Nature and Cultural Environments in the Arctic Greenland, Iceland and Svalbard

Rolf Haugaard Nielsen

TemaNord 2006:534 Nature and Cultural Environments in the Arctic Greenland, Iceland and Svalbard

TemaNord 2006:534 © Nordic Council of Ministers, Copenhagen 2006 ISBN 92-893-1335-8 Translation: Rolf Haugaard Nielsen Layout and production: Naturplan (www.naturplan.dk) Prepress: Digital XPress as Print: UniTryk Cover photo: Karsten Scanack/Scanpix Copies: 500 Printed on environmentally friendly paper

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Nordic co-operation Nordic co-operation, one of the oldest and most wide-ranging regional partnerships in the world, involves Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, the Faroe Islands, Greenland and Åland. Co-operation reinforces the sense of Nordic community while respecting national differences and similarities, makes it possible to uphold Nordic interests in the world at large and promotes positive relations between neighbouring peoples.

Co-operation was formalised in 1952 when the Nordic Council was set up as a forum for parliamentarians and governments. The Helsinki Treaty of 1962 has formed the framework for Nordic partnership ever since. The Nordic Council of Ministers was set up in 1971 as the formal forum for co-operation between the governments of the Nordic countries and the political leadership of the autonomous areas, i.e. the Faroe Islands, Greenland and Åland. Challenges in the Arctic 6

What should be protected in the Arctic? 8

Vulnerable cultural environments need better protection 12

Wear and tear from trafﬁ c necessitate monitoring 16

Research that leaves no trace 20

Proposal: An Arctic education for nature interpreters 24

Education improves environmental awareness 28

Local Agenda 21 in the Arctic 32

Pioneering an Arctic seabird colony database 36

Bottom trawling and scallop dredging in the Arctic: Vulnerable habitats need protection 40

Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic 5 Challenges in the Arctic

The Arctic possesses unique envi- environment and the living condi- ronmental values, but the chal- tions of the people such as emis- lenges of protecting and preserv- sions of greenhouse gasses and ing these values are daunting and pollutants, which originate far not met yet. The areas of pristine away from the polar areas but are nature in the World is being dimin- transported to the Arctic, where ished at a fast pace, and some of they already are affecting the the last, huge, and fairly pristine environment. areas are found in the Arctic. Furthermore, many old cultural The Action Plan heritage sites exist in this magniﬁ - The Nordic Action Plan to Protect cent nature telling us a fascinat- the Natural and Cultural Heritage ing story on how man has lived in of Arctic - Greenland, Iceland and the Arctic throughout the ages by Svalbard (Nord 1999:29) intends using the natural resources. The to contribute to the realization of natural and cultural environment the goals in the Nordic Environ- of the Arctic represents a great mental Strategy and the Arctic value on its own, and it is also Programme for Co-operation. The very important for the protection Action Plan was approved by the of the biological diversity. The Arc- Nordic environmental ministers in tic has attracted a lot of attention Iceland on August 23rd 1999. recently – not only by the increasing number of tourists – but also Geographically the Action Plan in the global science community, was limited to cover Greenland, and as a reference area for envi- Iceland and Svalbard and the ronmental monitoring. oceans in between. This was due to the explicit wish to promote One of the biggest and most cooperation among these Nordic urgent environmental challenges islands in the Arctic. is to ensure that the local activities such as exploitation of the The purpose of the plan is to resources, tourism, and research compare and evaluate the needs are conducted within a sustain- of the different regions and to pro- able framework. The biodiver- pose prioritized measures within sity must be preserved, and the the ﬁ elds of biodiversity, protec- pristine areas and cultural herit- tion of landscapes and cultural age sites must not be degraded environments, out-door life, and or destroyed. However, there are environmental monitoring. other threats to the fragile Arctic

6 Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic The protection of cultural herit- The Steering Group has been in the auspices of the Arctic Council age sites has not previously been close collaboration with the Work- and the Barents Co-operation. We taken into account in other multi- ing Group for Nature, Out-door do hope that the holistic approach lateral environmental programmes Life and Cultural Environment as to natural and cultural environ- in the Arctic. In this context the well as The Nordic Environment ments will be adopted and further intention of the Nordic Action Plan Monitoring and Data Group. Nine developed by other international to apply a holistic approach to projects covering a broad range of organisations in the Arctic. protect natural and cultural envi- measures to protect and preserve ronments in an overall effort may the cultural and natural environ- The nine projects have strength- be seen as pioneering. ments in Greenland, Iceland ened the Nordic cooperation on and Svalbard have been carried environmental protection and The Action Plan identiﬁ es four key through. This booklet describes sustainable use of the natural areas for future Nordic coopera- the substance of the projects and resources in the Arctic, and they tion on environmental protection their results. have also improved the general in the Arctic: knowledge base. It is the hope of The Nordic Action Plan for the Arc- the Nordic Council of Ministers 1) The Arctic as a role model tic did not include climate change that the networks that have been for the international effort to or environmental toxins because established between the environ- promote sustainable develop- these challenges were to be dealt mental authorities in Greenland, ment. with in their own strategy. On Iceland and Svalbard will be de- 2) Improvement of the environ- March the 16th 2006 the Nordic veloped further after the termina- mental knowledge base and environmental ministers adopted tion of the projects. the environmental monitoring this Strategy for Climate Change in the Arctic. and Pollution in the Arctic Region. The results from the projects 3) Improvement of the Nordic includes a number of recommen- cooperation on environmental The road to the future dations for speciﬁ c initiatives, legislation and management in Many challenges for environmen- which will need a follow-up. It the Arctic. tal protection in the Arctic can would be a success for the Arctic 4) To work for an improved public only be met through cooperation co-operation, if the best proposals ecoconsciousness and for between all the Arctic Nations, for projects and initiatives can be prevention of environmental which have many interests in com- implemented. crimes in the Arctic. mon concerning future management of the resources and the en- Realizing the plan vironment. The projects initiated The Nordic Council of Ministers by the Nordic Council of Ministers appointed an Arctic Steering - and described in this booklet Group that was given the respon- - are to be seen as a Nordic con- sibility for realizing the recom- tribution and supplement to the Tore Ising mendations of the Action Plan. multilateral collaboration under Chairman of The Arctic Steering Group

Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic 7 What should be protected in the Arctic?

Increasing human ac- land and Svalbard. The increasing tivity may wear down pressure on the vulnerable nature fragile landscapes and and many cultural heritage sites cultural environments in makes it necessary to develop a Greenland, Iceland and set of objective protection criteria Svalbard. Therefore we for environmental management. need objective criteria for These criteria should be based on protection that take into an overall assessment of the inter- account the interaction action between the landscape, the between nature, human cultural environments and human history and society. activities. A central challenge is to deﬁ ne which values landscapes Tourism and outdoor life is ex- and cultural environments display, panding in the Arctic and the and to determine the importance resulting trafﬁ c may damage of different values in order to be unique landscapes and cultural able to prioritize. environments in Greenland, Ice-

Geologists use the steep rock walls at Festningsodden, Svalbard, as a geological reference proﬁ le and the site is visited frequently by students (photo: Winfried Dallmann).

8 Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic A tenth of all the icebergs that is calved from the Greenland ice sheet passes through the Ilulissat Icefjord (photo: Jakob Lautrup, GEUS).

