Teaching Indigenous Knowledge of Handicraft
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Modem Indigenous Curriculum: Teaching Indigenous Knowledge ofHandicraft at Sami Colleges in Finland and Norway Oddalûgasas eamüilbmoga oahppoplémat: Arbevealus Diedu Oahpaheapmis Duoddji Oahpaheapmi Sami Allaskuvlaiid Charles Blair Stevenson Department ofGeography McGill University, Montreal October, 2001 A thesis submitted to the Faculty ofGraduate Studies and Research in partial fulfilment ofthe requirements ofthe degree ofMaster ofArts © Charles Blair Stevenson, 2001 National Library Bibliothèque nationale 1+1 of Canada du Canada Acquisitions and Acquisitions et Bibliographie Services services bibliographiques 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A ON4 Ottawa ON K1A 0N4 canada canada Your/lleV_~ Our/lleNclr.~ The author bas granted a non L'auteur a accordé une licence non exclusive licence allowing the exclusive permettant à la National LibraIy ofCanada to Bibliothèque nationale du Canada de reproduce, loan, distribute or sell reproduire, prêter, distribuer ou copies ofthis thesis in microform, vendre des copies de cette thèse sous paper or electronic formats. la forme de microfiche/film, de reproduction sur papier ou sur format électronique. The author retains ownership ofthe L'auteur conserve la propriété du copyright in this thesis. Neither the droit d'auteur qui protège cette thèse. thesis nor substantial extracts frOID it Ni la thèse ni des extraits substantiels may be printed or otherwise de celle-ci ne doivent être imprimés reproduced without the author's ou autrement reproduits sans son pemnSSlOn. autorisation. 0-612-79037-1 Canada Abstract The Sami people have struggled for centuries to maintain their culture in spite of pressures against it from colonialism. The formaI education systems ofNorway and Finland have acted in discord with Sami decision-making since their inception. In response to this lack ofdecision-making power, there is a dynamic internaI process at work; Sami people have begun to take control oftheir own schooling. This thesis qualitatively examines the processes ofcurriculum development and implementation for wood handicraft programs at the Sami colleges in Guovdageaidnu, Norway and in Anar, Finland, and details the most significant educational and political factors involved in the transmission and production ofindigenous knowledge associated with Sami handicraft. Factors associated with the teaching ofSami handicraft in the form ofincreasing commercialization, generalization and mechanization in formaI duodji education and the stereotyping ofSami cultural imagery pose potential risks to appropriate transfer ofSami cultural knowledge. This thesis will show that the teaching ofSami handicraft (duodji) is an educational and political tool that helps develop and define modem Sami culture. Accordingly, attempts by the Sami colleges to incorporate greater indigenous knowledge have resulted in the implementation ofmodem indigenous curriculum that promotes cultural knowledge through the teaching ofSami handicraft. Resumé Au cours des siècles, le peuple Sami a lutté pour maintenir sa culture, malgré la pression du colonialisme. Depuis leur création, les systèmes d'éducation formelles norvégiennes et finlandaises, représentaient un obstacle pour les décisions des Sami. Pour répondre à cette manque de pouvoir décisif, un processus dynamique interne s'est manifesté: les Sami ont commencé à prendre le control de leur propre éducation. Ce thèse examine qualitativement les processus de développement et de réalisation de programmes d'études de la fabrication d'objets en bois sculpté (duodje) aux collèges Sâmi en Guovdageaidnu, Norvège et en Anar, Finlande, et détaille les facteurs pédagogiques et politiques les plus importants de la transmission et du développement de connaissances autochtones associées au duodje Sami. Les facteurs associés à l'enseignement du duodje tels qu'un niveau croissant de commercialisation, de généralisation et de mécanisation de l'education formelle de l'artisinat Sami ainsi que la création d'un stéréotype de l'image culturelle Sami, posent des risques potentielles quant au transfert des connaissances culturelles Sami. Ce thèse démontrera que l'enseignement de duodje est un outil pédagogique et politique qui aide à développer et définir la culture Sami moderne. Par conséquent, les efforts des collèges Sami à adopter un niveau élévé de connaissances indigènes ont mené à la réalisation d'un programme d'études indigènes moderne qui promuvoit une connaissance culturelle à travers de l'enseignement du duodje. 