Coaching Instructions and Cues for Enhancing Sprint Performance

Adam Benz, MKin, CSCS,1 Nick Winkelman, MSc, CSCS*D, NSCA-CPT*D,2,3 Jared Porter, PhD,4 and Sophia Nimphius, PhD, CSCS*D1 1Centre for Exercise and Sport Science, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Western Australia; 2Rocky Mountain University of Health Professions, Provo, Utah; 3EXOS, Phoenix, Arizona; and 4Department of Kinesiology, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois

ABSTRACT appropriate information for enhanced Despite the role coach communication performance. Within the realm of has on motor skill development, it is COACHING INSTRUCTIONS AND coach-athlete communication, verbal still common to hear coaching called CUES ARE METHODS OF VERBAL instructions, cues, and feedback are the as “an art opposed to a science.” How- COMMUNICATION THAT CAN BE 3 main types of performance-related ever, emerging research in the area of USED SPECIFICALLY BY communication a coach will use during motor behavior has provided insights STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING practice or competition. Although that clarify the scientific underpinnings AND SPORT COACHES TO FOCUS many coaches and researchers use these of effective coach communication. AN ATHLETES’ ATTENTION FOR terms interchangeably, there are distinct Based on the available findings, this ENHANCED SPORT PERFOR- differences between them. The opera- article will focus on the influence of MANCE. SPECIFICALLY, THERE IS tional definition of verbal instructions verbal instructions and cues on the per- EVIDENCE TO SUPPORT THAT for this article is medium-to-long task- formance of motor skills. Specifically, PROVIDING ATHLETES EXTERNAL oriented phrases, generally 3 or more linear sprinting will be emphasized, as OR NEUTRAL ATTENTIONAL words in length, verbally administered it represents one of the most important FOCUS INSTRUCTION AND CUES to an individual before the performance motor skills in sport. Moreover, being CAN ENHANCE SPRINTING SPEED. of a motor skill. Verbal cues are short able to sprint faster and more efficiently THE PURPOSE OF THIS ARTICLE IS task-oriented phrases, generally 1 or puts an individual at a considerable TO TRANSLATE THE FINDINGS 2 words in length (22), verbally admin- competitive advantage (55). FROM THE LITERATURE REGARD- istered to an individual before or during ING THE BENEFITS AND EFFECTS the performance of a motor skill. Most ATTENTIONAL FOCUS: LINKING OF COACHING INSTRUCTIONS verbal cues are verbs, for example COACHING INSTRUCTIONS AND AND CUES ON SPRINT PERFOR- “push,” “explode,” and “drive,” and can CUES TO SPRINT PERFORMANCE MANCE AND TO PROVIDE GEN- be used by an athlete as a mantra to There has been a recent increase in ERAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR focus on and/or repeat during the per- motor behavior publications within ENHANCING ATHLETE SPRINT CA- formance of a motor skill. Finally, aug- strength and conditioning research PABILITIES THROUGH THE ADMIN- mented verbal feedback is task-relevant journals (5,46,47,49,67). The primary ISTRATION OF APPROPRIATE information provided during or after emphasis of this research has been to examine the effects of attentional focus VERBAL COMMUNICATIONS. (17) the performance of a motor skill on explosive power-based tasks (e.g., by an external source (e.g., coach, video sprinting, jumping). From a coaching replay) and is supplemental to the nat- perspective, instructions and cues facil- INTRODUCTION urally available feedback that is available itate an attentional focus. For the pur- through the athlete’s senses (i.e., audi- trength and conditioning is a pro- poses of this article, attentional focus is fession that largely depends on tory, tactile, and visual). Collectively, communication between a coach verbal instructions, cues, and feedback S KEY WORDS: provide a framework for coach commu- and an athlete. Verbal instructions, cues, coaching; instructions; cues; feedback; nication before, during, and after the and feedback are essential to the attentional focus; sprinting coaching process to communicate performance of motor skills.

