united nations secuirty council

Berkeley Model United Nations Welcome Letter Hello! My name is Marine Fujisawa, and I will be your Security Council head chair for BMUN LXIV! I am currently a senior studying Political Science and Economics at UC Berkeley. I grew up in Southern California, so some of my favorite pastimes include hiking and going to the beach. I also recently got into cooking during my free time in quarantine- if anyone has good recipes, please let me know! started off my journey in BMUN as a vice chair in Security Council when I was a freshman, so being able to chair this committee now is very sentimental to me. Security Council had been one of my favorite committees to participate in as a delegate, as it discussed some of the most pertinent issues of the world at the time. SC is arguably the most powerful UN committee due to its power to mobilize peacekeepers and make binding resolutions, pushing the delegates to explore a wide range of solutions. I am so excited to hear about all of your ideas, and cannot wait to chair this committee in March! Here is a bit about your vice chairs: Sora Kanosue is currently a sophomore studying Computer Science and Economics here at Berkeley, and will be serving as a Vice Chair on this year’s Security Council. As a child of a UN employee, he grew up all over the world, but went to high school in New York and is happy to call the city home. His hobbies include tennis and squash, and in his free time enjoys playing video games. This is Sora’s sixth year doing Model UN, and his second chairing at BMUN. With its unique structure and the dynamics surrounding its P5 members, he always enjoyed participating in Security Council committees as a delegate. As one of the most powerful UN bodies, debate never failed to feel meaningful and consequential. He can’t wait to see what kind of solutions delegates come up with and is looking forward to the lively debate that is sure to happen in March! (although not so Yasamine Durali is a new member to BMUN. She is currently a senior studying legal studies and human rights, and is one of the Security Council Vice Chairs this year. After graduation, Yasamine hopes to incorporate my passions for international human rights, global peace and security, and immigration / refugee resettlement into a career in D.C. She grew up in Pennsylvania for the majority of my childhood, but then moved to Southern California when she was ten years old and she hasn’t BERKELEY MODEL UNITED NATIONS 1 left since! Outside of school, Yasamine loves spending time outdoors, cooking and baking, reading, Capitol Hill experience and join a community of fellow Berkeley students equally as passionate about IR as me. As a Muslim woman, Sudan Uprising was a huge issue in my community. Last summer on that delivered humanitarian assistance to Sudan, which eventually gained bipartisan support. She is very passionate about foreign policy in the MENA, so working in the Security Council this semester on Sudan’s Transition to Democracy feels like a full circle moment for her. She is very excited to be a part of BMUN this year and to make so many new friends!

BERKELEY MODEL UNITED NATIONS 2 Topic A: Sudan Transition to Democracy

Image 1: Celebrations for the Aug. 4 Deal, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49425702

In April 2019, Sudan experienced a revolution that led to the removal of former president tipped over the tensions that were rising due to the increasingly deteriorating economic conditions at the time. These protests quickly spread from the origin city of Atbara to the capital city of Civil War, called the Second Sudanese Civil War, began in 1983 when an army battalion led by Colonel John Garang de Mabior formed the SPLA to overthrow the government at the time due to of then-President Nimeiri. Afterwards, Bashir, who was a lieutenant general at the time, seized power and became the President of Sudan in 1993. During his presidency, he oversaw long and endless periods of violence- from the Civil War that killed around 2 million people during the beginning of