The climate, nature, and socie- the environmental authorities in To illuminate management prob- ties are very different in Green- Greenland, Iceland and Svalbard. lems related to the protection of land, Iceland and Svalbard, and These criteria give ﬁ rst priority to landscapes and cultural environ- so far this has inﬂ uenced the landscapes and cultural heritage ments the project group has de- environmental priorities of the sites that display a holistic im- scribed a number of locations in authorities. In Greenland human pression of the interplay between Greenland, Iceland and Svalbard. life depends on living resources, nature and history. The chosen and environmental protection has sites may either represent some- Life at Ilulissat Icefjord focused on wildlife and on conser- thing unique or a phenomenon In 2004 the Ilulissat Icefjord was vation of cultural heritage sites. In that was typical in the past. included in UNESCO’s World Herit- Iceland people live with frequent age List due to it’s unique nature volcanic eruptions and earth- Cultural heritage sites are irre- and extreme beauty. Ilulissat Ice- quakes, and therefore landscapes placeable sources to historical fjord is a good example of why the have always been an important information, and they tell us about close interplay between nature, topic. Svalbard has a history as of the social, religious and eco- the biological resources, and hu- mining colony and hence geologi- nomical life of our ancestors. In man history necessitate a holistic cal formations have been consid- a similar way the present land- approach. ered of economical importance, scapes hold clues to the devel- but not worthy of protection in opment of planet Earth. Many In the bottom of the fjord the their own right. geological formations in the Arctic majestic glacier, Ilulissat Isbræ, yield important information on calves 35 cubic kilometres of ice A holistic approach the geological processes in the each year. The peaks of the gi- A project group working under the past, and studying these natural gantic icebergs that drift through auspices of the Nordic Council of archives is necessary to be able to the fjord often reach 100 metres Ministers has developed a set of predict climate change or natural above the water surface, and common protection criteria for disasters in the future. the movements of the large ice landscapes and cultural environ- masses optimize the conditions ments, which can be applied by for biological production. For mil-

Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic 9 lennia the ice fjord has provided The common criteria for protection good hunting areas and fi shing grounds for the various human The criteria for protection are based on a holistic approach and they are very societies. The fi rst people to settle similar for landscapes and cultural environments: in the area were the Stone Age Es- kimos of the Saqqaq culture that Criteria for selection: came down from the north 4000 • Preservation of the natural heritage with emphasis on geological diversity and a clean environment. years ago. • Cultural heritage sites should be safeguarded with the aim of preserving a representative diversity of historical sites and artefacts on a local, In recent years the town of Ilulis- national and international level. sat has been a centre of tourism • Basis for knowledge: The importance of landscapes and cultural heritage in Greenland, and the increasing sites for research, education and communication should be considered. • Experience and adventure: Aesthetic value, pristine state, rarity, and sym- number of visitors may threaten bolic value are important assets. the vulnerable landscape and the numerous cultural heritage Criteria for priorities: sites. Therefore the environmen- • Vulnerability: Will a landscape or a cultural heritage site be damaged by tal authorities and the business disturbances or increased traffi c? community now collaborate to • Threats: Is immediate action necessary to protect a site? Or should preventive measures be taken, e.g. if more tourists are expected in the develope action plans in order to future? ensure sustainable use of the ice • Accessibility: Improved accessibility may increase the risk of damage, but fjord area. may also improve the utility value of an area. Therefore the pros and cons must be evaluated carefully. The historic parliament site of • Utility value: Some cultural heritage sites are of economical value today; an example is historical buildings. Landscapes may also be important for Iceland business, e.g. for the tourist industry. Hence commercial exploitation of Tingvellir is the most famous cul- cultural heritage sites and landscapes necessitate sustainable manage- tural heritage site in Iceland and ment. many important historical deci- • Condition: It must be decided whether a cultural heritage site is in a state sions has been taken at the site, that makes it worth preserving. where for centuries the ancient The remains of a stall at Tingvellir (photo: Kristinn Magnússon).

10 Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic A magnifi cent view of the sea, the ice and the land in Greenland (photo: John Frikke). parliament – Alltinget – was as- pelago, Spitzbergen, a unique can forbid or regulate admittance sembled to issue laws and pass geological profi le, Festningen, is to especially vulnerable areas. It sentences. Tingvellir was ap- located. The almost vertical rock is strictly forbidden to remove any pointed to national park as early wall facing the sea contains nearly fossil traces of dinosaurs. as in 1928, and in 2004 the old unbroken layers from the begin- parliament site was included on ning of Perm 290 million years Report: TemaNord 2005:541 UNESCO’s World Heritage List. ago to the start of the Cretaceous “Vernekriterier for geologiske el- 65 million years ago. The geo- ementer og kulturminner i Arktis”. http://www.norden.org/pub/sk/ There are more than 50 ruins at logical archive at Festningen is showpub.asp?pubnr=2005:541. Tingvellir, which is a great tourist an important reference profi le for Search for the report/the topic at: attraction. Up till 1998 numerous geological research. Footprints www.norden.org/pub paths had been made all over the of the dinosaur Ignoanodon that area, and the paths often went lived in the Cretaceous have been right across less visible ruins. found at the site. Festningen is Then a substantial restoration eroded naturally by waves and sea work was started to prevent wear ice. and tear and to avoid further damage. The number of paths has It is easy to reach Festningen been reduced, and a large wooden by boat, and this increases the platform has been built for tour- availability for researchers and ist groups at Lögberg, where the students and hence the scientifi c Allting held its sessions according value, but it also increases risk to historians. of damage by wear and tear. The locality is conserved, and traffi c The geological time table of and other human activities must Svalbard be conducted in a way that does On the southern coast on the larg- not damage the environment. est island in the Svalbard archi- When necessary the authorities

Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic 11 Vulnerable cultural environments need better protection

Cultural heritage sites in mals. Consequently, when people the Artic tell a fascinating abandon small settlements traces tale of the capability of of human history may deteriorate the people to adapt to the quickly. cold climate and survive in tough conditions. The In other places the cultural envi- cultural environments of ronments of the past are under the past are now under threat due to increased human threat – in some places activity – building of factories, due to increased activity, houses and tourist huts, construc- in others because people tion of roads and bridle paths, cul- move away from small set- tivation of ﬁ elds, use of modern tlements. agricultural machinery, and forest planting. In addition many cultural The Arctic nature is tough on heritage sites are worn by increas- cultural heritage sites that are left ing trafﬁ c due to tourism, outdoor unattended as they get damaged life and research. from frost and erosion, and the fragile vegetation on or nearby ruins may be destroyed by ani-

A paleoeskimoic ruin in North-eastern Greenland (photo: Claus Andreasen).

12 Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic Today the settlement of Qassiarsuk is located at the same site as the farm of Eric the Red. The ruins of the Norse farm and the church are seen in the middle of the picture (photo: Susan Barr).

