spectacle, to say the least, and it leads one to the “It isasadspectacle, to say the least,andit leads one to the not shown itself capableof effective self-government.” inevitable conclusion that up to now the Negro race has inevitable conclusion that upto now the Negro racehas ALLAN ELLENDER ALLAN U.S. SENATOR, LOUISIANA (1890–1972) 444 Ellender organized a six-day Ellenderorganized asix-day 445 443 voted to retain the poll voted to retain the poll Invoicing hisoppo 442 446 -

81 “SEGREGATION OF LEADERS FOREVER”: WHITE SUPREMACY

JAMES O. EASTLAND JOHN STENNIS (1904–1986) (1901–1995) U.S. SENATOR, MISSISSIPPI U.S. SENATOR, MISSISSIPPI

“Those who would mix little children of “We are not going to comply with the Supreme both races in our schools are following an Court decision of putting whites and blacks together, illegal, immoral, and sinful doctrine . . .”447 but the least we advertise that fact, the better.”452

A wealthy Mississippi plantation owner and U.S. John Stennis represented Mississippi in the Senate from senator from 1942 to 1978, James O. Eastland was na- 1947 to 1989. More restrained than his predecessor, tionally known as a stalwart of Southern resistance to de- Theodore Bilbo, Stennis carried on Bilbo’s segrega- segregation. In 1956, Eastland became chairman of the tionist, white supremacist agenda using the coded lan- Senate Judiciary Committee, which reviewed civil rights guage of “states’ rights.” Stennis opposed anti-poll tax bills and judicial nominations. Under his leadership, the amendments, anti-lynching legislation, the Fair Em- committee became known as the “graveyard” for civil ployment Practices Committee, the Voting Rights Act rights legislation.448 Civil rights bills passed during this of 1965, and the Civil Rights Acts of 1964 and 1968.453 period only if they managed to bypass Eastland’s com- After Brown, Stennis proposed maintaining segrega- mittee.449 Eastland also opposed federally mandated de- tion by improving African American schools so that segregation by proposing a constitutional amendment integration could be rendered constitutionally unnec- that provided that “there shall be no limitations upon the essary, and he urged white Mississippians to abandon power of any state to regulate health, morals, education, public schools rather than permit their children to at- marriage and good order in the state.”450 Near the end tend classes with black children. Stennis was among 19 of his life, when asked if he would change anything he Southern senators who signed the Southern Manifesto 454 had done as a politician, Eastland answered, “I voted my in defiance of Brown. Many state and federal institu- convictions on everything.”451 tions in Mississippi bear his name, including a hospital in DeKalb, a federal dam near Columbus, and the John C. Stennis Institute of Government and Community Development at Mississippi State University.

(AP) (© Wally McNamee/CORBIS/Corbis via Getty Images) SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 82 Get those niggers outof school. (Lynn Pelham/The LIFEImages Collection/Getty Images) 455 an eighth term as sheriff by a slim margin. slim a by sheriff as term eighth an was acquittedbyanall-white jury,andlost abidfor McCall claimedselfdefenseandwasnevercharged. that McCall had shot him and Shepherd in cold blood. survived thetwogunshots tohischestandtoldtheFBI though theirparentsinsistedtheywere white. after personally deciding they were “Negro” even school segregated a from children five ban to decision In 1954, he enforced the Lake County School Board’s until the Justice Department forced their removal. segregated bathroom signs at the Lake County Jail A staunch segregationist, McCall insisted on posting leged rape occurred. Groveland Boys,namedfor thetown wheretheal- uel ShepherdandWalterIrving, weretwo of thefour Sam- men, The custody. his in and handcuffed were white woman, McCall shot the two men while they trial of two black men wrongly convicted of raping a community. In 1951, in the midst of a high-profile re- force segregation and terrorize the African American 1945 to 1972,wasinfamous for using violence toen- from Florida, County, Lake of Sheriff McCall, Willis the morality of his methods. which hedefendedhiscommitment to segregation and died in1994attheage of 84afterwritingamemoir in jail. tually disabled black man was kicked to death in his Call’s reign of terror ended in 1972, when an intellec- 460 Withthesupport of manylocalwhites,McCall SHERIFF, COUNTY, LAKE FLORIDA WILLIS MCCALL 456 (1909–1994) Shepherd was killed but Irving 462 461 McCall 459 Mc- 458 457

83 “SEGREGATION OF FOREVER”: LEADERS WHITE SUPREMACY

JAMES F. BYRNES (1882–1972) U.S. SENATOR, GOVERNOR, SOUTH CAROLINA ASSOCIATE JUSTICE, U.S. SUPREME

James F. Byrnes was an influential South Carolina politician and avowed segregationist who held high-level positions in state and federal government for more than four decades. As a member of the U.S. House of Repre- sentatives and Senate for more than two decades, Byrnes personally blocked a Senate investigation of a South Car- olina lynching and opposed federal anti-lynching legislation, insisting that “rape is responsible, directly and indirectly, for most of the lynching in America.”464 When (Library of Congress) Byrnes was nominated to the Supreme Court in 1941, the NAACP opposed his confirmation in a telegram to the White House: “If Senator Byrnes at any time in his long public career failed to take a position inimical to the human and citizenship rights of 13 million Ameri- can Negro citizens, close scrutiny of his record fails to This is a white man’s country, and will reveal it.”465 Byrnes was confirmed to the Court, and lat- 463 always remain a white man’s country. er held the office of Secretary of State under President Harry Truman. He remained a vocal opponent of integration throughout his term as South Carolina gover- nor from 1951 to 1955. In his inaugural address, Byrnes proclaimed, “Whatever is necessary to continue the separation of the races in the schools of South Carolina is going to be done by the white people of the state. That is my ticket as a private citizen. It will be my ticket [as governor].”466 Since his death in 1972, Byrnes has been widely recognized; a building and a professorship at the University of South Carolina bear his name, as do By- rnes Auditorium at Winthrop University, Byrnes Hall dormitory at Clemson University, and James F. Byrnes High School in Duncan, South Carolina. SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 84 Resistance.” anti-integration strategy that became known as “Massive (Library of Congress) (Library ed to integrate. off state funds and closed any public school that attempt- The mainstayof MassiveResistancewas alawthatcut any kind. his vocal opposition to a U.S. senator from 1933 to 1965. He was well known for tionist whoservedasgovernor from 1926to 1930andas Harry ByrdSr.wasaVirginiapolitician andsegrega- with the power to assign students to particular schools. private schools, andcreating aPupilPlacementBoard ers to white parents to enroll their children in segregated ending compulsory school attendance, providing vouch - 1956 to preventintegration of Virginiapublicschools by tion “byany lawful means.” festo, which declared the intent to resist racial integra- Southern politicians who endorsed the Southern Mani- ‘[The order to desegregate public schools] ‘[The order to desegregate public schools] has brought Virginia to its greatest crisis has brought Virginiato itsgreatest crisis 468 since the war between thestates.” On February 25, 1956, Byrd announced an OnFebruary25,1956,Byrdannounced an 469 He supported a group of laws passed in 471 HARRY BYRD U.S. SENATOR, VIRGINIA Byrd also built a coalition of nearly 100 (1887–1966) Brown and to racial integration of 472 467 470

black residents. from Selma to Montgomery to demand voting rights for beat hundreds of peaceful protesters attempting to march known asBloody Sunday,Clarkordered hisposse to gassed protestors athiscommand. unteers armedwithwhipsandclubswhobeattear- He wasoften accompaniedbyagroup of mounted vol- rights. lent opponentof integration andtheexpansion ofcivil James Gardner (Jim)Clarkwasan intransigent and vio 1966, to 1955 from Sheriff County Dallas of role the In protest anthem,We ShallOvercome. button bearingtheword “Never”inresponsetothe an actof “blacksupremacy,”andregularly woreawhite do the same thing today if I had to do it all over again.” 2006, a year before he died at age 84, Clark said “I would Clark lost his 1966 re-election bid. abled Dallas County’s blackresidentsto registerto vote, activists with his nightstick and an electric cattle prod. military attire,wieldeda.38-caliberpistol, andattacked (Steve Schapiro/Corbis viaGetty Images) wouldn’t be no problem if Martin Luther King wouldn’t be no problem if Martin Luther King and his Communists would get outta here.” “Our niggers are gettin’ along all right. They “Our niggers aregettin’ along all right. They 474 Clark described the civil rights movement as Clark described the civil rights movement as SHERIFF, DALLAS COUNTY, ALABAMA 478 JIM CLARK After the 1965 Voting Rights Act en- (1922–2007) 477 479 On March 7, 1965, OnMarch7,1965, 475 In an interview in In an interview in Clark dressed in Clark dressed in 473 480 476 -

85 “SEGREGATION OF FOREVER”: LEADERS WHITE SUPREMACY

LEANDER PEREZ ALLAN SHIVERS (1891–1969) (1907–1985) JUDGE, DISTRICT ATTORNEY, LOUISIANA GOVERNOR, TEXAS

“Don’t wait for your daughters to be raped by these Segregation in Texas will continue as 486 Congolese. Don’t wait until the burr-heads are forced long as I am governor. into your schools. Do something about it now.”481 Widely known for his segregationist views, Allan Descended from Spanish ancestors who settled in Lou- Shivers served as governor of Texas from 1949 un- isiana, Leander Perez Sr. was a Louisiana politician of til 1957.487 Unlike more outspoken politicians, Shivers unrivaled power and influence and one of the state’s avoided outright name-calling in favor of more carefully fiercest foes of African American civil rights. Asa phrased white supremacist rhetoric.488 He was a staunch judge, district attorney for Plaquemines and St. Ber- advocate of “state’s rights,” which he used to rationalize nard parishes, and kingmaker in Louisiana politics,482 his refusal to implement federal desegregation orders.489 Perez developed a national reputation as a leading seg- After Brown, Shivers expressed his intent to defy federal regationist aligned with high-profile Dixiecrats like orders to integrate Texas public schools and warned that Alabama Governor George Wallace, Georgia Gov- racial violence would inevitably result.490 He gained na- ernor Lester Maddox, and Mississippi Governor Ross tional prominence in 1956 when the Mansfield school Barnett.483 As the Louisiana campaign manager for the district near Fort Worth received Texas’s first desegre- presidential campaigns of Barry Goldwater in 1964 and gation order. An angry mob prevented three black stu- George Wallace in 1968, Perez helped win segrega- dents from entering Mansfield High, and Shivers sent tionist majorities in the parishes under his control.484 Texas Rangers to protect the mob and prevent the stu- He mobilized resistance to integration by founding the dents from attending school. The Eisenhower adminis- 50,000-member white supremacist Citizens’ Council tration, in the middle of a re-election campaign, did not of Greater New Orleans, and argued that racial seg- intervene.491 Shivers’s action inspired Arkansas Gover- regation was mandated by the Bible even after the nor Orval Faubus to adopt similar tactics at Little Rock’s Archdiocese of New Orleans excommunicated him for Central High School in 1957.492 Throughout his political opposing integration in Catholic schools.485 career, Shivers defended segregation and stood as a leader and supporter of white opposition to racial equality.

(Donald Uhrbrock/The LIFE Images Collection/Getty Images) (1976/198-29, Courtesy of Texas State Library anD Archives Commission) SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 86 sidewalk, yelling he isequal.Thehellhe mill shooting craps. Heislyinglimpinthemiddleof the hod. Heisstill digging theditch. Heisdown at thegin is theNegro to befound? Why, sir, heis still carrying the writers. Ofcourse, there are. Butingeneral terms, where There are respected Negro teachers, lawyers, doctors, (Denver Post viaGetty Images) rights.” out a framework for resistance under the banner of “states’ Southern politicians to resist the Brown decision and laid encouraged Kilpatrick editorials, influential of series a In the 1950s and 1960s for his ardent defense of segregation. Richmond News Leader and gained national attention in to civilrights, JamesKilpatrickwaseditor of Virginia’s A journalist and prominent voice of the white resistance nounced his whiteviews. supremacist City in the 1920s and 1930,” but he never publicly re - ed because he was “brought up a white boy in Oklahoma defense ofsegregationasaviewpoint henaturallyadopt - and attract a wider audience, Kilpatrick minimized his segregation orders they deem unjust. moral highground withwhiteSouthernerswho resistde- segregation lawstheybelieve are invalid must sharethe Kilpatrick insistedthatcivilrights protestors who violate in 1960 with Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. during which the segregationist cause, including in a televised debate 493 JOURNALIST, WRITER,SPEAKER,VIRGINIA JAMESKILPATRICK J. 494 He regularly appeared on television to represent He regularly appeared on television to represent columnist seeking to shed his reputation columnist seeking to shed his reputation In the 1970s, as a syndicated conservative rior race.” Negro race,asaisinfactaninfe - He is Equal in which he argued that “the 1963, hedraftedanarticletitledThe Hell Kilpatrick’s beliefs were transparent. In used coded language to talkabout race, “bad taste” and declined to publish it. Post ’s editor deemed Kilpatrick’s article in civil rightsactivism,theSaturday Evening church to punish the congregation for its planted intheirBirmingham,Alabama, killed byabomb thatwhitesupremacists (1920–2010) 496 After four black girls were After four black girls were 495 498 Though he often Though he often 497

87 “SEGREGATION OF LEADERS FOREVER”: WHITE SUPREMACY

ROSS BARNETT (1898–1987) GOVERNOR, MISSISSIPPI

Ross Barnett, a prominent segregationist and governor of Mississippi from 1959 to 1964, campaigned as a defender of white supremacy and declared, “The Negro is different because God made him different to punish him.”500 Barnett used state funds to support the segregationist White Citizens’ Councils, actively sought to arrest and jail Freedom Rider activists protesting illegal discrimination, and denounced constituents who asked federal agents to investigate a lynching.501 Barnett is best remembered for attempting to stop a 29-year-old black Air Force veteran named James Meredith from enrolling at the all-white University of Mississippi after Meredith Ross Barnett (AP Photo) won a federal lawsuit challenging segregation at Ole Miss. In 1962, on the day U.S. Marshals were to escort Meredith to campus, Barnett warned a segregationist crowd nearby that Ole Miss was “ready to be invaded” and issued “a call to arms.” The mob flood- There is no case in history where the Caucasian race ed the campus in violent riots that left has survived social integration. We will not drink from two people dead and injured hundreds the cup of genocide.499 before they were quelled by federalized National Guard troops. The federal court held Barnett in contempt and imposed a large fine and jail sen- tence, but these penalties were never enforced and the charges were dropped in 1965.502 Reflecting on his role years later, Barnett said, “Generally speaking, I’d do the same things again.”503 SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 88 of 1965 tionist views. age of 100. Heneverpubliclyrenounced hissegrega - served 48yearsintheSenate anddiedin2003atthe Act of 1957. Rights Civil the of passage prevent to filibuster hour rights legislation,Thurmondfamouslystaged a24- lic school integration. tion andencouragedSouthern statesto prevent pub- Court’s 1954 decision in Southern Manifesto, whichdenounced theSupreme of civil rights. In 1956, he was a primary drafter of the opponent aleading as influence national in grew he In 1954, Thurmond was elected to the Senate, where election. the lost but South the in support significant the pro-segregationist presidential candidate; he won South Carolina, he led the Dixiecrat ticket in 1948 as politician and vocal segregationist. While governor of Strom Thurmond was a prominent South Carolina (AP) and our placesof recreation and amusement.” into our homes, into our schools, our churches into our homes, into our schools, our churches bayonets of the Army cannot force the Negro bayonets of theArmy cannot force the Negro 507 “[A]ll the laws of Washington and all the “[A]ll thelaws of Washington and all the anditsreauthorization in1975. 506 509 He also opposed the Voting Rights Act 505 Astaunchopponentof civil Brown v.BoardofEduca- 508 Thurmond 504 ignore federal law. to officials state authorize would that Constitution sas of Hoxie and proposed an amendment to the Arkan- which protestedplansto integrateschools in thetown son formed the White Citizens’ Council of Arkansas, mained acentralpoliticalplatform inArkansas.John- a campaign to ensure that defense of segregation re- regate Little Rock Central High School in 1957. tal inpersuadingFaubusto defyfederalorders to deseg- to embrace thesegregationist cause.Hewasinstrumen- election, he leveraged his supporters to pressure Faubus Johnson Papers) (University of Arkansas Libraries, Arkansas Commission, Jim History 1960s. justice on the Arkansas Supreme Court in the 1950s and who served as an Arkansas state senator and associate “Justice Jim”Johnson wasanoutspoken segregationist dorsement of the KKK. for governor on a segregationist platform with the en - Johnson challenged incumbentOrvalFaubusandran it was later struck down as unconstitutional.) In 1956, STATE SENATOR, STATE SUPREMECOURT JUSTICE, ARKANSAS or how many troops are sent into our state. We shall not or how manytroops are sent into our state. We shall not “I don’t care how many court rulings are handed down “I don’t care how many court rulings are handed down surrender our sovereign rights and reserved powers to surrender our sovereign rights and reserved powers to 511 govern and control our state institutions.” After the JIM JOHNSON 512 Brown decision, Johnson launched (Voters passed the proposal, but (1924–2010) 513 Although Johnson lost the 510 514 89 “SEGREGATION FOREVER”: LEADERS OF WHITE SUPREMACY 518 Helms defeated a a defeated Helms 519 520 (1921–2008) (1921–2008) JESSE HELMS JESSE U.S. SENATOR, NORTH CAROLINA CAROLINA NORTH SENATOR, U.S. interfere with other men’s rights.” with other interfere kind of restraint that’s thus far left himthat’s restraint of kind “The Negro cannot count forever on the on forever count cannot Negro “The free to clog the streets, disrupt traffic, andtraffic, disrupt streets, the clog free to black opponent in 1990 after running a campaign ad ad campaign a running after 1990 in opponent black letter rejection a crumpling hands white showed that were you and job that needed said, “You narrator a as minority a to it give to had they But qualified. best the a racial quota.” because of (Courtesy U.S. Senate Historical Office) Historical Senate U.S. (Courtesy From 1973 to 2003, Jesse Helms represented North represented North 1973 to 2003, Jesse Helms From him- established he where Senate, U.S. the in Carolina movement. the segregationist self as a seminal leader of vehemently Helms ran heavily racialized campaigns, Civil the including legislation, rights civil opposed ac- civil rights 1964, and condemned Rights Act of ap- He Washington. on March 1963 the like tivism throughout elections win to sentiment racist to pealed opponent’s his overcame Helms career. In 1984, his 20-point lead to win re-election by filibustering a bill federal a birthday Jr.’s King Luther Martin Dr. make to holiday and by distributing literature that denounced drives. registration voter black 517 515 (1913–2002) (1913–2002) - advocat Talmadge governor, As 516 with colored children.” with colored GOVERNOR, U.S. SENATOR, GEORGIA GEORGIA SENATOR, U.S. GOVERNOR, United States to make the white people make the to United States of this state send their children to schoolto their children send state this of HERMAN TALMADGE HERMAN “There aren’t enough troops in the wholethe in troops enough “There aren’t ed for segregationist and racist policies, often framed framed often racist policies, and segregationist ed for popular a become had which issues, rights” “states’ as mem- Klan appointed Talmadge tactic. segregationist bers to public office, including Samuel Green, Grand and Colonel KKK, as Lieutenant Georgia’s of Dragon as head of Aide-de-Camp, and Klansman Sam Rober , Brown Following Investigation. the State Bureau of ominously integration, opposed vehemently Talmadge Atlanta” of streets the in run will “blood that warning schools separate maintain to intend “We declaring, and what may.” come or another, way one in Georgia (Richard B. Russell Library for Political Research and Studies, University University and Studies, Research B. Russell Library Political (Richard for Libraries) Georgia of The son of Georgia Governor Eugene Talmadge, Eugene Talmadge, Governor Georgia The son of cause Herman Talmadge carried on the segregationist gubernatorial 1948 his During died. father his after many as disenfranchise to sought Talmadge campaign, leaders, party told and possible as Americans African a white want as primary, we white a can’t have we “If get.” can we as one SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 90 Macon County among itsneighboring counties. ed eliminating themajority-black county bydividing to exclude nearly all black residents, and later suggest- in the Alabama Senate to redraw Tuskegee’s city limits voters controlling thecounty. — and Engelhardt was terrified by the prospect of black — the largest percentage of any county in the country of Macon County was 85percentAfricanAmerican (Don Cravens/The LIFEImages Collection/Getty Images) communities. tion of interstate highway projects that destroyed black tor from 1959 to 1963, and he oversaw the construc - Engelhardt servedasAlabama’sStateHighway Direc- the Citizens’Councils of Alabama. segregation, and he served as the Executive Secretary of tect of the Alabama Legislature’s strategy to defy de- State Senator Sam Engelhardt was the principal archi- ACY SEGREGATION.” paign cardsread,“ISTAND FORWHITE SUPREM- “I have worked Negroes on the plantation for “I have worked Negroes on theplantation for years and have never had a bit of trouble with years and have neverhadabitof trouble with Our sole purpose is to maintain segregation. Our sole purpose is to maintainsegregation. any of them. I know what is best for them... any of them.I know what is best for them... That’s what we intend to do.” 526 524 Engelhardtproposed abill 523 Hisstatesenatecam- 522 Hishomedistrict 521 525 525 his memory. est and Campbell University law schools give awards in Beverly LakeBeverly (APPhoto/News &Observer) and theNorth Carolina BarAssociation His portraithangsintheNorth Carolina SupremeCourt, ly denounced “race-mixing.” governor in 1960 on a segregationist platform that public- North Carolina Supreme Court. Lake unsuccessfully ran for school desegregationinNorth Carolina before joining the Isaac “I.” Beverly Lake was a prominent lawyer who fought in thelivingroom and thebedroom aswell.” of sex, to accept integration not only in the classroom, but children, even before they are old enough to be conscious Lake accused the NAACP of “trying to condition [white] and their children’s pride in their racial heritage.” In 1957, that integration would “destroy both their school system a man of deplorable character like Martin Luther King.” 1987, hedeclaredit“adisgracetohaveastateholiday for STATE SUPREMECOURT JUSTICE, NORTH CAROLINA inferior education since that is an evil which another inferior education sincethatisanevilwhichanother generation can correct, while miscegenation is a generation can correct, while miscegenation is a inferior education and the amalgamation of our inferior education andthe amalgamation of our races into a mix-blooded whole, let us choose races into amix-blooded whole, let us choose “If we must choose between a generation of “If we must choose between a generation of tragedy which can never be undone.” I. BEVERLY LAKE (1906–1996) 528 He warned white families He warned white families 531 andWakeFor - 529 527 As late as Aslateas 530 530

