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and Creoles in Education (PACE) NEWSLETTER Number 6 November 1995

FROM THE EDITOR REPORTS The Newsletter is growing in both size and subscribers. This issue is 15 pages, 5 more than the last, and there are over 125 names on from: Merryn Philpott the mailing list. P.M.B. 73 As promised last time, this issue includes a Katherine, NT 0851 special report on creoles and Australia, where a lot has been happening recently. “I am a speech pathologist working in But there was still too much information to Katherine, . My role as a include in this issue. So, Melanesia will be the speech pathologist entails the assessment of focus of yet another special report in the next children and adults who use Kriol.” issue. For the first time, two people have been from: Russell Hancock involved in the production of the PACE 81 Gipps Street Newsletter. Cindy Schneider typed in the Carrington, NSW 2294 reports and summarized the publications. AUSTRALIA Thanks to Cindy for her efforts! “Currently working on producing handbooks Thanks also to all the other contributors to in relevant areas for students involved in the this issue. Please keep up the information or Kriol Interpreters Course at the Katherine short articles for future issues and passing the Regional Aboriginal Centre.” word (and the newsletter) on to others who may be interested. from: Sr. Pat Rhatigan The Univ. of Notre Dame Australia Jeff Siegel, Editor Broome Campus Linguistics Department PO Box 2287 (Guy Street) of New England Broome, WA 6725 Armidale, NSW 2351 AUSTRALIA Ph: (091) 92 2032 e-mail: [email protected] Fax: (091) 92 1247 “We will be offering a new unit at B.Ed level (400) entitled ‘English Based Language and IN THIS ISSUE the Aboriginal Student’ in Semester 2 this year. The lecturer will be Joyce Hudson.” page Reports 1 from: Joan Kale Regional Co-ordinator Publications 3 Batchelor College Theses 7 Nhulunbuy, NT 0880 AUSTRALIA Special report: PACE in Australia 8 “I am about to complete a PhD thesis on the language and literacy socialization of a Torres Conferences 15 Strait Islander child prior to the commence- ment of schooling (5-6 years of age). The child and her grandmother who was raising Pidgins and Creoles in Education (PACE) Newsletter 6 (1995)

her code switch between Pacific and English in the home. “In 1990 I wrote an in Baldauf and from: Heather Lotherington-Woloszyn Luke (Language Planning and Education in University of the South Pacific Australia and the South Pacific) entitled PO Box 1168 ‘Controllers or Victims? Language and Suva Education in the Torres Strait’ in which I proposed Torres Strait Creole as a medium of “My interest stems from my focus in SLA instruction in some contexts. literacy/biliteracy education. I am interested in “My MA thesis from Sydney University educational policy and practice in Melanesia was an advocacy of the use of as a where I think a vernacular transition medium of instruction in PNG schools.” programme should be instituted in basic formal education. It is my opinion that the Caribbean dialects of Melanesian should play a significant role in building literacy skills in from: Karl Erland Gadelii primary education as well as inter- Linguistics Department generationally.” Göteborg University S-412 98 Göteborg North America SWEDEN “I’m interested in French-related creoles and from: Linda Caswell have done field-work in the French Antilles 210 Massachusetts Ave, Apt 5 and . I think it is impossible to study Arlington, MA 02174 pidgins/creoles without getting involved in USA educational questions. e-mail: [email protected] “In Guadeloupe, Martinique and “I have been working with Cape Verdean Dominica, from what I have seen, the status of children in the Boston Public Schools for the creoles in education is alarmingly low. past year and have become very interested in “I think pidginists/creolists need info how Cape Verdean Creole can be used in about whether there are discussion lists, educational settings. I plan to do my doctoral newsgroups, associations etc. dealing with research on the affective and pedagogical pidgins/creoles. I haven’t heard about any benefits of using oral and written Cape such fora but it would be great if such Verdean Creole in the classroom. I have information could be gathered in some way. If recently worked on developing literacy there are no lists/newsgroups I think it’s time materials in Cape Verdean Creole in to start one or more.” collaboration with a Cape Verdean kinder- garten teacher. I would be interested in from: Kate Howe hearing about others’ experiences with writing Institut d’Etudes Créoles creole and pidgin that do not yet Université de Provence have standard . 29 Av. Schuman “I am also interested in the acquisition of 13621 Aix-en-Provence Cedex 1 creole languages. I would be grateful for any FRANCE information you might have on any previous or current research in this area.” “My recently published Papiamentu Reader (Dunwoody Press, Kensington, MD, USA, from: Patricia Nichols 1993), although intended to teach Papiamentu Linguistics and Language to anglophones, contains very brief and basic Development Department information regarding education and San Jose State University particularly standardization (pp.v-vi), and an San Jose, CA 95192-0093 exposition, with introduction, of and USA pronunciation (pp.vii-x). The bibliography includes articles addressing problems of “Interested in the use of Gullah and/or norms and standardization.” African American Vernacular English in literacy programs, especially in coastal South Carolina. “Also interested in Gullah/vernacular