BERKELEY MODEL UNITED NATIONS 3 which started as a revolt against the cruel treatment of the non-Arabs of the region, soon escalated including charges of genocide and crimes against humanity, for the government’s actions in the arrest warrant, although this did not prevent him from regaining the seat of President in the following elections. Although mass protests against former President Bashir started in December of 2018, tensions had been mounting since January of that year, after the price of bread began to rise due was spent on security, and Bashir’s poor humanitarian track record made debt relief and obtaining Although the government cracked down on these prior protests, the protests that began in late 2018 spread rapidly. Footage and interviews from Sudan during this time revealed that this protest such as Facebook and Twitter, young activists in Sudan have used these platforms to spread video footage of brutality from security personnel on peaceful protests, further showcasing the cruelty of While many predicted that the Sudanese revolution would prove unsuccessful due to the numerous years of oppression and dismantling of civil society, the protesters were determined. The 2019 uprising was unprecedented in terms of scale- people from all regions and classes took to including doctors, lawyers, teachers, and journalists, soon became the driving force behind the movement. The SPA, along with several other groups, signed the Declaration of Freedom and Change on January 1st, 2019. This called for the removal of Bashir, to be replaced by a transitional BERKELEY MODEL UNITED NATIONS 4 as strikes and sit-ins among these professionals and other Sudanese citizens garnered widespread support, and soon the state declared a state of emergency in February of 2019. Bashir responded with both intimidation and violence- the government made sweeping arrests, and many protesters were shot. Bashir also moved to sack members of his cabinet as well as regional governors and rulers reached the military headquarters in Khartoum, where protesters sat in and demanded for the removal of Bashir. Five days later on April 11th, the military complied- and Bashir was overthrown this military council took power after the removal of the former President. The Transitional Military military generals. There have been violent clashes between the protestors and the TMC; the military that followed, and 181 people were hurt during this pro-democracy protest against military rule, protest to occur since Bashir lost power. Although negotiations continued between the military and civilians, issues of trust and power-sharing loomed large. With shutdowns of the SPA’s press conferences and violence towards protesters, civilian leaders remained wary towards the military After long talks, the FCC and the military signed a constitutional declaration on August 4th to form a transitional government in Sudan. The agreement entails a 39-month long power sharing arrangement, ensuing elections and the formation of a sovereign council, cabinet, and legislative body, among other things. The head of the sovereign council will be chosen from the military for sure there is adequate time to ensure free and fair elections. BERKELEY MODEL UNITED NATIONS 5 The Transitional Government

The transition has not been an easy one. The transitional government that the constitutional declaration established includes the sovereign council, a cabinet of ministers that are to be appointed by the sovereign council, the legislative council, and new judicial bodies. The Sovereign this body is currently chaired by Lt. Gen. Burhan. The composition of the legislative council has yet There have already been steps of progress under the transitional government. In the judicial system, Justice Minister Nasredeen Abdulbari has been working tirelessly to reform Sudan’s laws in government. The constitutional declaration signed allocates around 40 percent of council seats for women. Women played a key role in the Sudanese revolution, rushing to the streets to protest Bashir’s rule, and this was seen as a victory for the advancement of women’s rights and opportunities Despite this, there is still a long path ahead. Power-sharing within the transitional government still remains a struggle between the military and civilians, which comes as little surprise considering the role of leading Sudan towards a democratic future. He was formerly an economist working with his expertise would allow Sudan’s economy to rebuild itself and head towards a peaceful future. However, he has faced multiple obstacles, with opposition from pro-Bashir forces and from the still lies within the political sphere of Sudan. Power-sharing also remains a sensitive issue between the military generals and civilian leaders in positions of power outside the sovereign council. In particular, Sudan’s foreign minister raised concern about Gen. al-Burhan’s meeting with the Israeli prime minister, as foreign affairs

BERKELEY MODEL UNITED NATIONS 6 between the military and the civilian government, as they disagree on how the virus should be Furthermore, a coalition of Sudanese Women’s Rights Groups criticized the transitional government for not upholding the constitution to implement participation of women in the it is important that there are practical ways to select and elect these women legislators, as well as ensuring that they wield the same authority as their male counterparts in government. It would behoove the transitional government to have a clear methodology in achieving their goals. of forming a Legislative Council and appointing civilian governors after a meeting with the FCC that the revolution worked for. While the transitional government has been trying to make progress in various areas of Sudan, it still needs strong support and direction. Meeting the aims of the government would require a build-up of actionable items and plans while meeting challenges that may arise during the transitional period. It is important that the transitional government is able to lay the groundwork for the coming elections and ensuing Sudanese democracy.

