A Look at Contemporary Fashion Shows and Their Relationship to Performance Art

Fashion Theory The Journal of Dress, Body and Culture

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The Greatest Show on Earth: A Look at Contemporary Fashion Shows and Their Relationship to Performance Art

Ginger Gregg Duggan

To cite this article: Ginger Gregg Duggan (2001) The Greatest Show on Earth: A Look at Contemporary Fashion Shows and Their Relationship to Performance Art, Fashion Theory, 5:3, 243-270, DOI: 10.2752/136270401778960883 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.2752/136270401778960883

Published online: 21 Apr 2015.

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The Greatest IMAGE AVAILABLE ON Show on Earth: A HARDCOPY Look at Contemporary Fashion Shows and Their Relationship to

Ginger Gregg Duggan Performance Art

Ginger Gregg Duggan is Introduction Curator of Contemporary Art at the Museum of Art in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. She is At many points throughout history, art and fashion have shared a currently organizing “Fashion: symbiotic relationship in which each discipline simultaneously inspires, The Greatest Show on Earth”, encourages and competes with the other. As early as the 1910s, collab- a traveling exhibition that explores the contemporary orations between artists and couturiers reinforced this connection to the fashion show as performance point where the boundary between the two worlds of art and fashion art. was creatively blurred (Duggan 2000: 1). These individual relationships result in the production of a garment that exists as documentation of the unusual partnership. More recently, these associations have extended beyond intimate pairings to include entire collections inspired by artists. 244 Ginger Gregg Duggan

The late 1990s mark a significant point in this development of a height- ened art/fashion phenomenon that is more far-reaching in its effect, as it results in fashion show productions that communicate through the medium of performance art.1 Drawing on sources of inspiration as varied as political activism, performance art of the 1960s and 1970s, Fluxus and Dada performances, theater and popular culture, many contemporary fashion houses have completely transformed the runway show. What results is a new hybrid of performance art that is almost completely removed from the traditionally commercial aspects of the clothing industry. Since the mid-1990s, designers like Alexander McQueen and John Galliano (designing for Givenchy and Christian Dior respectively) have earned reputations for fashion shows that read like sequences of dream images or fantastical visions. Staging their events in sites such as train stations, hospital wards and airplane hangars, contemporary designers create elaborately orchestrated events that rival theatrical productions. Avant-garde designers such as Elena Bajo and Martin Margiela rebel against the superficiality of fashion by staging smaller, esoteric performances that are reminiscent of happenings and performances by artists such as Rebecca Horn and Anne Hamilton, as well as politically charged pieces by Suzanne Lacy and Leslie Labowitz. These non-traditional shows often employ confrontational or uncomfortable environments, whereby the

designers risk alienating many of the people who could potentially foster their careers, essentially choosing art over business. Contemporary artists are also looking to fashion and fashion marketing for inspiration. An example of this can be seen in Vanessa Beecroft’s 1998 performance at the Guggenheim Museum, in which fifty models—clad in Gucci underwear and stilettos—participated in a performance sponsored by Gucci. As many patrons of the arts also happen to be enthusiasts of high fashion, it follows that the two industries should feed off one another. With large fashion houses like Prada and Gucci sponsoring contemporary art centers, biennials and performances, and established museums hosting fashion exhibitions that deify current designers, the stage was set for the new performance art of the 1990s—the fashion show. This essay discusses the recent development of a fashion/performance hybrid under five major categories—namely spectacle, substance, science, structure and statement. Each category will be explored to reveal its specific references to various manifestations of performance art.2 In addition, the roles of education and the media and their role in dissolving the boundaries between art and fashion will be considered. The inability to comfortably segregate art and fashion is a direct result of this hybrid. Is it a catwalk show or a happening? Is it a dress or a sculpture? Is it a clothing boutique or an art gallery? The Greatest Show on Earth 245

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Figure 1 Spectacle These views from John Galliano’s Fall 1997 fashion show illustrate the influence of Designer shows that fall into the category of spectacle are closely con- the theater through the use of nected to the performing arts of theater and opera, as well as feature films decadent set design, props and make-up. Photo courtesy and music videos. As with stage performances, shows created by spectacle of The Fashion Group designers feature far more than garments. In most cases, they read as mini International. dramas, complete with characters, specific locations, related musical scores, and recognizable themes. Often, the only element setting fashion shows apart from their theatrical counterparts is their fundamental purpose—to function as a marketing ploy. The idea of dressing models, parading them down a catwalk, and premiering a new collection to the press was born out of Chicago apparel marts of the early 1900s. By the mid-1930s, the shows were produced on a grand scale and, in the 1960s, sound and light were integrated into runway productions (Diehl 1976:1). Since that time, fashion shows have 246 Ginger Gregg Duggan

Figure 2 This image from Alexander McQueen’s Fall 1999 show illustrates the designer’s interest in unique locations. In a scene inspired by Steven King’s The Shining, the stage was encased in a clear glass cube filled with snow and ice. Photo courtesy of the Fashion Group International.

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frequently featured elaborate costumes, lighting, props, music and sets, and have been referred to as “theater without a plot.” There are four main components of the spectacle show that can be manipulated by the designer to great effect. These are the type of model, the location, the theme, and the finale. Gianni Versace was largely responsible for the rise of the supermodel, and its celebrity associations, in the late 1980s and early 1990s (Evans 1999: 11). In March 1991 he sent the four top models down the runway together, lip-synching to Freedom by George Michael, a major pop music The Greatest Show on Earth 247

Figure 3 The importance of a memorable finale can be seen in this image from Alexander McQueen’s Spring 1999 show. The model slowly rotates on a circular platform while two robotic paint guns violently spray her with yellow and black pigment. Photo courtesy of The Fashion Group International.