2 Pidgins and Creoles in Education (PACE) Newsletter 6 (1995)

English code switching and in teacher training source of linguistic heritage and pride. that recognizes such language use as a resource in both classroom and community.” In the same volume, “The Kwéyòl speech community” by Hubisi Nwenmely (pp57-68) from: Eduardo Faingold provides a general overview of the Kwéyòl- Dept. of Hispanic Languages and speaking community in Britain (particularly Literature immigrants from Dominica and St. Lucia). It SUNY at Stony Brook provides a brief history and evolution of Stony Brook NY 11794-3371 modern Kwéyòl in the Caribbean, its USA transplantation to Britain, and its current status and patterns of use in Britain. There is “I am interested in the effects of literacy in also a discussion of the various efforts the creole, as well as other more ‘standard’ towards promoting Kwéyòl culture and languages (eg Spanish, English, French) on writings in both Britain and the Caribbean. the linguistic development, as well as the survival of creole languages (in, eg Hubisi Nwenmely also teams up with decreolization, creole ‘death’, etc).” Carol Morris in their article on “The Kwéyòl Language and Literacy Project” in Language PUBLICATIONS and Education 7/4, 1993 (pp.259-70). Despite some overlap from Newnmely’s Two chapters in Multilingualism in the British 1991 publication (above), this article deals Isles 2. Africa, the Middle East and Asia more specifically with the development of the edited by Safder Alladina and Viv Edwards “Patwa Project” (Kwéyòl Project) for (Longman, , 1991) are relevant to Dominicans and St. Lucians living in Britain. PACE. In “The Afro-English creole speech The project launched its first phase of Patwa community” (pp.42-56), Morgan Dalphinis classes in May 1984, and since then has reviews the difficult linguistic situation of produced a number of teaching and reading Creole speakers from English-lexified Creole materials. Aims of the project have been to languages who have settled in . “to develop literacy skills amongst St. Lucian Since the 1950s when West Indians came and Dominican people and to encourage the to settle in Britain in larger numbers than ever development of students to become tutors on before, a cycle of underachievement by the Project” (p.263). Creole-speaking students has been Additionally, participants in London’s perpetuated in the British school system. Kwéyòl Project have established ties with Citing writers such as Eysenck (1971) who people in St. Lucia who are also keen to write suggest that African and Afro-Caribbean Kwéyòl. The result is a mutually enjoyable people are of a “genetically inferior” race (p. and profitable teaching/learning experience 47), Dalphinis attributes “institutionalised between the two groups. racism” (p.47) as a major contributor to Caribbean underachievement in British Lise Winer, author of “Teaching Speakers schools. Thus, it is stated that while language of Creoles in North awareness programs might be useful to some American Classrooms” (in Language extent in improving academic performance, a Variation in North more significant obstacle which must be Research and Teaching, edited by A. Wayne overcome is the negative attitudes towards Glowka and Donald M. Lance (The Modern Creole-speaking students. Language Association of America, New York, Additionally, Caribbean parents, who have 1993, pp.191-198), provides an overview of come to equate with material Caribbean English Creoles and discusses the success, often feel that teaching Creole in the situation where English Creole speakers are classroom is just another attempt to “keep transplanted into North American schools. As down” those who are not in power. stated in the overview on page 191, this article However, some educators attribute “provides some basic information about academic failure at least partly to the schools’ Caribbean English Creole and about teaching lack of recognition of , and Caribbean-background students, including they want to validate the unique language suggestions for teacher preparation, skills of Caribbean students. Through classroom teaching procedures, and useful exposure to Creole literature and language, reference sources.” these students would be provided with a Winer believes that a little knowledge of 3 Pidgins and Creoles in Education (PACE) Newsletter 6 (1995)

students’ social, cultural, and political the ancestral subcontinent, yet these people background can go far in facilitating the also have acquired the Creole of their adopted transition of Creole-speaking students into land. In , the term “Creole” there- North American classrooms. She suggests fore better serves to identify the ethnic that teachers gain a knowledge of Caribbean (African-European) sub-group of Mauritians, geography and history, and be aware of the rather than the larger group of the Creole- current family and social structure, speaking community, as a whole. educational system and cultural traditions, and With respect to developing Creole as a how these differ from North American norms. scientific and literary instrument: there was a While Winer does not propose that seminar for this purpose held in Réunion in teachers learn the Creole of their students, she 1984, a gathering which in itself was does believe that they have a duty to obtain a significant. However, little serious discussion basic knowledge of Creoles, so that they may and no follow-up projects resulted. be more aware of potential problems arising What Hookoomsing considers most from linguistic misunderstanding. paradoxical is that by 1987, Bannzil Kréyòl, without any legal status of its own, became The International Journal of the Sociology registered as a French association, thus losing of Language 102 (1993) focusses on “Creole its Creole identity. Movements in the Francophone Orbit”, and The author refers to the Bannzil Kréyòl contains several articles of interest. movement as an attempt to reverse the In “So near, yet so far: Bannzil’s pan- “...unpalatable visions depicting Creole Creole idealism” (pp.27-38), Vinesh Y. islands adrift like shipwrecks” (p 36). Hookoomsing tells the story of the how the Despite its early demise, however, s/he feels Bannzil Kréyòl movement originated, that perhaps the experience has taught us to espoused ambitious ideals, and then take a more localized and pragmatic, rather experienced a swift decline in momentum and than globalized and idealistic, stance toward spirit. Creole languages. The movement arose from the French- inspired Comité International des Etudes Yves Dejean, who was born and raised in Créoles (CIEC). Dissatisfied members of this Haiti and returned there after sixteen years in organization began to see a need not only for exile, has written a comprehensive and scientific study of Creole languages, but also informative article entitled “An overview of for a society which celebrated Creole speakers the language situation in Haiti” (pp.73-84). of both the Caribbean and Indian Ocean He launches into his discussion by islands as a distinct community. refuting the existence of a diglossic situation The ideals of the Bannzil Kréyòl movement in Haiti. Addressing some of the requirements thus focussed on the idea that Creole for diglossia according to the theories of both speakers, despite their cultural and linguistic Ferguson and Fishman, Dejean argues his differences from island to island and from points, noting that 99% of the population is ocean to ocean, are part of a larger family of monolingual in Creole, and the one to two Creole speakers that share a common percent who do speak both Creole and French linguistic, cultural, and social background. do not reserve either code for specific The movement also had the aims of situations, and furthermore, they code-switch promoting Creole languages as a vehicle for constantly between the two languages. Dejean scientific and literary communication, and to also strongly disagrees with Fleischmann’s be recognized at the university, national, and account of Haitian “linguistic anguish” international levels. (p.76) whereby Creole speakers allegedly What happened to the Bannzil Kréyòl long to be competent in French, stating that movement, the author wonders. With regards the average citizen carries on day-to-day life to a pan-Creole culture, Hookoomsing in “...a peaceful linguistic existence believes that cultural differences and distance undisturbed by...imaginary quarrels and prevailed over desired unity. For example, in conflicts...” (p.77). Mauritius, Creole speakers and those who The author then continues on with a consider themselves to be members of the description of the issue of language planning Creole community do not necessarily in Haiti. He scorns the 1980 educational constitute the same group. A large portion of reform which has as its goal for all Haitian the Mauritian community who are of Indian children to be fluent speakers, readers, and origin continue to identify with the culture of writers of both French and Creole. Citing 4 Pidgins and Creoles in Education (PACE) Newsletter 6 (1995)