In spite of the differences in cli- environment is the context that as well as the American presence mate, geography and history the makes it possible to acknowledge, during World War II. main challenges are the same in how humans have lived and sur- Greenland, Iceland and Svalbard. vived in the North. To succeed in preserving a repre- Admittance to the National Park sentative part of the cultural herit- Millennia of history in Green- is only possible with permission age new initiatives are necessary land from the Greenland Home Rule, on the national, regional and local The National Park in North-eastern which is typically given to scien- levels. In this context a Nordic Greenland is the largest protected tifi c expeditions. However, in the expert group has put forward a area in the world, and it contains future it is likely that the attrac- number of recommendations, and an outstanding cultural envi- tions of the National Park will see the group has also pointed out ronment that clarifi es the tight increased commercial exploita- cultural environments in each of connection between nature and tion. the three Arctic regions, which are culture. From prehistoric times worthy of preservation. there are remains of the oldest Another unique cultural heritage paleoeskimo cultures as well as site in Greenland is Brattahlid The starting point for the selection the ancestors of the present Inuit near Narsarsuaq, where the fi rst of these cultural heritage sites is population, the Thule Eskimos, Norse immigrants settled in the interplay between the natural who emigrated from Canada and 985 under the leadership of Eric resources and the human history. settled along the coasts of Green- the Red, and later set sail for Dependency on nature is a basic land almost a thousand years ago. America. Today the historical site fact of life in the Arctic, and the From later periods there are traces is surrounded by the settlement interaction between man and the of Norwegian and Danish hunters of Qassiarssuk, which in some

Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic 13 Three generations of main buildings at the Keldur farm. To the left the most recent house from 1937, in the middle a house from the 18th century, and to the right the medieval longhouse (photo: Thór Hjaltalín).

respects burdens the ruins. Due sources, e.g. in the famous Njal’s search bases. The main challenge to the importance of Brattahlid in saga. The National Museum is preserve the valuable cultural Norse history thousands of tour- bought the farm in 1947, and it environment while developing the ists arrive each year. In 2000 the was restored from 1997 to 2000. modern research settlement. Greenland Museum and Archive At the moment Keldur is closed to initiated a project to maintain the public. Report: TemaNord 2005:552 “Kul- the ruins and to establish paths turmiljøer i Arktis - Prinsipper for through the area. Furthermore, bærekraftig forvaltning” The coal mines of Svalbard www.norden.org/pub/sk/ platforms have been constructed Ny-Ålesund in Svalbard used to be showpub.asp?pubnr=2005:552. to prevent trafﬁ c on the ruins. a mining community with several Search for the report/the topic at: coal mines. Mining began in 1916 www.norden.org/pub and ceased in 1962 after a seri- A medieval farm in Iceland ous accident that killed 21 miners. The Keldur farm in Southern During the operation of the mines Iceland is a unique cultural en- several railways, roads, bridges, vironment that consists of more wharves and barracks were con- than 30 buildings and ruins that structed, but after the closure the were built between 1000-1200 area was abandoned, and today and 1937. The oldest part of the it is littered with wrenched metal farm is the ﬂ oor in the medieval parts, splintered woodwork and longhouse, and a 25 metre long remains of buildings and railway underground tunnel that served as tracks. Since 1999 several bridges an escape route. The longhouse have been restored, and danger- burned down around 1400-1500 ous waste has been removed. and was later rebuilt. Keldur is Today the houses are maintained mentioned in several medieval and several of them serve as re-

14 Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic Remains from coal mining at Svalbard (photo: Susan Barr).

Recommendations for sustainable management

The national level: • The authorities should evaluate the need for new legislation on preservation of cultural heritage sites, and the concept of cultural environments should be written into the legislation. • It should be mandatory to investigate the consequences of projects that af- fect cultural environments. • All organized tourism that affects cultural environments of high priority should employ qualiﬁ ed guides.

The regional level: • Area and management plans should be ahead of development in order to create guidelines for the protection and development of cultural environments with respect to the peculiarity of the each site and the original building practices. • Guidelines should be developed in order to avoid wear and tear by trafﬁ c in locations with many or an increasing number of visitors.

The local level: • Local authorities should encourage the local inhabitants to participate in the measures to protect cultural environments. • If necessary trafﬁ c should be prohibited at vulnerable sites. • It should be mandatory that all visits to particularly vulnerable areas must be announced to the authorities. This could give an overview of the number of visitors, and the visitors could be informed on sustainable conduct.

Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic 15 Wear and tear from trafﬁ c necessitate monitoring

Many Arctic landscapes layer of humus. Therefore the and cultural environments vegetation is vulnerable to wear that used to be inacces- and tear, and the cold climate and sible are now easily within the short growing season makes it reach with modern means hard for the plants to recover. If a of transportation. The in- site is worn for longer periods the creasing trafﬁ c may wear plant cover may disappear com- down vulnerable environ- pletely. This often creates erosion ments and this necessi- that may lead to landslides, espe- tates environmental moni- cially in areas with steep slopes. toring. The beautiful and pristine Arctic When a great number of people nature attracts a growing number visit the Arctic to enjoy the nature of tourists, and outdoor life is in- or the cultural heritage sites the creasingly popular within the local resulting trafﬁ c may wear down populations. In Iceland many peo- fragile environments. The plant ple spend their vacations in the cover is often thin and fragment- highlands riding or walking, while ed, and the plants grow in a thin trips on dog sledges and snow

Footpath at Sermermiut by Ilulissat Icefjord in Greenland (photo: Joel Berglund).

16 Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic The vegetation at Gravneset in Svalbard has been worn down by tourists (photo: Kirsti Høgvard).

scooters are popular in Greenland. monitored efﬁ ciently at a reason- in the area 4000 years ago, while In Svalbard many cruise ships able price? the most recent ruins date from anchor at the coasts, and some- 1850 when the settlement was times up to a thousand people go To answer that question a Nordic abandoned. Each year Sermer- ashore at the same time, which expert group has tested a number miut is visited by 10.000 tourists. burden the fragile vegetation. of methods for environmental Many paths have been trodden all monitoring at ten locations in across the area, and the vegeta- The booming outdoor activities Greenland, Iceland and Svalbard, tion near the most visible ruin put many landscapes and cultural and they have developed a new is worn down. The Sermermiut environments at greater risk of observation scheme with descrip- area was monitored by sketch- being worn down, and at cultural tive classes of conditions that has ing and photographing, and the heritage sites souvenir hunters proven very useful. observation scheme was applied also cause problems. to describe the condition of the Field tests ruins. At the moment the possibil- The increasing pressure on nature One of the cultural environments ity of monitoring Sermermiut from and the cultural environments in Greenland that has been moni- satellites is being evaluated. necessitate environmental monitored during the project is the toring to make it possible for the ancient settlement of Sermermiut The Skaftafell National Park in authorities to regulate trafﬁ c in or- at Ilulissat Icefjord, where more Iceland is a unique landscape der to avoid irreversible damage. than 20 ruins are located. The old- with several active volcanoes and But how can the environment be est ruins are remains of the Stone the largest glacier of the island, Age Saqqaq Eskimos that settled Vatnajökull. The area is nominated

Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic 17 for UNESCO’s World Heritage List, Often it is important to moni- Report: TemaNord 2003:530 “Miljøovervåkning av ferdselssli- and if Skaftafell is included more tor the development at a large tasje – Grønland, Island og Svalbard” visitors are expected, and this number of localities in order to http://www.norden.org/pub/sk/ would increase the trafﬁ c load spot general trends. In this con- showpub.asp?pubnr=2003:530. on paths and cultural heritage text photos taken from the air and Search for the report/the topic at: sites in the area. Therefore it is satellite pictures are excellent, www.norden.org/pub important to initiate environmen- but also expensive methods. In tal monitoring now in order to many cases the use of observation be able to spot possible changes schemes is a good alternative at such as increased erosion. In the a reasonable price. The method is Skaftafell National Park the me- cheap in particular when the en- thods applied were airplane pho- vironmental monitoring is carried tos, observations schemes, and out along with other supervision measurements of cultural heritage tasks. sites, while photos were taken of localities at high risk. Detailed monitoring is recom- mended at smaller locations with In Svalbard a famous old burial a large number of visitors. In this ground for whalers, Gravneset, context photography and espe- has been monitored by photogra- cially manipulated 3D pictures is phy on location and by airplane an appropriate method. photos. Many tourists visit Grav- neset and the vegetation has been A satisfactory environmental completely destroyed in large monitoring of landscapes and cul- areas. tural environments in Greenland, Iceland and Svalbard demand The expert group recommends increased funding. The Nordic that environmental monitoring expert group recommends that should be continued in all the ten the authorities initiate a long- areas that have been monitored term monitoring programme, so far. and meanwhile the methods for monitoring should be further Overview and details developed and improved. Experience from the project show that it is appropriate to monitor the environment at both an overall and a detailed level.