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figure. This insertion of popular culture cemented his place as the leading “rock and roll” designer to the stars and initiated a new level of connection between the fashion industry and show business, thereby opening doors to a new generation of models as stars. To avoid the predictability of the supermodel show, McQueen chose to eliminate live models in favor of clear plexiglass mannequins for Givenchy’s Fall 1999 show. The figures, spaced at intervals around the platform, rose and fell periodically through openings in the floor. 248 Ginger Gregg Duggan

With each rising, the mannequin would feature a new ensemble. The idea of showing garments on inanimate forms dates from the fourteenth century (Diehl 1976); but it seemed fresh and new in the age of the supermodel. McQueen continued to experiment with model types in his own Spring 1999 show. The performance featured Aimee Mullins, a 23-year-old amputee, whom McQueen specially outfitted with prosthetic legs. In a move that could have inspired controversy and claims of exploitation, McQueen succeeded in captivating the press by shocking them. Beyond seeking novelty through unconventional models, designers also experiment with the location of their shows. McQueen’s Fall 1999 show was held in a transport depot. It featured a gigantic, twenty-foot cubed plexiglass container that enclosed a scene from Stephen King’s The Shining—the designer’s inspiration for the season. The winter wasteland featured trees, a frozen pond sculpted from 25 tons of ice, and a sonic backdrop that played the sounds of screeching winds and baying wolves. McQueen again presented the cube within an interior space for his Spring 2001 show. However, in this case, the cube’s walls were constructed of two-way mirrors. This simple alteration was an effective tool prior to and during the performance. Before the show, editors, journalists and other guests fidgeted uncomfortably in their seats as they were forced to face their own reflections. When the show began, lights were adjusted

and viewers looked through the cube into an odd barren landscape resembling a mental institution, with models pacing like caged animals. The various components of the shows—model choice and location— are further enhanced by the introduction of a theme. Often culled from a source of inspiration for the season (such as McQueen’s use of King’s The Shining), themes can be specific or very abstract. Because these themes are used for many purposes, including the show’s invitation, the production and the clothing line itself, they must be easily identifiable and memorable. Themes also inspire fashion spreads in major publications: a unique and outrageous concept translates well into the pages of mainstream fashion magazines such as Vogue and Bazaar. The emphasis on themes dates back to Elsa Schiaparelli, who started giving each collection a subject in 1935. She staged 10 such shows, including a Circus Collection and one inspired by the Commedia dell’arte3 (Evans 1999: 27). Often referred to as a form of masquerade, these events set the stage for elaborate contemporary fashion shows such as McQueen’s Fall 1998 show for Givenchy. Inspired by Czar Nicholas’s escaped daughter, Anastasia, he created a fantasy that placed her in the Amazon along with Lady Godiva astride a Lippizaner stallion, in front of a jungle waterfall. Thematic productions can also be seen in John Galliano’s elaborate Fall 1998 show for Christian Dior. Titled “The Dioriant Express,” the show began when a train roared into the Austerlitz station and models clad in outrageous costumes disembarked. Described as a “head-on The Greatest Show on Earth 249

collision between Pocahontas and Henry VIII” (fashionlive.com 2000), the location was transformed into a Berber souk complete with palm trees, orange sand, and baskets of dates and oranges. Finally, spectacle shows cannot be fully understood without discussion of their finales. Explosive, over-the-top endings to shows by spectacle designers play a major role in relating fashion to theater. Many finales are designed to leave the audience with a strong impression of the experience, highlighting the most memorable visual component of the performance. Emphasizing the “spectacular” nature of finales sometimes relegates the commercial side of fashion to a lesser priority. In many cases, a sellable garment from the collection is not even featured at all. For example, the finale to McQueen’s Spring 1999 show consisted of the model—clad in a white dress resembling a full skirt belted above the breasts—slowly rotating on a circular disc in the floor of the catwalk. As she continued to rotate, two large robotic paint guns violently sprayed her with yellow and black paint. The primary rationale behind these extravagant productions is to attract the attention of the fashion media, as opposed to entertaining the public. The four elements (model, location, theme and finale) provide the material that translates well into fashion periodicals. The fashion theorist and historian, Angela McRobbie, explains that by feeding into the fantasies and aspirations of the readers, designers are guaranteed coverage (McRobbie 1998: 171). Designers exploit the thematic shows as a means of tapping into those fantasies. To obtain coverage in major magazines, designers and houses expend large amounts of effort and money to feed the appetite for novelty, which then drives designers to produce bigger and better shows each season (McRobbie 1998: 169). As with major theatrical productions, the shows are extremely expensive, and often yield little or no profit (Davis 1992: 142). Today, it is not unheard of for a major design house like Christian Dior or Chanel to spend five million dollars on a show that may last only twenty minutes. In addition to the gap between expense and profit, designers are often criticized for staging shows that are uncomfortably close to prearranged media events designed to “encourage” positive critical reviews (Davis 1992: 141–2). The proximity of these events to theater and entertainment fuels criticisms citing fashion’s frivolity, deflecting attention from clothing. However, even negative attention from the fashion press can ensure a successful collection. John Galliano’s Fall 2000 collection for Dior had the Western world in an uproar after he designed and showed an entire line inspired by society outcasts, including the homeless and mentally ill. With gowns made of torn garbage bags and pieces derived from strait-jacket construction, Galliano received attention in many major publications. 250 Ginger Gregg Duggan

Despite ethical and monetary concerns, the spectacle fashion show is extremely effective in the realm of marketing. The resulting label and brand recognition, in addition to product licenses, far outweighs the expenditure and the occasional negative review (Davis 1992:142). The shows dramatically help shape the individual images of the designers, thereby contributing to the branding of their name and label concept. For example, Alexander McQueen is expected to produce outrageous, extravagant productions each season, which, together with his enfant terrible reputation, have made him one of the hottest commodities of the last decade, even if his work is not among the top-selling labels. Attention fueling these designers’ productions attracts a celebrity following. The first few rows at their fashion shows are peppered with Hollywood celebrities and socialites. The press covers these shows because of their wider connections to the world of show business, thus continuing the cycle. As a result, gowns by both John Galliano and Alexander McQueen have been paraded at Academy Awards celebrations as well as many film premières. This process positions the designer both as eccentric artist and as part of the celebrity world of popular culture. This dual role highlights the significance of media hype in the development of a brand (McRobbie 1998: 169), and this type of show connects the world of fashion to that of pop music, show business and celebrity culture. All of these associations

increase the public’s interest in fashion (McRobbie 1998: 169). Although their motivation is primarily marketing, spectacle designers create performances that are firmly rooted in the historical precedents of theater. Their association with contemporary celebrity pop culture also serves to further blur boundaries between fashion, art, theater and performance, resulting in shows that are cross-media spectacles.