International Response

While most African and Western countries supported the protesters and the ensuing civilian- led government, it appears that Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and the United Arab Emirates backed the with the crown prince of Saudi Arabia in June 2019 about their support of the Saudis in Yemen. After the June 3rd massacre, the African Union suspended Sudan’s membership in its BERKELEY MODEL UNITED NATIONS 7 organization. It called for the establishment of a civilian-led transitional government, and after the military and the FCC came to an agreement with mediation from the AU and Ethiopia, Sudan was The United Nations Security Council has made clear commitment to helping the Sudanese Lacroix, expressed that much peacekeeping aid would be necessary to stabilize the situation in Darfur, or UNAMID, resides in Sudan. UNAMID was set to depart Sudan in October of 2020, but the would be helpful in the near-future for a peacekeeping presence to not only assist Darfur but also a safe and nonviolent transition in Sudan. Furthermore, the UNSC adopted resolution 2524 in June 2020. This establishes a new United aims to achieve a myriad of objectives- from assistance in the Constitution drafting process to Security Council hopes to implement this body by January 1st, 2021. Additionally, the exact geographical location of deployment for members in UNITAMS is still to be determined. The divided support in Sudan for this new mission could complicate its operations. While Sudan’s UN ambassador, on behalf of Prime Minister Hamdok, penned a letter to the UN Secretary- General expressing enthusiasm for UN cooperations with implementing the Constitutional generals prompted a new letter- which did not include anything about the reforms outlined in the previous letter. To make matters worse, even power struggles exist within the military also. The New York Times reports that the regular military has long tried to diminish Hemeti’s power, as he has division within the Sovereign Council on the exact policies Sudan will pursue.

BERKELEY MODEL UNITED NATIONS 8 Current Obstacles in Sudan Economic Crisis

Sudan currently faces an immense economic crisis. Its cost of living has been rising steadily, with commodities such as bread and fuel soaring to unaffordable levels. Furthermore, the amount Furthermore, the economic crisis has enlarged the pool of people needing humanitarian assistance International actors have intervened to aid Sudan. At a meeting sponsored by the United Nations, the European Union, and German government in June 2020 called the “Partners Forum for the lifting of subsidies, which can be a wildly unpopular move for the government considering government lifted some subsidies on commodities. Furthermore, the United States still lists Sudan of funds is detrimental to Sudan’s progress. Funds are necessary to investigate the human rights violations committed against protesters, to foster stability, and to implement institutional changes in the government. Sudan’s Information Minister Faisal Salih attests that outside aid is critical to Some forces in the FCC, however, argue that Sudan can overcome this crisis by focusing on internal structures- such as reversing the money lost to corruption under Bashir and greatly reducing its own people, leaders hope to see spending cut and reinvested into other sectors of life to improve the economy. This would be a tough challenge to face, seeing as how many members of the military

BERKELEY MODEL UNITED NATIONS 9 The wave of COVID-19 sent a struggling Sudan into a deeper spiral. COVID has disrupted within the government to start solidifying economic reforms (https://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/ pushing back much needed reforms within Sudan could be detrimental to the success of the transitional government and the eventual elections.

Extradition

Protesters have called for justice on the numerous counts of senseless violence that both direction, as sudanese leaders such as Prime Minister Hamdok have expressed their commitment to cooperating with the ICC to bring Barshir to justice. However, the process as a whole is complicated by the fact that the forces who had committed other crimes still remain in power today. General Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo, also known as Hemeti, has a seat on the Sovereign Council and leads partook in the atrocities committed at Darfur. Furthermore, this group was responsible for the June 3rd massacre mentioned previously; thus, demands for reparations and justice for victims are directed to those still in power also. The RSF is responsible for the nation’s COVID response, and The New Humanitarian, this complicates the work of human rights lawyers who already operate on low funds to investigate the massacre from last year. Sudan has a lack of experience in ensuring an independent and transparent trial, especially for human rights violations committed by those who accountability much more complicated.