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defined by the conscious ability of an instructions and cues allow individuals externally “on driving forward as pow- individual to focus their attention to implicitly adopt movement profi- erfully as possible while clawing the through explicit thoughts in an effort ciency without being explicitly aware floor with your shoe as quickly as pos- to execute a task. An athlete’s atten- of the body movements being per- sible as you accelerate” compared with tional focus can be directed internally formed (1,14); thus, analogy instruc- focusing internally “on driving one leg on their body movements (i.e., move- tions and cues may encourage an forward as powerfully as possible while ment process), externally on the effect external focus of attention by promot- moving your other leg and foot down their movements have on the environ- ing goal-relevant dimensions of the and back as quickly as possible as you ment (i.e., movement outcome), or task (25). accelerate” and neutrally within a control neutrally whereby there is no explicit Focus of attention has wide spread condition where they focused on “run- attempts at conscious focus, instead importance across strength and condi- ning the 20-m dash as quickly as possi- nonawareness is promoted (19,48,75). tioning, sports coaching, physical edu- ble.” Collectively, a large amount of For the purpose of this article, we will cation, and physical therapy. Over the evidence has extended early findings in consider analogies (or metaphors) to past 17 years, the evidence showing the laboratory to a diversity of popula- fall within the definition of external the differential role of various atten- tions and environments that are relevant focus (e.g., “get off the ground fast like tional foci has grown exponentially to the strength and conditioning coach. you’re sprinting on hot coals”), as the (69). Using a ski-simulator task, Wulf Specifically, there is now evidence sup- analogies suggested within the practi- et al. (75) published the first experi- porting the use of an external focus of cal sections of this article do not explic- ment describing the differential role attention across balance and postural itly call attention to the body (8). For of an internal versus external focus of control (10,37,59,76,78), plyometric example, a coach instructing the push attention. In that study, the internal tasks (5,31,46,47,49,67,71,72,79), sprint- phase of a sprint may provide an inter- focus group was “instructed to exert ing (18,52), agility (48), various strength nal cue by telling the athlete to “focus force on the outer foot” and the exter- qualities (34,35,63), and a multitude of on explosively pushing through their nal focus group was “instructed to exert sport specific skills (3,70,73,74,77,80). foot,” provide an external cue by telling force on the outer wheels” of the ski- The effects of attentional focus on sport the athlete to “focus on explosively simulator, whereas the control group performance can be explained through pushing the ground away,” or provide received no instruction (i.e., neutral the constrained action hypothesis a neutral cue by telling the athlete to focus). This subtle difference in instruc- (CAH), which states that directing “complete the sprint as fast as you can.” tions resulted in superior performance attention externally allows the motor The instructions carry the same mes- for the external compared with the control system to operate under non- sage, but the internal cue calls attention internal focus and control groups, with conscious automatic processes by to the body (i.e., foot), the external cue no difference observed between the which movement occurs reflexively calls attention to the effects on the internal focus and control groups. (20,52), leading to superior performance environment (i.e., ground), whereas More recently, Porter et al. (2015) outcomes (29). According to the CAH, the neutral cue does not focus attention found that low-skilled sprinters com- when attention is directed internally, internally or externally (Figure). It pleted a 20-m sprint significantly faster the motor control system operates should be noted that analogy when they were instructed to focus under consciously controlled processes

Figure. Internal versus external instructions applied to sprinting.