Substance

Designers whose shows fit within the substance category are connected to performance by emphasizing process over product. For these designers, the concept behind a season remains central to the understanding of each garment and the fashion show. When commenting on his Fall 2000 show, Hussein Chalayan explained that he knew he wanted an empty living-room, “and the clothes followed from that idea” (Singer 2000: 143). The fact that the product is secondary to the concept results in shows that are akin to rituals or happenings, and is in stark contrast to the process employed by spectacle designers. Despite their focus on ideas, substance designers stage fashion shows that are often elaborate realizations. As with spectacle designers, Hussein Chalayan and Viktor & Rolf (Viktor Horsting and Rolf Snoeren) are known for creative and unique productions. The difference between spectacle and substance designers is the type of theme they employ. The Greatest Show on Earth 251

Figure 4 For his Fall 2000 show, Hussein Chalayan envisioned an empty living room and developed his collection and show around the concept. Models entered a non-descript living room and began dressing themselves in slipcovers removed from the furniture. One model stepped into the coffee table which pulled up to IMAGE AVAILABLE ON HARDCOPY become a skirt. The remaining furniture folded up into suitcases. Photo courtesy of The Fashion Group International.

Spectacle designers create shows around specific themes that are easily translated via set design, props, lighting and music. Conversely, substance

designers design shows around an abstract concept. This invariably leads to choreographed performances that are visually stunning, but lacking in a narrative tied to a particular time or place. For example, Chalayan’s Fall 1999 show was a celebration of the mechanical age without any specific reference to history. To convey this homage, a tunnel was created by hoisting two stage flats through a complicated hydraulic system and a network of pulleys. This became the environment for his remote-control dresses and other mechanical creations. For his Spring 2000 collection, a similar stage setting was used in the finale, enabling a row of models to descend slowly into the orchestra pit. The attention to the setting is further augmented by choreography. Rather than the models’ merely walking, one after another, on a straight catwalk, they move in the manner of a contemporary ballet, inspired by unlikely and unrelated sources, such as flight patterns. Ritual also plays an important role in the work of substance designers such as Chalayan and Viktor & Rolf. An example of this emphasis can be seen in Viktor & Rolf’s Fall 1999 haute couture show, which featured a single model standing on a circular rotating platform. At the start of the show she is wearing only a burlap slip and undergarments. As the show progresses, the designers clothe her in successive layers of burlap and Swarovski crystals, Russian-doll style, until her head is barely visible. The intimacy of the act, as well as the designer involvement in the process, focuses on the action of clothing the body, allowing process to overshadow product. 252 Ginger Gregg Duggan

Another example of fashion show as ritual can be seen in Chalayan’s 1994 thesis show, known as the “buried collection.” As the name suggests, the garments were buried, unearthed, and presented with accompanying text that explained the process (McRobbie 1998: 109). The ritualistic processes of burial and resurrection imbued the articles of clothing— otherwise simple items of merchandise—with an undeniable mythology that referenced the abstract influences of transience, evolution and materiality. This connection to a process that directly involved the designer transported the objects from the world of fashion into the world of art, reminding the viewer of the ritual-like performances of Ann Hamilton or Joseph Beuys. Another hallmark of the substance designer is a general lack of concern for novelty, a feature attractive to the fashion press. Some designers operate in a manner that is almost antithetical to novelty. For example, Hussein Chalayan has shown similar radical designs and concepts in different seasons. A recurring motif for this designer is a plastic molded mechanical dress that opens up in puzzle-like panels, or lifts in sections via remote control. His willingness to frequently reuse this approach reflects a desire to explore a concept fully at the expense of novelty and press coverage. In addition to their disregard for newness each season, substance designers mock the traditional mainstays of the fashion and art worlds.

Exclusivity, product branding, licensing and the superficiality of fashion are also targets of their satire. Tapping into the power of fashion marketing and a gullible consumer, Viktor & Rolf have earned the nickname “the Siegfreid and Roy of couture.” Their tongue-in-cheek tactics align them with their Fluxus predecessors, Dada performers, and Surrealist artists. Viktor & Rolf refuse to accept the superficiality of fashion by offering products of “consumption and delectation, concept and contemplation” (Martin 1999: 115). For example, the duo created “Le Parfum,” a signature scent that was marketed with hype, but that lacked any actual scent. Another creation was a numbered, limited edition plastic shopping bag (Martin 1999: 111) that referenced the readymades of Marcel Duchamp. Rather than being driven by the demands of the fashion press, as was the case with spectacle, substance designers do not design their shows as marketing ploys. Their quite apparent lack of interest in the media ironically leads to hyped coverage that feeds the “designer-as-artist” phenomenon, further blurring the already uncertain boundaries of art and fashion. These behaviors attract the avant-garde fashion press as well as the art press, leading to coverage beyond the sphere of mass-market fashion alone. The art critic Olivier Zahm declared Viktor & Rolf the “best in style” in the December 1995 issue of ArtForum, long before they were household names in the world of high fashion (Martin 1999: 115). The Greatest Show on Earth 253