Haiti’s low economic status and high communication with servants or estate illiteracy rate, as well as the fact that fluent workers. French speakers for students to “practice” Currently, young people in the country with are few and far between, Dejean speak Patwa fluently but regard this as a dismisses this reform as unrealistic. “disability”. Paradoxically, their counterparts A new Creole adult literacy campaign was in urban areas are much less capable in Patwa, initiated by the government in the late 80s, but but mix it with their English and “...have was unsuccessful according to Dejean, learned or are learning to value it” (p.61). absorbing huge amounts of “talk, bluff, and The creation of the Komité pou Etid money” (p.79). Kwéyòl (KEK) in the 1980s has helped the He seems to acknowledge that the Creole cause in Dominica. It acts as a point of traditional educational system, which has contact for creolists in other countries, and subjected Haitians to 200 years of non-Creole has worked to establish an oral history as well usage, has taken its toll – Creole is still as written documentation of Patwa. considered by some to be an inferior and Additionally, the Komité has initiated adult inadequate language to learn in schools. literacy courses in the language. The KEK However, it is encouraging to note that (p.79) has to a limited extent influenced the “...the most varied and distant regions of the educational system. Many teachers are country gladly welcomed the announcement beginning to understand the creative resources of literacy programs all based solely on the to be found in the mother tongue of their use of Creole.” students. However, the educational system does not provide for this. Also, since Patwa as Another article on the Caribbean focusses yet does not have a standard , upon the language situation in Dominica, an teachers are reluctant to instruct in an area island which was originally colonized by the where there is no adjudicated “right” and French but was handed over to British rule in “wrong” spelling form. 1805. Despite almost 200 years of British Stuart also writes about the status of Patwa influence and an Anglophonic tradition on the in other aspects of society, where it generally island, French-lexified Patwa is slow to die in suffers from a low status in relation to Dominica. Stephanie Stuart examines the English. An exception to this is in music, status of Patwa in her article, “Dominican where Patwa flourishes, and in dance, which is Patwa – mother tongue or cultural relic?” supported by the Cultural Division of the (pp.57-72). government. Stuart identifies many obstacles which Although in the words of Stuart, the hinder the use of spoken and written Patwa in government now pays “lip service” to Patwa, Dominica. For example, the fact that Patwa is it benefits from no formal language planning. a French-lexified creole within an officially The author feels that for this language to carry English-speaking environment causes prob- on amidst an English-speaking environment, lems in the coinage of new words, where steps will need to be taken to “officialize” lexical borrowing from English does not Patwa. This would mean including it in the come so easily as it would come from French. school syllabus, and promoting it as a Other factors which confine Patwa working language that should not be admired development is official as well as as a mere cultural relic, but as a language to be English usage in government and the legal used in both formal and informal settings. system. Even in the schools, English is considered to be the only “appropriate” In “Language policy in the Seychelles and language of communication, to the dis- its consequences” (pp.85-99), Annegret advantage of at least 30% of students whose Bollée takes a cautiously positive stance home language is Patwa. To the date when towards the status of Seychellois Creole. this article was written, there was still no After describing its origin and history derived standardized orthography for Patwa. from Mauritian and Réunion creole-speaking Although Dominica became independent immigrants, Bollée explains how language from Britain in 1978, beliefs dating back to policy in the Seychelles has traditionally been colonial rule linger in Dominican society. For very supportive of Seychellois Creole. Since example, it was considered “inappropriate” the 1960s and 70s, it has been used in public in times of British rule to use Patwa in “polite functions, on radio news broadcasts, and in discourse”. Such discourse encompassed government dealings with the public. In 1979, virtually all aspects of life except for only three years after independence from 5 Pidgins and Creoles in Education (PACE) Newsletter 6 (1995)

Britain, Seychellois Creole was designated as turn aid in the learning of other codes such as an along with English and French. French, and in 1982 it became the medium of Armand promotes his as a instruction in primary schools. In later school flexible orthographic proposal which can years, Creole is the language of instruction in change to meet the needs of Creole speakers conjunction with French and English. in the years to come. He notes (p.109), Bollée notes that despite the fact that however, that “...it is not a question of Seychellois Creole is the language of instruc- transcribing from the spoken language, which tion in Seychelles’ schools and that it is used is a place par excellence of variation, but to with great success on radio and TV, the print give birth to a written language, which media continues to use predominantly English stabilizes usages”. and French. Creole literature can still be found only to a limited extent in bookshops. Another article of interest is “The creole This is attributed to the limit of Creole’s movement in Guadeloupe” by Ellen M. vocabulary, and the fact that it is easier to Schnepel (pp.117-34). To quote the author leave English and French media reports in (p.118): their original language than to translate them [T]his article analyzes the relationship into Creole. Bollée expresses the hope that in between politics and language in the current the coming years, when current students will movement to promote, develop and have graduated with an academic background popularize the Creole language on the island in Creole, the tide will turn towards increased of Guadaloupe in the French Antilles. In usage of written Creole in the media and in tracing the evolution of the “Creole Movement”, we shall observe how the Creole literature. question both reflects and structures the In anticipation of this, the Komite Kreol, island’s changing sociopolitical environment. later taken over by the Lenstiti Kreol (Creole In particular, how each political party’s Institute) has been established with the aim of posture on the status and role of Creole doing research on Creole (, corresponds to its own position regarding ), creating literature, and promoting Guadaloupe’s political status in relation to Creole, generally. Bollée lists the stated aims the French nation. of the Institute, and provides examples of its With regard to Creole and education, work, such as the coining of new Creole Schnepel notes (p.126): “The institution words and some rulings in Creole . where the conflict between French and Creole Bollée anticipates a bright future for cultures played out most dramatically was the Creole, not only in the spoken domain where local school system.” She describes how, in it is already strong, but also in its developing 1981, a secondary school started an written domain. She notes, however, the experimental program to teach Creole in necessity of retaining English and French as several classes in addition to the French class. official languages in the Seychelles, where the The purpose was to correct interference errors local language could not reasonably be in French due to Creole, and also “to liberate expected to infiltrate international borders. the students by allowing them to communicate more freely through speaking Creole in the Alain Armand focuses on the creole of classroom” (p.127). For the political faction neighbouring Réunion in “A Kréol/French that supported this experiment, it was a dictionary: to what purpose? A lexicographic “preemptive measure to forestall a French undertaking on Réunion” (pp.101-16). government effort to teach Creole along its Armand provides an overview of social and own ideological lines” (p.127). theoretical issues involved in creating the After a long history of neglect of Dictionnaire kréol réunioné/français: How languages other than French, the Socialist wide a boundary to create between Creole and government passed a law in 1982 its lexifier language, French? How to define acknowledging minority languages and Creole words with no direct French spelling out provisions for their being taught equivalent? How to account for a spelling and in the school system. However, creole grammar in a language that has not been languages were not included. But in 1983, a standardized? surprise announcement was made that Creole He makes mention of the impact that a languages and cultures were considered bilingual dictionary might have on the school regional languages and would be gradually system, suggesting that it could be used as a introduced as an experiment into the school tool in the mastery of Creole, which would in systems of the overseas territories. 6 Pidgins and Creoles in Education (PACE) Newsletter 6 (1995)