2 VOLUME 38 | NUMBER 1 | FEBRUARY 2016 Copyright ª National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited. (i.e., explicit monitoring), potentially and the methods adopted by coaches in superior sprint performance com- invoking working memory (45), which may be the result of multiple factors, pared with an external or neutral focus constrains the motor system, leading to including research being too theoreti- (18,32,50,52,60). Second, although less reflexive and fluent movement pat- cal or impractical, research using tasks some studies have shown that experts terns and poorer performance out- that are unrelated to sport perfor- perform better while using a neutral comes compared with an external mance, and the possibility that coaches focus relative to an external focus focus of attention (6,20). are not aware of relevant research (50,68), many studies have shown that Keeping in mind the research findings (51,66). However, it is clear that sprint experts perform equally well under regarding attentional focus and perfor- performance can be enhanced by sim- external focus conditions (62) or even mance measures, it seems that using ply altering the way instructions, cues, better in some cases (18,74). There is verbal instructions and cues to alter and feedback are delivered to ath- limited evidence to support the use of an individual’s focus of attention has letes (60). neutral focus of attention instructions and cues for enhancing novice perfor- a meaningful impact on motor perfor- EFFECTS OF VERBAL mance. The impact that verbal instruc- mance for simple tasks (61). However, INSTRUCTIONS AND CUES ON there is no evidence to suggest that tions and cues have on performance SPRINT PERFORMANCE novices benefit from a neutral focus rel- directly relates to how the coach or SPRINT TIMES ative to an external focus particularly for sport scientist implements the instruc- Changes in sprint performance as more complex tasks such as sprinting, tions and cues to the individual, thus a result of instruction and cue provi- and therefore, coaches should preferen- affecting one’s attentional focus. How sion are likely due to the athlete focus- tially use external focus instructions and the individual consequently focuses ing their attention on their own body cues with novice athletes (18,52) until their attention can then have an imme- movements or specific body parts, on further research clarifies this topic. In diate impact on skill performance, in a movement goal or effect, or by sim- summary, novices and experts equally this case on sprint performance. ply adopting a nonawareness strategy. benefit from an external focus relative Despite such potential for improving When focus of attention is altered, to an internal focus of attention; how- performance, the literature regarding there is likely a subsequent augmenta- ever, there may be instances where ex- coaching tactics for sprinting has re- tion of biomechanical, physiological, perts with high motor skill automaticity vealed that coaches may not be regu- motor learning, or psychophysical out- do not need any explicit instruction (i.e., larly providing the most beneficial type comes, which will all be discussed later neutral). of coaching instructions, cues, and in this article. In regard to providing feedback to athletes to enhance sport athletes with instructions and cues to BIOMECHANICAL OUTCOMES skills. For example, during the 2009 enhance sprint times, there have only Because there is an absence of litera- USA Track & Field National Cham- been a few studies performed specifi- ture regarding the effects of various pionships, a number of athletes from cally exploring the effects of verbal attentional foci on specific biomechan- various events, including the sprints, communication on sprinting speed ical sprint variables, especially kinetic were surveyed and asked what type (Table 1). Currently, the results suggest sprint variables, this section will make of verbal instructions, cues, and feed- that the skill level of the athlete may be suggestions based on the previous lit- back their coaches provide to them a factor mediating how the athlete re- erature in motor behavior and biome- during training and competition (51). sponds to the instructions and cues. chanics. With regard to sprinting, The results of the study by Porter For example, Porter et al. (52) found numerous biomechanical studies have et al. (51) revealed that 84.6% of the that low-skill athletes benefited most researched the key performance varia- athletes reported that their coaches from an external attentional focus bles needed to sprint optimally gave instructions, cues, and feedback (52), whereas Porter and Sims (50) (38,39,53,65). One of the primary related to body movements (i.e., inter- found that high-skill athletes benefited methods for enhancing sprint