Like performance artists of the 1960s and 1970s, substance designers search for alternative paths to the usual and accepted way of producing and showing their work. And, as with their performance predecessors, the solutions are often impossible to market or sell. Viktor & Rolf have used such tactics as bathing their haute couture collections in garish black light in order to express an idea. While obviously not the most flattering presentation for their work, it prioritizes concept over commodity. Another challenge to the accepted mode of presentation can be seen in Viktor & Rolf’s decision to hand out their Spring 2001 collection to

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Figure 5 This remote control dress by Hussein Chalayan emphasizes the importance of the concept. The design embodies the designer’s interest in abstract ideas like transience, evolution and materiality, as the dress can be manipulated via remote control to open up like a puzzle to reveal a strikingly different form. Photo courtesy of The Fashion Group International. 254 Ginger Gregg Duggan

visitors and journalists on a CD-ROM. This instant access is completely removed from the traditional show and its live entertainment component. Whereas spectacle shows are driven primarily by the press, substance shows are more a result of the fashion educational system. In recent years, fashion departments in academic institutions have favored theory over hands-on experience and the craft involved in creating a garment (McRobbie 1998: 39). This emphasis on the conceptual has had an important influence on substance designers, furthering their interest in the realm of concept and abstraction. The connection between today’s fashion world and education is further amplified through the teaching roles that designers play. Viktor & Rolf hold a professorship in the fashion department of the University of Applied Arts in Vienna. As an example of their commitment to theory and abstraction, one of their lessons involved dividing the class into two parts: one team worked under red lights, with red materials, utensils and patterns, and the other worked with all blue objects and effects. The atmosphere was further enhanced with specific soundtracks. This assign- ment’s results included the destruction of material as well as the construction of actual garments (metroactive.com 2000). By transferring their interest in the conceptual to their students, Viktor & Rolf are furthering the theoretical design movement. Conceptual fashion also translates with ease into the realm of contemp-

orary museums and galleries. In many cases, the substance designer’s best customers are costume curators. On launching their couture career in 1998, Viktor & Rolf were approached by Mark Wilson, curator of the Groningen Museum in the Netherlands. He offered to provide a stipend to the designers as well as an agreement to purchase selections of their work for the permanent collection. In 2000, the Groningen Museum debuted an exhibition comprising 28 pieces from five different seasons (Socha 2000: 15). This emphasis on the conceptual, as reinforced through fashion education, tends to neglect the commercial side of fashion. Chalayan’s work has been referred to as “ideas fashion,” or design that highlights the importance of experimentation and innovation (McRobbie 1998: 48). Because complete creative freedom and a license to experiment are only truly possible when designers’ efforts are not directed by market demands, it makes sense that designers within this category are relatively divorced from the big business of fashion. As a result, these designers align themselves with the fine and performing arts, arguing that they are providing leadership for the rest of the fashion world (McRobbie 1998: 48). Chalayan’s major regret is that financial limitations prevent him from fully realizing the commercial potential of his complex ideas (Singer 2000: 143). Recently, this regret became a reality when the designer was forced to liquidate his company, despite the critical acclaim his work received. The inability to successfully negotiate the line between art and commerce reinforces the designer’s status as artist rather than business person. It The Greatest Show on Earth 255

has even been suggested that designers like Chalayan should be entitled to Arts Council funding to show their collections on the catwalk as performance art (McRobbie 1999: 14). Substance designers focus on concept, process and ritual, and invest their garments with a deeper significance, in a way not unlike that in which Beuys’s felt suits are connected to a personal mythology. Anne Hollander, in her seminal publication Seeing Through Clothes, wrote that “to be objectively serious about clothing has usually come to mean explaining what they express about something else” (Hollander 1975: xv). Chalayan and Viktor & Rolf have devoted their careers to doing just that.

Science

Junya Watanabe and Issey Miyake are known for their intense attention to the technology of fabric and clothing construction techniques. Con- tinually pushing the boundaries of fashion via the science of materials, these science designers emphasize the function of fabric and clothing. This interest is evident in their fashion shows—often created as austere parades of models attired for the future of fashion. Revolutionary in spirit, the fabric creation and construction dictate the performance.

A primary influence on science designers are the early video performances by artists like Bruce Nauman and Nam June Paik. These artists as well as science designers utilize technology as a break from the confines of traditional art-making, and both recognize the physical process as the actual work (Rush 1999: 48). This interest in process and technology is realized in fashion through shows that incorporate transformation as a means of revealing the experimentation behind the work. In his Spring and Fall 1999 shows, Miyake featured a team of assistants, dressed in black, who participated in the production by reshaping a garment while it was on the model, or cutting out a new shape on the floor of the stage. These mini-performances reinforce Miyake’s interest in manipulation and transformation by making the process of garment design and construction the focal point of the show. The voyeuristic aspects behind the production are also influenced by the private studio performances of Nauman and Vito Acconci (Rush 1999: 47). In art and fashion show alike, one senses that the process would exist with or without the spectator. Metamorphosis was a seminal characteristic in an early collection by Watanabe, where skirts and handbags unzipped or unfolded into jackets or wraps. Function is of great importance in these works, where the designer empowers his client to change one garment into two, extending the customer’s involvement in the process beyond the point of purchase. Concerns of manipulation, transformation, and metamorphosis also permeate the science designers’ business. Miyake’s Pleats Please! web site 256 Ginger Gregg Duggan

walks visitors through steps of the pleating process as well as his other innovations, such as his “bumps” “scrolls” and “puffs.” In addition, the designer developed APOC (A Piece of Cloth), a line of stores selling his pleated fabric cut directly from the roll. This product line reveals yet another level of process by allowing the consumers to transform Miyake’s pleated fabric into garments. Transformation also applies in the actual construction of clothing, extending process to yet another realm. In addition to developing new