This led to a great deal of controversy. external aid, tourism), cultural points (theater, Many people were “hostile to the idea of radio, medicine, church/religion, Internation-al elevating their vernacular to the status of a Creole Day), language varieties in modern St regional language and teaching Creole in Lucia, the process of relexification, school where it had been previously psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic factors, banished” (p.127). Others supported Creole, language attitudes and an overview of Former but thought it should be considered the Lexifier Language Acquisition (FLLA). Allen of Guadaloupe, not a has coined the term FLLA for the specific regional language of France. Others feared context of St Lucia where French, once the that introduction of Creole into the schools official language of the island and the lexifier would lead to greater interference from language of St Lucian Creole, was replaced by French or decreolization. People argued about a competing international language (English) which was the “real Creole” or “pure in the 19th century. When the contemporary Creole”. Teachers debated about the level at St Lucian seeks to learn French, certain which Creole should be introduced into the factors facilitate or impede the learning schools (if at all)–preschool, primary or process. FLLA may also apply to other Creole secondary–and about whether it should be contexts that show evidence of a change in the merely the medium of instruction for some official status of the lexifier language in the years or an object of study along with French. past. Chapter three looks to the future with What was the result of all this political discussion on the political climate, conflict and in-fighting on Creole in standardization of the orthography, literacy education? Schnepel gives the following programs for children and adults, and post- answer (p.130): “Through the decline in literacy issues.” student interest, parental campaigns against the classes, teacher apathy, and the absence of “Sainte-Lucie: relexification, décreolisation, any clear administrative support, the school recreolisation ou adlexification?” (Diplôme program has been marginalized.” d’Etudes Approfondies Thesis, Département des Sciences du Langage & Centre de Finally, “Integrating Creole into Caribbean Recherches Linguistiques et Sémiologiques, classrooms” by Peter A. (Journal of Université Lyon, 1993) Multilingual and Multicultural Development “This thesis is a phonological study of 15/1, 1994, pp.47-62) is the published version loanwords that originate from different of a paper given at the conference of the varieties of standard and local English and that Society of Pidgin and Creole Linguistics in have now entered into the St Lucian and Amsterdam. This paper is summarized in Dominican French Creoles. This study PACE Newsletter 4, p.9. reconsiders the concept of word-borrowing by first defining the situation of St Lucia and THESES Dominica within various contemporary As mentioned in the last issue, Jeff Allen has theories of lexification and then by analyzing completed two graduate theses on St. Lucian data according to pertinent issues in socio- and Dominican creoles. Here are summaries linguistics and psycholinguistics. Textual data by the author: is collected from newspapers and folkloric stories written in the two French Creole “Sainte-Lucie: Description sociolinguistique varieties; interviews are conducted with St d’une île antillaise”. (Maîtrise Thesis. Lucians living in the UK based on the data Département des Sciences du Langage, collected in the texts. Université Lyon, 1992). “Chapter one presents the socio-historical “This thesis is a sociolinguistic study of St development of St Lucian Creole from the Lucian French Creole, a language spoken on arrival of the Europeans in the 17th century the island of St Lucia in the West Indies. up through case studies of modern century Chapter one, taking a historical perspective, tutoring and literacy programs. Chapter two treats issues such as language varieties, contains complete phonetic and phonemic pidginization, and creolization. Also included inventories for the varieties of English and the is a brief case study comparison of St Lucia French Creole that coexist both in St Lucia and Martinique. Chapter two takes on a more and in Dominica. Chapter three provides a 30- contemporary point of view with various page comprehensive diachronic survey of the discussions on economy (internal resources, theories of creolization, decreolization, re- 7 Pidgins and Creoles in Education (PACE) Newsletter 6 (1995)

creolization, relexification, and adlexification. Reports Chapter four examines the degree of lexical influence that occurs through the contact of A survey of attitudes to Kriol in the Halls two languages, including topics such as Creek area by Margaret Sefton (1994) language choice, code-switching, word- This is a detailed report of a survey conducted borrowing, and bilingualism. Chapter five last year to find out people’s attitudes to contains analyses of over 200 utterances/ several issues regarding Kriol. The author sentences with loanwords from English talked to three old people (ranging in age from varieties that are found in the writing and their 50’s to 70’s) and four children (6-8), speech of St Lucian and Dominican French and interviewed 14 people (in their 30’s and Creole speakers. Chapter six discusses the 40’s), using a questionnaire. Some of the data by categorizing the examples of the findings from the interviews were that many corpus into semantic domains. Chapter seven, people are not familiar with the term “creole” contrary to past literature on St Lucian French and call their way of speaking “Pidgin Creole, concludes by stating that these French English” or “broken-down English”. There Creoles today are not undergoing were differing opinions about whether Kriol is relexification, a process normally attributed to a separate language or a deficient form of the pidginization stage of language develop- English. For example, one person said it’s ment. This study rather argues that adlexifi- “an Aboriginal language”, while another said cation (lexical borrowing from coexisting “it’s just lazy English”. However, most adstrate languages) is currently affecting these people agreed that Kriol is not mutually French Creoles via English varieties, thus intelligible with English. producing some totally assimilated loan- With regard to using Kriol in schools, words, some non-assimilated loanwords, and there were many strong opinions on both some partially assimilated loanblends in St sides: About half of the people surveyed Lucian and Dominican French Creoles.” thought that children should speak and read and write in Kriol at school, while the other Jeff’s latest address is: half were strongly opposed to this. To quote Jeff Allen, c/o Dupont from one reply given in the report (p.27): “At 6, mail Victor Jarra school, children should learn Standard 93160, Noisy-le-Grand English. At home or with their friends, that’s FRANCE another thing. Schools should be educating SPECIAL REPORT: people in the proper manner–teaching Kriol PACE in Australia would be a waste of public funds.” Yet, another person said (p.28): “You need to A lot has been happening with creoles in have Kriol for the little kids so they can education in Australia over the past few years, understand. They can talk it and read it and both with Kriol, spoken in the Northern write it so they get confident.” Territory and the Kimberley region of People expressed both positive and , and with Torres Strait negative attitudes towards using Kriol at Creole, spoken in the and work. Some said it was essential for efficient the northern tip of . communication at the local level, while others Several reports and articles appeared said it can cause confusion. showing that negative attitudes towards the The majority of people wanted to hear creoles have had a detrimental effect on the Kriol on the radio, along with traditional education of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Aboriginal languages. They wanted their Islander children. These led to calls for a children to speak traditional languages most change in perspective to allow a place for of all, but many also wanted them to speak creoles in the education system, and in other Kriol and English in appropriate contexts. areas as well, such as the health and legal systems. Summary of the report of the 1990/1991 Here, some recent reports are outlined, and Barkly and Sandover language in education then some of the resources which have come survey by Robert Hoogenraad (1992). out to help teachers and teacher trainers. This is a large summary of an even larger Following this is some recent news from report of a survey of vernacular and English different creole-speaking areas, and then a language needs in education in the Barkly and listing theses and publications. Sandover area of the Northern Territory, and 8 Pidgins and Creoles in Education (PACE) Newsletter 6 (1995)