velocity nal focus of attention). Consequently, most from no assigned focus (50,60). is through the application of large 69.2% of the track and field athletes However, Ille et al. (18) found that mass-specific ground reaction forces reported that they adopt an internal expert and novice athletes performed (GRFs), over a minimal amount of attentional focus when participating faster 10-m sprint times with an exter- time (i.e., 0.101–0.083 seconds) (33) in track and field competitions. This nal attentional focus compared with during the stance phase (9,11,64). finding is consistent with the conclu- internal and nonassigned conditions. Skilled sprinters achieve high maximal sions reported by Williams and Ford Collectively, the limited evidence pro- velocities compared with non-sprinters (66), which stated that it is not typical vides some preliminary conclusions (10.4 6 0.3 versus 8.7 6 0.3 m$s21)by for coaches to apply suggestions made relative to how coaches should provide applying larger vertical ground reac- by researchers. Possible reasons for instructions and cues. First, there is no tion forces (vGRF) during the first half a disconnect between what sports sci- evidence within the sprinting literature (2.65 6 0.05 versus 2.21 6 0.05 N$N21 ence research has found to be effective showing that an internal focus results or “bodyweights”) of the stance phase

Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com 3 Copyright ª National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited. 4 ntutosadCe o pitPerformance Sprint for Cues and Instructions Table 1 Depiction of studies that used internal, external, or neutral instructions or cues to influence sprint performance OUE3 UBR1|FBUR 2016 FEBRUARY | 1 NUMBER | 38 VOLUME Effects of verbal instructions and cues on sprint performance

Study Participants Internal instructions External instructions Control (aneutral) Performance or cues (INT) or cues (EXT) instructions or cues (CON) times (s) Porter and 9 males, skill level: highly trained While you are running the 20 While you are running the 20 Run the 20 yard dash with Times for 18.28 m— Sims (50) NCAA division I college yard dash with maximum yard dash with maximum maximum effort INT: 2.92 s 6 0.06; football players. Mean age: effort, focus on gradually effort, focus on gradually EXT: 2.92 s 6 0.07; 21.11 6 1.22; mean height: raising your body level. Also, raising up. Also, focus on CON: 2.90 s 6 0.07 182.04 cm 6 4.25; mean focus on powerfully driving 1 powerfully driving forward weight: 93.24 kg 6 36.23 leg forward while moving while clawing the floor as your other leg and foot quickly as possible down and back as quickly as possible First 9.14-m split—INT: 1.78 s 6 0.05; EXT: 1.78 s 6 0.06; CON: 1.78 s 6 0.05 Second 9.14-m split— INT: 1.14 s 6 0.03; EXT: 1.14 s 6 0.03; CON: 1.12 s 6 0.04 Significant main effect for condition in the second 9.14-m split, F(2,78) 5 3.182, P , 0.047 Ille et al. (18) 16 males, skill level: 8 of 16 were Push quickly on your legs and Get off the starting blocks as No instructions other than Times for 10 m— skilled sprinters involved in keep going as fast as quickly as possible, head starting block position novices: INT: 1.83 s 6 regional to international possible while swinging toward the finish line rapidly and the task goal were 0.07; EXT: 1.77 s 6 competitions. Age range: both arms back and forth and cross it as soon as provided 0.08; CON: 1.81 s 6 20–30 and raising your knees possible 0.06 Experts: INT: 1.72 s 6 0.05; EXT: 1.68 s 6 0.06; CON: 1.72 s 6 0.04 Significant main effect for condition, F(1,14) 5 33.80, p , 2 0.0001, hp 5 0.69

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Mallett and 12 sprinters (11 male and 1 None Push, heel, and claw No description of the 0–30-m race segment Hanrahan female), skill level: sprint- control condition —EXT: 4.28 s 6 (32) trained athletes with mean instructions was given 0.12; CON: 4.36 s 6 100-m personal bests at for this study 0.17 10.86 s 6 0.37, mean age: 21.6 6 2.4, mean height: 176.4 cm 6 6.8, mean weight: 73.4 kg 6 9.3 30–60-m race segment —EXT: 3.04 s 6 0.13; CON: 3.13 s 6 0.20 60–100-m race segment—EXT: 4.11 s 6 0.17; CON: 4.21 s 6 0.27 Significant main effect —for condition, p # 0.005 Porter et al. 84 participants (42 females, 42 While you are running the 20- While you are running the 20- Please run the 20-m dash 20-m times—INT: teghadCniinn ora www.nsca-scj.com | Journal Conditioning and Strength (52) males), skill level: none were m dash, focus on driving one m dash, focus on driving as quickly as possible 3.87 s 6 0.64; EXT: former high school or current leg forward as powerfully as forward as powerfully as 3.75 s 6 0.43; CON: collegiate athletes and had no possible while moving your possible while clawing the 3.87 s 6 0.45 formal training in sprinting. other leg and foot down and floor with your shoe as Mean age: 20.32 6 1.73 back as quickly as possible as quickly as you accelerate you accelerate Significant main effect for condition, F(1,83) 5 6,565.3, p # 0.001