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Figure 6 This dress by Miuccia Prada for Prada’s Fall 1998 collection illustrates her interest in fabric technology and utilitarian chic. The permanent pleats render the iron useless. Photo courtesy of The Fashion Group International. The Greatest Show on Earth 257

technology with fabric makers like Toray—the makers of Ultrasuede— Watanabe also looks to computerized techniques to help him turn existing fabric into something new by manipulating shape and form. For his Spring 2001 collection, Watanabe hand-stitched together hundreds of pieces of phylloesque layers of sheer nylon organza, and then sheared them, topiary-style, with the help of a computer. Referred to as “Edward Scissorhands meets Paul Poiret,” the dresses referenced both Rococo opulence and cyberculture (Singer 2000: 146). This same mood was realized in an accompanying show, where Viennese waltz music set the tone for a futuristic display that was firmly rooted in the past. The incorporation of process in science designers’ shows and techniques reflects the importance of experimentation. The immense amount of information available via the internet, coupled with new technologies for creating virtual models and three-dimensional prototypes, has led to a wealth of options for construction technology, fabric design and virtual dressing. Designers like Watanabe and Miyake are taking advantage of these fast-paced developments through fabric and pattern experimentation. Shows like Watanabe’s Spring 2000 line—in which his advances in waterproof fabric technology are tested as models splash down water- filled runways and are rained on from above—highlight this interest in the science of fabric. Just as Nam June Paik made the monitor a performer

(Rush 1999: 53), Watanabe allows fabric to “perform.” His desire to develop a substance as revolutionary as polyester drives his interest in fabric research and technology. Watanabe considers his design theme to be “techno-couture.” He cites the fact that, in the forty years since polyester was developed, audio visual technology developed at an aston- ishing rate and nothing essentially new came out of the fashion world. In a similar vein, Miyake established the Miyake Design Studio in 1970 as a kind of laboratory for research on fabric technology and design techniques. Well known as he is for his pleat technology, Miyake’s interests are more grounded in manipulation and metamorphosis than in creation. His transformation of silk, one of the oldest known fabrics, into a new interpretation revolutionized the fabric’s use without developing a new substance altogether. Such innovations have earned Miyake a name in the art world as well. Large-scale exhibitions of his designs have traveled around the world, showcasing the sculptural beauty of his wearable art. While his works are remarkable for their aesthetics, it is the designer’s quest for new interpretations of fabric that leads to his unique designs. Miyake’s Fall 1998 show consisted of his infamous foil pieces that are simultaneously futuristic and retro, reflecting his interest in transformation. With that show, a group of models negotiated the catwalk with great purpose and seriousness in a manner reminiscent of the astronauts in The Right Stuff. Any space-age or futuristic connotations of the performance were thwarted, however, by the handmade patchwork 258 Ginger Gregg Duggan

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Figure 7 quality of the fabric. The highly metallic foil transformed the everyday This image from Issey Miyake’s Fall 1998 show reveals his into something entirely new that resisted categorization. interest in the science of As mentioned earlier, science designers look to technology for depar- materials and experimentation. tures from traditional fabric and clothing design. Early video performance As this scene illustrates, his shows have the appearance of artists also delighted in the possibilities of new technology and, in turn, futuristic scenes or science technology became the main event (Rush 1999: 38). With fashion, tech- fiction movies. Photo courtesy nology can be interpreted as a novelty, providing a “built-in” marketing of The Fashion Group International. strategy. Science designers can satiate the media’s love for novelty because the nature of their inspiration is newness. With every development in fabric technology, construction, or software programs, the media have something to report. Further, the overwhelming presence of cyberculture pervading all walks of life provides additional spin to be exploited by the fashion media. The problem, however, is that the idea of “cyberspace”—a conceptual rather than a physical phenomenon—relates to the physical body in terms of the spiritual rather than the functional. For example, Miuccia Prada frequently incorporates fabric advances into her Prada and Prada Sport lines in ways that suggest a utilitarian vision. However, her permanent fold developments are of no use to the wearer, other than in providing an escape from ironing. The idea that fashion has a futuristic/utilitarian identity is created through marketing and product branding. With Prada, in particular,

the image is built on urban utility and functionality. Carried over from advertising to sleek high-tech fabrics, functionality is lost before the look hits the street. A waterproof skirt and an ergonomic waist pack worn with high heels invariably offer mixed messages about the wearer. Was the waterproof technology chosen for its usefulness or its label? Why focus attention and dollars on ergonomics when the footwear donned is so ergonomically inappropriate? With recent interest in design reaching a mass audience, function is no longer as important as the appearance of functionality. It does not matter if the Michael Graves toothbrush from Target cleans as well as its Oral- B counterpart. What is important is that it looks good. In the same vein, utility chic is well designed and desirable, not so much for its function as for its look. Some of the many ways in which fashion is becoming a vehicle for society’s obsession with virtual technology are through recent developments in accessories, jewelry and body wear that serve as portals to the internet, cellular communication, and software utilized by retail com- panies to ensure a more individualized fit. While many designers shun such advances in favor of traditional methods and pattern construction, science designers see them as ways to shatter perceptions of what clothing can become. In the ultimate marketing move, Victoria’s Secret unveiled its Spring 2001 collection via a live simulcast from their web site. Transmitting to millions of viewers worldwide, the company tapped into the cyberspace 260 Ginger Gregg Duggan

obsession, creating unprecedented media hype and expanding their customer base. By granting the public access to an otherwise private affair, a large “global” audience was ensured. Without the benefit of history, it is difficult to predict how cyberspace will change the way designers reveal their collections to the world. Un- doubtedly, cyberspace will have a revolutionary role extending beyond that of a vehicle for fashion show presentation. With each advance, designers like Miyake and Watanabe are helping to engineer connections that further blur the worlds of art, fashion, architecture and design via global interconnectedness.