BERKELEY MODEL UNITED NATIONS 10 crackdown on the region from the Bashir administration. The Bashir government organized and mobilized Arab militias, later called the Janjaweed. The Janjaweed soon came to terrorize the Darfur region, even committing a genocide which led the ICC to issue a warrant against Bashir. The UN has of four rebel groups, in Juba, South Sudan after Bashir was overthrown; although these talks are evidence that the RSF - which grew out of the Janjaweed militia from Bashir’s time - have continued This clearly plants a seed of deep mistrust between the two actors. Slow negotiations and ongoing attacks will prevent democracy and stability from ushering into the region. The Darfur negotiations have also been used to explain the delay in appointing a legislative council and civilian governors, which were both promised in the agreement signed by the FCC and government, and how many seats for representation will be allocated in the future assembly and legislature. This delay of an important institutional implementation could be alarming, considering the goal is to implement these institutional changes by the time the election comes. These changes take time, and a lag in the timeline could cause trouble further down the road. Perhaps to ameliorate this concern, the armed groups in Darfur and the transitional government reportedly reached an agreement on how to include the armed groups in the Sovereign Council and the Transitional Government as a whole. This agreement came late June at Khartoum, and established a longer time frame of transition, from around 3 years and 3 months to around 4 years (“Talks between Sudan’s into the national military still remain unsolved. BERKELEY MODEL UNITED NATIONS 11 The transitional government has failed to bring peace into Darfur so far, with localized the transitional government to bring democracy to all parts of Sudan. Normalcy in the region is even more complicated by the ongoing land disputes in Darfur. Those displaced over the years due to violence from Janjaweed have lost their native homes to people the government placed in Clearly, the government would have to tread carefully to settle disputes in the region. While for a complete plan in bringing stability to the region.

Questions to Consider

1. power, accountable? 2. What pressures does Sudan face from countries in the neighboring region that could either inhibit or promote a successful transition to democracy? 3. What are examples of democratic transitions that have been successful in other nations? How can it apply here? 4. What factors should be considered when drafting a new constitution for Sudan prior to the elections? 5. How does the COVID crisis affect Sudan’s transitional plans? Should the RSF be spearheading the operations?

BERKELEY MODEL UNITED NATIONS 12 Works Cited

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BERKELEY MODEL UNITED NATIONS 15 Topic B: Open Agenda Introduction

Open Agenda provides delegates with the freedom to choose which pertinent international issue they would like to discuss during committee. The vote to set the agenda will happen when the committee begins, and the topic chosen will be debated like any other security council committee. Open Agenda requires delegates to think on their feet to devise realistic and effective solutions for the chosen topic. While any international issue can be chosen, we are giving several suggestions of

Yemeni Civil War

Image 2: Yemen Areas of Control, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-29319423