18 Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic At Skaftafell erosion from trafﬁ c is minimized by the construction of footpaths (photos: Chas Goemans).

Methods for environmental monitoring

Photos taken on location, airplane photos, and satellite pictures are common methods for monitoring the environment.

When photos of an area are taken with regular intervals the pictures can be compared to spot changes in the environmental condition. Today it is possible to manipulate the photos to create 3D pictures of the locality.

Photos taken from airplanes or helicopters are well suited to monitor larger areas and pictures in the infrared show changes in the vegetation. In recent years it has become possible to employ unmanned micro helicopters that can be equipped with different types of sensors, and this has created a range of new possibilities.

Satellite pictures are excellent for mapping and monitoring of landscapes and vegetation at a very large scale, and new satellites are able to deliver photos with a high resolution down to 5 metres. Such photos can be used to spot e.g. vehicle tracks.

Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic 19 Research that leaves no trace

The Arctic is an extremely environmental state of the areas, important region for re- where the research is conducted. search into climate, geology, natural resources, A Nordic expert group has now and the environment. Sci- identifi ed a number of challenges ence infl uences attitudes that researchers, their institu- and it is essential that the tions, and the environmental fi eld work is carried out in authorities must face to ensure a sustainable manner. that sustainability becomes an integrated part of research in these Scientists working in Greenland, areas. By taking these challenges Iceland and Svalbard often carry seriously it should be possible to out their fi eld work in remote and reduce the environmental impacts pristine areas, which are diffi cult of research and educational activi- to reach, possess outstanding ties in the fi eld. natural values, are very vulnerable, and hence are protected by Planning can reduce the high environmental standards. impacts The large distances, the rough Prior to starting a research project climate, and the absence of roads an environmental impact assess- and other infrastructure neces- ment should be carried out as sitate the use of heavy logistics an integrated part of the overall such as helicopters, off-road vehi- planning. The impacts from heavy cles and large ships. Such heavy logistics can be minimized if gear burdens the environment different project are coordinated more from emissions and wear and if data are shared between and tear than lighter logistics that research groups. In this context suffi ce in easier accessible areas. project databases should be established for the entire region. Research has a profound effect on The research infrastructure should the attitudes of both students and be concentrated in designated the general public, and therefore locations in order to minimize the scientists should be very much area affected by fi eld work. aware of their environmental re- sponsibilities. It is also important Legislation and information for the validity of the results that The environmental legislation the fi eld work does not alter the often contains a complex set of regulations for the areas, where the scientists work. Therefore it

20 Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic A ﬁ eld camp is placed on stony ground in order to avoid damage on vegetation (photo: John Frikke).

Transport by truck leaves tracks in the landscape. Below the tracks are covered (photos: Snorri Páll Snoraason).

Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic 21 is important that the authorities provide researchers and students Arctic research in a global context with relevant and user-friendly information in order to ensure, The international interest in Arctic research is on the rise, especially in fi elds such as ecology, climate, geology and environmental research. that they know the rules. The environmental authorities should also The ecosystems in the Arctic are simple and relatively unaffected by human develope better and more rational activities and hence very well suited for basic ecological and biological stud- routines for granting permits for ies. Meanwhile, physical processes such as the exchange of energy between research in pristine areas. the seas, the ice and the atmosphere are of utmost importance to the global climate. Concerning geosciences the rocks in Svalbard and Greenland represent all the geological periods of Planet Earth, and the geological structures are easy Knowledge of the environment accessible due to the thin soil layers and the thin plant cover. In environmental The demands for conducting fi eld science the Arctic is important for understanding long distance transport of envi- work in a sustainable manner ronmental toxins and pollution. depend on how vulnerable the affected environment is. For many In Greenland the gigantic, three kilometres thick ice sheet is a unique natural phenomenon in the northern hemisphere. Deep ice cores drilled through the ice areas this is not known, and if sheet has provided us with the most detailed data so far of the Earth’s climate the knowledge exists, research- and atmospheric chemistry over the last 130.000 years. ers may not know where to fi nd it. Therfore it is necessary to Iceland is a young volcanic island of great importance in the study of plate establish databases with compre- tectonics and volcanism, and the geology provides outstanding opportunities for the development of geothermic energy. Furthermore, the soil erosion is extreme, hensive and relevant information and the Icelandic research into erosion processes is world class. on the environmental conditions as well as possible impacts in the From a biological point of view Svalbard is one of the richest land areas in the areas, where research is carried high Arctic, and the seas surrounding the ice margin are among most produc- out. tive in the world. Svalbard is one of the best locations to study auroras and also very well suited for receiving data from satellites in polar orbits. The geological formations on Svalbard mirror the geological structures in the surrounding seas, The fi eld work and this is of interest in the context of oil exploration. During the fi eld work the environmental impacts can be minimized by good practices, and by using the best available technologies it is often possible to reduce the portant to investigate, if there are Report: TemaNord 2005:547 “Forskning wear and tear from traffi c. All alternative methods or locations, uten spor” http://www.norden.org/ transports should pass through and equally important to consider pub/sk/showpub.asp?pubnr=2005: the least vulnerable areas and which season the animals will be 547. Search for the report/the topic at: www.norden.org/pub be carried out at times, when the least affected. Finally, sustainable resulting impacts are minimal. handling of waste and efforts to When research projects involve minimize emissions are always the handling of animals it is im- important challenges.

22 Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic A satellite transmitter is attached to a walrus by hand (photo: Mario Acquarone).

A harpoon tip with a satellite transmitter (photo: Jørgen Søholm).

Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic 23 Proposal: An Arctic education for nature interpreters

Nature interpreters can do natural history, culture, environ- a lot to raise public eco- mental protection and sustainable consciousness and also to development. In many places minimize the impacts on nature interpreters also supervise nature and cultural herit- valuable landscapes and cultural age sites from the grow- heritage sites and take care of ing tourist industry in the their maintenance. Arctic. But their task is demanding, and therefore Iceland has employed rangers a new Nordic education for three decades in the national for nature interpreters, parks and other protected areas rangers and guides is pro- where nature interpretation has posed. become one of their mane working methods. In recent years a grow- Nature interpreters act as connec- ing number of guides that uses tors between the environmental nature interpretation in their work authorities, the local population have been employed by the tour- and the tourists, and they enable ists industry as the customers get people to fully experience nature more and more environmentally by communicating knowledge of conscious. The main tasks of the

Glaciers can be studied close-up from rubber dinghies at Scoresbysund in Greenland (photo: John Frikke).