Structure

Rei Kawakubo of Comme des Garçons and Martin Margiela have long been praised for their unique approach to clothing construction and their commitment to form over function. Both designers rely on simple shows to reveal their designs to the industry, often treating the convention as a necessary evil. Their concern is the shape and design of the clothing, resulting in shows that take their cues from the performances of Rebecca Horn and Jana Sterbak. The physicality of the performances of Horn and Sterbak—realized through bodily adornment and costume elements—is

central to the understanding of the concepts addressed. Structure designers’ creations can often be read as sculpture, even though the garments are meant to be seen in flux, making performance a significant part of the design and show. While the structure designer’s primary concern is form, conceptual influences are also important. Their collections are invariably conceived around concepts, but realized in physical, rather than abstract, manifestations. The substance designer conveys concepts through a system of symbols and esoteric means, while the structure designer finds three-dimensional form to be most repre- sentative of ideas. For example, Margiela has designed a series of numbered collections related to structural ideas like flat and oversized. In his flat collection from 1998, the garments had displaced sleeves and armholes and were reformatted to lie perfectly flat when not worn (bozzi.com 2000). In some cases, hangers were even incorporated into the piece so that the garments would hang in the same flattened manner. In many cases, the pieces make more sense when not worn, thereby emphasizing the importance of form over function. Margiela’s concept for his Spring 2000 show was oversized. This was realized through a set-up of giant circular banquet tables, arranged as for a wedding or dinner party. The audience sat around each of the tables, while models wearing oversized garments performed on the table tops. The low-level vantage point, oversized garments, and large-scale furniture challenged perceptions of self-importance. The Greatest Show on Earth 261

Figure 8 This dress from Comme des Garçons Spring 1997 collection reveals Rei Kawakubo’s interest in form above function. Emphasizing odd areas of the figure and distorting the female body rather than attempting to flatter, Kawakubo enforces her concern for the shape of the garment. Photo courtesy of The Fashion Group International.

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In another collection, Margiela took doll clothing, such as Barbie fashions, and reproduced them in human scale. This transformation resulted in oversized stitching pulls, huge seams, and larger-than-normal buttons (bozzi.com 2000). Each of these alterations added nothing to the wearability of the piece, as they existed purely as formal experimentation. Similarly, Rei Kawakubo designed a series of pieces for the Comme des Garçons Spring 1997 collection that were complete distortions of normal patterns. While traditionally the goal is to produce flattering cuts, 262 Ginger Gregg Duggan

these designs actually distorted the wearer’s figure to an absurd degree. With padded inserts and inflated panels, the dresses were worn only by the most adventurous consumer. They were also used as costumes for the Merce Cunningham dance group. Another connection between performance art and structure shows is realized through photographic documentation. Traditionally, performance art became increasingly dependent on photography to “stabilize” the image of an action (Stiles and Selz 1996: 693). This can be seen in Cindy Sherman’s photographs from the late 1970s, in which she documents performances of self transformation in order to address a wide range of social issues (Stiles and Selz 1996: 693). Photography became the basis for a hybrid form of performance utilized by structure designers to emphasize the many manifestations of form. In the realm of fashion, Margiela also looked to the medium to achieve similar results, by creating shows in which models were replaced by didactic overhead slides, dresses were replaced by Xerox copies of the real dress, or garments were replaced by images of the articles of clothing printed on sandwich boards. The idea of removal from the actual object references the conceptual work of Joseph Kosuth. Viewers are challenged to confront competing definitions of form by asking: which is the actual fashion—the dress, the idea of the dress, or the image of the dress? In their choice and treatment of locations, structure shows differ

markedly from their spectacle counterparts, which exploit the distractions of set design, props, and special effects in normal fashion venues. Structure performances are often held in abandoned metro stops, vacant parking lots, and small nondescript studios, where there are few superficial distractions. In this respect, structure shows are more closely aligned with substance designers’ shows through their lack of narrative or plot. Legends of the “difficult artist” or celebrity personality are linked to structure designers like Margiela. The designer refused to be photographed for years and conducts interviews only via fax. Further, his name does not appear on his garments, but is enigmatically symbolized by a blank label—the anti-label—enframed by four visible stitches (fashionlive.com 2000). These actions feed the myth surrounding these designers and their avant-garde following. Margiela’s patrons consider their purchases to be more akin to art collecting than to shopping sprees. Another Margiela show that demonstrates his rebellious style is his 1998 collection, where he replaced models with life-sized puppets, each controlled by a puppeteer. This conceit invited the question: who pulls the strings in the fashion world that elevate designers’ personas and, ultimately, their labels? Most of these non-conformists tap into the language of the art world. Margiela and Kawakubo frequently attempt to translate art styles— minimalism, abstraction, postmodernism, deconstruction—into wearable forms. One example of the latter is Margiela’s Spring 1997 collection, featuring an entire line where sewing dummy markings were incorporated The Greatest Show on Earth 263

into the finished designs. This glimpse into the construction behind the finished garment, standing in for the finished garment, brought interest in form to a new level. Kawakubo also frequently deconstructs with a complete disregard for function—a dress that does not open and must be worn as an apron. Margiela and Kawakubo have received a great deal of attention from the art world. Kawakubo, in particular, has attracted a strong following by opening her New York store in Chelsea, a contemporary gallery neigh- borhood not known as a shopping destination. This bold move has furthered her identification with art patrons, leading to the suggestion that she has targeted consumers “hungry to wear a piece of art” (Aláez 2000: 18). The interpretation of structure designers’ garments as “wearable art” results in performances that can be read as fashion, art and performance.