includes an Aboriginal language census. The Training (DEET). The Executive Summary of survey included discussions with staff of the the report is given here: NT Education Department and with Aborig- The purpose of this report is to identify inal people at nearly 100 places. One of the children who are prevented equity of access to many recommendations of this report is for English literacy because they are speakers of “an integrated approach to language in the creole languages or Aboriginal English, and Aboriginal classroom”. Here are some to indicate ways to redress this inequity. The quotes: survey of children documented in this report was conducted in the Northern Territory, but There are a number of cogent reasons why the much of the report would reflect the situation language curriculum for the Aboriginal in other States where a creole or Aboriginal classroom must treat English, the vernacular English is spoken. The main points of the (Aboriginal English, Kriol or an Aboriginal report are: Language), and the traditional Aboriginal 1 In Aboriginal communities in the NT the language of the community together: of children is either an ancestral • The language of classroom management has Aboriginal language, a creole or Aboriginal to be one that the teacher, assistant teacher English. None of these children speak and pupils understand and accept… Standard Australian English as a first • Ideally, the language of instruction has to language. be a language that both the teacher and pupils 2. In schools in other areas, including major have a very good command of: that implies urban centres, many Aboriginal children do the vernacular for a considerable period of the not speak Standard Australian English as child’s schooling… their first language. • In teaching English, including English 3. In many schools where none of the literacy, the teacher must start from a children speak Standard Australian English as thorough understanding of the child's existing a first language, there is no provision for language… teaching English as a foreign or second • This implies both research to learn more language. about the vernaculars in use in school 4. Few teachers have training in Teaching communities, and in-service training for English as a Foreign or , few teachers in the techniques of teaching English have any knowledge of Aboriginal languages, as a foreign language or dialect. or linguistic theory in relation to education. Recommendation 1b of the report concerns 5. Teaching English to Kriol or Aboriginal a re-examination of language policy in English speaking children requires particular Aboriginal education, as follows: training which is specific to that task, There needs to be a re-evaluation of the role because of the particular history of those in Aboriginal education of English and the varieties and the misinformation that has vernaculars, ie Aboriginal languages, Kriol or been generated about them and is still in a creolised variety of Aboriginal English… circulation. This training is not currently In developing language policy for Aboriginal provided. schools: The main recommendations of this report are: • good and English literacy 1. More information to be made available to need to be recognised as the central goal; counteract general misunderstanding about the • English and Aboriginal languages need to nature of creole and creole-related dialects of be given equality of regard; English • the legitimacy of the community’s 2. An extensive increase in the provision of vernacular language, the language in everyday language-related professional development use, needs to be explicitly recognised, programs for teachers of Aboriginal children. whether that be an Aboriginal language, 3. Regular negotiation and discussion with Kriol or a creolised variety of Aboriginal communities where creoles and Aboriginal English, in order to ensure that the child's English are spoken, in particular to ensure identity is not being undermined. that any programs to enhance equity of access

The extent of the use of Kriol, other creole to English literacy do not conflict with varieties and varieties of Aboriginal English community aspirations for maintenance of by schoolchildren in the Northern Territory ancestral languages. and its implications for access to English The report points out some of the literacy by Mari Rhydwen (1992) problems with negative attitudes towards Kriol (p.27): This is the report of a Project of National A major problem for teachers of Kriol and Significance, funded by the Australian Aboriginal English speaking children is that Department of Employment, Education and of attitudes of non-Aboriginal people.

9 Pidgins and Creoles in Education (PACE) Newsletter 6 (1995)

Throughout the areas where such varieties are 2. How the meaning of words affects spoken there is intense prejudice towards communication them. I have heard Kriol described as 3. Dialects, pidgins and creoles “gibberish” by a long term council employee 4. Socially appropriate language in Barunga, as “shit language” by a long-term 5. How sounds affect communication resident of Daly River, as “rubbish English” 6. Differences between English and Kriol by a school principal in a creole-speaking grammar area. In casual conversation with people in 7. Workshop the NT, whenever I made the mistake of The first session shows participants that talking about my work, I was accused of Kriol is a valid language and Aboriginal encouraging the use of sub-standard English, English is a valid dialect of English; they are to the detriment of both Aboriginal children not just “poor English”. It also aims to make and the English language. participants aware of the differences between More on this occurs later in the report (pp.32- these varieties and SAE, and of the potential 33): for miscommunication when these differences [O]ne of the most important factors affecting are not understood. children who are speakers of Kriol or Aboriginal English is the attitude of others The second session focusses on differ- toward those varieties. In considering the ences in meaning of similar words in the education of such children, the attitude of different varieties. The third session their teachers is highly significant. In many emphasizes the importance of control of both cases, educators are committed to teaching SAE and Kriol/Aboriginal English, and such children that the variety they speak is teaches some sociolinguistic terms such as unacceptable. At worst, their language is pidgin, creole and speech continuum. Session simply denied. When children speak to a 4 aims to make participants understand that teacher in Kriol the teacher may appear to not each of these varieties can be used hear what is said and simply ignore it. appropriately in different contexts, and that it And later (p.85): is important to teach children to be able to A common factor throughout all the schools switch between them. I visited was the lack of interest demonstrated by teachers in the language of the children. Session 5 concentrates on sounds and Apart from Barunga, not in any of the pronunciation of Kriol/Aboriginal English schools where children spoke Kriol did any of compared to SAE, and session 6 on the non-Aboriginal teachers claim to have grammatical features. The final session is a made any deliberate attempts to learn about workshop to identify ways in which FELIKS Kriol or to learn to speak it… The lack of strategies can be used in the schools and knowledge about Kriol, to which many discuss various aspects of the course. teachers openly admitted, is a matter of some The FELIKS kit includes a manual for concern and one that needs to be addressed. presenters, audio and video tapes, and masters for overhead transparencies, participants’ Resources for teachers and booklets and games handouts. The manual teacher trainers contains Background Notes and a section for each session, beginning with the objectives, a Fostering English language in Kimberley pre-reading list, lists of resources and schools (FELIKS): Professional development equipment, an outline of necessary steps for course for primary schools (Catholic Educa- preparation, and a list of references. The text tion Office, Broom, 1994). for presenters includes a detailed outline of This is a kit designed for running a course to the content, cues for using overheads and teachers about Kriol and Aboriginal tapes, and descriptions of group activities and English. It was developed by Joyce Hudson, games. Rosalind Berry and others on the “Language This a most valuable resource and has Team”. Its ultimate aim is to “provide already been used quite widely (see below). teachers Kriol: What is it, who speaks it and what’s it in the Kimberley with skills and support” in got to do with me? by Mari Rhydwen (1992) order to teach Standard Australian English (SAE) to speakers of Kriol and Aboriginal This is a draft of a booklet meant for teachers, English. providing background information about The course is divided into seven sessions, Kriol and other creole languages. It helps new normally run over 2 days: teachers to recognize when children are 1. Introduction speaking Kriol, and explains its relationship to

