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University of Nevada, Reno the End of ETA (2007-2011): Narratives University of Nevada, Reno The End of ETA (2007-2011): Narratives from the Media and from the Actors A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Basque Studies by Imanol Murua Dr. Joseba Zulaika / Dissertation Advisor Dr. Txema Ramirez de la Piscina / Dissertation Advisor December, 2014 Copyright by Imanol Murua 2014 All Rights Reserved THE GRADUATE SCHOOL We recommend that the dissertation prepared under our supervision by IMANOL MURUA Entitled The End Of ETA (2007-2011): Narratives From The Media And From The Actors be accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Joseba Zulaika, Advisor Txema Ramirez de la Piscina, Committee Member Xabier Irujo, Committee Member Sandra Ott, Committee Member Viola Giulia Miglio, Committee Member Susanne Martin, Graduate School Representative David W. Zeh, Ph. D., Dean, Graduate School December, 2014 i Abstract The Basque separatist armed organization ETA laid down arms in 2011 after forty years of armed campaign for independence. It was not a consequence of political negotiations. The Basque group did not achieve its goals. Yet, it unilaterally decided to end its armed activity forever. This research analyzes why and how ETA ended its armed campaign. It clarifies the events from the collapse of the last peace process in June 2007 to the announcement of the definitive end of ETA’s campaign in October 2011. It analyzes the evolution of ETA and the Basque conflict from the end of the 1970s and identifies the casual factors that led the Basque group toward its end. Thirty-eight in-depth interviews with actors directly related to those events and public and non-public documents produced by agencies involved in the process have been the main sources, as well as the accounts provided by the media at the time. The vast bibliography on Basque conflict and literature on the end of terrorist groups have been the main references for the analytical section of the research. This dissertation contends that ETA laid down arms because its constituency withdrew its support. The leadership and social base of the political movement to which ETA belongs concluded that armed strategy was not effective anymore and, furthermore, was damaging for the Basque pro-independence movement. After an internal struggle, in which the faction advocating for exclusively political means prevailed, ETA was driven toward a unilateral abandonment of armed struggle. Key words: ETA, Basque conflict, political violence, terrorism, media ii Acknowledgements I am very grateful for the advice and support of the members of my dissertation committee, especially of my advisors Joseba Zulaika and Txema Ramirez de la Piscina, whose help and guidance have been instrumental for the framing and completion of this investigation. I wish to express my gratitude to all faculty, staff, visiting scholars, and fellow students of the Center for Basque Study; special thanks to Kate Camino and Dan Montero for their assistance in everything, and to Joseba Agirreazkuenaga for his advice on the historical section. I am also appreciative of the great help offered by the Writing Center of UNR, especially Jonathan DuBois, for their very useful assistance in my struggle with the English language. I do not forget the newspaper Berria, whose staff gave me the opportunity to go back to the newsroom during the thrilling days of ETA’s final announcement. Finally, I am especially indebted to all informants and interviewees who gave their time and information without which this dissertation could not have been produced. iii Table of Contents 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 1 2. Hypothesis, methodology, and state of the art ......................................................................... 15 2.1. Identification of the research topic .................................................................................... 15 2.2. Hypothesis and research questions .................................................................................... 17 2.3. Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 21 2.3.1. Outsider or insider researcher ..................................................................................... 21 2.3.2. In-depth interviews and oral history ........................................................................... 25 2.3.3. The choice of interviewees .......................................................................................... 29 2.3.4. Documentation ............................................................................................................ 33 2.3.5. Press research .............................................................................................................. 36 2.4. State of the art .................................................................................................................... 38 3. Historical background ................................................................................................................ 51 3.1. A question of power............................................................................................................ 51 3.1.1. A political dispute ........................................................................................................ 51 3.1.2. A divided territory ........................................................................................................ 53 3.1.3. Early political articulation ............................................................................................ 55 3.1.3. The emergence of Basque nationalism ........................................................................ 61 3.1.4. The trauma of the war and Francoism ......................................................................... 65 3.2. An armed group to fight Francoism .................................................................................... 68 3.2.1. The foundation of ETA ................................................................................................. 68 3.2.2. Early evolution ............................................................................................................. 72 3.2.3. Spiral of violence .......................................................................................................... 75 3.3. Continuation of the armed struggle in democracy ............................................................. 79 3.3.1. Reform instead of rupture ........................................................................................... 79 3.3.2. An indivisible nation and two separate autonomous bodies ...................................... 83 3.3.3. The making of the Abertzale Left ................................................................................. 86 3.3.4. A single ETA .................................................................................................................. 89 3.4. Negotiation on the horizon ................................................................................................. 94 3.4.1. War of attrition ............................................................................................................ 94 3.4.2. Violence by the state ................................................................................................... 96 iv 3.4.3. An armed vanguard on the offensive ........................................................................ 102 3.4.4. First attempt: Algiers ................................................................................................. 105 3.4.5. Bidart, a tipping point ................................................................................................ 109 3.4.6. The socialization of the conflict ................................................................................. 112 3.4.7. ‘Demócratas’ and ‘violentos’ ..................................................................................... 115 3.5. Looking for an end ............................................................................................................ 118 3.5.1. A re-alignment of politics ........................................................................................... 118 3.5.2. Second attempt: Lizarra-Garazi ................................................................................. 125 3.5.3. The beginning of the end ........................................................................................... 130 3.5.4. The influence of dissidence ........................................................................................ 134 2.5.5. The tumultuous early 2000s ...................................................................................... 136 2.5.6. Getting ready for a new process ................................................................................ 140 3.5.7. Third attempt: from Geneva to Loiola ....................................................................... 143 4. Narratives from the actors (2007-2011) .................................................................................. 151 4.1. The aftermath of a failed process ..................................................................................... 151 4.1.1. A leadership in jail .....................................................................................................
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