2 Table of Contents Abstract and Resumé 2 Acknowledgments 6 Chapter 1: Introduction to Modem Indigenous Curriculum 7 1.1 Opening 7 1.2 Methodology 9 1.3 Thesis Structure 12 Chapter 2: Sâmi and Sâpmi 14 2.1 Peoples 14 2.2 Languages 17 2.3 Culture and Identity 19 2.4 Environment 20 2.5 Economy 22 2.6 Modem Sâpmi 23 Chapter 3: Soahki muorra duodji - Sâmi Birch Wood Handicraft 25 3.1 Definition ofDuodji 25 3.2 Duodji Knowledge 26 3.3 Birch Duodji 28 3.3.1 Trunks, Branches and Leaves 29 3.3.2 Bark 29 3.3.3 Burls 29 3.3.4 Roots 30 3.4 Modem Duodji as Tradition, Commodity and Art 30 3.4.1 Traditional Duodji 30 3.4.2 Commercial Duodji 31 3.4.3 Artistic Duodji 32 3 Chapter 4: Evolution ofSâmi Education 35 4.1 Traditional Forms ofSami Education 35 4.2 Colonial Period ofSami Education 37 4.2.1 Early Finnish Sami Education 38 4.2.2 Early Norwegian Sami Education 39 4.3 Modem Sami Education 40 Chapter 5: Sami College Handicraft Programs 43 5.1 Diversity ofSami College Contexts 43 5.2 Sami allaskuvla, Guovdageaidnu, Norway 45 5.2.1 Background 45 5.2.2 Sami Allaskuv1a Handicraft Program 47 5.2.3 Specifie Program Analysis 48 5.3 Sami oahpahanguovddas, Anar, Finland 51 5.3.1 Background 51 5.3.2 Sâmi oahpahanguovddas Handicraft Program 52 5.3.3 Specifie Program Analysis 55 5.4 Specifie Factors Affecting Handicraft Knowledge in Duodji Education 57 5.4.1 Language ofInstruction 57 5.4.2 Mechanization ofDuodji Education 58 5.4.3 Generalization ofDuodji Education 59 5.4.4 Commercialization ofDuodji Education 60 5.4.5 Stereotyping ofDuodji Education 61 Chapter 6: Modem Indigenous Curriculum 63 6.1 Theoretical Background 63 6.2 Approaches to Curriculum Reform 65 6.3 Definition ofModem Indigenous Curriculum 68 6.4 Implementation ofModem Indigenous Curriculum 70 6.5 Components ofEducational Control 71 6.5.1 Local Languages ofInstruction 73 6.5.2 Collaborative Curriculum Change Based in Indigenous Know1edge from Local Teachers and the Community 74 6.5.3 Local Administrative Control 76 6.5.4 Student-Centred Education and Access to Appropriate Resources 78 Chapter 7: Conclusion - Indigenous Knowledge as the Base for Modem Indigenous Curriculum 81 4 Bibliography 84 List ofFigures Figure 1: Map ofSâpmi 16 Figure 2: Geographie Distribution ofDifferent Sâmi Languages 17 Figure 3: Knowledge Foundation ofthe Duojar 27 Figure 4: Areas ofModem Sami Duodji Knowledge 33 Figure 5: Approaches to Curriculum Reform 66 Figure 6: Components ofEducation for Cultural Control 72 List of Table Table 1: Sâmi Population in the early 1990's 14 5 Acknowledgements Giitu. Mun haliidan giitu buot oblmot ahte veahkehit munnje. Doppe lea mendo ollu olmmos nammadit dappe, muhto mun galggan giitu uhcan ustit. Asta Balto, Matilda Bunnan, Gunvor Guttorm, Marit Breie Henriksen, Vuokko Hirvonen, , Jan-Henry Keskitalo, Petteri Laiti, Ilmari Laiti, Veli-Pekka Lehtola, Anni-Siiri Uinsman, Jan-Idar Solbakken, Seija Risten Somby, Rauna Triumfja Samuel ValkeapiHi. Kiitos. Kiitoksia paljon Johanna Nousiainen, ja Oulun yliopistosta Rauni Rasanen. ThankYou. 1 am grateful for the generous financial support received from McGill University Faculty ofGraduate Studies and Research (SSHRC), FCAR Québec, the Northem Scientific Training Program ofDIAND and HIBECO (E.U. Project) that made my research in Norway and Finland possible. 1 am certainly indebted to my principal supervisor, Ludger Müller-Wille, for his flexibility, guidance and constant support. 1 want to also thank John E. Lewis and other staffat McGill University for their part in aiding my work. Thank you also to Lori McCord for translating my abstract into French. Finally, 1 wish to thank my parents for their bottomless support, my brother Dave for his editing and technical help and others in my family as well. 6 Chapter 1: Introduction to Modern Indigenous Curriculum 1.1 Opening The Sami people live within a region ofnorthernmost Europe called Sapmi. This homeland stretches across approximately 300,000 - 400,000 km2 offour nation-states Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia (Henriksen, 1999). The Sami way oflife has and continues to be strongly connected to reindeer herding and the land ofSapmi. Today, only a small fraction ofSami work as reindeer herders, however reindeer herding still remains an important component ofSami cultural identity. For centuries, Sami have been subjected to colonial pressures from the nations controlling their homeland. As a response to these pressures, Sami people even today have to struggle for the enfranchisement oftheir political rights. This struggle for increased autonomy focuses on aIl aspects ofSami society - culture, politics, economy, the environment and education. Intense and state-controlled colonization into Sapmi began in the late 1i hand early lSth centuries by Norway, Sweden and Russia. These countries centralized their colonial influences through military, economic, social and religious control. This control by state and church included forcing the formaI education systems ofthese countries upon the Sami people. Historically, decisions