91 “SEGREGATION OF LEADERS FOREVER”: WHITE SUPREMACY

THOMAS PICKENS BRADY FIELDING WRIGHT (1903–1973) (1895–1956) STATE SUPREME COURT JUSTICE, MISSISSIPPI GOVERNOR, MISSISSIPPI

“You can dress a chimpanzee, housebreak him, and teach “If any of you [African Americans] have become so him to use a knife and fork, but it will take countless deluded as to want to enter our white schools, patronize generations of evolutionary development, if ever, before our hotels and cafes, enjoy social equality with the you can convince him that a caterpillar or a cockroach is whites, then true kindness and sympathy requires me to not a delicacy. Likewise the social, political, economical, advise you to make your homes in some other state.”537 and religious preferences of the Negro remain close to the caterpillar and the cockroach. . . .”532 Elected on the strength of his opposition to integration and civil rights, Fielding Wright was governor of Missis- Thomas Pickens Brady became a national figure after sippi from 1946 to 1952. To avoid the Supreme Court’s he publicly denounced civil rights and desegregation. A ban on whites-only primary elections, Wright called a 533 circuit court judge in Brookhaven, Mississippi, when special session of the Mississippi Legislature to pass a bill Brown was decided, he attacked it as a “stereotyped psy- that gave party leadership discretion to approve or dis- chological opinion,” denigrated the “bestiality” of Af- approve primary voters.538 In his 1948 inaugural address, rican Americans, and implored white Southerners to Wright called for the South to break from the Demo- 534 choose “between segregation or amalgamation” in a cratic Party unless it opposed President Harry Tru- speech called Black Monday that became the intellectual man’s civil rights program.539 Wright helped establish foundation for segregationist White Citizens’ Councils the States’ Rights Democratic Party, the “Dixiecrats,” to throughout the South. Council members resisted inte- flex Southern segregationists’ political clout and thwart gration through political action and targeted African challenges to white supremacy. In 1948, he ran for vice 535 Americans with violence and economic intimidation. president alongside Strom Thurmond on the Dixiecrat Brady was appointed to the Mississippi Supreme Court ticket, which won some 1.1 million votes.540 Several Mis- in 1963 and served on the Democratic National Com- sissippi institutions bear his name, including the Fielding mittee from 1960 to 1964, in which capacity he advo- L. Wright Art Center at Delta State University and the 536 cated dissolving public schools to avoid integration. Fielding L. Wright Science Complex at Mississippi Valley State University. (Special Collections, University Libraries, University of Southern Mississippi) Fielding Wright (AP Photo) SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 92 — LEEATWATER, ADVISOR TO PRESIDENTRONALD REAGAN, IN1981. busing, states’ rights, andallthat stuff, . you, backfires. Soyou saystuff like, uh,forced nigger.” By 1968you can’t say“nigger”— that hurts You start outin1954by saying,“Nigger, nigger, SURVIVED SEGREGATION HOW 541 HOW SEGREGATION SURVIVED

White children protest desegregation in Chicago, Illinois, 1966. (Declan Haun/Chicago History Museum) SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 94 Seven-year-old dressed inKu KluxKlansmanrobes rides inaKlanmotorcade onAugust 14, 1956,inMacon, Georgia. (Bettmann/Getty Images) 95 HOW SEGREGATION SURVIVED

y the dawn of the 1970s, the Civil Rights Movement had had Movement Rights Civil the 1970s, the of dawn the y in segregation declare to Court Supreme the push helped sig- of the passage to and led unconstitutional public schools nificant laws like the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which out-

lawed racial discrimination in public accommodations and employment; employment; and accommodations public in discrimination racial lawed voting discriminatory 1965, which prohibited Rights Act of the Voting Act of 1968, which barred discrimination practices; and the Fair Housing sales, rentals, and financing. in housing Civil The laws. rights civil passing by achieved not was equality racial But Rights Movement did not eradicate the narrative of racial difference, and way American the in rooted deeply remained equality racial to opposition life. of The evolution of voter suppression in the South and school segregation in segregation and school voter suppression in the South of The evolution battle,legal the won activists rights civil while that, demonstrate North the war. the narrative won again once racial inequality cause of the Southern lawmakers who fought to maintain segregation segregation maintain to who fought Southern lawmakers and power, of in positions remained supremacy and white and national aligned with Northern, Western, were they now and rights states’ — like language who used new leaders hierarchy. racial the age-old maintain — to “law and order” B SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 96 rest” tactics. ar- his “mass denounced publicly he lostin1966to an opponentwho Clark; Jim Sheriff County Dallas rights directly ledto the ouster of federal protection of black voting tools totheirrepressive repertoire. tives” andadded more sophisticated gan themselves“conserva- calling the black vote, suppress so they be- to voters, needed segregationists gained more black than amillion inpower as theSouth To stay struction. nities for the first time since Recon- to black commu enfranchisement by bringing widespread politics” ly changedthe face of southern The Voting Rights Act “literal THE SOUTH SEGREGATION IN THE SURVIVAL OF 7 percent in 1965. 7 percentin registered in1968,upfrom just percent of eligible blackvoters were 60 by thenewlaw.InMississippi, most targeted es wereinthestates million people.The greatest chang- in the South by 1.3 had increased black law voter passed, registration 542 Justthree years after the 544 543 In Alabama, In - - — thepractice of sending mailto mon in the 1980s is voter caging Another tactic that became com - their advocates. and intimidateblackvoters and mained apopular tacticto restrict but the “voter fraud” narrativere- The Marion Three were acquitted, and theiradvocates. intimidating black voters pretext for restricting and remained apopular The “voter fraud” narrative the cases initiated office his — Three Marion charges of voter fraud against the But was not Sessions responding to election officials in my jurisdiction.” I knowof white no chargesagainst vote fraud against whitesor blacks. spond tocharge any substantiatedof “We willre- he insisted, clusively, ex - had targetedblackpeople sions When criticspointedout that Ses- Selma on Bloody Sunday. Luther KingJr.who wasbeatenin Turner, aformer aidto Martin cluding civilrights icon Albert geted only blackdefendants,in- activists inAlabama.Sessions tar- Sessions against black voting rights Jeff Attorney States then-United legation, wielded in 1985 by One tool was the voter fraud al- white powerstructure.” observed, in the way of“I stand the 545 because, asMr. Turner 546 erably.” keep theblackvote down consid- which I’massumingitis,thiscould the rolls .Ifit’sacloserace, inate atleast60-80,000folks from guess that this program will elim- is really important to you. I would Louisiana read, “I know this race Committee memo about caging in 1981 internal Republican National neighborhoods for voter purges. A andLatino black targeted officials identify voter fraud but Republican nents defended caging as a way to their registeredaddresses. that they do not legally reside at voters onthatlist theground turned undelivered, and purging piling alistofthemailthatisre- addresses on the voter rolls, coming and activelyreliedon voter cag campaign for governor in 1960, ed I.BeverlyLake’ssegregationist white Republican, he had support- ate from North Carolina in 1973. A Jesse Helms was elected to the Sen- down theniggers.” erything you’ve done to help keep show, a caller thanked him for “ev- was a guest on the light of his tenure,whileHelms in 2003 at age 81. a national holiday. Martin LutherKingJr.’sbirthday tered thebillthatsought to make black registration drives and filibus- literature warning votersabout he published after deficit 20-point In 1984, Helms overcame a the voterrolls. to remove African Americans from that theprogram’s clearintentwas 550 and other racialized tactics. 548 Astatejudge laterruled 549 553 552 Larry KingLive 551 Helmsretired Inthetwi- 547 Propo- - 97 HOW97 SEGREGATION SURVIVED In 2010, Alabama’s Republican-controlled state government filed a lawsuit challenging the Voting Rights Act as “no longer necessary.”554 Three years later, in Shelby County v. Holder, a divided Supreme Court effectively gutted the Voting Rights Act by striking down the requirement that states like Alabama ob- tain “pre-clearance” from the federal government before changing their voting laws.555 In dissent, Associate Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg wrote that the Court was turning its back to history. “The sad irony of today's decision lies in its utter failure to grasp why the [Voting Rights Act] has proven effective,” she wrote.

Throwing out preclearance when it has worked and is continuing to work to stop discriminatory changes is like throwing away your umbrella in a rainstorm because you are not getting wet.556

In this 1965 photograph, a man in Alabama holds a large sign protesting the Civil Rights Act. Others hold Confederate flags, which became a symbol of resistance to desegregation. (© Spider Martin) SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 98 POWER ASSAULT ONBLACK THE GOVERNMENT the buildingwithgunfire. Party leader Fred Hampton was killedby Chicago police just monthslater. (Bettmann/Getty Images) A young manpeeksfrom behindadoorat aBlackPanther Party meeting space inChicago onAugust 5,1969,daysafter police blasted ganda, and violence.Leadersof bus boycotts in geted for black leaders propa- arrest, surveillance, During the civilrights era, law enforcement tar- ty’s localheadquarters. (FBI) raidedtheBlack PantherPar- Investigation cago police working with the Federal Bureau of In the pre-dawn hours of December 4, 1969,Chi- seriously wounded. four and Mark Clarkweredead others had been raid. the before plan a floor officers gave and formant al bodyguard, O’Neal, wasanFBI William in 558 When the smoke cleared, Hampton and the smokecleared, When 559 557 Fred Hampton’s person- - 99 HOW SEGREGATION SURVIVED In July In July 570 571 574 572 The committee reported: The committee 573 During 1967-1971, FBI headquarters ap- 1967-1971, FBI headquarters During COINTELPRO for 379 proposals proved These against ‘black nationalists.’ actions unsavoryand dangerous utilized operations death of techniques which gave rise to the risk andrights personal the disregarded often and the victims. of dignity 1969, FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover named the the named J. Edgar Hoover 1969, FBI Director in- the threat to “the greatest Black Panther Party country.” the of security ternal Federal agents and local police engaged in harass- in engaged police local and agents Federal and shootouts violent ment and raids that led to Fred the deadly ambush that killed 21-year-old showed however, Hampton. An April 1970 poll, Panthers the blamed Americans of percent 75 that violence. this police for in- were FBI the by employed tactics the of “[M]any - com Senate a society,” free a to degrading disputably COINTEL- after years five 1976, in concluded mittee down. PRO shut The rise of militant black activism and its rejec- its and activism black militant of The rise en- law emboldened stakeholders white by tion — and controversial employ to officials forcement the 1967, August In tactics. — deadly sometimes FBI officially directed COINTELPRO to “ex- otherwise or discredit, misdirect, disrupt, pose, nationalist groups. neutralize” black - - 562 That 560 561 565 Malcolm X, who Malcolm X, 563 566 569 was constantly surveilled by police 564 Spurning the tactics of marches, sit-ins, the tactics of marches, sit-ins, Spurning 567 - con publicly Johnson B. Lyndon President 568 believed “[i]t is criminal to teach a man not to de- not to believed “[i]t a man teach is criminal to fend himself when he is bru the constant victim of tal attacks,” demned the concept of “Black Power” that the that the demned the concept of “Black Power” symbolized. Panthers up until he was assassinated in 1965. A few months later, two black men named Huey black men named Huey later, two A few months Black the formed Seale Bobby and Newton P. Cali- Oakland, in Defense Self for Party Panther fornia. - chairman Stoke SNCC In July 1966, 25-year-old Malcolm invoking a speech ly Carmichael gave self-determination a advocating and X’s memory “Black Power.” policy of When a younger generation began to steer the steer to began generation younger When a movement in a different direction, law enforcement repression intensified. Black leaders racial justice represent committed to Montgomery, Alabama, and Alabama, and Tallahassee, Montgomery, Florida, in 1956, were harassed, arrested, and fined. targets and became supremacy white to threat ed a harassment and attack even enforcement law of nonviolence. Beginning in when they advocated “was Jr. King Luther Martin Dr. example, 1963, for Federal an intensive the campaign by of target the as an ‘neutralize’him Investigationto of Bureau effective civil rights leader” and destroy his image activists. as a “potential messiah” to unify black year, the FBI launched COINTELPRO, FBI launched COINTELPRO, year, the - a coun on “domestic focused terintelligence program civil rights activists. threats,” including and boycotts, the Panthers founded youth cen- youth founded Panthers the boycotts, and organized and programs breakfast free and ters brutali- to prevent police armed patrols legally ty. SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 100 purposeful institutional arrange- purposeful institutional ries of self-conscious actionsand ufactured by whites through a se segregation was “man- Residential borhoods. lived insegregated neigh- residents black five of out four than more — was even higher than in the South and Westernpopulationcenters segregation in Northern residential rights the era. civil In 1970,average school segregation before after and regation was adriving force of Outside the South, seg- residential NORTH IN THE OF SEGREGATION THE EVOLUTION Young girlsinLos Angeles playinfront of awall marked withahateful (©JoeSchwartz; epithet. www.joeschwartzphoto.com) 575 -

of apartments. home about seekers the availability to and lying black newspapers from listings predominately black such asexcluding discrimination,” tice surreptitiousandwidespread estate agentscontinuedto prac- to rent or to sell blacks . . . but real ealtors no longer refused outright to to rent or black people,“[r] sell owners from refusing explicitly Act of 1968 barred white home found that black people experi- Palo Alto, California, a 1971 study In with theDepartmentof Justice. were forced to sign a consent decree 1969 that four realty companies in St. ing discrimination Louis in revealed suchrampanthous- Audits ments.” 576 After the Fair Housing 577 - in more than 45 percent of cases. timore uncovered discrimination in suburban Bal- investigation 1976 of apartment complexes,whilea enced discriminationin50 percent buyers. black qualified from applications often rejected mortgage banks as Home ownership wasno solution, order busing Court upheld courts’ authority to borhoods. In1971,theSupreme public schools outside of their neigh- tation of black and white students to 1970s, courts orderedthetranspor- To implement ingfully integrateschools. to mean- difficult it made turn in into whiteneighborhoods, which move to families black for difficult 579 These practices made it practices These 580 and many school andmany school Brown during the 578

101 HOW SEGREGATION SURVIVED districts implemented busing plans to propose a desegregation plan, the Northern segregation activists dis- in the 1970s and 1980s. In response, committee chairman, John Kerrig- tinguished themselves from “un- white families across the country or- an, voted to defy the order and de- sophisticated racist Southerners” ganized opposition to “forced bus- velop no plan. “This is a vote against by focusing on their identities as ing” that mirrored Southern opposi- those maggots that live outside the mothers concerned about school tion to school desegregation. city,” he announced. “And it’s the safety, quality, and cohesiveness.587 proudest vote I’ve cast in seven years In Michigan, anti-busing crusader “I favor segregation,” Orville Hub- on this committee.”584 Irene McCabe declared, “We are bard, mayor of Dearborn, Mich- not racists. We respect the blacks. 588 igan, explained to the New York That September, after court-or- Our concern is with education.” Times in 1968. “Because if you have dered busing began in Boston, Louise Day-Hicks, former Boston integration, first you have kids go- white mothers led the opposition.585 mayoral candidate and founder of ing to school together, then next White mobs attacked buses carrying the anti-busing group Restore Our thing you know, they’re grab-ass- black students to white schools with Alienated Rights (ROAR), staunch- ing around, then they’re getting eggs, bricks, and bottles. Protestors, ly opposed busing but avoided pub- married and having half-breed kids. students, and bystanders alike were lic racism: “I am not a racist. You Then you wind up with a mongrel stoned, stabbed, and beaten in clash- show me where I have said any- race. And from what I know of es that continued for weeks until thing against . . . Negroes.”589 history, that’s the end of civiliza- quelled by the National Guard.586 tion.”581 Hubbard’s supporters kept him in office from 1942 to 1978.582

In Boston in 1974, school committee chairman, John Kerrigan, voted to defy the order and develop no plan. “This is a vote against those maggots that live outside the city,” he announced. “And it’s the proudest vote I’ve cast in seven years on this committee.”