aControl conditions in the studies refer to a neutral focus of attention. 5

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during a stride cycle of sprinting (11). cues emphasizing, accelerating as far with an internal focus condition (74). Furthermore, elite sprinters have high- into the run as possible is suggested, Interestingly, in the study by Wulf et al. er hip extension velocity (;8358/s ver- as this technique is applied by elite (74) it was observed that the with- sus ;7358/s) and swing back velocity sprint coaches (e.g., “push as far into drawal of internal focus feedback to (;6058/s versus ;4508/s) compared the run as possible”) (4). the athletes enhanced their perfor- with their slower counterparts (2). mance to a point where it was equiv- Based on the mechanical determinants NEUROMUSCULAR OUTCOMES ocal to that of the external focus of maximal velocity sprinting, coaches There have been a number of studies instruction group. Such a finding sug- could use external focus of attention performed showing that providing gests that providing internal focusing instructions or cues to enhance sprint external focus instructions and cues re- feedback had a depressing effect on performance by asking the athlete to sults in enhanced efficiency at a neuro- motor learning. The effects of instruct- “step down hard” or “accelerate into muscular level. Specifically, an external ing, cueing, and providing feedback the ground with maximum effort,” focus has been associated with lower emphasizing external attentional focus thereby potentially augmenting the muscle activation than an internal can additionally transfer over to novel athlete’s relative GRFs and subsequent focus when measured by surface elec- sport conditions, such as high-stress sprint velocity. tromyography (28,63,72,80), enhanced situations (7,43), which may prevent running economy (by enhanced athletes from choking under pressure Based on the existing literature oxygen consumption efficiency) (57), in competition settings. Ong et al. (43) (58,64,65), it seems that the reposition- promotion of phasic heart rate decel- found that providing external focus in- ing of upper and lower body limbs for eration just before performing a motor structions promoted an enhanced rate the subsequent step are largely a reflex- skill (42,54), and reduction in heart rate of skill acquisition while simulta- ive process because of energy transfer during physical exertion (40) during neously resulting in positive perfor- rather than by actively moving the a variety of activities. Sprinting is mance under pressure, whereas limbs into position. Repositioning the a complex motor skill involving numer- internal focus instructions resulted in limbs more quickly than necessary can ous muscle groups that must be con- a slower rate of skill acquisition and result in attenuation of the impulse on tracted at appropriate times and poorer performance under pressure the subsequent stance phase, which intensities throughout the stride cycle among participants. Based on the ex- could have a negative effect of overall to maximize sprint performance. isting literature, it seems likely that pro- sprint velocity and performance (9,64). Thereby, optimizing the timing of ago- viding external and/or neutral focus of It would therefore seem more prudent nist and antagonist muscle activation, attention instructions and cues to ath- for coaches and sport scientists to focus promoting decreased co-contraction at letes may result in an expedited motor efforts on providing athletes instruc- inappropriate times during the stride learning process and an enhanced abil- tions, cues, and feedback that regard cycle may subsequently improve sprint ity to sprint at a high level under pres- the active (as opposed to passive) pro- velocity (56). Based on the current lit- sure situations such as those cesses of the stride cycle (e.g., the down erature, external attentional focus in- experienced when peers are watching stroke movement of the thigh and structions have been shown to reduce and during competition. hand). For instance, “hammer the antagonist muscle activity during nails” could be provided as an analogy motor skill execution (27) and overall PSYCHOPHYSICAL OUTCOMES instruction to the athlete to allow one muscle activation while concurrently Sports science literature has shown to focus externally on the down stroke enhancing dynamic motor skill perfor- that providing external focus of atten- motion required of the shoulder exten- mance (72). There is a potential for tion instructions and cues can result in sion during the stride cycle. However, external and neutral focus of attention a lower rating of perceived exertion it should be noted that athletes strug- instructions and cues to promote more (RPE) for athletes (12) and has been gling with the flight phase of the sprint efficient muscle activation and more shown to reduce the perceived level of could still benefit from cues focused on optimal timing of the agonist and difficulty for a practiced task (41,57). knee lift and leg recovery (e.g., “drive antagonist muscles involved during Relevant to sprinting, in 2 attentional your shoe laces to the sky”), as there sprinting to enhance sprinting ability focus running studies, Ziv et al. (81) is no definitive research to show at a neuromuscular level. However, fur- and Schu¨ckeretal.