10 Pidgins and Creoles in Education (PACE) Newsletter 6 (1995)

Aboriginal English. Some phonological, is on “Aboriginal English and Australian lexical and grammatical differences between creoles”. It describes the origins of creole Kriol and Standard Australian English (SAE) languages in general and of NT Kriol and are described. Here is a quotation relating to Torres Strait Creole in particular, giving attitudes (pp.9-10): examples of some of their features. Some Kriol is often described as a stigmatised other creoles around the world are mentioned, language. This means that it is treated as if it and attitudes towards creoles are discussed. is a matter of disgrace and is reflected by the fact that people may refer to it as a “rubbish” Langwij comes to school: Promoting literacy or “bastard” language. One of the reasons for among speakers of Aboriginal English and this, and many other pidgins and creoles, not Australian Creoles just Kriol, are stigmatised, goes back to the history of such languages. They are the This 32 page colour booklet was produced in languages of the less powerful groups, the 1994 by the Department of Employment, slaves, the indentured workers, the colonised Education and Training (DEET) as a public and it is not only the languages but the awareness campaign for teachers and parents. customs and beliefs of such people which are It defines terms such as pidgin, creole and often despised or ridiculed. Whilst, nowadays, people may be more accepting of Aboriginal dialect, and provides some information on culture in general, Kriol continues to be origins of Aboriginal English and Australian regarded as an inferior language, both by non- creoles. There is a section (on pp.18-19) Aboriginal people, who are unaware of its about Joyce Hudson and the FELIKS course complexities, and by Kriol speakers (described above). themselves who have been scorned, ridiculed There is also a description of the Kriol- or abused because of the language they speak. English bilingual program at Barunga in the These days, our knowledge of the origins of Northern Territory (pp.24-25), as described in such languages, their history as intelligent PACE Newsletter 1. The rationale for the and creative responses to racism and program is given as follows: oppression, enables us to recognise the • It respects Kriol as the children’s mother importance of reviewing popular attitudes tongue. The use of Kriol as a language of towards them as imperfect forms of language instruction in school supports their pride in and to respect the languages themselves and themselves and their language. the people for whom they are the ‘mother • It supports families in teaching the children tongue’. their own language and culture. A result of this ignorance and • It helps children understand things better stigmatization is that many Kriol speakers when they can talk about them first in Kriol, continue to feel ashamed of speaking Kriol in in most cases their mother tongue. the presence of non-Aboriginal people. • It helps children understand the differences Children who speak it as their first language between Kriol and English. This helps them may interpret attempts by teachers to teach learn more about English and how to use it them English as attempts to deny their properly. language and, as a result, will suffer from Information is also given about the loss of self-esteem. Moreover they may rebel against what they see as “put downs” of their school’s language production centre which language by refusing to adopt the use of supports the bilingual program by producing English… books and other reading materials developed It is therefore important for teachers to by Aboriginal teachers and literacy workers. openly acknowledge the validity of the A section, “How does it work?” is children's language and not to expect that it reproduced here: will be replaced by English. Children in pre-school have a mostly Kriol The booklet also includes suggestions program. The English component … about ways of teaching SAE to Kriol introduces students to types of oral English speakers, and a section with questions and they will use at school (eg commands, comments from teachers. requests, questions and answers, story Australian Indigenous Languages structures). Framework The early childhood program (the first three school years) introduces literacy in Kriol. The A national curriculum for a Year 11-12 subject proportion of time devoted to Kriol learning on Aboriginal languages is being developed decreases during primary school and vice by the Senior Secondary Assess-ment Board versa with English. of . A textbook is being An effort is made to keep the two trialled this year at a few schools. Chapter 10 languages identified and separate through