New York Governor Norman Rockefeller signed a bill to outlaw busing in 1969, but the law was later deemed unconstitutional.583 In Boston in 1974, after a federal court A grade school student draws on a chalkboard in a one-room schoolhouse in Selma, Alabama, in March 1965. A decade after Brown, schools continued to be separate and unequal. (Bruce ordered the local school committee Davidson/Magnum Photos) SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 102 Congress) neighbors attempted of to move in.(Library White residents rioted whentheir black federal housingproject inDetroit, Michigan. across from theSojournerTruth Homes,a 1942,directlyA signmounted inFebruary ruled successfulin1987. Boston’s desegregation plan was integration hadbeenachieved. five years earlierafter concluding that just schools City Oklahoma to lift a busing order imposed on early as1977,federalcourts agreed or weaken busing mandates. As country to demand that courts lift forced school boards across the organizingbusing Mass against hardly beseparated.” a Jim Crow nation that they could erhood the JimCrow in South and moth of definitions infused so had McRae. “Whiteness beth Gillespie superiority,” wrote historian Eliza in white in society,and mined place deter- in aracially racial distance, in lessons teaching theirchildren face. “White motherhood meant barely obscured just below the sur- But the racialmotivations were 590 592 591 591 - - of schools classified by the United United the by classified schools of Between 2000 and 2014, the number 1973 school year. school year — minority schools in the 1998-1999 students attended predominately 70 percentof AfricanAmerican The study reported that more than re-segregating atanalarmingrate. particularly in the South — were school districts across the nation — that, due to relaxed court oversight, A decadelater,researchersfound tion policies. to other end busingand desegrega- porary and made it easier for schools to be tem- junctions wereintended federal school desegregation in Court declared that nonetheless 15, 1991,theSupreme On January can citiesforthepastfiftyyears.” imposed on blacks inlargeAmeri- segregation that has been residential high rienced the sustained level of of the UnitedStates has ever expe- served, “No group in the history that sociologistsob so persistent segregation remained Residential alarming rate. — were re-segregating at an — particularly in theSouth districts across thenation reporting that school Project publishedastudy University’s CivilRights On July17,2001,Harvard 594 more than in the 1972- 596 593 595 595 - - 90 percent white. less perstudent than schools that are cent non-white students spend $733 country, schools withatleast90per- 7009 to15,089. students” more than doubled, from prised mostly of Black or Hispanic andcom- poverty as “high Office States Government Accountability nel white students into magnet pro the inequality, tracking policies fun- 597 Today, across the Today, across the 598 Exacerbating Exacerbating - 103 HOW SEGREGATION SURVIVED

Pro-segregation march in Montgomery, Alabama, on March 17, 1965. (Glen Pearcy Collection, American Folklife Center, Library of Congress)

grams and advanced courses;599 as a tended private, segregated proms — 2012.602 Alabama schools remain New Jersey parent observed, “You one for black students and one for deeply separate and unequal: 90 per- can . . . look in a classroom and kn- white students — until 2007, and cent of students attending Alabama’s ow whether it’s an upper-level class Wilcox County High School did 75 failing schools in 2018 were Afri- or a lower-level class based on the ra- not hold its first integrated prom can American.603 cial composition of the classroom.”600 until 2013.601

School segregation remains most Alabama’s constitution still man- deeply entrenched in the South. In dates separate schools for white and Georgia, students at “integrated” black children because voters re- Turner County High School at- jected repeal attempts in 2004 and SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 104 white hats istheSouth Boston Information Center, awhite militant anti-busingorganization. (Spencer Grant/Getty) A large crowd gathers inSouthBoston to protest federal busingorders onSeptember 12,1974.Visibleamong thecrowd because of theirtrademark THAT REMAINS THE INEQUALITY bedrock narrative of white suprem- ings andriots — strengthened the and town meetings to rallies bomb in oppositionrights to— from civil action At thesametime,collective Rights Movement. the have Civil accumulated since that peopleof achievements color and opportunities the in reflected is istration drives,andfreedom rides cotts, sit-ins, picketlines,voter reg people who joined marches, boy and the civil rights many leaders impact of The undeniablevaliant - - - ence in ence in the decades after the as differ- racial of narrative the front Because our to nation failed con- my convictionsoneverything.” ing, he no expressed regret. “I voted pered memories of a brutal lynch amid thewind-whis ty, Mississippi, 1986 in his native Sunflower Coun died in tionist JamesO.Eastland Months before infamous segrega- the modernapartheidstate. rights oppositionconstructed civil acy uponwhich the architects of 604 - - - - 105 HOW SEGREGATION SURVIVED 613 Letter from a Bir- Letter from 612 mingham Jail, five years before he ho- Memphis a on assassinated was too expected I “Perhaps balcony. tel re- have should I suppose I much. op- the of members few that alized pressor race can understand the deep ofyearnings passionate and groans race, and still fewerthe oppressed injusticethat see to vision the have per- by strong, out must be rooted action.” sistent and determined In the same study, 41 percent of In the same study, 41 percent of much said too respondents white race these days, attention is paid to re- white of percent 19 just and per- 70 with contrast (in spondents agreed black respondents) cent of is discrimination institutional that individual than problem bigger a prejudice. Dr.optimistic,” too was I “Perhaps his in wrote King 611 610 ties while indirectly supporting the racial status quo.” More recently, a 2016 Pew Re- More wide reported poll Center search race relations: 38 gulfs in views on agreed Americans white of percent has already made that the nation achieve to necessary changes the equal rights while only 8 percent black Americans said the same. of Billboard posted on an Alabama highway in 2014. (Bernard Troncale) in 2014. (Bernard highway on an Alabama posted Billboard white of 38 percent the that agreed Americans made has already nation to necessary the changes while equal rights achieve black of only 8 percent said the same. Americans - 606 607 A 2017 605 “[T]he expression of racial “[T]he expression of 608 609 apathy in the post-civil rights era post-civil rights apathy in the white new way in which is one Americans can deny nega- having racial tive feelings minori- toward study concluded that “discrimina that study concluded tion against black job applicants against black job tion hasn’t changed since 1990s.” the The number of white adults re- white of number The issue interest” in the “no porting employment discrimination of against black Americans rose from 34 percent in 13 percent in 1964 to 2000. For a fleeting moment, racial justiceFor a fleeting challenged the American conscience thisfor issue critical a became and ra- later, generation a But nation. a burdencial injustice was again re- in bore communities black that while many isolation, segregated white Americans actively defended en- serious avoided or the status quo entirely. issues racial with gagement The racial wealth gap nearly tripled and today, 1984 and 2009, between a wealth held by every $100 of for just has family black a family, white $5.04. In part due to high rates of jobless- rates of high to due In part ness, African Amer- 22 percent of to icans compared live in poverty, white Americans. 9 percent of In 2016, the rate of African Amer- In 2016,of the rate (8.4 percent) ican unemployment white for rate the was nearly double Americans (4.3 percent). sassinations sassinations national civil of rights leaders politicians and of the rise signaled the rights civil opposed to Movement, the Civil Rights end of itself rebranded white opposition inequality grew. while racial SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 106 CENTURY 20TH IN THE ICONOGRAPHY CONFEDERATE On June 4, 1917, the Daughters of the Confederacy unveil the “Southern Cross” monument in Arlington, Virginia. (Bettmann/Getty Images) SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 108 Georgia, members. onJuly23,1948,while initiating(APPhoto, 700new File) Members of theKu KluxKlanburnalarge cross atop Stone Mountain inDeKalbCounty, THE RISEOF CONFEDERATE MONUMENTS 109 CONFEDERATE ICONOGRAPHY IN THE 20TH CENTURY 622 621 620 By 1950, at least 1000 Confederate monuments stood monuments Confederate 1000 least at 1950, By oninstalled 300 than more including South, the throughout state capitol Every Southern of a courthouse. the grounds the Confederacy. to monument one had at least building ical significance, such courthouseas lawnssquares. These nonetheless groups maintained publicly and town honor apolitical desire to an by motivated were they that their ancestors. These new monuments romanticized and glorified the effort to preserve slavery by framing Southern secession as an effort to defend local autonomy and states’ rights. During this era of racial terrorism, disenfranchisement, Americans, and violent repression African targeting symbols and other memorials, monuments, Confederate racial hierarchy that played in restoring the a vital role American South life in the dominate continue to would nationwide. and influence thinking on racial equality en- political received often monuments Confederate from including South, the outside from dorsements of appeasement North’s The government. federal the cre- the funding actively included Southerners white perpetuate to designed landscape cultural a of ation black of subordination racial the and supremacy white a federal- for ceremony people. At a 1927 dedication Davis in Mississippi, Sen- ly-funded statue of Jefferson proclaimed Mississippi of Williams Sharp John ator that the Confederacy did not fight to preserve slavery, White Racial Suprem- preserve “[t]he cause of but to Cause.’ It is a Cause Tri- a ‘Lost acy, which . . . is not Missouri the since now as safe as never was It umphant. . . . The white man’s family, life, his code Compromise civ- his word a in — integrity racial his ethics, social of states slave the in which of destruction the — ilization are safe.” . dreaded . . was - - 618 614 619 Lost Cause supporters Cause Lost 615 As Davis told it, the North As Davis told it, the This narrative minimized 616 617 the Confederacy’s military defeat and instead the celebrated including the Reconstruction, over triumph South’s the the racial of restoration and federal troops withdrawal of hierarchy. As Edward Pollard, a leading campaigner for : “To the extent in The Lost Cause wrote the movement, South] [the man, white the supremacy of the securing of war.” really triumphs in the true cause of the attempted to exercise “unlimited, over exercise “unlimited, despotic power” attempted to extend- Reconstruction states, and Southern sovereign federal conquest. ed that In the decades that followed, organizations like the organizations decades followed, In the that which had the Confederacy, United of Daughters and the I, War World of start the by 100,000 members Veterans install Confederate to began Sons of Con The evolution and promotion of the Lost Cause narra- Cause Lost the of and promotion evolution The tive can be seen in Confederate monuments. The first, installed in cemeteries in the 1860s fallen memorialize to a reflected that structures modest were typically soldiers, sentiment of personal mourning. polit- more in locations far federate monuments with Former President of the Confederacy Jefferson Davis, nar- a new, “Lost Cause” promote to sought and others, century. 19th the about rative ing of the history of the Civil War and the Confederacy Confederacy and the Civil War the of the history ing of monuments and organizations the place through took the 20th of Around the turn erect them. to that formed installed the Southerners century, white to monuments ef- concerted a of as part South the across Confederacy for support cultural build and defeat their redeem to fort of white supremacy. the re-establishment Much of the Southern — and then national then national and retell — — Southern the of Much argued that the Civil War was not about slavery, but slavery, but about not was War Civil the that argued was instead a fight between an industrializingNorth South. and a romanticized SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 110 white supremacy and racial inequality. mented a landscape littered with the iconography of battle flag on its courthouse lawns. courthouse its on flag battle Confederate the flying in Carolina South and Georgia icated acrosstheSouth. Thatsameyear,Florida joined In 1964alone, anadditional 16monumentswere ded- soldiers who had fought against “the federal enemy.” 27 Confederate monuments dedicated to Confederate il RightsActandVoting Rights Act,Texasinstalled In the 1960s, in reaction to the passage of the Civ- laws were “imperil[ing] the mores of the South.” desegregation federal that declared Griffin Marvin ernor Gov- flag, new state’s his of front in Standing flag. battle the Confederate include to flag state its redesigned gia few months later, as part of its opposition to Robert E. Lee High School in Montgomery, Alabama. A of front in placed was Lee E. Robert of figure bronze a segregated publicschools inBrown v.BoardofEducation, In 1955,one yearaftertheSupremeCourt struckdown efforts. desegregation federal to response direct in many erate monuments were added to the Southern landscape, Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, scores of new Confed- guise, they resisted growing calls forracialequality. champions of the struggle for states’ rights, and under this iecrats used Confederate symbols to brand themselves as and equal treatment in the mid-20th century. The Dix nence asAfricanAmericansbegandemanding civilrights Confederate symbols andmonuments gained promi- CIVIL RIGHTS ERA ICONOGRAPHYIN THE CONFEDERATE 625 The flags aug flags The Brown, Geor - 624 623 - - place for 40 years or more.” or monument on public property which has been in nificant building, memorial building, memorial street, renaming, or disturbance of anyarchitecturallysig law thatforbids “therelocation, removal, alteration, Governor Kay Ivey signed a memorial preservation white girl stood beside him waving a Confederate flag. a white boy played Dixie on his clarinet while a young a civilrights marchalong U.S.51nearComo, Mississippi, ample: inJune1966,whenDr. MartinLutherKing Jr.led ma toMontgomery. flags along the route of the voting rights march from Sel- lunch counters, andwhiteresidentshung Confederate tempted to integrate schools andorder at segregated at- Americans African when flags Confederate played segregationist protestsandrallies.Segregationists dis- white at staple a became also flag battle Confederate The tect Confederate monuments Tennessee, andVirginia passed“heritage” lawsto pro Georgia, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Confederate monuments. Inrecentyears,Alabama,- of thousands preserve to fighting is South the Today, Confederate flag. the featuring badge official an created department lice po- Dakota South a term, first Obama’s Barack ident and StonewallJacksonDrive. In2009,earlyinPres- lyn, NewYork,stillmaintainsGeneral LeeAvenue as far north as Maine and as far west as Oregon. Brook- Washington. Confederatemonuments wereinstalled Elementary School was founded in East Wenatchee, outside theSouth.TheyearafterBrown, Robert E.Lee Confederate iconography continued to gain traction covered in plywood. a city park; today, the monument remains in place, removing a prominent Confederate monument from used the law to block the City of Birmingham from public pressureto remove them. 626 Whitechildrenfollowed thisex 630 628 The Attorney General inlightof increasing 629 Lastyear,Alabama 627 - - - 111 CONFEDERATE ICONOGRAPHY IN THE 20TH CENTURY

A 2017 photograph shows the Children of the Confederacy Creed plaque that was installed at the Capitol in Austin, Texas, in 1959, during the heart of the Civil Rights Movement. (Jay Janner/Austin American-Statesman via AP)

Klan members hold a press conference in front of the Nathan Bedford Forrest bust at the capitol in Nashville, Tennessee, in 1980 to discuss training SWAT teams in preparation for the “race war.” (Tennessean via Newspapers.com) SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 112 house monuments were erected within the last 30 years. States of America. About 25 percentof the court state’s and fair,or sopureof fell grime” as theConfederate proclaiming, “No an inscription nation rose so white County courthouse monument, erected in 1920,bears in the state have Confederate monuments. The Bibb ty of Alabama. More than athird of county courthouses in Ala bama, at including the center of campus at the Universi schools five least at of grounds the on appear grounds of the state capitol building,andmonuments alization. Four Confederate on monuments stand the deep government support for Confederate memori reflects monuments these of placement The Alabama. There are more than 100Confederate monuments in Alabama names dominate this region as well. additional Confederate symbols and school and street lawns, and at each and every state capitol. Hundreds of their original locations in town squares, on courthouse monuments arelocated acrossthe12Southern states at of whichwereputupafter1910.1568Confederate 1838 Confederate monumentstotal, thevastmajority ate monumentsacross America.Wehavedocumented phy, EJI has worked to identify and locate Confeder - of the South’s commitment to Confederate iconogra - depth and scope the understand better to effort an In THE CURRENT LANDSCAPE - - - - Montgomery Advertiser) Montgomery and anearly leader of theKu KluxKlan(APPhoto/Alvin Benn, in Selma,Alabama, in2015.Forrest was aConfederate ArmyGeneral This monumentcelebrating Nathan Bedford Forrest was unveiled 113 CONFEDERATE ICONOGRAPHY IN THE 20TH CENTURY Arkansas of the first gathering of the “Second” Ku Klux Klan in 1915, Stone Mountain was given to the United Daugh- There are about 50 Confederate monuments in Arkan- ters of the Confederacy in 1916. The landowners, the sas, including 12 in Pulaski County, where Little Rock Venable brothers, requested that the organization de- is located. The state capitol building in Little Rock has sign a Confederate monument at the mountain’s scale, three Confederate monuments on its grounds, and its and granted a “perpetual easment” to the KKK to con- previous location features four Confederate monuments. tinue to access the site for gatherings. In 1960, the state The United Daughters of the Confederacy was particu- purchased the site and completed the long-delayed larly active in Arkansas, sponsoring nearly 70 percent of construction of the monument, which opened in 1972. Confederate monuments in the state. The elaborate and massive tribute to the Confederacy remains open today. Florida Kentucky Florida has at least 57 monuments honoring the Confed- eracy spread throughout half of its counties. No less than The more than 50 Confederate monuments in Kentucky seven counties have monuments on their courthouse are mostly in cemeteries, but at least 10 counties have lawns, and at least 10 additional monuments are prom- Confederate monuments on their courthouse lawns. inently displayed in Florida towns. As in many other Kentucky celebrates its connection to Jefferson Davis, Southern states, the most active sponsors of Confeder- who was born in the state, with a marble sculpture in ate monuments in Florida are the United Daughters of its capitol building inscribed “Patriot — Hero — States- the Confederacy and the Sons of Confederate Veterans, man.” A state park commemorating Davis’s birthplace which recently created a “Flags Across Florida” proj- includes a 351- foot monument to Davis modeled after ect to install large Confederate flags in locations visible the Washington Monument. from well-traveled roadways. To date, the project has completed at least three installations, including an over- Louisiana sized Confederate flag on a 139-foot pole accompanied by a large semicircle of stone monuments celebrating More than half of Louisiana’s 65 Confederate monu- the “timeless” nature of the Confederate cause. ments were installed by the United Daughters of the Confederacy and the Sons of Confederate Veterans. Georgia The capitol grounds contain at least three Confederate markers, and at least 12 parish courthouses feature Con- Georgia is home to more than 160 monuments honoring federate monuments. The front entrance to the Supreme the Confederacy. More than 90 of the state’s 159 counties Court of Louisiana boasts a monument to Justice E.D. have at least one Confederate monument, and more than White, who fought in the Confederate Army before he nearly 50 counties have one on their courthouse lawns. joined the United States Supreme Court and voted with No fewer than four Confederate monuments decorate the majority to uphold segregation in Plessy v. Fergu- the grounds of Georgia’s capitol building, including one son. A “Good Darky” or “Uncle Jack” monument stands prominent monument to John Gordon, a Confederate in the Louisiana State University Rural Life Museum in general and senator who staunchly opposed Reconstruc- Baton Rouge. The statue, erected by a white business- tion and reputedly led Georgia’s Klu Klux Klan. The man in 1927 and moved to the museum in 1974, depicts capitol also features a monument to Joseph Brown, the a supplicating African American man and an original governor who led Georgia’s secession in 1861. placard that reads: “Dedicated to the arduous and faithful services of the good darkies of Louisiana.” The largest Confederate monument in the United States is Georgia’s Stone Mountain. Known as the site SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 114 parishioners in 2015. cially-motivated murders of nine AfricanAmerican the Mother EmmanuelAMEChurch,siteof thera- supremacist John C.Calhoun, justahalfblock from on Square Parkhouses amassivemonument to white ible Confederate monuments at their centers. Mari- Park, and White Point Gardens —havehighly vis- in the city — Marion Square, Washington Square the Confederacy, andthreeother major publicparks to monuments different seven has Columbia in itol counties haveatleastone monument. Thestatecap- the Confederacy, and more than 80 percent of its South Carolina has at least 92 monuments honoring South Carolina ty BoardofElectionsbuilding. in 1915 wasplaceddirectlyinfront stalled of the Coun ville, North Carolina, a tall Confederate monument in In Gates- other community centers and polling places. front in of with voting, including associated explicitly locations in Confederate monumentshave beenplaced grounds of the statecapitol.Manyof North Carolina’s four there areatleast monuments onthe and lawns, have Confederate monuments ontheircourthouse more than 80of 50 counties its 100counties.Atleast North Carolina has 194 Confederate monuments in North Carolina cause ofWhiteRacialSupremacy.” the monument dedicated to John Sharp “[t]he Williams ceremony attended by state and federal officials, Senator ernment to on the install site. During the 1927 unveiling gave vis that to the the State of federal gov Mississippi Da- Jefferson of statue a is monuments prominent most the Vicksburg National MilitaryPark.Oneof the park’s with the support of the federal government as part of Confederate of monuments were Mississippi’s installed Many their civiclandscapes. federate monumentsin Con display Fifteentownsprominently house lawns. Confederacy, at least 26 of which on are court installed 175 monumentshonoring has atleast the Mississippi Mississippi - - - - - roadside, theagencyrefused. monument by treesor planting shrubbery on the public obscuringin thecontroversial of Transportation to assist Department the Tennessee asked city leaders Nashville land within view of a major interstate highway; when private on sits horseback on Forrest of statue fiberglass Museum. Just south of the capitol, a 25-foot, full-color fused toState allowitto be relocated to the Tennessee Capitol and in2017,the Commission Tennessee re- bust, the move to efforts recent resisted has Tennessee central corridor state house. The State of of Tennessee’s of the Ku Klux Klan, Nathan Bedford Forrest, in the a bust of stalled Confederate general andearlyorganizer the Sonsof ments. In1978, Confederate in Veterans are responsible for more than 60 of the monu state’s promoting Confederate memorials,and thetwo groups of Confederate Veterans have been the most active in Daughters the United of the Confederacy and the Sons after in other 1976. As monuments were states, installed At least 30 more of than Tennessee’s 100 Confederate Tennessee building in Richmond is home to three Confederate are placed on courthouse lawns,and the state capitol the country. About 75 of Virginia’s 376 monuments acy, Virginiahasthemost Confederate monuments in Home to Richmond, thelastcapitol oftheConfeder- Virginia Texas bellion, nor was its underlying cause to sustain slavery).” cause to bellion, nor sustain was itsunderlying which, is that the War Between the States was not a re- teach the truths of history (one of the most important of and study [and] which vowsto “preserve pureideals ard featuring the “Children of the Confederacy Creed,” Since 1959,the state capitolbuildinghashousedaplac 1965, during the heart of the Civil Rights Movement. monuments, 27 erected including between 1963 and at least 34Confederate federacy, Texashasinstalled tent to which it has sponsoredmonuments to the Con spread out acrossin the 86 Texas counties.ex- Unique At least 137monuments honoring the Confederacy are

- - - - 115 CONFEDERATE ICONOGRAPHY IN THE 20TH CENTURY

The Alabama Division of the Sons of Confederate Veterans installed a Confederate flag on a 100-foot-tall pole along Interstate 65 in Verbena, Alabama, in 2005, and it is still flying today. (Mickey Welsh/Bloomberg via Getty Images)

monuments — including a tall likeness of Stonewall an altar. At the Virginia Military Institute, a bronze Jackson. Most dramatic is Richmond’s “Monument monument to Stonewall Jackson looms over the pa- Avenue,” an immaculately groomed roadway dis- rade grounds at the heart of campus. Virginia’s mon- playing five massive monuments dedicated to Con- uments were brought into the national spotlight in federate leaders. Several Virginia universities embrace 2017 when a peaceful counterprotestor was violently their ties to the Confederacy: Washington and Lee killed as white supremacists rallied in Charlottesville University maintains Lee Chapel, where Robert E. to “defend” a statue of Robert E. Lee that had been Lee is interred below a large marble sculpture of the slated for removal. Confederate general in uniform that stands in place of SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 116 AMERICA IN SEGREGATION

NOTES 117 NOTES

(New York: Imprisoned by the Political Power in Alabama: The Power Political , “Lynched Because He Didn’t Say “Lynched Because He , , May 31, 1947. , “New NAACP Unit Formed In Brownsville, In Brownsville, NAACPUnit Formed “New , (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), Chicago University of (Chicago: The Detroit Race Riot of 1943, Toward Freedom (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2008), 42. of Georgia Press, (Athens: University American Vanguard: the United Auto Workers During Workers the United Auto Vanguard: American Historical Census Statistics On Population Totals by Race, 1790 to 1790 Race, by Totals Population On Statistics Census Historical Constitutional Rights Foundation, “Race and Voting in thein Voting and “Race Foundation, Rights Constitutional Baltimore (Md.) Afro-American (Md.) Baltimore