(57)bothfoundthat otherwise. ther research will need to be performed when participants were given external It has been reported that elite 100-m to verify this presumption. focus instructions, they had lower RPE sprinters (those running in the range of scores compared with internal focus 9.90–9.58 seconds) positively acceler- MOTOR LEARNING OUTCOMES instructional groups. Furthermore, ate to ;50–70 m into the race Motor learning literature has shown Lohse and Sherwood (26) found that (24,30), with the best sprinters acceler- that providing external attentional individuals had an increased resistance ating furthest into the race. Therefore, focus feedback to athletes results in to fatigue when focusing externally using external focus instructions and higher learning rates when compared rather than internally. With regard to

6 VOLUME 38 | NUMBER 1 | FEBRUARY 2016 Copyright ª National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited. sprinting, directing attention externally Table 2 may therefore help promote an All verbal instructions provided are either external or neutral improved sprint performance by enhanc- ing an athlete’s resistance to fatigue. Verbal instructions, cues, and feedback for enhancing sprint performance Acceleration instructions and cues Maximal velocity instructions and cues PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF VERBAL INSTRUCTIONS AND CUES Push Slam FOR ENHANCING SPRINT PERFORMANCE Drive March QUALITY OF INSTRUCTIONS AND Explode Run tall CUES Trim the grassa Step over Quality refers to the ability of the ver- c bal instructions and cues to achieve the Push through the post Step down intended result on administration to Explode off the blocks Block highb the athlete. Because providing external focus verbal instructions and cues has Drive hard out of the blocks Hit the ground hard been shown to enhance sprint perfor- Tear back the track Hammer the nails mance (32,50,52,60), while internal focus instructions and cues have been shown Hammer the acceleration and Accelerate into the ground to depress performance, the benchmark come up gradually for quality is evident. Providing external Explode off the ground Explode through the track focus of attention instructions and cues may improve novice and intermediate Push the ground/track back Sprint through the finish line explosively athlete sprint performance, whereas pro- viding external and neutral focus of atten- Drive away from the start line Sprint 3 m past the finish line tion instructions and cues ensures the as fast as possible likelihood that expert athletes will sprint Drive out like you are sprinting Push into the ground with maximum effort at more optimal levels. Coaches are up-hill encouraged to provide external focus of attention instructions and cues to novice Explode out like you are being Relax and intermediate athletes, while provid- chased ing external and neutral focus of attention Explode off the line like a jet Just sprint as fast as you can instructionsandcuestoexpertathletesto taking off enhance sprint performance. Verbal in- Explode off the line like you are If someone gets in front of you, reel them back in structions and cues should be specific already sprinting to the phase of the sprint the athlete is to perform (i.e., acceleration, maximal Drive off the ground as if to spin the earth velocity, deceleration–speed endurance) backward and specific to the areas of improvement Snap your shoe laces to the sky the athlete needs to make to improve biomechanical efficiency and thus sprint Snap the ground down and back performance. Examples of quality in- Explode off the ground like the crack of a whip structions and cues that can be provided to athletes can be found in Table 2. Sprint like you are in a wind tunnel aTrim the grass refers to the athlete having a low heel recovery on the first few steps of the FREQUENCY OF INSTRUCTIONS acceleration in which their toes should “trim the grass.” AND CUES bBlock high refers to the thigh blockage happening close to or at 908, thus allowing for the With regard to frequency of instruc- athlete a longer time to accelerate the thigh back down toward the ground and possibly tion and cues provided to athletes, to augment the ground reaction forces during the sprint run. the author’s knowledge, no studies cPush through the post refers to the athlete pushing into the ground in line with the force have been performed with the intent vectors in which one comes into contact with the ground, thus allowing for efficient force to specifically explore this idea with application. sprinting. However, the 4 studies (18,32,50,52) that have examined how altering focus of attention effects sprint performance, all provided the