11 Pidgins and Creoles in Education (PACE) Newsletter 6 (1995)

strategies such as having separate workbooks, explain the difficult issues discussed by exercise books and display areas. Teachers are politicians. We have many books which were advised not to mix the languages in one translated by Aboriginals whose mother lesson, to point out differences between the tongue is Kriol. two languages whenever appropriate and to Kriol started at Roper River at the explain the reasons for using the two beginning of this century, when 200 people languages. from 7 language groups settled at the The appearance of Langwij comes to mission. Kriol grew up from the pidgin school was widely reported in the media, language because different language groups sparking a great deal of interest, with both had to communicate with each other, positive and negative responses to the especially in the dormitories where the suggested role of Aboriginal English and children were kept. Creoles in schools. In some cases, however, We the Kriol speakers of Ngukurr Roper River are proud to keep Kriol as part of our media reports made serious mistakes–for Aboriginal identity and cultural heritage. example, saying that Aboriginal children in If Kriol is a mongrel language, what about Brisbane speak Kriol. The booklet has been English with its Romance and Germanic criticized by some teachers and linguists for roots? not being clear enough in distinguishing The letter is signed by 79 people from varieties of Aboriginal English and creoles. Ngukurr. (Thanks to Dany Adone for a copy of the letter.) Controversy News from around Australia The following letter appeared in The Bulletin, 2 August 1994, soon after the release of the The news from creole-speaking areas of booklet Langwij comes to school : Australia shows that both Northern Territory Help Aborigines to preserve and learn their Creole (Kriol) and Torres Strait Creole are indigenous tribal languages (along with becoming more and more recognised as correct Australian English) by all means (B, languages in their own right, and not just July 12). But why linguistically cleanse “broken English”. The evidence is in three Pidgin English by first calling it Creole areas: training of creole interpreters, (technically correct, but an American term, if of French/Spanish ancestry) and then acceptance of creole in legal contexts as being changing the spelling to allegedly distinct from English, and finally, use of Australianise it to “Kriol”? And then actively creoles for various activities in school teach it as a legitimate language! education. A mongrel “language” complete with mon- grelised spelling–at best–a regional useful- From the Northern Territory: ness…just what our young Aborigines need if they’re to become politicians or At the end of last year, Denise Angelo, from journalists. Now is the arzole, or assol, or the Katherine Regional Aboriginal Language rektum? Centre (KRALC) sent in the following report: G.K. Aalborg “Kriol was included in KRALC’s ‘brief’ Launceston, as a result of a vote at the 1993 AGM. It was People from Ngukurr (Roper River) replied as agreed that Kriol is an Aboriginal language (ie follows: its speakers are Aboriginal); that virtually no Dear Ms/Mr Aalborg, services are easily accessible to Kriol We are full-blood Aborigines and have speakers (education, law, health, social lived at Ngukurr Roper River since our security, etc); and that KRALC move to childhood. Creoles are fully developed, secure recognition of Kriol and services for complete languages. The linguistic term Kriol speakers (ie interpreting).” creole is used for languages which developed during colonial time as a means of communication between Europeans and Non- In a phone conversation with the editor on 24 Europeans. November 1995, Denise provided an update. Kriol is not a mongrel language, as it has Here is a summary of that information: its own grammar. Kriol is part of our culture Interpreting: here at Ngukurr; by that we mean we speak it A Kriol interpreting course, run by everywhere–at home, health clinic, office, hunting, communicating with nearby Batchelor College, was held this year at the communities and at school as a language of Katherine Regional Aboriginal Language instruction. At public meetings it is used to Centre (KRALC). It was taught by Denise

12 Pidgins and Creoles in Education (PACE) Newsletter 6 (1995)

Angelo and Prudy McLaughlin. Five students Territory that a successful defence has been will be going for para professional based on expert linguistic evidence proving accreditation from NAATI (National that a defendant could not fully understand Association for Accreditation of Translators English. and Interpreters). The emphasis of the course In another consultancy for Aboriginal has been Kriol-English interpreting in legal Legal Aid earlier in the year, Denise Angelo and medical contexts, but it is envisaged that showed that a Kriol-speaking man could not the trainees will also be involved in other have understood the police caution given to areas, such as land claims. Also, as part of the him in English. This led to the case against course, teaching materials in Kriol have been the man being dropped. developed for future use. Education: The trainees have already been involved in Recently there has been a demand for work experience, travelling with a speech introductory courses in Kriol from non- therapist on community visits. The speech Aboriginal people living in Katherine. This therapist has also been successful in getting year classes for 8 students were taught by the funds from the Northern Territory Health interpreting trainees at KRALC, using both Department for a part-time Kriol interpreter to the SIL materials (An Introduction to Con- assist with diagnoses. Two trainees will also versational Creole by J.R. & J.L. Sandefur undertake one week’s work experience in [Work Papers of SIL-AAB, Series B, Volume December in the Supreme Court in Darwin, 5, Darwin, 1981]) and some of their own along with two Yolu language interpreting activities. KRALC linguists also provided students. some input. In the lead up to the interpreting course, At the Barunga C.E.C. [Community KRALC received a grant from the Department Education Centre] (where there is a Kriol- of Primary Industry’s Rural Access Program English bilingual program), the FELIKS for a project to produce illustrative word lists course (described above) was adapted for in- to help in interpreting. Six booklets are service training for teachers by KRALC and presently going to print on the following the Barunga teacher linguist. KRALC, in topics: personal finance, health, law, education, conjunction with the Barunga C.E.C., is social security and Aboriginal organizations. looking at developing classroom materials for In addition, the Health Department has targeting English from the NT Kriol started to pay for Kriol translations of major perspective. health issues, such as AIDS testing and Barunga C.E.C. also obtained a grant women’s health. Written translations are through the Commonwealth Schools Program accompanied by a cassette recording of the to investigate children’s language–both same material to overcome literacy problems. English and Kriol. One research question is Legal contexts: whether children’s Kriol is different from On several occasions, Kriol interpreters adults’, and if so, what are the reasons. Is it were used in the Magistrate’s Court and the decreolization, or just children’s language or Family Court in Katherine, explaining bond the result of English language learning? and bail conditions, and helping defendants Changing attitudes: make pleas. Aboriginal Legal Aid has also Two Family Court judges came to been using the interpreting students in the Bachelor College to assist in the training of cells and interview rooms before court the Kriol (and Yolu) interpreters described appearances. Prudy McLaughlin of KRALC was asked above. by Aboriginal Legal Aid in Katherine to give Every year, the “Aboriginal Languages advice regarding an Aboriginal defendant’s Fortnight” is an important part of the course understanding of English. In the Magistrate’s of studies for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Court in Katherine in August 1995, she gave Islander students at Batchelor College evidence that the man, who broke a good enrolled in the School of Education Studies behaviour bond, could not have fully and at the Centre for Australian Languages understood the bond conditions explained to and Linguistics (CALL). During this time, him in English and found in the written bond students do work of their choice on their own document. As a result of this evidence, the languages. In 1995, for the first time some breach of bond charge was dropped. This urban students from Katherine who speak appears to be the first time in the Northern English as their mother tongue decided to