The crux of the interparty battle appears to lie in Mississippi, whereMississippi, in lie to appears battle interparty the of crux The cast 20 votes on to meet Wednesday to pick a delegation Democrats supremacy’‘White nominations. presidential vice and presidential the was advanced as a theme of a meeting expected to develop an effort uninstructed. the delegation keep to , “Vote Test Is Made In Tennessee,” “Vote , World (Ga.) Daily Atlanta Harvard Sitkoff, John Barnard, John James E. Boyack, “Pearson Foresees Retrial in Lynch Case; Flays James E. Boyack, “Pearson Foresees Retrial in ‘Mr.,’” August 24, 1940; Jeffrey L. Kirchmeier, McCleskey Past: Warren and the American Death Penalty , News Amsterdam York University Press, 2015), Oxford 123; New a Isaac Simmons, 1944. Rev. 26, “Miss. Minister Lynched, August land in Amite County debt-free owned 270 acres of black man who men white of group several years resisted a Mississippi, for and had 1944. in March men was killed those by him, from take it seeking to The men abducted Rev. Simmons and his son, Eldridge, shot the then warned Eldridge reverend three times and his tongue, cut out his family within ten days lest they rest of the land with leave the to be killed too. Terrified, the Simmons family fled and the killers took the for charges faced men white the of land;only one the possession of jury. murder, and he was acquitted by an all-white 21 Jury,” Pittsburgh (Pa.) Courier 22 Victim’s Widow “Mob Cooke, 11, 1940; Marvel September July 13, 1940; Atlanta , News Amsterdam York Interviewed Here,” New Tenn. , “Body of Leader Found,” June 26, 1940; World (Ga.) Daily Pittsburgh (Pa.) Courier Tenn.,” May 13, 1961. 23 (Lexington: Racial Equality in America Land: The Long Struggle for University Press of Kentucky, 2010), 43-64. 24 (Detroit: Wayne (Detroit: State University Press, 2005), 191- the Reuther Years WWII During Experience The Black at War: 96; Nat Brandt, Harlem (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1996), 144-51; James T. Sparrow, State (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 184-87. Warfare More Things Change... More Issue,Mississippi Supremacy “White Speaker, Plain (Penn.) 18 Hazelton 5, 1944. June Lawrence,” 19 2000. June South,” Segregated 20 No. 56, No. Regions, States, United the for 1990, to 1970 Origin, Hispanic by and 1990, Tb. 4, 22. DC: 2002), Tb. 1, 19; States (Washington, Divisions, and Black of and the Development Process Political McAdam, 17 Doug Insurgency, 1930-1970 79; Anne Permaloff and CarlGrafton,

Race in the Jury Box: Affirmative Affirmative Box: Jury the in Race (Montgomery, AL: May 22, 1901 (Montgomery, The Rise and Fall of the Civil Klansville USA: The Rise and Fall Been in the Storm So Long: The Aftermath of Slavery The Aftermath So Long: Storm the Been in , Bureau of International Information Programs Information International Last, Bureau of At Free

, “Gruesome Times Democrat Weekly (Miss.) Ibid., 3-15; Greenville Buffalo (N.Y.) Daily Ft. Sumter Demanded, “The Surrender of Republic Buffalo(N.Y.)

(New York: Random House, 1980), 276-77. 1980), House, Random York: (New the Legacy Confronting in America: 10 Equal Justice Initiative, Lynching (3d Ed., 2017). of Racial Terror Once More,” “The Black Flag , and Democrat Times (S.C.) 11 Orangeburg February 13, 1895. 12 Alabama State Legislature, OfficialProceedings of the Constitutional Alabama the State of of Convention to Sept. 3, 1901). 1905). (September. 7, Alabama, § 652 Ensley, of the City of 13 Code 1915). (March 1, 18 § Birmingham, Alabama, of City the of 14 Code (1939). Stat. § 9791 Gen. 15 La. Paper Population Division Working 16 United Bureau, States Census (Albany: SUNY Press, 2003), 10. SUNY (Albany: Action in Jury Selection ResistanceWhite and Freedom Black Decide: People the Let Moye, 4 J. Todd Movements in Sunflower County, Mississippi,Hill:(Chapel 1945-1986 whitein published reports contemporary Many 14. 2004), Press, UNC nonebut wife, Holbert’s Mr. was woman the that indicate newspapers andwife Holbert’s Luther that suggest records Census name. her lists womanthe and time, the at Mississippi, Forest, in living were children ofwife the Carr, Emma been have may Holbert Mr. with lynched Eastland. with James man killed in the shootout another 5 Relics Handled Gingerly,” February 27, 1904. Freedom The Sharecropper: the and Senator 6 Chris Myers Asch, The (Chapel Hill: UNC Hamer Lou Fannie and Eastland O. James of Struggles 33-34. 2011), Press, Political and Social Research, 7 Inter-Universityfor Consortium The United and Social Data: Economic, “Historical, Demographic, States, 1790-1970” [Computer file] (Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research, 1997). 8 April 12, 1861. War Anticipated Every Moment,” A Bloody and Declined: Litwack, F. 9 Leon (U.S. Dept. of State, 2008), http://iipdigital.usembassy.gov/st/ 2008), State, of Dept. (U.S. english/publication/2009/01/20090106143801jmnamdeirf0.9369623. html#axzz3FyyeCkJL. Cunningham, 2 David 25. University Press, 2013), Oxford Ku Klux Klan (New York: Rights-Era Krooth, Richard and Fukurai 3 Hiroshi - Move Rights Civil the to Reactions Southerners’ “White Sokol, 1 Jason ment,” in SEGREGATION SEGREGATION FROM SLAVERY TO TO FROM SLAVERY SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 118 29 July 12,1948. 28 Baltimore (Md.) Sun, “Police Stop and Arrest 24,” Interracial Tennis Supreme Court’s 1967 decision in This provision remainedinforce untilinvalidated bytheUnitedStates have one-eighth or more of Negro blood, shallbeunlawful andvoid.” marriage of awhiteperson withaNegro or mulatto, or person who shall 27 Article14,Section 263of theMississippiConstitution of1890:“The Angeles: Socialist Workers Party of Los Angeles, 1946). Terror inFontana: TheTragic StoryofO’DayH.ShortandhisFamily (Los Blaze Unknown,” January3,1946;MyraTannerWeiss,Vigilante Blamed,” December 23,1945;Fontana (Calif.) Herald , “OriginofTragic Atlanta (Ga.) Daily World, “Mother,ChildrenFatallySeared;Covenant 26 Chicago Defender , “3 Die in Blaze after Threat,” December 29, 1945; To WorkRevokedOverNegroStatus,”August4,1944. Tribune, Transit Lines;Strikers “Army Balk: Seizes PhiladelphiaVote TimesAugust 4,1944; , “ReturntoOpposed,” Work Is Workers Claim Victory on Race August Issue,” 4, 1944; New York 25 Milwaukee(Wis.) Sentinel Supremacist Vision of Supremacist Vision Double Victory,” inFog ofWar: The Second 40 JasonMorgan Ward,“AWar for Rights: TheWhite States’ Mississippi, 2015),41. Justice inMississippi’s CentralWoods Piney of Press University (Jackson: 39 February 27,2018,http://naacpms.org/history/. 38 37 Tuck,“BlackProtestDuringthe1940s,”63. Victory CampaignGetsCountry-WideSupport,”February14,1942. 36 New Jersey:TransactionPublishers,2001),63. (Piscataway, Schäfer-Wünsche Elisabeth and Steffen Frey Therese the StruggleforStates, ed.PatrickB.Miller, Racial EqualityintheUnited Georgia,”Critical PerspectivesRevisited: Movement Civil Rights in The on 35 StephenTuck, “Black Protest During the 1940s: TheNAACP in 34 Smithv.Allwright (Kirksville, Missouri: TrumanState University Press, 2007), 110. 33 Raymond H. Geselbracht, Princeton UniversityPress,2009),43-44. Struggle Againstthe WhiteSupremacyPostwar inthe South (Princeton: 32 Christopher S. Parker, Press, 2003),74-75. ArenaGlobal in the Race Relations 31 Eastern Survey14,no.17(1945):236. Weapon,” Secret Japan’s Racism: “American Weltfish, 30 Gene December 19,1948.

Thomas Borstelmann,TheCold WarColorthe and Line:American

Patricia Michelle Boyett, Michelle Patricia Pittsburgh (Pa.)Courier WashingtonPost Is Convicted of Miscegenation,” , “Mississippian Mississippi NAACP, “Mississippi NAACP History,”accessed NAACP, “Mississippi Mississippi , 321U.S.649(1944). , “TheCourier’s Double-V for a Double Fightingfor Democracy: Black Veterans and The CivilRightsLegacy ofHarry S.Truman Right to Revolt: The Crusade forRevolt: The to Right Racial , “Army Takes Over Transit Lines; Lines; Over Transit , “ArmyTakes Loving v.Virginia, 388 U.S. 1 (1967). (Cambridge: Harvard University Chicago Daily Far

52 51 50 Ibid.,3. South, 1932-1968 (Chapel Hill: UNCPress,2001), 2-3. 55 KevinMichaelKruse andStephenTuck,“Introduction,” inFog of Senate Unit,”September 16, 1949. Democrat and Chronicle (Rochester, New York) , “Foe of Civil Rights Heads Democrat (Baton Rouge: Louisiana StateUniversity Press,2015,85; 54 MaartenZwiers,Senator James Eastland: Mississippi’s Jim Crow php?year=1948&datatype=national&def=1&f=0&off=0&elect=0. accessed February27,2018,https://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/data. 53 U.S.ElectionAtlas , “1948 Presidential General Election Data – National,” Hill and Wang, 2011), 71. 49 afc346d8d4d2. surveyed-troops-in-1940s-prior-to-racially-integrating-the-forces- 21, 2010, https://thinkprogress.org/exclusive-records-show-military- 1940s, Prior to Racially Integrating the Forces,” 48 47 http://igpa.uillinois.edu/programs/racial-attitudes. 2016, 25, August Affairs, Public and Government of Institute Illinois of 46 Rules for ‘WhiteSupremacy,’” May 15, 1947. 45 Florida HistoryQuarterly 79, no. 297 (2001): 311. 44 (Utah) Tribune, “Negro Cleric Beaten, Cut at S.C. Polls,” August 24, 1948. option,” 43 42 Brown v.Baskin Revolt, 13,32;Parker,Fighting for Democracy, 34. WorldWar II 41 Stephen Tuck(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2012),127. World War and theCivil Rights Movement Ibid. RonaldTakaki,Double Victory: A Multicultural History of America in Ibid. M. Krysan and S. Moberg, “Trends in Racial Attitudes,” University M.KrysanandS.Moberg,“TrendsinRacialAttitudes,”University St.Petersburg (Fla.) EveningIndependent,“MississippiDemos ListFive Barry Saunders, “Saunders: Not voting? That should never be an BarrySaunders,“Saunders:Not voting? Thatshould neverbean Igor Volsky, “Exclusive: Records Show Military Surveyed Troops in Igor Volsky,“Exclusive:RecordsShow MilitarySurveyed Troops in Pam Iorio, “Colorless Primaries: Tampa’s White Municipal Party,” PamIorio, “Colorless Primaries:Tampa’sWhiteMunicipalParty,”

(97 percent). all whiterespondents agreedwiththisstatementon equalopportunity a chanceaswhitepeople to getanykindof job,’butby1972almost percent of white people agreed that black people should have ‘as good asked, 96percentof whiterespondents agreed. In1944,only 45 should attendthesameschools; in1995,whenthequestion waslast just 32percentof whiteAmericansagreed thatwhite andblackchildren racial equalitytooneof almostuniversalsupport. For example,in1942, the movement from very substantial opposition to the principle of One of the most substantial changes in white racial attitudes has been Joseph Crespino, Kari A. Frederickson, Raleigh (N.C.) News and Observer, November 5, 2012; Salt Lake Lake Salt 2012; 5, November Observer, and News (N.C.) Raleigh (Boston:Little,Brown, 97; Frederickson,Dixiecrat2000), , 78F.Supp.933(E.D.S.C.1948). Strom Thurmond’s America: AHistory (New York: The Dixiecrat Revolt and the End of the Solid , eds. KevinKruseand ThinkProgress.org , July

119 NOTES

, 133 U.S. 587, 133 U.S. , (Winona: Association Citizens’ of Miss. Const. Art. 8, Sec. 207 (1890) 8, Sec. Miss. (“Separate schools shall Const. Art. be By reason of its previous condition of servitude andservitude of condition previous its of reason By certain accentuated had acquired or dependencies, this race character, which habit, of temperament, and of peculiarities of patient,a whites; the from race a as it distinguished clearly narrow within migratory but careless, landless, people, docile and its criminal members given forethought, limits, without to furtive offenses, rather than robustthe discriminating from constitution federal the by Restrained crimes of the whites. againstdiscriminates convention the race, negro the against are members criminal its which to offenses the and characteristics, its prone. , 211 U.S. 45, 54 (1908). 45, 54 211 U.S. , v. Kentucky College Berea , 302 U.S. 277, 283 (1937). 283 U.S. 277, v. Suttles, 302 Breedlove , 347 U.S. 483, 495 (1954). v. Bd. of Educ. of Topeka Brown Ibid., 488-90. Ibid., , 238 U.S. 347, 364-67 (1915). 347, 364-67 238 U.S. Guinn v. United States, , 95 U.S. 485, 490-91 (1875). 95 U.S. 485, 490-91 , Cuir v. De Hall Ibid., 487-88. Ibid., , 170 U.S. 213, 225 (1898). The Supreme Court Supreme The (1898). 225 213, U.S. 170 v. Mississippi, Williams , “Byrd Calls for ‘Massive’ Resistance Calls for “Byrd , Press Daily (Va.) News 86 Newport to Integration,” February 26, 1956. 87 88 Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896). 89 maintained for the children of the white and colored races.”). 90 Miss. Code § 6276 (1942). Monday P. Brady, Black 91 Tom “MASSIVE RESISTANCE” RESISTANCE” “MASSIVE (New York: Oxford University Oxford York: (New Equality Racial for the Struggle and Court 2004), 43. Press, 71 the that had found Supreme Court that the Mississippi acknowledged of exercise the “obstruct to intended had convention constitutional explained: court Mississippi the As Americans. by African suffrage” 868 (1896)). 865, So. Ratcliff v. Beal, 20 222 (quoting Ibid., 225. 72 Ibid., (1903). 475, 482 U.S. , 189 73 Giles v. Harris 74 75 76 77 78 v. State of Mississippi Co. Ry. 79 Louisville, N.O. & T. 592 (1890). 544 (1896). 537, U.S. , 163 80 Plessy v. Ferguson 551. 81 Ibid., (1899). 528, 542 175 U.S. of Ed., Cty. Bd. Richmond v. 82 Cumming 545. 83 Ibid., 84 (1883). 3, 25 109 U.S. , Rights Cases 85 Civil

Take Your Choice: Separate or Choice: Separate Your Take From Jim Crow to Civil Rights: The Supreme to Civil Rights: The Supreme Jim Crow From The Colfax Massacre: the Untold Story of Black Massacre: The Colfax Personally, the writer of this book would rather see his race rather would this book of Personally, writer the It is not too late - we can yet save the integrity and civilizationwe can yet save the integrity late - too It is not you give to tried has author the book this of pages the On meant that a breakthrough civil rights movement seemed far seemed movement civil rights a breakthrough meant that needed, was one if reminder, a provided [and] inevitable, from expect could interference federal or activism black future any that massive resistance. see than to bomb atomic the with out and hiscivilizationblotted it slowly surely but destroyed miscegenation, in of the maelstrom The mongrelization. and interbreeding, intermarriage destruction in either case would be inevitable - one in a flash and sin, certain process of degradation, and by the slow but the other mongrelization. ofmen great Many races. black the and white the both of salvation. only the - solution the only suggested have past the the days of Thomas as advocated from A physical separation Jeffersonto the present is the only solution. To do this impossible. not Herculean task, but it is may be a the indisputable truth, expose forces the only races and has pointed out our of the amalgamation and influences that seek problem. May domestic America’s greatest to solution proper God in His infinite wisdom and mercy direct us and lead us into the salvation. only our of ways The power of white segregationists at the end of the warthe of end the at segregationists white of power The , 92 U.S. 214, 217-18 (1876). 92 U.S. 214, 217-18 United States v. Reese, Michael J. Klarman, Klarman, J. Michael (Literary Licensing, LLC, 1947), 54. LLC, Licensing, (Literary Mongrelization

in “Preface,” Bilbo, 56 Theodore 57 XIII. and chapters I Ibid., (1857). 393, 407 U.S. 60 , v. Sandford Scott 58 Dred (1842). 539, 612 41 U.S. , 59 Prigg v. Pennsylvania 404-05. U.S. at 60 Scott, 60 Dred 61 Ibid. 408, 423. 62 Ibid., (1873). 36 U.S. , 83 Cases 63 The Slaughter-House 64 215, 221-22. 65 Ibid., Keith, 66 LeeAnna Oxford York: (New and the Death of Reconstruction White Terror, Power, 75. 2008), University Press, (1876). 542, 551-55 U.S. 67 United States v. Cruikshank, 92 92-93 (1945). U.S. 91, v. United States, 325 68 Screws (1880). 100 U.S. 303 , Virginia v. West 69 Strauder 70 (New York: (New Movement Rights Civil the and War World Second The War: 10. 2012), Press, University Oxford SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 120 ing-rights-1960-1962; content/fayette-county-tn-african-americans-form-tent-city-us-vot- Nonviolent ActionDatabase, https://nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu/ icans Form Tent City for U.S. Voting Rights, Global 1960-1962,” able Means for Unrespectable Ends,”October 1, 1956; “AfricanAmer- 105 CommentaryMagazine 104 Ibid.,81. 103 McAdam,Freedom Summer 102 Ibid. hibit), Hayneville,Alabama,lastaccessedFebruary10,2018. 101 “Tent City,” Lowndes County Interpretive Center (permanent ex- 100 Ibid. 1965 (Amherst:University of Massachusetts Press, 1997), 173. 99 John H. Bracey, et al., Kept ASCS Money,” December 10-11, 1966. Landlord Says Plantation, Off Forced “Farmers 98 SouthernCourier, 97 Power inAlabama’sBlackBelt Jeffries, Kwame 96 Hasan Cotton Plan,”April2-3,1966. CourierSouthern in U.S. Won’tShare Payments Say Planter , “Tenants FreedomSummer (New York: 79; 1988), Oxford Press, University 95 Sharecropping (Philadelphia:TempleUniversityPress,1993),2-3. Books, seealsoEdwardRoyce, 2009), 120; of Black Americans from Slavery to World War II 94 DouglasName: Blackmon,SlaveryByAnother Re-Enslavement The Sharecropper Evictions Press, 1994),235. 1954-1964 Reconstruction, Second 93 92 Ibid.,3-4. Councils ofMississippi,1954),3. “Interview 106 “Interview with Freedom Fannie Lou Demo Hamer,” Mississippi crat-Times, November2,1955. grate Schools Throughout the South,” Councils, Major John Herbers, “Citizens Challenge to Move to Inte were involved: organizational level,though they acknowledged that their members the White Citizens’ Council denied facilitating retaliation efforts at an Are ProtectingBoth cils Races,”October Seeking legitimacy, 1955. New York Times, “‘TentCity’Rising inAlabamaField,”January1,1966. who havefollowedtheNAACPline. [by] firing employees, or refusing to renew leases for sharecroppers who Individuals belong to councils may have persuaded negroes .isnotorganized by theCouncils. “Economic pressure” Royce, Neil McMillen, TheCitizens’Council:Neil McMillen, OrganizedResistance tothe Origins ofSouthernSharecropping, at 2-3; Doug McAdam, Citizens’ CouncilCoun Citizens’ , “Mississippi African American WomenVote:AmericanAfrican the and 1837- , “The White Citizens Councils: Respect Citizens , “TheWhite BloodyCivil Lowndes: Rights andBlack (NewYork:NYUPress,2009),72. , 78. (Champaign: University of (Champaign: University Illinois Greenville (Miss.) Delta Demo - The Origins ofSouthern (NewYork: Anchor - - - -