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verbal cues or instructions before each (13). Similarly, it is known that verbal and cues; identification and improve- trial (i.e., 100% frequency). Taking instructions and cues can have an ment of the main biomechanical flaws these studies collectively, what is impact on working memory, which is may augment multiple other biome- known is that a 100% provision level closely tied to the efficacy of motor chanical subareas that may have also for external and neutral focus of atten- skill acquisition (36). The conscious been in need of improvement (44). For tion instructions is likely to result in processing hypothesis (45) states the example, a coach that has an athlete who sprint performance improvements load placed on working memory has becomes fully upright within the first 3 dependent on the skill level of the ath- a direct impact on performance, with steps of the starting blocks during prac- lete. Therefore, based on the current internal focus instructions having tice may encourage the athlete to “Keep literature, to enhance the sprint perfor- a greater demand on working memory a straight posture while driving out at an mance of athletes, coaches are encour- compared with external focus instruc- aggressively low angle and claw the track aged to administer external and neutral tions. As a result, poorer performances back for the first 10–15 m.” Encouraging verbal instructions to athletes before associated with the adoption of an inter- a more straight forward leaning torso each sprint repetition. What is not nal focus of attention may be the byprod- angle during acceleration may poten- known is how a reduced frequency of uct of increased working memory tially enhance the orientation of the verbal instruction and cue administra- demands placed on the individual. This resultant force vector in the horizontal tion would affect sprinting ability. For may be a result of internal focus instruc- direction during toe-off and thus may example, what if verbal cues were tions and cues in particular, having result in faster acceleration velocity as administered every-other sprint repeti- a larger amount of information (i.e., quan- a byproduct of higher net anteroposte- tion or only once during a set of mul- tity), which may disrupt working mem- rior GRF (53), which has been associ- tiple sprint runs? A number of these orybyengagingexplicitprocessingof ated with faster sprinting velocity more issues still need to be clarified. This is mechanical rules about how to perform than less acute torso and shin angles at an important issue considering that sprinting (36), thus potentially causing take-off (16,21). previous research has demonstrated a decrement in sprint performance. We Because of the nature of competition, that reducing the frequency of feed- propose that providing short and concise stress and anxiety will likely be height- back provided after trials results in external directing instructions will lessen ened during these periods, potentially enhanced learning compared with the demand that is placed on the athlete’s leading to a higher chance of the ath- feedback provided after each trial; fur- working memory and therefore lead to lete choking due to the performance thermore, delaying feedback adminis- enhanced sprinting ability. pressures (6). Therefore, it is especially tration for several seconds has been important for coaches to be very care- found to be more effective in promot- PROVIDING VERBAL ful with the quality and quantity of the ing learning compared with feedback INSTRUCTIONS AND CUES IN verbal instructions and cues that are provided during or immediately after PRACTICE AND COMPETITION provided to the athlete during compe- motor skill performance (23). How- Based on the current evidence avail- tition. Verbal instructions and cues pro- ever, Wulf et al. (76) found that able, coaches are encouraged to pro- vided during competition should elicit a 100% provision rate for feedback vide either external and/or neutral an external or neutral focus of attention was more beneficial for complex motor focus of attention instructions and cues and should be brief in nature to skills, as has been suggested by Eriks- to athletes at 100% frequency