In 2011, the Arab Spring uprisings forced former President Ali Abdullah Saleh to hand his BERKELEY MODEL UNITED NATIONS 16 faced separatists movements, jihadist attacks, unemployment, as well as food insecurity which all destabilized the nation. In particular, a Houthi movement called Ansar Allah was able to gain control of the northern Yemen region of Saada province. The movement quickly gained support from other Yemenis disappointed in the Hadi administration. In late 2014 and early 2015, the rebel group succeeded in controlling the capital city of Sanaa. Using this control, Ansar Allah members as well The Houthi movement advocated for the Shia Muslim minority in Yemen, and has a history of uprising against the Sunni government. Due to their Shiite background, many believed that Iran backed this movement; thus, Saudi Arabia and other predominantly Sunni countries declared support for Hadi in March 2015, and intervened to win Yemen back from the Houthi rebels. The returned to Yemen in September 2015 and set up base in Aden, a city in the southern region of Yemen. The coalition began to launch numerous air-strike campaigns against the Houthi forces. The Although the Saudi-led coalition gained control of the southern region relatively quickly, it has struggled to gain control of the capital city of Sanaa. The Houthis still retain much of the country. There were initially attempts by the United Nations for a peace agreement, but it fell through by Even within the rebel coalition, the Saleh loyalists and the Houthis split after former President Ali attempt, and it ended with the death of Saleh. In the south, a southern separatist movement led by Emirates supports this movement, a mere month after the UAE announced its withdrawal from the Saudi-led coalition in Yemen. The STC successfully took control of Aden, and declared self-rule in BERKELEY MODEL UNITED NATIONS 17 Tensions run high, and there are concerns of the violence spreading across the region. The war raging on in Yemen has brought one of the worst humanitarian crises in recent history. Amnesty International reports that by the end of 2019, over 233,000 Yemenis could have been killed, while 20,000 civilians have been harmed or killed directly due to the violence (“Yemen War: No End human cost. Amnesty International states that both sides are guilty of the mistreatment of individuals including enforced disappearance, torture, and arbitrary detention. The Yemeni government has detained human rights activists, while UAE-backed groups have held people in prisons in vile senseless attacks in civilian neighborhoods and infrastructure. The violence also deteriorates conditions for civilians in Yemen. Saudi Arabia heightened its blockades on Yemen after a missile launch towards Riyadh, the capital of Saudi Arabia. Although of necessities such as food and oil, further aggravating the problem of food insecurity (“Yemen Houthi forces have also impeded with the distribution of humanitarian aid in Yemen. The civilian death toll is estimated to continue to rise with many Yemenis at risk for starvation and illness, with make it nearly impossible for many civilians to get the healthcare they need and deserve. Around of Yemenis need assistance direly; UNICEF reports that there are 12.24 million children in need of With the onset of COVID-19, the humanitarian crisis in Yemen will deteriorate further. The University of Denver estimates that with the combined force of the pandemic and violence, around There is no question that the Yemeni people need wide-scale assistance now, and a way to end the violence that has plagued the nation for years. BERKELEY MODEL UNITED NATIONS 18 Venezuela Crisis

Image 3: Venezuelans migrating, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-48121148

On January 23rd, 2019, Juan Guaidó, the Speaker of the National Assembly, declared himself President of Venezuela, in direct opposition to the incumbent Nicolás Maduro. Guaidó declared that illegitimate for a multitude of reasons, including the fact that many opposition parties boycotted them altogether. The elections themselves resulted in the lowest voter turnout in the country’s democratic history, and were widely unrecognized by the international community. In addition to this, the opposition controlled legislature of Venezuela, the National Assembly, labelled Maduro assertions of illegitimacy, the Venezuelan military remains largely loyal to Maduro, as evidenced by On January 5th, 2020, the National Assembly held a new round of elections for the position of Speaker, in which politician Luis Parra claimed victory. However, this election was also widely

BERKELEY MODEL UNITED NATIONS 19 were allowed to enter the National Assembly building. There were widespread reports that security forces had prevented a large number of lawmakers from entering the building, and Guaidó was even photographed attempting to scale a fence in order to enter the building. In order to contest Parra’s election, which reportedly took place without a quorum, Guaidó held his own session and The political crisis in Venezuela coincides with one of the worst socio-economic crises to occur in any country during peacetime. It has been described as worse than both the United States during has met a response from the Venenzuelan government that has been largely ineffective and often economic crisis in Venezuela is understood to stem from the economy’s overreliance on oil exports. Over recent years, both plummeting petroleum prices as well as US sanctions on the industry have ever-worsening humanitarian crisis, with poverty, starvation, and crime running rampant. Delivery of aid to relieve this crisis from international coalitions has been unable to have a large effect, largely due to refusal by Maduro’s government to accept the existence of the crisis and thus of aid (Vyas and Both the current political and socio economic crises have induced one of the largest mass displacements to occur from over the last decade. The total number of Venezuelans that have left crisis. The top destinations for these migrants have included the United States, Colombia, and Peru

Some of the key actors of this crisis are as follows:

National Assembly: The National Assembly is the legislature of Venezuela, and is currently controlled by opposition deputies. It has been one of the largest sources of support for Juan Guaidó, and has served as part of his transitional government since he declared himself president BERKELEY MODEL UNITED NATIONS 20 National Constituent Assembly: The National Constituent Assembly is a legislative body formed in operate in opposition to the National Assembly. It is widely considered to be a tool used by Maduro

Nicolás Maduro: One of two Venenzuelan politicians claiming the presidency. Maduro became president after the death of Hugo Chávez, and was reelected in widely disputed elections in 2018. His presidency has been marred by economic mismanagement and a worsening of the socio economic crisis that he inherited. Maduro has been recognized as president by over 20 nations, most notably China and Russia. The United Nations has continued to recognize his government as the

Juan Guaidó: The other politician claiming the presidency. Guaidó claimed that the presidency Assembly. Many nations and individuals have recognized Guaidó as the interim president of Venezuela; this notably includes 12 of the 14 members of the Lima Group, the United States, and

Luis Parra: A Venenzuelan politician currently claiming that he is Speaker of the National Assembly. Maduro has recognized him as the legitimate leader of the National Assembly, claiming that this

UN/Intergovernmental Response

the situation in Venezuela. The UNSC voted on two resolutions, one proposed by the United States new round of transparent elections, and recognized Juan Guaidó as the interim president during the transitional period. It failed to pass, after being vetoed by Russia and China. The Russian resolution

BERKELEY MODEL UNITED NATIONS 21 recognized the legitimacy of Nicolás Maduro’s presidency, and called for a dialogue between his and sought both to create a mechanism to sanction his government and formed commissions to initiatives in Venezuela. Their primary goals consisted of bringing clean water and educational resources to those parts of the country that were in severe need of it (“UNICEF - Humanitarian

International Action on the Issue

Support for either Nicolás Maduro or Juan Guaidó has split the nations of the world mostly USA, most European countries, and many Latin American countries. International support for Maduro has primarily come from Russia and China, along with other countries such as North Korea, Iran, and Syria. The US has imposed harsh sanctions on Venezuela, primarily targeted at Maduro and members of his government. The sanctions have frozen all Venenzuelan government assets, and prohibits it from carrying out commercial transactions. In addition to this, the United States (Goodman

BERKELEY MODEL UNITED NATIONS 22 South China Sea Conflict

Image 3: Claims over South China Sea, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-53397673

its neighbors such as the Philippines, Vietnam, and Indonesia (“Territorial Disputes in the South barrels of untapped oil and other natural gas resources. The South China sea is also of strategic importance as well, with approximately 3.3 trillion dollars worth of trade passing through the waters surrounding the sea have all claimed rights to the ocean, generally corresponding to their exclusive country’s coast over which it holds exclusive economic rights. The claims however overlap, especially

BERKELEY MODEL UNITED NATIONS 23 to the Paracels and Spratlys Islands in the South China Sea, further complicating manners (Territorial the disputed region. It has exhibited maps dating back to the 1940s to also show control over the citing its close proximity to the land. Over the years, there have been multiple naval standoffs and region, with it recently changing the wording in ship regulations to specify the area near the Paracel where the court ruled in favor of Philippines on essentially all points, invalidating China’s claims. However, China has not followed the ruling of the court, and continues to assert its claims today. In fact, it has attempted to legitimize its claims by increasing the size of existing ideas as well as constructing new ones. China has sent military equipment such as cruise missiles to these islands to Nations not in the immediate region, such as the United States, India, and the United Kingdom, have also expressed concern over China’s aggressive tactics. In July, the United States accused China of bullying its surrounding neighbors for control of the region (“South China Sea China responded that the remarks from the US were false, and an over exaggeration of the situation. Additionally, the US and the UK have sent military troops to patrol the area, and India has backed Vietnam operations. In July, China and the US held naval exercises at the same time in the region, With US-China tensions increasing, the situation at the South China Sea remains strained. way to settle these territorial disputes and bring stability back to the South China Sea.

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