131 131 Resistance, 94, 96-97. 130 129 NAACPv.Alabama, 357 U.S.449 (1958). June 9,1959. 128 Tennessean , “NAACP Contempt Fine Ruling Disappoints Patterson,” 127 Ibid., 383; Lewis,MassiveResistance,92. 126 Klarman, 125 Lewis, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008), 192. 124 School Vote,” September 17, 1958. Shreveport123 (La.) Times , “Faubus Advances Date for Special Ark. Ibid. 122 Klarman,From Jim Crow to Civil Rights, 351-52. 121 One WorldGovernment.” Integration, Mongrelism,Socialism,Communist ideologies, FEPCand by one AlabamaCitizens’Council pledged“to helpdefeattheNAACP; 120 Lewis, Targeting theNAACP 107 features/mississippi/c1.html. Radio Works, 2014),http://americanradioworks.publicradio.org/ Siege: Mississippi Whites and the Civil Rights Movement (American 119 KateEllisandStephenSmith,“TheCitizens’Council,”Stateof 118 Ibid. 117 Ibid. Rights Movement(NewYork: Bloomsbury Academic, 2006), 40. 116 George Lewis,Massive Resistance: The White Response to the Civil 115 Ibid., 109. 114 Ibid., 102. 113 Jeffries, phis.edu/tentcity/moving-shacks-tents.php. Fayette County, Tennessee (University of Memphis), http://www.mem- 112 111 Ibid. 110 Ibid. memphis.edu/tentcity/moving-shacks-tents.php. in Fayette County, Tennessee (University of Memphis), http://www. 109 “Interview with Early B. Williams,” 108 “TentCity.” 1963 (NewYork: Simon & Schuster,1998), 819-20. zb317wv2717.pdf; Bracey, https://stacks.stanford.edu/file/druid:z317wv2717/ (1965), Party cratic Charles Marsh,

“Interview withMaryWilliams,”Tent City: StoriesofCivilRightsin Taylor Branch, Klarman, Klarman, , 90. A membership card issued in late 1955 Massive Resistance, 90. A membership card issued in late 1955 Massive Resistance, 92. Bloody Lowndes,109. From JimCrow toCivil Rights,383. From Jim Crow to Civil Rights, 38384; Lewis, From JimCrow toCivilRights , 383-84; Lewis, God’s Long Summer: Stories of Faith and Civil Rights Parting the Waters: America in the King Years,Waters:King the 1954- the Parting in America African American Women andtheVote Tent City: Stories of Civil Rights Massive Massive Massive Massive , 173. 121 NOTES From , “Ike Clears Way forWay Clears “Ike Advertiser, (N.Y.) Elmira , September 24, 1957;24, September Advertiser, (N.Y.) Elmira From Jim Crow to Civil Rights, 349. to Civil Jim Crow From Civil Civil Rights Movement , 46-47; Philadelphia in Tenneessee , 47-48. Rights Movement in Tennessee Civil , 53, 56-57. Massive Resistance, , 114. Massive Resistance, , “Guardsmen Quell Mob in Mob Quell “Guardsmen , Avalanche Morning (Tex.) Lubbock , “Break Up School Mob, Troops Move On Move Mob, Troops School , “Break Up Tribune Chicago , “First Arrest Made in Little Rock News Courier (Ark.) Blytheville

, 377 U.S. at 221. 377 U.S. Griffin, Crisis,” September 6, 1957; 6, September Crisis,” September Integration,” Rock Little Block Assaults Bloody Use: Troop Attack Setting24, 1957; James L. Hicks, “Newspaperman Describes Off Violence at School,” the Finding Gordy, , 78 S. Ct. 1401 (1958); Sondra v. Aaron Cooper , Schools Closed its Public When Little Rock What Happened Lost Year: Klarman, 50-51; 2009), Press, Arkansas of University (Fayetteville: , 321, 326-327. to Civil Rights, Jim Crow 165 Klarman, 166 Ibid. 167 Lewis, (1964). 221 218, U.S. 377 Cty., Edward Prince of Bd. Sch. Cty. v. 168 Griffin 169 Lewis, 170 171EdwardPrince of Closing “The Society, Historical Virginia Ibid.; http://www.vahistorical.org/collections-andCounty’s Schools,” resources/virginia-history-explorer/civil-rights-movement-virginia/ closing-prince. Indiana Massive Resistance (Bloomington: 172 Benjamin Muse, Virginia’s 151. 1961), University Press, Tennessee Town Rioters, Force 1,500 to Quit Square,” September 3, Square,” September Quit to 1,500 Force Rioters, Tennessee Town 1956; 1956. 3, September Tennessee,” State Vigilantes, Mob, School Routs “Gas , Tribune Daily 156 Chicago 1956;2, September Guard,” the Out Calls Governor Order: Keep Police Unit, Quells Tennessee Race Riot: Guard Globe, “Tear Gas Boston Daily 1956. 2, September Out,” Called State Police Lovett, 157 Guard Section: Tenn. National , “Whites Dynamite Negro Tribune 1956. September 11, Mob,” Lynch Angry From 2 Negroes Save Units to Go Who’d , “Knifes Guardsman Register (Iowa) Moines 158 Des 1956. 4, Clinton ‘If Ordered,’” September Tennessee:in City Riot Over Settles “Peace , Tribune Daily 159 Chicago 11, 1956. September at Clinton,” Attend School Negroes 11 , Times “Blast York Near 160 New Negro Home: Explosion Set Off at 1956. September 27, House,” Student’s Clinton Beside 161 Lovett, 50-53. 162 Ibid., “3 Blasts Wreck Tennessee , School: Courier-Journal 163 Louisville (Ky.) Integration-Linked at Clinton ‘Professional Dynamiting Job,’” October 6, 1958 164 , “True Segregationists: They Want TroubleWant They Segregationists: “True , Republic (Ind.) 154 Columbus 14, 1956. September Rousers,” Rabble Aid of and 155

Alexandria (La.) Town Town (La.) Alexandria Race and Education in North Carolina: From From Carolina: Race and Education in North Kingsport (Tenn.) (Tenn.) Rights, 320; Kingsport Civil to Crow Jim From , 331; Rights, Civil to Crow Jim From From Jim Crow to Civil Rights, 330. to Civil Jim Crow From From Jim Crow to Civil Rights, 314-15. to Civil Jim Crow From , 318. Rights, to Civil Jim Crow From Jackson (Miss.) Clarion- Rights, 348; Jackson (Miss.) to Civil Jim Crow From From Jim Crow to Civil Rights, 314-15. to Civil Jim Crow From , 32-33. Massive Resistance, Shuttlesworth v. Birmingham Bd. of Educ. of JeffersonCounty, , “Move Negroes From School an Houran School From Negroes “Move , Tribune Daily Chicago John E. Batchelor, E. John Klarman, Ibid.; Ibid., 320; “The Southern Manifesto,” 102 Cong. Rec. 4459-4460 102 Cong. Manifesto,” “The Southern Ibid., 320; Earl Black, “North Carolina Governors and Racial Segregation,” in Segregation,” Racial and Governors Carolina “North Black, Earl

Klarman, , “Integration Foe Jailed; Held for Urging Pupils toPupils Urging for Held Jailed; Foe “Integration , Times York New Violent Resistance in Clinton, Tennessee in Clinton, Violent Resistance Narrative A Tennessee: in Movement Rights Civil The L. Lovett, 150 Bobby 31-32, 43-44. 2005), of Tennessee Press, (Knoxville: University History 151 27, 1956. August School,” from Stay Home He Says Sheriff Classes: of Out Taken Negroes “11 , Times York 152 New August School,” Clashes in Tennessee ‘Mixed’ Safety During Feared for 1956; 30, 30, 1956. August Tennessee Sheriff,” Safety, Says Own For Early: Clash: in Tennessee School Troops , “Alert Tribune Daily 153 Chicago Monitor, Science by Mob of 200,” August 31, 1956; Christian Negroes Stoned “Anti-Integration Violence Breaks Out in Tennessee,” August 30, 1956. August Tennessee,” Out in Breaks “Anti-Integration Violence , 162 F. Supp. 372 (N.D. Ala. 1958), affrmed by 79 S. Ct. 221 (1958) 221 Ct. S. 79 by affrmed 1958), Ala. (N.D. 372 Supp. F. 162 Ala., (per curiam). 145 Klarman, (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Louisiana (Baton Rouge: to Desegregation Segregation 2015), 58. Press, 143 Klarman, 144 27, 1958. November Court Ruling,” High Hails “Sen. Long , Talk 146 Klarman, 147 147 1956). (March 12, 148 141 142 133 Klarman, Black Merle and Beyle L. Thad eds. , Carolina North in Policy and Politics 1975), 73. Corp., Information (MSS (1955). 294, 301 349 U.S. , (II) v. Bd. of Educ. of Topeka 138 Brown on States Split Over New Ruling , “Dixie News Miami 139 1955. 1, June Desegregation,” 140 Lewis, , 94, 96-97. 94, , Resistance Fine,” June Out NAACP Throws Court , “High Times (Fla.) 132 Tampa 1958.30, NewestLaws: Placement Pupil South’s “The Smith, Lee 134 Ralph 1, 1960. , October Magazine Commentary Against Integration,” Weapon 135 Ibid. 136 Ibid. 137 , “Ballot Is Negroes’ Objective–Diggs,” May 20, 1957. May Objective–Diggs,” Negroes’ Is , “Ballot Ledger , “Racial Crisis Is NOW In ‘Heart of Dixie,’” March 4, 1956. 4, March Dixie,’” of ‘Heart In NOW Is Crisis “Racial , Times-News 149 Klarman, SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 122 178 Journal, “SixCharged WithMayhemAgainstNegro,” October 8,1957. 177 Movement (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007),184. 176 Alabama (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1995), 197-98. Grafton, Carl and Permaloff Anne 2006; 13, July Gray, Judge Johnson Foiled Efforts to Halt Macon Schools Integration,” Classes Monday,” October 1, 1963; Montgomery (Ala.)Advertiser, “Macon Academy Scheduled to Begin Integration of TuskegeeHighSchool,” NPR,September1,2003; 175 174 173 Griffin, 377 U.S. 218. He Registers;Civilians AttackTroops,” October 1, 1962. 189 Greenwood (Miss.) Commonwealth , “Bayonets Protect MeredithAs Governor,” January10, 1961. 188 During Riots,” November 17, 1960. 187 186 10, 1957. Building Is Half Demolished After First Mixing of Classes,” September September 28, 1957; 185 Chillicothe (Ohio) Gazette, “Faubus Encouraged Mobs, Ike Charges,” By Racial Integration,” September 18, 1956. Sheboygan184 (Wis.) Press , “Sturgis (Ky.), The ‘Friendly’ City, Is Racked August 31, 1956. 183 Hope (Ark.) Star, “Integration inTexasSchool Brings NearRiot,” 2, 1956. 182 Talley Morning Star, “Guard Sent To Quell Clinton Riot,” September December 25, 1956. 181 Anniston(Ala.) Star,“RaceIncidentsStealNewsThunderIn1956,” Geared To Resist,”August 28, 1955. 180 Tennesseean , “Social PatternChanging InSchools; 5Southern States September 24,1954. 179 Indiana (Pa.) Gazette, “‘Powder Keg’ In Delaware Segregation,” February 3, 1957. Press, “Walter Winchell in New York: To Uncle Sam from a Nephew,” of the taxpayer. permits other public schools or grades to remain open at the expense Virginia maybeclosed [to avoid integration] whilethestate of such a school system, no one public school or grade in participates byarrangement or otherwise inthemanagement and operates a school system with the use of public funds, or While the State of Virginia, directly or indirectly, maintains Jamesv.Almond, 170 F. Supp. 331, 337 (E.D. Va. 1959). Maggie Martin, “Former Students Look Back 50 Years After Maggie Martin, “Former Students Look Back 50 Years After Klarman, Montgomery (Ala.) Advertiser, “Police in New Orleans Arrest 93 MichaelJ.Klarman,Brown v. Board of Education and the Civil Rights Tennessean, “3BlastsRipClassrooms, Walls,Halls,”October 6,1958. Fort Lauderdale (Fla.) News Orders Court U.,’ Georgia Off “‘Hands , Klarman, From Jim Crow to Civil Rights, 424;Salem (Or.) Capital From JimCrow toCivil Rights, 426; Kansas City (Mo.) Times , “Blast A School: Nashville Tuskegee (Ala.) News , “Attorney Muncie (Ind.) Star Muncie (Ind.) Star Political Power in

Bruce Hartford, “Grenada Mississippi—Chronology of a Movement” BruceHartford, “Grenada Mississippi—Chronology of aMovement” 215 Integration,” September 12, 1958. Des Moines(Iowa) Register214 , “High Court Hints It Won’t Delay Klarman, 213 Gaillard, 212 http://www.archives.state.al.us/govs_list/schooldoor.html. George C. Wallace, Statement and Proclamation, June 11, 1963, 211 Gaillard, 210 https://web.utk.edu/~mfitzge1/ Alabama, docs/374/wallace_seg63.pdf. Montgomery, Capitol, 209 George C. Wallace, “Inaugural Address,” January 14, 1963, State Schools,” 208 Ibid., 163; Bob Ingram, “Wallace Pledges to Fight Mixing in Ala. 207 206 Ibid.,42. 205 Gaillard, 204 Ibid.,41;Lewis, Changed America (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2004), 40. 203 Frye Gaillard, Jackson (Miss.) Clarion-Ledger, June4, 2016. 202 ChuckCook, “Capturing History: Shooting of James Meredith,” America (Atria Books, 2012), 163-64. 201 James Meredith, October 17, 1962. 200 Beckley(W. Va.) Post-Herald , “Not in Contempt, Barnett Contends,” for Riot,” New York Times, October 2, 1962. Officials U.S. by Blamed Aides “Mississippi Lewis, Anthony 15; 2007), Conservative Counterrevolution (Princeton: Princeton UniversityPress, 199 Joseph Crespino, InSearchofAnotherCountry: Mississippiand the Lang Inc., 2007), 16. Schooling Context, Professional Preparation, andCommunity Politics (Peter 198 Sharon P.Robinson, TheChildren Hurricane KatrinaLeftBehind: html. (exhibit, 2004),https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/brown/brown-aftermath. “ 197 ‘You almost feel likeyou’re back in the 60s,’” November 14, 2014 196 TheGuardian, “Civil Rights Pioneer Laments School Segregation: 195 Ibid. 194 Klarman, 193 Ibid., 116-17. 192 Lewis, Mansfield,” August 31, 1956. 191 Longview (Tex.) News-Journal , “Shivers Orders Rangers Sent To Closed,” September5, 1963. Mexican, “ManKilledInMidnight Riots, 3Birmingham Schools 190 Klarman,From JimCrow toCivil Rights, 421; SantaFe (N.M.) New Ibid., 166-68. Brown v. Board at Fifty: ‘With an Even Hand,’” Library of Congress Montgomery (Ala.) Advertiser, March 11, 1962. Massive Resistance, 79-80. Cradle ofFreedom, 172. Cradle ofFreedom, 168, 171-72. Cradle ofFreedom, 41. Brown v.Board,183-84. From JimCrow toCivil Rights,349. Cradle ofFreedom: AlabamaandtheMovement that Massive Resistance, 78. A Missionfrom God:AMemoirandChallenge for 123 NOTES York (Pa.) York Honolulu (Hawaii) (Hawaii) Honolulu Montgomery (Ala.) Advertiser, (Ala.) Montgomery Rhetoric Rhetoric & (2005):8.2 Public Affairs , “Graetz Advertiser, (Ala.) Montgomery At the Dark End of the Street: Black Women, Black Women, End of the Street: the Dark At , 373-74. Rights, to Civil Jim Crow From , 371. , Rights to Civil Jim Crow From Springfield(Mo.) Leader andStoke Violence Solons, “Dixie , Press Albert Deutsch, “Rape of Negress Ignored in South,” South,” in Ignored Negress of “Rape Deutsch, Albert Matthew Pitt, “A Civil Rights Watershed in Biloxi, Mississippi,”in Biloxi, Watershed Civil Rights “A Pitt, Matthew Charles B. Gordon, “Arraignment of Four Men Delayed as BradyDelayed Men Four of “Arraignment Charles B. Gordon, , A Rapist?” The Nation Kimberle Williams Crenshaw, “Was Strom , “Real Violence: 50 Years Ago at 50 Years Ago , “Real Violence: Press Free Jackson (Miss.) , “Negro Students March on State Capitol, Students March on Index, “Negro (Tex.) Childress , “Historic Graduation: Righting a Wrong,”a Righting Graduation: “Historic , Magazine Today ASU Klarman, Klarman, Gene Gene Hunter, “Selma’s Sheriff 100 Pct. Racist,” Sexual Violence Against Black Women Against Violence Sexual 234 1960. March 1, Classes,” Return to and Sing 246 , December 8, 1944. 8, December , Gazette and Daily 235McGuire, L. Danielle History of the Civil Rights Movement from Rape, and Resistance — A New xviii. 2010), Knopf, York: (New to the Rise of Black Power Parks Rosa 236 Ibid., xix. 237 Ibid., xvii. 238 Enterprise-Journal, October (Miss.) McComb their Attorneys,” Appoints ibid., 117-120. 1956; 4, 239Maid,”Black by Child had Senator “Segregationist Younge, Gary 2003. 16, The Guardian, December 240 26, 2004. February 241 23, 1965. March Advertiser, 242 243 2013. May 23, Woolworth,” 244 19, 2010. , April Smithsonian Magazine 245 228 The Justice: in Southern “A Case Study Whitaker, Stephen Hugh Till,” Emmett of Trial and Murder 189-224. 229 Killing Approved of Story Huie, “The Shocking William Bradford 1956. 24, January , Magazine Look in Mississippi,” on Comment Seek , “Authorities Leader Daily (Miss.) 230 Brookhaven 2009. Case,” May 12, Cold 1955 Murder 231 1956; 2, February Fire,” Pot Race 1956; 26, August Hoax,” Bomb Denies “Negro Churches, Residences Suffer $50,000 BombDamage,” January 1957. 11, Acquitted Bombing; in Freed Montgomery in “2 , Times York 233 New Verdict,”Cheer Spectators – Church Negro on Attack of Jury White by 1957. May 31, , “Blast Rocks Residence of Advertiser, “Blast Rocks (Ala.) 232 Ibid., 425; Montgomery Advertiser, (Ala.) Leader,” January 31, 1956; Montgomery Bus Boycott February 3, Segregation,” Action on Withdraws Woman “Negro 1956;

Shreveport (La.) Shreveport , June 26, 2017. June , Post Washington “Violent Fighting “Violent Times, Los Angeles African Americans Confront Lynching: Strategies Strategies Lynching: Confront Americans African Black and Green: The Fight for Civil Rights in for The Fight Black and Green: (New York: Marshall Cavendish Benchmark,Cavendish Marshall York: (New Oman From Jim Crow to Civil Rights, 425. to Civil Jim Crow From

, Times Bay (Fla.) Truth,” Tampa “A Final Try for Rick Bragg, Brian Dooley, Dooley, Brian

Press release announcing release of Southern school desegregation, desegregation, school Press Southern release release announcing of

Ben Funk, “Beckwith Denies Any Part in Slaying,” in Part Any Denies “Beckwith Funk, Ben , “Second Beckwith Trial May BeMay Trial Beckwith “Second , Clarion-Ledger (Miss.) Jackson 153 Cong. Rec. 16477 (2007) (statement of Rep. Robert Scott); Robert Rep. of (statement (2007) 16477 Rec. Cong. 153 Klarman,