levels enhance sprint performance and to son et al. (15); though, this issue may with the quantity of verbal instructions prevent the choking phenomenon be dependent on the expertise level of and cues kept minimal. Verbal instruc- from occurring (7,52,60). An example the athlete. Although the research pre- tions and cues used during training of an external and neutral focus of viously mentioned focused on feedback should be specific to the biomechanical administration, instruction and cue areas in need of most immediate attention instruction during competi- provision is likely to have similar effects improvement. The coach should take tion would be “Push through with an on the attentional focus and subse- note of landmark positions in the stance aggressive acceleration velocity and quent performance of the individual. and flight phases of the stride cycle stay relaxed during the later stage of (e.g., toe-on, toe-off, mid-stance, and the race.” QUANTITY OF INSTRUCTIONS AND mid-flight positions). Based on the Coaches can implement external CUES coach’s evaluation of the athletes’ and/or neutral focus of attention in- One area that is underdeveloped in mechanics in the various phases of the structions and cues to enhance sprint motor behavior literature is how the stride cycle, specific verbal instructions performance in athletes by simply quantity of verbal instructions and cues and cues can then be implemented in encouraging a movement goal while affect motor skill performance. In order of priority. Identification of the omitting body parts and/or limbs regard to short-term memory, our mechanical flaw in need of the most when providing instructions and cues. biological limit is about 4 items (or improvement should be the top priority For example, as opposed to saying to chunks) of information on average for implementation of verbal instructions an athlete, “Accelerate your foot down

8 VOLUME 38 | NUMBER 1 | FEBRUARY 2016 Copyright ª National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited. hard into the ground during maximal narrow internal focus. J Strength Cond Res Nick velocity,” the coach could alternatively 29: 1780–1783, 2015. Winkelman is say, “Accelerate down hard into the 6. Beilock SL and Carr T. On the fragility of the director of ground during maximal velocity.” The skilled performance: What governs choking movement and movement goal is stated and the refer- under pressure? J Exp Psychol Gen 130: education at encing to body parts is omitted, leading 701–725, 2001. EXOS and is the athlete to potentially focus exter- 7. Bell J and Hardy J. Effects of attentional currently com- nally, thus leading to a greater chance focus on skilled performance in golf. J Appl pleting his PhD Sport Psychol 21: 163–177, 2009. for enhanced sprint performance due at Rocky Moun- to enhanced vGRF during maximal 8. Benz A. Verbal instructions and cues: tain University of velocity. Providing these for enhancing athletic Health Professions. performance. In: Techniques for Track & Field and Cross Country.Metaire,LA: Renaissance Publishing, 2014. pp. SUMMARY 10–18. In summary, the way coaches provide Dr. Jared 9. Brown TD and Vescovi JD. Maximum athletes verbal instructions and cues Porter is cur- speed: Misconceptions of sprinting. plays an integral role in the skill rently an Associ- Strength Cond J 34: 37–41, 2012. development of sprinting. Because ate Professor and 10. Chiviacowsky S, Wulf G, and Wally R. An sprinting is a critical locomotor skill Director of the external focus of attention enhances that is an essential determining fac- Motor Behaviour balance learning in older adults. Gait tor in numerous team and individual Laboratory at Posture 32: 572–575, 2010. sports,itisimperativethatcoaches Southern Illinois 11. Clark KP and Weyand PG. Are running use as many methods as possible University. speeds maximized with simple-spring to enhance the biomotor ability of stance mechanics? J Appl Physiol (1985) speed. As this article demonstrates, 117: 604–615, 2014. providing appropriate verbal in- Dr. Sophia 12. Comani S, Di Fronso S, Filho E, structionsandcuesisasimpleand Nimphius is cur- Castronovo AM, Schmid M, Bortoli L, effective way to enhance sprint per- rently a senior Conforto S, Robazza C, and Bertollo M. formance in athletes. More specifi- lecturer in the Attentional focus and functional connectivity in cycling: An EEG case study. cally, the current literature suggests MS of Strength that verbal instructions and cues Presented at: XIII Mediterranean and Conditioning Conference on Medical and Biological administered to the athlete should at Edith Cowan Engineering and Computing; September emphasize an external or neutral University. 25–28, 2013; Seville, Spain. focus of attention to optimize sprint- 13. Cowan N. 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