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ETA violence and the Basque Country: Does federalism offer a solution? BY GURUTZ JAUREGUI The Spanish system of regional and federal models of government. The problem of territory autonomies has had very positive effects Its complex and ambiguous nature is a The Basque region is located for the Basque Country. The progress constant source of clashes between the geographically in Spanish and French made over the years in the recovery of federal and community governments. territory. Traditionally, the strategic Basque identity has been very significant. Rather than a list of powers, the aspiration of Basque nationalism has The system, however, has been unable to Constitution establishes a distribution of been to establish an independent State solve the ‘Basque problem’. The conflict functions. In many areas, the Constitution that covers the whole territory. between Basque separatists and Spain qualifies the functions of the autonomous has left hundreds dead, and has caused Not only is the division between France regions with phrases such as ‘in the untold suffering. and Spain a contentious issue, but frame of’ or ‘according to’ (other there are also problems regarding the Today’s conflicts between the Basque authorities). The upshot is that the federal territorial boundaries of the Basque region and the Spanish government are government has established regulations, region inside Spain. chiefly, although not exclusively, based on directives and controls that have led to a three aspects: distribution of powers, terri- real reduction in the powers of the The Autonomy Statute identifies the tory, and the right to self-determination. autonomous regions. provinces of Alava, Guipuzcoa and Vizcaya as comprising the Basque region, The regions have very few possibilities and also mentions Navarra, giving it the Distribution of powers for participating in overall federal choice of joining this region. Basque government activities. The Senate— The Spanish Constitution of 1978 nationalism holds that Navarra is an which is theoretically representative established a system whereby power integral part of the Basque homeland. of the different territories—is, in fact, is distributed among seventeen autono- dominated by national political parties. Basque nationalism, however, is very mous communities. It is a hybrid that weak in Navarra. As a result, Navarraese stands mid-way between regional he Basque Country, divided between Spain and France from cancelled all Basque autonomy and persecuted those who T the Bay of Biscay to the Pyrenees, comprises approximately sought to keep the Basque language and culture alive. 2.5 million people. In 1978, after Franco’s death and the advent of democracy in Spain, the Spanish government adopted a new constitution. Basque-speaking people lived in the region at the time of the It stated that the Spanish state is indivisible, but it also Roman incursion into the area, but it is possible that their established a system of autonomous regions. Two of these ancestors had lived there as far back as the time of Cro- regions are: the Autonomous Community of the Basque Country Magnon habitation in the area. (the provinces of Alava, Guipuzcoa, and Vizcaya); and Navarra. The Basque language, Euskara, is unique and scholars have The Basque Autonomous Community has an elected parliament been unable to show any connection between it and any other with legislative powers, an elected President, and its own police language group. Euskara is a key component of Basque force. It has taxing powers, and the Basque parliament appoints nationalist identity. representatives to the Senate of Spain. During the Middle Ages, Basques were the majority group in the A number of Basque political parties and organizations Kingdom of Navarre. After the dissolution of Navarre in the reject the 1978 constitution and argue for full political 1500s, the Basques lived under Spanish and French rule. In independence for the Basque Country. Most important Spain, the Basque Country was afforded a significant measure among these is the military group ETA (acronym for Basque of self-rule under a system of fueros—local laws and customs Homeland and Freedom), and its political wing Herri Batasuna guaranteed to be free from state interference. After the Carlist (Popular Unity). Wars (1833-39 and 1874-76) the fueros were abolished. Since 1968, the ETA has perpetrated terrorist attacks such as During the Spanish Civil War, Basques put up strong resistance assassinations and bombings to further its ends, resulting in to the Fascists, and suffered greatly after the victory of Franco’s approximately 800 deaths. The year 2000 was particularly forces. Franco’s centralizing and homogenizing regime violent—nineteen people were killed in violence related to the conflict. Federations volume 1, number 2, january 2001 politicians decided not to join the Europe could defuse some of the most Basque Country, but instead to have serious conflicts. Key Dates in the Basque Conflict their own autonomous community. Some European States, such as 1937 Francisco Franco occupies These are just some of the problems Germany, Austria, and Belgium, have the Basque Country, cancelling Basque autonomy and surrounding how the Basque territory been able to solve similar problems persecuting Basques is defined. through formulae adapted to the 1959 ETA founded circumstances. In Germany, where a 1968 First ETA political killing perfectly symmetrical federalism exists The right to self-determination among various homogeneous Länder, 1973 Spanish PM Admiral Luis and the European Union Carrero Blanco assassinated decisions are made through multilateral by the ETA. From the standpoint of Basque nation- and symmetrical relations between the 1975 Death of Francisco Franco alists, the main political problem is the government and the Länder. In Belgium, 1978 Spanish government approves demand for recognition of the Basque where there are virtually two ‘nations’ in a new constitution providing people’s right to self-determination. Even a single state, relations are bilateral. for regional autonomies. though this right could theoretically take Turning to Spain, it must be kept in mind 1978 Herri Batasuna, ETA’s political the form of very different political options wing, established that the establishment of the Spanish —autonomy, federalism, confederation, autonomous communities had two main 1979 Spain passes the Statute of an independent state, etc.—Basque Autonomy, which sets out the causes: regionalism and nationalism. provisions of Basque autonomy. nationalism has traditionally identified self-determination with the right to an Regionalism is based on the principle of 1995 Failed attempt to assassinate opposition leader (now PM) independent national state. organizational efficiency—the distribution José Maria Aznar of powers among administrative units. Yet globalization is quickly doing away 1997 ETA kills a Basque counsellor, Nationalism’s objective is to demand or sparking widespread protests with the classical conceptions of borders in Spain against ETA violence understood as lines of separation, and guarantee the principle of ‘difference’. 1997 23 members of Herri Batasuna replacing it with a new concept, where To ensure efficiency, you need to are jailed for collaborating with borders are understood as privileged the ETA. institute multilateral or symmetrical meeting points for international relations among constituent units. 1998 ETA announces indefinite cooperation. This challenges the cease-fire classical concept of sovereignty. To guarantee ‘difference’, it is sometimes 1999 Spanish Government and necessary to establish bilateral, the ETA meet for the first International relations are no longer the asymmetrical relations among the and only time exclusive concern of nation-states, since various autonomous groups. 1999 ETA ends 14-month cease-fire they now extend to many other institu- 2000 19 people killed in violence tions and organizations. Outstanding In Spain’s case, to do both it would be related to the conflict. among them are the regional institutions, necessary to establish an asymmetrical which are acquiring great importance in federal system that would combine mul- this new emerging Europe. tilateralism with some bilateral relations. it is impossible to demand the integration of Navarra or the unification of the Spanish In light of all these changes, what * * * and French regions. It is much more form and content will the right to self- appropriate to establish instruments for determination take in the 21st century? Nationalism and political independence cooperation designed to solve mutual Can the idea of an independent have gone hand-in-hand in modern problems (in such spheres as economics, sovereign Basque state be replaced history. However, from the perspective of culture, or technology), based on mutual with one that would permit the Basque the new millennium and a new Europe, respect and autonomy. region to maintain its own identity nation states are undergoing a sweeping within the European Union? process of change leading to a gradual In fact, there has been excessive reliance shift of power in favour of new supra- on political solutions to problems, while This new idea would signify the inclusion national power structures. social, economic and simply human of Basque society in Europe, rather than aspects have been neglected. The develop- its separation, as often implied in radical The Basque region has two possible ment of a country, however, does not nationalism.

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