1997), 211. 1997), Blast,”Birmingham in Dead “6 Star-Gazette, (N.Y.) 226 Elmira Robinson: Johnny and Ware “Virgil Reed. Jon 1963; 16, September AL.com, Remember Teen Boys, Too,” Families Want History to http://blog.al.com/spotnews/2013/09/virgil_ware_ 2003, September 14, and_johnny_robinso.html. 227 FBI100. 1998), Press, Pluto (Chicago: Black America & Ireland Northern Neshobain workers rights civil three of murders the into investigations County, Mississippi, concluded that local Sheriffand Lawrence Deputy Rainey Sheriff Cecil Price were involved in the crim and were policeAlabama, Montgomery, Klan. Klux Ku the of members active Citizens’White local the joined openly Sellers Clyde commissioner bus boycott. the Council during 225King, C. David 224 217Soldiers,” Foot Augustine St. Frontiers: “Florida Brotemarkle, Ben 2015; 12, March , Today Florida June 26, 1964.March,” Augustine Halts St. 13, Advertiser, “The 2-Edged Sword,” December (Ala.) 218 Montgomery 1955. 219 Waldrep, Christopher (Maryland: the Civil Rights Era to Rights War the Civil of Resistance from 2009), 23. & Littlefield, Rowman 220 5, 1992. February 221 6, 1964. February , Times 222 8, 1964. April,” February Held in 223 Murders: Investigating “Unsolved and Overlooked L. Brown, DeNeen Era,” Rights Civil the Cases of Cold OPPOSITION INTENSIFIES BEYOND BROWN: BROWN: BEYOND https://www.law.umaryland.edu/marshall/usccr/documents/ pressrel67.pdf. (1967), Civil Rights Movement Veterans, http://www.crmvet.org/info/ Veterans, Movement Rights Civil (1967), grenada.htm. 216 1966-67, United August 8, 1967, Civil Rights, Commission on States SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 124 To Jail,’ Fla.Warns: Arrest 22, Grab Books of Drivers,” October 13, To Jail,’ Fla.Warns:Arrest22,Grab Books of Drivers,” October13, October 21, 1956; 261 Atlanta Daily World , “LeadersOfBusProtest Group Fined InFla.,” 260 The King Center, “FAQs,” http://www.thekingcenter.org/faqs. Reference Guide (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2009), 52. 259 Cheryl Fisher Phibbs, December 1, 2017. 1955 Sparked the Montgomery Bus Boycott and Changed the World,” 258 Montgomery (Ala.) Advertiser, “Rosa Parks’ Arrest on This Day in 257 a-little-known-civil-rights-pioneer. http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/articles/349/clyde-kennard- Little-Known Civil Rights Pioneer,” 256 TimothyJ.Minchin and John A. Salmond, “Clyde Kennard: A September 25, 1965. 255 Montgomery (Ala.) Southern Courier , “Girl Accused of Assault,” Constitutional RacisminAmerica (New York: Penguin, 1995), 73-74. 254 MaryFrancesBerry,BlackResistance/WhiteLaw:AHistoryof 253 Klarman, 1984), 187. South (New York: Oxford University Press, American Century 19th 252 Edward Ayers, 2001), 122, 124-25. 251 Journal, September1, 1961. White ManonNegro BeatingCharge,” McComb (Miss.) Enterprise- 1988), 27; John Emmerich and Charles B. Gordon, “Court Acquits McAdam, “Moses of Mississippi,”American Prospect , August30,2013;Doug www.crmvet.org/docs/sncc_ms_violence.pdf; Bryce Wilson Stucki, Since 1961,” Civil Rights Movement Veterans (April 4, 1963), http:// ms.pdf; “AChronology ofViolence andIntimidation inMississippi Civil Rights Movement Veterans, http://www.crmvet.org/info/voter_ 250 “The Struggle for Voting Rights in Mississippi — the Early Years,” Sit-In Staged After Race Violence,” October 10, 1960. 249 29, 1960. 248 1960. 247 student at a tax-supported college canbe expelled formisconduct). due process requires notice and some opportunity for hearing before a (M.D. Ala. 1960), Summer 2010;Dixon v.AlabamaStateBd.ofEduc.,186F.Supp.945,952 A Mississippi official remarked in 1865, “Emancipation . . .will . require a system of prisons.” “Emancipation in1865, remarked official Mississippi A Lynne Olsen, Freedom’s Daughters (New York: Scribner, Chicago Defender , “Study Race Violence at Rally,” September 5, Klarman, Chicago Defender , “3KlansmenPistol-WhipFlorida Boy, 16:First Tampa (Fla.) Tribune , “Jax Mayor Clamps Lid On City,” August Freedom Summer (NewYork: Oxford UniversityPress, From JimCrow toCivil Rights,412. From JimCrow toCivil Rights, 412. reversed by 294 F.2d 150 (5th Cir. 1961) (holding that Baltimore (Md.) Afro-American ,“‘Ride Buses Or Go Vengeance andJustice:Crime andPunishment inthe The Montgomery BusBoycott: AHistory and Mississippi HistoryNow (2010),

History (April12,2015): 4. tion, and UrbanGovernance inNew York City 1946-1965,” 281 ThemisChronopoulos, Community “PoliceMisconduct, Opposi 280 Ibid. 279 Phillips, 18, 1946. 278 UNC Press, 2012), 91. Struggles and the U.S. Military from World War II to Iraq (Chapel Hill: Kimberly L. Phillips, 277 276 275 274 1948). Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (December 9, 273 UnitedStatesGenocide Convention, Article II,Convention on the 272 CivilRightsCongress,We Charge Genocide. of RacialTerror (3dEd. 2017), https://lynchinginamerica.eji.org/report/. EqualJusticeInitiative,Lynching271 inAmerica: Confronting theLegacy Fails byOne Vote,” May 14, 1940. 270 Angels, 14. Cold Case Initiative” (2010): 2; Williams and Greenhaw, 269 Fitzgerald Paige,“U.S.Department of JusticeCivilRightsDivision University of Tennessee Press, 1987), 21-23. Montgomery BusBoycott andtheWomen WhoStartedIt(Knoxville: (Chicago: Chicago ReviewPress,2006),8-13;Jo AnnRobinson, The 268 Donnie WilliamsandWayneGreenhaw, TheThunderofAngels 267 CivilRights Congress,We Charge Genocide, 226. February 11, 1939. 266 Editorial, 265 CivilRights Congress,We Charge Genocide,225. University Press, 1996), 30. W.MarvinDulaney,Black Police 264 inAmerica (Indianapolis:Indiana 263 CivilRightsCongress,We Charge Genocide, 60. July 5, 1945. Selma (Ala.) Times Journal, “Booker Murder Case Before Court Today,” Against theNegro People (NewYork: Civil Rights Congress, 1951), 60; the UnitedNations for Relieffrom aCrimeoftheUnitedStatesGovernment 262 Civil Rights Congress, Maintaining White Supremacy The Centrality of Police Violence in Fines,” October. 27, 1956 Norfolk (Va.) JournalandGuide, “Florida Bus Boycotters Appeal $11,000 1956; Civil Rights Congress, Ibid. Ibid.; Ibid., 61. Birmingham (Ala.) Post , “Fair Beatings Aired: Move to Fire Police Chicago Defender , “Boycotters Fined $500,” October 27, 1956; New York Times , “Brothers Describe Freeport Shooting,” July War!, 145-46. Louisiana Weekly , “No Excuse for Police Brutality,” We Charge Genocide, 8. War! What is it Good For?: Black Freedom We Charge Genocide: The Historic Petition to Thunder of Thunder of J. Urban - 125 NOTES New Locked Out: Felon Locked Out: Felon (2005), https://www. (2005), NPR , 364 U.S.364 , Boynton v. Virginia , June 19, 2005. June , Post Washington Freedom Riders: 1961 and the Struggle for Racial for Struggle the and 1961 Riders: Freedom To End All Segregation: The Politics of the Passage of the Passage Politics The End All Segregation: To The Passage of Power: The Years of Lyndon Johnson of Lyndon The Years of Power: The Passage , 431. Rights, to Civil Jim Crow From , May 12, 2011. , May 12, Informer Washington Jeff Manza and Christopher Uggen, Wrong on Race: The Democratic Party’s Buried Past on Race: The Democratic Bruce Bartlett, Wrong

Robert D. Loevy, Loevy, D. Robert (New York: Oxford York: (New Democracy and American Disenfranchisement 48. 2008), University Press, Freedom Riders Attacked in Alabama Attacked Riders Freedom (1946); 373 U.S. 328 , Virginia v. 314 Morgan , May 2, 2013; Charlayne Hunter- 2, 2013; Charlayne Beast, May Daily Movement,” Civil-Rights Crusade,” Children’s Birmingham the After Years “Fifty Gault, 2, 2013. , May Yorker inKilled is Miller “Broadus Landmark, & Record 304 Statesville (N.C.) Given Negro of , “Searchers Bee (Va.) July 4, 1927; Danville Duel,” Gun 6, 1927. Bill,” July A Clean Sam Ervin Independent, “Umstead Appoints Daily (N.C.) 305 Kannapolis 6, 1954. June Post,” Senate to on, “Ervin Raps Ruling Times-News Daily 306 Burlington (N.C.) 1954. June 10, Segregation,” 307 of the Civil Rights Act of America, of Press University (Maryland: 1964 160. 157, 2008), 308 2008), 73. McMillan, Palgrave York: (New Caro, A. 309 Robert 2012), 7. House, York: Random (New (Chapel Georgia 310 C. Fite, Richard B. Russell, Jr., Senator from Gilbert 347. 2002), 342-43, Press, UNC Hill 311463, 465. Ibid., 312 Shame,” “A Senator’s Pianin, Eric 313 176-78. , Me Home Carry (1960); McWhorter, 454 315LegacyRights Civil Riders “Freedom Solman, M. Barrington Endures,” 316Arsenault, Raymond 94-96. 2011), University Press, York: Oxford (New Justice 317Riders,” “Freedom Arsenault, Raymond npr.org/2006/01/12/5149667/get-on-the-bus-the-freedom-riders- of-1961. 318 Ibid. AfterNear Showdown “U.S.-Alabama 319 Post-Dispatch St. Louis (Mo.) 22, 1961. May Montgomery,” in Rioting Resumes Mob AfricanPlaces: Historic of Register “National Service, Park 320 National Greyhound Montgomery - 2012 Feature Month History American https://www.nps.gov/nr/feature/afam/2012/ (2012), Station” Bus montgomery_greyhound_bus_station.htm. 321 Klarman, 322Near.” ”U.S.-Alabama Showdown The Press, the The Press, , 365-378. , Me Home Carry , 59; Chronopoulos,Genocide, Charge We , 143-44. Massive Resistance, (New York: New Press,New York: (New Crow Jim New The , 46. , Jim Crow New , June 8, 2016. 8, June Encyclopedia, South Carolina , April 16, 2008; Jack Bass, “OrangeburgBass, Jack 2008; 16, April , Times York New Tim Arango, “Films Revisit Overlooked Shootings on a Blacka on Shootings Overlooked Revisit “Films Arango, Tim Tallahassee (Fla.) (Fla.) Tallahassee Jails 700 in Protest,” McKee, “Birmingham Don Unsolved Unsolved Newton, Michael Civil Rights Murder Cases, 1934-1970 , “Rena Price Dies at 97; Her and Her Son’s Arrests Son’s Her and Her 97; at Dies Price “Rena , Times Angeles Los

Athena Jones, “Selma 50 Years Later: Memories from Bloody “Selma 50 Years Later: Memories from Athena Jones, 300 3, 1963; McWhorter, May , Democrat Children Brutalized in Birmingham Brutalized Children by Spike Lee (1997; Directed Doc., 301 Chris McNair, “4 Little Girls,” Film. Mule Filmworks/HBO), a 40 Acres and Brooklyn: 302 Gene Roberts and Hank Klibanoff, The Race Beat: Random York: (New of a Nation Rights Struggle, and the Awakening Civil 323. 2006), House, the Changed Birmingham of Children the “How Joiner, L. 303 Lottie 297 Alexander, 298 Ibid., 46. 299 Ibid., 45. 2010), 40-41. 2010), 41. 295 Ibid., Lewis, 42; see also Ibid., 296 , 68. Genocide , Charge We Rights Congress, 282 Civil 283 2016), 163. N.C.: McFarland, (Jefferson, 284 Congress, Rights Civil Alexander, 294 Michelle “Police Misconduct,” 4. Misconduct,” “Police March Sunday,” Bloody Selma’s “Remembering Klein, 285 Christopher https://www.history.com/news/selmas-bloody-sunday-50- 2015, 6, years-ago. Ill, Jackson Lee Jimmie Killed Who Trooper “Alabama Gore, 286 Leada http://www. Part of Selma,” March 8, 2015, No Family Says They Want al.com/news/index.ssf/2015/03/alabama_trooper_who_killed_jim.html. 287 , “More Times , March 5, 2015; San Mateo (Calif.) Sunday Nurse,” CNN 1965. February 3, Alabama,” Arrested in Are Negroes 288 Campus,” Massacre,” of Martin Luther King Slaying the After Rampage “The , 289 Newsweek 15, 1968. April Jr.,” 290 2013. Riots,” June 22, Sparked Watts “Violence in the Angeles Riots, the Los on Commission 291 Governor’s (1965). Beginning?” a or End An City - 292 Ibid. Found Judge Gang, ‘Neo-Nazi’ in “Deputies , Times Angeles 293 Los Sheriff’s Department Many Longwood at Office Have 12, October Latinos,” and Blacks Against Violence Motivated Racially Engaged in 1991. SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 126 com/poll/20920/martin-luther-king-jr-revered-more-after-death- Death Than Before,” FrankNewport, “MartinLutherKing Jr.:ReveredMore After 338 26, 1976):11-12 (internal quotation marks omitted). Operations withRespect to Intelligence Activities,”U.S.Senate(April 337 “Final Report of theSelect Committee to StudyGovernmental 24, 1961 336 W.J. Weatherly, “The Man in Montgomery,” 335 The King Center, “FAQs,” http://www.thekingcenter.org/faqs. The Legacy OfDr. MartinLuther KingJr. 328 Kennedy Rule and Court,”July 5, 1963. 327 Florence (S.C.) MorningNews , “Thurmond Fires Three Blasts At Negroes,” 326 Mildred A. Schwartz, “Trends in White Attitudes Toward meeting, Belzoni, Mississippi, September 25, 1957. 325 Home After He Tried to Vote,” March 1, 1957. 324 1957. 323 ox Voting Rights in the South, in One Chart,” Vo 334 German Lopez, “HowtheVoting Rights ActTransformed Black State University Press, 2008), 264. 333 Keith M. Finley, Delaying the Dream (Baton Rouge: Louisiana 332 Ibid., 81. Ibid. 331 Henry Holt & Co., 2014), 62. 1964 (New York: of Act Rights Civil the for Battle the and TwoParties, 330 Todd S. Purdum, Rights Measure,” February1, 1964. 329 Bridgeport (Conn.) Telegram , “Debate Begins in House on Civil Civil Rights Act,” July. 16, 1964. non-violence. be secretly attacked and destroyed as insurance against his abandoning liberal doctrines (non-violence). In short, a non-violent man was to threat because he might abandon his supposed obedience to white black nationalist movement. Indeed, to the FBI he was a potential was seenasapotential messiah whocould unifyandelectrifythe he because destroyed be must King Dr. that field the to explained holds were barred.” . In early 1968, Bureau headquarters the words of the man in charge of the FBI’s war against Dr. King, “No In leader. rights civil effective an as him neutralize to Investigation was thetargetofanintensivecampaign bytheFederalBureauof From late 1963 until his death in 1968, Martin Luther King, Jr., , “Negro Says He Had to Leave Richmond(Ind.) Palladium-Item,“Negro SaysHeHadto Leave

Burlington (N.C.) Daily Times-News , “Interpretation Given of New ”Senator James Eastland,” The Mike Wallace Interview, July 28, ”Senator James Eastland,” The Mike Wallace Interview, July 28, Senator James O. Eastland, speech at White Citizens’ Council Senator James O. Eastland, speech at White Citizens’ Council Natl. OpinionResearchCenter(1967): 102. Gallup News , January 16, 2016, http://news.gallup. An IdeaWhoseTime Has Come: Two Presidents, , August 6, 2015. , May The Guardian, May

357 1988), 131. 356 PeterIrons,TheCourage ofTheirConvictions (NewYork: Penguin, Probe,” September 19, 1962. 355 Cumberland (Md.) News , “Negro LeaderDemands BaltimorePolice 2008). 354 LauraWexler,“Swimming intheCity,”Baltimore Style(July-Aug. 353 Nelson, "Clark Gets ‘Fan Mail’ in Selma Rights Fight," February 18,1965. November 16,1965. 352 Fresno Talk,” Pasadena (Calif.) During Pickets Ignores “Sheriff Bee, Angeles Times, February 18, 1965. 351 (Chicago: Universityof Chicago Press, 2009), 21. History: TheDynamicsofRace, Class andGendersinceWorld War II 350 Joe W. Trotter and Kenneth L. Kusmer, 349 Eastland,speechin Belzoni. Promote South’s Segregation,” December 29, 1955. Jackson(Miss.) Clarion-Ledger348 , “Coordinating Group Formed to 347 Klarman, October 20, 1983. AlexBrummer,“SenateApprovesLutherKingDay,” TheGuardian, 346 Ocober. 4, 1983. Helen Dewar, “Helms Stalls King’s Day in Senate,” 345 Movement,” Errin 344 Haines, “King Funeral, Tributes, Reflect Gains of Civil Rights Lincoln343 (Neb.) JournalStar , “No Honor,” April 10, 1968. Ledger, April 10, 1968. 342 Tom Ethridge, “MississippiNotebook,” Jackson(Miss.) Clarion- (Piscataway: Aldine Publishing, 1970), 72-74. About King’sDeath,” inThe Changing , ed.RaymondSouth W.Mack 341 campus months before). he died, in the presence of two black students who had integrated the laughed and celebrated news of Dr. King’s assassination on the night of whitemalestudentsataprivateprepschool in Lynchburg, Virginia, A’s,” when Moore was 13);Mosi Secret, “The Wayto Surviveitwas to Make Moore’s Michael recollection of seeing whitepeople cheernewsof Dr. King’sassassination filmmaker (recounting xi 2007), Books, Atlantic Disappearance ofBlackAmericans From OurUniversities (Berkeley: North 340 CecilBrown, Dude, Where’s MyBlackStudiesDepartment?The Here,” April10, 1968. 1968; 339 Rocky Mount (N.C.) Telegram , “Reaction toKing’sDeath,” April8, than-before.aspx. James W. Clarke and John W. Soule, “How Southern Children Felt JamesW.ClarkeandJohnSoule, “How Southern ChildrenFelt Ibid., 143.

Jack Nelson, “Clark Gets ‘Fan Mail’ in Selma Rights Fight,” New York Times Magazine , September7,2017(reporting thatdorm Columbus (Ind.) Republic, “Sen. Kennedy Carries Primary Battle Montgomery (Ala.) Advertiser, February 4, 2006. From JimCrow toCivil Rights,399-403. African American Urban Washington Post , Los Los 127 NOTES The South Carolina South Carolina , “Bob Jones “Bob , Today Christianity , August 20, 2016. 20, August , Politico Arkansas in Ink, 39. Arkansas Right to Revolt, 43. , July 26, 2016. , July Gospel Coalition Robert L. Fleeger, “Theodore Bilbo and the Decline of Public of Decline Bilbo and the “Theodore L. Fleeger, Robert Colbert I. King, “Bush Caters to the Bigotry of Bob Jones,” Bob of “Bush Caters to the Bigotry Colbert I. King, Bob Jones Sr., “Is Segregation Scriptural?”; Justin Taylor, “Is Taylor, Justin Scriptural?”; Segregation “Is Sr., Jones Bob Alabama Baptists: Southern Baptists in the Heart ofHeart the in Baptists Southern Baptists: Wayne Flynt, Alabama , “Highway to be Named for Late be Named for Index-Journal, “Highway to (S.C.) Greenwood Andrew Glass, “Mississippi Sen. Theodore Bilbo Dies at Age 69, at Age Dies Bilbo “Mississippi Sen. Theodore Andrew Glass, “Bob Jones University Apologizes for its Racist Past,” J. Blacks in its for University Apologizes Jones “Bob , “Stop Negro Voter, Bilbo Demands,” June 23,June Demands,” Bilbo Voter, Negro “Stop , Press Pittsburgh (Pa.) Bob Jones Sr, “Is Segregation Scriptural?,” (radio address, Scriptural?,” April 17, “Is Segregation Jones Sr, Bob Ibid. “Our Ticket, Our Motto: This Is a White Man’s Country; Let Man’s Country; This Is a White “Our Ticket, Our Motto: 380 Lancaster, 38138. Ibid., GatherWhites 100 than More Negroes, “75 , News (S.C.) 382 Greenville 16, 1938. June Meet,” Johnston Special for 383 Talmadge,” DeWitt Olin “Johnston, Edgar, Walter (2012). South Carolina Guide to the Governors of Encyclopedia 384 385 24, 1895. July Senator,” 386 Ibid. 387 and Seymour Horatio badge supporting White Men Rule,” (Campaign Vice-Presidentand President for candidates Democratic Blair, Francis Blackin Research for Center Schomburg 1868), States, United the of http://digitalcollections.nypl. Division, Prints and Photographs Culture, org/items/62a9d0e6-4fc9-dbce-e040-e00a18064a66. (Charlottesville: Americas the in 388War and Izecksohn, Slavery Vitor Press, 2014), 108. Virginia University of 389 8, 1869. October Seymour,” “Horatio Pittsburgh (Pa.) Weekly Gazette, Jr. (Philadelphia: T.B. Blair, P. Seymour and Frank 390 The Lives of Horatio 59. 1868), Bros., & Peterson 391 9. (2006): 1 68, no. Racism, 1938-1947,” J. Miss. Hist. in Modern Extremism 392 Steven E. Atkins, Encyclopedia of Right-Wing 49. (ABC-CLIO, 2011), History American 393 Ibid. 394 1946. 395 Boyett, 396 21, 1947,” Aug. 397 1960.) 398 Gordon, Linda 355; 1998), Press, Alabama of (University Dixie of the KKK: Ku Klux Klan of the 1920s and Coming the American Second 81. 2017), Publishing, (Liveright Tradition Political 399 62 (2009): 22-23. Higher Ed. 400 2000; 28, February , Post Washington 2000. Ban,” March 1, Interracial Dating University Drops 401 ofEaster on Jones Bob from Address Radio A Scriptural? Segregation 1960,” Scriptural?” “Is Segregation 402 Taylor,

The Milford Eleven The Milford The Burden of Brown: Thirty Years of School of School Thirty Years The Burden of Brown: The Color of Law: A Forgotten History of How How of History Forgotten A Law: of Color The , 425 U.S. 284 (1976). , 425 U.S. North of Dixie: Civil Rights Photography Beyond the Beyond Rights Photography of Dixie: Civil North The Rise of Massive Resistance: Race and Politics in the in Politics Race and Resistance: of Massive Rise The , February 22, 2012. Institute, February 22, Policy Economic

Algernon Austin, “For African Americans, 50 Years of High of Years 50 Americans, African “For Austin, Algernon Orlando Camp and Ed Kee, “Lost Opportunity: The Failure to Failure The Opportunity: “Lost Kee, Ed and Camp Orlando U.S. National Park Service, “Civil Rights in America: Racial VotingRacial America: in Rights “Civil Service, Park National U.S.