Statement

Drawing on the politically charged performances of the 1970s, designers like Susan Cianciolo, Miguel Adrover and Elena Bajo stage fashion shows that are loaded with social commentary. More esoteric than the productions of their couture contemporaries, these fashion shows are more akin to public protests, commenting on subjects as far-reaching as fur, body image, and the fashion industry as a whole. Statement designers create environments and presentations that reflect confrontational ideas and messages. Of the five categories presented, statement shows are closest to happenings and performance art of the 1970s. As with early performance artists, statement designers concentrate on conveying a message, thereby placing their work at a remove from purely formal concerns and consumerism (Stiles and Selz 1996: 679). By the mid-1960s, many of the theoretical aims of happenings were trivialized as popular entertainment, leading artists like Allan Kaprow to hold non-audience private events (Stiles and Selz 1996: 682). In a similar move to avoid the association with superficial entertainment, statement designers create their shows without elaborate stage sets and effects, and invite only a select group. Much of the look of clothes depends not on how they are designed or constructed, but on how they are perceived (Hollander 1975: 311). The perception of a designer and his or her clothing line can be influenced by the garment design, the style of the fashion show, or a combination of both. Some spectacle designers choose to transmit their message via the clothing, and others rely on the performance to convey the issues. Miguel Adrover, Imitation of Christ (Matt Damhave and Tara Subkoff), and Susan Cianciolo fall into the first camp, which focuses on clothing to carry the message. They react against what the fashion industry holds sacred by using non-conformist methods of appropriated, recycled, regenerated and “do-it-yourself” fashion. 264 Ginger Gregg Duggan

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Adrover employs appropriated articles of clothing or accessories with obvious connections to an established logo, reinterpreting them into his own designs. For instance, a used Louis Vuitton logo bag was cut open and re-sewn to become a bodice panel of a dress. In another interpretation, a Burberry trenchcoat was turned inside out and worn backwards as a coatdress, prompting Burberry to threaten suit. As with Sherry Levine’s infamous appropriations, these acts represent a refusal to respect author- ship—the antithesis of the idea behind the designer label. It should be noted, however, that despite this anti-fashion motivation, Adrover’s witty interpretations of midtown status dressing have earned him the prestigious title of “Avant-Garde Designer of the Year” from the Vogue/VH1 Fashion Awards, as well as worldwide press coverage. Another label that has garnered a great deal of attention is Imitation of Christ, designed by Matt Damhave and Tara Subkoff. Like Adrover, they choose to convey their message through recycled clothing that often incorporates handwritten manifestos. The duo’s mission is to “derail the whole superficial fashion industry and its status quo” (Wilson 2000: 7). Other messages include: “Hold no brand sacred”, “Do not worship false idols!”, “Repetition is fatal!”, “Gucci is greed!,” and “No justice, no pleats” (Wilson 2000: 7). As physical evidence of these beliefs, the designers altered a vintage Yves Saint Laurent shirt to read “Bring me the head of Tom Ford”, the chief designer

for Gucci, and, more recently, for Yves Saint Laurent. This type of mission is controversial, but the fashion press thrives on it. While Imitation of Christ shows are not created to communicate incendiary messages, such as those listed above, their performances project rebellious attitudes in an equally aggressive manner. For their Spring 2001 collection, the team pulled a clever public relations stunt, inviting only 60 guests. Invitees were instructed to arrive at a funeral parlor in New York, where the performance mimicked a wake, complete with mourning models sporting bandaged and bloodied wrists. Backstage instructions directed the models to “walk slowly with sadness. No fashion poses. Sentimental pauses please!” (Kerwin 2000: 196). The designer Susan Cianciolo relies on equally unconventional performances to première her “salvage chic” designs. She showed one collection on sleeping models, and frequently leaves part of the design Figure 9 process up to the buyers by having them complete the creations. For Miguel Adrover’s witty appropriation of the Burberry example, she developed a “do-it-yourself denim skirt kit” for the avant- plaid stands as a comment on garde urbanite who chooses to reject mainstream fashion. the absurdity of label Cianciolo has also held shows in New York galleries like Andrea Rosen obsession within the fashion industry. Photo courtesy of The and Alleged, and in Paris at the Pompidou Center, but her connection to Fashion Group International. the art world does not end with show locations. In addition, she has directed a film entitled Pro Abortion/Anti Pink. Recently Cianciolo announced plans to leave the fashion industry in order to focus on her art (www.mu.nl 2000). In their work, Adrover, Imitation of Christ and Cianciolo resist the pressure on fashion always to foster the “new.” They do so by recycling 266 Ginger Gregg Duggan

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the past and establishing a following that resists the quest for novelty and big labels. The second group of statement designers choose to convey their ideas by confronting issues of uniformity and conformity versus individuality primarily through the show rather than through clothing. The shows created by these statement designers provide a challenge to and a relief from fashion stereotypes. One of the most obvious messages against uniformity is realized through a comment on body image. Red or Dead, a label based in London, have repeatedly defied ideal body types in their shows. The Fall 1999 collection featured an obese male model who lifted his shirt to reveal the word “unique” on his chest. The label also feature atypical models such as albinos and dwarfs to reinforce their message. As with Red or Dead, Elena Bajo has received a great deal of attention among the fashion underground for her performances. Closer to happenings than fashion shows, the industry staple is used as a means to express Bajo’s views. In one case, she featured models and performers acting out nervous breakdowns, reciting psychotic poetry, and even asking visitors, “Is this making you uncomfortable?,” to which the performers responded, “Good” (Belverio 2000). Offending or even scaring fashion editors and buyers is not the tried and true way to business success; but it emphasizes the willingness of statement designers to make such sacrifices for their

messages and art. Drawing on the humorous aggression employed by the Guerrilla Girls, the confrontational nature of performances by Adrian Piper and the anxious violence of Chris Burden’s video work, Bajo and her statement contemporaries strive to make their shows very personal expressions. This interest closely aligns this group of statement designers with their artistic counterparts. As illustrated above, statement designers either use clothing, the show or a combination of the two as a means to express their messages. In many cases it is only the media hype surrounding these esoteric performances Figure 10 that attracts buyers and other industry professionals to their work, as This image from Elena Bajo’s their shows are staged mainly in out-of-the-way locations. Spring 1999 show illustrates the designer’s interest in In addition, with avant-garde fashion becoming so lucrative and the unconventional formats. Bajo edgier periodicals (Self Service, Purple, Big, Flaunt) becoming so prevalent, hires models from classified the search for the “next big thing” leads journalists and buyers to keep advertisements and instructs them to perform in various up with the non-mainstream shows as well. It follows, then, that the more manners. In one case she controversial or bizarre the performance, the more attention it will garner, asked the models to fake with attention ultimately equaling success. nervous breakdowns. Photo courtesy of The Fashion Group Because most statement designers are categorized as “emerging” talent, International. with young labels, the effect of notoriety on their message is a factor that should be considered. As they gain recognition among the fashion mainstream, they are pressured to sell their label to a large conglomerate or backer, risking the loss of creative control. Adrover was recently purchased by Pegasus Apparel Group after only a few seasons. It is still too early to see if his focus will change as a result. 268 Ginger Gregg Duggan