24 Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic Nature interpretation at Tingvellir in Iceland (photo: John Frikke).

Icelandic rangers are communica- a permanent basis, and by 2006 Despite of the differences in tion and supervision, but they seven municipalities in Greenland Iceland, Greenland and Svalbard also help with security matters in are expected to employ nature in- there are also similar trends and case of accidents in the conserved terpreters. The nature interpreter needs, and recently a Nordic areas. Their education is a 120 working in Nuuk has completed project group has identifi ed three hours long course provided by the the Danish education provided by areas where nature interpretation Nature Conservation Division of the Forest and Nature Agency. The should be further developed in an the Environment and Food Agency course takes 504 hours. Artic context. of Iceland. Svalbard employs no rangers so High level education In Greenland a single ranger has far but has good experience with a The project group recommends es- worked for three years in Nuuk, course for Guides, where sustain- tablishing a Nordic education for and his main task has been nature able conduct and nature interpre- nature interpreters, guides, rang- interpretation such as educational tation is an important issue as is ers and outfi tters from Iceland, projects for children and teachers security and competence in the Greenland and Svalbard as well as in the primary school. Most of the fi eld. In 2006 the visiting centre the other Arctic parts of the Nordic projects were successful, in par- “The gate to Svalbard” opens its countries. The new education ticular those where the children doors to the public, and inter- should complement the national were physically active in nature pretation of nature and cultural educations and put knowledge while they learned. Therefore this heritage sites will be an important of the Arctic nature, environment arrangement now continues on topic at the exhibition. and history into a global context.

Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic 25 The level must be high, and both researchers and practitioners A handbook for nature interpreters should be employed as teachers. What is good nature interpretation in the Arctic? And how do you communicate with the audience in a lively and fascinating way? Now nature interpreters, Before the end of 2007 a concrete guides and rangers will be able to fi nd inspiration in a draft for a new handbook proposal for the content of the “Nature is your job”, which can be downloaded from www.norden.org. education, the structure and the fi nancing should be worked out An important advice is to connect information on facts to the audience’s feel- and put forward to the Nordic ings, sensations and experiences of nature. And there are other useful tips. One is to be so well prepared and know one’s area so well that it is easy to be spon- Council of Ministers. taneous. If an eagle suddenly fl ies across the sky, the moment should be caught and the experience should be used right away, even if the nature interpreter Information on the Internet had planned to talk about something else. Another piece of advice is not just The group also recommends es- to communicate dry facts but to tell stories and initiate discussions. The hand- tablishing a web-based informa- book contains facts, stories and legends that can be applied to enlighten nature tion portal for nature interpreters interpretation. in the Arctic, where the national

experiences with nature inter- held at the vernal equinox be- A group of tourists are enjoying rugged pretation can be registered and cause the Sun and the return of rock formations in Iceland (photo: Jens communicated. It should also be spring are so important for life in Muff Hansen/Naturplan). evaluated if a permanent forum the Arctic. for exchange of Arctic experiences should be established. Report: in press “Din arbetsplats är na- turen. En handbok om naturvägledning för naturvårdare och guider i Arktis.” An Arctic Nature Day Search for the report/the topic at: The last recommendation is the www.norden.org/pub institution of an Arctic Nature Day that should illuminate the ecological interaction between the Arctic and the temperate parts of Scandinavia. This could be communicated through themes such as man and nature, pollution, food chains, climate, water, and geology. An interesting possibility is that school classes in the Nordic countries cooperate on projects that culminate on the Nature Day. The Artic Nature Day should be

26 Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic At Phippsøya in Svalbard it is possible to get close to walruses (photo: Marie Lier/Naturplan).

Tourists walking through a valley at Kap Stewart in Greenland (photo: John Frikke).

Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic 27 Education improves environmental awareness

Teaching children about region and to make children aware the Arctic environment of the importance of protecting and the interplay be- nature and cultural heritage sites. tween man and nature is a good investment if the The concept “the environment” kids grow up to be more was deﬁ ned as “the interaction ecoconscious than previ- between man and nature at all ous generations. Impor- times” and the topic “Whales tant lessons have been and whaling” was chosen as the learned from an interre- starting point for multidisciplinary gional pilot project. education involving subjects such as nature, environment, biology, Three schools in Greenland, two history, social studies, and arts. in Iceland and one i Svalbard have participated in a pilot project 11 teachers and 200 pupils parti- called “Environmental education cipated in the pilot project. Every- in the Arctic”. The objectives were body was enthusiastic, and many to promote cooperation in the of the multidisciplinary classes

Children from Kangillinnguit have a taste of seal meat (photo: Isaavaraq Petrussen)

28 Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic Environmental education in a school class in Iceland (photo: John Frikke).

were successful on the national reduce the extra work of the teach- The projects should include a level. However, the schools were ers a comprehensive educational larger number of schools than the not able to establish the intended material should be provided, and pilot project and high schools as interregional communication in money should be available for a well. Participating schools and order to help the pupils acknowl- start-up seminar, where teach- classes should work towards a edge the differences and simi- ers can meet, make personal common goal, e.g. an informative larities of the whaling history in contacts, and fi nd partners in the home page on the Internet. This Greenland, Iceland and Svalbard. other regions. Money should also will strengthen the interregional be allocated to ensure that the collaboration and illuminate the After having evaluated the pilot schools are not burdened by ex- Nordic dimension. project the working group has put traordinary expenses from partici- forward a number of recommenda- pating in Nordic projects, and also Report: TemaNord 2003:538 tions aiming at improving the in- to pay the teachers compensation “Miljøundervisning i Arktis” terregional collaboration in future for their additional work. www.norden.org/pub/sk/ showpub.asp?pubnr=2003:538. educational projects in the Arctic. Search for the report/the topic at: Before contacting the schools a Future projects should cover two www.norden.org/pub detailed manual must be written school years, and the fi rst year describing the objectives, content, should be used solely to organ- rights, and fi nancial means. To ise the project and to establish ensure the professionalism and to contacts between the teachers.

Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic 29 Remains of a furnace that was used for boiling train oil off whale blubber at Smeerenburg in Svalbard (photo: Marie Lier/Naturplan).

The history of whaling

In the 16th century whalers from Europe and America began whaling around Ice- land, Greenland and Svalbard. In the seas surrounding Iceland the populations of ﬁ rst the large baleen whales and later the smaller species were diminished in the following centuries. All commercial whaling was prohibited in 1986.

In Greenland the whaling period culminated in the 16th century, when the large scale European whaling made a stark contrast to the Inuit way of whaling from sea kayaks. Beluga whale and narwhale are still important natural resources in North-western Greenland.

The whaling around Svalbard yielded large catches in the beginning, and in the ﬁ rst period train oil was boiled off from whale blubber on land, and many furnaces and mess tins were left on the shores. Today, these artefacts tell a fascinating tale of the past.

30 Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic The grave of a whaler in Svalbard (photo: John Frikke).

The experiences of three schools

Ukaliussuaq School, Nuuk, Greenland: A 9th class spent 30 hours on the project that focused on the biology of whales. One result was a poster exhibition at the school. The pupils found information on the Internet and in books, and they payed a visit to the nature interpreter in Nuuk, where they were given up-dated information on whales in Greenland. The class made contact to an Icelandic class and one in Svalbard, but no real collaboration was established. According to the teacher a project like this contributes positively to the children’s development, but she also points out, that without access to satisfactory information technology it is difﬁ cult to establish relations to pupils in other countries.