, “Virginia Johnson No Johnson , “Virginia Arkansas Times (Ark.) Northwest Fayetteville Ibid.

Ibid.

, “Rainach Leaves Mark on State, National Times (La.) 372 Shreveport 1978. January 27, Politics,” Bartley, 373 N.V. 74. Press, 1999), State University (Louisiana South during the 1950’s 374 375 https://www.nps.gov/nhl/learn/themes/Civil-Rights_ (2009), Rights” VotingRights.pdf. 376 9, 1968. July Five Opponents,” Her Matter to Laughing Ghosts, and Other377 Lancaster, Arkansas in Ink: Gunslingers, Guy 2014), 38. Ark.: Butler Center Books, (Little Rock, Tales Graphic 378 inVie Candidate, Legislator “Woman , Journal Times 379 Racine (Wis.) 13, 1968. in Arkansas,” August Primary Runoff Dem "SEGREGATION FOREVER" "SEGREGATION (New York: Liveright Publishing, Liveright York: (New America Our Government Segregated 122. 2017), 369 Ibid. Ibid. 370 371 Hills v. Gautreaux William A. Darity Jr. and Patrick L. Mason, “Evidence on“Evidence Mason, L. Patrick and Jr. Darity A. 367 William Gender,” of Codes Color, of Codes Employment: in Discrimination 64. (1998): 2 no. 12, Perspectives Journal of Economic Rothstein, 368 Richard (Wilmington: Cedar Tree Books, 2011), 32. 2011), Books, Cedar Tree (Wilmington: 1, 1954. October “Delaware,” , News Southern School (Tenn.) 359 Nashville Kee, Lost Opportunity, 142. & 360 Camp 145-46. 361 Ibid., Waters, 362 Raymond 200. 1992), Tennessee Press, University of (Knoxville: Desegregation Eleven, 115. Kee, Milford 363 Camp & 364Speltz, Mark 12. 2016), Museum, Paul Getty J. Angeles: South (Los 365 Ibid. 366 Unemployment,” 358 Essays Equality: in Choosing in 1954,” Schools Public Milford’s Integrate HaymanL. Robert eds. Experience, Desegregation the on Narratives and Jr. and Leland Ware (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Kee, Ed and Camp Orlando 137; 2009), Press, SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 128 425 Diane McWhorter, Carry MeHome: Birmingham,Alabama:The Birmingham,” May4, 1963 424 Ibid. 423 Washington Post, June 15, 2007. Greg Bluestein,“FBIInvestigatedGa. Gov inOld Lynching,” 422 (1969): 409-23. the Board of Regents Controversy,” Georgia Hist.Quarterly 53,no. 4 Quarterly 38,no. 3(1954):226-48; SueBailes,“EugeneTalmadge and 421 Negroes,” September 5, 1942. 420 Silent...,” February 20, 1936. 419 418 417 416 in Georgia (Athens:University of Georgia Press, 1993), 330. 415 Sentenced,” 86,” March6,2001;LauraForeman,“Louisiana Attorney General 414 NAACP, 366 U.S.293(1961). York: Oxford UniversityPress,2001),321;Louisiana ex rel. Gremillion v. 413 October 7, 1960. 412 411 Debates inUnitedStatesHistory(FederalJudicialCenter,2005), 34. Desegregation of New Orleans Schools,” in 410 August 20, 1958. 409 84,” 408 407 Little Rock, 16. Assaults Block Little Rock Integration,” September 24, 1957; Anderson, 406 405 Ibid. 2013), 2. at CentralResistance and HighSchoolPress, (Princeton University Crisis,” September 6, 1957;seealsoKarenAnderson, 404 October 3, 1958. 403 Longview (Tex.) News-Journal , “Faubus Indicates Defiance of Edict,” Ibid. Ibid. Donald LeeGrant, TheWay ItWas intheSouth:TheBlackExperience The Supreme Court in Conference(1940-1985) in Court Supreme Del Dickson, The Ward, New York Times , “Jack P. F. Gremillion; Louisiana Attorney General, Lake Charles (La.) American Press , “Gremillion Is Found Guilty,” Georgia Women’s World , “IftheWhitePeople of theStateRemain Ibid.

Benjamin Schwarz, “Insidious Weakness,”TheAtlantic (May 1998). Pittsburgh (Pa.) Post-Gazette , “Dogs Chase Negroes Through Peter Applebome, “Orval Faubus, Segregation’s Champion, Dies at Peter Applebome, “Orval Faubus, Segregation’s Champion, Dies at Blytheville (Ark.) Courier NewsLittle Rock , “FirstArrestMadein and the Davison M.Douglas, “Bushv.OrleansParishSch.Bd.andthe Elmira (N.Y.) Advertiser, “Ike Clears Way for Troop Use: Bloody Shreveport (La.) Times , “‘Resistance’PlanBoosted byGremillion,” SMC Lemmon, “The Ideology of Eugene Talmadge, St. Louis(Mo.) StarandTimes , “Gov. Talmadge Fights Equality for New York Times, December 15, 1994. Defending WhiteDemocracy, 14. Greensburg (Ind.) Daily News, January6, 1972. Federal Trials andGreat Little Rock: Race Georgia Hist. (New (New 446 Times, July 28, 1972. 445 Nash, HarryS.TrumanLibrary, (Independence, Mo.), 7-8. (University of Chicago Roundtable,February 6, 1949),Papersof Philleo 444 (1982): 259-75. Covington Hall:AnAgrarian Dichotomy,” Louisiana History 23,no. 3 443 Race as Excuse,” July 7, 1963. Abilene(Tex.)442 Reporter-News , “Senator Blasts Negroes Who Use 441 Severo, “Lester Maddox.” 440 (Ala.) Advertiser, February 4, 2006. Funeral, Tributes Reflect Gains in Civil Rights Movement, 439 Georgia,” 438 1964. They’re AxeHandles,Not Chicken,”Greenville (S.C.) News , August20, Leon Daniel, “ ‘Pickrick Drumsticks’ Selling Like Hot Cakes; 437 June 25,2003. Only RestaurateurandGeorgia Governor, Dies at87,”New York Times , Desegregate,” July 23, 1964;Richard Severo, “Lester Maddox, Whites- Indianapolis(Ind.) Star, “Atlanta Motel, Restaurant Told To 436 Order,” July 10, 1969. 435 13-17. Populism, andtheDividing ofAmerica (Oxford UniversityPress,2013), 434 Gaillard, 433 Reinvention of KlansmanAsaEarl Carter,” April 20, 2012. 432 431 digital.archives.alabama.gov/cdm/ref/collection/voices/id/2952. C. Wallace,”AlabamaDepartment of Archives&History (1963),http:// George Wallace, “The 1963 Inaugural Address of Governor George 430 Fought Integration,” March 11, 1973. 429 New York Times , “Eugene ‘Bull’ Connor Dies at 75; Police Head 428 McWhorter, Turn Back Parade,” May 4, 1963; McWhorter, 427 Muncie(Ind.) StarPress , “200 Held After Police Dogs, Fire Hoses, Struggle for RacialJustice(OxfordUniversityPress,2007), 137. 426 Schuster, 2001), 111-23. Climactic BattleoftheCivil RightsRevolution(NewYork: Simon & Ibid. Ibid. Bill Kovach, “Anger, Frustration, GOP Elected Maddox in BillKovach, “Anger, Frustration,GOP ElectedMaddox in Becnel,“Louisiana Senator AllenJ. Ellender,” 268. Joseph P.Fried,“AllenJ.Ellenderof Louisiana Dies,” New York T. Becnel, “Louisiana Senator Allen J. Ellender and IWW Leader T. Becnel, “Louisiana Senator Allen J. Ellender and IWW Leader “Should President Truman’s Civil Rights Program Be Adopted?” “ShouldPresidentTruman’sCivilRights Program BeAdopted?” , “Lester Maddox,” June 25, 2003; Errin Haines, “King The Guardian, “Lester Maddox,” June 25, 2003; Errin Haines, “King

Ibid. at126,596;RaymondArsenault,Freedom Riders: 1961 and the

Salem (Ore.) Capital Journal, “Lester Maddox Mad Over School Ian Haney Lopez, All ThingsConsidered -National Public Radio, “The Artful Tennessean, October 2, 1966. Cradle ofFreedom, 168-72. Carry MeHome, 15. Dog WhistlePolitics: Strategic Racism, Fake Carry MeHome, 347-77. Montgomery 129 NOTES

Binghamton Montgomery Montgomery Branch,see also Selma’s Bloody Sunday: Protest, Protest, Sunday: Bloody Selma’s Yellow Dogs and Republicans: Allan Shivers andShivers Dogs and Republicans: Allan Yellow June 7, 2007. June Post Washington , January 15, 1985. , January 15, Times York New Adam Bernstein, “Ala. Sheriff James Clark; Embodied Violent Glenn Fowler, “Allan Shivers of Texas Dead; Was Governor in thein Governor Was Dead; Texas of Shivers “Allan Fowler, Glenn Ibid.

, “Baker Ruled Winner OverWinner Ruled “Baker , American-Press (La.) Charles Lake , “Here’s Southern Manifesto Southern “Here’s , Democrat-Times Delta (Miss.) Greenville Gene Gene Hunter, “Selma’s Sheriff 100 Pct. Racist, Honolulu (Hawaii) Ibid. , “At Least 67 Persons Said Delta Democrat-Times (Miss.) Greenville Ibid. At Branch, At Taylor Canaan’s Edge: America in the 1965- King Years,

Bell, “Byrd Urges ‘Massive Resistance.’” Urges Bell, “Byrd Invariably, [Byrd’s] opposition to integration was couched was integration to opposition [Byrd’s] Invariably, lived hishaving However, rights. states’ of rhetoric the in itsadopted had he community, segregation a in life entire the to ‘essential was segregation that believed and mores racial thebetween relationships friendly and peaceful of maintenance that race to the positions consigned were appropriately races.’ Blacks them. for designated had society and 471 472 1956. 12, March Text,” 473 23, 1965. March Advertiser, 474 Bigotry,” 475 476 477 55. & Schuster, 2006), Simon 1968 (New York: 478 1965; 8, March March,” Rights Civil Alabama In Hurt Pratt, A. Robert 55; Edge, Canaan’s At Hopkins (Johns Racial Equality the Struggle for Rights, and Voting 52-68. 2016), University Press, 479 1966. Clark,” May 25, Sheriff Down,” Back Won’t Sheriff Selma “1960s 480Benn, Alvin March 3, 2006. Advertiser, (Ala.) It,” Mold Helps He “Segregation: Heel, Tar 481 Daily Chapel Hill (N.C.) 1, 1960. December 482Empire,” Swampland His and I “Leander Moody, Sid May 3, 1964. and Sun-Bulletin, Press (N.Y.) 483 and Leander H. L. K. Smith P. Long, Gerald “Huey Jeansonne, G. 19. 1 (1995): 35, no. Leaders,” Louisiana History Perez as Charismatic 484 48519. Ibid., 8, Ahead Slowly,” Moves , “Desegregation 486 Moines (Iowa) Tribune Des 1954 September 9, 487 1950’s,” 488 Dobbs, F. Ricky Texas A&M University Press, Station: (College Politics Two-Party Texas 41. 2005), 489 Ibid., 96. 108. 490 Ibid., , News Daily (Tex.) 491 Pampa “Shivers Defends Mansfield Action,” ibid., 138-41. 1956; September 7,

St. Petersburg St. Petersburg , May, Atlantic The Cocoa (Fla.) Florida Florida (Fla.) Cocoa (Charlottesville: Byrd of Virginia Harry Defending White Democracy: The Making of a The Making White Democracy: Defending Wrong on Race: The Democratic Party’s Buried Past on Race: The Democratic Wrong (Chicago: University of Chicago of (Chicago: University March Unsteady The , March 27, 1964. 27, , March Times York New , February 5, 1956. 5, , February Courier-Journal (Ky.) Louisville , October 3, 2007. 3, October Sentinel, Orlando (Fla.) , “Men of Harry Byrd CharacterByrd Harry of “Men , Times-News Daily Burlington (N.C.)

E. W. Kenworthy, “Rights Bill: Wins 2 Tests in Senate by Wide 2 Tests in Senate by “Rights Bill: Wins E. W. Kenworthy, Bruce Bartlett, Bruce Roger D. Greene, “Eastland Thinks Reds ‘Brainwashed’ Supreme ‘Brainwashed’ Reds Thinks “Eastland Greene, D. Roger Ibid. Ronald L. Heinemann, L. Ronald Hunter, “James O. Eastland Dead at 81.” Dead Eastland Hunter, “James O. 459Era.” an of End “McCall: Gallagher, 460 Ibid. 461 Ibid. 462 John Hill, “A Southern Sheriff’s Law and Disorder,” 448 Margins,” 449Senate Leading 81; At Dead Is Eastland O. “James Hunter, Marjorie 1986. , February 20, Times York New Integration,” of Foe 1957. Curbs,” January 6, Monitor, “Court 450 McAllen (Tex.) 451 452Ward, Morgan Jason Segregationist Movement and the Remaking of Racial Politics, 1936-1965 2011), 143. Press, Carolina North of University Hill: (Chapel , 453Atlantic White Supremacist Caucus,” The Matthew Yglesias, “The 26, 2007. November 454Ibid. 455Era,” an of End The “McCall: Gallagher, Pete 1972. 31, , December Today 456 County,” Lake in Apology “An King, Gilbert 15, 2017. 457 458 Willis v. McCall Road to County Road Stephen Hudak, “From 450a,” 1999. 28, November , Times (Fla.) , “Equality and the Constitution,” Courier-Journal 463 Louisville (Ky.) 11, 1953. November 464 Standard, (S.C.) McMillan, 2008), 55-57; Aiken Palgrave (New York: Figures,” Gives Byrnes F. James Hon. Attacked: Bill “Anti-Lynching 11, 1922. January 58. on Race, 465 Bartlett, Wrong StandsByrnes F. “James , and Democrat Times (S.C.) 466 Orangeburg Must Be Maintained,” in Schools Separating Change: Firmly Against June 7, 1950. 467 1958. 2, Senate,” September the U.S. Scarce in Too Threatens Harmony Revolt’ ‘Dixie , “Spread of 468 Times Munster (Ind.) andKlinkner A. Philip 1944; 20, July Convention,” Democratic of Smith, M. Rogers 2002), 198. Press, 469 ‘Massive Resistance’ in South to Race Jack Bell, “Byrd Urges 26, 1956. Star, February Edict,” Indianapolis (Ind.) Integration 470 1996), 329. Virginia, of University Press 447 Court,” SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 130 515 514 17, 1956; Jacoway, 513 512 Shocked theNation (Free Press, 2007),28-45. 511 1, 1957. 510 16, 2002. 509 Timothy Noah, “The Legend of Strom’s Remorse,” Promise of theVoting Rights Act,” “The Lost Berman, Ari 1975; 19, July Act,” Rights Voting Reaffirm 508 Cincinnati (Ohio) Enquirer , “Southerners Disapprove: Senators 507 Thurmond Ends 24-Hour Filibuster,” August 30, 1957. 506 Danville (Va.) Bee, “Senate Approval Comes After Senator (S.C.) Times andDemocrat, March 16, 1956. 505 Ibid.;Strom Thurmond, “TheSouthern Manifesto,”Orangeburg New York Times, June27, 2003 504 AdamClymer,“StromThurmond,Foe ofIntegration, Dies at100,” 503 New York Times , “Ross Barnett,Segregationist, Dies.” 2012. “Integrating Ole Miss: A Transformative, Deadly Riot,” October 1, Contempt,” September29,1962; Jackson (Miss.) Clarion-Ledger , “Gov. Barnett Convicted of U.S. Court Meredith IsRefusedAdmissionto OleMiss,”September21,1962; Courts: Federal Defies Barnett “Gov. 502 Greenville (S.C.) News, 501 Ibid.; 89,” 500 Richard Pearson, “Segregationist Governor Ross BarnettDies at Mississippi in 1960’s,”November 7, 1987. 499 New York Times , “Ross Barnett, Segregationist, Dies; Governor of 498 Ibid. Ibid. 497 496 Goldstein, “James J. Kilpatrick.” the_nations_future/index.html#fn1. encyclopedia/documentsentry/debate_with_james_j_kilpatrick_on_ Kilpatrick,” November 26, 1960, http://kingencyclopedia.stanford.edu/ 495 Nation’s Future , “Debate: Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. with James J. and on TV,Dies at 89,” New York Times , August 16, 2010. 494 Richard Goldstein, “James J. Kilpatrick, Conservative Voice in Print 9, 2017. Who Never Really Renounced Segregation,” 493 Malcolm Jones, “JamesKilpatrick,Reagan’s Favorite Columnist 492 Dobbs,

Adam Clymer, “Herman Talmadge, Georgia Senator and Governor, AdamClymer,“Herman Talmadge,Georgia Senator and Governor, Hope (Ark.) Star,“Johnson Called HatePurveyor byGovernor,” July Anderson, Ibid. Hope (Ark.) Star,“Johnson HasPlanto BeatIntegration,” October Greenville (S.C.)News , “Drift from Federalism Hit,” May 16, 1965. Elizabeth Jacoway,Turn Away Thy Son: Little Rock, the Crisis That Washington Post, November 8, 1987. New York Times, “Ross Barnett, Segregationist, Dies.” Yellow Dogs andRepublicans, at 138-41. Little Rock, 61-62. Turn Away ThySon,28-45. Morning Edition, National Public Radio, The Atlantic , August 5, 2015. Daily Beast, December , December Slate, December 519 New Republic,July 6, 2008. August 26, 2001; Jonathan Chait, “Jesse Helms: Civil Rights Visionary,” 518 Talk To Action, October 18, 2013. Create The Religious Right And The School Privatization Movement,” Guardian, March24,2002;BruceWilson, “How Segregation Helped Senator Who Proved HighlySkilledatWashington Politics,” The 517 Berkshire Eagle,April 2, 1948. Truman,” by Offered When it Refuses but F.D.R. 516 Dies at 88,” New York Times, March 22, 2002. Press of Mississippi, 2012), 53. Champion ofSegregation and ReshapedtheSouth(Jackson: University 529 John Drescher, Triumph ofGood Will: How Terry Sanford BeatA Press, 2012), 158-59. in Regional Change and Continuity (Tuscaloosa: Universityof Alabama Legacy oftheOldPolitics ofRace,” in TheDisappearing South?: Studies F. Eamon, Lake You’ll Vote For Him!”(advertisement),March27, 1960; Thomas 528 Asheville (N.C.) Citizen-Times , “If You Really Know Dr. Beverly Explicit Racism,”Raleigh(N.C.) News &Observer, June 18, 2016. 527 James E. Williams, “NC Bar Association Award Carries Legacy of Transportation Chief,”LouisianaWeekly , April 11, 2016. Says Communities, Black Ruined “Highways Wright, Sarafina See also Zocalo, December 15, 2014. 526 Eric Avila, “The Freeway Is the Perfect Place to Protest Ferguson,” 525 McMillen, 524 Evening Post, June 29, 1957. John Bartlow Martin, “The Deep South Says Never,” 523 McMillen. 522 July 25, 1956. Bob Ingram, “Man With A Mission,” 521 watch?v=KIyewCdXMzk. 520 The clip is available for viewing at https://www.youtube.com/ 7, 2008. and Birmingham. and Birmingham. routed interstatesthrough theblackneighborhoods of Montgomery the White Citizens’ Council, for example, Samuel Engelhardt Alabama’s statehighwaydirector andexecutive secretaryof neighborhoods for destruction. In his dual capacities as white supremacistorganizations asthey designated black Kansas City, highway planners were often in league with In Southern cities likeNashville, Charlotte, Atlanta and Harold Jackson, “Herman Talmadge: The Stereotypical Southern Harold Jackson, “Herman Talmadge: The Stereotypical Southern Scott Mooneyham, “FieryVoice fortheRight,” ArizonaDaily Star ,