13 Pidgins and Creoles in Education (PACE) Newsletter 6 (1995)

learn Kriol for their language studies. Nine The FELIKS (Fostering English Language students studied with language workers from in Kimberley Schools) in service course for KRALC. This is a significant change, as teachers was started in 1991. By 1994, the English speakers often have the most negative course had been presented at all 13 Catholic attitudes towards Kriol. schools in the Kimberley. This year, 40 new Also, a number of town organizations in teachers went through the course, and updates Katherine are now starting to put out were presented for all schools at three Kriol/English newsletters which are prepared different centres in the region. by the KRALC team, eg the Aboriginal Staff from the Western Australia Cultural Centre: Living with Alcohol. Education Department were trained as FELIKS presenters in 1994 and 1995 and For more information, contact: this year they presented the course at 17 Denise Angelo and Prudy McLaughlin schools. KRALC This year the first issue of FELIKSnews PO Box 89 appeared, edited by Rosalind Berry and Joyce Katherine, NT 0851 Hudson. It contains reports and stories from teachers, games and other ideas for classroom From the Kimberley: activities, and other useful information for Interpreting: teachers of Kriol-speaking students. TAFE courses for Kriol interpreting have In their updates of FELIKS, Joyce and run for two years now, taught by Dagmar Rosalind have been talking about what they Dixon of the Central Metropolitan College of call the “code-switching stairway” – four Technical and Further Education (TAFE) in steps towards learning Standard Australian Perth. Last year (1994) courses were held at English and appropriate code-switching Derby and Fitzroy Crossing, with Eirlys between it and Kriol. This issue of the Richards teaching the Kriol components. FELIKSnews talks about the first two steps: Three students were accredited at the para awareness and separation. The first step professional level by NAATI (National involves teachers, teaching assistants and Association for Accreditation of Translators students becoming aware of the presence of and Interpreters). This year a course was held the different languages spoken in the at Halls Creek, with Margaret Sefton teaching community and realizing that no language is the Kriol component. Four students have intrinsically better than any other. The second similarly been recommended for accredit- step involves focussing on the linguistic ation. Next year, another Kriol interpreting differences between Standard Australian course is planned for Halls Creek and for the English and either Kriol or Aboriginal first time at Turkey Creek (for the Warmum English and also the differing contexts in community). which each is used. (The other two steps, Funding for travel and other costs for the code-switching and control, will be covered in courses has come from DEET, TAFE and the later editions of the newsletter.) Attorney General’s Department in Canberra In other news, Joyce and Rosalind are (following recommendations from the Royal working on a book, to be trialled in 1996, Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in based on FELIKS. The title is Making the Custody). jump: a resource book for teaching English Each course was started off with a in Kimberley schools. This will certainly be workshop on Kriol awareness for the trainees, of great help to teachers in the region and adapting the FELIKS materials. The usual other parts of Australia as well. TAFE materials have been also adapted for For further information about FELIKS or teaching interpreting in Kriol and other the newsletter, contact: Aboriginal languages. The existing four Rosalind Berry or Joyce Hudson modules were divided into six blocks or units, Catholic Education Office involving 300 hours of instruction. The PO Box 1451 course is written in uncomplicated English for Broome, WA 6725 easy adaptation to the other languages. The trial package was used for the previous From North Queensland: courses and the final product will be ready for Education: next year. In June/July this year, the Home Education: Languages Project began at Injinoo School, a 14 Pidgins and Creoles in Education (PACE) Newsletter 6 (1995)

campus of Bamaga School. This project involves preschool and year 1 children whose “Kriol on the move: An investigation into the home language is Injinoo Creole, a variety of spread of a creole language in Northern Torres Strait Creole, and it is better known as Australia” by Jennifer M. Munro (BA the “Injinoo Creole Project”. The children Honours thesis, University of New England, are taught to read and write in Creole first and 1995). then to translate from Creole to Standard Australian English where it is appropriate. This thesis compares the linguistic features of The separate functions of the two language regional varieties of Kriol and looks at the are emphasized–for example, displaying the socio-historic background to examine the Creole alphabet on one side of the classroom alternate hypotheses of independent develop- and the English alphabet on the other. ment vs language spread and shift. The preschool teacher, Mary Eseli, and the year 1 teacher, Christine Turner, are reported Recent publications: to be very enthusiastic about the project and the children are apparently “really turned on Aboriginal languages in education edited by to reading and writing” since it began. Also, Deborah Hartman and John Henderson (IAD soon after the project started, the year 1 Press, Alice Springs, 1994) contains a chapter children were tested as part of the by Christine Nicholls entitled “Vernacular “Diagnostic Net” a state-wide test of language programs and bilingual education development, and Creole as well as English programs in Aboriginal Australia: Issues and literacy were looked at. Next year, literacy in ideologies” (pp.124-34). This includes a brief both Creole and English will be tested and discussion of research on the Barunga Kriol- compared, and also the English literacy level English bilingual program. of the Injinoo children will be compared to Language and culture in Aboriginal Australia that of other children in the Torres Strait edited by Michael Walsh and Collin Yallop region. (Aboriginal Studies Press, Canberra, 1993) Anna Shnukal, who has reported on has two chapters on Kriol. “Losing and negative attitudes in other areas towards the gaining a language: The story of Kriol in the use Creole in schools, was hired as a Northern Territory” by John Harris (pp.145- consultant in the early stages. This project, 54) gives an account of the origins and however, is fully supported by the community, development of Kriol as a new Aboriginal and it was the community’s idea to have language. “Kriol: the creation of a written children learn literacy in both Creole and language and tool of colonialization” by Mari English – “the two languages walking Rhydwen (pp.155-68) discusses the issues together”, they insisted. involved in creole literacy–especially with Legal contexts: regard to the development of orthographies In May 1995 in the Supreme Court in for different regional varieties. , Helen Harper (Bachelor College, NT) gave expert linguistic evidence in the defence CONFERENCES of a Torres Strait Creole speaker charged with attempted murder. The evidence, which was Several sessions on pidgins, creoles and accepted by the court, was an analysis of the language contact in general were at the Second accused’s understanding of the police inter- International Conference on Oceanic view. It was concluded that the accused did Linguistics in Suva, Fiji, 3-7 July. It was not have sufficient knowledge of English to decided to form the Pacific Area Contact deal with the complexities of the questions in Linguistics Association (PACLA) which will the interview. The charge was reduced from meet again in conjunction with the next attempted murder to unlawful wounding. Oceanic Linguistics conference, at University of Waikato (Hamilton, ) 8-12 Recent theses: January, 1997. Papers on pidgins and creoles in education will be most welcome. For “Writing on the backs of the blacks: literacy, further information, or to put your name on creole and language change in the Northern the mailing list, contact Jeff Siegel. Territory” by Mari Rhydwen (PhD Thesis, Sydney University, 1994). [not seen by the editor]

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