Grunnskólinn, Neskaupsstað, Iceland: A 6th and a 7th class spent 30 hours working on the project, which was organised as a theme week, where the ordi- nary schedule was substituted by multidisciplinary education. The school was visited by an out-side history teacher and mayor with a substantial knowledge on Icelandic whaling throughout history. The classes made an exhibition with sewed whales and ﬁ sh, posters, and an entire whaling station made from clay. The pupils had contact with another school in Iceland and a school in Svalbard. The teachers were happy about that the topic was chosen before-hand, but they recommend that educational materials should be made for future projects, and they would have appreciated that partnerships with teachers at other schools had been established before the project started.

Longyearbyen school, Svalbard: A 5th, 6th and a 7th class participated in the project. All three classes were visited by the cultural heritage consultant of Sval- bard who told them about the whaling period and showed pictures. The pupils also visited a museum, and they were given good advice at the public library. They had access to excellent information technology and found information on the Internet easily. There were sporadic contacts with classes in Iceland and Greenland. One of the teachers voiced the opinion that contact to another class should have been established prior to the project.

Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic 31 Local Agenda 21 in the Arctic

Three municipalities in Sustainable Development held in Iceland, Greenland and Johannesburg in 2002. In Rio each Svalbard have worked to and every society in the world was realise the Agenda 21 of given the task of promoting sus- the UN. The objective is tainable development in the 21st to promote sustainable century. On the local level the development in collabora- municipalities are responsible, tion with the citizens, the and their action plans should be business community and worked out in collaboration with the local organisations. the citizens, the business community, and the local organisations, The Agenda 21 is an action pro- because the Agenda 21 empha- gramme that was adopted at the sise that common citizens do have UN Conference on Environment an important responsibility for and Development held in Rio de sustainable development. Janeiro in 1992, and later strongly reafﬁ rmed at the World Summit on

In Sisimiut in Greenland most houses are built on rocks. Therefore it is difﬁ cult to bury water pipes and and drainpipes (photo: Stefan Gíslason).

32 Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic Children in a kindergarten in Flateyri in the municipality of Isafjordur (photo: Rúnar Óli Karlsson).

The Nordic Council of Ministers byen. The municipalities all regard the perspective in which the im- has allocated 900.000 DKK to improved possibilities for higher portance of the Local Agenda 21 support Local Agenda 21 projects education as a decisive factor to projects should be considered. in the Arctic and as a result such sustain a versatile business com- projects have been initiated in the munity and to prevent people from Ísafjördur municipalities Ísafjördur in Ice- leaving the towns. Furthermore, The fi shing banks at Ísafjördur land, Sisimiut in Greenland, and they aim at promoting the tourist are rich and fi shing and fi shery Longyearbyen in Svalbard. industry. industry are the main occupations in the town and the surrounding Ísafjördur and Sisimiut both are Life in all three municipalities is settlements. Ísafjördur is also the traditional fi shing villages with based on exploitation of the natu- centre for trade and services in a 4000-6000 inhabitants, while ral resources, and in recent years large area. mining is the main industry in the magnifi cent nature and the Longyearbyen with 1500-1600 characteristic local culture has at- Ísafjördur experienced a consid- inhabitants. Institutions for higher tracted a growing number of tour- erable growth after 1788, when education are located in all three ists. Nature and culture represent the monopoly of trade was lifted towns; the Centre for Adult- and the strength of the municipalities, in Iceland, and there are many Remote Education in Ísafjördur, but also their weakness. The fi sh cultural heritage sites related to the Centre for Arctic Technology may disappear, the Arctic nature fi shery such as old sailor’s camps in Sisimiut, and the University is vulnerable, and if people move and factory ruins. During the Local Centre of Svalbard in Longyear- away the culture gets lost. This is Agenda 21 work the municipality

Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic 33 Passenger ship off Isafjordur ( photo: Rúnar Óli Karlsson). drew up a status report stressing The participation of the citizens The Department of Environment the need to catalogue the cul- in the Local Agenda 21 effort has and Nature under the Greenland tural heritage sites and artefacts. been rather limited, and this may Home Rule assisted the municipal- Cultural tourism is on the rise, be due to the fact that pollution ity in the Local Agenda 21 work and the municipality employs a never has been a big local prob- that produced a status report and civil servant who works both with lem. The municipality tried to raise a pilot project on local manage- tourism and Local Agenda 21 and the public awareness by arranging ment of living resources. Sus- this ensures proper exchange of meetings, but the talks did not tainable management of living information and promotes coordi- attract many citizens. Experience resources is a cornerstone in the nation. shows that is better to arrange environmental policy of Green- meetings at local industries, the land. The status report considers the schools, and local organisations. following topics: Consumption Longyearbyen and lifestyle, air pollution, noise, Sisimiut Longyearbyen is the main Norwe- nature protection, cultural herit- Sisimiut is the most northerly gian town in Svalbard. Tradition- age, bicycle paths and footpaths, town in Greenland with an ice free ally mining has been the main oc- the quality of drinking water, ex- harbour during the winter and cupation, and today coal is mined ploitation of resources, domestic the most southerly town with dog south of the town. In later years waste, public purchase, business, sledging. The main trades are ﬁ sh- new jobs have been created in the energy savings, and environmen- ing and ﬁ shery industry. Hunting public sector, research and educa- tal education in schools. An action mammals on land and in the sea tion, and in the tourist industry. plan with concrete measures and is another important occupation, timetables is to be worked out. and trips on dog sledges are a The local Agenda 21 working great tourist attraction. group consisted of representa- tives for the Governor of Svalbard,

34 Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic the Svalbard Council and Svalbard Samfunnsdrift A/S. The group participated in drafting a local development plan for Longyear- byen and decided that future Local Agenda 21 work is best taken care of within the existing political Longyearbyen is the Norwegian sea port in Svalbard (photo: John Frikke). framework.

Report: ANP 2005:702 “Lokal Agenda 21 i Arktis” www.norden.org/pub/sk/ showpub.asp?pubnr=2005:702. Search for the report/the topic at: www.norden.org/pub

The conserved aerial rope-way in Longyearbyen (photo: John Frikke).

Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic 35 Pioneering an Arctic seabird colony database

Seabird colony databases contribute to human existence as are a valuable tool for re- food resources for local communi- search, management and ties and by providing opportuni- conservation. A new Nor- ties for recreational activities such dic database format may as tourism. pave the way for the ﬁ rst circumpolar database of However, the large concentrations seabird colonies. of breeding seabirds in the Nordic countries – often substantial frac- Seabird breeding colonies are tions of the total populations – are important in nature. They con- vulnerable to human activities tribute to the local biodiversity such as disturbances, habitat al- themselves, but also by attracting teration, ﬁ sheries, and oil exploi- predators and scavengers and by tation. Therefore careful manage- creating habitats for other living ment is necessary to protect the organisms. They also play a major colonies. ecological role in the transport of nutrients and carbon from the In this context seabird colony da- sea to terrestrial habitats. In many tabases are an indispensable tool. Arctic regions seabird colonies The purpose of the databases is to

Numerous Pufﬁ ns breed at the bird cliffs of the Faeroes (photo: John Frikke).