Conclusion

Performance never actually disappeared from art, but it took a back seat to high-priced objects in the 1980s, when the time-based arts of performance and video were less in favor (Rush 2000: 31). Critic and performance-art historian RoseLee Goldberg cites a “whole new generation” (Rush 2000: 31) of artists eager to work within the media. This renewed interest in performance has had a strong impact on contemporary fashion designers. A buoyant economy has transformed the often dreary retail scene of the mid-1990s into “a glorious landscape of designer-led minicollections, groovy curated boutiques, naughty and haughty niche publications and the savviest customers” in fashion’s history (Singer 2000: 135). The new consumer no longer considers avant-garde or conceptual designs to be acquired tastes, resulting in what one artist refers to as “a happy global habitat” (Aláez 2000: 18) that includes fashion, architecture, design, and the arts. As part of this habitat, a garment by Hussein Chalayan can be appreciated as sculpture, and a fashion show is interchangeable with a performance by Vanessa Beecroft. Each of these examples illustrates an ease and a willingness among contemporary artists and designers to work across media to make lasting personal statements. Through performance,

fashion designers have adopted a role of “designer-as-artist.” The five categories—spectacle, substance, science, structure and statement—reflect the various influences of performance art on their runway shows. Everything, from theater, film and political protests, to Fluxus, Dada performances and Surrealist techniques, has been incorporated into fashion productions. Regardless of the influences or motivating factors, each section illustrates a unique symptom of the same phenomenon—the recent blurring of the boundaries that separate fashion and art. Whether the designer employs show business, popular culture, or historic precedent, each represents a move toward the integration of fashion and performance.

Notes

1. Although there is no true definition of performance art, RoseLee Goldberg’s survey (1998), entitled Performance: Live Art Since 1960, provides some descriptions that are applicable. The following are three statements quoted directly from the publication: “Performance Art is an art of action—in creating works in which the audience was confronted by the physical presence of the artist in real time—and in an art form which ceased to exist the moment the performance was over” (p. 15); “The medium demands a ‘presentness’—the audience’s presence in real time, and content that sharply reflects the present” The Greatest Show on Earth 269

(p. 30); “Historically, performance art has been a medium that chal- lenges and violates borders between disciplines and genders, between private and public, and between everyday life and art, and that follows no rules” (p. 30). 2. It is important to note that these divisions are not meant to be all inclusive. As with any attempt at categorization, overlapping and exceptions can be made within the definitions. The designations presented within this article are designed to provide a general outline with regard to inspiration and influence. 3. On pages 301–2 in this journal, Caroline Evans discusses Schiaparelli’s themed collections, including the Circus Collection and the Commedia dell’arte Collection.

References

Aláez, Ana Laura. 2000. “Shopping Heads.” Art Nexus (Bogotá), no. 36, April. Belverio, Glenn. 2000. “Hair and Now.” Dutch (Baarn) no. 25, January– February. Davis, Fred. 1992. Fashion, Culture and Identity. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Diehl, Mary Ellen. 1976. How to Produce a Fashion Show. New York: Fairchild. Duggan, Ginger Gregg. 2000. “From Elsa Schiaparelli’s Shoe Hat to Tom Sachs’ Chanel Guillotine; Surrealism’s Fashionable Comeback.” CIHA 2000, September. Evans, Caroline. 1999. “Masks, Mirrors and Mannequins: Elsa Schiaparelli and the Decentered Subject.” Fashion Theory: The Journal of Dress, Body and Culture 3 (no. 1). Goldberg, RoseLee. 1998. Performance: Live Art Since 1960. New York: Harry N. Abrams. Hollander, Anne. 1975. Seeing Through Clothes. New York: Viking Press. Kerwin, Jessica. 2000. “Taking Cues.” W (New York), October. McRobbie, Angela. 1998. British Fashion Design: Rag Trade or Image Industry? London: Routledge. ——. 1999. In the Culture Society; Art, Fashion and Popular Music. London: Routledge. Martin, Richard. 1999. “A Note: Art & Fashion, Viktor & Rolf.” Fashion Theory: The Journal of Dress, Body and Culture 3 (no. 1). Rush, Michael. 1999. New Media in Late 20th-Century Art. New York: Thames and Hudson. ——. 2000. “Performance Hops Back Into the Scene.” The New York Times, section A, 2 (2 July). Singer, Sally. 2000. “The New Guard.” Vogue (New York), vol. 190 no. 5 (July). 270 Ginger Gregg Duggan

Socha, Miles. 2000. “Christmas Comes Early at Viktor & Rolf Exhibit.” WWD (New York), vol. 180 no. 9 (November). Stiles, Kristine and Peter Selz. 1996. Theories and Documents of Con- temporary Art. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Wilson, Eric. 2000. “Miguel’s Dual Reality.” W (New York), May. www.bozzi.it/ilsito/margf/marging.html, 2000. “Martin Margiela.” www.fashionlive.com/fashion/catwalk/bio/MMAhome.html, 2000. “Martin Margiela.” www.metroactive.com/papers/sfmetro/01.24.00/global-0002.html, 2000. “Amsterdammer Anarchy.” www.mu.nl/Projects/present/eng/e_susan1.html, 2000. “Susan Cianciolo.” 本文献由“学霸图书馆-文献云下载”收集自网络，仅供学习交流使用。

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