Joseph E. Finley, “Why South Took Civil Rights Program from Joseph E.Finley,“WhySouthTook CivilRightsProgram from Ibid. David S.Broder,“JesseHelms,WhiteRacist,”Washington Post , July “The MilitantRepublicanRightinNorth Carolina Elections: The Citizens’Council, 220-22. The Citizens’Council, 47, 220-21. Montgomery (Ala.) Advertiser, Pittsfield (Mass.) (Mass.) Pittsfield Saturday Saturday

131 NOTES Chicago Chicago Washington Washington , Tribune Chicago , Defender Chicago Atlanta (Ga.) Daily Daily (Ga.) Atlanta Norfolk (Va.) Journal andJournal (Va.) Norfolk Reported Instances of Voter Caging Caging Reported Instances of Voter Spying on America: The FBI’s DomesticFBI’s The America: on Spying (Chicago: Chicago(Chicago: Hampton of Fred The Assassination , 412; Rights, Civil to Crow Jim From , December 25, 1976. , December The Nation , 221. , Hampton of Fred Assassination Jeffrey Haas,

Justin Levitt, “Reported Instances of Voter Caging,” Brennan Caging,” Voter Instances of “Reported Justin Levitt, , July Post S. Broder, “Jesse Helms, White Racist,” Washington David , “Leaders of Bus Protest Group Fined in Fla.,” October 21, 1956;Fla.,” October Fined in Group Protest Bus “Leaders of , World Warns:Fla. Jail,’ to Go or Buses “‘Ride , Afro-American (Md.) Baltimore 1956; 13, October Drivers,” of Books Grab 22, Arrest “Boycotters Fined $500,” October 27, 1956; 27, October $500,” Fined “Boycotters 1956. 27, October Fines,” $11,000 Appeal Boycotters Bus “Florida Guide, Davis, 561 James Kirkpatrick 1992), 36. Praeger Publisher, (Westport: Program Counter-Intelligence Study Governmental to the Select Committee of “Final Report 562 (AprilSenate U.S. Activities,” Intelligence to Respect with Operations 1976): 11-12. 26, Review Press, 2010); Jeff Cohen and Jeff Gottlieb, “Was Fred Hampton Fred “Was Gottlieb, Jeff and Cohen Jeff 2010); Press, Review Executed?” 558 Hass, 559 Ibid. 560 Klarman, The Government Assault On Black Power The Government 557 545 Charges,” Vote-Fraud By Torn “Alabama Hirsley, Michael 1985. 17, June , Tribune 546 (Pa.) Philadelphia Fraud in Ala. Voting,” Acquitted of Marie Prat, “3 1985. 6, , July Inquirer 547 https://www.brennancenter.org/ Justice, June 29, 2007, Center for analysis/reported-instances-voter-caging. 548 Re-Register,” Must Voters “116,541 Kass, John Ballot“Republican et al., Davidson 17, 1986; Chandler February Security Programs: Vote Protection or Minority Vote Suppression or http:// 17, (2004): Protection and Rights Voting for Center Both?” www.votelaw.com/blog/blogdocs/GOP_Ballot_Security_Programs. pdf. 549 Thomas B. Edsall, “‘Ballot Security’ Effects Calculated,” 1986. 25, , October Post Allison, Andrew and Levitt 550 Justin Justice, June 2007), http://www.brennancenter. (Brennan Center for org/sites/default/files/legacy/d/download_file_49609.pdf. 551 2008. 7, and the Ideology, Morality, America: For The War Morris, 552 Langdon 60. Inc., 2004), iUniverse, (Lincoln: Politics Big Lies of American 23, 2001. August Says Goodbye,” No’ “‘Senator , Times York 553 New to Act Rights Voting the Brings 554 Miranda Blue, “Alabama County the American Way, September 9, 2010, http://www.pfaw. Court,” People for org/blog-posts/alabama-county-brings-the-voting-rights-act-to-court/. (2013). 529 U.S. , 570 Ala. v. Holder 555 Shelby County, 556 Ibid., 590. America in Black America

Lake Charles (La.)Lake Charles , “1948, Election Atlas (Arcadia Publishing, County Lincoln , “Slain on Lawn ofLawn on “Slain , Courier Pittsburgh (Pa.) , November 13, 2012. 13, , November The Nation , December 21, 2002. 21, December , Post Washington Black Monday. , 3; U.S. Revolt, The Dixiecrat , 235. , The Citizens’ Council The Black Monday; McMillen, Citizens’ Council, 18; New

Brady, (Winona: Association of Citizens’ of Association (Winona: P. Brady, Black Monday Tom

Rick Perlstein, “Exclusive: Lee Atwater’s Infamous 1981 Interview Infamous “Exclusive: Lee Atwater’s Rick Perlstein, 2016), 122; Brady, 2016), Charges —‘They’re, “Thurmond Clarion-Ledger (Miss.) 537 Jackson Nation’sA In Words “45 Merida, Kevin 1948; 3, September Afraid,’” Narrative,” Rights Civil 5,May Dies,” Dixiecrat, ‘48 Wright, “Fielding , Times York 538 New 1956. AssertsGovernor Truman: Flays “Mississippian Foreman, 539 Harold , News Courier (Ark.) Blytheville Life’ Endangered,” ‘Way of Southern 20, 1948. January 540 Frederickson, , “Thomas P. Brady, Mississippi Judge,” February 1, 1973. 1, February Judge,” Mississippi P. Brady, , “Thomas Times York 535 McMillen, Tammie Santos Brewer, et al., Brewer, et 536 Tammie Santos National,” 2012, - Data Election General Presidential https://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/data. php?year=1948&datatype=national&def=1&f=0&off=0&elect=0. 541 Strategy,” Southern the on South: Republicanism, Race, and in the New 542 Richard K. Scher, Politics 250. 1997), Routledge, (New York: Century Leadership in Twentieth 543 Ibid. Job,” Sheriff’s For Fight To Clark Jim Baker, “Wilson 544 Thomas, Rex 1966; 22, February Advertiser, (Ala.) Montgomery , American-Press “Baker Ruled Winner Over Sheriff Clark,” May 25, Thernstrom, Abigail and Thernstrom Stephan 1966; 1999), 157. York: Touchstone, (New Indivisible and White: One Nation, SURVIVED HOW SEGREGATION SEGREGATION HOW Councils of Mississippi, 1954), 12. 1954), of Mississippi, Councils BrookhavenA By Slaughtered Pigot “Eli , News Daily (Miss.) 533 Jackson 1908; 10, February Mob,” a black lynched than 2000 people 20, 1955. More August Courthouse,” in February 1908, and in August in Brookhaven man named Eli Pigot and Lamar Smith was shot rights activist named 1955, a black voting multiple of in front daylight square in broad the courthouse killed on witnesses. 534 Eli Hager, “A One-Man Justice Crusade in North Carolina,” North in Crusade Justice One-Man “A Hager, 530 Eli 2015. 29, July , Project Marshall 531Award.” Association Bar Williams, “NC 532 SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 132 582 Port Huron (Mich.) Times Herald , “Colorful Dearborn Mayor Orville Detroit Free Press , December 17, 1982. 581 580 Swannv.Charlotte-MecklenburgBd.of Educ.,402 U.S. 1 (1971). 579 578 577 576 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998), 47. 575 574 573 Panthers,” 572 16, 1969. 571 What We Can Do AboutIt(Cambridge: South End Press, 1989), 77. 570 Los Angeles Times, July 6, 1966. of His Way to Advise Against Drives Being Pressed by CORE, SNCC,” 569 Don Irwin, “Johnson Critical of Black Power Crusades: Goes Out 568 Ibid., 80. University Press, 2006), 39. Party: New Perspectives on a Revolutionary Movement (Durham: Duke 567 Jama Lazerow and Yohuru Williams, 566 “‘Fed Up’ Generation,” 18. party and charged many of its leaders with various crimes.”). Panther Black the of chapter York New the infiltrated later who agent, know that his bodyguard the day he was shot was an undercover police the gunsthatkilledMalcolmXwereheldbyblackhands,wenow “Preventing the Rise of a Messiah,” 565 “FinalReport of theSelectCommittee,” 63;JonathanDavid Farley, (New York: Grove Press, 1994), 22. Malcolm X, 564 American Future,” 563 which the society confronts their demand for justice. broken promises, theendlesshypocrisy andthedeceitwith These younger Negroesarefedupwithwhattheyconsider the possible onlyinanAmericathathasundergone radicalchanges. racism, buttheyalso believethatfullfreedom andequalityis only do not believe the nation can abandon its heritage of admit them.Anincreasing numberof youngerNegroes not American society will honor its principles and eventually Most of the old-line Negroes continue to hope that the , “Black Panther Greatest Threat to U.S. Security,” July DesertSun, “Black Panther Greatest Threat to U.S. Security,” July “Final Report of the Select Committee,” 10-11. “FinalReport of the SelectCommittee,” 10-11. Ibid., 84. Douglas S. Massey and Nancy A. Denton, Ibid., 98-99. Ibid., 98-99. Ibid., 2. Glick, Giovanni Russonello, “Fascination and Fear: Covering the Black Giovanni Russonello, “Fascination and Fear: Covering the Black Ibid., 108. Brian Glick, “The ‘Fed Up’ Generation Talks About Negro Rights and the “The‘FedUp’Generation TalksAbout Negro Rightsandthe Susan Morse, “Dearborn Lowers its Flag for its 36-Year Ruler,” Susan Morse, “Dearborn Lowers its Flag for its 36-Year Ruler,” New York Times, October 15, 2016. War atHome, 7-8. War atHome: Covert ActionAgainst U.S.Activistsand Malcolm X Speaks: Selected Speeches and Statements Negro Digest (1966): 18. , April 4, 2008 (“While The Guardian, April 4, 2008 (“While In Search of the Black Panther In SearchoftheBlackPanther American Apartheid

587 October 16, 1974. Daily SentinelandLeominsterEnterprise, “Text on Sargent Troop Call,” Boston Anti-Busing Violence,” September16,1974;Fitchburg (Mass.) Berkshire (Mass.) Pittsfield Eagle,“Beefed-upProtection byPolice Cools Arrested in Boston Over Protest of Busing,” September 24, 1974; 586 Fitchburg (Mass.) Daily Sentinel and Leominster Enterprise, “Five University Press, 2018), 22 4-33. York: Oxford (New Women and the Politics of White Supremacy 585 ElizabethGillespie McRae,MothersofMassiveResistance:White June 22,1974. 1974; New584 York Times , “Judge in Boston Defied on Busing,” December 17, Senate ‘No,’” April 20, 1966. Press, 2016),52;Ithaca(N.Y.) Journal,“Integration byBusing Gets Resistance toSchool Desegregation (Berkeley: University of California 583 Matthew Delmont, Hubbard Dies,” December 16,1982. Education Announces Resolution of South Orange-Maplewood, N.J., Education Announces Resolution of South Orange-Maplewood, N.J., April 13, 2016; U.S. Department of Education, “U.S. Department of Public Schools to Become Alarmingly Resegregated,” 599 Far From Post-Racial,” Huffington Post, July 2, 2014. 598 BrandonGoyette and Alissa Scheller, “15 Charts That Prove We’re assets/680/676745.pdf. “Report Office, to Congressional Requesters,” (2016): 10, https://www.gao.gov/ Accountability Government States United 597 596 Ibid.,32. hcleaver/330T/330TPEEOrfieldSchoolsMoreSeparate.pdf. Consequences Separate: Harvard University (2001): 2, http://la.utexas.edu/users/ More “Schools of aDecade of Resegregation,” The Civil Rights Project, Orfield, 595 Gary 594 Bd.ofEduc.OklahomaCity v.Dowell, 498 U.S.237 (1991). 593 Massey&Denton, American Apartheid, 2, 222. New York Times, December 28, 1988. 592 Allan R. Gold, “Boston Ready to Overhaul School Busing Policy,” (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 52-53. 591 David J. Armor, 590 McRae, (Ky.) Courier Journal, September 28, 1967. 589 Carol Liston, “LouiseDay Hicks:NextinCityHall?,”Louisville County (Calif.) Sun, December 26, 1971. 588 PeterArnett,“More Schools Integrated intheSouth,” SanBernardino 80.1, andby1990 that average had only fallen slightly to 77.8. American populations hadanaverage segregation index of In 1980, the 18 Northern cities with the largest African McRae, Sean Riley, “How Seattle Gave Up on Busing and Allowed Its Minneapolis (Minn.)StarTribune , “Boston Ordered to Integrate,” Mothers ofMassiveResistance, 34. Mothers ofMassiveResistance, 237. Forced Justice:School Desegregation andtheLaw Why Busing Failed: Race, Media, and the National The Stranger,

133 NOTES David Blight, “Historical Context of Civil War Monuments,” War Civil of Context “Historical Blight, David

Atlanta (Ga.) Atlanta Forum,” at Flag Allegiance Mark Sherman, “Pledging CONFEDERATE CONFEDERATE ICONOGRAPHY CENTURY THE 20TH IN 614 23, 2017, https://www.c-span.org/ History TV, October American video/?436091-1/historical-context-civil-war-monuments. Belknap Press, 2001), Race and Reunion (Cambridge: Blight, 615 David 258-59 259. 616 Ibid., 617 Ibid. 260. 618 Ibid., Civil War Monuments,” of Foster, “Historical Context 619 Gaines 23, 2017, https://www.c-span.org/ History TV, October American 260. ibid., video/?436091-1/historical-context-civil-war-monuments; Monuments,”War Civil of Context “Historical Cox, 620 Karen 23, 2017, https://www.c-span.org/ History TV, October American video/?436091-1/historical-context-civil-war-monuments. 621 The JeffersonDavis Memorial in the Vicksburg National Military 13, 1927. October Pamphlet, Ceremonies Park, Dedication 622research. EJI on Based at Dies of Integration, Thurmond, Foe , “Strom Times York 623 New 27, 2003. June 100,” 624 29, 1993. Jan. , Journal Constitution NorthCounty: Panhandle Divides Flag “Rebel , Herald 625 Miami (Fla.) 27, 2015 July, vs. South Turned Around,” March, Montgomery to “Selma Photography, Herron 626 Matt Part II,” http://www.takestockphotos.com/imagepages/imagedetail. php?PSortOrder=46&FolioID=7. in Photos,”Jr. King Luther Martin “Remembering , Atlantic 627 The 19, 2015. January 628 Huffington Post, “Several States Have ErectedLaws to Protect 2017). 17, Monuments,”August Confederate Carolina North , “Controversial Times Citizen (N.C.) 629 Asheville 23, 2015. Becomes Law,” July Bill Monuments 630 Huffington Post, “It’s Illegal Now 2017. May 27, Monuments,” Confederate Alabama in to Remove York: Bloomsbury Press, 2013), 180. 2013), Press, Bloomsbury York: The New Harvard Business Review, Harvard , June 13, 2012; Campbell Robertson, “Alabama Robertson, Campbell 2012; 13, June Salon, , “Black and White Wealth Gap Times York New , “Racist Language Must BeAdvertiser, “Racist Language (Ala.) Montgomery 59, no. 11 (2015): 1400. no. Scientist 59, Behavioral American The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, “Poverty Rate by Race/ The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, “Poverty , November 18, 2004. November , Atlantic in Public Schools.” Segregation Day “Modern 600 Kohli, Wilcoxin Place Takes Still Prom “White 46, CBS (Ga.) 601 Atlanta http://www.cbs46.com/story/22086349/ 2013, 29, May County,” wilcox-county-white-prom. 602 Editorial, School District Civil Rights Investigation,” (press release) October 28,release) October (press Investigation,” Rights Civil District School Schools,” Public in Segregation Day “Modern Kohli, Sonali 2014; Amendment Schools, of Separation “Alabama 2003; 17, June Deleted,” 2” (2004), https://ballotpedia.org/Alabama_Separation_of_Schools,_ Alex Seitz-Wald, “Alabama: Where JimAmendment_2_(2004); Survives,” Crow Simmers Before Vote on its Constitution’s Racist Language,” Language,” Racist Constitution’s its on Vote Before Simmers , October 31, 2012; “Alabama Segregation Reference Ban Reference 31, 2012; “Alabama Segregation , October Times York https://ballotpedia.org/Alabama_ (2012), 4” Amendment Amendment, Segregation_Reference_Ban_Amendment,_Amendment_4_(2012). to shall be provided reads: “Separate schools provision The constitutional permittedbe shall race either of child no and children, colored and white Sec. 256 (1901). Const. race.” Alabama the other of attend a school to (2017- Reports Public Data Education of 603 Alabama Department http://alsde.edu/publicdatareports/default.aspx. 2018), Senate Leading 81; at Dead is Eastland O. “James Hunter, 604 Marjorie 1986. , February 20, Times York New Integration,” of Foe Unemployment- and Rate “Unemployment Statistics, Labor of 605 Bureau Ratio Vary by Race and Ethnicity,” January 13, 2017, https:// Population www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2017/unemployment-rate-and-employment- population-ratio-vary-by-race-and-ethnicity.htm. Black Against 606 Lincoln Quillian, et al., “Hiring Discrimination Years,” 25 in Declined Hasn’t Americans 11, 2017 October 607 Ethnicity, State by State” indicator/poverty-rate-by-raceethnicity/. (2016), https://www.kff.org/other/state- 608 Editorial, 18, 2017. September Perceptions,” and Amanda E. Lewis, “Beyond Prejudice? A. Forman 609 Tyrone America, 1976 to Rights Whites’ Racial Attitudes in Post-Civil Young 2000,” 610 Ibid., 1401. 611 Pew Research Center, “On Views of Race and Inequality, Blacks and http://www.pewsocialtrends. 2016, 27, June Apart,” Worlds Are Whites org/2016/06/27/on-views-of-race-and-inequality-blacks-and-whites- are-worlds-apart/. 11, 36. 612 Ibid., Jr.’s Letter Martin Luther King, Rieder, Gospel of Freedom: 613 Jonathan (New Nation a Changed That Struggle the and Jail Birmingham a from SEGREGATION IN AMERICA 134 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 135 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Zachary Zachary Mickey for Hubbard Mickey for research, writing, writing, research, for Jennifer Taylor for design assistance for and research; Susskind and Randy Kapadia Sonia for design and production work. For additional please content andFor information, work. design and production Madeo for Adam and editing; Sia research, writing, for Murphy Sanneh, Estelle Hebron-Jones, John for research and writing; for Kiara research and licensing;photo Alicia Boone for D'Addario Bryan Stevenson, Director visit segregationinamerica.eji.org. Katznelson, Katy Miller, Carla Crowder, Ben and Jenny Harmon, research. We want Rading, for Williams Ajwang Carla Crowder, Miller, Katy Katznelson, use their documented this important history and have allowed us to thankwho the talented all to of photographers to images. We are grateful research and writing; Dalton, Dalton, Madeline Bailey, GeDá Jones Herbert, Mark Feldman, Rebecca Livengood, Sade Stevens, and Brooks Gabrielle Milligan, and editing; Evan research photo for and editing; Maki Somosot writing, research, for Emanuel Kari Reiss, Sam Porter, research and editing; Justin photo for Kubakundimana Jonathan Gellman, Abigail Daniels, research; for Spillers Elliot Nelson, This report was written, researched, and produced by the staff ofthe Equal Justice Initiative. It is the result of a col- of hundreds spent have who staff, and students, interns, fellows, justice fellows, law lawyers, our of all by effort lective years research and investigation. the last conducting This four over publication would not be possible hours without the dedicated work of everyone on our staff. I would like to specially thank for research and writ- for and editing; Aaryn Judge preparation; Rachel layout editing, and research, writing, for Urell ing; EQUAL JUSTICE INITIATIVE

122 COMMERCE STREET MONTGOMERY, ALABAMA 36104 334.269.1803 www.eji.org

Segregation in America is part of the Equal Justice Initiative's racial justice project, which examines the history of racial inequality in America and the consequence of this history on a range of issues. We invite you to join us in our work on the legacy of racial inequality. For copies of this report and other materials from EJI, please visit www.eji.org. EJI is a private, nonprofit organization. Individual donations are greatly appreciated and tax deductible.

© 2018 by Equal Justice Initiative. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, modified, or distributed in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means without express prior written permission of Equal Justice Initiative.