36 Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic One of the largest colonies in the world of the Great Skua is located in the southern part of Iceland (photo: John Frikke). keep organized, updated infor- interests in order to minimise and of conservation status, owner- mation on the location, composi- mitigate impacts. ship, presence of alien predators, tion, and size of seabird breeding historical records, references, and colonies. These data are avail- Harmonized seabird colony data- how well the colony lends itself to able for research, management bases covering the entire Arctic catching birds for ringing or other and conservation, and hence the region will be particularly valuable research activities. The database databases are important for the because they enable common also allows for details on of indi- development of sustainable use analyses over larger areas than vidual censuses, such as species, policies, local planning, environ- any individual country. A project data, observer, bird numbers, and mental impact assessments, and group working under the Nordic monitoring. Council of Ministers has now established a harmonized database Great numbers of Brünnich’s Guillemots are found in Svalbard As an example the Greenland format for seabird colonies in the (photo: Marie Lier/Naturplan). seabird colony database has been Faroes, Greenland, Iceland, Jan used for considering conserva- Mayen, and Svalbard. tion interests during the planning of oil exploration along the West Comprehensive information Greenland coast. It is well known The new database system pro- that seabirds are very sensitive to vides comprehensive information oil spills, and the database made on the seabird breeding colonies. it possible to localize and desig- The parameters used to describe nate areas of high conservation colonies include location, details

Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic 37 census accuracy. Photo documen- tation can be included. The seabirds of the Arctic

Goal: A circumpolar standard Faroes: Number of breeding species: 20. Number of colonies: 1600. Number of breeding pairs: 1.7 million. Main monitoring programs involve Common Guille- The Nordic experts participate in mots, Kittiwakes and Gannets. the Circumpolar Seabird Group under the Arctic Council, and they Greenland: Number of breeding species: 21. Number of colonies: 3700. Number have recently proposed to use of breeding pairs: 39 million. Monitoring programs have been initiated or pro- their database format as a com- posed for Brünnich’s Guillemots, Common Eiders and Arctic Terns. mon standard for a circumpolar Iceland: Number of breeding species: 23. Number of colonies: 7000. Number seabird colony database including of breeding pairs: perhaps 7.5 million. Two species are monitored nation-wide, the American, Canadian and Rus- Great Cormorant and Gannet, ten species at selected colonies, while no pro- sian parts of the Arctic. The idea grams exist for eleven species. has been very well received. Svalbard: Number of breeding species: 18. Number of colonies: 1500. Number of breeding pairs: around 3 million. Seven species are monitored: Northern Ful- As it was the case for some of mar, Common Eider, Glaucous Gull, Black-legged Kittiwake, Common Guillemot, the Nordic countries other Arctic Brünnich’s Guillemot, and Little Auk. nations also have well established seabird colony databases Jan Mayen: Number of breeding species: 15. Number of colonies: 92. Number of for both scientifi c and manage- breeding pairs: 300.000. No monitoring of seabirds is undertaken. ment purposes. During the Nordic database project fi ve of the eight Report: TemaNord 2006:512 “Nor- Arctic countries agreed to a stand- dic Seabird Colony Databases”. ardized format, while the national http://www.norden.org/pub/sk/ needs of each country were taken showpub.asp?pubnr=2006:512 Search for the report/the topic at: into account. It is likely that the www.norden.org/pub Nordic database format also cov- ers most of the needs of Canada, USA and Russia; although some minor changes and additions may turn out to be necessary. A common set of criteria for describing seabird colonies will be a major step forward in facilitating a circumpolar approach to many scientifi c, management and con- servations issues.

38 Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic The Northern Fulmar breed in large colonies at Jan Mayen (photo: John Frikke).

The Little Auk is common at many locations in Greenland (photo: John Frikke).

Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic 39 Bottom trawling and scallop dredging in the Arctic: Vulnerable habitats need protection

Bottom trawling and able between taxonomic groups. dredging can increase the Species that reach a large size, mortality of a wide range have a slow growth rate, and of benthic species and de- mature at a high age are often stroy corals, sponges and most vulnerable. Demersal fi sh- archaeological remains ing can also result in decrease of on the seabed. Vulnerable diversity, alteration of predator- habitats require urgent prey relationships and long-term protection. changes in community structure, including dominance of species Two common demersal fi shing that are resilient to fi shing. gears in the Arctic are the otter trawl and the scallop dredge. The Long-lasting alterations in benthic otter trawl is used to catch fi sh communities may take place even and shrimp, and during towing the with a relatively short history of boards and the groundrope are fi shing. In habitats where the main contact with the seabed. The jority of animals consist of fragile scallop dredge has a heavy metal three-dimensional structures, frame that scrapes the seabed. such as deep-water corals, a sig- nifi cant impact can take place the Trawling and dredging have been very fi rst time the area is fi shed. shown to have a large impact The surface area swept during a on benthic communities. Most single tow tends to range between benthic fi sh and invertebrates one and two square kilometres. In live in mixed assemblages of both other words, few tows are needed target and non-target species. to disturb benthic communities in However, the trawls and dredges a relatively large area. are not very selective since they are designed to sweep and create Advances in gear technology and a disturbance on the seabed that development of larger and better- will lead the animals into the net. equipped vessels enable fi shing Consequently, all animals in the in areas that are often populated path of the gear are at risk of be- by vulnerable organisms and were ing captured, displaced, killed or previously inaccessible, such as seriously injured. Bottom trawling steep slopes, deep waters, lava and dredging increase the mortal- and boulder bottoms, or areas ity of both target and non-target that have recently become ice-free species, although the impact of due to climate change. fi shing operations is highly vari-

40 Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic A shrimp trawl is cleaned on the deck (photo: Morten Rasmussen/Biofoto).

The Nordic Action Plan states followed the discovery of virgin but by 1986 the area had been the need to investigate the effect scallop beds made up of old and depleted and the fl eet turned to of bottom trawling and scallop large specimens in high densi- Svalbard. Annual catches peaked dredging in the seas between ties, but the fi sheries have fol- at 44.100 tonnes in 1987 and Greenland, Iceland, Svalbard and lowed very different trends in each declined afterwards to 3.000- Jan Mayen. The marine region region, with drastic decline in 7.000 tonnes until 1995, when along the Norwegian coast south catches in Iceland and Norway. the archipelago was closed to to 67oN and the Norwegian ter- dredging. The available data show ritorial waters in the Barents The Icelandic fi shery dates from declining populations more than Sea where included because the 1969. Landings in Breiðafjörður ten years after dredging ceased discovery and recent protection in West Iceland, where the larg- but some signs of recovery have of coral reefs off West Norway can est scallop beds were located, been detected lately. serve as a cornerstone for fur- peaked at 12.700 tonnes in 1986, ther initiatives to protect marine but decreased to 7.500-9.000 Scallop dredging commenced in habitats, whereas the Barents Sea tonnes between 1994 and 2000. West Greenland in 1983. Most is an important ecosystem under In addition, several parasites were catches are from Nuuk, with great pressure from the fi shing detected in adult scallops and by average annual landings of 580 industry. 2003 the fi shery was closed as a tonnes for the period 1984-2002. precautionary measure. No surveys have been carried out The scallop fi sheries since the late 1980s but there are The start of the scallop fi sheries Offshore scallop dredging began indications that each scallop bed in Iceland, Greenland and Norway in Norway at Jan Mayen in 1984 is extensively dredged before the

Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic 41 A coral reef at Hornafjorddybet off Iceland provides a habitat for many species (photos: S. A. Steingrímsson).

fl eet moves on to new areas. The by 1995 landings had risen to of fi shing grounds if by-catch annual total allowable catch is 66.000 tonnes. Offshore catches exceeds legal limits. fi xed at 2000 tonnes. have been declining since 1997, and the minimum catch for the The offshore Norwegian shrimp The effect of scallop dredg- period 1998-2003 was 21.500 fi shery started in 1973 and the ing on benthic communities in tonnes in 2000. main fi shing grounds are in the Breiðafjörður was investigated by Svalbard area and Barents Sea. analysing existing by-catch data. The Greenland offshore shrimp Catches and stock size have varied Emerging epifauna was absent fi shery is by far the largest in the greatly over time. Shrimp stock from the benthic megafaunal Northeast Atlantic, and shrimp size seems to depend on abun- community in Breiðafjörður that has been the main export product dance of predator species, mostly consisted mostly of hard-shelled of Greenland since the collapse cod, as well as the hydrographic molluscs, sea cucumbers, crabs of the cod fi shery. The shrimp variability in the area, including and starfi sh, all of them known to fi shery started in 1970 with land- the location of the Polar front. be characteristic taxa of disturbed ings of 1200 tonnes and reached The fi shery is not regulated with a communities. No clear correlation a maximum of 113.000 tonnes in total allowable catch system, but was found between the intensity 2004 and a stock estimation of employs licences, minimum size of fi shing effort and the distribu- 300.000 tonnes. The spectacular of shrimp and maximum by-catch tion and abundance of by-catch growth of the offshore fi shery has limits. The implementation of sort- taxa. However, studies in other been possible because of techni- ing grids in 1991 was not enough countries concluded that the ef- cal improvements of the fi shing to solve the by-catch problem. fects of fi shing are most severe fl eet and a spatial expansion from Since 1993 a bioeconomical mod- in the early phase of the fi shery. the original fi shing grounds in el has been applied to estimate Dredging in Breiðafjörður started the Disko Island area to the whole the allowable maximum by-catch in 1970, but by-catch data have West coast south of 75oN. of commercial species. However, been available only since 1993. It this strategy has not produced is possible that prior to 1993 the The main problem with the the expected results and all com- scallop dredging had already al- shrimp fi shery in Greenland is the mercial fi sh species in the shrimp tered the benthic communities by overlapping of fi shing grounds grounds are currently below safe effectively removing the sensitive with nursery areas of redfi sh, biological limits. species from the scallop grounds Greenland halibut, cod and other in Breiðafjörður. demersal fi sh species. This has The effect of shrimp trawling on recently led to the implementa- the benthic fi sh assemblage in The shrimp fi sheries tion of sorting grids and closure North Iceland was investigated by The Icelandic offshore shrimp analysing by-catch data. During fi shery started in 1975, and the period 1988-1994, prior to

42 Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic A damaged coral reef. To the left: Live corals broken off from the reef. In the middle: Grooves on the sea ﬂ oor. To the right: Lost ﬁ shing gear (photos: S. A. Steingrímsson).

Damaged coral reef 250 metres below the sea surface at Öræfagrunn, off Southeast Iceland (photos: S. A. Steingrímsson). the introduction of sorting grids the Reykjanes Ridge and off South in Iceland suggests that some in 1995, reported by-catch repre- East Iceland. The distribution of coral grounds off Iceland were sented between 2.7 and 7.3 per soft corals off Norway is not well- destroyed by bottom trawling dur- cent of the shrimp catch. Consid- known. ing the 1980s and 1990s. Severe ering the 71 species recorded in damages to coral reefs have been shrimp and groundfi sh surveys, Deep-water corals are fragile, slow documented off Norway and the abundance of demersal fi sh growing and may live for hundreds Iceland using underwater photog- has decreased since 1997. of years. Therefore corals are very raphy. sensitive to bottom trawling, and Vulnerable habitats the recovery of impacted corals In 1999 Norway was the fi rst In the Nordic waters habitat form- may take centuries. Corals provide country in Europe to protect cold ing deep-water corals include a habitat for a large variety of water corals from bottom-tending both soft and stony corals, like species, both invertebrates and fi shing gear. So far, fi ve reefs have the reef-building coral Lophelia demersal fi sh. If coral reefs are been protected (total area around pertusa. Lophelia reefs are found destroyed the associated species 1.900 km2). Five coral areas off along the entire Norwegian coast, may have diffi culties in sustaining Iceland (total area around 80 km2) including large complexes up to their populations. have been protected since January 40 kilometres long, and off the 1st 2006. South coast of Iceland. There are It is estimated that 30 to 50 per no records of Lophelia reefs from cent of the coral areas off Norway Other vulnerable habitats within Greenland waters. Off Iceland, may be damaged or impacted. Nordic waters are sponge com- soft corals are most abundant on Information from fi shermen munities, maerl beds of calcifi ed

Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic 43 ing of these ecosystems is still Archaeological remains in Arctic waters fragmented and incomplete. • Increase research on impact of The environmental conditions in Arctic waters favour the survival of shipwrecks, fi shing. which have been found with masts, hull and superstructure intact after 150 years on the seabed. A well preserved vessel represents a time capsule, where little is added or destroyed by later actions, as it is often the case with archaeo- Management measures: logical remains on land. • Vulnerable habitats such as coral reefs and sponges should be pro- Trawling and dredging have a great negative impact on wooden wrecks and tected. It is necessary to develop artefacts as the fi shing gear crushes, displaces and depletes the wreck sites on each passage. This study indicates that many potential archaeological sites in and adopt precautionary regula- the Barents Sea overlap with the most heavily trawled locations. tions to prevent further deliberate or accidental damage by human It is important to enforce the legislation in all Nordic countries stating that it activities. is mandatory to report wrecks. According to the research carried out for this • Improve management of scallop project, fi shing fl eets and survey vessels have never, or rarely, complied with stocks, e.g. by improving stock as- these regulations. sessment surveys, closing perma- At the moment only the Environmental Act of Svalbard protects archaeological nently the scallop beds that act as sites from trawling and dredging in a 100 metre radius from the archaeological larval sources, increasing landing fi nds. size, decreasing fi shing effort and introducing rotational fi shing. • Environmental impact assess- red algae, hydrothermal vents and to areas that have become ice-free ments should be a prerequisite cold seeps. over the past few years. prior to fi shing in pristine areas. • Detailed maps on the occurrence • Secure proper implementation of Recommendations of vulnerable habitats are im- legislation and management at The project group outlined ten portant for future studies on the national and international levels recommendations grouped in ecological function and relevance to protect cultural heritage on the three categories, including the of these habitats. seabed. following: Research: Report: TemaNord 2006:529 “Bottom Habitat mapping: • Promote research on the biology trawling and scallop dredging in the Arctic – Impacts of fi shing on non-tar- • More resources should be al- and ecology of deep-water coral get species, vulnerable habitats and located to map areas with un- reefs and forests, sponge ag- cultural heritage”. disturbed vulnerable habitats gregations, maerl beds, hydro- Search for the report/the topic at: and cultural remains in order to thermal vents and cold seeps. All www.norden.org/pub protect them before any damage these vulnerable habitats are very may be infl icted by fi shing gear in important from both a general the future. Priority could be given biodiversity perspective and as fi sh habitats, but our understand-

44 Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic Deep-water shrimp (photo: Dieter Betz/Scanpix).

Nature and cultural environments in the Arctic 45